Niccolò Machiavelli1 Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli Portrait of Niccolò Machiavelli by Santi di Tito Full name Born Niccolò Machiavelli 3 May 1469 Florence, Italy 21 June 1527 (aged 58) Florence, Italy Renaissance Italy Renaissance philosophy, realism, Classical republicanism Died Era School Main interests Politics (and Political Philosophy), military theory, history Signature Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (Italian pronunciation: [nikkoˌlɔ makjaˈvɛlli], 3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was an Italian historian, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He is one of the main founders of modern political science.[1] He was a diplomat, political philosopher, playwright, and a civil servant of the Florentine Republic. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, poetry, and some of the most well-known personal correspondence in the Italian language. His position in the regime of Florence as Secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence lasted from 1498 to 1512, a period in which the Medici were not in power. Machiavelli's most well-known writing was, however, after this period, during the time when the Medici recovered power, and Machiavelli was removed from all positions of responsibility. Life Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, the first son, and third child, of attorney Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli, and his wife, Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli.[2] The Machiavelli family are believed to be descended from the old marquesses of Tuscany, and to have produced thirteen Florentine Gonfalonieres of Justice,[3] one of the offices of a group of nine citizens selected by drawing lots every two months, who formed the government, or Signoria. Machiavelli, like many people of Florence, was however not a full citizen of Florence, due to the nature of Florentine citizenship in that time, even under the republican regime.[4] Niccolò Machiavelli 2 Machiavelli was born in a tumultuous era—popes waged acquisitive wars against Italian city-states, and people and cities might fall from power at any time. Along with the pope and the major cities like Venice and Florence, foreign powers such as France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and even Switzerland battled for regional influence and control. Political-military alliances continually changed, featuring condottieri (mercenary leaders) who changed sides without warning, and short lived governments rising and falling.[5] Machiavelli was taught grammar, rhetoric, and Latin, and became a magnificent writer. It is thought that he did not learn Greek, even though Florence was at the time one of the centers of Greek scholarship in Europe. In 1494, Florence restored the republic — expelling the Medici family, who had ruled Florence for some sixty years. In June 1498, shortly after the execution of Savonarola, Machiavelli, at the age of 29, was elected as head of the second chancery. In July 1498, he was also made the secretary of the Dieci di Libertà e Pace. He was in a diplomatic council responsible for negotiation and military affairs, carrying out, between 1499 and 1512, several diplomatic missions, to the court of Louis XII in France; to that of Ferdinand II of Aragón, in Spain; in Germany; and to the Papacy in Statue at the Uffizi Rome, in the Italian states. Moreover, from 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the brutal reality of the state-building methods of Cesare Borgia (1475–1507), and his father Pope Alexander VI, who were then engaged in the process of trying to bring a large part of central Italy under their possession, partly under the pretext of defending Church interests. Between 1503 and 1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia, including the City’s defense. He distrusted mercenaries (a distrust he explained in his official reports, and then later in his theoretical works), preferring a politically invested citizen-militia - a philosophy that bore fruit. His command of Florentine citizen-soldiers defeated Pisa in 1509; yet, in August of 1512, the Medici, helped by Pope Julius II, used Spanish troops to defeat the Florentines at Prato. Piero Soderini resigned as Florentine head of state, and left in exile. The Florentine city-state and the Republic were dissolved. Machiavelli was deprived of office in 1512 by the Medici, and, in 1513, was accused of conspiracy, and arrested and imprisoned for a time. Despite torture ("with the rope", where the prisoner is hanged from his bound wrists, from the back, forcing the arms to bear the body's weight, thus dislocating the shoulders), he denied involvement and was released; then, retiring to his estate, at Sant'Andrea in Percussina, near San Casciano in Val di Pesa, he devoted himself to study and writing the political treatises that earned his intellectual place in the development of political philosophy and political conduct.[6] Despairing of the opportunity to remain directly involved in political matters, after a time Machiavelli began to participate in intellectual groups in Florence and wrote several plays that (unlike his works on politics/political theory) were both popular and widely known in his lifetime. Still politics remained his main passion and to satisfy interest he maintained a well-known correspondence with better politically connected friends, attempting to become involved once again in political life.[7] it concentrates on the possibility of a "new prince". Italy. deceit. Aside from that.That required the prince being concerned with reputation but also being willing to act immorally. many have concluded that The Prince although written in the form of advice for a monarchical prince. contains a number of maxims concerning politics. Machiavelli insisted that an imaginary ideal society is not the model for a prince to orient himself by. and. remember no vexation. In the 18th century the work was even called a satire. Concerning the differences and similarities in Machiavelli's advice to ruthless and tyrannical princes in The Prince and his more republican exhortations in Discourses on Livy. he described his exile: When evening comes. The Prince is a manual to acquiring and keeping political power. its primary intellectual contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political Realism and political Idealism — thus. He believed that social benefits of stability and security could be achieved in the face of moral corruption. An epitaph honouring him is inscribed in a small monument. since he must first stabilize his new-found power in order to build an enduring political structure. reply to me. And there I make bold to speak to them and ask the motives of their actions. the hereditary prince must carefully maintain the socio-political institutions to which the people are accustomed. registering it to the Index Librorum Prohibitorum. and am welcomed by them. Erasmus of Rotterdam. As a treatise. The Latin legend reads: TANTO NOMINI NULLUM PAR ELOGIUM ("so great a name (has) no adequate praise" or "no eulogy (would be) appropriate to (praise) such a great name"). He was buried at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. Notwithstanding some mitigating themes. I enter the courts of the ancients. in this graver dress. To retain power. Machiavelli's cenotaph in the Santa Croce Church in Florence Works The Prince Machiavelli’s best-known book. As a political scientist. and humanists also viewed the book negatively — among them.[8] Machiavelli died in 1527 at the age of 58. Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici to whom the final version of the Prince was dedicated. Machiavelli emphasises the occasional need for the methodical exercise of brute force.Niccolò Machiavelli 3 In a letter to Francesco Vettori. and put on the robes of court and palace. fear poverty no more. in their humanity. I return home and go to my study. whereas a new prince has the more difficult task in ruling. sweaty work day clothes. tremble no more at death. Machiavelli believed that public and private morality had to be separate in order to rule. taking off my muddy. And for the space of four hours I forget the world. similar to those found in the Discourses. Il Principe. I strip naked. and they. but rather than the more traditional subject of a hereditary prince. I pass indeed into their world. On the threshold. and so on. for example by Jean-Jacques . and there I taste the food that alone is mine. contains arguments for the superiority of republican regimes. the Catholic Church proscribed The Prince. In contrast with Plato and Aristotle. and for which I was born. and neither Christian. Antonio Gramsci argued that Machiavelli's audience for this work was not even the ruling class but the common people because the rulers already knew these methods through their education. when there is combined under the same constitution a prince. . for they result entirely from their own negligence or bad example”. ” Book II. Chapter LVIII • “. In fact. no prince is ever benefited by making himself hated”. ” Book I. Chapter XXVI • “Now. a nobility. It includes early versions of the concept of checks and balances. nor disposed to injure you. nor even human. . Chapter XXIX [10] . as well as their respective good qualities. Chapter II • “Doubtless these means [of attaining power] are cruel and destructive of all civilized life. and asserts the superiority of a republic over a principality. . Book III. and it more openly explains the advantages of republics. More recently. . but most commentators agree that the Prince is in any case republican to some extent. the life of a private citizen would be preferable to that of a king at the expense of the ruin of so many human beings”. Book I. Book I. Chapter XXXIV • “. commentators such as Leo Strauss and Harvey Mansfield have agreed that the Prince can be read as having a deliberate comical irony. . Book I. .[9] From The Discourses: • “In fact. 4 Discourses on Livy The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy (Discorsi) nominally discuss a classical history of early Ancient Rome. It is a larger work than the Prince. if we compare the faults of a people with those of princes. . it should never be necessary to resort to extra-constitutional measures. in a well-ordered republic. Chapter XXIII • “. . . . the governments of the people are better than those of princes”.Niccolò Machiavelli Rousseau. and should be avoided by every one. Book III. Chapter XIX • “Let not princes complain of the faults committed by the people subjected to their authority. Other commentators have not seen the irony as deliberate comedy. . and the power of the people. then these three powers will watch and keep each other reciprocally in check”. . we shall find the people vastly superior in all that is good and glorious”. Machiavelli presents it as a series of lessons on how a republic should be started and structured. It became one of the central texts of republicanism. Chapter LVIII • “For government consists mainly in so keeping your subjects that they shall be neither able. Book I. a five-act prose comedy. • The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca(1520) — Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca. and was a dramaturge (Clizia. a Classical comedy. a dialogue about the language is also normally considered to be by Machiavelli. later Pope Clement VII. Decennale secondo (1509). an eight-volume history book of the city-state. • Ritratti delle cose dell’ Alemagna (1508–1512) . Canti carnascialeschi). a prose comedy. there was very likely some animosity to Machiavelli even before the return of the Medici. Machiavelli also translated classical works. a new version of the Classic work by Apuleius. Clizia (1525). a poem in terza rima. a poem. • Dell’Arte della Guerra (1519–1520) — The Art of War. the Signor Pagolo.[11] . Peter Withorne’s 1573 translation of the Art of War Fictional works Besides being a statesman and political scientist. Mandragola). and the Duke di Gravina Orsini • Discorso sopra la provisione del danaro (1502) — A discourse about the provision of money. Oliverotto da Fermo. Belfagor arcidiavolo (1515). Andria or The Woman of Andros (1517). his grandfather. Other works Della lingua (1514). and to be titled Le Maschere. Frammenti storici (1525) — Fragments of stories.Portrait of the affairs of Germany. Canzoni. etc. and a novelist (Belfagor arcidiavolo). Mandragola (1518) — The Mandrake. Ritratti delle cose di Francia (1510) — Portrait of the affairs of France. • Discorso sopra il riformare lo stato di Firenze (1520) — A discourse about the reforming of Florence. with a verse prologue. commissioned by Giulio di Giuliano de’ Medici. Asino d’oro (1517) — The Golden Ass is a terza rima poem. Oliverotto da Fermo. a short biography. It has been suggested that due to such things as this and his style of writing to his superiors generally. • Sommario delle cose della citta di Lucca (1520) — A summary of the affairs of the city of Lucca.Niccolò Machiavelli 5 Other political and historical works • Discorso sopra le cose di Pisa (1499) • Del modo di trattare i popoli della Valdichiana ribellati (1502) • Del modo tenuto dal duca Valentino nell’ ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli. a novel. made a comedy in the style of Aristophanes which included living Florentines as characters. Florence. Machiavelli's literary executor. (1502) — A Description of the Methods Adopted by the Duke Valentino when Murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli. Giuliano de'Ricci. a poet (Sonetti. translated from Terence. also reported having seen that Machiavelli. Ottave. • Istorie Florentine (1520–1525) — Florentine Histories. high military science. Some of his other work: • • • • • • • • • Decennale primo (1506). G. and other times as someone promoting a completely new approach to politics. This was a classically influenced genre. even when compared to his contemporaries such as Baldassare Castiglione and Erasmus. Major discussion has tended to be especially about two issues. and secondly concerning how innovative or traditional it is. that was still quite popular during Machiavelli's life. While Gilbert emphasizes the similarities however. with models at least as far back as Xenophon and Isocrates. such as Leo Strauss and Harvey Mansfield. if there are any. 1. experiences and education. and not always agreed. 2. In any case Machiavelli presented himself at various times as someone reminding Italians of the old virtues of the Romans and Greeks. Some commentators have described him as inconsistent. Normally.[12] Others such as Hans Baron have argued that his ideas must have changed dramatically over time. first how unified and philosophical his work is. Others. It is possible to summarize some of the main influences emphasized by different commentators. that can be found in Machiavelli's works. . even arguing that this extends to all of Machiavelli's works including his comedies and letters. have argued strongly that there is a very strong and deliberate consistency and distinctness. Commentators such as Quentin Skinner and J.Niccolò Machiavelli 6 Common themes Commentators have taken very different approaches to Machiavelli.[12] Predecessors and probable influences That Machiavelli had a wide range of influences is in itself not controversial. Gilbert (1938) summarized the similarities between The Prince and the genre it obviously imitates. particularly the Discourses on Livy. the so-called "Mirror of Princes" style. The Mirror of Princes genre. Classical republicanism. Their relative importance is however a subject of on-going discussion. especially in the two major political works.[12] Innovator and reviver of ancient wisdom Commentators such as Leo Strauss have gone so far as to name Machiavelli as the deliberate originator of modernity itself. he agrees with all other commentators that Machiavelli was particularly novel in the way he used this genre. and perhaps as not even putting a high priority in consistency. Some have argued that his conclusions are best understood as a product of his times.A. can be found in medieval Italian literature which was influenced by classical authors such as Sallust.[12] A coherent philosophy? There is some disagreement concerning how best to describe the unifying themes. in the so-called "Cambridge School" of interpretation have been able to show that some of the republican themes in Machiavelli's political works. these types of works were addressed only to hereditary princes. Others have argued that Machiavelli is only a particularly interesting example of trends which were happening around him. The Prince and Discourses. One of the major innovations Gilbert noted was that Machiavelli focused upon the "deliberate purpose of dealing with a new ruler who will need to establish himself in defiance of custom". Pocock. But since the two rarely come together. the same denial of the power of the gods or of justice and the same sensitivity to harsh necessity and elusive chance. but was indirectly influenced by his readings of authors such as Polybius. anyone compelled to choose will find greater security in being feared than in being loved. While interest in Plato was increasing in Florence during Machiavelli's lifetime he also does not show particular interest in him. but he felt it was a new combination:. they find in both authors the same “realism.e.[13] 5. In Machiavelli we find comedies. Xenophon. But he cites Plato and Aristotle very infrequently and apparently did not approve of them. since both emphasized power politics. was a major source of Socratic ideas for Machiavelli. Machiavelli was critical of catholic political thinking and may have been influenced by Averroism.” — Strauss (1958.. and emphasizing the uselessness of theorizing with the imagination.” i.. [16] Machiavelli stated that it would be best to be both loved and feared. For example. Classical political philosophy: Xenophon. and in the more controversial "Averroist" form of authors like Marsilius of Padua. Yet Thucydides never calls in question the intrinsic superiority of nobility to baseness. building generalizations from experience and historical facts.. especially Aristotle. a student of Socrates more known as an historian. Aimed-for things which the Socratics argued would tend to happen by nature. It existed both in the catholicised form presented by Thomas Aquinas. 292) Innovations Amongst commentators. The Socratic school of classical political philosophy. because classical materialists did not share the Socratic regard for political life. Leo Strauss argued that the strong influence of Xenophon. Plutarch and Cicero. a superiority that shines forth particularly when the noble is destroyed by the base. parodies. there are a few consistently made proposals concerning what was most new in Machiavelli's work. Machiavelli said would happen by chance. according to Strauss. and of the view that philosophy is higher than politics. while Machiavelli clearly did. had become a major influence upon European political thinking in the late Middle Ages. Plato and Aristotle. And Machiavelli viewed misery as one of the vices that enables a prince to rule. One half of humanity remains outside of his thought.[14] [15] Strauss argued that Machiavelli may indeed have been influenced by pre-Socratic philosophers. is Machiavelli's materialism and therefore his rejection of both a teleological view of nature. sometimes not in line with Aristotle. it seems that the ruler must . The major difference between Machiavelli and the Socratics. Strauss however sees this also as a sign of major innovation in Machiavelli. rhetorician and soldier. Classical materialism.[12] Machiavelli studied the way people lived and aimed to inform leaders how they should rule and even how they themselves should live. Empiricism and realism versus idealism Machiavelli is sometimes seen as the prototype of a modern empirical scientist. Some scholars note the similarity between Machiavellian and the Greek historian Thucydides.[13] 4. p.contemporary readers are reminded by Machiavelli’s teaching of Thucydides. author of the Cyropedia. Therefore Thucydides’ History arouses in the reader a sadness which is never aroused by Machiavelli’s books. Strauss argued that Machiavelli may have seen himself as influenced by some ideas from classical materialists such as Democritus. There is no tragedy in Machiavelli because he has no sense of the sacredness of “the common. Thucydides. Machiavelli denies that living virtuously necessarily leads to happiness.Niccolò Machiavelli 7 3. [17] In much of Machiavelli's work. Epicurus and Lucretius. and satires but nothing reminding of tragedy. 74) wrote: "In attempting other. Machiavelli's followers. Strauss (1958) argues that the way Machiavelli combines classical ideas is new. His advice to prince was therefore certainly not limited to discussing how to maintain a state.[19] German philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1946) held that Machiavelli simply adopts the stance of a political scientist—a Galileo of politics—in distinguishing between the "facts" of political life and the "values" of moral judgment. spiritedness. seeing ambition. humanism in Machiavelli's time meant that classical pre-Christian ideas about virtue and prudence. and innovation.tyrants or good rulers. and part of the virtue and prudence that good princes should have. Machiavelli's successors formalized and emasculated his notion of virtue. it has been argued that it did more than just bring back old ideas. more regular and scientific modes of overcoming fortune. Machiavelli argued that virtue and prudence can help a man control more of his future. in defiance of traditions and laws." 8 . chance. While Machiavelli's approach had classical precedents. in the place of allowing fortune to do so. control nature. allowed practical decisions to be guided too much by imaginary ideals and encouraged people to lazily leave events up to providence or. along with teleological Aristotelianism that the church had come to accept. most famously the founding of new modes and orders. The Prince made the word "Machiavellian" a byword for deceit. like Aristotle. Machiavelli's promotion of ambition amongst leaders while denying any higher standard meant that he encouraged risk taking. While Christianity sees modesty as a virtue and pride as sinful. Christianity. and that Machiavelli was not a typical humanist. On the other hand.Niccolò Machiavelli adopt unsavory policies for the sake of the continuance of his regime. and love of their people in preference to the use of cruelty. But while a belief that humanity can control its own future. Therefore. or teleology. and not warlike progress. violence. implying a spirited and immodest ambition. were not unique to him. as seen in his comedies and correspondence. despotism. and political manipulation. declared himself more inclined toward the traditional view that Machiavelli was self-consciously a "teacher of evil.[18] Italian anti-fascist philosopher Benedetto Croce (1925) concludes Machiavelli is simply a "realist" or "pragmatist" who accurately states that moral values in reality do not greatly affect the decisions that political leaders make. also saw Philosophy as something higher than politics. That Machiavelli himself was not evil and indeed intended good. As Harvey Mansfield (1995. as he would put it. and were closer to Machiavelli than Aristotle was. they. A related and more controversial proposal often made is that he described how to do things in politics in a way which seemed neutral concerning who used the advice . specifically its effect upon politics. Machiavelli took a more classical position. luck or fortune. starting with his own friend Guicciardini. Najemy shows how Machiavelli's friend Vettori argued against Machiavelli and cited a more traditional understanding of fortune. while it was traditional to say that leaders should have virtues. an American political philosopher. including the possibility of trying to control one's future. It has been argued that Machiavelli's promotion of innovation led directly to the argument for progress as an aim of politics and civilization. have tended to prefer peaceful progress through economic development. mercy. and the pursuit of glory as good and natural things. Leo Strauss. temperance. and deception." (even if he was not himself evil) since he counsels the princes to avoid the values of justice. fear. But humanists did not go so far as to promote the extra glory of deliberately aiming to establish a new state. and also everyday life. Machiavelli's use of the words virtù and prudenza was unusual for his time. While Xenophon and Plato also described realistic politics.[20] Fortune Machiavelli is generally seen as being critical of Christianity as it existed in his time. Famously. p.[12] That Machiavelli strove for realism is not doubted. especially prudence. In his opinion. wisdom. and "progress" has been long lasting. is on the other hand generally accepted. Machiavelli was apparently a materialist who objected to explanations involving formal and final causation. Najemy (1993) has argued that this same approach can be found in Machiavelli's approach to love and desire. but for four centuries scholars have debated how best to describe his morality. [21] Machiavelli's concern with Christianity as a sect was that it makes men weak and inactive. as pointed out by Leo Strauss. a chapter title announces that the disunion of the plebs and senate in Rome "kept Rome free". Strauss argued that the unavoidable nature of such arms races.[23] 9 . Romulus. Machiavelli's realism and willingness to argue that good ends justify bad things. delivering politics into the hands of cruel and wicked men without a fight. chapter 4). and in the Life of Castruccio Castracani. saw ambition and spiritedness. According to Strauss (1958. the modern economic argument for capitalism. was often stated in the form of "public virtue from private vices". and therefore war. Machiavelli's judgment that democracies need religion for practical political reasons was widespread amongst modern proponents of republics until approximately the time of the French revolution. but Machiavelli's particularly extreme presentation is seen as a critical step towards the later political ideas of both a division of powers or checks and balances. and Theseus (he treats pagan and Christian patriarchs in the same way) as the greatest of new princes. a truly great prince can never be conventionally religious himself. as he calls them. he describes "prophets". as inevitable and part of human nature. which have existed before modern times and led to the collapse of peaceful civilizations. which Machiavelli was not the only one to promote in his time. the glorious and brutal founders of the most novel innovations in politics. Mansfield however argues that Machiavelli's own aims have not been shared by those influenced by him. would mean that Christianity became due to start finishing about 150 years after Machiavelli. Machiavelli is unusual in the positive side he sometimes seems to describe in factionalism in republics. even though there are classical precedents.[22] The positive side to factional and individual vice Despite the classical precedents. In The Prince. but also the way in which the aims of his apparently immoral innovation can be understood. Similarly. View about religion Machiavelli explains repeatedly that religion is man-made. For example quite early in the Discourses. is seen as a critical stimulus towards some of the most important theories of modern politics. but he should make his people religious if he can. Machiavelli felt that having a religion is in any case especially essential to keeping a republic in order. Cyrus the Great. along with some of his classical predecessors. but his description of religion was novel because of the way he integrated this into his general account of princes. Machiavelli argued against seeing mere peace and economic growth as worthy aims on their own. He estimated that these sects last from 1666 to 3000 years each time. 226–227) he was not the first person to ever explain religion in this way. the Discourses. For Machiavelli. Strauss concludes his 1958 Thoughts on Machiavelli by proposing that this promotion of progress leads directly to the modern arms race. and most modern forms of economics. Firstly. ideas which lay behind the US constitution (and most modern constitutions). Also in this case. While fear of God can be replaced by fear of the prince. and that the value of religion lies in its contribution to social order and the rules of morality must be dispensed with if security required it. which. like Moses. if there is a strong enough prince. is a critical step on the path to this insight. pp. if they would lead to what Mansfield calls the "taming of the prince". That a community has different components whose interests must be balanced in any good regime is an idea with classical precedents. particularly in the Discourses on Livy.Niccolò Machiavelli Machiavelli however. This therefore represents a point of disagreement between himself and late modernity. and men who Machiavelli assures us have always used a large amount of armed force and murder against their own people. Machiavelli's insistence on being both realistic and ambitious. not only admitting that vice exists but being willing to risk encouraging it. (in Book I. provides us with both an explanation of what is most truly dangerous in Machiavelli's innovations. . Machiavelli's ideas had a profound impact on political leaders throughout the modern west. Since the 16th century. Machiavelli came to be associated with Catherine de' Medici and the St. a politics guided exclusively by considerations of expediency. These were the English cardinal Reginald Pole and the Portuguese bishop Jeronymo Osorio. In fact. Whatever his intentions.but also using the fatherland in the service of the self-aggrandizement of the politician or statesman or one's party. As Bireley (1990:17) reports. both of whome lived for many years in Italy. while in psychology. described especially in The Prince but also in his other works. whose view of Machiavelli is quite different in many ways. which are still debated today. Innocent Gentillet.A. For example Leo Strauss (1958. Pole reported that the Prince was spoken of highly by Thomas Cromwell in England and had influenced Henry VIII in his turn towards Protestantism. Bartholomew's Day massacre. of the immorality of powerful men. after an initially mixed reaction. His works are sometimes even said to have contributed to the modern negative connotations of the words politics and politician.[28] In France. Machiavelli's works are complex and he is generally agreed to have been more than just "Machiavellian" himself. his main influence was in non-Republican governments. was that of the Huguenot. Catholic writers "associated Machiavelli with the Protestants. a measure which nearly stopped publication in Catholic areas except in France.[29] One of the most important early works dedicated to criticism of Machiavelli. for achieving its ends . it denotes a personality type.its end being the aggrandizement of one's country or fatherland . 297) wrote: Machiavelli is the only political thinker whose name has come into common use for designating a kind of politics. agreed about Machiavelli's influence on republicanism and argued that even though Machiavelli was a teacher of evil he had a nobility of spirit that led him to advocate ignoble actions.Niccolò Machiavelli 10 Machiavellian Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise. p. During the first generations after Machiavelli. about military science.[24] and it is sometimes thought that it is because of him that Old Nick became an English term for the Devil[25] and the adjective Machiavellian became a pejorative term describing someone who aims to deceive and manipulate others for personal advantage. Ambrogio Caterino Politi. or even positive encouragement. written in 1513 but not published until 1532. iron or poison. Machiavellianism also remains a popular term used in speeches and journalism. especially The Prince. whereas Protestant authors saw him as Italian and Catholic". five years after his death. helped by the new technology of the printing press. in the 16th century. Influence To quote Robert Bireley:[26] . fair or foul. which exists and will continue to exist independently of his influence. and in his tactics.there were in circulation approximately fifteen editions of the Prince and nineteen of the Discourses and French translations of each before they were placed on the Index of Paul IV in 1559. for example during the Pilgrimage of Grace. the only theoretical work to be printed in his lifetime was The Art of War. he was apparently influencing both Catholic and Protestant kings. Although he privately circulated The Prince among friends. generations of politicians remain attracted and repelled by its apparently neutral acceptance. The Prince. J.[30] He accused Machiavelli of being an atheist and accused politicians . he has become associated with any proposal where "the end justifies the means". For example. While Machiavellianism is notable in the works of Machiavelli. whose work commonly referred to as Discourse against Machiavelli or Anti Machiavel was published in Geneva in 1576.. Three principal writers took the field against Machiavelli between the publication of his works and their condemnation in 1559 and again by the Tridentine Index in 1564.[27] A copy was also possessed by the Catholic king and emperor Charles V. which uses all means. Pocock (1975) saw him as a major source of the republicanism that spread throughout England and North America in the 17th and 18th centuries and Leo Strauss (1958).G. and the Italian humanist and later bishop. [38] Spinoza. Carlo Scribani. but compared to Machiavelli. Although he was not always mentioned by name as an inspiration. Justus Lipsius. and out of seventeenth-century English republicanism there were to emerge in the next century not only a theme of English political and historical reflection .[35] Francis Bacon.[37] Harrington.[41] Descartes. James Madison and Thomas Jefferson followed Machiavelli's republicanism when they opposed what they saw as the emerging aristocracy that they feared Alexander Hamilton was creating with the Federalist Party.[33] "Black tacitism" was in support of princely rule. more in the original spirit of Machiavellian. He named Machiavelli as a predecessor. This philosophy tended to be republican. Locke[43] and Montesquieu.[45] Scholars have argued that Machiavelli was a major indirect and direct influence upon the political thinking of the Founding Fathers of the United States. but also followed him in many ways. 17th and 18th centuries. but as with the Catholic authors Machiavelli's realism and encouragement of using innovation to try to control one's own fortune were more accepted than his emphasis upon war and politics. leading some commentators to say that the 18th century Enlightenment involved a "humanitarian" moderating of Machiavellianism. Not only was innovative economics and politics a result.[42] Hobbes.[36] Algernon Sidney. and that republicanism came once more to life. more in the original spirit of Machiavelli himself. and Adam Smith.[39] Rousseau.[44] 11 Francis Bacon argued the case for what would become modern science which would be based more upon real experience and experimentation. free from assumptions about metaphysics. he is also thought to have been an influence for other major philosophers.[34] The importance of Machiavelli's influence is notable in many important figures in this endeavor. This includes the Catholic Counter Reformation writers summarised by Bireley: Giovanni Botero. but may have broken from him regarding how rapacious a republic needed to be in order to survive[47] [48] (George Washington was probably less influenced by Machiavelli[49] ). became increasingly important.[46] Hamilton learned from Machiavelli about the importance of foreign policy for domestic policy.[32] These authors criticized Machiavelli. who profusely commented on the Italian's thought in his work. on the Continent. the Founding Father who perhaps most studied and valued Machiavelli as a political philosopher was John Adams. and like later modernist writers. John Milton. and in America. Hume.but a stimulus to the Enlightenment in Scotland. However. and even a need for cunning and deceit. and aimed at increasing control of nature. and this pretense came to be known as "Tacitism".[31] Another theme of Gentillet was more in the spirit of Machiavelli himself: he questioned the effectiveness of immoral strategies (just as Machiavelli had himself done. but also modern science. such as Montaigne. These authors tended to cite Tacitus as their source for realist political advice. Pedro de Ribadeneira. they emphasized economic progress much more than the riskier ventures of war. Modern materialist philosophy developed in the 16th. that "he is of no reputation in the court of France which hath not Machiavel's writings at the fingers ends". Adam Contzen. A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America. Benjamin Franklin. and Diego Saavedra Fajardo.[50] . due to his controversy.Niccolò Machiavelli of his time by saying that his works were the "Koran of the courtiers". This became the theme of much future political discourse in Europe during the 17th century.[40] Edward Gibbon. starting in the generations after Machiavelli.of the writings of the Bolingbroke circle and of Gibbon and of early parliamentary radicals . for example Bodin. rather than Machiavelli. but "red tacitism" arguing the case for republics. They accepted the need for a prince to be concerned with reputation. In the seventeenth century it was in England that Machiavelli's ideas were most substantially developed and adapted. despite also explaining how they could sometimes work). 1950. Machiavelli lacked only a clear understanding of the institutions necessary for good government. The Counter Reformation Prince. p. (Oxford: 1961). and how a society can be manipulated by controlling popular notions of morality. including several in New York.R. Daniel. John Adams praised Machiavelli. p 9 online (http:/ / www. Guarini (1999:21) Maurizio Viroli. 282 [15] Jack Donnelly. Against throne and altar: Machiavelli and political theory under the English Republic (2008) p. . online (http:/ / www. "Niccolò Machiavelli". 94) [26] Bireley. 117.[52] Notes [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Moschovitis Group Inc. For Adams. 231) [23] Mansfield (1993) [24] Bireley (1990. and at London's National Theatre in 1984. [11] Godman (1998. The Prince. Hale. p. Realism and International Relations (2000) p. morals. and how they relate to the State and revolution in his writings on Passive Revolution. de Grazia (1989) page 5. Niccolò's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli (2000). Adams likewise agreed with the Florentine that human nature was immutable and driven by passions. Atkinson and David Sices. 1999). p.[51] Revival of interest in the comedies In the 20th century there was also renewed interest in Machiavelli's La Mandragola (1518).136. Philosophers and religious leaders. 314) [22] Strauss (1958. Joseph Cropsey. with Algernon Sidney and Montesquieu. 139 D. amazon. p. Also see Black (1999. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 183–219) [10] The Modern Library. 60 [18] Leo Strauss. Catholic Encyclopedia. amazon. pp. pp. while his analysis of factions was commendable. com/ gp/ reader/ 1406739774?keywords=Benedetto Croce machiavelli& p=S02H& checkSum=%2FombMxeAC6hIVUToYvbv9hivFP6U3vxoUdbCmtPQco4%3D) [20] Ernst Cassirer. Northern Illinois University Press. [8] The Literary Works of Machiavelli.Niccolò Machiavelli In his Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States. (1946) p. Christian D. ch 1 Donna. Translated and edited by James B. p. com/ gp/ reader/ 0226777022?v=search-inside& keywords=teacher+ of+ evil) [19] Benedetto Croce. Machiavelli and his friends: Their personal correspondence. translated by Christian E. in the introduction to the Bantam Classic edition of The Prince (1966) Machiavelli.[50] 12 20th century The 20th century Italian Communist Antonio Gramsci drew great inspiration from Machiavelli's writings on ethics. He also accepted Machiavelli's belief that all societies were subject to cyclical periods of growth and decay. New York. 240). 241) [25] Fischer (2000. p. Thoughts on Machiavelli (1957). 142 online (http:/ / www. Von Dehsen and Scott L. For Adams. 1913. writing with more of a focus upon the Protestant Netherlands. 300 [17] Niccolò Machiavelli. My Philosophy (1949). com/ gp/ reader/ 0300000367?v=search-inside& keywords=machiavelli+ galileo) [21] Strauss (1987.14 [27] Bireley (1990:15) [28] Haitsma Mulier (1999:248) [29] While Bireley focuses on writers in the Catholic countries. p. which received numerous stagings. [9] Pocock (1975. as a philosophic defender of mixed government. amazon. 68 [16] Leo Strauss. (The Oryx Press. Detmold. Robert (1990). History of Political Philosophy (1987) p. at the New York Shakespeare Festival in 1976 and the Riverside Shakespeare Company in 1979. p. Harris. Machiavelli restored empirical reason to politics. J. p. trans. The Myth of the State. 97–98) [12] Fischer (2000) [13] Strauss (1958) [14] Paul Anthony Rahe. Haitsma Mulier (1999) makes the same observation. Niccolò (1996). com/read/ 10359207?title=Machiavelli and Renaissance Italy) • Hulliung. No.amazon. 217–253 in JSTOR (http://www. Sebastian (1989). English Historical Review Vol.jstor. [43] Barnes Smith "The Philosophy of Liberty: Locke's Machiavellian Teaching" in Rahe (2006). a Kingdome. . See Kennington (2004) Chapter 4. vol. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [44] Carrese "The Machiavellian Spirit of Montesquieu's Liberal Republic" in Rahe (2006). I. Quentin. 299 (Apr. Miles J. highly favorable intellectual biography. or other principalitie.21. [40] Danford "Getting Our Bearings: Machiavelli and Hume" in Rahe (2006). Machiavelli and Renaissance Italy (1961) online edition (http://www. Ferdinand. ed.. "Florence (II): Machiavelli" in Cambridge Modern History (1902). were positive. Mark.com/dp/0679743421) • Hale. James Martin (New York: Routledge. Princeton University Press • de Grazia. 13 Further reading Biographies • Baron. Machiavelli in Hell. 1979. Peter (1998). From Poliziano to Machaivelli: Florentine Humanism in the High Renaissance.9"..Niccolò Machiavelli [30] The first English edition was A Discourse upon the meanes of wel governing and maintaining in good peace. Shklar "Montesquieu and the new republicanism" in Bock (1999). [45] Worden (1999) [46] Rahe (2006) [47] Walling "Was Alexander Hamilton a Machiavellian Statesman?" in Rahe (2006). J. 2010) 334 pages • Godman. L. Heights/Inwood Press of North Manhattan. [41] Schaefer (1990) [42] Kennington (2004). 61–91 • Skinner. Of the Advancement of Learning. "Machiavelli: The Republican Citizen and the Author of 'the Prince'". "Culture ansd Politics in the work of Antonio Gramsci. Rahe (2006) [35] Bireley (1990:17): "Jean Bodin's first comments. [37] Rahe (2006) chapter 6. Six Historians (1956).com/books?id=d7kFAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA3-PA720&dq=Burd++ Machiavelli+intitle:Cambridge+intitle:Modern+intitle:History&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0#PRA1-PA190." [36] Bacon wrote: "We are much beholden to Machiavelli and other writers of that class who openly and unfeignedly declare or describe what men do. in Antonio Gramsci: Intellectuals. Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction (2000) online edition (http://www. [48] Harper (2004) [49] Spalding "The American Prince? George Washington's Anti-Machiavellian moment" in Rahe (2006) [50] Thompson (1995) [51] Marcia Landy. chapter 11. R. edu/ entries/ spinoza-political/ #IntBac). . March 14. Citizen Machiavelli (1983) • Ridolfi. authoritative account of Machiavelli's life and work. [31] Bireley (1990:17) [32] Bireley (1990:18) [33] Bireley (1990:223–230) [34] Kennington (2004). stanford.google." 167–88. The Life of Niccolò Machiavelli (1963). [38] Worden (1999) [39] "Spinoza's Political Philosophy" (http:/ / plato. 76.questia. 2002). ch. excerpt and text search (http://www. pp 190–218 online Google edition (http://books.com/read/ 22093813?title=Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction) • Unger. published in 1566. 'Machiavelli: A Biography' (Simon & Schuster 2011) a lively. and the Party. A. pp. [52] Review by Jann Racquoi. 1961). Culture.questia. vi. Roberto. pp. won the Pulitzer Prize.M1) • Capponi. An Unlikely Prince: The Life and Times of Machiavelli (Da Capo Press. Retrieved 19 March 2011.org/stable/557541) • Burd. found in his Method for the Easy Comprehension of History. translated by Simon Patericke. Hans. and not what they ought to do." "II. a standard scholarly biography • Schevill. Niccolò. 700 pp. ed. Patriot. Leonidas. Well-ordered License: On the Unity of Machiavelli's Thought.questia.org/stable/1961365) . "Machiavelli and the crisis of the Italian republics". Machiavelli and Republicanism. 9780199267767 • Baron. ed. Quentin. also vol 2 in ACLS E-books (http://hdl.com/books?id=SvzZ51e1ktsC&printsec=frontcover& dq=intitle:machiavelli+inauthor:Pasquale+inauthor:Villari&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0). Farrar.com/read/34624137?title=Machiavelli: Cynic. Robert (1990).M1) • Viroli. in Bock. Viroli. Oxford University Press. "Machiavelli's Political Science. highly influential. Cambridge University Press excerpt and text search (http://www. ACLS E-books (http://hdl.amazon. Hans.. Machiavelli .handle. De Lamar. Vol.google. excerpts and text search (http://books.CCXCIX. The Life and Times of Niccolò Machiavelli (2 vol 1892). good older biography. "Machiavelli's Political Psychology. "Machiavelli: The Renaissance of the Art of War. Viroli. Lexington Books • Mansfield. Vol.questia. Elena (1999). Niccolò's Smile: A Biography of Machiavelli. ISBN 0199267766. Straus & Giroux excerpt and text search (http://www. Machiavelli (1998) online edition (http://www. Felix. 59.net/2027/heb. (1990). servant of the Florentine republic". pp. ed. in JSTOR (http://www. Machiavelli's Prince and Its Forerunners.google. Markus.com/books?id=PC0oFzJpFBwC&printsec=frontcover& dq=intitle:crisis+intitle:early+inauthor:hans+inauthor:baron&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0& sig=tw7r_LsDJ0cDz66H4WSylNz3TA0). "Machiavelli.jstor.com/books?id=Jv0FN8fOEHIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:machiavelli+ inauthor:Pasquale+inauthor:Villari&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0#PPP2.jstor. online Google edition vol 2 (http://books. doi:10.net/2027/heb. Markus (2000). The Makers of Modern Strategy (1944) • Jensen. Gisela." in Edward Mead Earle.org/pss/557541) • Bireley. Pasquale. Machiavelli and Guicciardini: Politics and History in Sixteenth-Century Italy (2nd ed.handle. Power. pp.net/2027/heb. Duke University Press • Gilbert. 2 (Jun.Niccolò Machiavelli • Villari. Quentin. Hans. Gisela. • Baron." The American Political Science Review. Maurizio.1093/ehr/LXXVI.questia. Allan (1938). Hostility.01379). deep study of civic humanism (republicanism). Rodopi. (2011) Niccolò Machiavelli: History.handle. Sydney. Maurizio. Skinner. On Modern Origins.google. 1984) online from ACLS-E-books (http://hdl. or Political Scientist?) • Kennington.net/2027/heb. Gisela.com/read/ 23271960?title=Machiavelli).com/dp/0521435897) • Chabod. Skinner.handle. good place to start 14 Political thought • Anglo. Maurizio (2000).jstor.com/dp/0374221871) • Viroli. Machiavelli: Cynic. Machiavelli and Republicanism. Maurizio. 1981). 4 (Autumn. Patriot. 293–305 in JSTOR (http://www. 1997). and Irrelevance. ISBN 978-90-420-3277-4. No. "Machiavelli: the Republican Citizen and Author of The Prince". Richard (2004)." The Review of Politics. In Search of Florentine Civic Humanism (2 vols. 1988).01379) • Baron. 2005. Machiavelli and Republicanism. No. Robert (1999).217. The Counter Reformation Prince • Black. 789–829 in JSTOR (http://www. FedericoMachiavelli & the Renaissance (1958) online edition (http://www.01706) • Gilbert. 01383) • Donskis. Lexington Book • Guarini. online Google edition vol 1 (http://books. Felix.amazon. Hans (1961). The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny (2 vol 1955). online from ACLS E-Books (http://hdl. Cambridge University Press • Gilbert. or Political Scientist? (1960) essays by scholars online edition (http://www. English Historical Review lxxvi (76): 217–253.com/read/ 56380461?title=Machiavelli &the Renaissance). Quentin Skinner and Maurizio Viroli. Harvey C.org/stable/1408308) • Fischer. in Bock. E-ISBN 978-90-420-3278-1 • Fischer. 75. Ed. Cambridge University Press • Bock.the First Century: Studies in Enthusiasm. and Virtue. (2006). • Rahe. 2003). • Parel. Fortune is a River: Leonardo Da Vinci and Niccolò Machiavelli's Magnificent Dream to Change the Course of Florentine History. excerpt and text search (http://www. Sullivan. and Korean (ISBN 9788984070059).amazon. See also NYT book review (http://query. Paul (1992).org/ stable/2082714) • Skinner.com/ read/100774068?title=The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition) • Pocock.: Journal of Modern History 1981 53(1): 49-72. • Mattingly. • Scott. Machiavelli's Liberal Republican Legacy. Cornell University Press. (1975). • Roger Masters (1998). "The Question of Machiavelli's Modernity. J. University of Michigan Press 15 .Niccolò Machiavelli • Mansfield. 2 (Spring. Paul A. Simon & Schuster.questia. John T. University of Notre Dame Press. J. Fulltext in Jstor (http://links.com/gst/fullpage.questia." The Review of Politics.com/ gst/fullpage. Harvey C. doi:10. pp. ASIN 0521851874 Excerpt. pp. html?res=9A0CE6DB123FF93BA35751C1A960958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print).2-5). 1) 101 (1): 119–129. Princeton University Press • Najemy. • Najemy. "Baron's Machiavelli and Renaissance Republicanism". (1996).A. G. Princeton new ed. • Rahe. JSTOR 2169227. 1991). v. in Melzer. "Patricide and the Plot of the Prince: Cesare Borgia and Machiavelli's Italy. ISBN 0-268-01433-7 See also NYT book review (http://query.html?res=9901E6D91730F934A25754C0A96E958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print). The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition. Publishing The Prince: History. The Political Philosophy of Montaigne. reviews and Text search shows Machiavelli's Discourses had a major impact on shaping conservative thought.amazon.jstor. The Johns Hopkins University Press • Mansfield.CO. Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution online edition (http://www.org/ sici?sici=0022-2801(198103)53:1<49:TMMRAS>2. Zinman. Machiavelli.jstor. David (1990). German (ISBN 9783471794029).org/stable/1407757) • Parel. Quentin. (1978) • Soll. 371pp • Mansfield. Toronto. Vol. 53. Anthony (1972).com/dp/0691114722). Cornell University Press • Mansfield. also online 1975 edition (http://www. J.0. Leonardo and the Science of Power. Reading and the Birth of Political Criticism. History and the Idea of Progress. Fulltext: in Jstor (http://links.2307/2169227. 320–339 in JSTOR (http://www. I. a highly influential study of Discourses and its vast influence.com/dp/0226503704) • Roger Masters (1996). A. Portuguese (ISBN 9788571104969). The American Scholar (27): 482–491. No. Weinberger. "The Machiavellian Moment Revisited: a Study in History and Ideology.2-R).nytimes. 3–28 • Pocock.CO. ISBN 0-452-28090-7 Also available in Chinese (ISBN 9789572026113). Issn: 0003-0554 in Jstor (http://www.nytimes. 101.G. Vol. The Foundations of Modern Political Thought. Japanese (ISBN 9784022597588).jsp) • Schaefer. Garrett (Autumn 1958). Harvey (1995). "Introduction: Machiavelli's Method and His Interpreters". Harvey C. The Political Calculus: Essays on Machiavelli's Philosophy.com/library/book/ republics-ancient-and-modern-classical-republicanism-and-the-american-revolution-vol-2-by-paul-a-rahe. Taming the Prince.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(199602)101:1<119:BMARR>2. Machiavelli's New Modes and Orders: A Study of the Discourses on Livy (2001) excerpt and text search (http://www. Between Friends: Discourses of Power and Desire in the Machiavelli-Vettori Letters of 1513-1515. Machiavelli's Virtue (1996).0. Harvey (1993). A. John (1993). The Renaissance. No. Cambridge University Press. Jacob (2005).jstor. American Historical Review (The American Historical Review. "Machiavelli's Prince: Political Science or Political Satire?". and Vickie B. John M." American Political Science Review 1994 88(4): 887-900.jstor. "Machiavelli and the Idea of Progress". Vickie B. • Martelli. • Barbuto.. Francesco (1997). profezia. “Tracce d`una preistoria dell`Arte della Guerra di Niccolò Machiavelli”. University of Chicago Press • Strauss. 283–330. Interpres XVIII. Marcelo (2008). Universidad de Murcia. Savonarola. Milano. 12-14. 331–8. Roma. "John Adams's Machiavellian Moment". Frederick G. Vickie B. in N. Mario (1999b). "Milton's republicanism and the tyanny of heaven". 256–8. “Note su Machiavelli”. 99–116.” Revista Daimon. doi:10. “I dettagli della filologia”. • Martelli. Hume and Machiavelli: Political Realism and Liberal Thought. Also in Rahe (2006). Thoughts on Machiavelli. “Machiavelli politico amante poeta”. 1. "The Art of Power: Machiavelli. • Whelan. Quaderni di Filologia e critica. Mario (2001). Quentin. Leo. Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory. Lexington • Worden. Machiavelli and Republicanism. I. Cambridge University Press 16 Italian studies • Barbuto." Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007. Blair (1999). pp. Reflexiones sobre la cosmología de Maquiavelo (1469-1527). 211–56. Mario and Bausi. Diego.edu/ entries/machiavelli/) • Strauss. II-14 ottobre 1998). • Martelli. Bradley (1995). Maurizio. Skinner. Joseph. Malato (ed. pp. pp. Cropsey. in Strauss. • Martelli. 139–53. Niccolò Machiavelli (2005) online edition (http://plato. • Martelli. Salerno Editrice. vol. (2004). Sismel-Edizioni del Galluzo. pp. Mario (1999c). La Chiesa romana di fronte alla republica cristiana”. 212–71. Leo (1987). The Review of Politics 57 (3): 389–417.1017/S0034670500019689. Marcelo (2008) “Lettere non tanto chiare”. Leo (1958). Nota sulle foti letterarie dell´Arte della guerra”. Interpres. 251–320. Roma. Paris.Niccolò Machiavelli • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Mario (1999a). Mario (1985–1986). Storia della letteratura italiana. C. a cura di G. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. “Per la definizione della nozione di principe civile”. Mario (1998b). Spoleto. storia e letteratura: Machiavelli e Guicciardini”. Filosofia Politica. pp. Université de Paris X-Nanterre. Interpres XX. osservazioni su alcuni luoghi dei discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio. Florencia. “Machiavelli e Savonarola”. tirannide. pp. Mario (2004). Saggio sul Principe.stanford. Interpres. Il primo Cinquecento. “Questa oblivione delle cose. 2. Mélanges de Littérature offerts à Paul Larivaille. “Machiavelli e Savonarola: valutazione politica e valutazione religiosa”. Mario (1998d). 13. Mario (1993). xi-xlvii.). (1996). 106–42. L´uomo e il frate". “Il buon geometra di questo mondo”. “La Mandragola e il suo prologo”. pp. Human Liberty. “Politica.). History of Political Philosophy (3rd ed. • Thompson. Garfagnini. (2000). Regards sur la Renaissance italienne. . 34–52. Interpres VI. XXII. E. pp. IV. Atti del xxxv Convegno storico internazionale (Todi. Rivista di Filosofia. pp. 67–89. • Martelli. 34. Machiavelli's Three Romes: Religion. Mario (1998a). ed. XXIII. Democrazia. Mario (2004). • Martelli. Marcelo (2005). Sansoni editore. Girolamo Savonarola. Roma. • Martelli. Salerno Editrice. pp. XII. • Martelli.C. in Bock. pp. Viroli. • Martelli. ISBN 0226777022 • Sullivan. pp. CISAM. 91–145. 115–25. Machiavelli e gli storici antichi. pp. Yale U.M. Mario (1998c). and Politics Reformed. • Martelli. Letteratura e Storia. Mario (2003). XXIII. Tutte le opere. "Niccolò Machiavelli". Salerno Editrice. Bologna. La Cultura. pp. • Martelli. The Comedy and Tragedy of Machiavelli: Essays on the Literary Works. “Discorsi. • Barbuto. Interpres XVII. Il Mulino. Northern Illinois University Press • von Vacano. • Martelli. “Machiavelli e Frontino. “Schede sulla cultura di Machiavelli”. • Martelli. Gisela. Press • Sullivan. Interpres. Milner. Translated by Harvey Mansfield • Machiavelli. pp. Mario (1974). “Preistoria (medicea) di Machiavelli”. Mestas Ediciones. The Discourses on Livy • Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio (2001). The Prince. The Prince.amazon. Marriott) Gutenberg edition (http://www. ISBN 978-0-140449-15-0. by Peter Bondanella (1998) 101pp online edition (http://www. The Prince. Notes and other critical apparatus by J. Allan H. by Mario Martelli and Nicoletta Marcelli. Roma. J. London: Penguin. Rinascimento. edited with an introduction by Bernard Crick (1970). Red and Black Publishers ISBN 978-0-934941-003 • Il principe (2006) ed. 4 vols.htm) • The Discourses.com/dp/0979415403) • Machiavelli. Bruce. The Prince and Other Political Writings. Translated and Edited by Stephen J. Niccolò (1995).. pp. (3 vol. K. XXIX. (2008). • The Prince ed. “L´altro Niccolò di Bernardo Machiavelli”.M.J. ed.. Selected political writings of Niccolò Machiavelli. K. Ricciardi 17 Editions Collections • • • • Gilbert. Dent. Milano. (1994).com/dp/087220247X) The Prince • Machiavelli. and Mark Musa. The Prince. The Prince.org/mac/disclivy_.questia.amazon. Il Mulino. • Machiavelli. Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di Niccolò Machiavelli. Mario (1982) “La logica provvidenzialistica e il capitolo XXVI del Principe”.amazon. eds. Translated by George Bull • Machiavelli. 1965). 39–100. ed. Salerno Editrice.com/read/ 97573377?title=The Prince) • The Prince ed. II vol. The Discourses. Mario (1971). • The Discourses. Machiavelli: storia del suo pensiero politico. ed. Interpres IV. Niccolò (1985). excerpt and text search (http://www. Sasso. . (1981) Wootton. Gennaro (1993). ISBN 0-140-44428-9 • The Discourses. II vol. Studi di Filologia Italiana. Gennaro (1987-997) Machiavelli e gli antichi e altri saggi. 262–384. XIV. by Rufus Goodwin and Benjamin Martinez (2003) excerpt and text search (http://www. Martelli. 377–405. London: Penguin Books. The Portable Machiavelli (1979) Penman. Salerno Editrice. gutenberg. Translated by Leslie J. com/dp/0937832383) • The Prince (2007) excerpt and text search (http://www. Niccolò (2006). tr.Niccolò Machiavelli • • • • • Martelli. Bologna. online 1772 edition (http://www. by Francesco Bausi. Martelli. Walker. Peter. Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others. (1908 edition tr by W.org/etext/1232) • Marriott. Translated into Spanish by Marina Massa-Carrara • Machiavelli. University of Chicago Press. Walker (2 vol 1950). Introduction. Sasso. Niccolò (1531). Niccolò. with introduction and notes by L. David.constitution. pp. Indianapolis: Hackett Pubs. S. revisions by Brian Richardson (2003). Roma. R. El Principe/The Prince: Comentado Por Napoleon Bonaparte / Commentaries by Napoleon Buonaparte. Niccolò (1961). Everyman. the standard scholarly edition Bondanella. W. Edizione Nazionale delle Opere di Niccolò Machiavelli. com/books?hl=en&id=xR0JAAAAQAAJ& dq=machiavelli+"art+of+war"+translated&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=r35k3yuhWo& sig=XFzaVIpq9qej4DD9AAnFFcasm5Y#PPA13. u. Correspondence • Epistolario privado. ISBN 978-84-9734-661-0 • The Private Correspondence of Nicollo Machiavelli. and Clizia. Atkinson and David Sices.com/ph/macv. Comedy.edu/entries/machiavelli/) • full text books from the Liberty Fund. tedesco/italiano. Las cartas que nos desvelan el pensamiento y la personalidad de uno de los intelectuales más importantes del Renacimiento.intratext. La Esfera de los Libros.org/mac/florence.libero. Band 10. Madrid.umf. ISBN 3-631-54669-6. Con tutte le poesie.com/read/77267435?title=The Private Correspondence of Nicolo Machiavelli) • Machiavelli.earlymoderntexts.com/philosophy/machiavelli/).gutenberg.com) • Works by Machiavelli (http://www. Reihe: Dialoghi/Dialogues: Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs. Translated and edited by James B. ed.HTM): text.constitution. Juan Manuel Forte (edición y traducción). 2001.philosophypages. Comedies of Machiavelli. Mit sämtlichen Gedichten. deutsch/italienisch. by Orestes Ferrara. slightly modified for easier reading (http://www.stanford. Niccolò (1988). Peter Lang Verlag. concordances and frequency list • Machiavelli on the Net (http://www. 2007. Da Capo press edition. Niccolò Machiavelli. including some of his works • Works by Niccolò Machiavelli (http://www.htm) • Machiavelli. with introduction by Neal Wood.com/Catalogo/Autori/Aut242. a conservative think tank (http://oll.Niccolò Machiavelli The Art of War • The Seven Books on the Art of War online 1772 edition (http://www. Florentine Histories • History of Florence online 1901 edition (http://www. etc • Machiavelli. University Press of New England Bilingual edition of The Woman from Andros.maine.a. 18 External links • Machiavelli: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://plato. Machiavelli and his friends: Their personal correspondence.timoroso.htm) • Reform of Florence online 1772 edition (http://www.htm) • The Art of War ed. Northern Illinois University Press.libertyfund.org/files/2464/2464-h/2464-h. Niccolò Machiavelli.google. • Also see Najemy (1993). Translation by Laura F Banfield and Harvey Mansfield.M1) • The Art of War.html) .gutenberg. Niccolò (1985).edu/Reading_Revolutions/Machiavelli.it/il_machiavelli/index.org/author/Machiavelli) at Project Gutenberg • Machiavelli (http://marxists. 435 págs. • Hoeges.org/index. • Works of Machiavelli (http://digilander. (1929) online edition (http://www. Dichter-Poeta. Frankfurt/M. The Mandrake. php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show. questia.org/mac/artofwar_. Niccolò (1996). edited by DAvid Sices and James B. Atkinson. Poetry.html): Italian and English text • Machiavelli and Power Politics (http://hua. Dirk. 2006.php?person=3801&Itemid=28) • (http://www.constitution.htm) • Site containing The Prince. Princeton University Press. by Christopher Lynch (2003) • The Art of War online 1775 edition (http://books.org/reference/archive/machiavelli/) at the Marxists Internet Archive. Florentine Histories. a Machiavelli webliography with a short introduction. Lisa Jardine. Grotius.Marriott. fr: J.rain.org/index. 5 parallel translations (http://diglossa.com/read/110131848?title=Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli. ch. Regis • Machiavelli and the Italian City on the BBC's In Our Time with Melvyn Bragg (http://www.K. and Mazzini) 19 .libertyfund. Martin. Evelyn Welch.H. Karpeles Manuscript Library (http://www.org/~karpeles/macfrm.php&person=3801) • Digitized Italian Letter.-V. Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli. en: W.co. Regius Professor of History at the University of Cambridge. Kant. html) • Machiavelli on diglossa. Professor of Renaissance Studies at Queen Mary. 1 online edition (http://www. N.php?option=com_staticxt& staticfile=show. and Mazzini (2005).questia.Муравьева.org/Machiavelli/Il-Principe): ru: Г.Niccolò Machiavelli • Machiavelli on the Online Library Of Liberty (http://oll.Thomson. Kant.org library.uk/iplayer/ console/p004y26p/In_Our_Time_Machiavelli_and_the_Italian_City_States). University of London • Wight. Director of the Centre for Editing Lives and Letters at Queen Mary. with Quentin Skinner. Périès. de: G.bbc. Grotius. University of London. Machiavelli. LW2836. Vassyana. Mogerj1. KJS77. Modest Genius. Eubulide. Hyperion09. Nunquam Dormio. WREverdell. Thealan91. Akradecki. Wik. RexRex84. Tennis Dynamite.1. Postdlf. WJBscribe. JacobJHWard.jpg Source: http://en. Fluffernutter. Paul venter. PaulKincaidSmith. Driz gang. Husky. Funandtrvl.org/w/index. WhiteShark. Nigelbergman. Bgillesp. Marudubshinki. Sailko. Cherkash. Paranomia. Piedmtbill. DreamGuy. Mike Rosoft. Dhp1080. TravisTX. Gabbe. Dvc214. BrianHansen. Jmundo. Nightmareb4xmas. RafaelAndersoni. Flash60. Everyking. Ruzulo. Jacoplane. Zoso. Koveras.org/w/index. Gobonobo. SG. Poor Yorick.wikipedia. Possum. Denisarona. Yohan euan o4. Hu12. Avb. Shyam. Bongwarrior. Nishkid64. Anonymous from the 21st century. Arouet lj. Tedder. Ineffable3000. StaticGull. Cardiffchestnut. Blue520. L Kensington. ScooterDe. Zsalamander. Kelp. Personman. Robertgreer. Reevnar. Cowwhiteasmilk. Raven in Orbit. Ragesoss. Ceoil. Kikadue. Prashanthns. Shimmin.wikipedia. Peyre. Shadowjams. The Thing That Should Not Be. Imacphee. FreplySpang. San0009. Gurchzilla. Freemason. Kwertii. Gryffindor. Saeidk. Wiki alf. Sam Spade. Alex. Atif. Topic. Anders Torlind. RJaguar3. KokkaShinto. Ptolme. Angela. Jpeob. Brutannica. Axl. Klhuillier. Bushcutter. Jnc. Reach Out to the Truth. Emerson511. Bluerasberry. Closedmouth. Vmantva. Citral. Tuvwxyz. Assianir. Auntof6. Tpk5010. Peaceingalaxy. Atlballer91. Gwern. Jaxl. Tpbradbury. Sluzzelin. Barneca. Hayter. Backpackadam. Hattak. Tellyaddict. 2D. Anclation. Fabartus. Davide41. Attilios. Ben Ben. Spell737. Javert. Galloglass. Koyaanis Qatsi. M neimeyer.org/w/index. Hi i like chocolate. Moeron. Hogie08. Mandragola. Seraphim. Tempestsky. MissAlyx. Christian75. Sceptre. DK4. Savidan. OliverTwisted. Sirkad. Fvasconcellos. NightCrawler. Forlane. ERcheck.delanoy. Lacrimosus. Gorski. I'm the Cavalry. Jay ryann. Mista-X. Mallocks. Wavelength. Inwind. Shalok-Gul. Will Beback. Sheldon Rampton.1.wikipedia. Mike R. Abdelmonem. Nenimar. Ruy Pugliesi. Mikesamjockstrap. Cbrigantti. Ronhjones. Stude1994. PhilipDSullivan. YoungKeta. Palffy. Leaders100. Fæ. Nwhyte. Salvio giuliano. Arandia.s.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: EFFemeer. Lights. Jerryfrancis. Prodego. Texture. Anonymous from the 21th century. Haakon. Peter Karlsen. Speermeister. Trevor MacInnis. Pseudomonas. Wimt.org/w/index. Algeralith. Jmwikiacc. Razorflame. Kaldari. Iconoclastodon. JorisvS. Gaia Octavia Agrippa. Grim23. Magioladitis. Dar-Ape. Nasarius. Abrahami. NewEnglandYankee. Tombomp. JASpencer. Norm mit. Wje. Pietrow. Wjejskenewr. Paul A. Kungfuadam. 4 anonymous edits License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3. PericlesofAthens. Johnbod. Mangojuice. Ezadarque. Leinad92. WhisperToMe. The oggmonst3r. Loren. Gurch. JinJian. Andrewlp1991. GeneralPatton. Yuyudevil. Александър. Trvn grvr. Licenses and Contributors File:Portrait of Niccolò Machiavelli by Santi di Tito. Aaarrrggh. Coolcats123. Zahid Abdassabur.muller. Socialpolicyandpractice.2. Pdcook. Seqsea. Fbv65edel. Truthjusticeandfreedom. PerfectStorm. Mayooranathan. Katalaveno. Rjm656s. Majorly. Phillipsmcgee. S. N5iln. Terrencethetractor. Hoo man. Phydend. Tommy2010. Nu1686. Raddicks. KnowledgeOfSelf. Krellis. RadioFan2 (usurped). Nihil novi. DO'Neil.wikipedia. Hmains. J11forbes. Kingturtle. Pinkadelica. Graham87. Weimar03. Mufka. Quaeler. Treybien. Beeswaxcandle. Connormah. Djlayton4. Kpjas. Gugilymugily.2. Itafroma. Morenooso.jpg Source: http://en.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Niccolò Machiavelli File:Machiavel Offices Florence. PrinceMyshkin. Diannaa. Reaper Eternal. Petiatil. Lionslayer. AbstergoAgent. RoyBoy. RedWolf. Bobo192. AwesomeCoffee. JoeBlogsDord. Pearle. Gdo01. Gary King. TheProject. Mrh30. Carleton6. Falcon8765. Straw Cat.0 Contributors: Gryffindor File:Duke-Lorenzo. DavidA. StewartMine. Bodnotbod. PJM.jpg Source: http://en. Oxvox. Necrothesp. P toolan. Williamconnell36. LarsMarius. Mhazard9. Invitrovanitas. WikHead. Wikisox12. Super-Magician. Srushe. SouthernNights.Article Sources and Contributors 20 Article Sources and Contributors Niccolò Machiavelli Source: http://en. MrFish. Banaticus. Doidimais Brasil. Crisu. Metasquares. Bill Thayer. Thingg. Jopasopa. Mobius. Omicronpersei8. Rmhermen. Dawillia. ASDFGHJKL. Elockid. Kansas Bear. Abomb219. Hallomynameis. Kalogeropoulos. Paul Barlow. Alcmaeonid. Soumyasch. Woodshed. Cdc.svg Source: http://en. Chiefdumais. Mattes. Elwikipedista. Aude. Oxymoron83. Triple-Quadruple.php?title=File:Machiavel_Offices_Florence. EchetusXe. Dahn. Lradrama.wikipedia. Freakofnurture. 0. Rich Farmbrough. Rdsmith4. Mandarax. Fmalan. Burton. Heron. Stwalkerster. Mac9. Mattysearle. Wallah96. NakedCelt. Maerk. JLogan. Woland1234. Khalid Mahmood. Sligocki. Pietdesomere. Coffee Atoms. Danski14. Synchronism. Excirial. Sbmehta. Edderso. Normalityrelief. AtStart. Mothersmilk. JDoorjam.2. Iohannes Animosus. Brentt. Canderson7. Sijo Ripa. BirgitteSB. SRN05. Wicka Chicka Claire Bear.raghavan. Mrwojo. Favonian. Maurog. Rcbmolebash. AnnaFrance. Dslam. G. David rundle. Wayward. Materialscientist. Ut Libet. Burntsauce. Sarahndipedous. Handkraig.dallorto. Billpeanut. Lapaz. Magister Mathematicae. Hamiltondaniel. Magnus Manske. 100110100. Mr. ThyCantabrigde. Meltron5000. Matthew Proctor. Jak123. Hockey4james. Cool Hand Luke. Alansohn. Marek69. Switchercat. Haaqfun. Aldis90. JLaTondre. Fittb. Francs2000. Hoajohnson. D'Arby. FranksValli. Beaker342. Totallaxster. Salamurai. Xxis. Fredrik. Parkjunwung. 1 anonymous edits File:Art of War-1573. Garzo.jpg Source: http://en. Mephistophelian. BigDunc. Solipsist. Myanw. ゆいしあす. Rednblu. Ddlamb. AakashRaheja.0 Unported . Winchelsea. Alan Nicoll. Delfinario09. Tinkerbell564. WPjcm. StAnselm. Finalius. Jonathan. Madmansmercy. Deusexmachina. Sigma 7. TOO. Griffinofwales. Theguide42. Jennavecia.php?title=File:Duke-Lorenzo. Colmlinehan. Uri. MZMcBride. Sobaka. Levan. Zeimusu. R Lowry. LtNOWIS. Quoth. Neutrality. Bucketsofg. Pmlineditor. Alexf. Mav. Vrenator. Fxer. Cyrius. Kylu. Mikaey. CanadianLinuxUser. Goodnightmush. Chase me ladies. Goethean. Cireshoe. JohnCD. Rmcfan. Lahiru k. Akubra. Scienceguy435. Travelbird.kt.wikipedia. Taco325i. Archangel1054. GraemeL. Xhakhal. Dante Alighieri.0. Aruton. ThaddeusB. Yamamoto Ichiro. Orphan Wiki.wikipedia. Flewis. LadyInGrey. Ilturs. DMacks. Jack Cain. Bookgrrl. Quadell. Naufana. KConWiki. PeterFielder. Couchspud. Walor. JoanneB. Thesis4Eva. Immunize. Sciurinæ. Warren Dew. Jmroney. Pelvic ostentations. Dr. Kbh3rd. Melissasusan. Jay Litman. DJ Clayworth.php?title=File:Xenophon. Dwdp. Squallwc. French Tourist. Su huynh. Desolation0. Mind. Schaengel89. Courcelles. Bloggerdot. Anonymous Dissident. Sage-S-M. Demeter. Boing! said Zebedee. Alexius08. J04n. PeteShanosky.xxx. Dapi89. TJOB. Pizza1512. Shoefly. Mad4machiavelli. Peasantwarrior. Jorunn. Donkeyhawk. TootsMojo. Peterlewis. Clicketyclack. ParisianBlade. Edmundwang. Uncle Dick. Kth. 2352 anonymous edits Image Sources.wilton. Can't sleep. Discworldian. Shanes. Populus. Alex2706. Clementina. Tim1357. SQGibbon. MuZemike. AxiomShell. A8UDI. Darkwind. Esrever. Monegasque. Devlinb. Anjoe.JPG Source: http://en. Philip Trueman. NatalijaS. Snailwalker. ProtoFire. Brion VIBBER. Canadian1982. Timo Laine. WDavis1911. Juzeris. Mets501. JoJan. D prime. clown will eat me. Kilom691. Scythe33. Marbarbuto. RTV User 545631548625. MCTales. 5 albert square. Szopen. Giant onehead. Conversion script. Husum. Ajraddatz. ShelfSkewed. Topnewyorker. Satori Son. Writtenonsand.php?title=File:Machiavelli_Signature. Festivemanb. Tiptoety. Mentifisto. J. Phoenix2.eas. MartinDK. Addshore. 0XQ. RobNS. Andonic. RxS. Shirarae. Carmichael95. Rkooner.php?oldid=458845725 Contributors: (aeropagitica). Dustycc. Nemu. TomorrowWeDie. Reklawhcaz. Garydave. Billion. FayssalF. Eclecticology. Pjamescowie. Oxvox1. CyberSkull. THEN WHO WAS PHONE?. Stevewk. Apokrif. Qazwerus.0.ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪ అహ్మద్ నిసార్. Husond. John Lake. CombustionMan1. Iridescent. HenkvD. Kingpin13. Etacar11. Pekaje. Wetman. Lelapindore. Jwoodger. Deus Ex. Oore. Snowolf. Spellmaker90. Roscelese. License2Kill. DGonz008.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Hattak at en. Luk. Deanos. ^demon. Ndenison. Palthrow. Beatlesnard. JoeSmack. Dbtfz. Willking1979. Scientizzle. Johnxnap. Static void. Ean5533.t2. Royboycrashfan. TYelliot. Rkleckner. Descendall. Paxsimius. Bomac. Backtable. RexNL. MarkSutton. Adam keller. Fanghong. Trollsunite. Zeppelin3217. OhNoPeedyPeebles. Hojimachong. Fieldday-sunday. WadeSimMiser. Rjensen. Eusebio42.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3. Pb30. Reedy. Machine1111. VDZ. Nihiltres. Sunderland06. Ajones11132. StephanDoerner. Worlduser3. Gwernol. Waprap. Profdrew101. Kyleron H. Penny Iori. Studerby. Sjc. Seth Ilys. Hotchimotchi. Tsemii. JEN9841. Frozenevolution. Bbsrock. EdEColbert. CommuteByCycle. Phantomsteve. Niccolo101095. Correon. Smalljim. TheRanger. Joseph Solis in Australia. Obradovic Goran. Silverhorse. Cocopuffberman. Urbanchampion. Kelly Martin. Neddyseagoon. TheRegicider. Zoe.jpg Source: http://en. MichaelTinkler. Andycjp. Pharaoh of the Wizards. Hanshans23.php?title=File:Santa_Croce_Firenze_Apr_2008_(20). Luna Santin. Wasbeer. Seancron. JasonPLK. NotAnonymous0.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Thomas Gun Image:Machiavelli Signature. Rror. Walton One. Fxmastermind. JohnMorra. ToastieIL. Markhurd. Andrew Lancaster. Dbfirepower. Applejaxs. Shoeofdeath. AshcroftIleum. Piano non troppo. Timmeh. Zenohockey. Grafikm fr. Rocket71048576. LilHelpa. DVD R W.wikipedia. Jamib0y. IvanP. Kürschner. Fleabag77. Ericl234. Ricky81682. Impi. Swift. GoingBatty. Antandrus.dallorto. .jpg Source: http://en. Jdemarcos. InsaneSonikkuFan. JForget. DemonicPartyHat. R'n'B. SenorAnderson. Was Once. Fableman26. Tutmosis. Cremepuff222. Tide rolls. WouterVH. MasterofUnvrs314. Knommonk. Walmon90.org/w/index. Cannda180. Nick Number. Slaniel. Potatofamine. ZooFari. Epbr123. Mbeinhorn.php?title=File:Art_of_War-1573. Avenged Eightfold. LoyolaDude. Puckly. Wayne Slam. The Utahraptor.php?title=File:Portrait_of_Niccolò_Machiavelli_by_Santi_di_Tito. Eaglebreath. The Last Melon. Jenks24. Slartibartfast1992. Rosso malpelo. Trusilver.wikipedia File:Xenophon. LOL. Yorkshirian. Walden. AxelHarvey.org/w/index. Sdgjake. Jonny4027.5.org/w/index. Viator slovenicus. Etr52. SmilesALot. CQJ. Bsirvine. Versus22.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Jebulon File:Santa Croce Firenze Apr 2008 (20). 212.35. Wikipelli. Faboba.php?title=File:Francis_Bacon. Willtron. LarryTheGreat. Jordanp. Mjordanboy. Betacommand. Paulomighty. 342rdogrevengeman. Tad Lincoln. AznBurger. Alphachimp. Toon05. William Avery.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amandajm. Quinwound. Lucidish. Miles unger. Fractl. Soniamcewan. G. Olivier. Tommaisey. Johnbrownsbody. Aborrows. P-Real DA deal. VadZ. Ericamick. TobyLoobenfeld. DionysosProteus. SkyWalker. Nitya Dharma. Sonia. Calabraxthis. Christopher Parham. Betchlovesfries. Hadal. Josephseagullstalin. Woohookitty. Discospinster. Watupgirl. Dysepsion. Blofeld. Fosnez. Box Lump. Fugger89. Neo-Jay. Mnmnmnm. Dacxjo. Den fjättrade ankan. Siva. Razimantv. Android1961. DarkAdonis255. NickPenguin. Fl. NawlinWiki. Andy Marchbanks. Muhandes. MeStevo. Bantman. Rohirok. PhilKnight. Nonagonal Spider. Mbeatty123. Ctringham. Guy Peters. SoCalSuperEagle. Gimcrackery. Aksi great. Glane23. Modernist. Gregbard.org/w/index. Entropy. Sunray. DerHexer. Shoessss. Womprat99. Beyond My Ken. Plot101. Aymatth2. Donarreiskoffer. P.wikipedia. Anaxial. Wikiborg. Dlv1ad7.org/w/index. Luke Jaywalker. Toblad. Toosinbeymen. Rbrwr. Riana. PaulVIF. Aitias. JeLuF. Thunder77. Id447. LuYiSi. Aegon. RJC.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Gabor File:Francis Bacon. Anna Lincoln. Poulsen. Merchbow. org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ 21 .License //creativecommons.