Museum and Museum Libraries history and evolution

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION1.1 History of Museums 1.1.1 World 1.1.1.1 From the Beginnings 1.1.1.2 The 18th and 19th Centuries 1.1.1.3 The 20th Century to the Present 1.1.2 India 1.1.2.1 1.1.2.2 1.1.2.3 1.2 1.3 Classification of Museums History of Libraries 1.3.1 World 1.3.2 India 1.4 1.5 1.6 Library in General Types of Library Special Library 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.6.5 1.7 Definition of Special Library Characteristics of Special Library Objectives of Special Library Functions of Special Library Services of Special Library 1.7.1 Historical Evolution 1.7.2 Role of Museum Library in Society 1.8 1.9 Library Vs Museum Purpose and objectives of the study From the Beginnings The 18th and 19th Centuries The 20th Century to the Present Museum Library 1.10 Scope of the Study 1.11 Utility of the study Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 History of Museums: 1.1.1 1.1.1.1 World: From the Beginnings : Museums are but storehouses except for the recorded knowledge of its specialized library...1 The historical development of the museum library is inseparably associated with that of the parent institution. On a significantly broader plane, however, this association reflects the close relationship that has existed between museums and libraries from their shared conception as repositories of collective memory. Both museums and libraries represent two institutional forms through which the Western world has sought to preserve its cultural heritages. Accordingly, they perform similar functions: to collect, to store, and to make accessible sources of information. The principal distinction lies in the nature of these sources- the one emphasizes languageassociated records and the other, artifacts of a largely non-linguistic nature. The term museum is not a new one. If it is traced back more than 2000 years then we can find the word museum which is used in its original sense in the Alexandria Museum in Alexandria in 283 BC. This is temple house dedicated to the Muses, the goddesses of learning. In the beginning of 16th Century AD the word mouseion came to be used in Italy, more precisely, museo in its Italianized form. But, in truest sense, the term museum is derived from the Greek word mouseion. The Mouseion signifies a sanctuary dedicated to the Muses, the presiding goddesses of learning. Thus, the 'Sanctuary of Muses' means the abode where the goddesses of learning and arts are residing. The meaning of Greek word Mouseion is simply the seat of the Muses, i.e., a temple of the Muses. In this context, it may be said that the museo in those days contained small pieces of artistic objects and it was not the place where large or bigger size objects were kept. The object of larger size, especially paintings were place in a long galkeria , which may be described as the immediate predecessor of the Art-Gallery of 19th Century AD. The museo and the galleria were two vital pillars of present day museum and the basic difference between museo and galleria was structural. The contents of museo and galleria were first exhibited to the public in an Art Museum of Europe around 18th Century AD. From the Greek mythology we have found the Muses who were the daughters of Zeus, the Greek Jupiter. The Muses were born in Pieria at the foot of Mount Olympus, that is the mountain of the Gods. They were nine sisters considered as the divinities, which were presiding over the source of all-learning, creative arts, poetry, music, sciences, etc. Thus, the museums all over the world have retained the inherent quality and characteristics of learning in one form or other. So, it may be assumed that the term Museum is derived from the word Musee that indicates any one of the nine Sister Goddesses who presided over the arts or sciences. The spirit of curiosity inculcates the growth of collection by means of acquiring different objects. In this way, during the 16th and 17th Century AD, a few Princes and noblemen in Europe were in the habit of increasing personal collections as curio-objects out of a sheer spirit of curiosity and ego-motive. Gradually and gradually these collections took a shape of the museum where the principal aim was to provide some intellectual entertainment confined to a small community of Lords and nobles. Later on, by the patronage of kings and nobles these centres were open to the common mass of the society who desired to seek knowledge and entertainment from them. The library is the older of the two institutions.(2) Its main unit, the written record, is accumulative and transmittable, and lends itself to systematised storage, retrieval, and analysis. In the city states of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, libraries alongside archive collections had been preserved in the temples and palaces of these cultural and administrative centres. One notable library was that attributed to the Assyrian monarch, Assurbanipal (ca. 668-627 B.C.), who founded a palace library at Nineveh containing 30,000 tablets on which were recorded the full knowledge of his time. By contrast, the objects comprising a museum collection are associative and do not contain a strictly inherent meaning.(3) To become a source of information, the object must have meaning assigned to it and this meaning communicated by visual, oral and/or written means. The museum provides a context in which to display and interpret such material evidence and "its associated information".(4) An early form of museum (6th c. B.C.) is believed to be that excavated at the Sumerian city of Ur by Sir Leonard Woolley in the 1920s. In the ruins of a temple site identified with the daughter of Nabonidus, Bel-Shalti-Nannar, a room housing local the Badia at Fiesole. astronomers. Galleria (It. San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice. allowed for the development of wealthy private collections. There were rooms devoted to the study of anatomy and installations for astronomical observations.C. whereas Wunder-kammer (Ger. Here such scholars as physicians. cultural and commercial. The first recorded instance of the word museum was used to describe Lorenzo's palace collection: "museo dei codici e gemelli artistici". including an inscribed clay drum thought to be the oldest museum label. and the San Marco in Florence. as it was collectively termed by the Greeks.C. Paintings on wood (pinakes) from prominent schools of art were displayed in temples as in the Propylaea of the Acropolis of Athens. is identified with Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492). The latter would become the foundation for the Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurentian (or Laurentian Library) built by Michelangelo in 1571. The library of the mouseion served as the memory of the various academic departments. The learned libraries of the humanists were also . referred to a "temple of the Muses" . as it is understood today. One of the most outstanding collections of the Renaissance was held by the influential Medici family of Florence. Flemish and Italian paintings and sculpture.). however. The Medici. This movement was strongly aligned with a rising interest in classical antiquities and in the encyclopaedic learning of the humanists. precious stones.) described an exhibition area for paintings and sculpture. compiled by Callimachus of Cyrene (chief "librarian" 260-240 B. A catalogue (pinaces). This table of works is evidence of a library extending its function beyond that of repository to that of disseminator of information. The pinnacle of the Medici legacy. The mouseion of Alexandria. began their estate with Cosimo the Elder's (1389-1464) patronage of the arts and his establishment of three conventual libraries.(5) The genesis of the museum concept. The largest and most renowned library of antiquity was that associated with the institution founded by Ptolemy I (Soter) about 290 B.(7) More popular terms used to express a private collection and its sanctuary flourished in the sixteenth century. and philosophers consulted the appropriate literary texts and records. divided the collections into eight subject classes. The Alexandrian complex was rich in research collections and resembled a university in function.antiquities was unearthed. is also readily apparent in the pinakothekai of the classical Greeks. bankers to the Papacy.a sanctuary dedicated to the arts and sciences.: a cabinet of curiosities) signified a room of rarities and assorted curios. intaglios. the new social and intellectual prosperity as evidenced in the establishment of a variety of institutions. medals. In the fourteenth century. Of significance to this study is the library's role as information partner to the parent institution which can be considered a prototype role for the contemporary museum library. Byzantine icons. during whose time the family estate was enriched to include rare books and manuscripts. and to cage in all rare birds. among which were valuable tomes of engraved illustrations.. zoologist and professor at the University of Bologna.. either wild..". a still-house so furnished with mills.. and adjacent library. the fourth. the Munich Kunstkammer of Albrecht V (c1528-1579). wherein whatsoever the wit of man hath heretofore committed to books of worth. with two lakes adjoining. (10) The Baconian "model of universal nature made private" was the product of an intensification of scholarly activity emanating from an expanding notion of the physical world through recent trans-oceanic voyages and the consequential rise in information about the world in general. which Ferdinand created into a Kunst. Of sixteenth century scientific cabinets. The encyclopaedic character of the sixteenth-century as embodied in the formation of private cabinets finds contemporaneous expression in Francis Bacon's Gesta Grayorum (1594). the one of fresh water. form.000 natural history objects and approximately 8. Signs of the philosophical and scientific inquiry stimulated by .. huge cabinet. printed or manuscript. Aldrovandi. and spatial constructs such as studio. or by the culture of man.. and pandechion with visual constructs such as cornucopia and gazophylacium.. By 1595.000 objects of fine and decorative art. wherein whatsoever plant. wonderful garden.encompassed by this dynamic concept of the museum. thesaurus. be they ancient or modern. out of the earth of divers moulds.(9) One of the earliest purpose-built museums to house an art collection. next. Archduke Ferdinand II (1529-1595) primarily focused his attention on a comprehensive display of arms and armour. furnaces. Innsbruck.. instruments.. Antiquarium. a spacious. wherein whatsoever the hand of man by exquisite art or engine has made rare in stuff. According to Paula Findlen. and the other of salt. that of Ulisse Aidrovandi (1522. actively engaged in the creation of a coherent collection for the purpose of first-hand observation..000 illustrations of specimens to compensate for perceived deficiencies in the collection. galleria. and theatro. botanist. and vessels. held over 6. Albrecht is similarly identified with the founding of the Staatsbibliothek. [and] third a goodly. his museum contained nearly 20..and Literaturzentrum with the addition of a separately housed gallery. In neighbouring Tyrol.. the philological expansiveness of the term "allowed it to cross and confuse the intellectual and philosophical categories of bibliotheca.. or motion.. cabinet/gabinetto. the sun of divers climates. This grand collection was on view at Schloss Ambras.1605) was celebrated throughout Europe. (8) The diversity of terms was no less matched by the range of collections which they described.. Aidrovandi also maintained a bibliotheca of printed books and personal manuscripts pertaining to his own scholarly research. [and] this garden to be built about with rooms to stable in all rare beasts. European or of other parts. which provides a description of those surroundings beneficial to the learned nobleman: a most perfect and general library. casino. Possibly based on the Plinian study.g. including human anatomy and. Samuel van Quiccheberg.e. an examination of antiquarian objects is provided. in the fourth. a physician of Amsterdam. was continued into the seventeenth century. The pursuit of knowledge through varied collecting practices. who published further works in the field of natural history. followed by jurisprudence. occupying the first place. is equally noted for his remarkable contribution to library classification as described in Bibliotheca universalis (1545). (13) . The second part to Bibliotheca.).seven volume Historia Naturalis (77 A. . which would appear in published form during the first half of the seventeenth century. comprised of accounts on all form and matter. and there exist not a few of them in various places which have been brought together with no small labour.. In the catalogue. In providing these both men of learning and entire societies have been solicitous. Gesner. consists of a subject arrangement by 20 major classes and a number of subdivisions of the most learned books of the period. so in experimental natural sciences we have need of this one book (i. His writings. nature) the epitome of which can be furnished for us by a Museum rerum naturalium. had compiled an arranged catalogue of Johann Kentmann's natural history collection at Dresden. G. medicine and literature on museums". With the revival of classical studies. De Quadrupedibus Solidipedibus (1616) made an appearance. Quiccheberg comments on the desirability of a library within the collection: "in the selection of relevant literature a hierarchy of individual faculties is to be observed with theological writings. For example. and attributes the arrangement of his collections to the scientific cabinets of the naturalists. serves as a manual for the scholar in the art of collecting. in his Polyhistor (1688): as in acquiring knowledge of sciences we have need of books. organisational schemes had available paradigms in the works of Aristotle and Pliny. notably those concerning classification. Pliny's thirty.all-embracing collections are represented in a number of publications of the time. Historiae animalium (155 1-58). Konrad von Gesner (15 16-1565). Equally renowned at the time was the extensive cabinet of Olaus Worm (15881654). an arranged catalogue of Aldrovandi's cabinet. Worm draws upon the works of Aidrovandi and Gesner. Based on personal research of his collections. and its subsequent arrangement.. Morhof. In the second chapter of the tract. e.g. published a treatise in 1565 on the systematic classification of every material contained in the universe. the German historiographer. continued to influence the museography of the period. treatises concerning the animal kingdom. entitled Inscriptiones vel tituli Theatri amplissimi.D. e. Ferrante Imperato in Naples and Francesco Calceolari in Verona.. as well as the much cited Musaeum Metallicum (1654). The first three volumes of his descriptive catalogue Musaeum Wormianum (1655) give a detailed history of the natural world.(12) This flourishing use of natural science collections as instruments of research was commented upon by D. the Swiss scholar. the Pandectarum sive Partitionum universalium (1548-49).(l 1) In the same year. the evidence of the artefact now being as essential as that of the written record in the observation and discovery of the natural world. mathematics. Aidrovandi of Bologna had already set an important precedence in this area. a physician and medical professor at the University of Copenhagen. The academy would evolve from a comprehensive exhibition of recent discoveries in the sciences and practical arts. manuscripts. and observe the orthography. Robert Hooke. Exhibition complexes. instituted for the interpretation of nature and the producing of great and marvellous works for the benefit of men". and assorted curios (these items serving as the founding collection of the Abbey of St. might be undertaken by all the major cities in Europe. the layout of this grand project would include a research library. appointed first curator of the Royal Society repository. Paris). it underlines another aspect of the cabinet phenomenon. etymologia. outlines a scheme for the establishment of a "college. (15) Inspired by Baconian empiricism and the growth of the universal cabinet. models and assorted inventions. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). Fabri de Peiresc (1580-1643) of Aix. an elaboration of the cabinet ideal. In addition to an observatory. the scholar and antiquary. and librarian to the Duke of Brunswick. Leibniz suggests. and would not cease producing fine things". His tract. outlined similar plans for a scientific academy in 1675. philosopher. He further made presents of objects in his cabinet which were deemed to be relevant to the study of fellow scholars. and read the books of nature. Francis Bacon had perceived the same in the visionary New Atlantis (1627). and further "serve to establish everywhere an Assembly of Academies of Sciences. cabinets were not isolated among themselves as can be seen from published catalogues acknowledging the influence of arrangement schemes and collecting practices of other notable collectors.. and prosodia of nature's grammar. namely that such collections were not only storehouses of knowledge but central meeting places for informal and informed exchanges of enquiry. among whom Robert Boyle and Samuel Hartlib were prominent". art gallery. which would be selfsupporting. The act of collecting itself had had become increasingly more specialised and systematic. this utopian facility would contain laboratories for multidisciplinary research and galleries of specimens. Certainly.More than a half-century before. occupied his lifetime in corresponding with other private collectors and in establishing contacts to assist in the gathering of books. (14) Aspects of the Salomon House paradigm found partial fulfilment in the creation of a museum in the College of Physicians in 1654 and in the provision of a repository of natural and artificial rarities in 1662 by the Royal Society of London. Genevieve. and lecturetheatre available to the multitudes. viewed it as a place where an inquirer "might peruse. which Leibniz had well perceived.(16) Though Leibniz's vision would not take recognisable form until the Great Exhibition of 1851 and successive World's Fairs. zoological gardens and large display halls.. syntaxis. For example. Also known as Salomon's House. Athanasius .". and spell. antiquities. and turn over. In England attempts were made to give form to Bacon's concepts by "a small group of progressive thinkers. mathematician. Though England in the mid-seventeenth century possessed fewer cabinets than the continent. is regarded to be Thomas Howard. was induced to emulate their arrangement and. and validated by the outstanding library of medieval manuscripts gathered by Sir Robert Cotton (1571-1631). it nevertheless could claim the most celebrated and encyclopaedic collection in Europe at the time: the "Ark" of the Tradescants at Lambeth. who maintained a renowned museum of antiquarian rarities.1646) who extended his antiquarian tastes to encompass Asia Minor and Greece in the pursuit of intaglios. especially in Italy. set out to describe and list the libraries and antiquarian rarities of the religious and private houses of England and Wales.Kircher (1602-1680) of the Jesuits College. gardeners to His ... after viewing the Dutch cabinets for which he held great admiration. which he claims exceeded that of any "Gents or Princes.. Recorded in his diary are descriptions of the curiosa to be found in locales ranging from the gallery and physick garden of the University of Pisa to the Palatine Library of the Vatican. Evelyn was particularly impressed by the cabinet of Mr. England's "Father of Vertu". acquired whole collections to accomplish his task. Francis Bacon and John Evelyn were among the visitors to view the collections on exhibit at Arundel House in London's Strand. the Kunstkammer of the new capital. Petersburg. 1642-1702) at the Middle Temple. Antiquarianism was a particular feature of the early collections in Great Britain as further delineated in William Camden's Britannia (1586). Peter I the Great (1672-1725). had occasion to visit a number of private cabinets and libraries. The distinguished traveller and English Royalist author. both of Amsterdam. St. the typical aficionado more likely to be identified with the traveller on the Grand Tour for whom continental cabinets were fashionable sites of pilgrimage. instruments and inventions. all being very perfect & rare in their kind. Charleton (William Courten. Earl of Arundel (1585. John Tradescant (d. benefited from his friendship with Peiresc and through him received several gifts. John Evelyn (1620-1706). often. The splendid museums of the apothecary. however. appointed King's Antiquary by Henry VIII.. as well as the collection of Bernhard Paludanus of Enkhuizen (at the time owned by Frederick III.. and these largely emphasising antiquarian interests. His interest in cabinets also manifested itself at home in England where he was shown the collections of Samuel Pepys and Sir Thomas Browne. marble statues. subsequently. Albert Seba and of the anatomist. the cabinet crossed cultural and geographical boundaries in terms of its unified purpose of observation and instruction of the natural and artificial world. The same can be said on a less intimate level of scholarship as the cabinet became part of a conspicuous network of venues for the educated leisure classes to peruse and. and manuscripts. Frederic Ruysch. Rome." (18) Evelyn's unfailing interest in English cabinets was preceded by that of John Leland (c.1503-52) who.(17) In this way. to gain insight for their own collecting avocations. 1637?) and his son. gems. Avid collecting on such a scale was generally not the norm. Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp) became the foundation of Russia's first museum. London. Elias Ashmole. Ashmole bequeathed the Tradescant rarities and his own collection to Oxford University which formed the basis of the first public institutional museum in Britain. is also reminiscent of Quiccheberg and Gesner's pre-Linnaean classification schemes. who was one of the founders of the Royal Society. the antient Roman. the English antiquary and scholar (1617-1692). and it also had a lecture hall. antiquities.(22) It was the acquisition of Elias Ashmole's library and of Sir William Dugdale's manuscript collection that would be deposited here and would initiate the institution of a library and . If teaching and research have been the principal functions of the university from earliest times. In Evelyn's Diary for 1657... and as noted.the Chiefest rarities were in my opinion.. The museum had rooms devoted to natural history specimens. the Ark is described thus: . Some habits of curiously colourd & wrought feathears: particularly that of the Phoenix wing.(19) The catalogue to which Evelyn refers. divided into two categories of natural and artificial artefacts and appended with a plant list of Tradescant introductions.Majesty. was compiled by John Tradescant the younger (1608-1662). and the curious Imitators thereof. one of the chief compilers of the Tradescants' catalogue. From the inception of the museum.(21) The Ashmolean was the second such museum to be established. and a chemical laboratory. a room had also been fitted for a "Library of natural History and Philosophy".would be an honour to our Nation.. Indian & other Nations Armour. the Ashmolean. shilds & weapons. (20) The scholarship to be derived from the collection was similarly not lost to its inheritor. The catalogue. Libraries had long benefited from a joint academic partnership. after the one founded at Basle University twelve years before.. Of importance to the history of museum libraries is the presence of a reference collection for use in the "Chymical" laboratory. Significantly. and at the founding of the Ashmolean. The musaeum of the catalogue is the first recorded use of the term in England. in 1683. had actively collected natural history specimens and antiquities which they made publicly accessible. and miscellany. Mr. Charles I. This fact did not elude the younger John Tradescant who states in the catalogue's preface: . and a benefit to such ingenious persons as would become further enquirers into the various modes of Natures admirable workes. Ashmole. the Ashmolean collections were organised so that the University could use them for teaching purposes. the application of scientific thought to the compilation of thecatalogue reflects the new evaluation of artefactual records as potential sources of information. as tradition gos: other innumerable things were too long here to recite. with the assistance of Elias Ashmole. it is appropriate that the first museums should be attached to this type of institution.the enumeration of these Rarities. Musaeum Tradescantianum (1656). & printed in his Catalogue by Mr. This document included formal recognition of the library: . Dugdale. Edward Lhwyd. who stated to Wood that he would "readily produce him any book when he came to the museum". dated 21 June. physician. drew up a code of library practice which came under the revised "Orders and Statutes of the Ashmolean Museum".(26) In 1693 Lhwyd is further credited in the initiation of a catalogue of the printed books accessioned by the library. Martin Lister was a regular benefactor up to his death in 1712. to the end the Curious. favoured the Ashmolean as a repository over the Bodleian whose reputation in the care of its holdings had become tarnished. And accordingly. Indeed. an antiquary and historian (and Ashmole's father-in-law). In 1695 Anthony a Wood.. A list of the Dugdale manuscripts had already been compiled and appeared in Edward Gibson's Librorum Manuscriptorum. & such other as are desirous.. (25) The Keeper. may haue the View of them. His decision received the assurance of the Keeper at the time. the Vice Chancellor of Oxford University referred to the museum as "a new Library which may containe the most conspicuous parts of the Great Book of Nature. The Gibson publication was then reprinted in Edward Bernard's catalogue of Bodleian manuscripts. Lister. likewise chose to bequeath to the museum his collection of circa one thousand printed books. dated 29 April 1697. and rival the Bodleian collection of Mss. and printed volumes". (23) The Dugdale bequest consolidated the library's position as an essential adjunct to the functions of a university museum. (24) Other bequests to the library were also forthcoming.all Manuscripts given to the Musaeum. but noe person to use or transcribe them. Title entries and shelfmarks of Ashmolean acquisitions were also transcribed onto the interleaves of a copy of Hyd&s 1674 catalogue of printed books held in the Bodleian library. Dr. 1686. ten of which dealt with fees due from visitors and from users of the library. Ashmole re-examined his previous ordinances regarding the museum in a body of statutes. contributed both books and natural specimens. The new statutes consisted of twenty-five clauses. Edward Lhwyd (1691-1697). and author of Historia Animalium Angliae (1678). (27) .museum study. in noting the importance of these valuable libraries to scholars. (1692) which additionally contained several other manuscript bequests to the Ashmolean. or any part of them. a friend of Dugdale and Oxford historian. naturalist. which shalbe called the Library of the Musaeum. but only such as the Keeper shall allow or appoint. shalbe kept by themselues in one of the Closets. New bequests led to subsequent attempts to catalogue the manuscript and printed book collections of the Ashmolean. The latest catalogue, before transfer of the collections to the Bodleian in 1860, was compiled by William Henry Black and concerned Ashmole's manuscripts (printed in 1845). Following the transfer of much of the Ashmolean's print collection to the Bodleian, the library changed in accordance with the emphasis on classical, archaeological, and fine art studies within the University. Though the original collections were dispersed, they had served more as alternate resources to those offered by the Bodleian, rather than as resources for the interpretation of the museum objects. In this regard, it should be stated that the definition of the term museum in England had not yet attained its present meaning. Appearing in the sixth edition of Philips' New World of Words: Or, Universal English Dictionary (as revised by Kersey, 1706), museum is defined as a "Study, or Library" .(28) By the turn of the eighteenth century, the museum concept and museological principles in general were farther advanced on continental Europe. Two influential works which attempted to unify the wide range of collecting practices of the preceding centuries appeared at this time: namely, Michael Bernhard Valentini, Museum Museorum (170414) and Caspar Fridericus Neickelius, pseud. [Jenckel}, Museographia (1727).(29) Valentini, a physician, scientist, and professor of medicine at Giessen University, produced his two volume manual for the collector and scholar, citing in the introduction excerpts from Genesis to accentuate the belief in the formation of a cabinet as a means of recognising God's sovereignty.(30) Parts of the first and second volumes of Museum Museorum contain inventories and descriptions of natural materials (much like the Plinian model), each category accompanied by a copper-plate etching. An appended section (vol. II) gives an account of machines, instruments and other products of man's manufacture. Complementing Valentini's enumeration is the inclusion in volume I of a treatise by another theorist, Johann Daniel Major (1636-93), a physician of Kiel, in which the systematic organisation and arrangement of objects are commented upon.(31) In his discourse, Major refers to the provision of other types of collections as essential to the Naturalien-Kammer. Foremost among these is the establishment of an Antiquarium in the tradition of the ancient Romans to house literary texts, coins, sculpture and statuary.(32) A compilation of extracts from catalogues and inventories ("rare and not in print") of over twenty cabinets on the continent and abroad, as well as Valentini's own, forms a central portion of the second volume. Descriptive catalogues of the repository of the Royal Society and the cabinet of apothecary, James Petiver, represent the English collections. Both volumes of work are prefaced with bibliographies of supporting literature and conclude with simple word and German term indices. Museographia, written under the pseudonym of C. F. Neickelius, differs from Valentini's work in that substantial acknowledgement is given to library collections as cabinet material.(33) Rare book repositories are enumerated alongside object curios in part II, Theil von Museis. In the third part, Theil von Bibliothequen, libraries as institutions and large private cabinets have been documented by geographical region, including those of London, Oxford, Dublin and Scotland; to which are appended further descriptions of libraries by the editor of Museographia, Dr. Johann Kanold of the Kaiserlich Leopoldnische-Carolinischen Akademie of Vienna. According to Neickelius, the library is a necessary adjunct in the acquisition of knowledge of the physical world. Without books and the availability of a catalogue or inventarium to facilitate research, a cabinet of material evidence cannot be purposefully exploited. In terms of spatial arrangement (based on an examination of Vitruvius' De architectura), Neickelius suggests the installation of shelves for books on one side and those for objects on the other of a symmetrically-constructed repository room.(34) The frontispiece to Museographia illustrates this ideal organisation of a scholar's study of universal learning. An authoritative bibliography follows parts II and III. Under the Bibliothequen section, literature on library methodology and history is cited. Authors such as Gesner and Morhof find entries and, likewise, Anthony Wood and Thomas James for their contribution on the library history of Oxford. Neickelius completes his guide with an additional reference tool, a topical index- Register derer merchwQrdigen Sachen. Such continental publications and the cabinets and museums described therein served as models for varied and developing English collecting practices. With the establishment of the Ashmolean, the recognition of the museum as vital to the scientific and cultural inquiry and identity of a nation had taken firm root. The foundation process was greatly advanced by organisations like the Royal Society of London which published the influential journal Philosophical Transactions and maintained both an extensive library and an artefact collection for the consultation of its members. One member embodying the spirit of empirical knowledge encouraged by the Society and manifested in the age of the encyclopaedia of the 1700s was Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753). A successor to Sir Isaac Newton as Royal Society president, Sloane has the distinction of being the principal founder of one of England's greatest national heritages, the British Museum. A physician by profession, he was also an avid collector in the tradition of the Tradescants. His passion for collecting began in the West Indies where he had been appointed personal physician to the Duke of Albemarle, Governor of Jamaica. Sloane brought back with him a large number of botanical and zoological specimens which would later be contributory evidence in his major work on the natural history of Jamaica (1707-1725). To this initial collection were added antiquities, coins & medals, ethnographic material, manuscripts and printed books; much having been acquired from well-known cabinets of the period. Among the collections Sloane purchased, were included those of Charleton in Middle Temple and of James Petiver, a London apothecary and Society Fellow. A personal acquaintance, Petiver journeyed to Leyden in 1711 to purchase Dr. Hermann's museum on Sloane's behalf. Petiver, himself, had a particularly extensive collection, with between five to six thousand plant specimens and numerous natural history rarities; all of which were described in a series of publications, i.e. Gazophylacium Naturae et Artis (1702-9). The "Museum Petiverianum", as it was named(35), had also gained a reputation on the European continent and the catalogue to the collection appeared in source guides to cabinets and other scholarly repositories; for instance, the aforementioned Valentini's Museum Museorum and Neickelius' Museographia. At the time of Sloane's death in 1753, his acquisitions and personal collections nearly totalled 80,000 artefacts, over 40,000 books, and a herbarium library. The value of this immense repository in terms of scholarship did not go unexploited. To the owner's credit, the collections were made accessible to fellow Royal Society members and the learned public. They would be consulted by such luminaries of the day as Voltaire, Benjamin Franklin, and Linnaeus. In keeping with his sense of public spirit, Sir Hans Sloane retained the accessibility of his vast collection by offering it to the Nation for the sum of £20,000. The government accepted the bequest, electing to house it with the state-owned Cottonian collection of medieval manuscripts. Counted among the treasures of the eminent antiquarian, Sir Robert Cotton (1571-163 1), were two copies of the Magna Carta, a copy of Beowulf, and the Lindisfarne Gospels. Concurrently, the government also purchased the Harleian collection of manuscripts, charters and rolls. These three valuable collections formed the nucleus of the British Museum, the establishment of which was facilitated by an Act of Parliament passed in 1753. The text of the Act mirrors Sloane's intended purpose for his bequest, namely to "give help and success to the most useful experiments and inventions...", and to "be preserved and maintained, not only for the inspection and entertainment of the learned and the curious, but for the general use and benefit of the public".(36) The establishment of the British Museum was a leading event in both museum and library history. Not since the founding of the mousaion at Alexandria did two institutional forms of such scale become so closely associated. And like its classical ancestor, the British Museum was a product of its age. Modelled on the universalist vision of Diderot and the Encyclopedistes, its holdings signified all of human knowledge. Further reminiscent of Alexandria was that the strength of the Museum at its beginning lay primarily in the library collections, and the importance of this is reflected in the appointment of a Principal Librarian as chief officer of the Museum; a position title unchanged until 1898 when 'Director' was appended to it. and especially. The third was the Department of Natural and Artificial Productions (the same categorisation used in the Tradescants' catalogue). Indeed the "liberty of studying in the Museum" as considered by the Trustees. In the Minutes of Evidence of the House of Commons Select Committee on the Condition. Management and Affairs of the British Museum 1836. significantly. by the books acquired under the provisions of the Copyright Acts. The Keeper of Printed Books. the issue of an effective programme of inventory and access was summarily addressed. the inclusivity of its collections. The function of enabling the preservation of the artefact and its associated information became only one of many in the scope of the Library. This copyright privilege came to the British Museum with the acquisition of the Royal Library presented by George II in 1757 which had enjoyed the right to a copy of every book published since 1662. particularly. public. clergymen. such as Thomas Gray and Samuel Johnson. excludes the British Museum Library from being strictly termed a museum library. its role became multifaceted as a national. Sir Anthony Panizzi. two were in fact library departments: the Department of Printed Books and the Department of Manuscripts. a room was provided for scholars with the first reading room regulations drawn up in 1757 and enlarged in 1758. being considerably aided by gifts. Services to readers soon developed. and literary personages. (1797-1879).Of the three departments comprising the new museum at Montagu House. When the museum was opened. growing public accessibility. and thus modern librarianship. However. . In 1841. and research facility. This role inevitably necessitated the introduction of recognised standards. Reading room patrons of the period included medical and legal practitioners.(37) This was an actuality as the public readily responded to the wide range of materials available for consultation. took the lead in compiling 91 rules for the standardised arrangement of the book collection. library collecting practices were also quite catholic in scope. purchase and. was the part of the institution "from which the Publick was like to reap the greater benefit". Women readers and foreigners also made early appearances. Undoubtedly. the art of cataloguing evolved here. the rules were made available and the first volume of the catalogue completed. The rapid growth of the printed book collections translated into an expressed need for an updated and uniform catalogue. From the start. as well as a museum of the book. albeit at a slower pace. Sir Joseph. In spite of this. . there had existed standard reference works within the various natural history departments (botany.S. was already catalogued by his personal librarian. the remaining collections of the British Museum were less well supported.e. Comprised of five volumes of exemplary detail. however. Jonas Dryander (1748-1810). it was this catalogue of Dryander which would serve as a model of classed arrangement in the hearings of the Royal Commission. zoology. enabling Panizzi and his staff to put forth the groundwork of a comprehensive catalogue before the public by 1850. In the United States. and specifically concerning the form of the catalogue. Initially.During the hearings of the Royal Commission on the Constitution and Government of the British Museum 1847-49. the rules were cause for much debate. the original rules were supported by the Commissioners."(38) At the conclusion of the enquiry. Similarly. Those in favour of classed arrangements cited Dryander's catalogue of Sir Joseph Banks' library. received in 1827 by the British Museum.M. These landmark rules would become influential beyond the borders of Great Britain. classed or alphabetical. for example. and later by that of Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820). Endeavour (1768-71). the plan for a national union catalogue by Charles Jewett of the Smithsonian Institution was based on Panizzi's cataloguing codes. geology. Whereas the Department of Printed Books introduced catalogues and other means of intellectual access from an early date. The library of Banks. i. a pioneer naturalist and scientific leader in the Royal Society expedition with James Cook on the H. collected and conserved botanical specimens and maintained one of the most comprehensive libraries on natural history in its day. the natural history collections were the best served by Sloane's book and manuscript bequest. as he remarked in his testimony: "for the most part the student knows the name of the author of the book which he wishes to peruse. (39) It was then an anomaly when the extensive natural history collections were removed for lack of space to South Kensington in 1880 without the corresponding libraries housed in the Department of Printed Books. & mineralogy) and these were transferred to the Kensington site to accompany the object specimens. but Panizzi had intended the entries to be arranged alphabetically by author. Volume one of the catalogue deserves particular mention as it contains lists of museum catalogues and museological literature grouped by subject discipline.. the rules published by Charles Ammi Cutter in his Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalogue (1876) incorporated much of the work laid down by Panizzi. (40) . other than a "few books of reference.(42) Reference collections would develop in other departments during the nineteenth century when subject specialised divisions in the museum began to be consolidated. undertaken by the archaeologist Henry Austen Layard in the 1 840s. which are absolutely essential to it. (43) Accordingly. and including descriptive catalogues of manuscript collections. The Committee gave similar consideration to the matter in a query put forth to George Samouelle. These outstanding acquisitions stimulated considerable inquiry as little was previously known of ancient civilisations in the east. discoveries in Nineveh. that he should not be subject to the inconvenience of having them taken away. In his reply. the first such publications being initiated with other reforms by Joseph Planta principal Librarian from 1799-1827. as I (Samouelle) have experienced many times. Keeper of the Banksian botanical collections. led to a parallel rise in official publications of curatorial work. the increase in unique acquisitions and in the exclusivity of departments. further gave evidence on the growing inadequacy of the Banksian library held in Printed Books. the same members of which had investigated the need for a catalogue of Printed Books. told the Committee that no library at that time was attached to the Natural History collection. For example. stating that "every officer should have a series of working books in his room. The library collection. and ancient terracottas (44). in addition to works of a general scope. or nearly a fortnight together. concerning the attachment of a reference library to each department so that "officers having occasion to use books connected with their own pursuits should not at the same time interfere with readers at the reading room". printed books. I have been almost suspended in my labours for a week. coins & medals. speaking on behalf of the Botany department. from that cause". aided in the consolidation of the British Museum's position as a research centre in the new field of Assyriology. Robert Brown. Antiquities alone had expanded threefold to accommodate statuary and assorted artefacts retrieved by enthusiasts in the archaeological rich regions of Egypt and the Middle East. This publishing role of the museum would further bear upon the necessity of acquiring scholarly material related to specific areas of research.The desirability of having a departmental library independent of the General Library also received attention in the Minutes of Evidence taken before the British Museum Select Committee of 1836."(41) Brown. . Samouelle supported such an arrangement. extra-assistant in Natural History. was not furnished with the latest works in the field. According to . Unfortunately. The recipient.000 vols.000.1.(45) The purchase of such specialised material was. After the British Museum declined to purchase it. Presently. James Parkinson. was removed to Leicester House in 1774 and opened for public viewing upon receipt of a half-guinea admission charge. The need for increases in allocations figure prominently in these documents. the library housed 15.2 The 18th and 19th Centuries: The concept of the British Museum was born from an enthusiasm for an equal opportunity in learning as expressed by the likes of Sloane and other public spirited individuals of the eighteenth century. Catalogues of the collection describe a large array of natural history objects and of ethnological artefacts from Oceania. a matter involving the approval of the Principal Librarian who countersigned the requisitions. until the twentieth century. 1. (46) One of the most famous London cabinets was that belonging to Sir John Ashton Lever (1729-1788). not restricted to a literate society. and soon became a fully operational division of the institution with the establishment of public and technical services.. and Africa. no doubt aided in their burgeoning popularity as well. largely consisted of monographs and papers from transactions of learned societies. the largest departmental libraries are those of Prints & Drawings and of Ethnography (Museum of Mankind). Collections which had previously been reserved for the enjoyment of a few were now made accessible to greater numbers of the populace. This development encompassed the public exhibition of private cabinets which had become a mainstream activity in the London area towards the later half of the eighteenth century. displayed the museum at new premises. Upon the transfer of Ethnography to Burlington Gardens in 1970. founded in Manchester. The added fact that such exhibitions were impressive alternatives to print. was disposed of by lottery. Lever was unable to maintain the museum due to lavish expenditures. but it was brought to auction in 1806.(47) The Museum Leverianum.1. then valued at £53. which were not duplicated in the General Library. Many of the articles of anthropological interest were those collected by Captain Cook during his third and last voyage.An 1872 inquiry into the departmental libraries on the recommendation of the Duke of Somerset to the Principal Librarian. revealed that reference works deposited with the departments. A book grant was later instituted and official sums for individual departments for book acquisitions appear in the Standing Committee reports of the 1950s. the collection. and serial publications. the Americas. Winter Jones. In the early part of 19th Century AD. The concept of National or Imperial museums was blooming up to manifest National wealth and culture. The museums find out their new approaches. which took place throughout the world in almost all spheres. both professional and nonprofessionals and intellectuals in the light of mass education. At the end of 19th Century AD a specific trend was emerged as the progress of knowledge by means of new field-the museum. primarily natural history specimens collected from thirty years of travel in Central America.000 curiosities. It became an ultimate vehicle to express prosperity and glory. in the middle of the 19th Century AD. and made its appearance at 22 Piccadilly in 1805. the concept of museum underwent a sea change. more stress was laid on the collection of specimens and museum administration. The museum comprised over 4. As a result. in the middle of 18th Century AD a remarkable intellectual change took place. the pre-Columbian carvings went to the British Museum). the arrangement of world exhibitions during the Victorian Age had also influenced the museum. was also proprietor of a popular museum of his own. when the main emphasis was imposed over the public involvement. Johnson had expressed the hope that Lever's museum would remain in the country "for the improvement of taste and natural history".g. In this way. the Egyptian Hall was built to receive Bullock's museum. several of the purchasers being representatives from major museums (e. Though. later on. In 1812. . The first public exhibition of the treasures may be traced back around 18th Century AD. Primary objective was undertaken to serve the people.Boswell. this concept was faded out. Again. one of the English buyers at the Leverian auction.. however. Seven years later. At last. As a matter of fact. the contents were sold by auction. Confiscation of the private collection became the public treasury and their maintenance had to be paid out of the public fund. Dr. again the situation was changed remarkably when revolutionary developments took place in connection with the nature and scope of the museum. it was essential to raise fund from the public while the work done by museum was useful to the common people.(48) William Bullock. where it was renamed the London Museum and Pantherion. the effect of two World Wars has germinated a revolutionary development. However. the museum came to be recognized as the valuable sources for getting information in connection with the serious study in different fields.(49) The collection originated in Sheffield about 1795. Slow but steadily. preservation. dumb waiter. Ultimately. etc. Besides. James Cox. a number of surveys were undertaken by the Museologists in cooperation with the Anthropologists. scientific display. (52) . But all these three factors.1772). such as for collection. History. and gouty chair. the basic reason behind that the museum workers became specialized in their working field. The intellectual approach with a bit of romantic phenomena suits the museums of Natural History and the museums of Science and Technology. a Belgian by the name of John Joseph Merlin (d. (51) An assistant to Cox. a clock embellished with mechanical birds. Petersburg. the aesthetics approach is most suited for Arts and Crafts museum especially decorative arts. for instance. History. this meaningful happening took a definite shape to develop a strong base among the four distinct types of museums which are concerned with Art. 1772) whose museum at No. 1803) represented the entrepreneurial spirit common among some of the London exhibitors in their attempt to attract a curious public. As a result. the intellectual and the romantic. In this respect for better understanding of the visitors' involvement. Archaeology. History museum. etc. one object d'art. Gradually and gradually these four groups of institutions were changed in more specialized types of museums.while the museums started interactions with the public instead of laying main emphasis over the collection of exhibits. The romantic approach is the best for Art museum. Science and Industry. in Spring Gardens (c. In Hanover Square. as the aesthetic approach. intellectual approach and romantic approach are desirable for the museums of Anthropology. and the motion of the heart and lungs. a model demonstrating the circulation of the blood. The collection was afterwards dispersed by lottery in 1774. (50) Automata of a non-medical sort such as musical and ornamental mechanisms were featured in the elite museum of the jeweller. like. According to a printed programme for 1791. new approaches were developed which can be categorized under three broad categories-the aesthetic. more importantly to ensure their involvement. 197 Fleet Street specialised in three-dimensional anatomical displays. Another populariser of the cabinet was Benjamin Rackstrow (d. hygaeian air pump. St. documentation. Sociologists and Psychologists. curiosa on show included a hydraulic vase. These approaches are demanded their own way of classification on the basis of presentation. Merlin's Mechanical Museum was established in 1783 to display assorted inventions and mechanical toys. is known to be held in the Hermitage. etc. g. The Coffee-house is also singular in that it was a well-documented locale. Few. there is listed a copy of the 39th edition of the catalogue. At a cost of £60. the Royal Academy of Arts being a conspicuous exception.000. having rivalled the British Museum not only with attendance but with the production of a popular printed catalogue of the collections on exhibit. for example. and all the Sciences relating thereto" was part of this mandate.Probably the most illustrious. its role in the promotion of Arts and Design to be pursued primarily through instruction and exhibition. and the first librarian. revealing that all manner of London society were drawn to the Coffee-house. had laid down in the "Instrument of Foundation" (signed by George III).. Mary Queen of Scots' pincushion and Adam's key to the Garden of Eden. e. In 1823 it came to the attention of the House of Commons that a valuable collection of paintings (the Angerstein Collection) was under threat of leaving the country. established to great acclaim in 1768 by Royal Charter. the proprietor of whom was a former servant of Sir Hans Sloane. Similar to the Sloane bequest. The presence of a "Library of Books of Architecture. later President of the Academy and Director of the National Gallery.(56) Among the Academicians who would hold the post was Charles Eastlake (librarian during 1842-44). here were displayed odd relics of dubious authenticity.(53) In the description of the library holdings of Sir Joseph Banks. Eastlake's affiliations with the Academy may have influenced his endorsement of a consulting . Painting. Sculpture. whereas the 'responsibility of the [people's] intellectual and aesthetic culture came increasingly to be accepted by the government". Until the turn of the nineteenth century. and truly public of the London show museums was Don Saltero's Coffee-house in Chelsea (founded 1695). The Academy.(54) Albeit the government's role was slow in developing at the start of the nineteenth century as can be attested by the strenuous effort necessary for the founding of the second national museum in England. Entertainment as provided by successful and competitive venues like Madame Tussaud's Waxworks. the Angerstein paintings became the foundation of a national art collection and were exhibited to the public in May of 1824. Francis Hayman. oldest. (55) Visual arts had been up to that time under-represented. the National Gallery. the government required prodding to purchase the collection on behalf of the nation. came to be appointed by the King in 1770. if any. became primarily commercial enterprises. of these fashionable show-places survived beyond the early 1 800s due to the steady rise of popular education and the consequential divide between amusement and instruction. Oxford.(60) Hunter's museum. and preceding that. brother of William. the Ashmolean.(57) Indeed. Comparative anatomical preparations arranged according to the adaptation in living organisms of structure to function predate Darwinian principles. like Soane's. both of whom were associated with the governance of the natural history collections of the British Museum. The museum early benefited from the curatorship of eminent individuals as Sir Richard Owen and Sir William Henry Flower. architect of the Bank of England. . among the library collections described under the heading "Public Libraries" are those of the British Museum. is one example from this period of a private individual who believed in the creation of publicly accessible museums for the purposes of study and instructive enjoyment. More public galleries would follow its lead with the opening of the Duiwich Picture Gallery in 1811 and the Fitzwilliam Museum in 1816. and the subsequent bequest of his own reference works to the cause. Glasgow. Sir Arthur Keith has described the Hunterian as "an immense consulting library where specimens take the place of manuscripts and books". Soane's museum at Lincoln's Inn Fields. was not simply a grouping of exhibits. the Royal Academy served as a model institution and was one of the only bodies actively lobbying for representation of the arts in Britain. subscription libraries had evolved. (58) It was the private sector that would provide the initial impetus for the cultural and scientific edification of the populace. libraries were also gaining national attention as potential sources for the enlightenment of the people. John Hunter (1728-1783). in William Clarke's Repertorium Bibliographicum (1819). neither of which received official government support.library to be considered for the National Gallery during the Select Committee hearings of 1853.(59) Another private collection of significance to a specialised sphere of public learning. namely medical. contains a valuable consulting collection comprised of artworks. At his death in 1837. the Mechanics' Institutes developed lending libraries for use by their workers. belonged to the surgeon.(61) Alongside museums. a parliamentary Act established the Soane house as a museum under a Board of Trustees. thus forming the first architectural museum and library in Britain. founded and endowed by him. Sir John Soane. and the Hunterian Museum. but an illustration of personal and informed theories. architectural plans and drawings. London (1813). books. Upon his death in 1783. From the latter part of the eighteenth century. prints. Interestingly. Hunter's collection was sold to the government and transferred to the Royal College of Surgeons. the term "special" as applied to subject specific libraries also made an appearance. c.43).. presiding over a Select Committee of the House of Commons. was a notable and highly visible advocate in the public education movement: "The public libraries. Thus. sat to inquire into the public libraries of the United Kingdom. The Act allowed any council of a town with 10.43).P.If democratisation of education among the working classes was to be achieved. the municipal movement was borne from government attempts to create instructive facilities en masse for the moral benefit of an industrial society.for the instruction and amusement of the inhabitants". c. 8&9 Vict. however. Warrington (1848). Salford and Warrington also established libraries by taking advantage of ambiguities in the scope of provisions in the Act (8 & 9 Vict.000 inhabitants to erect "Museums of Art and Science. Mr. on Arts & Manufacture. as the majority of which were then established. Legislation specific to public libraries was desirable but more difficult to achieve as sufficient provision was thought by some to be provided by the Mechanics' Institutes and similar organisations. recognised that the special libraiy might have more direct and immediate advantages than general libraries for the larger commercial towns. These were found to be few in number. This small number of adoptees may have reflected a general dissatisfaction with the provisions which did not clearly answer the purpose of its promoters. . M. and admission fees. Maintenance. Leicester and Salford (1849). Canterbury (1847). Charles Meyer."(62) Ewart's involvement in the empowerment of local authorities to provide such institutions led to the introduction of the Museums Act of 1845 (An Act for encouraging the Establishment of Museums in large Towns 1845. and on the School Committee. and rather inadequate in respect to the growing requirements of communities.. There were six towns which adopted the Act in the following four years: Sunderland (1846). In the Minutes of Evidence. Ewart. The three authorities. who had served on Select Committees on the Condition. the public galleries of art and science. Dover. A rate of a half-penny could be levied to defray the cost of land and buildings. such "public" institutions. and other public institutions for promoting knowledge. still remained somewhat exclusive. and Affairs of the British Museum. Canterbury. German Secretary to Prince Albert. Mr. should be thrown open for the purpose of inducing men merely by the use of their onward senses to refine their habits and elevate their minds. William Ewart. his observation substantiated by the example of . but section 9 protected the legality of existing provisions for museums. It repealed the Act of 1845.64). (64) Although lack of funding impeded the widespread establishment of special libraries in Britain. to be modified in Public Libraries Act 1854 for Scotland (17&18 Vict. 16&17 Vict. and for England and Wales the Public Libraries and Museums Act 1855 (18&19 Vict. Similarly. c. Free Public Libraries and Museums became main features of the municipal communities of the mid and late nineteenth century. (63) The Committee posed a similar query to Edward Edwards. there were approximately eleven "Public Libraries Acts" sanctioned by Parliament. the information collected on the public library by the Committee can be considered a primary cause of the passing of the Public Libraries Act of 1850 (13 & 14 Vict. the maintaining of a museum (and library) was an agreeable object for "the improvement of the minds" of the inhabitants and for "the withdrawal of the masses of the population from less innocent enjoyments". Between 1845 and 1871. the objective in authorising the establishment of such municipal institutions remained relatively unchanged from that stated in the preamble of the 1845 Act. The Warrington Museum and Library was formed in 1848 by transferring to the corporation the museum of the Warrington Natural History Society and the collection of books belonging to the town library. c. as reported to the House of Commons in Parliamentary papers. (65) . indicate that in England over fifty municipalities had established a library and museum andlor art gallery before the turn of the century under the terms of the various Public Libraries Acts. 70) which replaced the Act of 1850. c. the first Free Library and Museum in the United Kingdom. Comparable legislation was extended to other parts of the United Kingdom: Public Libraries Act 1853 (Ireland and Scotland. is particularly representative of the aims and uses these institutions were designed to perform in the education and culture of the populace. Warrington. The library had already been in existence since 1760 as a proprietary institution.the Commercial Library (founded 1735) in Hamburg. c. concerning special libraries on the continent. The 1850 Act also required all libraries and museums to be free of charge. This pattern of transfer involving a local learned society and/or a proprietary library would become typical of the movement. Edwards believed them to be highly successful and beneficial in their given subject field. Annual Returns for Libraries and Museums between 1852 and 1912.65).. In the proposals outlined by Warrington officials.10l). and in the case of the Museum the eye was the organ through which the perception of beauty and of proportion.(66) Ideally. . Commitment to the stated objective is further reflected in the proposals to encourage public participation in the development of collections and in expansion of the site. the mind. the question of museums also arose in conjunction with such schools. a landmark and influential House of Commons Select Committee was set up to address these concerns.The Warrington officials are credited with the founding of a library in conjunction with the museum before formal public library legislation had been passed. Unity of purpose was further achieved through their complementary functions: "In the case of the Free Library. Educational adjuncts to the scheme included the proposal to apply both the book and artefact collections to such activities as the reading of scientific papers and the delivery of lectures.was appealed to. The achievements of Warrington were noted in the Report of the House of Commons Select Committee on Public Libraries. namely the instruction and edification of the public. the school's holdings were moved to Marlborough House and renamed the Museum of Manufactures (shortly after the . (68) The recommendations of the Committee were to become embodied in several schools.were conveyed to the mind".(67) This noble partnership largely reflects the explicit educational mandate of the School of Art Committee which was the controlling body of the Birmingham institution. In 1835. the institution during its formative years included a lending library of a 1. Founded at Somerset House (1837). A decade prior to the Museums Act and the Free Library movement. In 1852. 1849. In the opinion of C. had identical aims. which remarked on the association of its public library and museum as a 'most obvious and desirable alliance'.. Whitworth Wallis of the Birmingham Corporation Art Galleries and Museum (founded 1867).000 books. . among them the genesis of what was to become the Victoria and Albert Museum. The source of like Committees stems from a national concern surrounding the state of the industrial arts in Britain. In the Minutes of Evidence. the Select Committee on Arts and Manufactures recommended the establishment of schools of design in answer to Europe's superior craftsmanship. the museum was dependent on the Free library to minister to visitors that knowledge and information which catalogues and labels could not supply. the Free Museum and its sister institution. and it was agreed that museum institutions should be attached to schools to assist the studies of pupils and that they should be open to the public so to be of greatest benefit.. the Free Library. The library now comprised circa 6. Ralph Wornum. Concurrently. Some display items from the Exhibition were in fact purchased for the new museum at Marlborough House. Artefacts were circulated to the provincial schools of art and free museums. seven years after the project was initiated. and was later to be replaced by Richard Henry Soden Smith. Scholars were also consulted in the acquisition of bibliographical data. and other notable repositories. Wornum. Another important project of Cole's concerned the cataloguing of collections in all departments. The title is indicative of the scope to which Pollen aspired: The Universal Catalogue of Books on Art . At the instigation of Henry Cole (1808-1882). set about organising the books for the facilitated use of artisans and manufacturers. (71) Cole. involves the compilation of a catalogue of the library holdings. . John Hungerford Pollen was given this responsibility and he is credited with the publication of several catalogues. the educational mandate was upheld with the establishment of a lending programme. the Bodleian. The whole catalogue was completed in 1870.(72) Pollen's massive undertaking utilised a team of workers who transcribed appropriate entries from the catalogues of the British Museum Library. Museum lectures were also introduced. drawings and photographs as added collections. the library began to operate a lending scheme. the collections were greatly increased and items arranged in a classed order. (70) The growth of the museum and its library gained further impetus when they were both transferred to their present site in South Kensington during the year 1857. was appointed librarian to oversee the book collections.Museum of Ornamental Art). For instance. Wornum had resigned to become Keeper of the National Gallery. however. then joint Secretary in the Government's Department of Science and Art which administered the museum.(69) Accordingly. The move followed the Great Exhibition of 1851 which proved to be a major turning point in the exposure of a wide public to the sciences and the useful arts. heavily supplemented with lists of all known books published on art. as Director of the South Kensington Museum. A catalogue was produced in 1855.000 items with prints. the social perception of museums as potentially educative institutions changed as well. His most remarkable achievement. and the art historian. continued to concern himself with the reform of the various museum departments and the library. who had noted that the library had been overlooked as an essential tool in design education. This publication earned an international reputation for the museum. the libraries of the Ashmolean and the British Museum were formed to house the bequests of major collections. was precipitated by an educational mandate. Four departments were thought universal to the planning of a museum facility: Antiquities. Not until the encyclopaedic character of the early museums gave way to specialisation did their libraries assume a more direct role as information partners. Natural History. theoretical and practical". the Papworths considered that the role of the museum should be outlined prior to establishment. for the library. This difference in establishment affected their respective roles. lay in a subject focus complementary with that of the museum and. It effectively supported the activities of the museum officers. The practice of preserving a catholicism in the scope of museum collections was commented upon in the manual produced by John W. which became referred to as the National Art Library and would form a separate department in 1909.. rooted in the founding collection. By contrast.and needless to say. (73) Principally addressing the municipal museum movement. Established by the Geological Survey of Britain. the library collections of the old Ashmolean had been of great scholarly value in themselves. but less so as interpretative sources for the objects on display. and Wyatt Papworth. general as well as special. established in 1851. Library. like its parent institution. By contrast. the Victoria and Albert Museum. Libraries. and Picture Gallery. The National Art Library. reference is made of the services offered by the British Museum Library and . and that at last it is discovered that even the British Museum is no longer universally thought capable of displaying every acquisition. In discussing libraries. entitled Museums. The strengths of a special library. The origins of the national library for science and technology at the Science Museum can be traced to these substantial holdings when books were transferred from Practical Geology to South Kensington in 1883. according to a "clear description of its ends and aims. thus. as well as meeting the needs of the School of Mines. so that often a "museum" library was in fact taking on the role of a special collection. A parallel can be drawn in regard to the resource library of the Museum of Practical Geology (1837). Jermyn Street. the library held works related to the geological and allied sciences.. as embodied in the National Art Library. in the provision of services to an identifiable user group. and Picture Galleries (1853): (the reader) is requested to consider that in these days each branch of the old museums has grown so extensive (if to be really useful) that only a metropolis can afford to gather portions of a nations store under one roof. the analogous role and subject focus of the museum and library were. importantly. and return to the reading room by the 'down' stairs". Rather. the library of these two types of institution is "best placed over the reading room. if that gentleman be at all equal to his task. possibly based on the same. The possession of a good catalogue is more beneficial "to the readers and consultors of a library than to the librarian himself. (74) The importance of maintaining catalogues is particularly stressed by the authors.(75) Appended to the text are several plates of architectural plans. warrants mention in that the library only formed a small adjunct to the much larger museum facility. to keep the library in order. to recommend and advise the Committee as to the works that may be ordered and to report from time to time on the collection. and Picture Gallery. and well preserved as far as the funds allotted for the purpose will allow. are also provided: The duties generally imposed upon the librarian of a public museum are. Venice (plate 7). if at all. and thus persons wishing for works are enabled to pass by the 'up' stairs to the delivery bar. Paris. to see that books are forthcoming when asked for it to have them bound by leave of the Committee. the inventory of objects and catalogues.3). because. Natural History Museum. the round reading room of the British Museum (whose design was assisted by the then Principal Librarian. Libraries were built at a far greater rate and generally did not appear in a museum. Further to the operation of the library. Sir Anthony Panizzi).Reading Room. Maidstone Museum. would not be completed until 1857. whereas the Fitzwilliam is provided as a sample museum. founded in 1858. to class the works according the arrangement adopted by the owner or committee to keep the register of accession and loan. Despite the intended purpose of the municipal movement. It also had the distinction of gaining the royal patronage of Queen Victoria. the museum was more likely to be housed in a small room of the library and maintained as a cabinet of curiosities. (76) . In general terms. Among those illustrating a museum library and/or reading room are: Museum for a Small Town (plates 2. the architectural arrangement of the facility is discussed as well. More specifically. Of added interest is plate 6 which illustrates a round reading room with the date of 1852. he knows the books and their places perfectly well". Sydney Smirke's masterpiece. and Arrangement for a Gallery (plate 10). the Royal Academy of Arts serves as a prototype for the picture gallery. The duties of the librarian in a museum. there was not an equal partnership between the Free Library and the Museum. Salford (1849) seems to have been one visible exception with spacious accommodation provided for both facilities. v. The museum would be "as a book of plates close at hand to illustrate the volumes in the library". One concern regarding this partnership related to the combining of the two offices of librarian and curator. (78) The presence of libraries in museums had not been documented before the British Association Report. there is no clear indication of the recommended qualifications of individuals responsible for either the artefact and/or library collections. the museum institution suffered in face of an illdefined role and of a lack of funds beyond those already levied for library maintenance. as the library would then be available to the staff and students of the museum institution. c. which gave power to local authorities to expend money for museum and art gallery purposes alone. supra). the British Association Report noted the advantage in having a museum and library under the same roof. geology. detailed the results of a questionnaire received from 211 provincial museums in the United Kingdom.(79) In the report. The Committee's report. Other museums were found to profit from their attachment to colleges. The plight of municipal and non-national museums in nineteenth century Britain was the focus of a comprehensive study undertaken by the British Association for the Advancement of Science. and the museum is not conducted with the necessary vigour. botany and archaeology". Sixty museums reported housing libraries with collections varying from 10 to 10. The Committee concluded that "a good museum should have at least 500 volumes of the best standard works of reference on all branches of zoology. librarianship had benefited from an earlier . Notwithstanding the appearance of such legislation as the Museums and Gymnasiums Act 1891 (54 & 55 Vict.000 volumes. schools and similar institutions. the officer is chosen as a librarian chiefly. although Committee findings suggest that librarians were often in charge of both collections in a shared complex (q. As a profession. though the library had gained recognition as an essential adjunct to a museum facility. the larger proportion of space and funds are devoted to the library. The returns revealed that those museums attached to free libraries did appear to make use of the collections provided. state about the number of volumes and the average annual increase. but it is rarely satisfactory for the museum. (77) Yet directly following these criticisms. and often falls into disrepute. The library is usually regarded as the more important institution. The findings indicated that nearly half of the rate-supported museums were attached to free libraries.These discrepancies were partially due to the municipal rate-supported system. published in 1887.22). Of added significance is the report's inclusion of survey question #32 concerning the existence of a library within the museum: If the museum has a library of scientific or archaeological works for the use of the curator or students. As the report states: This may be an economy. So long as these are judiciously limited in scope. and the Museums Association shared premises with the Library Association at Chaucer House from 19331948. In 1877. and though this was seen as a 'desirable' alliance by the participants. they cannot well be too extensive. and the doors arranged that visitors can look in without disturbing those who are reading. Goode's account of the library's role in a museum was probably based on the policies adopted by the Smithsonian library. the Museums and Gymnasiums Act 1891. (80) The Museums Association would not be established until twelve years later in 1889 at a meeting of museum professionals in York hosted by the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. The founding date followed closely that of the American Library Association (1876) with which it had much in common. be so situated as to form one of the main features of the Museum.. 3. Of interest. Every well appointed Museum should have a good reference library which should include the principal books of reference in regard to the various specialties of which it is concerned. Council did not wish to extend the Association's scope of operation. Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian.This library should be freely accessible to visitors and provided with comfortable furniture and facilities for taking notes 2. however. the Library Association was suggested as a forum for museum officials in its Dublin Annual Meeting 1884.. ten years prior to the publication of the report. In the Proceedings of the same year. With the establishment of the Museums Association... of which an outline is here provided : (82) 1. In addition to the general reference library. Goode's paper addressed the principles of museum administration and included lengthy statements on all aspects of the responsibilities and functions of a museum facility.g. The principal initiator of the meeting was Professor William Flower of the Natural History Museum and President elect of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. a venue had finally become available for professional debate on a par with the library community. The museum library should. since a technical library is always more useful when directly under the influence of a specialist. the . than when administered as part of a great general library. A paper published in the Proceedings of 1895. if possible.. was especially valuable to the field for decades to follow. special collections of books may advantageously be developed in connection with the several departments of a Museum. e.(8) The two Associations.establishment in the wider community than that for museum curators. that of George Brown Goode. One such responsibility concerned the maintenance of a reference library. and this was assisted by the appearance of the Association's annual Report of Proceedings. the Library Association of the United Kingdom was formed during the First International Conference of Librarians in London. and especially the great illustrated works relating to other museums. did have occasion to collaborate on legislative matters.. The Act enabled . c. the contents of which were described in a catalogue issued in 1890. In White's article. and scientific and historical society publications. and by approaching museum publishing bodies such as the Smithsonian. a familiar metaphor has been chosen for analysis: A museum is a library of illustrations. discusses the historic-social and instructive development of the museum. Noting the inadequacies of the Free Library partnership (compare with the British Association Report findings). White stressed the essential need for museums to develop their own library by acquiring unused technical books from public libraries. a vocal advocate of the museum movement and a great influence of the day.1. but of education. John Ruskin. And once again. The comprehensive bibliography and list of museum catalogues in volumes two and three equally attest to the inherent educative position of the museum from its inception. The attachment of a library aided in fulfilling the museum's role as a vehicle of "noble" instruction. 'biblioteca sine libris. Sheffield: The museum library should be treated by those in authority as just as necessary a part of the provision of the museum staff as the cases in which the specimens are shown. (85) 1. Murray's scholarship brings the advocacy debate on education and the museum into the twentieth century.3 The Twentieth Century to the Present: David Murray.(84) John Ruskin. specifically in the provincial institutions. it is further suggested that the library should extend its role by exhibiting materials (prints and drawings) as complements to the specimens on display. works of reference should be listed alongside exhibits for the consultation of the student. Consequently. whose views White had expressed in a paper two years before. Additionally.. (83) This article has the distinction of being one of the first professional discussions solely focusing on the museum library issue. curator of the Ruskin Museum.topic was given consideration by William White. White conceded that there was a lack of reference material in museums.39) in 1918..5. not of entertainment.. Similar sentiments had already been propounded to a lesser extent by the art critic. emphasised the museum as a place. and housed both a valuable library and print room. in volume one of his Museums: Their History and their Uses (1904).1.. and it is just as important to provide objects for study as to provide books which tell about them. Ruskin's own museum in Sheffield followed these principles. (86) The position of museums in relation to the education movement was greatly affected by the passing of the Education Act (8&9 Geo. . In 1927 a Royal Commission on National Museums and Galleries was set up to investigate the national institutions 'situate in London and in Edinburgh'. Similarly. particularly in cooperation with universities. Expanded facilities for the congested research libraries of the Royal Botanic Gardens. For instance. The Committee further noted the function of the library in the educational work of the parent institution.93).local Education Committees to seek the assistance of museums in the furtherance of local programs under their jurisdiction. the report of which was published in 1920. including many in regard to specific institutions. a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science was formed to examine museums in relation to education. the provision of an adequate library was recommended for the Wallace Collection. In addition to the implementation of co-operative schemes. would directly touch upon the course of museum development. The Final Report was published in two parts and contained recommendations. in that it provided for the maintenance of museums by local authorities and by the raising of funds for buildings. 5. The British Museum Library and the National Art Library were also encouraged to develop a collaborative programme. Thus. Kew. the Public Libraries Act 1919 (9&l0 Geo. and feature local publications and those of local societies. In terms of the non-nationals. and of the Royal Scottish Museum were likewise put forward by the Commission in its Report. Preceding the appearance of these Acts. the establishment of museums as research centres was encouraged. Ideally. The Commission principally recommended the development of cooperative schemes among the nationals and with respect to the non-national museums. The Report confirmed the museum's role as ancillary to public education. mutual collaboration between the library of the British Museum and that of the Science Museum concerning the selection of foreign periodicals was considered as a means of avoiding duplication. but recommended that this role encompass higher education as well. c. (88) Certain recommendations involved the national libraries. a reference library was to be made accessible to the general public. (87) The 1920s witnessed the compilation of other major reports concerning museums. which repealed much of the Museums and Gymnasiums Act of 1891. the libraries of the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons and those of the University of London were seen as candidates for an advantageous liaison. who had assisted on the Miers Report. to provide a follow-up survey and directory of the provincial museums. the museum had a threefold service. However. both administered by the University of London. with nearly 40% of the museums surveyed being staffed in this way. Appended to his Report. Approximately eighty of the institutions listed had a library or reference collection. belonged to a local society. continued to be a concern. excluding the nationals. deemed more appropriate than a collection of miscellany. omitting collections of rare books. the Markham Report findings were broadly comparable to those of Miers. Miers also conceded that the type of institution should be determined by the industry of the locality in which it was situated. training programmes for museum professionals had recently been established at the Courtauld Institute and the Institute of Archaeology. population. .Sir Henry Miers. completed a comprehensive report on the public museums of the United Kingdom. to the general public. Other information came under the 'general remarks' heading. for example. In 1935 the Carnegie United Kingdom Trustees approached Sydney Frank Markham. and expenditure. and the Museums Association had initiated a Diploma scheme in 1934. There was still the concern for the combined position of librarian and curator. An emphasis on local history collections contained in the museum and in its special library was. to schools and to the advanced student. accordingly. Miers included a statistical index of the public museums surveyed. One in four museums was found to support such a position. Thus.e. zoological and botanical gardens. These remarks are particularly important because a number of them address the presence of specific facilities such as libraries and reading rooms. governing authority. The report was published for the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust in 1928 and surveyed 530 institutions.. to some degree. was the initiation of staff training programmes modelled on those established by the Library Association. as recommended by Miers. and commercial museums.(89) The Miers' Report findings correlate. i. which typically. staff. though more balanced in perspective (as Miers had a noticeable educational bias). Information was provided on the founding date.(90) Published three years later. with those of the British Association Reports. a Royal Commission member. Markham surveyed 800 institutions. The combined position of librarian and curator. One method of rectifying the situation. The Miers' Report was further reminiscent of the 1920 Committee's focus on museums as educational facilities. published in 1927. according to Markham. the Geffrye Museum maintained a reference collection accessible to the public which has continued up to the present day. however. the Canterbury Philatelic Society. One of the first manuals to be produced in North America was that by Laurence Vail Coleman. their libraries were housed for them in the museum. For instance. Executive Secretary of the American Association of Museums. but public services and programmes were more progressive. (91) On a smaller scale. in general.In terms of education. At Canterbury Royal Museum.(92) Coleman expanded on the functions of the museum library. Museums in the United States had a parallel rise. These societies arranged lectures and had free use of the museum and reference collections. to include adviie on book selection and classification. There was. the library had established ties with the National Lending Library for Science and Technology in order to allow the public to draw on a wider range of resources. and well-furnished library. the library was designed to extend the educational influence of the museum by providing ready access to materials on those branches of science which were represented in the collections. and the Workers' Educational Association. The proliferation of societies was indeed matched by the rise of the local museum. His Manual for Small Museums. among the societies headquartered there included: the East Kent Natural History and Scientific Society. the Horniman and Geffrye were placed under the Education Department in order to better assist schools. received support from several sectors. In particular. and was given a forum in the journal Museum News (American Association of Museums). Officially opened to the public in 1901. the Homiman Museum had from its inception supported an educational mandate with its provision of a lecture facility. Additionally. for example. Two museums. no central authoritative body to assist in the maintenance of such public museums. Half of them were administered by local authorities and their establishment would represent an irreversible trend upwards. an historical or commemorative museum being founded every three weeks. a noteworthy development related to the collaborative efforts between the London County Council and its museums. The Markham findings also pointed to an increase in adult education programmes in those museums which served as the headquarters of learned societies. the Canterbury Archaeological Society. it was suggested that a small library should acquire books as needed. Museum work. as outlined by Goode and White. had a chapter devoted to museum libraries. reading room. In 1936. beginning with a few . In later issues. library training at the university level and membership in the American Library Association (ALA) were considered essential for the museum librarian. Coleman advocated the benefit of both professions in the museum. It produces the journal American Libraries. Special Libraries. although Coleman also conceded that neither classification system was entirely suited to libraries of art museums. where the role of librarian-curators was disputed as retrograde by British committees. notably by its librarian-founder. the adoption of Library of Congress Subject Headings has made provision for a greater specificity on aspects of museum librarianship. Arts. Whereas. like that devised by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. art. The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) could be used for a reference collection of this modest size. In Coleman's manual. the Special Libraries Association (SLA) has offered services to librarians working in diverse information environments. and Humanities Division (MAHD) which issues its own newsletter. A Museum Group was established under SLA in 1929. An in-house system. The Cleveland Museum of Natural History and the Newark Museum were among the institutions whose libraries came under discussion. and science. John Cotton Dana. Museum libraries in Britain appear to have leaned toward the use of in-house classification schemes (some based on British Library practice). the first volume covering the period 1921-1932. and printed catalogue cards could be purchased from the agency. Articles on museum librarianship appeared in the 1930's in the SLA journal. the American Library Association has since maintained various divisions and round tables to serve the profession on a national basis. and achieved division status in 1971. the Museums. has utilised the subject term "museum libraries". (94) .general works that contain good bibliographies. from its inception. the larger museum library was recommended to use Library of Congress Classification (LCC) as it was deemed appropriate for comprehensive material on history. The Institute of Agricultural History and the Museum of English Rural Life serves as an example of a museum organisation which published a specialised scheme for their library collections. The index. was referred to as a model. In addition to the ALA. may have been due to the professional support available to library staff. Newark deserves mention in that it was a product of the museum movement given impetus by the library community.S. Founded in 1876. and was responsible for the compilation of the bibliographic index Library Literature. (93) In terms of staffing. The ready adoption of LCC and DDC by museum libraries in the U. In the Report of the National Libraries (the Dainton Report). which continues to be a useful resource for both museums and libraries. now the Association for Information Management) was formed in the UK in 1924 to foster the interests of special and scientific libraries. The yearbooks described special collections held in a variety of institution types throughout the British Isles. no separate interest group for museum library staff has been established. Rye devoted a lengthy chapter to 'special libraries'. In 1928. currently known as the Libraries Yearbook). has members from the museum community. however. with emphasis on local authority establishments. and early editions had appended address lists for publishers and booksellers. This. The . now known as Library and Information Science Abstracts or LISA (1969-). Thomas Greenwood had published the British Library Yearbook (1897). edited The Libraries of London which contains historical and descriptive chapters on library collections. The journal. Articles concerning museums and their library facilities have been regularly featured. Aslib (the Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaux. the libraries of the national museums have been the most frequently cited in library and museum literatures. The publication serves as a supplement to Reginald Rye's comprehensive book. gives occasional mention to museum-related issues and. appeared in Aslib: Report of Proceedings (presently Aslib Proceedings) and in Aslib Information (Managing Information 1995-). Another directory. the Association was involved with the initiation of an abstracting and indexing reference tool. Within the sphere of special librarianship. the departmental libraries of the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Science Museum came under review. including those of the larger public museums. on behalf of the Association. Library Association Record. is the Municipal Yearbook. Three decades earlier. under which heading several museum libraries are examined. similar to ALA. Government reports have also discussed their roles in the framework of funding and collaborative schemes. In 1949 Raymond Irwin. Library Science Abstracts (1950-1968). Museums. occasional articles on the library facilities of museums and related institutions have. The Students' Guide to the Libraries of London (1928). for instance. published in 1969. begun in 1893. did not set a precedence. Aslib published the first of its resource directories which contained listings of museum libraries. the third edition to be renamed: Libraries. and Art Galleries Yearbook (1910-. since the founding date of the organisation. though the Local History Group.In the Library Association (UK). Undoubtedly. Legislation such as the Public Libraries and Museums Act . the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Science Museum were exclusively examined. Recommendations largely encompassed the role of the nationals in the provinces and. as well as museological literature for the use of museum staff . the cooperation between local authorities. importantly.(95) In the Rayner Report (1982). one of which involved its transfer to Imperial College. In this latest report. Developments in policy concerning the National Art Library have since been ongoing and have been documented in published form in the Fall of 1993. Links with the non-nationals were limited to assistance schemes provided by the nationals such as the lending programme of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Notwithstanding.(98) The Rosse Report put forward a detailed list of museums and their holdings. both institutions will retain their respective areas of specialisation. namely to support and assist the development of museums.Science Museum Library was subject to major recommendations. continue to collect and provide resources on the history and public understanding of science and technology. research and curatorial library forms a central focus. (97) The national museums and galleries have been endowed with a venue for the discussion of their affairs since the 1931 appointment of a Standing Commission to advise on maintenance. to promote co-operation. Certain rare book collections were described but not specific libraries. Cooperation between the two institutions was seen as a means of lessening operating costs and eliminating duplicate materials and services. In the same year regional co-operation gained extensive ground with the creation of seven Area Museum Councils which facilitated the procuring of government funds.(96) Recommendations in regard to their respective libraries largely reiterated those of previous reports. the Imperial College Central Libraries and the Science Museum Library established a Joint Libraries Management Committee to oversee the coordination of facilities and the merging of certain holdings. thus. The non-nationals were largely the concern of the Museums Association and the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust until 1963 when the Standing Commission produced a government sponsored survey on the provincial museums and galleries (the Rosse Report). the National Art Library's tripartite role as a reference. The South East Museums Service (SEMS. and to direct the efforts of public benefactors. In 1992. and to make the most effective use of limited resources by encouraging cooperation between museums. The purpose of SEMS reflects the general aims of the Councils. formerly the Area Museums Service for South Eastern England or AMSSEE) has its origins at this time. The Science Museum library will. Printed Books and Manuscripts. In 1973. both collections of which originally belonged to the Ministry of Defense.24) which repealed the original act. the Bethnal Green Museum of Childhood. The first military museum of national status had been founded over a half-century before.54) had formalised the separation and officially recognised the institution's autonomy. Concurrently. Perhaps some of the most far-reaching changes involving a national institution were those affecting the British Museum. the National Lending Library for Science and Technology amalgamated with the National Central Library to become the British Library Lending Division (BLLD). the Natural History Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum.75) gave power to local authorities to contribute to these museum services. 17). founded 1872). The passing of the British Library Act 1972(c. and was initiated by the British Government. the Greater London Council and the City of London under the Museum of London Act 1965 (c. The National Railway Museum was established at York in 1975 as an outstation of the Science Museum. were incorporated to create the British Library. Another museum of note formed in 1975 was the Museum of London. The l970s saw intense activity in the museum community.1964 (c. In 1970 the ethnological collections of the Museum were transferred to a site in Burlington Gardens to form the Museum of Mankind.g. The libraries of the larger national museums also assist with network enquiries and loans. The departmental reference collection of circa 15. for example. which quickly expanded with the acquisition of the library of the Royal Anthropological Institute. the library departments (not the departmental library collections) of the British Museum. The new legislation facilitated the separation of the Natural History Museum by granting its own Board of Trustees and allowed the lending of artifacts to other institutions.000 vols. Smaller local units could then provide collaborative schemes of their own. . The Science Museum Library serves as back-up to the Division. The museum acquired the library of the former London Museum but the historically rich Guildhall Library was not transferred with its artefact collection. e. became the nucleus of a museum library. the Imperial War Museum in 1917. Two new national museums were erected to preserve the military heritage of Britain: the National Army at Chelsea (1971) and the Royal Air Force Museum (1972). It merged the collections of the London Museum and the Guildhall Museum. The genesis for these developments can be traced to the British Museum Act 1963 (c. (The Victoria and Albert maintains the oldest branch museum. (104) The 1980s was a similarly conspicuous decade for literature pertaining to museum libraries. ARLIS/UK & Ireland. A successor to Coleman's aforementioned chapter. was compiled by the librarians of the Museum of Anthropology. 1979) on the need for a co-ordinated national structure for museums gives mention to libraries.e. had never been so extensive. A statistical survey on museum libraries in America appeared in an issue of Special Libraries (1976). and published in its third edition in 1977. the only comparable aid available to staff was a short technical leaflet produced by the American Association of State and Local History. This can be compared to the 1969 report of the U.(101) Museum librarianship gained visible legitimacy in the profession with the appearance of dissertations on the subject. the library is seen as a means to promote and maintain scholarship among museum staff and students. (105) Another joint statement sharing a common . Office of Education which stated that a library was a "quality indicator" and ranked fifth as a desired facility in a museum. Libraries for Small Museums.Activity in other areas of the museum community included an increased awareness of the museum's role as a social institution. Data gathering through visitor surveys was one means of monitoring the public face of the institution. Susan Freiband of Rutgers University provided a case study of four art museums and their libraries (1973) (102) and Max Draheim of the University of Wales wrote on the lack of uniformity among the libraries of the major British museums (1976). A manual entitled. which addressed the needs of the special library and included mention of library collections in art museums and galleries. it is a concise guide to the organisation and operation of a library within a museum institution. The joint conference of the Canadian Museums Association and the American Association of Museums yielded a paper on the role of the library in a museum. Previously. Literature on the subject. The paper addresses the need for trained staff and outlines the services a well-organised library could offer its parent institution. the museum library also came under review. This reference tool was one of the first to be endorsed by a professional library organisation.(loo) The year 1977 further saw the appearance of the Art Library Manual by Philip Pacey. Under the chapter on "Training". During this period. in fact.S. There is also the suggestion of a matching grant to create a useable library for those museums without one. University of Missouri. (99) The findings revealed that such libraries were under-utilised and underfunded. (103) An important Standing Commission document (the Drew Report. i. Kenyon. few published catalogues exist on the collections of a given library. This publication (currently under revision) is an invaluable aid for those interested in the holdings of a particular library. the book serves as an indispensable guide to the profession. In the same year another compilation of essays on museum libraries was published.concern in a complementary area was that published in the UK by the Museums Association. special collections. but the revised edition (1992) offers a full chapter on the subject by John R. Museum Librarianship (1985). Society of Archivists. Collaboration is one aspect of enquiry in a 1982 dissertation by Esther Green Bierbaum (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). conservation and deployment of original material evidenc&'. In her thesisBierbaum investigates the museum library's relationship to educational programming in science and natural history museums.(106) Recommendations encompass the legal position of archive collections in museums and libraries. i. There are considerable data on the topic.S. A European perspective is offered with a paper on the Deutsches Museum.(107) Her subsequent research on aspects of museum librarianship has culminated in a procedures manual for the effective integration of the library in the organisation: Museum Librarianship: a Guide to the Provision and Management of Information Services (1994). One of the articles provides data on a select survey of science museum libraries in the U. Aslib. and areas of collaboration. Except for some of the national museums. (109) A detailed list of libraries in British museums and related institutions can be found in the Directory of Rare Book and Special Collections in the United Kingdom and Ireland (1985). Larsen. the library largely remains an untapped resource. but the results are familiar. A predecessor landmark publication of nine years prior was that edited by John C. Overall. whose resource directory . though it has a North American bias. Sci-tech Libraries in Museums and Aquariums. It is comprised of a series of articles covering a comprehensive range of topics written by museum librarians.e. entitled. the first edition of the Manual of Curatorship appeared during this period and continues to be a major source of information on the various facets of museum work. Librarian of the National Museum of Wales. Museum libraries are referred to in short segments. as well as for publication information relating to the institution. The Statement of Policy Relating to Archives (1981) consolidates a number of views regarding the basic responsibilities of the three professions "for the acquisition. and the Library Association.(108) In the UK. "Professional Directions for Museum Work in Canada".. In 1978 the first Association of American Museums Studies Report identified fifteen museum positions. a division of Unesco. The plight of the museum library was examined to some extent in the collections management report commissioned by the Office of Arts and Libraries (1989). In 1986. Museum Professional Training and Career Structure (the Hale Report. training for library and archival work was perceived as essential. one of which included the job of Librarian. The International Council of Museums (ICOM). (113) A similar document was issued by the Canadian Museums Association. The necessary qualifications in education. Just over 40% of local authorities had the same availability. 1987). However. (111) The library in UK museums appeared in another government document. Both sectors also employed temporary assistance in the form of Manpower Services Commission Workers (MSC). totalling 25% of the nationals and 27% of local authority institutions. experience. in actuality.(1 10) This detailed report contains statistics pertaining to 1.750 institutions. Among the activities surveyed were those concerning library services in a museum. In terms of staffing.contains entries for a number of museum libraries. the Museums Association (UK) completed a three-year data gathering project on all aspects of museum organisation and activity.(112) Few documents. The results were published in Museums UK: the Findings of the Museums Database Project. provide suggested qualifications for museum positions in relation to library work. Produced by the Museums and Galleries Commission. 1995). 45% of the nationals had volunteers engaged in library work compared to 40% of local authority museums. has now compiled a new national listing in conjunction with the Museums Association: Directory of Museum and Special Collections in the United Kingdom (1993. and skills were outlined. no specific recommendations were provided. This figure amounted to 2% of the independent museums and a mere 1% of local authority administered institutions. 2nd ed. the report recommended the establishment of a Museum Training Institute to be overseen by a professional body such as the Museums Association. which replaced the Standing Commission in 1980 with expanded terms of reference. has also published guidelines with the inclusion . The allocation of operating costs for the libraries of the museums surveyed amounted to only 4% of the budget of national and university institutions. It was revealed that 70% of the national museums had reference or library facilities accessible to the public. In the document. in addition to a general text on the core activities of a museum which gives reference to libraries and research. In 1991 ARLIS/NA produced a report on facilities standards and staff requirements with sections specific to the museum environment (115) and. Though none of its professional groups is solely concerned with museum libraries. Among the services provided through Aslib is an in-company training scheme. Archive and Information Studies (University College London) and Thames Valley University Information Management programme. that every art museum library is a resource reflecting the uniqueness of the institution. with branches in North America (ARLIS/NA) and the UK (ARLISIUK & Ireland). Most libraries in the national museums. like that of the Imperial War Museum. The Art Libraries Society.. that every art museum needs a professional librarian to manage information and research resources. Founded in 1927 in Edinburgh. internship programmes are available for students attending courses in librarianship. and an intellectual asset to that institution.( 116) Currently. the art museum library was the focus of the following unanimous resolution: that every art museum needs a library to support institutional research and to serve as a link to outside resources. Pertinent issues to the profession are frequently discussed in both the Art Libraries Journal (ARLISIUK & Ireland) and Art Documentation (ARLIS/NA) and in related publications. and research and development in all fields of library activity. promoting cooperation. The School of Library.of library personnel. IFLA was created to provide librarians with a world-wide forum for exchanging ideas. inaugurated 1968) has developed a training scheme for members to undertake volunteer library work and basic conservation in the museum community. place students for a period of several weeks in a range of library environments. the IFLA Section of Art is presently chaired by the Chief Librarian of the National Art Library (V&A) and has other representatives from the museum library community.. participate in this placement. at a recent Annual Membership Meeting. (114) Another international organisation affiliated with Unesco is the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) which is comprised of 134 associations and 15 bodies with consultative status in 135 countries. (117) .. The National Museums of Scotland and the National Maritime Museum are two organisations which have benefited from the program On another level. the National Association of Decorative and Fine Arts Societies (NADFAS. provides recommendations and support to members involved in art museums and galleries. for example. the Museum Documentation Association (MDA) has been designing a system for recording object data in museums. On a smaller scale. . Data structures are more complex for an object record because each artefact has its own numerous contexts. museums are still in the process of formalizing a national documentation scheme. e. the Imperial War Museum. the National Railway Museum. According to Matthews. Museums and Art Galleries (1991) by Geoff Matthews. The library serves several of these functions. acted on an advisory level on questions of computerisation. is using the latest imaging storage system for the library's large photographic collection. The latest package has an Archive application implementing the Manual for Archives Description (MAD) and. have effectively kept up with the developments concerning other special libraries. the newer versions (post 1994) incorporate the SPECTRUM data standards. Certain libraries have utilised new forms of technology to aid in the control and access of their holdings. the MDA Data Standard (SPECTRUM).Museum libraries.(121) In the UK. its ability to perform also depends on the adaptation of suitable technology. the Dickens House Library was part of a study on hypermedia.g. where funding has been adequate. Most notably the automation of libraries has facilitated the accessibility of resources and the provision of more sophisticated services. there is a library format for computerising library records in conjunction with those for object collections. BLAISE (The British Library Automated Information Service). The MDA currently offers MODES and MODES PLUS which are cataloguing and information retrieval systems. A collaborative project concerning computerised collections is currentlybeing undertaken by a group of larger museums. the accommodation of OPACs and audio-visual equipment is considered in the lay-out of the museum library facility. National Museums and Galleries on Merseyside. The larger organisations have implemented OPAC terminals(118) in their reading rooms. (119) Automation has become integral to the operation of the general and special library. the Science Museum. and has since 1977. In a design manual. and those UK libraries which are automated look toward links with an on-line retrieval service. the introduction of new technology is having a wide influence on museum functions. The LASSI project (Larger Scale Systems Initiative) has among its consortium members. A branch of the Science Museum. likewise. and consequently. the National Maritime Museum. (120) Whereas libraries have long had the means to computerise records and exchange them. ships plans and historic photographs divisions form the new Maritime Information Centre. (122) The database will be a managing tool for the professionals as well as an available resource for the public. As yet. Such is also the case at the Royal Armouries with the use of STAR software and a complementary imaging package. and it was generally agreed that a cooperative arrangement would yield advantages in terms of economy and standardisation. entitled "Science-Net". maintained a Working Group on Museum Information Centres.(124) This approach has manifested itself in the reorganisation of the National Maritime Museum. remains a theoretical possibility for individual organisations. namely through "Science Line". a special telephone enquiry service. The library. a multi-media. and its Internet equivalent. (123) The museum as information centre is discussed in Liz Orna's Information Policies for Museums (1987) which recognises the need for a managerial approach to collections data and to the integration of an institution's technical knowledge. The controlled language of scientific and taxonomic forms may facilitate this situation. The Science Museum and Library. Already the records of library and artefact materials are accessible on parallel databases. so the inclusion or integration of a given museum's library holdings in the system. The working group has an international membership and a directory available through the Canadian Heritage Information Network (CHIN). Greenwich. have become involved in another venture involving the promotion of the museum as an information resource. A feasibility study was completed in 1993 and implementation has begun during 1995 with the Mu1tiMIMSY database system which can hold complex catalogue data and audio-visual media. Potential integration is under consideration at the Natural History Museum via the URICA system.Leicestershire Museums Service and the Horniman Museum. Discussion lists of relevance to the library and museum community are similarly available on the Internet. Such an initiative was developed because of the need for replacement collections systems. for instance. the International Committee for Documentation (a subcommittee of ICOM) has. The integration of library and object records through automation is a present feature of the National Army Museum's &MAGUS system. in conjunction with the Welicome Trust and Channel Four Television. a documentation programme devised in part by staff of the British Museum. in recent years. In the London Borough of Croydon. . CIDOC. archive. multi-discipline database (MUSLS) is being developed to support services in the new central local studies library and museum. the wider implications of implementation are not fully known. Kew. have similarly developed informative web pages on their holdings. i. In another direction. Of particular note is the inclusion of links to their extensive library catalogues. SCRAN (Scottish Cultural Resources Network). the majority of museum libraries in the UK remain isolated among themselves. CIDOC-L of ICOM is the international equivalent concerning museum data standards and related issues. without institutional links or interconnectivity to the wider community.ARLIS-L and MUSEUM-L. Oxford. are two examples in which the information highway can link professionals globally in a wide variety of fields. the arrival of the "virtual library" is matched by the evolution of the "virtual museum" on the World Wide Web. The University of California (Berkeley) Museum of Palaeontology was one of the first examples of an electronic museum which comes close to reproducing a museum experience. (127) Another broad based network presently exists for a select group of university museum libraries. both based in the U. and the Science Museum Library (via Imperial College). the library databases of the Welicome Centre and the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine are now accessible on JANET. galleries and archives. however. (126) With the advent of automation technology. the Fitzwilliam. and the Weilcome Centre has produced an on-line database service called WISDOM (Weilcome Information Service Databases On Medicine) which holds bibliographic data and current awareness databases for the medical community and research public. i. using graphic images and links to subject related resources nationally and internationally. the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Science Museum in London have followed the lead with web pages of their own. the National Museums of Scotland initiated a further proposal in 1996 to create an accessible network of multimedia resources selected from text and artifact holdings of Scotland's national and local museums. (125) The Natural History Museum.e. whose holdings are part of an automated union catalogue of their respective institutions.S. The library of the National Museums of Scotland is addressing such a concern by formalisation of its three site network with improved access to collections through automation and Internet connections. and additionally. Through the aid of the Millennium Commission. These include the Ashmolean.. Cambridge. and have become available for searching on JANET (Joint Academic NETwork). The National Maritime Museum and the Royal Botanic Gardens. Collections systems are generally not uniform and are adapted to the special requirements of an individual library or organisational branch. .e. A library committee. The NAL is also part of a regional art libraries consortium (London Consortium of Art Libraries). among others. Scotland and Wales. which serves as a follow-up to that produced by the Museums . To date. a union catalogue of periodicals has been compiled. A future development includes the creation of a public information centre in the Round Reading Room. One of the benefits of applying for registration is that certain grants and services are specifically targeted at museums working towards registration. a Central Library has been created to coordinate the departmental libraries and to provide a general information service.. primarily through ARLIS/UK & Ireland: e. (129) Presently. of their requirements and facilities. With the impending departure of the British Library from its Bloomsbury location. the Scheme does not directly request information on an organisation's library facilities. and alongside NAL and the British Library. With the recent 1996 publication of a review of museum policy by the Department of National Heritage. has received national attention with the implementation of the Museum Registration Scheme of the Museums and Galleries Commission begun in 1988. The diversity of museum types. DOMUS (Digest Of Museum Statistics). Librarians from such institutions as the Tate Gallery and the Royal Institute of British Architects participate in the Consortium. (128) An interesting situation has evolved at the British Museum.g. The same institutions are involved in networking projects on various levels. funded in part by the Millennium Commission. the National Art Library is working toward a union catalogue of the records held by the Bethnal Green Museum of Childhood via DYNIX. consisting of both curatorial staff and the head librarians of the Museum of Mankind and the Central Library.In the London area. and access to the computerised catalogue of the Museum of Mankind Library is available to British Museum staff. A comparable project has been achieved by the National Gallery with its multi-media based 'Microgallery' that allows for public access to curatorial knowledge of the art collections on exhibit. in resource coordination with the University of London. although the Commission is compiling a database. It is a voluntary Scheme being assisted in large part by the nine Area Museum Councils of England. is assisting in this task. the Scheme will gain further importance in the setting up of basic standards for the whole UK museum community. which will provide visitors and researchers links to the museum's collections and to supporting bibliographic data. a national collecting network for art exhibition catalogues and a revised union catalogue of art periodicals initiated by NAL. services and resources of the museum library. more stress laid on educational value of the specimens.1. It should always reflect some aspiration of the community as such and a unique concern of any museum is the presentation of the specimens in a meaningful way. to identify related areas of inquiry. Included in the database will be information on study facilities and related services. an effulgent name in Sanskrit literature. Later period.1. Thus. It is not surprising then that literature in the field has not satisfactorily answered questions concerning the general organisational needs. This concept made an enormous pressure on the museum staffs that have compelled to adopt a new approach in its changing scenario. But he stumbles before one effigy . stimulating the spirit of research and helping at education level in all its phases. They are : 1.2.2 India The development of museums in India may be categorised in three phases. The primary objective of the following study is to address some of these gaps by presenting a profile of museum library facilities and collections in the Greater London area.Association in 1986. In this period the museum was rightly considered as a community centre. the museum showed a remarkable growth of its own and main functions of the museums were as follows: collection. and will be maintained on a regular basis with data supplied by registered institutions. Thus prince Bharata . lord Rama's step brother. From this introduction it can be perceived that the museum library is as wide-ranging as its parent institution. on arrival from abroad.a new . preservation and exhibition. who antedated the great Guptas. as dictated by custom first steps into the hall for paying tributes to the manes before setting foot into the royal palace. At the beginning of 20th Century AD. the museums are coming up as the house of knowledge.1 From the Beginnings: Bhasa. describes in the play Pratimanatakam a memorial hall of the monarchs of the line of Raghu who departed their lives. 1. and to expand on those points briefly touched upon. Badami and Ellora (a little later). Is it because the effigy is rendered too much idealized or because he cannot bring himself to imagine that it is no other than. The man gathers himself up and breaks the news of Bharata's father king Dasaratha's demise.4th century AD) mentions the palace painting gallery (chitrashala) and Bhavabhuti's Uttararamacharita (7th century AD) describes vithika or the palace painting gallery where prince Bharata shows round the royal couple Rama and Sita the epic exploits in Lanka that immediately evoke an emotive nostalgia. The medieval Sanskrit text Narada Shilpa Shastra expatiates on the ideal town planning called Devesha nagara where theatre halls and picture galleries ought to locate in the city centre.. Therefore a sense of veneration for the older Hinayana art propelled the later day Mahayanists to preserve the strips. It is highly debatable whether in ancient India there was any kind of conscious movement to preserve things of old like the modern museum movement. Apart from religious sentiments another kind of feeling might have stayed the hands of the Mahayanists from rubbing out the more ancient art .. The Jaina religious texts Jnata Dharma Katha and Brihat Kalpasutra Bhasya refer to picture halls (chitta sabhas). The pre-Christian Pali Buddhist text Samyutta-Nikaya mentions painting done on cloth. Some may argue . Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram (c.that is the instinct lying within the human heart to preserve the old. These virtual art galleries cum monastic sanctuaries instructed the ordinary folks as well as the monks in the lores of religion through melliflous lines and colour compositions. and the much fragmented evidence of the same at the ancient sites of Bagh. And is not it the most potent driving force behind the later day museum movement? The more ancient relics in Ajanta are the result of the patronage of the mighty Satavahana dynasty while the prolofic Mahayana phase creations were patronised by the Vakatakas from their citadels at Viddarbha or by their ministers and feudatories. whom he fails to identify. Ancient Indian literature is replete with references to the art of image making and painting. The prince turns to the accompanying curator for an answer. Coming to brass tacks we have the wonder evoking murals at Ajanta. Bharata is overwhelmed by the shocking intelligence for which he is unprepared. wood and wall surfaces.addition. The chaitya caves IX and X at Ajanta date back to the 1st or 2nd centuries BC where we find a few strips of narrative Buddhist paintings upon their walls which were mercifully not painted over by the 5th-6th centuries guild artists thus affording us an idea of stylistic evolution. the famous pilgrim came from China to India following the Silk Route trails and spent some time at the Nalanda monastic university in the 7th century AD.though for the sake of spiritual benefit. Thus all were not lost. But the scenario is not always so hopeless as that.in . The earliest known Jain palm-leaf manuscript Nishithachurni bearing the date 1157 in Vikramasamvat (1100 AD) is preserved . Javalpuri. A third Prajnaparamita lies with the British Museum comprising six illustrations made during the 15th regnal year of Gopaladeva III in the second half of the 12th century AD at the Vikramashiladeva Vihara. This palm-leaf manuscript was written by the monk Kalyanachintamanikya at Nalanda monastery. Another such manuscript bearing the same title now lies with the Los Angeles County Museum. often containing the pictures of gods and goddesses were prepared in these monastic scriptoria for the edification of acolytes. Many Buddhist monks fled to the safe havens of Himalayan Kingdoms carrying with them precious manuscripts and icons. Devagiri and Ahipura mainly through the enterprise of one Jinabhadra Suri during whose lifetime paper virtually replaced palm. Paper became widely prevalent in westem India by the end of the 13th century and the beginning of the 14th century.leaf. It was written by the monk Vamatanaka Jayakumara in circa 12th century AD at the Apanaka Mahavihara monastery during the reign of Ramapaladeva. It is now preserved in the museum of the Asiatic Society in Kolkata. First let us look at the role of monastic scriptoria spread across the Buddhist centres of learning in eastern India during the Pala period. empirical and cosmopolitan Romans. monks and seminarians and for pious donations by devout pilgrims to earn religious merits.that the individualistic and spiritually charged ancient civilization of the land was rather indifferent to the kind of aspirations of the more mundane. Hiuen-Tsang. The Pala manuscripts prepared there are now found preserved in different museums of note in different parts of the world. When we turn our attention to western India the grand vista of manuscript repositories known as Jnana Bhandaras greets us with the welcome news that here is stored a great many Jaina manuscript many of these illustrated dating from 12th century onwards. Take for example the late 10th century manuscript Ashtasahasrika Prqjnaparamita composed and illustrated during the 6th regnal year of the Pala king Mahipala (probably Mahipaladeva I) containing twelve illustrations. Unfortunately invading Islamic zealots in the 13th century razed to the ground these great centres of learning in eastern India. These Buddhist manuscripts. These Jnana Bhandaras were established in recognized Jain centres like Jaisalmer. These manuscripts were preserved through the centuries with diligent care . A number of great museums allover the world preserve these inspiring artistic specimens of the days of yore. The glittery swank came to such a pass that we find entire paper surfaces are at times coated with gold with other colours superimposed on them. 1501-1512 AD). a Rajput convert whose original name was Sadharan. This becomes self evident in the profuse use of gold in the paper manuscripts. Credit goes to the Muslim rulers in different parts of the country for patronizing artists and architects and painters for improving upon indigenous art.1469-1501 AD) and completed during the reign of his son Sultan Nasir ud Din Khalji (r. Among handicrafts mention may be made of bidri and damascene crafts that reached amazing standards of artistry in Hyderabad. for the benefit of monks. With the passage of time even the costumes of Jain monks were begun to be painted over with gold. During the time of later Tughluqs Tatar became embroiled in court intrigues. These manuscripts were generally commissioned by affluent Westem Indian merchants to earn religious merits. The Taj Mahal is a glorious example of this eclectic and evolutionary process. The line of Gujarat sultans made it a point to marry Hindu Rajput girls keeping in mind their origin. Fortunately these Jain libraries and shrines were not hacked down by the Islamic potentates of Gujarat who traced their ancestry to the person of Wajihul Mulk. Gold and Silver inks were often used for writing down these hallowed manuscripts. Tatar forced his father to abdicate in his favour and became the first independent Sultan of Gujarat assuming the title Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah. The Viravamsavali text mentions that a rich householder called Sangrama Soni had defrayed lacs of gold coins in 1394 AD for the preparation of Kalpasutra and Kalakacharya Katha MSS. The wonderful flowering of miniature paintings is another. Under Sultan Ahmad Shah (14111442 AD) non-Muslims were persecuted but in Mahmud Begarha's reign (1458-1511 AD) the situation reversed to a state of grand tolerance in Gujarat. Lucknow. To mention a few we may refer to the Nimatnama manuscript that was begun to be written and illustrated in the reign of Sultan Ghiyas ud Din Khalji of Malwa (r. Muhammad ibn Tughluq the next Sultan sent Wajihul Mulk's son Zafar Khan to Gujarat as governor. In his turn Zafar left his son Tatar Khan at Delhi court. He fled Delhi and landed in Gujarat where his father was well entrenched. The manuscript deals with the art of . He lived in the 14th century and offered his sister's hand to the Sultan of Delhi Firuz Shah Tughluq.Sanghavina Padana Bhandar at Patan. Even in the palm-leaf period gold was used side by side with yellow colour. Purnia and Murshidabad. which had been started since. In 1739 the Persian emperor Nadir Shah plundered Delhi and swept away camel laden booties that included the Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus) and a large number of priceless illustrated manuscripts. They patronized a large number of artists. As a result.2. This is a pre-Mughal work. Abul Fazl records in the Akbarnama that by the end of the 16th century there were about one hundred master painters in the royal studios and many more were advanced half way to that stage. which of a few the world’s best museums were found in Europe. Among historical manuscripts the illustrated copy of Akbarnama in the Victoria and Albert Museum (London) is an eminent one. 1. It now rests with the British Library (London).1. both Hindus and Muslims working away in their tasvirkhanas.gastronomy in the true Sultani style and colour and was painted at the kingdom's capital Mandu. In the royal kutubkhanas or libraries these manuscripts and albums were very carefully preserved. epics like the Mahabharata (Razmnama) and Ramayana. . Some of the great museums were founded in the 18th and early 19th Century AD. which has also slowly and gradually been expanded through worldwide. Jahangirnama and Badshahnama and commissioned individual folios bound in dainty albums (muraqqas). Akbarnama. The first Museum Act of 1845 was established by the Act of British Parliament while the museums began to appear from early 17th Century AD. The Mughals did the biggest job of it. between the late 17th and early 19th Century AD. indigenous and Western styles in their pictures with recognizable lifelike portraitures.2 The 18th and 19th Centuries: The museum as a means of general education is a conscious approach for continuous improvement. These evolved and covered a wide range of subjects like the Tutinama and Hamzanama fantasies. The work affords a fleeting glance of Sultan Ghiyas ud Din's harem complete with sixteen thousand beauties culled from diverse gardens of the world who are presented as transvestites engaged in cooking sizzling delicacies for him. At first. Timurnama. the elementary education with the aid of museum has been gained a strong ground in the Western Europe. The Mughal style is an adroit blend of Persian. the establishment of some great museums in different parts of the world has been flourished due to increasing popularity since then. imperial autobiographies and chronicles like Baburnama. Probably these were the early documentary facts of museums in our country. which did serve the purposes of education as well as healthy entertainment along with various cultural heritages of our own. actual credit of museum development in India goes to the English educated Indian officials of the Asian Royal families and British Indian Companies. During this period. but that number was only around fifty just before the hundred years from the present day. Art. who were well-educated British officers and British intellectuals of the 18th Century AD. It may be testified by the early Alekhyagrihas. Botanical Survey. It is true that the concept of the museum was not new in India. Zoological Survey. Anthropological Survey. The first American Art Museum was the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. as the centre of study and research. the museum movement in that way went on all over the world. Wittlin in her book The Museum-its history and its tasks in Educations mentioned that several important museums also came into existence in France too. They studied acutely regarding the Indian literature. Though the museums in our country are near about four hundred in numbers at present. Alma S. Zoology. the Museum in Charleston. Devakulas. while India was not lagging behind. at the time of Kushana dynasty. Out of these ninth one was the Indian Museum. Besides. Madras and Bombay. 1773 and Peabody Museum at Salem. Botany. Origin and development of museum movement in India is near a about two hundred years old. these two museums were probably the earliest American Museum. etc. which were transported on the road with the help of mechanical devices. In reference to early inscription we also found some evidences of mobile art gallery. The British Museum was established in 1756 when other nine early museums emerged in that contemporary period. 1805. Seven years before the establishment of Indian Museum another one was started . and published their research work too. Archaeological Survey. But. Archaeologists recognized the same thing in the same period. West Bengal. such concepts of museum were spreaded to other important cities like Gujarat. Precisely. Calcutta. Architecture. Chitrashalas. viz. Anthropology. Geology. Afterwards.In America. The first museum in India was established in 1814 at Calcutta. Gokhale Institute of Pune. some anthropologists approached scientifically and led to the establishment of museums. South Carolina. some non-governmental efforts were also made to establish the institution likely the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Geological Survey. Besides. Viswakarma Mandiras and monasteries. Ultimately they established different Institutions in India for Oriental Studies. etc. Massachusetts. Sir William Carry candled first light to establishment of a museum in the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Nathaniel Wallich were indeed the pioneers of the museum movement in India since 1784 with humanities and natural history. From the days of Asiatic Museum via Imperial Museum to present appellation of Indian Museum the institution had the modest beginning of the earliest museum in Asia. Wallich had many ideas and he was inspired by the museum of Copenhagen. For example. India had shown the development of archaeological museums. Dr. sometime it was called as Oriental Museum also. This phenomena produced and to strengthen the museum movement in India.in 1807 at Copenhagen known as 'National Museete'. which were intermingled to underline both antiquity and richness of culture. It may be mentioned here that in 1796. which brought a new dimension for looking at the things. Concentration of museological centres at the cities like Calcutta. At the end of the British rule. Besides. This movement influenced many Indian intellectuals who wanted to have a greater understanding of glorious heritage covering a period of thousand years or so. In short. After sometime he made himself associated with Sir William Carry and other intellectuals of that period. Calcutta. Gradually . But the museum was popularized through newspapers (1781-82) as Asiatic Museum. West Bengal under control of Denmark. Bombay and Madras had been observed since from inception of big multipurpose museums. Finally. we may say that Sir William Jones and Dr. the Government of India took the responsibility for establishment of different organizations. That very day was 2nd February. and perhaps the greatest multipurpose museum in Asia that was opened in 1814. Calcutta. In the same period a Danish botanist finally arrived at Sreerampur. collections of botanical specimens. Howrah. Indian Museum. Their collections took a shape of nucleus of the Indian Museum. many museums and museum like institutions established with active interest concerning all aspects of India is natural wealth and cultural heritage. This was happened by means of illustrations regarding the India's magnificent archaeological remains as well as the continuation of traditional arts and crafts. West Bengal. etc. Incidentally he was offered the post of Curator for first museum in our country. and as being a Danish citizen he was not resisted by the British in consideration of his contributions. Dr. The thane's India was under control of East India Co. the excellent work undertaken by the botanists like Roxburg and others in the Botanical Garden at Sibpur. Wallich wrote a letter to Asiatic Society by stating his number of collections and asked for setting up a museum with his voluntary curatorial work. 1814. Chamba. Gwalior. He encouraged for the opening of museums. Varansi (1919). Baripada. Victoria Memorial Hall (1921). The first attempt was a kind of an overall appraisal of the museum foundation in India was undertaken by the Museum Association. 1. has been maintaining and nourishing various museums with numerous numbers of antiquarian remains. In pre-Independence period. Thus. The Archaeological Survey of India. The museum started functioning in this building from 1921. some other Survey Offices also thought its necessity and established museums to illustrate their works and the result of their field work and research work. Markham and H.F. Museum Branch of Archaeological Survey of India has been formed since the year 1947. Khajuraho. Hargreaves were entrusted to make a comprehensive survey of museums in Indian sub-continent.1. The Prince of Wales Museum Bombay was conceived in 1904 and the building was converted into a military hospital during 1st world War. which create an effective impact on the need of overhauling and modernizing museum service in India. Nalnda Museum (1917). Bharat Kala Bhawan. the coordination and cooperation for the services of the museums became an important part to make a harmony among the institutions. In museum world. Orissa State Museum. we have found the enactment of the Treasure Trove Act in the year 1878 at the time of Lord Lytton who helped a lot at large number of museums to develop their coin collections. The museums are at Ajmer. an international body was established in the year 1946 at Paris to bring well.3 The 20th Century to the Present: Lord Curzon took over as the Governor General of India towards the beginning of 20th Century. Jodhpur.maintained coordination and cooperation for achieving better harmony among . This survey report was published in the year 1936.it had been focussed for the need of a better distribution of museum potential of the country. Several site and local museums were established within 1902-1912 under the Archaeological Survey of India. which have yielded from excavations. Bijapur.Guwahati(1940). Assam State Museum. Other museums opened during this phase are Patna Museum (1917). Allahabad and Sarnath. S. Bhubaneswar (1932). Apart from this. As a result. since its inception in the year 1861. for better prospect. in the year 1904 has been passed since the period of Lord Curzon who also favoured the growth of museum collections. some clauses of Ancient Monument Preservation Act. London. In this connection. The Ancient Monument Act was passed in 1904.2. which is also act as an effective media to have the education. In this perspective. Some of its early publications and the journal museum are extremely beneficial for organizational activities. Workshops and useful Handouts on different aspects. which imparts valuable guidelines through its International Symposia. with a function analogous to that of the University Grants Commission. other eventful step may be called as the report of the Museum Expert Survey Committee in 1956. a remarkable upsurge in the Indian Museum Movement is witnessed in the year 1965. This type of educational set up was first highlighted by the formation of the Museum Association of India. As a result. the museum workers in India involved themselves in exchanging their ideas with the leading museologists of international repute who joined the UNESCO Seminar in connection with the Development of Museum in South East Asia as well as the meeting of the International Council of Museums. several novel experiments gave new dimensions and. In fact. He has written a report entitled "India-Museology". particularly in case of the developing countries. He recommended. especially from the government. This report materializes the subsequent formation of the Cultural Advisory Board of Museums by the Government of India. published by the UNESCO in May 1965. role of UNESCO is well known in fostering the museums. Both the gatherings of the delegates held for the first time in India at New Delhi during 1965. A number of museum camps are organized under . It should maintain the closest liaison with the University Grants Commission over the museology course". Finally. museums got a big impetus and it cannot be denied that the museum movement received a tremendous inspiration and encouragement from various levels. The members of this Council were included the Directors and Curators of different outstanding museums in the world. rather we can say adjunct of the Indian History Congress at Benaras in 1944. importance of museums enhanced considerably. the ICOM is an important professional body. which is known as International Council of Museum (ICOM). In post-Independence period. which was accompanied by the understanding of importance of the museums as instruments of social and cultural advancement.S. and with a Secretariat of appropriate size. The importance of the museums is in need for acquiring knowledge. In this regard we can recapitulate that the UNESCO expert on museology. Rawson undertook a study tour of India in 1964. Mr.the museums of the world. P. In this context. Besides. "that there be instituted a Government Museums Commission. as a wing. films. There are all can be desired for improvement of museums in general and up gradation of the skill of museum personnel in particular. these are grouped into a) Government Museums b) Municipal Museums c) University Museums .3 Museum Organizations: 1.1. dance. lectures. Government of India under leadership of Dr. This new form of museums are offering ever-increasing community audience by means of professionally organized programmes including concerts. theatres. 1. museums fall into the following groups: a) General museums b) Archaeology museums c) Art museums d) History Museums e) Ethnography museums f) Natural History Museums g) Science and Technology Museums h) Military Museums i) Industrial Museums j) Personalia Museums k) Period Museums l) Philatelic Museums Classified by who run them. The most important trend is marked as the development of the museum coming out as an educational and research institution. and short courses for the people of all ups and downs corners of the society.2 Classification of Museums: Classified by collections.direct patronage of the Ministry of Education. Grace Morley. All over kinds of museums are concerned with typical common quality-produced and natural objects. and the collecting of natural specimens of the world of nature. In these latter groups of museums an additional division exists between the collecting of artifacts as examples of human history. which is the result of a basic philosophical difference. Art is concerned with unique. General museums combine some or all categories under one roof. folk museums. these are a) National museums b) State Museums c) Regional Museums d) Local Museums Classified by the audience they serve. and open air museums and so on. they fall into a) Traditional Museums b) Open Air Museums It may be noted in passing that of man-made institutions. There are all shorts of way to accumulate collections and most museum practice all or many of them concurrently. These categories may overlap.d) Army Museums e) Private museums f) Commercial & Company Classified by the area they serve. The main division in the museum world is between art museums and all other kinds. highly sensual productions of gifted human beings. but as examples of the natural world and of human culture.such as children museums. and they are subdivided into many. A museum is characterized by the kind of object it collects. only museums and libraries have as a basic function the saving of objects and libraries are limited in their basic activity to the saving of books and other written works. The threefold classification of museums then is art history and science. the contents of collections that are the justification for the existence of museums. these are a) Educational Museums b) Specialist Museums c) General Public Museums Classified by the way they exhibit their collections. . It is saved objects. that are valued not in themselves. ) designed for use.. (S. In a true sense a library is a collection of graphic and acoustic materials (such as books.C. etc. All that we come to know about libraries in ancient Egypt is from the writings of Herodotus. archeology. p23-] 1. films. periodicals. The scribes used soft clay and a wedge-shaped stylus of metal. Ruins of some other temple libraries have been excavated-one at Karnak. among which was one at Tello with a collection of over 30. zoological and Geographical museums inform us about the objects and the resources of nature and their utility in day to day life.) and Sengupta. There were professional scribes who were hired for copying papyrus rolls.1 World: The beginnings of libraries are lost in antiquity. wood or ivory as writing materials. The world Press Private Ltd. .000 clay tablets. and these pieces of baked clay were tablets and these were the first books. Diodorus. By 2700 B. Even as early as about 1250 B. B. Plutarch and others. Plato. maps. manuscripts. charts. temple records. atlases.If art. a library of sacred literature was founded at Thebes by King Ozymandias. another at Denderah. the Sumerians are said to have established private and religious libraries.3. 1. Records indicate that a library existed at Gizeh round about 2500 B. autobiography or history museums convey to us about the progress of civilization in the historical perspectives and man’s cultural pursuits and his achievements then botanical.3 History of Libraries: [Mookerejee. known as the 'House of Papyrus. “Library Oganization and administration. Calcutta. The earliest collections of records for use were probably those maintained in the temples of ancient Egypt as well as in government archives.C. The collections included religious writings. Nothing certain is known about Egyptian libraries. phonograph records. and when they had finished writing the clay was baked until it was hard. 1977. and the third at Edfu. In the same way science and technology museums teach us the intricacies of science and also brings before us various inventions that have revolutionized our concept an brought about change in our life. who placed over the entrance of the library the inscription "medicine for the soul". etc.C.K. 000 volumes and the library was maintained in his palace at Nineveh for the instruction of his subjects. During the reign of Assurbanipal the total collection was about 20. Some clay tablets contained knowledge of the earth and some pertained to knowledge of the heavens. During the Hellenistic period. at Nineveh. the reading public in Athens was limited.C. but none of these survives. who preserved them in his library at Nineveh. kept in clay jars or in metal cylinders with an identifying tag or keyword on the outside or on the end. the wax tablet. religion and government affairs were copied by the scribes of Assurbanipal. recording noteworthy events. and the most important and best known library was established about the 7th century B. law. and the codex. who died about 626 B. books were produced on a large scale under the patronage of Hellenistic monarchs. Euripides and Aristotle and Plato had their own private libraries. on the moon. in which the papyrus or parchment leaves of the manuscript were fastened together as in a modern box. the capital of ancient Assyria by Assurbanipal. Of the second class-knowledge of the heavens-there were subdivisions: works on the planet Venus. There is evidence that there were classed catalogues in the Assyrian and Babylonian libraries. The librarian was called the "Keeper" of books and his profession appears to have been hereditary.C. It is believed that there were many libraries in the temples and palaces of Babylonia. One of these libraries was that at Borsippa and the clay tablets of this library. works on the comets.C. In Hellenistic Greece there were also governmental and royal libraries. king of Assyria. on the planets in general.The records preserved in the temples of ancient Egypt probably were administrative and liturgical documents. By the sixth century B. This library contained ten thousand clay tablets besides leather scrolls and papyri. but we know very little about the contents of early Egyptian libraries because few manuscripts have survived. There were private libraries in Greece in the fifth century B. history. The parchment scrolls and. produced by the priests and other officials. It can be said that Assyria's gift to posterity was libraries. The forms of Greek books were the roll.C. . Sometimes the rolls were stacked on shelves. papyri 'were destroyed and only the clay tablets survived. The development of civilization in the fifth century created a need for the extension of education and there was a plentiful supply of books. The records consisted of papyrus rolls. Greek has no actual specimens of Books from the first 600 Years of Greek civilization. and lastly. C. private and public.C.C. Through Greek refugee scholars who worked as tutors and teachers in Rome. numbered 700. brought home a Greek library as his personal spoils of war. with the (papyrus) rolls arranged according to subject or title on shelves or in bins. In the 2nd century B. The poet Callimachus was one of the early head librarians of the Alexandrian library. However one of his intimate friends.The first public library in Greece was established in Athens in 330 B. In this manner the great private library of Aristotle came to Rome. and 27 B. Following Augustus most of the later emperors founded libraries either in Rome or in other cities until by the middle of the 4th century A. The nature of the contents of the Alexandrian Library according to one account. The Roman libraries were apparently patterned after those of Greece and Egypt. and Aristophanes of Byzantium. The public libraries were open to all who could read slaves of free men. The . The spoils of war. astronomer and mathematician.. and different copies of individual works were compared and edited in order to achieve the most authentic texts. Greek culture had spread outside of Greece and libraries were established at many places to preserve and extend the civilization of the old Greek world. Others include Eratosthenes.C. the Romans became acquainted with the great stream of literature. Caius Asinius Pollio became the first to make men's talents public property between 39 B.D. In other words. In most cases translations were made into Greek. as a deliberate step in the Hellenization of Egypt.D. and the first century A. one for Greek and one for Latin books. A pre-Christian version of the Hebrew Old Testament (The Septuagint) is thought to have been compiled by 70 scholars under orders from Ptolemy I in 270 B.C. there were no less than twenty eight public libraries in Rome. and in the next century Sulla and Lucullus did likewise. who had defeated the Macedonians. Julius Caesar drew up plans for a public library in Rome and he commissioned Varro to collect books for it. But Caesar's library never materialized. private libraries were maintained in the villas of the Romans.000 rolls (papyrus). the library founded by Asinius Pollio during the reign of Augustus is usually mentioned as the first public library in Rome.C. Paulus. During the first century B. and the Roman libraries. The greatest library at Alexandria in Egypt was established by the early Ptolemies (GreekEgyptian rulers Ptolemy I and II) about 300 B.C. consisted of Greek and Latin books. brought home by the Roman legions included books. Pollio's example was followed by the Emperor Augustus who founded two public libraries each divided into two divisions. ) History of Libraries: ancient and Mediaeval. Except in rare cases books had to be used in the library or in adjacent reading rooms. N. 1. Many of books in Roman libraries were destroyed through dampness and neglect or wasted through pilfering and willful destruction. So long as there was reliance on memory alone. (D. No definite evidence has been obtained so far.D. The librarians whose main task seemed to have been that of a copyist or transcriber who duplicated borrowed works or made additional copies of those already in Library.. but what . Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. but the more valuable and more elaborate works were sometimes wrapped around in ivory centre and preserved in bronze cylinders. bibliotheca who were library specialists or technical assistants in the modern sense and their duties were to keep the library materials in order and preserve them. indeed there could be none. pp. Discoveries at Mohanjo Daro and Harappa have thrown the date back a goal deal. Each Roman library had an administrator or procurator who concerned itself with acquisition and administrative duties.2 India: Marshal.average book was rolled on a wooden case and preserved in a leather wrapper or perhaps an earthen jar.D. 113-118. there was no library. This period is termed by one writer as the pre –inscriptional period. The barbarian invasions also were responsible for' their destruction during the Dark Ages (Ca 400-900 A.) Some secular literature however was transferred to Constantinople where it was kept in the libraries and monasteries of the Muslim Empire. New Delhi. the work of Greek and Latin authors also were ignored. It is interesting to note that some of the copyists were women. Literature and learning passed from one generation to another by the aid of the wonderful memory that those ancient possessed. Roman libraries began to contain folded or book-form codices. The Causes of the destruction of Roman Libraries as the ancient Pagan culture decayed and Christianity became the state religion. In the 3rd century A. When it began and when it ended are still maters of conjecture. Ancient Period: Most of ancient Indian literature passed from mouth to mouth and was preserved in the form of oral record.3. which was known as Bharati Bhandagara. can be grouped broadly into three categories: (i) Royal court collections. Speaking of Royal libraries. the ruler engaged twenty persons to copy out the Manuscripts which Tsang wanted from the palace library. they were none too many. (ii) collections at places of learning. The noted instances of royal patronage are those of Harsha. it may be made clear that. Buddhist Viharas or Monasteries. particularly. A Manuscript of . Learning was valued and scholars received respect and honour from the highest in the land. though primarily in search of Buddhist learning and lore. and the Jain Upasrayas. cultural developments in the Indian subcontinent attracted foreign scholars. Bhoja or Vishaldev Chalukya. Royal libraries were promoted and we have references to them in the works of Hiuen Tsang. The library of Raja Bhoja (1018-60) founded by him at Dhar along with his Sanskrit college was famous in its time. Siddharaja Jayasimha amalgamated this library with the imperial library of the Chalukyas at Anhilvadapattan. and (iii) collections of religious centres like the Brahmanical temples or Mathas . Libraries in ancient India. in Kashmir.that period was and its exact dating how extensive was the areas of civilization to which it can be applied have not beeen definitely determined. Sanskrit grew in importance and even the Buddhist scholars of the time wrote in this language. Rulers patronised scholarship and provided encouragement in many ways. nowhere available regarding libraries and repositories of ancient India. having regard to the vast expanse of the subcontinent. For instance. adorned the trail and. Vikramaditya. Chinese scholars. Vishaldeva. such as they were. We have also a reference to the library of the Chalukya king. Later. they also studied the Brahmanical system of religion and culture. During the period of well-nigh ten centuries after the beginning of the Christian era. which in the wake of the Gupta rulers came to predominate the Indian cultural scene. These foreign travellers provide us with valuable data. Perhaps the oldest of the royal libraries. Bikaner. Aided by climatic factors. This process culminated in course of time in the building up of some well-known collections in the libraries of Nepalknown as Kanjur and Tanjur. A court library established during the mediaeval period is the one in the former princely state of Bikaner. in the mediaeval period. Mysore. Translations of these Sanskrit and Pali works in that early period have made it possible even now to study some of these ancient Indian works which disappeared from India in the course of time. even now in existence. its contents were well preserved. in preparing his grammar. We also have evidence about Sri Ramanuja going to this Saraswati Bhandar for a manuscript when he was preparing his commentary on the Brahma Sutra. Kashmir from ancient times was a seat of learning. There is a similar instance of Hemachandra who. As Professor Bendall puts it. we have evidence of court libraries of Kashmir. wanted to refer to eight older grammars which were available in this library only. Hiuen Tsang worked there for two years. This tradition of royal libraries or court libraries continued and. Another court library of the same period is at Tanjore. There was a time when scholars from India went to Tibet and Nepal and carried with them a number of books. It was founded by Maharaja Anup Sinhji who ruled there from 1669 to 1698. The collection comprising Sanskrit and Rajasthani Manuscripts on a variety of subject has grown through the years and has been catalogued also. on the Indian subcontinent is the Durbar Library of Nepal. in the antiquity of its contents. But it really began to flourish when Tanjore came to be . established about the end of the sixteenth century when Tanjore was under the rule of Telugu Nayaks. The climate of Nepal has proved very favorable for the preservation of Manuscripts both on palm leaves as also on other materials. it is surpassed by no Sanskrit library known to exist. Tanjore and some other Indian states.the Ramayana from this library is in the library of the University of Bonn (Germany). or Taxila as it is more familiarly known. Its site had been excavated and evidence unearthed pointed to the fact that it drew scholars from far and wide. A. Nalanda was another university centre famed far and wide. Amongst such centres. the famous minister of Chandra Gupta Maurya.D. is the oldest amongst those known to us so far. it was a religious centre where Buddhist and Jain luminaries met and discussed their practices and problems. He brought from Varanasi a very valuable collection of Sanskrit Manuscripts. even before the start of the Christian era. Raja Sarfoji. built up a large collection of books. In ancient and mediaeval India. very near modern Rawalpindi. The Manuscripts are on palm leaf or on paper and are in eleven distinct scripts and exceed 30. but recovered in greater glory and flourished till A. The last reference indicates that courses pursued here were varied and covered crafts also. There are references to some of its distinguished students. As a centre of learning and a university town.D. It flourished over a range of more than a thousand years in the north-west corner of the Indian sub-continent. Chanakya or Kautilya. drawing learned scholars from all parts of India as well as from China. Tibet and other neighbouring . Its fame as a university centre is referred to in the Jatakas. the noted Sanskrit scholar. archival materials and paintings also. Burnell. Dr. 1205. who prepared the first hand-list of the collection. the famous grammarian. the famous physician of his time. it must have had a library of its own. such as Panini. besides the libraries of the royal courts. who ruled Tanjore from 1798 to 1833. The university came to be founded later. there were libraries attached to centres of learning where higher education was imparted. It was soon to suffer at the hands of the Huns. deemed it one of the most important of its kind. But so far no tangible evidence of this is available to us.ruled by the Marathas. though invaders periodically overran the place and ultimately put an end to its glory in the middle of the 5th century A.000 in number.C. and Jivaka. In its early career. Manuscripts. the famous Buddhist work. Takshashila. Ratnadadhi and Ratnaganjaka. in time. another centre of learning which attained fame was at Odantapuri. the famous Chinese traveller. According to the . appears to have got 400 Sanskrit works copied for his use and Hiuen Tsang took his own share also from this storehouse of old Manuscripts. at Varendra (North Bengal) and Mithila (Bihar). This centre flourished for over four centuries and Tibetan sources indicate the existence of a library attached to the university. as containing a "great number of books on the religion of Hindus". developed cultural contacts with Tibet and specialised in the study of Tantra. This was Vikramshila-a famous university which. flourished at Vallabhi in western India on the coast of Saurashtra. 480-775.D. In the same region. This library is also referred to in a Persian source. Its fame had spread wide and the centre also instructed students in Brahmanical philosophy and many other fields of knowledge. The library had a large collection of Manuscripts and scholars from abroad came there to copy them and take the copies to their countries. It served as a model for the first Tibetan monastery built in A. It was the capital of the Maitraka kings from A.countries. It-Sing. The library complex was styled as the Dharmaganja (piety mart) and comprised three grand buildings called Ratnasagar.D. founded in the 8th century A. Ratnadadhi was a nine-storied building. 749 and we have evidence that Pala kings took interest in the development of this university and endowed a library of Buddhist and Brahmanical works. An important centre of learning.D. Scholars from Tibet were attracted to it and they wrote works in Sanskrit and translated some of them in Tibetan. speci3lising in Hinayana Buddhism. These rulers gave handsome grants for the maintenance of the university and the establishment of libraries attached thereto. by Dharmapala. There were similar centres of learning with attached libraries at Somnapuri (North Bengal). Tabaqat-e-Nasiri. There was another famous seat of learning near Nalanda. Hiuen Tsang has left an interesting account of this centre but the library is described more fully in Tibetan sources. Thee ghatikashalas were advanced centre of learning. palm leaves. In recent years. They contain an immense wealth of materials. Hiuen Tsang also mentions this centre in his record of his travels. at Patan and Khambhat in Gujarat.Kathasaritsagar. Among these bhandars. In the south. interesting details are available of a library attached to a ghatikashala. those at Jaisalmer and Jaipur in Rajasthan. In the wake of Jainism. The Library was looked after by six librarians whose duties included guidance of students besides preservation and processing of materials. at Arrah in Bihar. both quantitatively and qualitatively.D. It is an example of an institution library of the period and the inscription which describes it is dated A. are famous. and at Mudbidri in South India. these contents are being catalogued and what was once a closed preserve is now being made available gradually to the . an educational institution at Nagai near the present railway junction of Wadi on Bombay-Madras main route. with the result that collections of Jain Manuscripts began to multiply in the form of Jain bhandars from the fifth century onwards and Jain monks not only wrote their own works but preached to the laity the importance of reproducing scriptural Manuscripts and earning punya (Divine goodwill). They also stressed daily reading as one of the duties of a layman. there was a spurt of religious writing and scriptural reproductions. Both these factors promoted reading materials and led to their collection in shastra bhandars or grantha bhandars. Rulers and administrators also promoted and encouraged the preservation of these collections. The Manuscripts were written on Bhurja patra. some preferred to go to Vallabhi as a university rather than to Nalanda or Varanasi. In status and in emoluments the librarians were on a par with members of the teaching faculty. at Delhi and Agra in North India. They were located in Jain temples or upasrayas and in course of time grew progressively in contents. 1092. The management of the bhandars was in the charge of religious personnel. cloth or paper and each was placed between two wooden boards of the size of the Manuscript. tie it up and place it alongside others on iron stacks. the librarians got the same emoluments as the teachers and the bhandarikas or librarians were reckoned on a par with scholars or teachers. each containing 10 to 15 of them as the works contained the words emanating from the mouths of tirthankars (spiritual leaders) they were reverentially preserved and taken care of. Manuscripts were preserved in the later mediaeval period in cardboard boxes. The materials were guarded very jealously and used very rarely until very recently. in this period. In Jain bhandars. there were limited collections constituting temple libraries at some other places as well. these bhandars served as repositories rather than libraries. This combination of duties was an enlightened conception. In most cases. They were listed and accounted for periodically and on one particular day each year they were exposed to sunlight. it is recorded that Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlak found a valuable collection of 1300 ancient Hindu works in Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot (North India). Besides. finely built. the method in vogue was to cover each Manuscript in a piece of cloth. a Persian work. This treatise tells us that a library should be located in a stone building.scholars of the world. In the Tarikh-eFirishta. As regards the organisation of libraries in ancient and mediaeval India and their management. Medieval Period: . There were temple libraries. In shelving. all these years. The librarian in charge of the materials had not only to look after the materials and see to its preservation but also to guide readers in their studies and enquiries. Firoz Shah invited learned Hindus and arranged for some of the books to be translated into Persian. too. as we saw in the case of Nagai. This characteristic marked most of the mediaeval Indian libraries of works in Sanskrit and allied languages. the only work dealing with these aspects so far known is Bhaskara Samhita. But they seem to have been very few and far between. among the vast literature left by the ancients. another rule of Mughal period. Akbar is regarded as one of the greatest Mughal king. Akbar was very interest in manuscripts and appointed calligraphers to copy good manuscripts. which was managed by Lal Beg. his son. (Patel. the property should be used for building and repairing schools. (Khursid. (Sharma. Shaik Faizi.2004. and other institutions.321).1981. the Imperial Library has twenty-four thousand books. At the time of his death in 1605. Some Hindu learning centers also have libraries. “The libraries of these centers contain huge collections of manuscripts on religion and philosophy as well as other subjects like medicine. The Muslim rulers made great contributions to Indian culture and libraries played a significant role in the sociocultural development of the nation. “The period of Mughal is considered as the golden period of Indian history for its educational.Muslims mostly rule the Medieval Period of India. Gulbadan Begum and ruler of Mysore and Jaipur also have their private libraries. literary. Humayun much lived in Agra and established library in his palace. like Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. After the death of Humayun. picture books and beautiful works of calligraphy. it is also known as Mughal Period. (Patel. Babur inherited manuscripts from his father and kept in his library and also collected books from different sources of his kingdom.98). and library activities”.6). Babur died in 1530 and was succeeded by his son Humayun. monasteries. He set up a library at Agra Fort.6). succeeded him in 1356. Babur. gilded pen cases. (Smith.1987.2004. Akbar. There were great changes not only in social and political. portfolios. made a law that when a wealthy man died heirless.2004. he kept books. Some wealthy and scholars. but also on education and library system during this period. Jahangir. libraries. science . Akbar improved the management of library with some technical works. He appointed Sheik Faizi to manage and control library services.6). In his library. Historically. king of Kabul invaded India and annexed Delhi to his kingdom. He established a separate library for women at Fatehpur Sikri and made great improvement to the library. “He established the first Mughal Imperial Library in 1526”. The head librarian was known as “Nizam” and the assistant librarian as “Muhatin” or “Darogha”. Long Library.2004. Copyists. Classification and Cataloguing were also carried out in some ways. There were only nineteen Universities in India before 1947. Gaya Public Library. Translators. other libraries. Adyar in 1886 and Dahi Laxmi Library. Adyar Library.1987. library technical works.99). Calligraphers. (Patel. (Patel. (Sharma. During the Mughal period. Century in India are Andrews Library. Government Library.172-173). Surat in 1850. Accessioning. The Bengal Royal Asiatic Society set up library in 1784. Other staff of Libraries during Mughal period is Scribes. like Gujarat . Book Illustrators. “A number of Academic institutions were established during the British period by the East India Company (the representatives of the British Empire) and by the Christian missionaries”. (Sharma. Janagarh in 1867. (Datta. Bookbinders and Gilders. Madras in 1860. Rajkot in 1856.99). Universities were equipped with libraries in accordance with the Indian University Act of 1904. University of Bombay and University of Madras were established in 1879 and 1907 respectively. 2004. Christian missionaries have also contributed for the libraries since the coming of Vasco da Gama in India. Bombay Royal Asiatic Society in 1804 and Calcutta Public Library in 1835.and history”. viz. Apart from these. The University of Calcutta was established in 1857 and its library was opened in 1873. 2004. Some of the important libraries set up in 19th.7). Gaya in 1855. Connemara Public Library. Nadiad in 1892. British Period: The Britishers came to India primarily to establish trade and commerce.1987. Establishment of these libraries enlightened the community and may be regarded as the foundation of the concept of public libraries to the Indian people. Other Universities. Some of them were very interested for the upliftment of rich cultural heritage of India. 8). He opined that primary education was to be the very base and decided to preserve it by means of libraries. Nizam’s Dominion in 1891 and Travancore in 1829.9). (Patel. The contributions of His Highness the Maharaja Sayajirao III. 1983. Some of the Indian states also established public libraries. Gaekwar of Baroda towards library movement in India cannot be overlooked. At the age of 18. Others states also established such kind of libraries. viz. Jammu and Kashmir in 1879. The people in general were economically poor and socially backward. Cochin established Public Library and Reading Room in Trichur in 1873. he was entrusted with full power of the government of Baroda in the Gujarat speaking region of the Bombay Presidency and the Peninsula of Kathiawar. Kolhapur in 1850. Bhavnagar in 1882 were also established. Kahtiawar.82). (Bhattacharjee. The first significant date in the development of public libraries in India is 1808 when the Bombay Government initiated a proposal to register libraries. the Minister of Education prepared a detailed .2004. in Ahmedabad 1848 and Barton Library. He decided to establish library as an experiment in one of the towns of a taluka and in order to implement his idea immediately. Jaipur established Maharajah’s Public Library in Jaipur in 1899. in 1881. Baroda’s population was predominantly rural. (Nagar. the main occupation was agriculture. Indore established General Library in Indore in 1852. 22).2002. which were to be given copies of books published from the ‘Funds for the Encouragement of Literature’. education was the foundation to reconstruct a new social and economic life and education should be the right of the humblest villager. He introduced free and compulsory education in his princely states. He is remembered today as the Father of Library Movement in India.Vernacular Society along with a library. “In conformity to his ruler’s instructions. Dhar established Victoria General Library in Dhar in 1856. Such as Baroda established Baroda State Library in Baroda in 1877. which were the only agencies for perpetual universal self-education. According to him. Baroda became the first territory not only among the native states but also in British India to have compulsory free primary education. in 1886. he issued orders to his ministers. plan to open Circulating Libraries in the State. 4. (Nagar. 1907. 5. with reading grooms. to rank with the other Departments of Your State. he went to America as “an observer. who is working as Librarian of the Young Men’s Institute. It can be traced back that public library movement started since 1910 in India. He then invited an American. To add to this Central library. etc. In response to his invitation. Borden reached Baroda on November 6. and to bring all the libraries above mentioned under its control and management. 3. general and technical books. He was very much impressed by the library services of America for the development of the people in their social. Borden makes a survey of libraries in Baroda and concludes that there were over 241 libraries. I propose to organize a Department of Public Libraries. and . (Nagar. To unify all the collections of books in Baroda City into one Central library. 1983. with the necessary equipments of officers and clerks. nor did he find them shelved in such a manner as to make them most attractive to readers or convenient to those in charge. Library school. William Alanson Borden. a pupil-assistant of Charles A Cutter. which was approved in March. holding a little over 100000 volumes. Lecture hall.1983.26). To make that library to be Free Public Library of Baroda City. Should Your Highness feel disposed to grant me the necessary authority. Connecticut to come and established library services in India. Children’s library. Every public library instituted through the State’s financial assistance was to be named as Circulating Library”. He then make proposal for the best services of libraries in the State as: 1. But he did not find any of those libraries adequately housed. and became the Director of State Libraries. Women’s Library. 1910. 20). study rooms. In 1906. a student desirous of acquiring all the knowledge and experience that could enable him to make his own State a model one in India”. economic and educational life. To erect a suitable library building of fireproof construction. New Haven. 2. and executive offices. He was instrumental in the foundation of the Baroda Library Club and its journal. 1911. in which he trained his own assistants and successors. January 30.19). (Ranganathan. The Library Department was created under Order No. forty-five town libraries.3). Ranganathan published his Five Laws of Library Science in 1931. Another great contribution of Borden was the establishment of the first library school in India. (Nagar. Borden conducted the first formal library-training programme in India at Baroda in 1911. The Maharaja apparently accepted Borden’s proposals. University of Madras created the post of University Librarian in 1923 and Dr. and more than a thousand village libraries-all integrated into one chain system. He also prepared Model Public Library Bill and drives to legislate library bill in Indian states. S R Ranganathan joined the post on 4 January 1924. He made a tremendous contribution for the development of libraries in India. (Patel.9/19. cities. four district or divisional libraries. published quarterly in three languages between 1912 and 1919.10). and villages of the State. . As a result of system. and ordered that the whole scheme might be implemented in parts. 1983. within two decades 85% of the Baroda urban and rural population had access to libraries. but which the owners would probably be glad to have stored in a safe place. Borden developed library classification scheme to suit Indian libraries. Borden played a leading role for the establishment. As the Director of state libraries.38). (Nagar. new and old.1983. Colon Classification in 1933 and Classified Catalog Code in 1934. To make it also the center from which traveling libraries should start and from which the books. he planned a network of free public libraries consisting a state central library. for organizing libraries in Baroda. 2004. could be distributed to the various branch libraries in the different towns.also the main storehouse for all the valuable historical documents and papers now in private hands in the State.1957. “Library Miscellany”. management and organization of public libraries in India. Hence public library became part of the education budget. non-formal education and adult education. To enhance the level of literacy of 16% in 1941. educationists and people of library bent of mind founded Calcutta Public Library in 1835 and the same was opened on 21 March 1836 for the public. He bought the rights of the Library from the proprietors and later merged it with the Official imperial Library consisting of government departmental libraries of the East India Company. The central and the state governments took a number of steps forward for the development of the nation from the point of education and considered library as essential part of it. Lord Curzon. the activities of the library came into standstill. In 1948. namely. The government further initiated steps for the . the then Viceroy and Governor-General of India visited Calcutta in 1899 and found a miserable condition of Calcutta Public Library. In 1944.1995. (Jambhekar. constructed in honor of the GovernorGeneral of India. one year after the independence of India.Scholars. Indian War of Independence broke out in 1857 resulted in to Europeans of Calcutta withdrew their support for the library management in 1899. social education. Imperial Library was transformed into National library of India and was housed to the Viceroy’s Palace in Calcutta. the Belvedere Palace. Calcutta Public Library was shifted to a new and spacious building. Modern Period: Public libraries in India made a tremendous growth after the independence of India in 1947. He then declared open of a new Imperial Library of India on 30 January 1903 in the Metcalf Hall. the government undertook some programmes such as extension services. continuing education. Lord Metcalf. The programs executed by provincial and central governments since 1910 for the social and adult education of the populace paved the way for the enactment of library laws and rules for grants-in-aid in the country. Consequently. the management and establishment of 29the library were gradually waning and by the end of the century.1). (Jambhekar. Ministry of Education. and Delhi Public Library in New Delhi The Advisory Committee for Libraries as constituted in 1957 by the Government of India. was established in 1972. which section was under the . (Naidu. The Committee submitted its report in 1959 with a drafted Model Library Bill. (Kumbar). The model bill was sent to all the states/UTs.1990). Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation.1995). In 1972. a library section was established in the Department of Culture under the Ministry of Education. with K P Sinha as the Chairman. In order to accelerate the pace of socioeconomic development. In 1954. In 1979. The Planning Commission constituted a Working Group on Public Libraries in 1964 and the Commission submitted its report in 1965 with a Model Public Libraries Act. the Government of India. Libraries were considered to be an essential part of the Community Development Project that was launched during the first plan period. and became one of the three depository libraries in 1955. an autonomous body under the Department of Culture. the Asiatic Society Library in Bombay. Connemara Public Library in Madras. The Connemara Public Library in Madras became the State Central Library in 1950 under the provision of Madras Public Libraries Act 1948.development of community and organized some projects in this regard. Delhi Public Library was established in 1951 as the first UNESCO Public Library Pilot Project under the joint auspices of UNESCO and Government of India to adopt “Modern Techniques to Indian Conditions” and to 30serve as a model public library for Asia. The act obligated every publisher in India to deposit one copy each of its publications to the National Library in Calcutta. Planning Commission constituted Working Group on Development of Public Libraries to make recommendations for library development. which do not have Public Libraries Act. The main objective of the Foundation was to assist state library services in developmental works. the Delivery of Book Act was passed to include newspaper. the government considered public libraries to be an integral part of development projects. Gujarat. The Government of India. West Bengal. voluntary organizations. Maharashtra. and open channels of learning. A Working Group on Modernization of Library Services and Informatics was appointed by the Planning Commission in 1983 and submitted its report in 1984 with the formulation of National Policy on Library Services and Informatics. Tamil Nadu. Karnataka. Goa. Manipur. (Jhambekar. Department of Culture. and school library programs undertaken as part of the “Operation Blackboard Scheme” of the National Education Policy on Education. The National Book Policy. 2) That 10 percent of the annual education budget of the governments be used to purchase books for libraries. Kerala. The objective was to promote the development of public libraries in India. and the status of librarianship improved. Uttaranchal and Rajasthan have enacted Public Libraries Bills during 1948 to 2006. appointed a Committee on National Policy on Library and Information System in 1985. Delhi Public Library became a copyright library in 1982.1995). (Jambhekar. (Jhambekar. as: 1) Provision of reading material for children by all the agencies involved. 1995). National Literacy Mission was adopted in 1986. 1995). which emphasized education for women and also establishment of rural libraries. non-formal. These goals are to be achieved by using formal. 1986 states that a nationwide movement for improvement of existing libraries and the establishment of new ones will be taken up. 1986 also had an impact on libraries. 1986 were given assistance. Mizoram. Fourteen states namely.charge of an Under Secretary. Publishers. Haryana. The National Policy on Education. provision will be made in all educational institutions for library facilities. The following five libraries were regarded as national . Andhra Pradesh. Orissa. Rural libraries should become the focal point for postliteracy and continuing educational programs. Library networks and systems were strengthened at the national level institutions in the development of literature in neoliterates. Because of the efforts of the Calcutta Public Library. (http.org/history. In the report of 1850 we find that the library started collecting books in Gujarati.importance and may be stated in a very brief manner: 1) National Library. Imperial Library and Calcutta Public Library. the then Governor General of India. Of these.675 volumes from the library of the College of Fort William to the Calcutta Public Library. Prince Dwarkanath Tagore was the first proprietor of the Calcutta Public Library. the National Library has developed rare books and journals in its collection. Fort William and the library of the East India Board in London. were underutilized for the want of facilities or restrictions. the most important and interesting was the library of the Home Department.nlindia. Kolkata was established in 1836 in the name of Calcutta Public Library. Such a well-organized and efficiently run library was rare even in Europe during the first half of the 19th century. It was not a Government institution running on a proprietary basis. This and donations of books from individuals formed the nucleus of the library. was the person who conceived the idea of opening a library for the use of the public. he decided to amalgamate the rich collection of both of these libraries. So. He noticed both the libraries. which contained many books formerly belonging to the library of East India College. He was successful in effecting the amalgamation of Calcutta Public Library with the then Imperial Library under certain terms. Marathi. Pali.//www. Lord Metcalf transferred 4. were purchased for the library. Both the Indian and foreign books. Lord Curzon.html) The Imperial Library was formed in 1891 by combining a number of Secretariats libraries. But the use of the library was restricted to the superior officers of the Government. . The then Governor General. The Calcutta Public Library had a unique position as the first public library in this part of the country. Ceylonese and Punjabi. The Government of Bengal and North Western Provinces regularly made by individuals as well as donations. especially from Britain. Kolkata. with such additions as are required to make it a good all-round library of standard works of reference. called Imperial Library. with an enactment of the Imperial Library (change of name) Act 1948 and the collection was shifted from the Esplanade to the present Belvedere Estate. London. Acquisition and conservation of all significant printed materials produced in the country to the exclusion of ephemera: • Collection of printed materials concerning the country wherever published and also acquisition of photographic record of such materials . Librarian of the British Museum. After his death J. On 1st February 1953 the National Library was opened to the public. inaugurated by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. The reviewing Committee in its report of 1969 suggested that the following should be the basic features of the National Library. The aims and objectives of the Imperial Library. well defined in a Notification in the 'Gazette of India' as ' It is intended that it should be a library of reference. Asadulla was appointed as the librarian and he continued as the librarian till July 1947. Mr. every work written about India. Kesavan was appointed as the first librarian of the National Library. the famous scholar and linguist Harinath De took over the charge of the library. in which. After his death.S. Khan Bahadur M. the Asst. "The general idea of the whole Library is that it should contain all the books that have been written about India in popular tongues. The policy of acquisition broadly adhered to by the Imperial Library was enunciated by Lord Curzon in his speech at the opening ceremony of the library. After his retirement. can be seen and read. at any time. John Macfarlane." After the independence the Government of India changed the name of the Imperial Library as the National Library. was appointed as the first Librarian of the Imperial Library. was formally opened to the public on 30th January 1903 at Metcalf Hall. a working place for students and a repository of material for the future historians of India. Sri B.The library. Chapman became the librarian. A.A. Chapman showed keen interest in the affairs of the library and worked hard to improve its status. so far as possible. that are not available within the country; • Acquisition and conservation of manuscripts having national importance; • Planned acquisition of foreign materials required by the country; • Rendering of bibliographical and documentation service of retrospective materials, both general and specialized; • Acting as a referral centre purveying full and accurate knowledge of all sources of bibliographical activities; • Provision of photocopying and reprographic services; and • Acting as the centre for international book exchange and international loan. (National Library 2003). 2) Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna was open for the public in October 1891 with 4000 Oriental manuscripts. Maulvi Khuda Bakhsh donated his entire collection to the nation by a deed of trust. Acknowledging the immense historical and intellectual value of its rich and valued collection, the Govt. of India declared the Library as Institution of National Importance by an act of Parliament in 1969. The Library is now fully funded by the Ministry of Culture (Govt. of India). This autonomous institution is being governed by a Board with the Governor of Bihar as its ex-officio Chairman and Director is carrying the responsibility of day to-day management of Library affairs. (http://kblibrary.bih.nic.in/default.htm) 3) Rampur Raza Library, Rampur was founded by Nawab Faizullah Khan in 1774 AD. It was brought under the management of a Trust till the Government of India took over the library on 1 July 1975 under the Act of Parliament, which declared it as an institution of National importance. It contains very rare and valuable collection of manuscripts, historical documents, specimens of Islamic calligraphy, miniature paintings, astronomical instruments and rare illustrated works in Arabic and Persian languages besides 80,000 printed books. Nawab Faizullah Khan who ruled the state of Rampur, from 1774 to 1794, established the library with his personal modest collection kept in the Tosha Khana of his Palace. Now the Library occupies the position of an autonomous institution of national importance under Department of Culture, Government of India and is fully funded by Central Government. The Library has now attained an International status of higher studies. (http;//razalibrary.gov.in/index.asp) 4) Thanjavur Maharaja Serfoji's Sarasvati Mahal Library, Thanjavur is one among a few medieval libraries existing in the world. It contains very rare and valuable collections of manuscripts, books, maps and paintings on all aspects of Art, Culture and Literature. The Encyclopedia Britannica in its survey of the Libraries of the world mentions this as "the most remarkable Library in India". The Library houses a rich and rare collection of manuscripts on art, culture and literature. Conceived and christened as the Royal Palace Library by the Nayak Kings of Thanjavur (1535-1675 AD). And the Maratha rulers (1676-1855) nourished it for intellectual enrichment. In 1918 this Library was made as a public Library. A body constituted by the Government and financed by the Central and State Governments now administers the library. During the reign of Nayaks of Thanjavur (1535-1675 A.D.), "Sarasvati Bhandar"(Collection place of Manuscripts) was formed and developed. The Maratha rulers who captured Thanjavur in 1675 A.D. patronized the culture of Thanjavur and developed the Royal Palace Library till 1855 A.D. The Sarasvati Bhandar was situated within the Palace campus and the Manuscripts used for the purpose of reading by the Royal personages. Among the Maratha Kings, King Serfoji II (17981832), was an eminent scholar in many branches of learning and with great enthusiasm he took special steps for the enrichment of the Library. It is a fitting tribute to the great collector Serfoji that the Library is named after him. Till the survival of the last Maratha Queen, the Library was the Palace property. After that, the Library together with the Palace properties formed the subject of litigation in Civil Courts. The Royal Family members voluntarily came forward to delete this Library from the suit properties formed an Endowment and dedicated this Library to the public with one lakh rupees for its maintenance and upkeep. Accordingly, the Government of Madras in their G.O. Ms. No.1306 Home (Education) dated 5th October 1918, took possession of the Library under the Charitable Endowment Act and framed scheme for the Library management. In 1983, the Library was declared as an Institution of National Importance. The Government of Tamil Nadu abolished the Five Member Committee of administration and made it as a Registered Society as per G.O. 209 (EST) dated 1-2- 83. The Society was constituted and got registration on 9-7-1986 under the Tamil Nadu Registered Societies Act of 1975. The Society consists of ex-officio members of Central and State Governments, nominated Scholars, Member from the Royal family and the Director of the Library. The Hon'ble Education Minister of the Government of Tamil Nadu is the ex-officio Chairman of this society. (http;//www.sarasvatimahallibrary.tn.nic.in/library/library.html). Harekrushna Mahtab State Library, Bhubaneswar was conceived during 1 st Five Year Plan under the advice of Government of India and was completed in 1959, enshrined within a beautiful land of 3 acres in a prime location of Capital City of Bhubaneswar. In 1967, it was named as Gandhi Bhawan commemorating birth centenary of Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation. In 1987 it was renovated and entire space of the four storied building was utilized for the functioning of two Libraries i.e. State Library for the entire State of Orissa and another Public Library for Bhubaneswar City. In 1987, Government decided to rename the State Library and the Public Library as Harekrushna Mahtab State Library (in memory of Dr. Harekrushna Mahtab, the builder of modern Orissa) and the Bhubaneswar Public Library respectively. The former is a Reference Library and lending of books is not permitted whereas the latter is a Lending Library for the public of Bhubaneswar City. These two Libraries have managed to function over the limited space. Total readers seats available are about 350 against the present demands of 600-700 readers per day. (http;//hkmsl.gov.in/glance.htm). Public libraries 2. Although special libraries and information centres have overlapping functional characteristics. National libraries 4.4 Libraries in General: "A library is the key of the knowledge of the world" this view of Pandit Nehru tells about the importance of the libraries in the field of education. 1.5 Types of Library The library may be categorizing into these following types: 1.in/bitstream/10603/1204/9/09_chapter%202.6 Special Library . there are considerable variations in the level of services offered by them. Library is an important agency of informal education and it takes its clients from the agencies of formal education. Special libraries On the basis of purpose the first three libraries come under the general libraries their main function is educational while special libraries have been in existence from the beginning of this century.inflibnet.ac. A library promotes self education which makes a person capable enough to conduct himself properly in the society and the participate in its various activities confidently. A wide range of reading materials of a library if read and digested properly will help in developing an individual’s general ability for independent thinking and judgment. Information centers emerged from the fifties and have now developed into a major group of information institution.pdf] 1. 1. Academic libraries 3.[http://shodhganga. It also includes libraries which have collections of particular form of material. in at least two senses: (i) The general which includes specialized libraries and collection of many types and (ii) The specific indicating . 1 Thus. Its task being to locate.6. a form of material. J. select.1 Definition of Special Library: The term special library has been derided by various library scientists /librarians/information officers. and specialized information. Wright3. Foskett4 : "A special library is one serving a group having an extra library existence. whose member direct at least some of these activities towards a common purpose". In sum. of government departments and libraries of research. a special library deals in a particular subject or a group of related subjects. organise and differentiate information in specialised fields of knowledge as soon as it is available in written form. universities and schools of learned and professional societies. special users. That is. It includes libraries of colleges. It serves a specialized body of users. According to Elin Christianson5 "Today the term special library exists. 1. the expression "special library means a library which is concerned almost exclusively with the literature of a paricular subject or group of subjects". but there seems to be no end to this. a special library is a particularised information service centre designed to meet the research needs of the specialists.A library is called "Special" when (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Its collection is of a specialized nature. E. industry and commerce "special collection of public libraries are also covered under it." According to D. evaluate. It has a staff with specialized training in a particular subject matter or methodology or It offers specialized and usually personalized-services. According to J. the experts and the top management of the parent organization2. a special library is one which deals with special subjects. A special library is attached to an industrial organization. These are not normally directly open to the general public. 2. 1. medical. farming a part of its parent organization. 3.the library which provides specialized information service in business industry and government". Special libraries have specific rather than general objectives and are specialised in particular subject-fields and their closely related areas. According to Astall7 "Special libraries serve a special clientele located within a single establishment or group. and all engaged in working towards one common purpose. industrial. Their clientele are specialists in some subject fields and they serve their parent organisation with special interest. If we go by the dictionary meaning of word “Special” the above definition would appear to be an appropriate definition of special library. The definition quoted above indicated and emphasizes that a library with special interest in collection is a special library. he adds. According to him. He further says that the staffs of these special libraries are also the members of the group as bodies which they serve. government. The word “Special” is used to denote some distinct or individual characteristic or to indicate a particular field of interest. professional institution and a learned society. scientific and technical libraries. The term special embraces commercial. "The difference between a general library and special library lays only in the nature of the clientele and the material or the documents served". Ranganathan6 derives a special library as one which is built up to supply detailed information in respect of some limited subject field. Thus the definition appears to be appropriate . They have mainly been established to meet the vital needs for research and to provide their clientele with expeditious documentation and reprographic .2 Characteristics of a Special Library To make the concept of a special library further clear Sreepathi Naidu8 stipulates the following characteristics: 1. 4.6. business. A special library is a major source of information in the organisation it serves. necessary to have Special Library or specialized collection in other types of libraries in order to fulfill the specialized research needs of the clientele and the parent institution. patents. A majority of them have small specialized collections and a small staff of subject specialists. 8. and they process and organise this information for being disseminated quickly to their clientele. learned societies. maintains and disseminates informational materials to promote the organisations activities towards research and development. 7. Since. There has taken place enormous growth of information in all fields due to the advent of printing press which was invented in sixteenth century. Printed . 6. Far them the latest information on their subject fields is more important. Besides books and periodicals most of these libraries possess Technical reports. etc.service. 1904 at New Hampshire gave the name of ‘Special Libraries’ to such Libraries as were providing Special materials to the specialist readers. organizes. and the Government and the Private sector have laid much emphasis on research in all disciplines in general and in the fields of science and technology in particular. reprints of research papers trade literature. It was truly felt then that Special Libraries will have to be built up and grown in order to meet the Special needs of new clientele belonging to Industries various profession. A group of American Librarians which met on July 2. It acquires. It is therefore. 1. standards and specifications.6. etc.3 Need & Objectives of Special Library The need for the special Library and the need to provide adequate Library services to the specialist reader were felt at the advent of the 20 th century. Universities of today. then the need of Special Library is being increasingly felt awing to following major factors. 5. is to select. Charles Bernier wrote in this context a decade ago. evaluate. retrieval and disseminate specialised library material among the specialist users of the library. “To-day’s scientific literature is so large that. “Thus the information explosion has made it essential to only to make all possible effects to collect and organize the maximum number of available materials. fluent in 30 languages. to say once again. This can be achieved by strengthening special libraries. The "Specialist". It serves a special class of users who are engaged in research and development of a nation. It is to cater to the information needs of the experts and researchers. 31 st he would have read not mare than one tenth of the material published during that year. then by December. procure. started on January 1st to read all papers in his particular field. "expert" or top management do not have the time today to read through the vast volume of publication in the field. evaluate organise. The task of the special library.material had created a sensation about four hundred years ago. but also to tell the needy as to what other material of his interest is available at what place and in what farm. “ If the world goes on this way for a thousand years. knowledge must be indexed. select. If a chemist. organise and disseminate information in specialised fields of knowledge as soon as it is available in written form and . Particularly in the field of science and technology the specialised literature is being produced at an alarming rate. far 40 hours a week at a rate of 4 article an hour. as it exists to support its activities.” Presently the world is witnessing the production of about five lakh printed books and about ten lakh periodical title most of which are in various subject fields. The task of a special library is to locate. Sengupta9 says that a special library helps in the generation and dissemination of new knowledge. This is reflected in the statement made in the seventeenth century by Leibniz who said. field and readily made available to make quick decisions. Infect the objectives of the special library are directly connected with these of its parent organization. stare. It plays a distinctive role in the communication system. For them. one person can no longer read the output in one great branch of it. I am afraid that whole cities would be made up of libraries. such as chemistry. information. and information. 3. information. data. Publication as reproduction of documents.6. Data are raw facts. Issue of documents Routing of periodicals Inter-library loan Replies to enquire received personally. A special library is concerned with the dissemination of information rather than promoting the use of documents. data. Information is processed data. Translation service.including unpublished information some time. 1. 5. 1. 7. Retrospective search. 2. information. Acquisition of documents. Making a source of information available to the user may be all right in a general library. Retrieval of documents. Reffered services. [ 1. 2. And a document is a source of information. Its basic function is the communication of information. data. . 1. 3. information. 8. 4. Processing of documents. The documents as source of information are used to achieve this end. because the time of the user valuable and as such must be saved. 4. 5. Selective dissemination of information (SDI). data. 6. but in a special library information has to provide in a ready form. Selection of the documents. through letter or on phone. data.6.4 Functions of a Special Library Weisman10 stipulates the following functions of a special library.5 Services of Special Libraries Normally a special library is required to undertake the following services11. in addition to books. 6.9. Reprographic services 2. memorabilia and other types of archive material. are of international importance. The other services are to 1. are of considerable size. such as photographs and slides. 1. On line information search services. with no lending facilities. Large libraries such as these often include. Indexing and abstracting services. Bibliographic instructions State of art reports. most of which relate to the collections housed in the museum (with poor coverage of museum studies) and are intended as working libraries for staff. for example. C. however. ROM Search 7. or whatever its type. Micro-filming services.7 Museum library: However small a museum. Some. 4. D. Publications 3. its activities usually require the support of a library. the library of the . and libraries in many major museums. such as those in the United Kingdom national museums. special forms of material. Many of these museum libraries (a particular type of special library) are simply small collections of a few books and periodicals. manuscripts. Current Awareness Services (CAS) 5. 10. pp. There is a brief discussion of museum libraries and their nature. Ashvari (1993) Encyclopaedia of Information and library science. 1985-6). staffing and stock in Kenyon (1992). Available online through DIALOG and BRS) and Library Literature (New York: H. Articles and other publications about museum libraries can be traced through Library and lriformation Science Abstracts (London: Library Association. operations. Aksha deep Publishing house. W. Detailed advice on running a museum library is given in Larsen [296]. countless archives and nearly one million photographs. 1985). Monthly.American Museum of Natural History in New York contains nearly half a million volumes. Bi-monthly. Available online through WILSONLINE). New Delhi. Museum Library: Museum is a public institution. also published in monograph form (Mount. Wilson. 1969-. Some libraries serving museums which emphasize science and technology (mainly in the USA) were described in a special issue of the periodical Science and Technology Libraries (6(1/2). .2183 Refer to a group of specialized book collection which is maintained by a museum in the fields covered by its exhibits. A modern museum Corea. while certain aspects of museum libraries are discussed in The role of the library in a museum [302]. 1931/32-. special the arouse historical laymen aesthetic students educational facilities offered by the museum. Of the six largest art libraries in the United States. The valuable collections presented Scholars. monographs. rich and valuable additions. are to artistically and exhibited and can and avail intelligently interest. In fact. The Musee Guimet (Paris) possesses a collection of over 50. The collection is projected through guide books. with new. Similarly. the museums have become a parannial source for research. Art Library of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London) has over 300. catalogues.000 volumes and is perhaps the largest art library anywhere in the world. it cannot promote and conduct research. Unless a museum classifies the collection publication-wise. memoirs journals. the well-knows museums in United States have libraries with collections varying from 25. handists. According to the recommendations of . very few museums have really good libraries to meet the requirements of research scholars.000 volumes.000 volumes to 100. there are museum libraries. etc.The changing concept of the museum as an educational and research centre has resulted in the phenomenal growth of museum libraries the entire world over.000 volumes. There is a distinct need for interpretative scholarship in a museum and for inclusion of research workers in the regular activity of the museum. Special attention is needed for the development of good libraries which will serve as centres of dynamic and active research. There are nearly 400 museums in India and majority of these are art and culture museums. In India. are hereasunder. The Bharat Kala Bhawan. The changing concept of the museum as an educational and research centre has resulted in a phenomenal growth of the museum libraries all over the world. The Salar jund History and developmenmt of Libraries in India/ RK Bhatta. India has also a good number of museums in the country. New Delhi. some important and older museums. p. . 1995. which claim to have good libraries. Mittal Pub. 360. Varansi has a good library on art and culture.Expert Museum Survey Committee as approved by the Central Advisory Board of Museums. Some of the museums surveyed own and build up their own libraries but it has never turned out to be so for all of them. However. This has been and is being developed for active systematically ensuring excellent facilities research. The library came into being in July . The museum is a premier and unique institution storing the culture glory of India.The National Museum (New Delhi) has on excellent library with a superb collection of reading materials on art and culture. represented in its vast and valuable collections. as it possesses some important collections of great importance from other countries. It is also international in character. The museum has a research and reference library with large collections on various subjects of interest to the museum. 1954 with about 400 books at Rashtrapati Bhawan. archaeology. It has now built up a representative collection of 48. To aid and assist researchers by providing requisite literature. history. To wet and satisfy the appetite of the visitors seeking information depending upon. To arrange inter library loan facilities with various libraries. for the study and interpretation of the art collections in the museum. The library has an excellent reference collection and subscribes not only to important Indian and foreign journals but also has acquired back-files of important journals. culture. To provide necessary forum for self-study by the curatorial staff and keep abreast. The aims and objectives of the National Museum Library are as follows: To built up an intensive and judiciously selected collection of book and non-book materials. anthropology. etc. museology.000 of book and non-book materials on subjects such as art. with the latest research in its special fields. To compile and supply special bibliographies and to render documentation and reference services. To act as an active study and research centre and to promote research by providing by reference and research facilities.understanding of the museum collections. To serve as an information bureau and to answer the specialized information queries of museum staff and the research community at large.. chemical preservation. civilisation. relevant to the special collection of the museum and to make it readily available for use through an efficient service. philosophy. religion. literature. . Durance and H. HooperGreenhill. an English translation by H. Objects of Knowledge (London: Athione Press. Natural History. p. be made concerning the role of keepers of the respective collections. Germain Bazin. "Wisdom." Managing Infonnation 1. a former pupil of Aristotle. Ur of the Chaldees: A Record of Seven Years of Excavation. 6. 1967). A. Taylor. eg. who was responsible for learned manuscripts and essential writings." Alexandria 4. Leonard Will comments on the difference between the nature of information in a museum and that in a library. E. Information and Data: Transformation and Convergence in Archives and Libraries of the Western World. C. ed. 1992). De Partibus Animalium. (London: Ernest Benn. "Museums and their Libraries. In a discussion by C. . 44.it is impossible for any surrogates. some distinction can. However. 'associated information' is explained as representing the knowledge which prevents a museum object being merely a Curio. An . perhaps. Aristotle compiled lengthy works on zoology. 403: 'A museum is an institution which collects. pp. 46. "Museum Objects as Sources of Information. Williams. Volume III. See Durance and Taylor. such as detailed descriptions. 3. MA: Harvard University Press." Special Libraries 22(July/Aug. p.REFERENCES (From PhD): 1. B. p. gave orders to his subjects throughout Asia and Greece to inform him of the nature of animals native to each respective region so that these data could be related to his tutor. Historia Animaliu. so the objects themselves must be preserved. 1 (January 1994): 32-34. 2nd ed. (Cambridge. exhibits and interprets material evidence and associated information for the public benefit'. documents. The Museum Age (New York: Universe Books.. Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge (London: Routledge. 1(1992): 37-61. 32) 4. through the study of specimens)." Museums Yearbook 1993-1994. by extension. 1931): 207. Rackham. See Pliny."(p. Book Vifi. L. 200-203. 2nd ed. and also includes all recordsrelating to its past history. 1989) and in Leonard Wifi.n. 2. "taking the option of preserving only the information content would convert a museum into a library. Definition of a 'museum' in "Museums Association (UK) Code for Museum Authorities. xvii. 7. 1983). preserves. Libr VIII-XI. Both were housed together in a palace or religious institution. 5. Pliny records that Alexander the Great. J. In its early history. Through the aid of these enquiries (and. whereas a keeper of records was responsible to his administration in the conduct of business. to encapsulate all the 'information content' of objects. See E. In the Code. it is stated that general research was probably the purview of a librarian. London: Heinemann. acquisition and subsequent usage. the library was not always distinct from archives. The object as a source of information is discussed in Susan Pearce. Hooper-Greenhill suggests that the Medici Palace has been cited as the identity of origin for European museums and for European collecting practices. Because the museum is based on a collection of physical objects. images or analysis reports. Leonard Woolley. 1950). Knowledge. 10. 1681). Quoted in: G. Volume III. Also see Paula Findlen's article. The earliest description of the Repository appears in: Nehemiah Grew. Rackham. 8. See H. Heritage of the English Library (London: Allen & Unwin. 3 vols. and Impey & MacGregor. op. Cabinets of curioiésities. no. Morhof. "A Magazin of all Manner of Inventions'. p. note 8. 46. an English translation by H. p." reprinted in Basil Brown. a cura di Marco Spallanzani [and] Giovanna Gaeta Bertela (Firenze : Associazione 'Aniici del Bargello. eds. 1921). 14. "The Museunt its Classical Etymology and Renaissance Genealogy. to which were added the object collections of various members.. cit. Francis Bacon. MA: Harvard University Press.).2(1990): 206. xvii. a fuller history on the attempts to implement Bacon's empirical vision is outlined. Cited in Eva Schulz. 1732). 132. 109. p." In Impey & Macgregor. Origins of Museums. Robert Hubert alias Forges. 1983). Paludanus. . Polyhistor. An extensive discussion on private collections and cabinets of the 16th and 17th centuries appears in Oliver Impey and Arthur MacGregor. 1985). The natural history specimens of London collector. who Reigned and Died. (LUbeck. [I.enumeration of Lorenzo's collection has been published in Libro d'Inventario dei beni di Lorenzo il Magnjfico. Book Vifi. London: Heinemann. The contents of the Repository were transferred to the British Museum in 1779.. Origins of Museums. 1 (1989): 59. "Notes on the History of Collecting and Museums in Light of Selected Literature of the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. A.. Paula Findilen.. Lib. "Gesta Grayorunt or. fonned the basis of the Repository. or "Theatrum mundi" are examined in terms of their role as shapers of knowledge in E. Hooper-Greenhill (qv. Schepelern. 2nd ed. 13. Natural History. In MacGregor's article. 245. pseud. R de Beer. Museums in the Quest for Salomon's House in Seventeenth-Century England. 2(1989): 207. pp. 59-78. 1953)." Journal of the History of Collections 1. Libr VIII-XI. Musaeum Regalis Societatis (London. ii. p.D. 12. 46. Brown] Law Sports at Gray's Inn (1594) (New York. G. cujus Epitomen exhibere De Partibus Animalium. 9. See Pliny." Journal of the History of Collections 2. The Origins of Museums: the Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Europe (Oxford: Clarendon Press. part 1. 122-123. Arthur MacGregor. p. the History of the High and Mighty Prince Henry. pp. in Raymond Irwin. ita in scientia naturali expenmentali uno hoc Volumine opus habemus. II. 1594. "Natural Philosophers and Princely Collectors: Worm. Sir Hans Sloane and the British Museum (London: Oxford University Press. and the Gottorp and Copenhagen Collections. 1964). The original text appears in D. 11." Journal of the History of Collections 1.: 'Quemadmodum in scientiis addiscendis libris opus habemus. Translated from the Latin. K. 15. 1992). D. (Cambridge. As quoted in Impey and MacGregor. Ibid. influence. 1675). Ibid. Mea Allen. The Tradescants: Their Plants. Record rolls would be kept in the White Tower from the reign of Edward I until 1851 when the Public Record Office was built in Chancery Lane. "Notes on the History of Collecting and Museums in Light of Selected Literature of the Sixteenth to Eighteenth Century. 23-24. Ovenell." In Impey & MacGregor. Museums: Their History and Their Uses. and William Schupbach. p. An Odd Thought Concerning a New Sort of Exhibition (or rather. circa 1660. 1904). Origins of Museums. 87. 1964).. 1955). Ibid. London.For a description of the Royal Society library. 250. The Diary of John Evelyn. 173174. Ibid. 24. See E. serves as a source for all three authors. VoL IV. Wiener. 1657. 26. p. 22. p. The Library and Archives of the Royal Society 1660. an Academy of Sciences. The Tower of London: Its Buildings and Institutions (London: HMSO. In an article by Eva Schulz.. 1978). Vol. At the time that the Ashmolean Museum was opened to the public. See Chariton. The library of the Armouries is discussed in S. For a history of the Tower and its collections.S. Origins of Museums. however.De Beer. 90-92. Quiccheberg is cited as a possible. 1992). 531. 15-17 Sept... . 23. Ibid. translated in Philip P. p. 50. Schulz. of which Robert Hooke was also keeper. 25. "Some Cabinets of Curiosities in European Academic Institutions. "Leibniz's Project of a Public Exhibition of Scientific Inventions. 20. 1686. ed. 1986)." Journal of the History of Collections 2 no.. p." Assignation 5 (April 1988): 14-15. Barter-Bailey. 29. John. 21. p.1990 (London: The Society. F. p. 28. 6 vols. Gardens and Museum. Pliny. 2 (1990): 205-218. 22. p. 17. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. See David Murray. pp. E. 186. 1 (Glasgow: Maclehose. Two other early collections housed in the Tower were the menagerie and the Public Records. September. see Marie Boas Hall. the establishment of a "museum library" has only a recent history. 199. The Ashinolean Museum 1 683-1894 (Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp." Journal of the History of Ideas 1(1940): 232-240. John Evelyn's own copy of the Musaeum Tradescantianum is held by the Museum of Garden History which is situated on the Tradescant's former estate in Lambeth. pp. The Diary of John Evelyn. though unacknow—ledged. Appendix II. the works of Valentini and Neickelius are described in terms of their importance to the development of collections and the private cabinet. However.. (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 16 December. 77. 76. De Beer. 16. 27. Joseph. p. 1570. R. VoL ifi. 18. 19. "The Royal Armouries Library. the Armouries in the Tower of London had become accessible to visitors for a small admission charge.1662 (London: M. . Museum Pettiverianum. following his appointment as Banks' librarian. 1850 (1170).und NaturalienKammern insgemein (Kiel. 5 tom. 264-267. 34. Michael Bernhard Valentini. Major refers to Pliny as an authoritative source. 54. Jonas Dryander had initially come to England to arrange the collections of Queen Charlotte and. 1969). 40. Cited in Edward Edwards. Lives of the Founders of the British Museum.703. became Assistant Keeper in the Natural History Department of the British Museum in 1807. Museographia. p. Book XXXV. And Schulz.. Great Britain. cit. the various libraries of the museum remain in separate areas of the building.. Natural History. Auch Ost-Indisches Sendschreiben und Rapporten]. 209-212 32. Museum Museorum. [Jenckel]. 1(1704). 37. Paris (founded 1793). (Frankfurt. op. [ 15]. rara naturae opera continens ex variis mundi plagis advecta.. op. pp. pseud. oder Anleitung zwn rechten Begriff nützlicher Anlegung der Museorum oder Raritäten. 1798-1800).30. translated by H. 1727). p. Major. 213-215. 39. with Minutes of Evidence. note 27. a J. Cap. . pp. Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Constitution and Government of the British Museum. It is interesting to note that the Alfred Waterhouse design for the Natural History Museum did not include provision for a library facility. ii. A section of Pliny's Historia Naturalis concerns the history of art in which are described ancient archive rooms filled with books and memorials.. 38. pp. In addressing the need for an Antiquariwn. Museum Museorum. (Leipzig und Breslau. 1674). This can be compared to the early provision made for a curatorial library in the Natural History Museum. [Schaubühne oder Natur. 422. and includes mention of the great libraries of Alexandria and Pergamum.Kammern. Arundell Esdaile. oder vollstandige Schau-Bühne aller Materialen und Specereyen. 212. Appendix and Index.. cit. Johann Daniel Major. Van Heusden. 31. 7. 36.. ordine digesta nominibus propriis signata. note 27. 1704-1714). Schulz. N. Rackham (London: Heinemann. p. House of Commons Select Committee. The British Museum Library (London: Allen and Unwin. p. Neickelius. At present. [Part 1]. 1946). 33.und Materialenkammer. Catalogus bibliothecae historico-naturalis Josephi Banks. VII. 305. 1705). & iconibus aeneis eleganter illustrata. 1952). (Amsterdant G. op. Unvorgrejffliches Bedenken von Kunst. Reprint ed. Petiver (London. Jonas Dryander. See Pliny. Reprinted in Valentini. 2 vols. Schulz. cit. Caspar Fridericus Neickeius. Volume 1X Libri XXXIII-XXXV. 35. (London. p. note 27. p. 7 vols. Session 1835 (479). Cited in Catalogue of the Leverian Museum (London. 27th June. London. 231-300. H. Also see Altick. 1978). 21. 18131819 [Ed. 9 (1917): 132-137. 43. The Shows of London (Cambridge. 51. A Companion to Mr. Cha ring Cross.. "The Museums of London. LondonCoffeeho uses: a . 2nd Series. 12 (1917): 180-187. Bather. 48. Combe] 45.cit. A Companion to the Museum. with the Minutes of Evidence. That Noble Cabinet. Appendix and Index. and Mullens. William Bullock. op. op. Altick. 1812). 46.cit.. British Museum. A Catalogue of the Rarities to be seen at Don Saltero's Coffee-House in Chelsea. Morning and Evening Amusements at Merlin's Mechanical Exhibition. pp. Statementwith respect to Inquiries in the Duke of Somerset's Letter. 50. 6th edition (Hull. An extensive study of London cabinets is found in Richard D. Original Papers. 44. 1729. Mullens. 72-75. 69-72 and Timbs. Bullock's London Museum and Pantherion.. by Sir H.5(1915): 162-173. Great Britain. pp.. note 43. note. pp.cit. Hanover Square. 261-262. 4 (1917): 5 1-56. Princes Street. 1810 [T. A selection of early British Museum catalogues published during Joseph Planta's appointment as Principal Librarian (1799-1827): Department of Manuscripts: Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Cottonian Library deposited in the British Museum. Department of Printed Books: Librorum Impressorum qui in Museo Britannico adservantur Catalogus. House of Commons Select Committee on the Condition. 1802 [L Planta].41. pp.4(1915): 123-129. Department of Antiquities: Catalogue of the Anglo Gallic Coins. Also see W.cit. 1791. op. 204. p. 1872. Vol." Musewns Journal 15. the Surrey End of Black Friar's Bridge." In his Shows of London. Ellis." Museums Journal 17. 235-252. London.. p. 15. London. 1931). Ibid. (Programme) An account of Merlin's Museum is provided in Altick. Curiosities of London (London: Virtue. 12th edition (London. 1790. "Some Museums of Old London-H: William Bullock's London Museum. pp. 1868). 1772. (Sale catalogue) 49. H. (Jans Cox). note 39.. "Some Museums of Old London-I:The Leverian Museum. pp. Edward Miller. A Companion to the Liverpool Museum. A. 278. 42. 7240. 1826 [E. 17. Mass: Harvard University Press. (London: Andre Deutsch. (Don Saltero). 52. Hawkins]. Also see Bryant Lfflywhite.London. note 39. No. 39.. "William Bullock and the Egyptian Hall." In London and the Advancement of Science (London: the British Association. pp. 598. (Late Sir Ashton Lever's) Removed to Albion Street. Description of the Ancient Terracottas. op. Also F. 594-5. 55-56 and In John Timbs. Management and Affairs of the British Museum. 1806). Baber].. 1973). 17. p. 47. Also see Altick. A Descriptive Catalogue of the several suspect and magnificent pieces of mechanism and jewelry exhibited in the Museum at Spring Gardens. 1808). 53. H. Rackstrow's museum is described in Altick. 9. ed. The Medical Museum: Modem Developments. The English translation of Waagen's work was undertaken by Lady Eastlake.: National Gallery of Art. H. p. 1929). . pp. Altick. M. House of Commons Select Committee.cit. 1973). 10th June. 1925). 59. note 39. Altick. and Peter Thornton and Helen Dorey. 2nd ed.. Dawkes. note 43.. extract from "Report of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. curator and director of the National Gallery. Also see F. 55. Director of the Royal Gallery at Berlin.y of Its Foundation and Development (London: G. 5 parts (London. and Timbs. Sir Arthur Keith. 1836). holds the oldest special library in the field as well. The Royal Academy "Instrument of Foundation" is reprinted in Walter R. A Miscellany of Objects from Sir John Soane's Museum (London: Laurence King Publishing. Lamb. A. e. note 43. . by Giles Waterford (London : Dulwich Picture Gallery.. Members of the medical profession were avid collectors and held some of Great Britain's most celebrated cabinets. Several volumes of work on the subject were compiled by Gustav Friedrich Waagen. Royal College of Surgeons. 461. 60. "The Medical Man as a Collector in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. 62. p.Reference Book of Coffeehouses of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London: Allen & Unwin. 17.C. 1985).. Bell & Sons. Malcolm.17-21. Galleries and Cabinets of Art in Great Britain (London: John Murray. A history of these collections has been compiled by L. 1925" reprinted in S.of Sir John Soane (London. 11 (November 1935): 566-620. 1835. 57. Collins Baker. History of Public Libraries in Great Britain 1 845-1965. Great Britain. 58. 1857). See Palaces of Art: Art Galleries in Britain 1 790-1990. 1951). Report from the Select Committee on the National Gallery. The Academy is not only the oldest British fine art institution but. 1830.G. Session 1852-53 (867). op. Charles Holmes and C.g. "Museums of London. As cited in Thomas Kelly. p.. London. 1991). p. H. p. 1853. Bather." op. cit." Medical Life 42. and The Treasure Houses of Britain: Five Hundred Years of Private Patronage and Art Collecting (Washington. 509..cit. consequently. 56. op. 1992). 54. A Short Histo.cit. wife of Sir Charles Lock Eastlake. Description of the House and Museum. The Making of the National Gallery 18241924 (London: the National Gallery. Organisation and Technical Methods Based on a NewSystem of Visual Teaching (London: the Weilcome Foundation. op.W. D. pp. 1830-31). A representative description of art collections in Britain did not appear until the midnineteenth century. 61. note 39. (London: Library Association. 269. 1963). 2-3. Catalogue of the Hunterian Collection in the Museum. 241-242. 60. First Report of the Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851. . 68. Appendix. p. pp. 73.. Great Britain. v. Bureau of Education. Westminster Abbey and Tower of London.: Henry Simmons Frieze. Libraries and Picture Galleries. October 1877(London: Trubner. 1-2. Session 1835 (598). Papworth and Wyatt Papworth. House of Commons Select Committee on Public Libraries. 72. Museums. x. Session 1849 (655). An Account of the Library of the Division of Art at Marlborough House. Report from the Select Committee on Arts and Principles of Design and their Connexion with Manufactures. 1878). with a Catalogue of Principal Works (London. 70. Minutes of Evidence and Appendix. 1848). pp. 1876. 67. 66.. p. Session 1852 (1485). 137-43.S. Report on Public Libraries. 64. 4. 43 by merging there-with the Warrington Town Library and the Museum of Natural History Society (Warrington. Select Committee on Public Libraries. with the Minutes of Evidence. C. Ralph Nicholson Wornum.S." In Transactions and Proceedings of the Conference of Librarians Held in London. 71. Great Britain. p. The History of the Victoria and Albert Museum Library: A lecture given on the occasion of a visit by members of Aslib on 27 September 1974 (typescript) pp. Report from the Select Committee on Public Libraries. Cornelius Walford would examine the topic of special libraries as they applied to private and learned society collections of printed books. Statistics indicate that during the year of the Great Exhibition. Ibid. c. together with the Proceedings of the Committee. Report 1849. Report 1849. p. attendance figures for London attractions such as the British Museum. Anthony Burton. 65. At the Conference of Librarians in 1877. 69.63. Public and Private (London: Chapman and Hall. This discussion can be compared with one which appeared son years earlier in the U. p. Select Committee on Public Libraries. Great Britain. "The Connexion between Free Libraries and Art Galleries and Museums. 121. 1853). Proposals for the Establishment of 'Warrington Museum and Library"under the 8th and 9th Vic." In The Library Chronicle 5 (1888): 6-11. Select Committee on Arts and Manufactures. Walford. 74." In U. Whitworth Wallis. "On Special Collections of Books. Ibid. 33 75. Ibid. See C. John W. 1850). increased from two to three hundred times than that recorded for the previous year. "Art Museums and their Connection with Public Libraries.. 82. William White. 128.Together with a Short History of the Museum and Libraries (Salford.. Munford. 1989). A. Great Britain. 99. 'The Library Association. 1890). D. 81. 1886). PeelPark: Salford and the Inauguration of the Public Free Libraries Movement. 119. Ibid. l88'7.. British Association. 5.. Jubilee of the Royal Museum and Library. 1850. Burgiss-Brown. Guide to the Maidstone Museum (Maicistone: J. "The Principles of Museum Administration. Sheffield (London: George Allen. "Final Report of the Committee on the Provincial Museums of the United Kingdom." Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1920. Part II (Cmnd. Museums: Their History and Their Uses. ed. 1899). Miers.. p. 3 vols. 1895. . 4 1-8.. 278. Mullen. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Library and Print Room of the Ruskin Museum. 79. 77." In Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. For Instruction and Recreation: A Centenary History of the Museums Association (London: Quiller Press. 1879). A History of the Library Association 1877-1977 (London: Library Association. pp. (Glasgow: Maclehose. p." Museums Proceedings. 3463. W. 89. 1975). p. 87. George Brown Goode. A. Part I (Cmnd. "The Function of Museums as Considered by Mr.held in Newcastle upon Tyne. 1976). 1928). 14 (New York: Dekker. B.. "Report of the Committee on the Provincial Museums of the United Kingdom. 83. 80. Association Report of 84. William White. 1884.. 85. p. 88. H. 1930).held in London." Museums Association Report of Proceedings. p. Thomas (London: Charles Whittingham & Co. pp. Ibid.p. September 30th and October 1st. Salford Borough Royal Museum and Library." In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science Vol. Catalogue of the Books in the Library of the Maidstone Museum. 135-36. p. Final Report. D. Royal Commission on National Museums and Galleries. Haslem. 1893. 86.76. "Museum Libraries. First Report to the Executive Committee..held in Newcastle upon Tyne. Geoffrey Lewis. 1890).. 1929) and Final Report. 271. H. 1895. British Association. Ruskin. 3 12-337. Report on the Public Museums of the British Isles (Edinburgh: Carnegie United Kingdom Trust. 137. Burgiss-Brown. I. by Ernest C... 1904). pp. 3401. 78. Chillington House (Maidstone: J. David Murray. Transactions and Proceedings of the Library Association of the United Kingdom at their Seventh Annual Meeting held at Dublin." Museums Association Report of Proceedings. 2n4 and 3rd. "Role of the Library in a Museum. Leonard Will. "The National Art Library: into the 1990s.. New edition (Reading: the Museum. Fearnley.. ed. 101. 102. David Kaser.. 1938). Ratner. Philip Pacey. Susan Jane Freiband. Joint Annual . 1976). 1993). 103. pp. Institute of Agricultural History and Museum of English Rural Ljfe. "The Museum Library. An update of this guide is: A Reader in Art Librarianship. Report on the Museums and Art Galleries of the British Isles (Edinburgh : Carnegie United Kingdom Trust." Special Libraries 67 (July 1976): 289-298. 97. 100. 1985). 56-7. The Horniman Museum. 1920). pp. 94. the successor to the London County Council. University of Wales." Session Proceedings. London County Council. Standing Commission on Museums and Galleries. have been governed by Trusts since the recent dissolution of the Greater London Council. Standing Commission on Museums and Galleries." History News 20 (April 1965). the Kind of Museum it will Benefit a City to Maintain (Woodstock. (the Rosse Report) (London: HMSO. ed. New York: Bowker in association with the Art Libraries Society. 1978). 99." Art Libraries Journal 15. "Imperial College and Science Museum Libraries: Working Together. 96. 92. The National Art Library: A Policy for the Development of the Collections (London: NAL. Framework for a System of Museums (the Drew Report) (London: HMSO." In his Manual for Small Museums (New York: G. "The Museum Library in the United States: A Sample.. By Philip Pacey (New York: Saur. Creasey. Jan van der Wateren. 1982). John Cotton Dana. Great Britain. 4th ed. 1977). David Hull and Henry D. 4 (1990): 12-18." Aslib Information 21 (January 1993): 26-7. (London: LCC. 105. G. P Putnam's Sons. Rhoda S. 1927). 264-68. Max Draheim. Report on the Survey of Provincial Museums and Galleries. ed. 93. "An Institution in Transition: A Case Study of Four Art Museums and Their Libraries" (Diss. 91. 1936). Technical Leaflet 27. 95. Rutgers University. A Plan for a New Museum. Art Library Manual: A Guide to Resources and Practice (London . 1979). "Libraries in British Museums" (MLib Thesis. VT: Elm Tree Press. Also see Jan van der Wateren. Markham. 104. Guide to the Collections in the Horniman Museum and Library. as well as the Geffiye. Burnett [for the Office of Arts and Libraries]. Rayner Scrutiny of the Departmental Museums: Science Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum (London: HMSO. "The Library in the Small Historical Society. Museum Procedure: Library: University of Reading. F. Laurence Vail Coleman. S.90. 98. F. John S. Great Britain. 1963). 1973). CC. "Museum Libraries. John R. Thompson. Update 1." ICOM News 41. Museums UK: The Findings of the Museums Database Project. June 1980 ([Washington.. 1980). held February 14. American Association of Musewns ICanadian Museums Association. 116. by John M. Esther Green Bierbaum. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann. 1987). H.: American Association of Museums. Barry Lord and Gail Dexter Lord. 111. Organization of Museums: Practical Advice (Paris: Unesco. Unesco.C. (1987). 2nd ed.David R Prince and Bernadette Higgins-McLoughlin..Meeting.C. ed. 2 (1988): 5-8.. 24 Feb. (London. 115. Professional Standards for Museum Accreditation: the Handbook of the Accreditation Program of the American Association of Musewns (Washington. 110. 1989). 106. 1991)." Museums Journal 81 (December 1981): 165-169. New York City." In Manual of Curatorship: A Guide to Museum Practice. A. "The Museum Library: Its Relationship to Educational Programming in Science and Natural History Museums" (PhD Thesis.EDU). ed.. 112. E. 1992). Museums Association/ Society of Archivists/ Library Association. 108. CO: Libraries Unlimited. 114. 1987). Massachusetts. 585-589. 1994 from Janine Henry (jhenri@UTXVM. Museums and Galleries Commission. 107. Betty Jo Irvine. 1985). J. the Art Libraries Society of North America. pp. D. D. "Statement of Policy Relating to Archives. 1980). (London: Museums Association. Museum Professional Training and Career Structure (London: HMSO. . comps. Miller. Boston. 1978). Kenyon.. This resolution was initiated by the recent closure of the library and subsequent dismissal of staff at the Solomon R. 1974). Personnel Policies for Museums: A Handbook for Management (Washington. 1982). Sci-tech Libraries in Museums and Aquariums (New York: Haworth Press. Swinney.]: Smithsonian Institution. Cross-posted listing for ARLIS-L and MUSEUM-L subscribers. ICOM. D. Thu.C.: AAM. "Professional Training of Museum Personnel: A Review of the Activities and Policies of ICOM 1947-1980. Collection Management in UK Museums: A Report Commissioned by the Office of Arts and Libraries (London: HMSO. ed. Facilities Standards for Art Libraries and Visual Resources Collections (Englewood. Mount. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Annual Membership Meeting of ARLIS/NA. Another AAM publication concerning museum staff requirements is: Ronald L. Guggenheim Museum. 109.UTEXAS. ed. 1994 during the ARLIS Annual Conference. The Cost of Collecting. [Hale Report] 113. nhm. 126. Museums and Art Galleries (London. Colleen Phelan. Light." Program 27(1993): 17-36. 18 (London: the Museum Documentation Association. 1987). Web site addresses are as follows (correct as of January 1996): Science Museum Library: http://www.A." The Indexer 18 (April 1993) ." Information Technology and Libraries 9 (December 1990): 29 1-98. "Visiting Museums on the Internet.uk/info/library/index. and J. "MARC in Museums: Applicability of the Revised Visuals Format. 10 (London: Museum Documentation Association. National Art Library: http:llwww. Stewart..uk/is/libraiy Weilcome Centre Information Services: Telnet wisdom. Museum Documentation Systems (London: Butterworth. 120..ac.a multimedia. S.uk login: wisdom Weilcome Institute for the History of Medicine Library: Telnet wihm. 119. Elizabeth Orna further discusses the role of the museum information officer in her report Information Policies for Museums. Chenhall." Internet World 6 (Oct. 1991). Office of Arts and Libraries." Aslib Proceedings 44 (Sept.wellcome." Electronic Library 11 (April 1993): 108-9. MDA occasional paper.html Natural History Museum Library and Information Services: http://www. Roberts. Part 1: defining requirements. 3. 2 (March/April 1994): 24-29. and T. no. Brown. Great Britain. Macdonald. "MUSLS.ucl. "Visiting Museums Virtually. "STAR at the Royal Armouries.rbgkew. 118. "Digital Imaging and Optical Storage Technology Helps Open Up Railway Archives at National Railway Museum. Leonard Wifi. 65-68. 124. C. Robert G. no. D." Art Docwnentation 12 (Summer 1993): 52-4." C and L Applications 5 (March 1992): 2-3.org. 122. multidisciplinary database. B.ukflibrarylWelcome. Museum Collections and Today's Computers (New York: Greenwood. David R.ac. 1992): 309-18. Geoff Matthews.uk login: W . S.nal.nmsi. Scott. Thesauri for Museum Documentation: Proceedings of a Workshop held at the Science Museum.ac. 1991).html Victoria and Albert Museum. 1987). 1992). Museum Catalogues (London Bingley.117. D. "Comparative Solutions: Responses to the Special Needs of the Museum Library OPAC. 125. Brian AbellSeddon. Appendix ifi. 121. There are a number of publications which concern the computerisation of object data. Volunteers in Museums and Heritage Organisations (London: HMSO.ac.Adam Gaffin. no. 1988). Esther Green Bierbaum. Batt. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann. "The Indexing of Museum Objects. "The Dickens House Museum Library: A Hyper-Media Prototype. selecting the system and initial development. 24 February 1992. The following is a selection of titles in this area: R. Noack. MDA occasional paper. A. 1995): 86-9 1. 1986).vam.ukl Royal Botanic Gardens Kew: http://www. London.ac. pp. 123. Starr. D." Internet World 5. 4.) 2006. Turner.nms.. vol. 1990). 6111 (London : Arlis/IJK & Ireland.24. Information on the SCRAN project can be accessed at the following web site: http:llwww. (ed. 22. 129. Roy (D. Palpaz Publications. vol. ARLIS/UK Eire National Collecting Network for Art Exhibition Catalogues: a Feasibility Study. In The New Encyclopaedia Britainica/ P.uk/scranl (correct as of October 1996) 128.) (1970) Webster’s Unified Dictionary and Encyclopedia.) (1996) The Dictionary of Art. Gaye Smith. 3. Museology: some cute points. pp. New York: Grove Dictionaries Inc. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. pp.W.354-369. British Library research paper (London British Library Board. Lamirande. .-in-chief). British Library research and development report. 1633. 2. Department of National Heritage. pp.127. Lewis. Arthur G. Goetz (ed. K. D. Delhi.479-90. 15th ed. (1987) Museums. References: 1.ac. G. VALIP Steering Committee. Jane (ed. Library and Information Plan for the Visual Arts. New York: Webster’s Unified Inc. 1993).