Multimodal Metaphor Applications of Cognitive Linguistics

Multimodal Metaphor ≥ Applications of Cognitive Linguistics 11 Editors Gitte Kristiansen Michel Achard ´ Dirven Rene ´n Francisco J. Ruiz de Mendoza Iba ˜ ez Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York Multimodal Metaphor Edited by Charles J. Forceville Eduardo Urios-Aparisi Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague) is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin which falls within the guidelines of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability. ȍ Printed on acid-free paper Ț Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Multimodal metaphor / edited by Charles J. Forceville, Eduardo Urios-Aparisi. p. cm. Ϫ (Applications of cognitive linguistics ; 11) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-3-11-020515-2 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Metaphor. I. Forceville, Ch. (Charles) II. Urios-Aparisi, Eduardo, 1964Ϫ P301.5.M48M85 2009 302.2Ϫdc22 2009003856 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. ISBN 978-3-11-020515-2 ISSN 1861-4078 Ą Copyright 2009 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in Germany Table of contents List of contributors ..............................................................................................ix Preface ..............................................................................................................xiii I. Setting the Scene Chapter 1 Introduction Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi...................................................... 3 Chapter 2 Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: Agendas for research Charles Forceville .............................................................................................. 19 II. Multimodal Metaphor in Advertising Chapter 3 Brand images: Multimodal metaphor in corporate branding messages Veronika Koller ................................................................................................. 45 Chapter 4 Cutting across the senses: Imagery in winespeak and audiovisual promotion Rosario Caballero............................................................................................... 73 Chapter 5 Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy in TV commercials: Four case studies Eduardo Urios-Aparisi ...................................................................................... 95 Chapter 6 Nonverbal and multimodal manifestation of metaphors and metonymies: A case study Ning Yu ........................................................................................................... 119 vi Table of contents III. Multimodal Metaphor in Political Cartoons Chapter 7 Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor: A unified account Francisco Yus................................................................................................... 147 Chapter 8 Metaphor in political cartoons: Exploring audience responses Elizabeth El Refaie........................................................................................... 173 Chapter 9 Image alignment in multimodal metaphor Norman Y. Teng .............................................................................................. 197 Chapter 10 Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes ................................................................. 213 IV. Metaphors of Emotion in Comics, Manga, and Animation Chapter 11 Anger in Asterix: The metaphorical representation of anger in comics and animated films Bart Eerden ...................................................................................................... 243 Chapter 12 Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka ................................................... 265 V. Metaphor in Spoken Language and Co-Speech Gesture Chapter 13 Words, gestures, and beyond: Forms of multimodal metaphor in the use of spoken language Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki ..................................................................... 297 Chapter 14 Metonymy first, metaphor second: A cognitive-semiotic approach to multimodal figures of thought in co-speech gesture Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. Waugh ............................................................. 329 Table of contents vii VI. Metaphor Involving Music and Sound Chapter 15 Music, language, and multimodal metaphor Lawrence M. Zbikowski ................................................................................... 359 Chapter 16 The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor Charles Forceville ............................................................................................ 383 VII. Metaphor and Film Chapter 17 Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory from the 1920s to the 1950s Mats Rohdin..................................................................................................... 403 Chapter 18 Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor in horror films Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville ......................................... 429 Subject index.................................................................................................... 451 Author index .................................................................................................... 461 Metaphor and metonymy index ........................................................................ 467 The Netherlands Lisa El Refaie Centre for Language and Communication Research Cardiff University Cardiff. The Netherlands . Spain Alan Cienki Department of Language and Communication Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Amsterdam. AKV|St. United Kingdom Charles Forceville Department of Media Studies University of Amsterdam Amsterdam. The Netherlands Veronika Koller Department of Linguistics and English Language Lancaster University Lancaster. Joost Breda. The Netherlands Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson Department of Media Studies University of Amsterdam Amsterdam. The Netherlands Bart Eerden Research group Visual Rhetoric Avans Academy. United Kingdom Fons Maes Department of Communication and Information Studies University of Tilburg Tilburg.List of contributors Rosario Caballero Department of Modern Philology University of Castilla-La Mancha Ciudad Real. Japan Norman Y. Japan Irene Mittelberg Human Technology Centre RWTH Aachen University Aachen.x List of contributors Yoshihiro Matsunaka Faculty of Arts Tokyo Polytechnic University Tokyo. Sweden Joost Schilperoord Department of Communication and Information Studies University of Tilburg Tilburg. Germany Cornelia Müller Department of Cultural Studies European University Viadrina Frankfurt Oder. USA . Department of Modern and Classical Languages University of Connecticut Storrs. Teng Institute of European and American Studies Academia Sinica Taipei. Germany Mats Rohdin Department of Cinema Studies Stockholm University Stockholm. The Netherlands Kazuko Shinohara Institute of Symbiotic Science and Technology Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology Tokyo. CT. Taiwan Eduardo Urios-Aparisi. and Linguistics University of Oklahoma Norman. AZ. USA . USA Francisco Yus Department of English Studies University of Alicante Alicante.List of contributors xi Linda R. IL. USA Ning Yu Department of Modern Languages. Waugh Department of French and Italian University of Arizona Tucson. Spain Lawrence Zbikowski Department of Music University of Chicago Chicago. Literatures. OK. . We thank her for her trust. First of all. to our authors. where shared professional interests often lead to warm personal contacts. and expertise. the Researching and Applying Metaphor (RaAM) association. who graciously responded to our critical comments on chapter drafts. Most of all we are grateful. managing editor of the Applications of Cognitive Linguistics series. and our requests for further revisions and fine-tuning. at Mouton. encouragement. followed my course on pictorial and multimodal metaphor in the Media Studies department at the Universiteit van Amsterdam. it was the chance to organize a conference panel on multimodal discourse at the 9th conference of the International Pragmatics Association (Riva del Garda 2005). In Jef Verschueren and Ann Verhaert we want to thank IPrA for this opportunity. I will mention one person by name. and film: the International Cognitivist Linguistics Association (ICLA). Charles Forceville: I furthermore want to acknowledge how much I benefited from the interactions with the many students who. Among the numerous colleagues that have inspired me. provided me with a platform to talk about metaphor in advertising. In 2008 I spent six months at the Centre for Advanced Studies of the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts (VLAC). and to Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza. I have good memories of many such conferences. was enthusiastic about the book project well before it deserved that name: she actually invited us to submit a book proposal when we had scarcely even sent out the call for papers for the conference panel. in . comics. and the Poetics and Linguistics Association (PALA). although one of us had been toying with the idea for this volume for a long time. despite their strong orientation toward verbal discourse. and from the fine papers they wrote. and Birgit Sievert and Monika Wendland for guiding us through many practicalities at Mouton during later stages.Preface The editors would like to thank at least a few among the many people who made this book possible. that really got things going. It is one of the privileges of being a scholar that one has the opportunity to attend international conferences. We are also indebted to Gitte Kristiansen. Ray Gibbs has always been exceptionally generous to me with his time. I also want to express my appreciation for the academic associations that. over the past ten years. of course. It is a source of pleasure and pride for me to have two of these former students as authors in this volume. Anke Beck. a staunch promoter of the book from its earliest beginning. The former Royal stables at Hertogstraat 1 provided a stimulating environment for carrying out the final editing rounds of this volume. where I had the pleasure of collaborating with Kurt Feyaerts and Tony Veale on the research project The Agile Mind: Creativity in Models and Multimodal Discourse. Storrs. .xiv Preface Brussels. I want to express my deepest gratitude to all those who have helped me through all these years with patience. Eduardo Urios-Aparisi: I would like to thank my colleagues and the department of Modern and Classical Languages of the University of Connecticut. encouragement and love. April 2009. Connecticut. And last but not least. Brussels and Storrs. Charles Forceville Eduardo Urios-Aparisi Amsterdam. I want to say how lucky I have always been with the sound and commonsense advice of Kuif’s agency. I Setting the Scene . . . their closing doors) or even smell. while most films and TV programs in addition draw on music and non-verbal sound. or all three together. In the current volume this important development in humanities research is studied from the perspective of another. and establish interactions between. and conference panels with “multimodal” or one of its cognates in the title. or even superseded. instruction books. But purely verbal messages and texts in (mass) communication are nowadays often complemented. and George Lakoff and Mark Johnson’s monograph Metaphors We Live By (1980. whether applauded or bemoaned. etc. This view was first systematically presented. by two book-length studies: Andrew Ortony’s (1979) edited volume Metaphor and Thought. and pay attention to graphic lay-out. cars’ motors. graphics. books. in its envisaged audience.g. by information in other signifying systems. Printed material (advertisements. cartoons. but structures thought and action. maps. which had its second life in a revised and expanded edition in 1993.Chapter 1 Introduction Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi All discourse is persuasive in the sense of aiming for some sort of cognitive. somewhat older paradigm shift: the claim that metaphor is not primarily a matter of language. but also how they sound (e. Classic language and literature faculties in the humanities are on the wane or get transformed and relabeled as media or cultural studies departments. at least in the English-speaking world. Academic research in the humanities is beginning to shift from a focus on exclusively verbal text to discourses in which language is but one – albeit still highly important – communicative mode. manuals.) usually combine. Internet sites combine text with pictures and sound. Spoken language is often accompanied by gestures. emotional or aesthetic effect. clearly transpires from the rapidly growing number of papers. see also Lakoff and Johnson 2003). verbal and pictorial information. Such developments reverberate in scholarly research.. while modern product design involves not only what products look like. This inescapable trend toward multimodality. (4) music. (6) gestures. arguing that lurking behind an exclusive focus on language is the prejudice that meaning is only to be found in words. The definition of a mode is an extremely thorny one (for more discussion. a healthy theory of (cognitive) metaphor must systematically study non-verbal and multimodal metaphor. the modes to be taken into account are two or more of the following: (1) written language. the choices for (one) particular mode(s) over (an)other(s) that the producer of a multimodal metaphor has to make is/are bound to affect its overall meaning. on metaphors whose target and source are rendered exclusively or predominantly in two different modes/modalities (the terms “mode” and “modality” are currently both in use. (3) static and moving images. It may well be – indeed it is very probable – that the excessive emphasis on the verbal manifestations of metaphorical thought has blinded researchers to dimensions of the latter that quite simply cannot be cued by the verbal mode. (2) spoken language. for if researching non-verbal and not-purely-verbal metaphor does not yield robust findings. it is unclear at present which one will catch on) – and in many cases the verbal is one of these. but a mode of thought” (Lakoff 1993: 210): that metaphor can occur in other modes than language alone. see Forceville 2006/this volume). Clearly. He emphasizes that “the processes of embodied meaning in the arts are the very same ones that make linguistic meaning possible” (2007: 209). One mode’s potential to render “meaning” can never be completely “translated” into that of another mode – and sometimes translation is downright impossible. Mark Johnson appears to agree. this jeopardizes the Lakoff-and-Johnsonian presupposition that we think metaphorically. . Of course work to correct the onesided emphasis on verbal manifestations has already been done. Indeed they must do so.4 Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi We believe that the book you have in your hands is pertinent to scholars in both metaphorology and multimodality. For this reason alone. notably on gesture and pictures. metaphorists considering themselves adherents of the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) initiated by Lakoff and Johnson need to take seriously at least one crucial consequence of the tenet that “metaphor [is] not a figure of speech. that is. What is new in this book is that it focuses not so much on non-verbal metaphor per se. For present purposes. both by authors represented in this book and by others. in that case the supposedly metaphorical nature of human thinking would turn out to be a misconception: what has been presented as the CONCEPTUAL level of metaphor would then simply be verbal metaphor under a different name. Since what can be conveyed in terms of facts. After all. and aesthetic pleasure differs from one mode to another. disguised in SMALL CAPITALS. (5) non-verbal sound. but on multimodal metaphor. emotions. bits and bytes. They were given detailed guidelines about the book’s concept. and genres (art.” “film noir. videotape. 2004 for more focused approaches). cloth …). at least if we discount art history. say. deserves credit for being the first discipline to have conducted sustained research into non-verbal communication.” “Western. advertising. visuals. O’Halloran 2004. comprising a multitude of material carriers (paper. Baldry and Thibault 2006. and about how we envisaged each contribution fitting in. which has necessarily always had a more restricted focus. It is true that “semiotics. to provide anything approaching a holistic blueprint of multimodal discourse – although attempts have been made (Kress and Van Leeuwen 1996/2006. modes. it was suggested that all prospective contributors take their cue for the definition of multimodal metaphor from the position paper by Forceville (2006/this volume) or else that they make clear why and how they deviated from it. other scholars we knew to have the expertise to bridge cognitive linguistics and the budding discipline of multimodal discourse were approached with the request to submit an abstract. Italy.” “science fiction”). for how to analyze yet other aspects of multimodal discourse. spoken language. multimodal discourse is a vast territory. the editors. modes (written language. we trust. touch). many of these being further categorizable. By contrast. celluloid. therefore.Introduction 5 But researchers in the field of multimodal discourse can in their turn benefit from the work done by interdisciplinary-oriented (but often linguistically trained) metaphor scholars.” rooted in the structuralism of the 1960s and 1970s. stone. However. sound. One way to date the conception of this book is to say that its seed was planted at “The pragmatics of multimodal representations” panel that we. and in the end the majority of the submissions focused specifically on this topic. gesture. we requested that prospective contributors apply theoretical concepts systematically to one or more real-life case studies. music. Along with these. It is therefore also no coincidence that some of the contributors in this volume propose to marry insights from semiotics to those of cognitivist linguistics – and neither is the recent foundation of a journal called Cognitive Semiotics. In the call for papers we had emphasized we were particularly interested in multimodal metaphor. systematically tracing the possible manifestations of a specific concept such as “metaphor” across various material carriers. 2001. smell. or at a more detailed level. but see Ventola et al. In order to ensure internal coherence. and genres. will signpost promising scholarly avenues. It seems at this moment in time impossible. Moreover. “comedy. 10–15 July 2005). instruction manual. the idea being that this procedure would fruitfully force them to face problems that mere introspective reasoning often circum- . organized at the 9th International Pragmatics Conference (Riva del Garda. oral conversations and lectures. the majority of the delivered chapters displayed the quality we had in mind. for advertising constitutes a body of texts and practices that is persuasive par excellence. and of the latter. “Brand images: Verbal and visual metaphor in corporate branding messages. In addition.” by Veronika Koller (chapter 3). charts how the logos. Contributors were also encouraged to present (some of) their conclusions in a form that allows for empirical testing. The first contribution in this cluster. Tying in with the pervasive BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS metaphor. Identifying the metaphorical mechanisms deployed to achieve this goal points the way to how the inevitably biased nature of companies’ selfportraits can be critically examined. musical compositions. Chapter 4 is Rosario Caballero’s “Cutting across the senses: Imagery in winespeak and audiovisual promotion. The guiding principle running through the chapters is a consideration of which modes play a role in the identification and interpretation of the metaphors studied. this entails taking into account the genre to which the discourse featuring a multimodal metaphor belongs: advertisements. and sound/music. It allows bringing into play the modes of language. comics. We will now briefly introduce each of the chapters in the book. Almost invariably. visual elements often subtly encourage the inference of positive corporate qualities that are not necessarily verbalized. It makes sense to begin with this topic. Haser 2005: 50). This is not surprising. Chapter 2 is a slightly updated version of the position paper on pictorial and multimodal metaphor by Forceville (2006). since advertising has been the subject of a number of studies pertaining to pictorial metaphor – the variety of non-verbal metaphor that hitherto has attracted most scholarly attention. Most of those we approached responded positively. A third recurring dimension is the extent to which a metaphor is not only embodied but also governed by the cultural or professional community in which it functions. visuals. each chapter is thereby expected to spawn ideas how the proposed procedure can be deployed to analyze other multimodal representations than those examined there. visuals. Early drafts of the chapters were extensively commented upon both by the editors and by one other contributing author.” The chapter is part of an ongoing . This paper provides and discusses the definition of multimodal metaphor that contributors to the current volume were asked to use – or else explain why they opted for an alternative definition. and layouts that are used to create companies’ corporate identities often require or invite the construal of metaphors. feature films.6 Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi vents (cf. political cartoons. animation. The first cluster of chapters pertains to multimodal metaphor in advertising. serving to identify the target of a metaphor. Another pertinent issue is the role of the cultural background governing both the choice of source domain in purely verbal metaphors describing wines and the choice of visuals in the advertisements. which in some passages are “blended” (Fauconnier and Turner 1998. their verbal and visual descriptions must rely on synaesthesia and metaphor. the “embodied” aspects of the metaphors are presumably universally comprehensible. He addresses how Forceville’s (2006/this volume) multimodal metaphor interacts with metonymical mappings. In “Nonverbal and multimodal manifestations of metaphors and metonymies: A case study” (chapter 6). or idea advertised. identifying their cognitive value and communicative strategies within this genre. moreover. 2002). Chapter 7. to limit the correspondences between the domains. 2006). by contrast. a positive claim is made about the product. Forceville et al. or to expand and create new meanings. and applies the taxonomy found in Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez Velasco (2002) to multimodal advertising texts. surface in various modes. While a crucial presupposition in advertising is that. An important issue in the chapter is the difficulty of the “translation” of these hardly theorized modes of taste and smell into a shared “vocabulary” of pictures and words. in the world. are characterized by the convention that something critical or negative is conveyed about one or more persons. He shows how metaphor and metonymy fulfil different cognitive and discursive roles. or a state of affairs. service. Clearly. In several scenes. He shows how aspects of these metaphors. Eduardo Urios-Aparisi’s “Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy in TV commercials: Four case studies” (chapter 5) discusses instances of Spanish television commercials. political cartoons. The analysis makes clear that whereas thanks to the visuals. if you like) broadcast on Chinese national TV in terms of two conceptual metaphors whose purely verbal varieties have often been discussed: LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LIFE IS A STAGE. as well as a range of metonymies.Introduction 7 research project which is partly based on an impressive corpus of 12. one way or another. Ning Yu provides an in-depth analysis of a single educational message (a non-commercial commercial. many details can only be fully appreciated by viewers aware of specific Chinese myths and beliefs (cf. The second cluster of chapters pertains to a different textual genre: political cartoons.000 wine tasting notes in professional journals. “Visual metaphor versus verbal . since taste and smell – wines’ most important characteristics – cannot be directly represented. and here takes into account Spanish and French wine advertisements as well. other conceptual metaphors such as UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING and SUCCESSFUL IS UP are shown to play a role. color. After providing her own interpretation of the cartoons – which turns out to be consonant with their creators’ intentions – El Refaie reports part of a larger research project in which these two cartoons were presented to. British youngsters. One way of creating similarities between different visual elements is by presenting them as featuring the same orientation. Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes discuss a variety of Dutch cartoons in chapter 10. he takes the CMT claim that textual surface manifestations of metaphors can be traced back to conceptual metaphors to imply that there is no substantial difference between how verbal. Fauconnier and Turner 2002). mainly non-native. mounts the argument that verbal and visual metaphors are rooted in the same cognitive mechanism. the source-path-goal schema.8 Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi metaphor: A unified account. Norman Teng’s “Image alignment in multimodal metaphor” (chapter 9) addresses the role of patterned visual entities in cartoons. is emphatically present. “Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons. Elizabeth El Refaie’s “Metaphor in political cartoons: Exploring audience responses” (chapter 8) further illuminates the reader about the cartoon genre by investigating two British specimens. Since in both Yu’s educational commercial and El Refaie’s cartoons purposiveness as well as temporal development needs to be conveyed. irrespective of the mode(s) in which it is presented. finally. Teng discusses how such alignments can play a role in multimodal metaphors. suggests avenues for research into other multimodal tropes besides metaphor. and multimodal metaphors are processed. he moreover suggests that “alignment” may be the preferred design choice to convey the abstract concept of similarity between two or more items. Yus demonstrates that the interpretation of each creative metaphor. size – or any other saliently shared aspect of design.” by Francisco Yus. Drawing on Sperber and Wilson’s (1995) relevance theory and Fodor’s (1983) “modularity of mind” theory.” arguing that for an appropriate understanding of the metaphors in cartoons image schema-based reasoning needs to be complemented by taxonomic reasoning. pictorial. Teng’s chapter. this is hardly unexpected. 2000. Analyzing a number of cartoons by the Spanish artist El Roto. She finds that these adolescents are often seriously deluded about what is happening in the cartoons. Examining six cartoons by Clay Bennett. with its LIFE IS A JOURNEY manifestation. since the latter “is often the crucial trigger in interpreting the critical stance expressed in editorial cartoons. with consequences for their interpretations that are as alarming as they are humorous. As in Yu’s case study.” The authors thus focus not so . depends on the formation of ad hoc concepts and on “emergent properties” (Gineste et al. the next two chapters examine how emotions. and a number of source domains that appear to be particularly popular in cartoon metaphors are identified.” and “boxing. It is thus to be expected that multimodal metaphor frequently and naturally occurs in face-to-face communication. “Anger in Asterix: The metaphorical representation of anger in comics and animated films. specifically the paradigm case of “anger. “Words. and addresses the notion of structural (in contrast to creative) metaphors. but also to the data elicited from two animation films based on Asterix albums. unmediated by language. “Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics.” “marriage. 2005.” are visualized in comics. This cluster shifts the focus from advertising and political cartoons to comics and animation. two chapters discuss metaphors drawing on the gestural and spoken language modes.” but they provide a novel perspective by analyzing Japanese manga rather than Western comics. it is likely that the visual signs communicating an emotion in animated film are not completely identical to those found in comics.” “funerals. retains the cross-cultural dimension. but on the text-inherent information that guides metaphor interpretation.Introduction 9 much on the pragmatic knowledge a viewer brings to a cartoon. After all. In addition. which they believe will permit the identification of textual genre-patterns. Spoken language and gestures are so closely interdependent that they really should be studied together (McNeill 1992. they are able to shed light on which visual signs reflect presumably universal aspects of the metaphor. gestures and beyond: Forms of multimodal metaphor in the use of spoken language. As a consequence. Both chapters in this cluster strongly suggest that conceptual metaphors find expression in visual signs in ways that are not always translatable into language.” Bart Eerden compares Forceville’s findings not only to those surfacing from the analysis of another Asterix album. Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka pursue the investigations of the EMOTIONS ARE FORCES metaphor in chapter 12. In the next cluster. and to what extent there is cultural variation in such renderings. and therefore may be “direct” manifestations of these conceptual metaphors. such as “hospitals. giving examples of each. since the medium is the message. Their work supports the central CMT idea that metaphor is a .” Based on work by Kövecses (1986. they argue that intonation is an under-researched area of conceptual metaphor. In chapter 11. Cienki 1998). 2000) and Forceville (2005). and which are manifestations of knowledge that is tied to a specific culture.” Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki distinguish between various types of monomodal and multimodal metaphor that are possible in spoken language accompanied by gestures. In chapter 13. Examples of three subtypes of pictorial metaphor are examined in detail. drawing on visuals and music – often in conjunction with texts – appear all to impose a clear directionality for mappings from a source to a target. mode. The chapters in the final cluster have been written by scholars with a cognitivist film theory rather than a cognitivist linguistics background. and hence can typically be considered multimodal metaphors. Zbikowski is careful to point out. he maintains. Zbikowski concludes that to do full justice to the respective contributions of text and music to the various musical pieces scrutinized. commercials and fiction films. in “Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory from the 1920s to the 1950s” (chapter 17). In chapter 16 in the cluster. as opposed to the verbal.” Charles Forceville considers what sonic and musical sources contribute to the identification and interpretation of multimodal metaphors in two genres. The chapters in the next cluster are specifically devoted to the musical and sonic contributions to multimodal metaphors. they need to be considered in conjunction with the theme of the piece. in gesture awareness of metonymy should be considered as an indispensable stage in the process of accessing metaphor. but also vice versa. “Metonymy first. language. and considers to what extent the various approaches are consonant with the multimodal metaphor model adhered to in . however. moreover. music appears particularly suitable in supplying “sonic analogs” to dynamic processes. and multimodal metaphor” (chapter 15) how significant aspects of conceptual metaphors in a number of classical and popular music fragments depend exclusively on the musical. Moreover. He ends the chapter with a series of preliminary claims. but also demonstrates that specific modes each have their own affordances and limitations for conveying dimensions of such conceptual metaphors. Whereas Zbikowski sometimes considers the combinations of text and music best theorizable in terms of blends. In both.” that gestures may manifest dimensions of conceptual metaphors that are not found in the cooccurring speech and that. Lawrence Zbikowski discusses in “Music. reminds us that reflection on non-verbal metaphor has a long tradition in film studies. “The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor. Irene Mittelberg and Linda Waugh show in chapter 14. Forceville’s cases. to be tested in further research in this field. He examines a series of classic texts that discuss cinematic metaphor. not only mappings from language to music are possible. that for these musical elements to be experienced as metaphorical. in a number of cases a multimodal blending approach (Fauconnier and Turner 2002) provides a better model than a multimodal metaphor construal. metaphor second: A cognitive-semiotic approach to multimodal figures of thought in co-speech gesture. Mats Rohdin.10 Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi conceptual phenomenon. Classic CMT has always stressed that human beings can only come to . it would perhaps be better to conceive of metaphor as A-ING IS B-ING. Human beings move literally through space and figuratively through time. and it is within these parameters that they need to make sense of their lives. Finally. due to the creative use of intertitles. The findings shed light on metaphor theory.Introduction 11 this volume. co-authored by Gunnar Eggertsson and Charles Forceville. we will briefly list some of these patterns. Rohdin finds that. The A IS B format – which maybe became popular also because CMT long discussed only decontextualized metaphors that already came in a ready-made verbal “A is B” form – is no more than a convenient short-hand for what Andreas Musolff calls a “metaphor scenario” (Musolff 2006). contrary to expectation. presenting them as something with a status that hovers between hypothesis and research program. he draws attention to the fact that cinematic metaphors may acquire extra meanings because through visual styling they can create intertextual references to other films and phenomena familiar from everyday life. the silent cinema was particularly rich in multimodal metaphors of the verbo-pictorial variety.” The division in clusters and chapters chosen – loosely on the basis of genres and modes – could have been made in different ways. Rohdin thus is the only contributor to present a diachronic perspective on the issue of multimodal metaphor. And of course we should not forget that Paul Ricoeur (1977) already strongly emphasized the discursive character of metaphor. This sensemaking happens through real or imagined metaphor actions. Some of the issues have been discussed in relation with verbal metaphors. The paradigmatic NOUN A IS NOUN B formula disguises the dynamic nature of metaphor. since many other thematic patterns can be detected across the chapters of the book. Without elaborate discussion. since metaphor is always metaphor in action. Its key argument is that human victims in extreme horror films are typically abused as if they were animals. is titled “Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor in horror films” (chapter 18). the genre of horror films. others appear to reveal themselves precisely thanks to the multimodal nature of the metaphors that are the specific focus of attention here. The final chapter. Though not always explicitly. but often their importance has been underestimated in that realm. but they also encourage reflection on the issue of animal rights for. in the spirit of Kövecses (2005) we can adapt a famous dictum and say: “show me your metaphors and I will tell you who you are. Target and source in multimodal metaphor may both be concrete entities. Many metaphors are mini-narratives. Moreover. all chapters in the volume tie in with this notion of a scenario or a narrative. each property or feature that is mapped from a source to a target must first have been metonymically related to that source. Caballero (this volume) correctly points out that the embodied domains of smell and taste need rather than provide metaphorical sources. created by a particular context or shared by a specific community of users (cf. Secondly. depictable. a given phenomenon may double as the source domain in a metaphor and as metonymically related to the target. Clearly.12 Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi grips (sic) with the abstract by metaphorically coupling it with the concrete – i. while the “embodied” nature of conceptual metaphors is one of the basic tenets of CMT. If this is the case. that is. which is important in advertising a product. a metonym may have a strong emotional or evaluative relation to its source – and it may well be this latter that is the rationale for the metaphor in the first place.. creative metaphors in terms of “features” that were projected or transferred from source to target. with that which is perceptible. satirizing a politician in a cartoon. The strong focus on a bottom-up approach (from attested “textual” manifestations to formulations of the conceptual metaphors which supposedly underlie them rather than the other way round) may also be the reason why in several of the chapters there is some interference of the terminology associated with Max Black’s (1979) interaction theory. The focus on verbal manifestations of conceptual metaphors. for instance. a metonym can be an ad hoc one. CMT favors referring to this process as the partial mapping of entities and knowledge structures from source to target. but discussed specific. 2006).e. or conveying information about a character in a film. Moreover. Many illuminating (aesthetic as well as persuasive) multimodal metaphors convey something about this specifically styled target in terms of this specifically styled source. It is impossible to study metaphor without addressing metonymy. Kristiansen et al. In addition. the consequence may be that a construal of the relation between two things as . Semino and Culpeper 2002). Metonymy has over the past decade begun to receive sustained attention from cognitive linguists (Barcelona 2000. But the chapters in this volume are reminders that only a target that is concrete is. Of course. Black – whose early contributions to cognitive theories of metaphor have insufficiently been acknowledged by most CMT theorists – anticipated that metaphor could be a matter of thought rather than language. has had as an unfortunate side effect that for instance the stylistic dimensions of metaphors and other tropes have been somewhat ignored by cognitivist scholars (but cf. Dirven and Pörings 2002. this volume). Yus. resulting in a (temporary) understanding of the target in terms of the source – but the occasional lapse into Black’s terminology is a healthy reminder that sometimes no more than a single aspect (“feature”) of the source is mapped. both in face-to-face interaction and in the stylized varieties characterizing protagonists’ behaviors in comics. Arm-and-hand gestures. manga. and the same holds for a voice’s timbre or an intonational pattern. The interaction between metaphor and metonymy is explicitly addressed in the chapters by Urios-Aparisi. The verbal “short-hands” of multimodal metaphors suggest an explicitness and precision that may well be absent in their originally non-verbal or multimodal. forms. Lakoff and Turner 1989) is still pertinent today. Mittelberg and Waugh. but creatures’ status can also be strongly influenced by cultural myths (think of the connotations of . Teng. and Forceville. expressible in their verbal manifestations. metonymic motivation for the source’s presence on the grounds of expected contiguity in the domain of the target.” To a considerable extent. and Mittelberg and Waugh. Aspects of this issue are addressed in the chapters by Eerden. Müller and Cienki. This makes sense for a variety of reasons: as humans..g. in turn. Zbikowski. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphors may make salient certain aspects of conceptual metaphors that are not. Music. Rohdin. Metaphor scholars should be acutely aware of this. affords for example scalarity and loudness in ways that can be made productive in source-to-target mappings.Introduction 13 metaphor is invited rather than forced. after all there may be a realistic. peacocks proud and beautiful) and for what Black called “implicative complexes” (Black 1979) and Gentner and Loewenstein (2002) “aligned structures. the place of humans and animals in the medieval hierarchy of the Great Chain of Being (see Tillyard 1976 [1943]. The role of for instance size and spatial dimensions in source domains (e. A consequence of this is that any “translation” of these non-verbal and multimodal metaphors into verbal ones – necessary for instance to enable scholarly discussion as in this book – inevitably is an approximation at best. we find fellow humans as well as animals provide rich opportunities for the mapping both of idiosyncratic features (snails are typically slow. Shinohara and Matsunaka. Yu. in POWERFUL IS BIG. and animation are embodied actions whose metaphorical exploitation communicates perspectives and emotions not (readily) available in verbal metaphors. Personification is a crucial variety of multimodal metaphor no less than of verbal metaphor. and reflect on what the choice for one verbalization of a multimodal metaphor over another may entail. Living organisms and animals are attractive choices as source domains both for human target domains and for phenomena such as organizations and cars. Yus. or not as clearly. HONEST IS STRAIGHT) is more noticeable in visual discourses than in verbal ones. Yu. El Refaie. To make further progress on this issue it is necessary that alternative hypotheses are specified that might account for the phenomena under discussion (Gibbs and Perlman 2006: 217. This task. Rohdin. This can be rephrased as the following question: is the phenomenon under consideration necessarily to be interpreted as a metaphor. or at least probability. avoiding litigation. non-verbal and multimodal specimens alike. as one thing presented in terms of something that. Urios-Aparisi. Caballero. Chapters in which this issue of the animal realm. Schilperoord and Maes. since alternative explanations for their co-occurrence are available. particularly where a conceptual metaphor is assumed to be present. Forceville 1999: 191–96). . which allows for numerous ways in which a metaphor producer can focus attention on mappable features – particularly in film. non-metaphorical construals of their co-occurrence possible or even likely? This is a critical question for metaphor scholars. We are fully aware that many problems still have to be solved in the realm of multimodal metaphor. is further complicated in the case of metaphors occurring in artistic discourses. i. and of living organisms more generally.e. in such discourses. although the Pragglejaz Group (2007) has started to develop a procedure for this. so that metaphorical and alternative explanations may be coolly juxtaposed and critically debated. Often.. working on verbal. receives attention are those by Koller. and Eggertsson and Forceville. coupling two “things” metaphorically is not necessary to make the segment of discourse in which they occur meaningful. Forceville. or are other. Under what circumstances can or must a multimodal metaphor be construed? This is a difficult but crucial issue. but we are confident that the present volume will give a substantial boost to its further theorization. Evading censorship. Finally. or simply wanting to create a polyvalent discourse for aesthetic pleasure can motivate a maker not to produce a strongly signaled metaphor (cf. belongs to a different category. should be able to demonstrate its truth. no easy matter to start with. a discourse producer may have reasons not to emphasize that a metaphor is to be construed. That is. it is attractive that people and animals move. for an alternative proposal see Haser 2005: 149 et passim). by showing that the phenomena under consideration can be best explained by postulating that human beings make sense of them by consciously or automatically construing metaphors. given the context.14 Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi the “dragon” in Western versus Chinese culture). as source domain. metaphor scholars. If the central tenet of CMT that in essence we think metaphorically is correct. But even identifying verbal metaphors as such is no simple affair. Cambridge. CA: Center for the Study of Language and Information. Thibault 2006 Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis: A Multimedia Toolkit and Coursebook. Max 1979 More about metaphor. Charles. Alan 1998 Metaphoric gestures and some of their relations to verbal metaphoric expressions. Michel Achard. Black. Stanford. and Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez (eds. Charles 1999 The metaphor COLIN IS A CHILD in Ian McEwan’s.) 2002 Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. 2006/this vol. Harold Pinter’s. Dirven. 379–402. and Paul Hekkert 2006 The adaptive value of metaphors. Gilles. René. Gitte Kristiansen. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Cienki. In Metaphor and Thought.).).) 2000 Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective. 2002 The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. and Paul J. Mass. . 19–43.). and Mark Turner 1998 Conceptual integration networks. Jerry 1983 The Modularity of Mind. In Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives. and Ralf Pörings (eds. 85–109. Paderborn: Mentis. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: Agendas for research. Cognitive Science 22: 133–187. Katja Mellmann. Antonio (ed. Metaphor and Symbol 14: 179–98. Uta Klein. Journal of Pragmatics 37: 69–88. In Discourse and Cognition: Bridging the Gap. In Heuristiken der Literaturwissenschaft. Forceville. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter Fauconnier. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.: The MIT Press. New York: Basic Books. London/Oakville: Equinox. 2005 Visual representations of the Idealized Cognitive Model of anger in the Asterix album La Zizanie. Einladung zu disziplinexternen Perspektiven auf Literatur. René Dirven. Jean-Pierre Koenig (ed. Anthony.). Andrew Ortony (ed. Ed Tan. Barcelona. Forceville. Fodor. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.Introduction 15 References Baldry. and Paul Schrader’s The Comfort of Strangers. and Steffanie Metzger (eds. 189–204. McNeill.. Gibbs. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 2nd ed. Gunther. Gineste. Haser. 2003. Raymond W. and Véronique Scart 2000 Emergence of features in metaphor comprehension.). 2001 Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication. 2nd ed. and Mark Turner 1989 More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor. 2005 Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation. In Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives. George. and Theo van Leeuwen 1996 Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. René Dirven. In Metaphor and Thought. George 1993 The contemporary theory of metaphor. In Language. Marie-Dominique. 211–228. and Experientialist Philosophy: Challenging Cognitive Semantics. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Byrnes (eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.). Revised edition published in 2006. 2005 Gesture and Thought. Lakoff. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. and Jeffrey Loewenstein 2002 Relational language and relational thought. David 1992 Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal about Thought. Lakoff. Jr. and Marcus Perlman 2006 The contested impact of cognitive linguistics research on the psycholinguistics of metaphor understanding. Culture. NJ: Erlbaum.16 Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi Gentner. Literacy.. and Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez (eds. Eric Amsel and James P. Bipin Indurkhya. 243–276. . Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 2003 Afterword. Metaphor and Symbol 15: 117–135.). and Body in Human Feeling. 87–120. and Mark Johnson 1980 Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mahwah. London: Arnold. Zoltán 1986 Metaphors of Anger. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. and Cognitive Development. 2000 Metaphor and Emotion: Language. George. Kövecses. London/New York: Routledge. Pride and Love. 202–251. In Metaphors We Live By. Verena 2005 Metaphor. Dedre. Michel Achard. Kress. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff. Metonymy. Andrew Ortony (ed. Gitte Kristiansen. Ventola. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. and Deirdre Wilson 1995 Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Dan.) 2004 Multimodal Discourse Analysis. Sperber. Paul 1977 The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-disciplinary Studies of the Creation of Meaning in Language. Cassily Charles. Andrew (ed. 2nd ed. Ruiz de Mendoza. Ortony. . and John Costello. Andreas 2006 Metaphor scenarios in public discourse.) 1979 Metaphor and Thought. 1993 Metaphor and Thought. by R. Tillyard. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Pragglejaz Group 2007 MIP: A method for identifying metaphorically used words in discourse. Czerny. René Dirven and Ralph Pörings (eds. and Martin Kaltenbacher (eds. 489–532.W. Metaphor and Symbol 21: 23–38. In Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. and Jonathan Culpeper (eds. Harmondsworth: Penguin. E. Semino.) 2004 Perspectives on Multimodality. Francisco José. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Elena. (ed.M. 2nd ed. London/New York: Continuum. 1976 [1943] The Elizabethan World Picture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kay L. Metaphor and Symbol 22: 1–39. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Ricoeur. Oxford: Blackwell. Kathleen McLaughlin. O’Halloran. and Olga Isabel Díez Velasco 2002 Patterns of conceptual interaction. Eija. Trans.) 2002 Cognitive Stylistics: Language and Cognition in Text Analysis. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.).Introduction 17 Musolff. . and gestures. such as pictures. The “conceptual metaphor theory” (CMT). genre. reflections on the difference between structural and creative metaphor. and suggestions about the importance of genre for the construal and interpretation of metaphor. thoughts as to how similarity between target and source is created. If this tenet of CMT is correct.Chapter 2 Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: Agendas for research1 Charles Forceville Abstract Conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) has over the past 25 years amply sought to underpin the claim that humans’ pervasive use of verbal metaphor reflects the fact that they think largely metaphorically. metaphor should manifest itself not just in language but also via other modes of communication. the question of how verbalizations of non-verbal or conceptual metaphors may affect their possible interpretation. sounds. as the Lakoffian-Johnsonian . 1. non-verbal and multimodal metaphor have been far less extensively studied than their verbal sisters. However. pictorial metaphor. music. Introduction Andrew Ortony’s edited volume Metaphor and Thought (1979) and Lakoff and Johnson’s monograph Metaphors We Live By (1980) were milestone publications in the sense that they marked the switch from research into metaphor as a primarily verbal to a predominantly conceptual phenomenon. similarity in metaphor. focusing on a number of issues that require further research. structural versus creative metaphor. These issues include the proposal to distinguish between monomodal and multimodal metaphor. Keywords: Monomodal and multimodal metaphor. The present chapter provides a review of work done in this area. 2003. and it is this combination that allows for the construal of a so-called “blended space. 2002. Chapter 3). taste and/or smell easier to understand and categorize than phenomena they cannot. Lakoff and Johnson 1980). base) is concrete. A more recent development rooted in CMT is “blending theory” (Fauconnier and Turner 2002).20 Charles Forceville model is habitually referred to. is promising (see Coulson and Pascual 2006. it presents two (or more) “input spaces.” The input spaces have both shared and unique characteristics. as A STORY (Tell me the story of your life. Lakoff and Turner 1989. see Forceville 2004a). reason is shaped by the body” (Lakoff and Johnson 1999: 5. Lakoff 1987. feel. for instance. I was swept off my feet. Lakoff 1993. Hitherto it cannot quite convince (for a critical review. 1993. forthcoming). Metaphorical reasoning is thus governed by the “arch” metaphor MIND IS BODY (Lakoff and Johnson 1999: 249). and the lack of it that makes the latter abstract.. Conceptualizations of many phenomena.). Since “concreteness” is apprehended perceptually. Very briefly. TIME is comprehended in terms of SPATIAL MOTION (The time for action has arrived. Emotions are typically represented by drawing on the domain of FORCES. examples from Kövecses 2000. Rather than postulating a target and a source domain. LIFE is understood as A JOURNEY (He’s without direction in his life. CMT proposes. a mapping that in the case of entrenched metaphors such as the above occurs automatically. humans systematically comprehend them in terms of concrete concepts. TIME. have deeply entrenched metaphorical forms.” Blending theory is a..g. and EMOTIONS are systematically understood in terms of concrete phenomena. taking into account pragmatic rhetorical factors. Time is flying by. 2007. In order to master abstract concepts. (I was overwhelmed. A key notion in this theory is that “the mind is inherently embodied. but new work. metaphorical source domains are strongly rooted in the functioning of the human body. I’m at a crossroads in my life) – but also. Johnson 1987. 2000. A metaphor’s interpretation boils down to the “mapping” of pertinent features from the source to the target. Thus abstract concepts such as LIFE. Kövecses 1986. tenor) is abstract and its source (vehicle. in which the metaphor’s target (topic. has been a very productive one (e. model claiming to be superior to metaphor theory in being able to account for ad hoc linguistic creativity. Lakoff and Johnson 1999. . Human beings find phenomena they can see. Sweetser 1990. It is perceptibility that makes the former phenomena concrete. mainly descriptive. 1993. Gibbs 1994. Turner 1996).. hear. what this means is the following. metaphorical and otherwise. Terkourafi and Petrakis. Life’s … a tale told by an idiot . He passed the time happily). . as opposed to the idea that they are necessarily linguistic in nature. If. those organized by the International Cognitive Linguistics Association. (sub)cultural differences. and what is rooted in. and music. it is a truism that as soon as one changes the medium via which a message (including both its factual and emotive aspects) is conveyed. it is imperative to demonstrate that. Lakoff and Johnson 1999: 587–88). it provides crucial insights into what. non-verbal sound. advertising billboards on written language and visuals. and the Researching and Applying Metaphor [RaAM] association).g. the content of this message is changed as well (see also Bolter and Grusin 1999). Metaphor and Symbol. as is argued here. This entails two dangers: in the first place. and music. there is the risk of a vicious circle: “cognitive linguistic research suffers from circular reasoning in that it starts with an analysis of language to infer something about the mind and body which in turn motivates different aspects of linguistic structure and behavior” (Gibbs and Colston 1995: 354. of course. for instance. radio relies on the modes of spoken language. and shapes. journals (e. an exclusive or predominant concentration on verbal manifestations of metaphor runs the risk of blinding researchers to aspects of metaphor that may typically occur in non-verbal and multimodal representations only.Metaphor in a cognitivist framework 21 CMT has inspired conferences (e. This latter awareness. Even though Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980: 5) characterization of metaphor’s essence as “understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” emphatically avoids the word “verbal” or “linguistic. metaphorical targets as well as metaphorical sources.” the validity of CMT’s claims about the existence of conceptual metaphors depends almost exclusively on the patterns detectable in verbal metaphors. and post-silent film on visuals. to further validate the idea that metaphors are expressed by language. The medium of non-illustrated books. spoken language. thanks to embodiment. lays claim to being universal in human cognition.g. independently or in combination. non-verbal sound. Its importance is evident: if CMT is basically correct. exclusively draws on the mode of written language. Ever since Marshall McLuhan’s “the medium is the message” (McLuhan 1964: 24 et passim). a full-blown theory of metaphor . exemplifies a more general principle. Cognitive Linguistics). each of these signaling systems (which will henceforward be called “modes”) can cue. 2006. However. Each medium – here defined as a material carrier and transmitter of information – communicates via one or more signaling systems. as well as empirical research (for references see Gibbs 1994. they can occur non-verbally and multimodally as well as purely verbally. CMT is restricted in at least the following very important dimension. and how. written language. Secondly. Clearly. see also Cienki 1998).. and music). If justice is to be done to these distinctions (between images and gestures. taste. signs made with parts of the body versus signs whose use is governed by the grammar and vocabulary rules of a natural language). and (5) the tactile mode. what is music and what “mere” sound may differ from one culture. (4) the gustatory mode. music. printed versus Braille letters in relief on paper. it is impossible to assess objectively where music shades off into . or touch either conventionally written language or gestures (although a blind person feels Braille language and. since one cannot hear. or period. Similarly. For instance. let us say that a mode is a sign system interpretable because of a specific perception process. and partly by discussing issues that have either been neglected by such researchers or are simply not pertinent to purely verbal metaphors. with only a few details inked in. The chapter should be seen as a map of mostly uncharted territory. There are other problematic issues. much of it reporting theory-driven analyses and informed speculation awaiting empirical testing. between spoken language. smell. other factors need to be taken into account. Multimodality versus monomodality In order to distinguish multimodal metaphor from monomodal metaphor. between spoken and written language. Similarly. by touch. sounds. both written language and gestures would have to be part and parcel of the visual.. and non-verbal sound.g. such as the manner of production (e. (2) the aural or sonic mode. (3) the olfactory mode. since this may result in a biased view of what constitutes metaphor. the sonic mode under this description lumps together spoken language. because what is labeled a mode here is a complex of various factors. Acceptance of this approach would link modes one-on-one to the five senses. this is too crude a categorization. to another. However. As a first approximation. it should first be further clarified what is meant by “mode.22 Charles Forceville cannot be based on its verbal manifestations alone. so that we would arrive at the following list: (1) the pictorial or visual mode. Multimodal metaphor researchers have a vast amount of work to look forward to. can perceive certain gestures – for instance those of a statue). In this chapter I will sketch how adopting the view that metaphors can assume non-verbal and multimodal appearances can and should guide the research of a new generation of metaphor scholars. 2. I will do so partly by bringing to bear multimodal perspectives on issues already familiar from research by language-oriented metaphor scholars. For instance.” This is no easy task. ” or compile an exhaustive list of modes. Van Noppen et al. Kennedy makes a number of points that are illuminating for a theory of pictorial/visual metaphor-in-the-narrow-sense. Kennedy introduces the helpful notion of “runes”: the kind of non-iconic signs used profusely in comics and cartoons to indicate speed. In the first place he argues that for a phenomenon to be labeled a visual metaphor it should be understandable as an intended violation of codes of representation. Kennedy elaborates on his theoretical work in various . (4) gestures. (8) tastes. It is a matter for debate whether the names he selects for his examples are always necessarily the best ones. We can now provisionally define monomodal metaphors as metaphors whose target and source are exclusively or predominantly rendered in one mode. surrounding characters or moving objects (see also Smith 1996). In later work. And is “typeface” to be considered an element of writing. the following: (1) pictorial signs. irreversible. (3) spoken signs. including for instance “metonymy. There are other problems.Metaphor in a cognitivist framework 23 sound effect.2 An early discussion of metaphor in pictures is Kennedy (1982). Kennedy emphasizes that target and source are.” “hendiadys. anger and many other phenomena by means of straight or squiggly lines. Thirdly. 2005. (9) touch. which ensures that what he labels metaphor remains commensurate with a generally accepted criterion in theories of verbal metaphor. (6) music (7) smells. (2) written signs. or of both? In short. pain. Van Noppen and Hols 1990).” Kennedy’s attempts to describe an extensive catalogue of “figures of depiction” using the tenor/vehicle distinction that Richards (1965) specifically coined for “metaphor” are sometimes strained. and each trope is illustrated with one or two examples only. Secondly. surprise. However. rather than as being due to carelessness or error. This having been said. This perception psychologist takes “metaphor” in the all-encompassing sense of what literary scholars call a “trope” or a “figure of speech” (and which Tversky 2001 calls “figures of depiction”) and identifies some 25 types. The prototypical monomodal metaphor is the verbal specimen that until recently was identical with “metaphor” tout court. at least. Shibles 1971. making generalizations difficult (the same problem also adheres to Durand 1987). it is at this stage impossible to give either a satisfactory definition of “mode. stars. A type of monomodal metaphor that has more recently become the subject of sustained research is pictorial or visual metaphor. 1985.” and “litotes. bubbles etc. this is no obstacle for postulating that there are different modes and that these include. in principle. happiness. of visuals. and which has yielded thousands of studies (de Knop et al. (5) sounds. centers on the answerability of the following three questions: Which are the two terms of the pictorial metaphor?. To give a fictive exam- . 1998). It is to be noted that the distinction between two of these types – metaphor and simile – is also made by Kaplan (1990. Whittock (1990) describes cinematographic metaphor. My own model. for the pertinence of Relevance Theory to the interpretation of pictorial metaphors. Carroll’s examples would rank as one of three (Forceville 2002b) or four (Forceville 2005a. (For more discussion of the role of metonymy in metaphor. I in turn question Carroll’s choice for visual hybrids as “core filmic metaphor” (Carroll 1996: 218) as well as his proposal for the typical reversibility of target and source in visual metaphors. which is the target and which is the source?. largely developed with respect to advertising representations (but see Forceville 1988) and based on Black’s (1979) interaction theory of metaphor (see also Gineste et al. 2000. see also Rozik 1994.24 Charles Forceville experiments. 2000). While his numerous examples are subsumed under ten subtypes. The qualification “exclusively or predominantly” is necessary because non-verbal metaphors often have targets and/or sources that are cued in more than one mode simultaneously. 1995. 1992. 2007) subtypes of monomodal metaphor. including for instance metonymy and synecdoche. unlike Kennedy and Whittock. Whittock is criticized by Carroll (1994) for failing to take into account what the latter considers the most typical variety of visual or cinematographic metaphor. see Forceville 1996. expanding on earlier work (Forceville 1988. they still go beyond metaphor-in-thenarrow-sense. multimodal metaphors are metaphors whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes. moreover argues that visual metaphors differ from verbal ones in often allowing for reversal of target and source. In contrast to monomodal metaphors. Indurkhya 1991. 1994. see various contributions in Dirven and Pörings 2002. The crucial issue what is actually mapped by a specific addressee in a specific situation is governed by the relevance principle as developed by Sperber and Wilson (1995). and thus are less wideranging than those by Kennedy. chapters 5 and 6. how congenitally blind children metaphorically draw a spinning wheel. My argument rests on the claim that Carroll is biased by his exclusive reliance on examples rooted in Surrealist art.) In this model. among other things. 1992). Carroll. 1996. In Forceville (2002a). Kennedy (1993) reports. the visual hybrid (see also Carroll 1996). and which is/are the features that is/are mapped from source to target? The last question pertains to the metaphor’s interpretation: in principle all elements metonymically associated (by a whole community or by a single individual) with the source domain qualify as potential candidates for a mapping. only one of these (namely: the visual) exemplifying the same mode as the target. 2003. In these cases the source domain ELEPHANT would be triggered in two modes (sound and language. they cannot but draw on . and “instrument-tospray-water-or-sand-with. 2007. In such a case I also propose to label the metaphor multimodal. specifically poetry. the metaphor CAT IS ELEPHANT pictorially in an animation film. in which the gesture-modality cues the source rather than the target domain (McNeill 2005: 45). or by letting the cat behave (for instance: move) in an elephant-like manner. By this token. the producer would of course not have to choose between any of these modes: she could depict the cat with a trunklike snout and large ears and have it trumpet.Metaphor in a cognitivist framework 25 ple: imagine somebody wants to cue. costliness and the latter among other things flexibility. 2002b. the source is cued in three modes simultaneously. She could do this for instance by depicting the cat with a trunk-like snout and large flapping ears. respectively) that are different from the target (visuals). as well as more discussion. since there is no conflation of the two domains). These variants would constitute monomodal metaphors of the pictorial kind. among other things. and have another cat shout “elephant!” In this case. for whatever reason. sensitivity. Now imagine the producer wishes to cue the same metaphor multimodally. featuring hybrid. see Forceville (1999a. 2004b. 2008). but also those in artistic texts. Structural versus creative metaphor Lakoff and Turner (1989) have argued that not only metaphors occurring in everyday verbal communication can be traced back to conceptual metaphors. contextual. by juxtaposing cat and elephant in the same salient pose. aggressiveness. 2005b. Müller 2004). of multimodal metaphors involving (moving) images. But. simile. McNeill 1992. There is also a growing literature on multimodal metaphors involving language and gestures (Cienki 1998. Particularly when poems thematize abstract concepts such as life and death. but the former connotes. the metaphor would be truly multimodal. by showing the cat with a canopy on its back in which a typical Indian elephant rider is seated. 2005a) – and of course these subtypes could be combined. Both tusks and a trunk trigger ELEPHANT. and integrated subtypes respectively (see Forceville 1996. as in the case of the visual mode alone. Of course the metonymy cueing the source domain in itself is often chosen for its specific connotations. whiteness.” For examples. She could for instance have the cat make a trumpeting sound or have another cat shout “elephant!” to the first one (note that this is not a case of synaesthesia. 3. or . This is unsurprising. may feature more. not least because conventional metaphors may have idiosyncratic extensions.26 Charles Forceville the same conceptual metaphors that permeate non-artistic language. reflect basic conceptual metaphors. many passages featuring LIFE and TIME as metaphorical targets (LIFE IS A JOURNEY. it is not clear how representative their chosen examples are of poetic metaphors in general. there are relatively few basic metaphors for life and death that abide as part of our culture” (1989: 26). I take it that Lakoff and Turner allow that this. But not all verbal metaphors in poetry. but the bulk of their examples and discussions pertain to the latter. LIFE IS A PLAY. and that these formulations resonate both with the rest of the poem and with the extra-textual knowledge of the reader. A stable interpretation requires that the community agrees on the phenomenon’s characteristic features and these.”) Often. and hence must by definition have been “linguistically explicated” (Bartsch 2002: 50). the relative distribution of metaphors may depend on time and place: older poetry. In the first place. in Bartsch’ reasoning. LIFE IS A BURDEN. Lakoff and Turner thus admit that not all poetic metaphors are conventional ones. Novel metaphors focus attention on non-characteristic features and therefore. Thus Lakoff and Turner cite.” Lakoff and Turner 1989: xi). Nonetheless Lakoff and Turner’s account raises some questions. LIFE IS BONDAGE. While conventional metaphors can be expressed either in common or in idiosyncratic language. TIME IS A MOVER. empowering us to make and understand even bizarre connections. TIME IS A THIEF. TIME IS A DEVOURER) concluding that “although human imagination is strong. as Lakoff and Turner acknowledge. or non-Western poetry. original verbal formulations for these conceptual metaphors. the border between conventional metaphors and idiosyncratic ones is difficult to draw. Renate Bartsch would probably object to the label “conceptual metaphor” for the metaphorical schema that underlies such novel metaphors. in turn. reveal themselves in the true predications that can be used for it. and richly illustrate. She stipulates that a phenomenon deserves the name of “concept” only if it has a stable interpretation in a community. (If I understand her correctly. since their aim is to show that poetic metaphors normally tap into conventional ways of thinking (“great poets can speak to us because they use the modes of thought we all possess. cannot (yet) have the status of being “conceptual. may result in temporary readjustments of the basic level conceptual metaphors. While they convincingly show that structural metaphors pervade poetry. They acknowledge that the art and craft of good poets resides in finding fresh. “modes of thought that are not themselves conventional cannot be expressed in conventional language” (1989: 26) and hence require idiosyncratic language. in turn. and thus that they would agree that the linguistic level of the metaphor is not a mere illustration or exemplification of the pre-existing basic conceptual level. but their one-sided emphasis on correlation and generic-level metaphors3 in poetry may inadvertently lead to an uncritical acceptance of the view that most poetic metaphors are of this kind. Secondly. are aware of this. to be fair. while CONCRETE IS CONCRETE metaphors are particularly relevant once we leave the realm of the purely verbal. TIME. and speculates that the latter’s growing popularity in more recent periods may well be due to the humoral theory that dominated mediaeval times.. Numerous poetic metaphors may simply not have abstract concepts such as LIFE. etc. But given that CMT puts great emphasis on metaphor’s role in conceptualizing the abstract in terms of the concrete. birds. It is only by downplaying this difference that Lakoff and Turner can say that “the preservation of generic-level structure is. Crisp 2003). a systematic. Tillyard 1976 [1943]). we should not forget that a metaphor can also conceptualize the concrete in terms of the concrete. – and state that “the GREAT CHAIN METAPHOR can apply to a target domain at the same level on the Great Chain as the source domain” (Lakoff and Turner 1989: 179. that is. mammals. In the case of . to cultural no less than embodied knowledge (see also Gevaert 2005). among other things. emphasis in original). we believe. Moreover. DEATH. She demonstrates. for critical accounts of this view see also Stockwell 1999. questions for instance the embodied. basing herself on corpus-based data. possibly (near) universal. instances of a given metaphor. This would not invalidate Lakoff and Turner’s impressive findings. “correlation metaphors” (Grady 1999).g. by definition. “timeless” status of ANGER IS HEAT claimed for conceptualizations of anger in Lakoff (1987). Put differently. pre-existing correspondences between the schematic structures in target and source. Gevaert (2001). whether poetic or ordinary” (1989: 83. that in the Old English period SWELLING was a much more important source domain in ANGER metaphors than HEAT. humans. One important difference between conventional and idiosyncratic metaphors is that the interpretation of the latter is. this possibility receives rather scant attention. which endorsed the idea of “natural” hierarchies within various types of creatures – angels. They discuss at some length the Elizabethan notion of the “Great Chain of Being” (see e. far less governed by entrenched. PURPOSE as their target domain. Lakoff and Turner. metaphors may have targets as well as sources that are directly accessible to the senses.Metaphor in a cognitivist framework 27 less. they may more often be “resemblance metaphors” than. As pointed out by Grady. corpus-based analysis might reveal that many poetic metaphors are not so easily amenable to conventional ones. at the heart of metaphorical imagination. metaphorical targets usually coincide with promoted products and.” The embodied nature of source domains emphasizes their physical nature: it is human physical interaction with the world that familiarizes humans with it to such an extent that the resulting knowledge structures can in turn be mapped onto abstract concepts. and ties in with CMT views (Lakoff and Turner 1989: 72). In short. As discussed above. There is a third aspect in which CMT has a one-sided emphasis. In advertising. for instance. while advertising a high-tech Senseo coffee machine in terms of a motorbike certainly has . since it depends on typological hierarchies that may be subverted. many of which function in contexts creating highly specific. Indeed.28 Charles Forceville monomodal metaphors of the pictorial variety. the typical source domain’s concreteness has in CMT been traditionally connected to the notion of “embodiment. an elegant watch as a butterfly. however. are depicted – and hence are necessarily concrete: a beer brand is depicted as a wine. Yu 1998). Whittock 1990). In a Dutch commercial promoting a Gazelle bicycle in terms of a dressage horse the embodied mapping of “riding a horse” to “riding a bicycle” is less important for the interpretation of the metaphor than the mapping of the cultural connotations from the dressage horse’s owner. in creative metaphors. Traditional CMT has not much to say about these. Even Lakoff and Turner’s (1989) invocation of the Great Chain metaphor is only of limited use here. both target and source are depicted. Knowledge about source domains is not simply a matter of embodiment. to the prospective buyer and user of the bike. but also of cultural connotations. champion Anky van Grunsven. to what extent monomodal metaphors of the non-verbal variety and multimodal metaphors are amenable to the correlation metaphors that are the center of attention in CMT is an empirical question. or simply irrelevant. More recent studies have demonstrated in a variety of ways how the structure of source domains – and the salient (and hence: easily mappable) elements in it – is influenced by culture (Gibbs and Steen 1999. as Lakoff and Turner (1989: 66) acknowledge. a close-fitting bathing suit as a dolphin’s tight and supple skin (examples from Forceville 1996). unsurprisingly. the cultural connotations that are metonymically related to a source domain are often more important for potential mappings to a target than its embodied aspects. But many pictorial and multimodal metaphors are of the OBJECT A IS OBJECT B type. Some of them no doubt do. Similarly. ad hoc metaphorical resemblances (see Black 1979). Kövecses 2005. the personification of commodities is a very familiar marketing strategy. The same holds for metaphors in feature films (Forceville 2005b. Shore 1996. not embodied. 2008. there is cultural variation (see Shinohara and Matsunaka 2003. Forceville 2005c. Maalej 2001). Forceville et al. Even when non-verbal metaphors verge toward the conventional. this volume). Indeed. Forceville and Jeulink 2007. desires. 2005). for discussions of the “source-path-goal” schema and the LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor). the subcultural connotations associated with motorbikeriding evoked by Steppenwolf’s “Born to be wild. and Forceville 2006a. The three issues briefly mentioned above (“metaphors frequently have concrete rather than abstract targets”. are at least as important in the mapping (Forceville 2004b/this volume.. “what gets mapped from source to target domains are often cultural. it might be ventured that “a single. see Simons 1995 for multimodal instantiations of structural metaphor in preelection TV spots promoting political parties. features”) are thrown in relief when the study of purely verbal metaphors gives way to that of non-verbal and multimodal metaphors. 2000. . generalizing observations on metaphor based on the systematic investigation of verbal specimens need to be considered afresh by testing these observations in metaphors occurring in other modes. That is. between situations.” audible on the commercial’s soundtrack. rather similarity also is due to identity of external contiguity relationships between objects. and these may substantially differ from one (sub)cultural group to another (see e. 2006: 107). it is connotations rather than denotations of source domains that get mapped in metaphors. in preparation).g. as in comics representations of ANGER (Eerden this volume. The relevant “similarity” that is created between target and source pertains to these connotations more than to anything else. and behavioural dispositions of people” (Bartsch 2002: 52). embodied correspondence between target and source is enough to trigger a wide range of further ‘cultural’ correspondences between target and source.Metaphor in a cognitivist framework 29 embodied aspects. The examples bear out Bartsch’ observation that in metaphor “the role of similarity is not restricted to the identity of internal properties of objects and situations. The old adage that a picture tells more than a thousand words should not blind us to the fact that pictures and other multimodal representations seldom communicate automatically or self-evidently. as in their verbal counterparts (see Kövecses 1986. As in verbal metaphors. it may well be the case that. and hence of inferences about the target” (Forceville et al. and it is due to relationships of objects and situations with emotional attitudes. “many metaphors with idiosyncratic surface manifestations do not reflect correlation metaphors”. In a visually literate society.30 Charles Forceville 4. One of these consequences is that it is the analyst’s responsibility to find an adequate or acceptable verbal rendering of the metaphor’s underlying image-schematic level. shorthand manner widely shared within a community. The verbalization of non-verbal metaphor and the nature of “similarity” We have seen that within the CMT paradigm. and may in some people (but not in others) evoke connotations of Britishness and standards of service that “servant” does not. Another consequence is that verbalization of a non-verbal metaphor is necessarily a conscious action. the source admits predicates understood as “true” in the community (such as “is there to serve the user. they also differ: “butler” is more specific. is never neutral. logos. It is only the scholar writing an academic paper who. that the “language of thought” is actually a verbal language. It is by no means a foregone conclusion. to be able to discuss a multimodal . most surface metaphors should be amenable to a pre-existing conceptual A IS B format. film shots. the mappings suggested by the two verbalizations may differ. animation characters) evoke specific phenomena and events in a clichéd. or is COFFEE MACHINE IS BUTLER more appropriate? Although “servant” and “butler” share many features. even though used as a convenient shorthand. As a result. this A and B must be named. But should this awareness result in the verbalization COFFEE MACHINE IS SERVANT. of course.” and “is almost always available”). i.” “obeys your requests.. The convention to verbalize the image-schematic structures underlying surface metaphors by using SMALL CAPITALS – useful inasmuch as this facilitates analyzing them – may disguise a number of consequences that seem to me more problematic in the discussion of discourses that are not (exclusively) verbal ones than of purely verbal ones. and hence arguably aspire to conceptual status.e. rendered in language. However. to the extent that there is a community that recognizes the source as cueing a serving person. and reflects a “quasi-concept” at best (Bartsch 2002: 50). and a fairly unusual one at that. in order to discuss the metaphor. The design of the Senseo coffee machine suggests the posture of somebody bending over and modestly offering something (i. Inevitably.e.. Bartsch might conclude that this very inability to agree on a single verbalization of the source domain that is shared within a community shows that the source has no conceptual status. a vast number of endlessly repeated and recycled images (such as famous paintings. flags. But this speculation leads us far beyond the concerns of the present chapter and deserves in-depth reflection elsewhere. but such a verbalization. photographs. a cup) on a plate. etc. materiality. the signals that cue metaphorical similarity between two phenomena are different. but may surface in their manner of representation: they may for instance be photographed from the same unusual angle. In the case of visual resemblance. say. In non-verbal and multimodal metaphors. Note that the resemblance need not reside in the “things” themselves. even inescapably. evoke a different kind of thing. or pitch. Placing a thing in a certain context may strongly. or of the clunking of chains. and it is an open question whether the construal of a non-verbal metaphor requires its verbalization by the audience. of a vacuum cleaner. Since non-verbal modes of communicating by definition do not have the “is” or “is like” in order to signal a metaphorical identity relation between two entities belonging. If two things are signaled in different modes. Simultaneous cueing. we may encounter deviations from typical gestalts or schemas. or filmed with the same unusual camera movement. For instance a kiss could be accompanied by the sound of a car crash. position. Filling a schematic slot unexpectedly. in the given context. The question can be reformulated as follows: does comprehension of a non-verbal or multimodal metaphor imply that recipients “mentally” verbalize the metaphor? It is an important question. dreary domestic routine. This can only function as a trigger in the case of monomodal metaphors: only a visual representation can perceptually resemble another visual representation.Metaphor in a cognitivist framework 31 metaphor. namely the thing for which the given context is the natural or conventional place. one issue that deserves attention is by what stylistic means the similarity is triggered. disaster. to cue metaphorical mappings of. this may suggest the metaphor MONKEY WRENCH IS VIOLIN. but difficult to test empirically. and imprison- . timbre. Goatly 1997). the metaphor is not verbalized in this form in the commercial. needs to resort to GAZELLE BICYCLE IS VAN GRUNSVEN DRESSAGE HORSE. For example. to different categories. color. Here are some possibilities that are deployed in isolation or in combination: Perceptual resemblance. the cues are themselves of a verbal nature. Of course this holds for verbal metaphors that do not have the paradigmatic A IS (LIKE) B format as well (cf. there is a larger range of choices: two things can resemble one another because they have the same size. only a sound can perceptually resemble another sound in volume. when in a musical environment a violin case contains a monkey wrench. But whatever means are chosen in this latter case. Put differently. posture. metaphorical identification is achieved by saliently representing target and source at the same time. Brooke-Rose 1958. texture. and bound to differ depending on the mode(s) in which the metaphorical terms are represented. Charteris-Black 2004. given randomly selected passages of history or fiction writing. sits in a booth in a sound studio to record the voice-over for the trailer.youtube.32 Charles Forceville ment. Steen 1994. two disparate things can be linked because of an unexpected filling of a slot. Oh … OK … “In a land that …” No “in a land” either … “In the time …” No. Hayward (1994) offers empirically attested support for the claim that people are able to decide very fast to what genre a text belongs. “When everything you know is wrong …”.com/watch?v=yXbFuNQwTbs. in a variant on the previous mechanism. respectively. “No ‘in a world’”? It’s not that kind of movie. Zwaan 1993 . “In an outpost …”. “When your life is no longer your own …”. Hayward found that almost 80% of experimental subjects. Jack. The influence of genre Human beings in most cases appear to construe a text automatically. last consulted 10 July 2008) by Jerry Seinfeld. to an audience with expertise in the area of film. Another illustration for the claim is the funny. or the genre to which it is attributed. recognized the genre of the work even on the basis of very short passages (5 to 15 words). Alternatively. I don’t think so. Forceville 1999b. Anecdotal support for this claim is the experience of channel-surfing: seasoned TV watchers guess in a split second what kind of program they surf into (and decide at once whether they want to spend time with it). the few words uttered by Jack suffice to cue an entire genre. The genre within which a text (in whatever medium) is presented.” Jack … What do you mean. but as soon as he has intoned a few words he is impatiently interrupted by the director: Jack: Director: Jack: Director: Jack: Director: Jack: Director: “In a world where laughter was king …” No “in a world. very quickly. 2005d. self-reflexive trailer for the film Comedian (http://nl. In a rapid exchange Jack makes one abortive attempt after another – “One man …”. determines and constrains its possible interpretations to an extent that is difficult to overestimate (see Altman 1999. For present purposes the point to be made is that.” 5. as when a photograph of a kiss has the caption “imprisonment. and probably largely subconsciously as belonging to one genre rather than to another. “On the edge of space …” – only to be cut short by the director straightaway. A man. Finally. Hybridizing it with a metaphorical source domain would not fit this goal. there is no phenomenon that in a similar. for instance. In advertising. These phenomena can be protagonists. Another parameter that deserves further research is whether any of the subtypes of pictorial metaphor or of the manifold varieties of multimodal metaphor can be systematically related to certain text genres. and may have a richer “aligned structure” (Gentner and Loewenstein 2002). For this reason. metaphors in artistic contexts presumably allow for greater freedom of interpretation than do metaphors in commercials (cf.” I prefer to say that. are deemed salient by their producers. Metaphors in artistic narratives pertain to phenomena that. but also objects. for whatever reason.” way qualifies as a metaphorical target. both the metaphors A IS B and B IS A are pertinent. Moreover. This is to be expected: an advertisement or commercial predicates something about a product. irreversible. in principle. For instance. or science fiction films. also Shen 1995). or even events. But in feature films. it would be worthwhile to investigate whether in the case of multimodal metaphors there are any systematic correlations between textual genres and the modes in which a target and source are represented. or service. For instance. and not in a manner that might evoke connotations of incompleteness or mutilation. The mapped features will often be less clear-cut. (While Carroll 1994. the visual mode is typically used for representing the target – and . the targets of metaphors often coincide with the product promoted (Forceville 1996). By contrast. in which case the mapped features are typically negative). in the given context. In advertisements. this makes sense: if metaphorical targets typically coincide with products. it is important to study how genre has an impact on the production and interpretation of metaphors (monomodal and multimodal alike).) Commensurate with this. Again. Finally.Metaphor in a cognitivist framework 33 for discussion). an artistic narrative may give rise to two different construals of a metaphor: both A IS B and B IS A are appropriate. no such problem arises. brand. advertisers would want their product portrayed in their entirety. the features mapped from source to target are positive ones (unless the metaphor is used to disqualify a competitor’s brand. and this neatly and naturally fits the metaphor’s TARGET IS SOURCE format. than those in advertising. “natural. Metaphors in artistic representations may also differ in other respects from those in commercial messages. 1996 calls such metaphors “reversible. in animation films. it seems that commercial advertising seldom makes use of the hybrid variety of pictorial metaphors (in Forceville 1996 these were called MP2s). while in commercials there will seldom be a question what is target and what is source in a metaphor. in order to retain the notion that target and source in a metaphor are. the robust insights of metaphor scholarship can in turn fruitfully feed into the budding field of multimodality in general (Kress and Van Leeuwen 1996/2006. Acknowledgments I am indebted to Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza and René Dirven for comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this paper. oxymoron. 2007. examining their metaphorical manifestations will help focus on what remains stable and what changes in cross-cultural communication. in short. McQuarrie and Mick 2003. games. see Gibbs 1993. And inasmuch as multimodal representations (in the form of advertising. and design (Cupchik 2003. industry tycoons. Teng and Sun 2002). Kennedy 1982. and if human thinking is reflected in more than verbal manifestations alone. Müller 2004). Here the analysis of multimodal metaphor ties in with the study of rhetoric.. oral speech accompanied by gestures (Cienki 1998. religious leaders).34 Charles Forceville this may well be true for different genres as well. Furthermore. the critical analysis of the tools of persuasive discourse in the broadest sense constitutes an excellent interface between research in academia and its possible usefulness in the world beyond its walls. Concluding remarks Researching multimodal metaphor. film (Forceville 1999a. 2005. 2001. hyperbole. 2005b. while this may also change over time within a genre. is a natural next step in the further development of metaphor studies – a development in which theoretical reflection will have to go hand in hand with empirical testing. investigating multimodal metaphor is highly worthy of extensive scholarly effort. Wiggin and Miller 2003. McNeill 1992. political cartoons (El Refaie 2003). McQuarrie and Phillips 2008). . or abused. videoclips. Van Rompay 2005). But perhaps alternative patterns in the choice of mode for the source domain are detectable in different types of texts. Whittock 1990). irony. as mouthpieces for the views of powerful factions (politicians. TV-formats. 6. metonymy.g. animation) travel faster and more easily across the world than verbal ones. mainstream films. Rohdin 2003. Given its long disciplinary tradition. Ventola et al. 2003. such work may provide the starting point for how other tropes besides metaphor can assume multimodal appearances (e. 2004). In a global society in which media are increasingly used. Phillips 2003. If creative and conventional metaphor are key factors in human thinking. Genres to be investigated include advertising (Forceville 1996. 19–43. Jonathan 2004 Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis. and they do not have fixed lists of entities specified in the mapping” (1989: 81).). Max 1979 More about metaphor. 189–218. 212– 223. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. This chapter is virtually identical with the text published as Forceville (2006b). Charteris-Black. In Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. Noel 1994 Visual metaphor. Renate 2002 Generating polysemy: Metaphor and metonymy. Jaakko Hintikka (ed. In Metaphor and Thought. 2. 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Miller 2003 “Uncle Sam wants you!” Exploring verbal-visual juxtapositions in television advertising.42 Charles Forceville Terkourafi. II Multimodal Metaphor in Advertising . . It is argued that this dual encoding reinforces the persuasive intent of corporate genres by endowing them with an affective component. logos 1. discourse.Chapter 3 Brand images: Multimodal metaphor in corporate branding messages1 Veronika Koller Abstract This chapter looks at multimodal metaphors in companies’ communication of their brand “personalities. while the target domain tends to be encoded verbally. illustration.” It is argued that corporate brands are cognitively structured by the metaphor BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS. Corporate decision-makers use these genres and their multimodal features to communicate the corporate brand to external stakeholders just as much as to address internal ones. often specifically BRANDS ARE PEOPLE. i. As an intangible abstraction.. layout. flexibility. and loyalty towards. the brand. in particular the illustrations. These metaphorical character traits of the brand personality are expressed by the interplay of verbal and visual features in corporate discourse. The source domain of the BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS/PEOPLE metaphor is encoded visually. often specifically BRANDS ARE PEOPLE. with occasional additional encoding in the visual mode. As an intangible abstraction. Keywords: branding. employees. logos. dynamism. to foster identification with. the brand is .e. and layout found in genres such as mission statements and history brochures. Introduction This chapter looks at multimodal metaphor in companies’ communication of their brand “personalities. and connectivity.” It argues that corporate brands are cognitively structured by a metaphor BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS. the brand is made comprehensible by being conceptualized as an ideal person endowed with the traits that are positively evaluated in corporate discourse: growth. and layout found in genres such as mission statements and history brochures. or pictorial. Metaphoric expressions have been most exhaustively studied in the verbal mode.. In any case. of domains from different modes.46 Veronika Koller made comprehensible by being metaphorized as an ideal person endowed with the traits that are positively evaluated in corporate discourse: growth. With a view to the examples presented in this chapter. given that the power dynamics between employees and the company they depend on are very different from those between the corporation and the customers it seeks to win and retain. 2003) metaphor. the brand. by the verbal co-text. the intention is to foster identification with. e. most of those studies still addressed mono-modal metaphor. or visual and acoustic. In particular. employees (de Chernatony 2002). i. as surface-level linguistic expressions of metaphorically structured mental models. Barcelona 2000. Forceville 1994. in that both source and target domains (or input spaces) were provided in the visual mode and only reinforced. is constituted by a mapping. in particular the illustrations. This body of work was followed by research into visual. However. 1996). rather than co-constructed.g. on the other hand. flexibility. metaphor (Carroll 1994. Corporate decision-makers use these genres and their multimodal features to communicate the corporate brand to external stakeholders such as customers just as much as to address internal ones. A cognitive approach to multimodal metaphor In Cognitive Metaphor Theory (see e. and loyalty towards. or of any other semiotic mode. The processes by which these metaphorically structured mental models are brought about have been theorized as mappings from a source to a target domain. it seems . metaphor is the means by which the human mind conceives of one usually abstract entity in terms of another. rather than being a merely decorative literary device. it may be easier for consumers to disregard or cynically reject the brand image (Holt 2002). visual and verbal. or blends of two or more input spaces (Fauconnier and Turner 2002).g. However. dynamism. i. In both cases. These metaphorical character traits of the brand personality are expressed by the interplay of verbal and visual features in corporate discourse.. logos. and connectivity. Lakoff and Johnson 1999. it is only in a second step that these metaphoric models are realized as metaphoric expressions at the surface level of language.e. Multimodal metaphor... or blending. usually a more concrete one.e. is regarded as an essentially cognitive phenomenon structuring much of human thought. 2. BRANDS ARE PEOPLE. to be seen on a continuum with music smells.Brand images 47 useful to draw on Barthes’ (1977: 38–41) concept of anchoring. i. the IBM’s mission statements webpage is illustrated with the picture of a DNA helix (figure 2). thus anchoring an interpretation of the DNA image as the source domain of the metaphor BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS. acoustically as spoken language. Forceville therefore suggests the following categories in the investigation of multimodal metaphor: pictorial signs: These include abstract design elements. Indeed. and while the verbal co-text itself does not include any references to genes. Forceville (2006) has rightly pointed out that modes cannot simply be equated with the five senses but that distinctions need to be made between. This chapter will focus on the interaction of pictorial and written signs. and finally touch. if one followed a perceptual taxonomy based on the five senses. the movement of the body in three-dimensional space2 sounds. sound. as they combine into multimodal metaphoric expressions realizing the conceptual metaphor BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS and specifically.e. it would be impossible to analyze multimodal metaphor as being constituted by visual and verbal elements. verbalizations of in- . for instance. The duality of conceptual metaphors as both operating on the cognitive level and being realized in surface level metaphoric expressions leads to inductive reasoning on the part of the researcher. after all. talk about the “DNA of a company” is shown to be a staple of corporate discourse. music. which are physiologically and hence perceptually related to tastes. as in logos written signs spoken signs gestures: These can be seen as part of the more general category of kinesthetics. verbal elements can be perceived visually as written language. see van Leeuwen 1999). different forms of acoustic mode (speech. according to which the verbal elements of a multimodal text serve to cue and thereby restrict possible interpretations of the visual elements. in that the analysis of metaphoric expressions leads to inferences about underlying metaphoric models. For instance. and haptically as Braille language. In the case of verbal metaphoric expressions. It will be argued that such anchoring can also be achieved beyond the immediate co-text. by means of intertextuality. ABN Amro bank. any verbalization reflects the researcher’s interpretation of the observed expressions. and will in turn steer the analysis of similar phrases. including evaluations.. BUSINESS IS A RACE? In the case of a relay race. “activities represented by means of abstract terms that distil from them a quality that triggers reference to positive or negative values” (van Leeuwen and Wodak 1999: 105).48 Veronika Koller ferred conceptual metaphors are to some extent motivated by the verbal formulation of the observed expression. evaluations and affective components will be preferred to others. the metaphoric expressions deriving from metaphoric models and their evaluations become typical of that discourse. Discursive reinforcements of mental models. In our example. in more general terms.e. foregrounding aspects of teamwork rather than competition.. extended and elaborated as they may be in various modes. said by a company executive about their financial strategy (Schwartz 2006). the metaphoric scenario triggered by the multimodal metaphor could include semi-metaphoric components like “company X delivers faster results and outruns the competition. In view of this complexity. this could mean that both COMPANY X IS A RUNNER and BUSINESS IS A RACE are viable.com/about/business_principles. i. The ABN Amro example is further complicated by the verbal co-text realizing the JOURNEY metaphor. In a given discourse. and that inferred metaphors should be seen as part of a metaphor scenario (Musolff 2006) with different levels of abstraction as well as cause-effect relations.group. Subsequently. the metaphor’s significance changes again.e. positive evaluation of particular notions would also be reinforced. For example. This bias is aggravated in the case of multimodal metaphor. it could be argued that the traditional A IS B type metaphor as such is limiting. or. the phrase we channeled investments in parallel with our corporate DNA.3 Should the inferred conceptual metaphor be worded as COMPANY X IS A RACING TEAM.” i. referring to the business principles as a compass to guide us on our journey. especially when it is the source domain that is expressed in non-verbal form: For example.” which has .4 only particular models will be relevant.cfm) with no possible literal interpretation. In addition. allows for a metaphor COMPANIES ARE LIVING ORGANISMS to be inferred.abnamro.g. can be assumed to activate the metaphoric mental model underlying them and thereby reinforce it. An example would be the metaphoric reference to companies as “corporate citizens.” I will return to this question when discussing the examples from corporate discourse below. Repeated exposure to the same set of metaphoric expressions. http://www. have been referred to as “moralized activities. a company’s business principles might feature pictures of a boat race (e. one form of structured knowledge of a particular notion or entity along with its associations. By the same token. Obviously. or international business magazines (Koller 2005). their senders hold considerable power when addressing employees. Phillips and McQuarrie 2004). often with a view to processes of reception and interpretation (Phillips 2003. What models rise to prominence in a discourse is to some extent influenced by the (institutional) power of discourse participants.. 3. because of its dual nature. ultimately. Moreover. often cynically. Indeed. The necessary cognitive effort potentially reinforces a particular conceptualization of the company in the reader’s mind. its selective use in discourse represents an ideologically vested strategy to shape models of social reality. thus be seen as located at the interface between cognition and discourse.g. 2005). By investigating how such a strategy is enacted through multimodal metaphor.e. metaphor can. and Vestergaard 2006). Supplementing those studies. e. to present and ingrain particular traits but not others as positive and desirable. This makes visual elements. this chapter looks at corporate branding as the interface between marketing and strategic organizational management. money. In the case of corporate branding messages. interest and. because it requires the text’s recipient to construct a meaningful reading by processing verbal and visual elements together. Strunck.Brand images 49 acquired the status of a technical term in corporate discourse and reinforces the positively connoted idea of companies taking responsibility for the wider community they are part of. much research into visual metaphor to date has investigated the phenomenon in contexts such as advertising. This relative power on the part of consumers also grants them easier access to counter-readings that. projected) organizational identity” (Kapferer . the chapter seeks to contribute to the critical study of multimodality (Lassen. As the “outward oriented (i. particularly attractive as a communicative strategy for multinational corporations. and multimodal metaphor in particular. Rumbo 2002). Following the sociocognitive tradition in critical discourse analysis (van Dijk 2002.. pictorial and multimodal metaphors allow for greater cross-cultural access than verbal ones” (Forceville 2008). while consumers as addressees have the power to withhold their attention. including the visual components of multimodal metaphor. A cognitive approach to corporate brands It has been noted that “inasmuch as … pictures are more easily recognized transnationally than … languages. Multimodal metaphor in particular can be used as a tool to meet the persuasive function of most corporate communication. deconstruct brand messages (see for instance the practice of ad busting. . corporate branding has gradually become more important than product branding. this ideal self is meant to converge with the “epistemic social schema” (Kristiansen 2008). Morgan 1986). Ultimately. company. has about the nature of another social group or entity. to the economies of scale gained by more focused marketing and communication efforts. it is here also understood as inwardly oriented.e.5 A corporate brand is a metonymic condensation of what corporate decision-makers consider most desirable in their organization (Balmer 2006: 39). companies may communicate corporate and product brands separately. in the present case. To make these abstract models graspable. Hatch. In addition to Kapferer’s definition of the corporate brand. and Ciccolella 2006: 142). Brands as intangible entities represent the cognitive-affective concepts stakeholders maintain about a particular product. companies have since the 1980s sought to conceptualize themselves and their brands as living organisms (Csaba and Bengtsson 2006: 122. a corporate brand is the image a company wishes to convey to its stakeholders. Examples are McDonald’s as a corporate brand without particular product brands and. stakeholders. even endowing them with a quasihuman “personality” (Christensen and Askegaard 2001. i. in the case of corporate brands. and the need for employees to identify with their company (Schultz.. a duplication of images could ask too much of the cognitive capabilities of a consumer who is already faced with innumerable brands. Ever since the latter half of the 1990s. the beliefs a social group. The analysis carried out in this study will show how corporate brands are further constructed by drawing on an “ought self” (Kunda 1999: 472) or “deontic social schema” (Kristiansen 2008). As such. Reasons for this shift range from increased corporate brand value as an asset in negotiating mergers and acquisitions.e. the company. the perceived view of stakeholders about what the company should be like. Wee 2004). Projecting both seems to be the exception rather than the rule: Apart from historical and strategic reasons for keeping product and corporate brands separate. i. the corporate brand has to be distinguished from product brands: Although some corporations project both (e.g. service or.50 Veronika Koller 2002: 185) of a company. Apple as a corporate brand and iPod as one of its product brands). Ariel as one of the many product brands marketed by Procter & Gamble. up to the point where tangible products are merely “the material extension of a brand” (Askegaard 2006: 100) and “the battle for positioning … takes place … in the realm of imagery” (Soenen and Moingeon 2002: 30)..e. here. conversely. a corporate brand constitutes the ideal self a company wishes to communicate to others. which is not itself a corporate brand. communicated to internal stakeholders such as employees. i. In socio-cognitive terms. up to .. Brand images 51 the point where brands become metaphorical people interacting with stakeholders. “Our Mission. the brand’s characteristics are theorized to be transferred to the consumer. In terms of text type. goals.” bringing with them “emotional and self-expressive benefits” for the consumer (Schultz.6 In a final twist.” “Message from the CEO” (a feature that is particularly popular with Japanese companies). companies corroborate Collins and Porras’s observation of mission and vision statements as “a muddled stew of values. 4. i. or multimodal “texts. Forceville (2006: 388) notes that “the personification of commodities is a very familiar marketing strategy. office design. Metaphors as a reflection of allegedly shared organizational discourse (Cunliffe and Shotter 2006: 135) are used in a range of modes. beliefs.g. architecture. In an ultimately narcissistic relationship with the BRANDS ARE PEOPLE metaphor. (Cappetta and Gioia 2006: 212). Hatch. using brands “as symbolic resources for the construction and maintenance of identity” (Elliott and Wattanasuwan 1998: 132). philosophies.” By using these headings interchangeably. the basis for projecting corporate brand images externally and internally. often in concert. call centre music etc. thus building a corpus of 29. Such brand artifacts are seen as the “vehicles for the transfer of meaning from the brand to the consumer. who thus engages in “symbolic consumption” (Harquail 2006: 174–175).. construct the BRANDS ARE PEOPLE metaphor and endow it with particular characteristics. a list of the largest companies worldwide that is ascribed great importance by the business community. purposes.” and it is certainly one that can be extended to (corporate) brand artifacts. In particular. logos. indeed. and Ciccolella 2006: 150). the texts comprise the top 50 and the bottom 50 companies.” e. Data selection and analysis Parts of this study are based on a corpus of corporate mission statements. most notably visual and verbal.925 words. which.e. A central role in the projection of corporate brand image is played by artifacts.” “Strategy” or. These were chosen as representing a company’s ideal self. mission statements come under the headings of “Our Vision. the BRANDS ARE PEOPLE metaphor implies that a brand is supposed to incorporate the ideal characteristics the consumer wishes to be seen as having. The mission statements in question were taken from the websites of the 2003 Fortune Global 500.. Such multimodal metaphors tend to take particular forms and to cluster in particular genres. “The essence of our company. . ambitions and central values of an organization to its internal and external stakeholders (Fox and Fox 2004: 32. logos and layout. inclusive “we” and high-affinity deontic modality (“it has been necessary to do so”) (Fox and Fox 2004: 43. competitive. the top 15 items to possibly denote central concepts in corporate discourse are: innovation. professionalism and fairness. quoted in Czerniawska 1997: 185). the list contains a total of 2.52 Veronika Koller aspirations. At 5 per cent probability for log likelihood. In general. (Continental AG) The exceptional quality of our workforce is a valuable competitive edge. practices. such as brochures and the corpus of mission statements mentioned above.102 types. integrity. (Mobil) [My emphases. even the less obvious of these lexical items are found to be evaluated positively when linked back to their co-text. norms. creativity. committed / commitments. strategies. absolute quantifiers (“each. growth. In the persuasive genre represented by the texts in the corpus.” “everywhere”). VK] We can therefore posit that these lexical items represent the predominant values in corporate discourse. How then do verbal and visual modes in corporate discourse interact to convey the ideal corporate brand personality? The data collected to answer this question are taken from a range of genres promoting the corporate brand. respect. the components and characteristics of the BRANDS ARE PEOPLE metaphor are seen as conveyed in illustrations. responsibility. we can identify the mission statement as a genre since the various forms it takes share the communicative purpose of conveying the raison d’être. excellence. Defining parameters used to achieve this communicative purpose are hyperbole as realized in superlatives (“the best customer experience”). Despite this heterogeneity. The texts therefore represent instances of the secondary corporate communication of marketing (Balmer 2006: 37). however. Filtering out proper names and technical terms. 43) and thus foster their loyalty to the institution in question. and hence the ideal type traits of a company’s brand personality. Swales and Rogers 1995). Koller 2008. significantly overused in the mission statements as compared to the written sampler of the British National Corpus. The key word search function of the Wmatrix corpus analysis interface (see Rayson 2008) was used to ascertain lexical items that were. in statistical terms. and descriptions” (1996: 77. 171. trust. teamwork. performance. together with their verbal co-text: The graphic designer’s brief that corporate design “reflect the ‘true’ . transparency. for instance: (1) (2) We will invest in those businesses that promise the greatest value growth. .” 5. multimodal metaphors with visual and verbal components feature in three ways: Firstly. mission. Ultimately elaborating on the corporate identity and projecting it as corporate brand image. Further. and the study can therefore be taken as a starting point for empirically testing its claims against further data involving different modalities.. layout In the data..1 Illustration As mentioned above.g. layout can also visualize source domains of metaphoric expressions that are anchored by verbal elements. while the present analysis focuses on multimodal metaphors in which verbal components anchor a metaphoric interpretation of visual elements. It is noteworthy how many websites in the corpus contain images of human beings. Illustration. Although not discussed in this chapter. illustrating dynamism. when connecting design elements in the corporate color are used in the brochure of a company that claims to have a “networking personality. balance. logos and logo elements tend to visualize particular characteristics ascribed to the BRANDS ARE PEOPLE metaphor as a special case of the LIVING ORGANISMS metaphor. sounds and music. discursive construction and cognitive conceptualization of brands can equally be realized in different modes. logo. e. with these terms often being used interchangeably. philosophy and strategy. or openness).g. “if you analyse a company’s design you can also trace its identity [and] personality” (Johansson and Holm 2006: 140). Such characteristics are often expressed using spatial concepts as source domains (e. Thirdly. Secondly.Brand images 53 reality of the company” means that ideally. illustrations on corporate websites support conventional metaphors such as BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS. and other low-sensuality artifacts (Pratt and Rafaeli 2006: 281) should be understood as acting in concert with other corporate artifacts in communicating brand concepts.g. and of nature. vision. logos and layout. these subsections are a good starting point to ascertain the multimodal metaphoric construction of BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS and its specific form BRANDS ARE PEOPLE. mostly children. 5. the “About” sections on corporate websites typically include a company’s values. illustrations.. e. In the triptych structure of the above illustration (figure 1). in that it serves. and the tree can be interpreted as a visual representation of the source domain in the metaphor FINANCIAL SUCCESS IS NATURAL GROWTH. accessed 20 August 2007). against the background of what looks like the inside of a corporate building. on the other finds a reflection in the verbal co-text: . Reproduced with permission.54 Veronika Koller Figure 1. appears in the left-hand picture. Finally. followed by the low-angle shot of a skyscraper – a staple of corporate iconography – and the picture of a tree. the dual visual connection of the brand with culture.com/about/vision/index. Ltd. Further. as symbolized by the building. Hitachi corporate philosophy (http://www.html. the text is typical of the mission statement corpus in including metaphoric expressions of growth (“[We’re] aiming for high growth in the global market”). Copyright in these images is owned by Hitachi. on the one hand and nature.htachi. Hitachi. as represented by the tree. The latter is over-determined. a verbal representation of the brand name. most obviously. as a literal illustration of Hitachi’s key strategic theme “Sustainable Environmental Solutions”. By setting up a dichotomy of technology and harmony. (NYK Line) To conduct fair and open business operations while acknowledging our social responsibilities and aspiring for harmony with our global environment. and put our hearts into creating a more vibrant. This “unforced” metaphorical interpretation may well serve to make instances like these powerful precisely because the metaphor is neither explicit nor “strongly signaled” (Forceville 1999). In that sense.Brand images (3) 55 Since its founding in 1910. (Asahi) Stay in harmony with nature. Understood as such. as evidenced by the following examples: (4) We … will shoulder the responsibility to contribute to a sustainable society in harmony with nature. if not necessary. multimodal metaphors that are based on the interplay between verbal and visual elements are not unlike pictorial similes (Forceville 1996). to construe a metaphor FINANCIAL SUCCESS IS NATURAL GROWTH. with the verbal elements further cueing a link between growth and harmony. we would be confronted with a multimodal metaphor in which the source domain (NATURAL GROWTH) is represented visually. Not only does the size of the tree then suggest an age equaling that of the company. the latter is conceptually linked to what one would normally expect as the opposite of technology. blend in with local societies. Hitachi has acted from a corporate philosophy of contributing to society through technology. based on the principles of harmony and sincerity (my emphasis. The relation between visuals and language here makes it possible. then we are dealing with a typical case of partial mappings in promotional genres. the world and society have changed greatly. In the intervening years. literal link between harmony and nature. (Toppan) (5) (6) If the picture of the tree is indeed meant to metaphorically represent natural growth. in which all negatively connoted knowledge about the source – such as the disarray and imbalance brought about by growth – are “muted” (Ungerer 2000). . but we have never lost our pioneering spirit. richer culture. but it may also be used to visualize the notion of harmony. In mission statements there is a clear. namely nature. as linked to nature. VK). linking both to the target domain of the brand. while the verbal co-text relates another concept (HARMONY) to the source domain. The verbal text includes the source domain only once (“to bring IBM’s values to life”) but explicitly mentions the target domain (“what IBM has always been about – and always will be about”). IBM values (available at http://www-03. the visual representation of the term intertextually draws on an established metaphoric expression in corporate discourse. The stylized picture of a DNA helix next to the company name here instantiates the BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS metaphor and represents a company’s values as an inherent and inalterable quality. Reprint courtesy of International Business Machines Corporation. a designer has to have an almost visceral sense of what is now called the brand’s DNA: the abstract spirit of the woman the clothes are made for. While the text does not include the word “DNA” as such. but I firmly believe that the stellar attributes which are in the DNA of the brands and (8) . with the visual element again acting as a representation of the source domain (figure 2).html . accessed 20 August 2007).com/ibm/history/exhibits/ valueone/valueone_intro. The juxtaposition of present perfect and future tense points toward the inalterable nature of what is understood to be the brand’s “core” and thus foregrounds this particular semantic component of the metaphor.ibm.56 Veronika Koller A similar multimodal metaphor BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS can be found in the relevant section of IBM’s website. and the design vocabulary to communicate it. (Friedman 2004) “We all know that these are highly competitive markets. copyright © International Business Machines Corporation. Figure 2. Witness the following examples: (7) To be successful at a house. 5. essentialist brand identity may be reinforced in corporate discourse to provide orientation and the idea of reliability – another key word in the mission statement corpus – for consumers.e. Companies and the designers employed by them are remarkably verbose when it comes to explaining the meaning of their logos to the public. chief executive officer at HMV. i. Corporate logos specify the metaphor to BRANDS ARE PEOPLE. Illustrations on corporate websites suggest that brand values are essentialized as stable and inherent in a brand that is metaphorically conceptualized as a living organism. as well as the ever increasing importance of brands. The genetic metaphor has not escaped the attention of brand theorists. who have raised the question whether such an essentialist notion is still viable given the fragmented consumer identities found in postmodern markets (Csaba and Bengtsson 2006: 124–125). serving as “a visual cue for the recall of information previously received … In addition to the cognitive responses of identifying the brand and remembering information. Intended to convey a highly condensed form of the brand image.” (Beales 2006) In the last example. revealing what allegedly inalterable traits are ascribed to such a metaphorical human being. have led to “a previously unseen vanity with respect to the signifiers that organizations themselves . sometimes in addition to music in so-called sound logos. who will stay on as executive chairman. On the other hand. a logo meets cognitive and affective functions. Mostly multimodal in themselves. quoted in Killgren and Callan 2005) (9) “[The corporate culture] really has gotten into the DNA. the metaphoric expression is given particular weight and credibility by linking it to its source domain via the speaker’s professional background. Clearly. short jingles associated with a brand.Brand images 57 operating culture will enable the group’s businesses to successfully differentiate themselves and to compete effectively through a variety of complementary retail channels.” (Simon Fox.. the function of logos as instances of condensed brand communication. the logo can also elicit affective responses.” such as recall of pleasurable advertising and positive brand experiences (Pimentel and Heckler 2003: 106). they combine written and pictorial signs.2 Logo Logos are central elements of corporate brand communication. “I don’t say that lightly – I used to be a biochemist.” says Ms Considine. The company’s logo shows the corporate name underneath an open ball made up of interlaced tapes in red. and shows the company stretching its wings as it soars into the future. Jujiro Matsuda. light and movement. The accompanying text offers the following interpretation: (10) The logo’s spherical shape suggests both the Earth and the international scope of our business. light blue. Indeed. curving lines. it symbolizes the complexity of an ever-changing world. Constructed from a set of colored. The colors chosen naturally evoke the idea of heat. rather flatly: “It also derives from the name of our founder. Energy company Total’s “visual identity portal” is a case in point (figure 3): Figure 3. The combination suggests concentrated. It is a symbolic development of the Mazda “M”.58 Veronika Koller choose to manufacture” (Christensen and Cheney 2000: 251). The intersecting curving lines convey an impression of movement. in their typically superficial encounters with logos. Reproduced with permission. yellow. before concluding. The logo is airy and light. signifying that energy is more than just a natural resource. it is questionable whether especially consumers can. The text goes on to trace the meaning of the brand name to the West Asian deity Ahura Mazda and elaborates the positive values it stands for. but the product of humankind’s ingenuity and exchanges. Grandiose explanations are also offered by car manufacturer Mazda. The logo’s colors symbolize multiple energies.” . controlled energies serving heat. and navy. or if they even wish to do so (see Pimentel and Heckler 2003: 126).7 This may provide interesting reading for graphic designers but is unlikely to rivet the attention of stakeholders. The company offers the following interpretation on their website:8 (11) The brand symbol expresses Mazda’s dedication to continuous growth and improvement. really appreciate such symbolic meanings. The Mazda logo features the name underneath a silver circle surrounding a gently curved element that resembles a stylized bird. Total logo. 247). action lines would be indexical in that they point to a moving object. This reading hinges on whether the elements are understood as indexical or symbolic. the action lines used in comics to indicate. In a later paper (Kennedy. activity.” i. static images rely on metaphor for representing movement as well as its associated qualities of energy. sportswear companies (Nike). Understood as such.11 . The HVB logo is reproduced with permission. making the whole logo a multimodal metaphor that includes the target domain in the verbal and the source domain in the visual mode. lightness. and dynamism.” and “agile” are again key words in the mission statements corpus. “global. among other things.9 software consultants (Vanteon) or even not-for-profit organizations such as the British Home Office. Be they for banks (HVB). A metaphorical element used to this end in many logos is a bow or curve (see figures 4a and 4b). Given that “dynamic. Green. as if left by lights on the moving body. quoted in Lindsay 2000: 204). Perceived as conveying “global reach [and] impact … full spectrums” (Brannon Cashion. In composite logos. Curved elements in logos. While the first two of those values can be literally visualized by open and non-solid circles. senior vice president at Addison Whitney. like time-lapse photography” (p.. such action lines are compared to “a trail.” While this design feature is not in itself metaphoric – representing as it does a stylized version of the globe – other possible interpretation such as “drive” and “impetus” are better candidates. “Swooshes” could be seen as varieties of what Kennedy (1982) has called “runes.” “proactive. movement.10 curved logo elements (“swooshes”) seem ubiquitous. and Vervaeke 1993). curved logo elements may be interpreted as contributing to a multimodal metaphor of dynamic speed. Figure 4a and 4b.e. curved elements include the brand name instead of the moving object. The Vanteon logo is owned by Vanteon and is used with permission from Vanteon. curved logo elements visually represent one of the key words in the mission statement corpus. and movement.Brand images 59 Common denominators in the two logo interpretations above seem to be openness. however. up to the point of cliché (Lindsay 2000). 60 Veronika Koller It has been noted that “the logo [has] a significant role in … triggering the cognitive frame” that a company wishes to be perceived in (Baruch 2006: 182). In corporate discourse, particular frames will be prioritized over others. Thus, characteristics such as “dynamic” and “active” are overrepresented at the expense of “contemplative” and “receptive,” both verbally as lexical items and visually as logo elements. Given the ubiquity not only of certain logos but also of pervasively used logo elements such as the “swoosh,” such “endlessly repeated and recycled images … arguably aspire to conceptual status” (Forceville 2006: 390). The mental models of “activity” and “continuous movement” have achieved a currency that makes these models and their linguistic and visual expressions almost defining notions of the discourses and other practices of corporations. Due to the prestige and influence in late capitalism of all things corporate, such models become positively connoted in other areas as well and are likely to be desired as identity traits by many consumers. Hence, metaphorically constructing brands as people is intended to appeal to stakeholders and incite them to interact with the brand and co-produce its identity (Csaba and Bengtsson 2006: 124), in the hope of acquiring some of its characteristics by doing so. In how far this strategy can be successful in the face of widespread consumer indifference and even cynicism is an open question. 5.3 Layout We have seen how the Hitachi website (figure 1) uses visual elements to represent the source domain of the BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS metaphor. Moreover, the brand name was accompanied by visual elements signifying the brand’s main characteristics. This device points to a third area of use of multimodal metaphor in corporate branding discourse, namely layout. Not just nameable objects, such as buildings and trees, but also layout can assist in construing a metaphor, even though this strategy may require a visually literate audience in order to be successful. To take but one example, in various samples of the brand communication of banking group HSBC (brochures, advertisements, posters, websites; see Koller 2007) red, one of its corporate colors, acts as a structuring device: Red sub-headings, red frames and red bullet points all serve layout functions in arranging pictorial elements. In one brochure, red lines connect paragraphs about the various places where the company does business. The lines also frame details of easily recognizable, even clichéd local symbols such as a Chinese dragon or the Eiffel Tower. As such, the layout of the brochure is Brand images 61 an example of pictorial grouping, understood as “symmetric image alignment,” i.e., the spatial organization of pictorial elements in terms of size, orientation or distance (Teng and Sun 2002; see also Teng, this volume). If, as in the HSBC example, the aligned elements depict things of the same kind, their grouping “produce[s] the cognitive effect of inviting the viewers to see the depicted entities as belonging to the same category” (Teng and Sun 2002: 300). Furthermore, the corporate color red is metonymic in that it stands for the whole HSBC group. At the same time it functions to illustrate the idea that HSBC connects places and people, by dint of the red lines literally connecting the symbols of different localities the company is present in. The metonymy is again cued by its verbal component, as the layout just described can be found in HSBC’s Business Connections brochure. Similarly, in their history brochure, the company makes references to its “network” 24 times and to “connection(s)” four times in a total of 11,563 words. Curiously, both these central terms feature in nominal form only, yet it could be argued that the vectors12 and lines of the brochures’ layout are equivalent to action verbs (Kress and van Leeuwen 2006: 46). Another statistically overused word in mission statements is “connecting,” as in the following instance: (12) Our brands are connecting with customers in ways that will last a lifetime. (Whirlpool) Thus, the layout of corporate branding messages is another indication of how “all elements metonymically associated … with the source domain qualify as potential candidates for a mapping” (Forceville 2006: 384/this volume). In integrated communications, the source domain of BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS as such is provided by illustrations, while logos and layout specify the conceptualization of corporate brands to BRANDS ARE PEOPLE and provide visualizations of that metaphorical person’s character traits. Given the persuasive genres involved, such traits will be ideal rather than real, both for the identity of the corporate brand and for that of the stakeholders interacting with it. 6. Discussion and conclusion This leaves us with the question why corporate brands should be personified in the first place. What are the specific affordances of BRANDS ARE PEOPLE that make this metaphor appropriate for the persuasive genres of corporate branding communication? As Lakoff and Turner (1989: 72) note with regard 62 Veronika Koller to poetic metaphor, “[p]ersonification permits us to use our knowledge about ourselves to maximal effect, to use insights about ourselves to help us comprehend … abstract concepts.” Branding messages use personification to aid cognitive processing of the brand concept, compressing the complex system that is a corporation into an abstract bundle of characteristics and making this abstraction graspable by linking it to human personality as the source domain. As far as those personality traits are supposed to be desirable, personification also serves a persuasive purpose. The metaphoric personality traits, or brand values, are communicated by having verbal elements such as key words anchor interpretation of visual elements. Indeed, the pattern to emerge from the above examples is that the target of the BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS/PEOPLE metaphor is encoded verbally, with the company name in figure 1 being integrated into a visual element. The source domain in all cases is encoded visually, and occasionally in additional verbal form, e.g., in the Hitachi mission statement (figure 1) elaborating on “growth,” the IBM values statement (figure 2) talking about “bringing values to life” or in the HSBC Business Connections brochure (my emphasis, VK). Dual encoding of the source domain seems to be less common in logos, but this and other results will have to be tested on a much broader scale. Multimodal encoding has the potential for further persuasion by reinforcing the desirable characteristics in two modes. The aim of persuasive genres is therefore less likely to be met if the visuals were omitted, especially since the positive values that are visualized carry affective components that are intended to reinforce the brand message. Moreover, brand characteristics can reflect readers’ perceived personality, as shown in this description of the following two (product) brands: (13) Hachez [chocolate] is the brand of the banker, the businessman in a dark suit and bowler hat. If it was a person, it would be a distinguished elderly gentleman with a distinct feel for quality and indulgence. (Hasso Nauck, chief executive officer at Hachez, quoted in Willenbrock 2005: 103, trans. VK) A volkswagen is like a polite, good-looking person. A nice, friendly attitude, rather unassuming, definitely not a show-off … it is a goodnatured car, a bit moody every now and then, just like a human being. A loyal, reliable life partner. (Volkswagen customers quoted in Laudenbach 2005: 87, trans. VK) (14) The second of the above quotations is elaborated by the writer of the article, who remarks that his interview partners seem to be describing themselves Brand images 63 when listing the attributes of their cars. This narcissistic relationship between the consumer and the brand is made possible by first ascertaining social and psychological aspects of the target audience through market research and subsequently constructing the brand “personality” as mirroring that of the ideal consumer. This conceptualization is effected through marketing, particularly branding messages and their typical features, such as multimodal metaphor. Unsurprisingly, given the persuasive thrust of marketing, the practice is highly manipulative in that it addresses consumers’ selfimage and exploits potential lack of self-esteem. On a more positive note, sociological research into brand communities (Muniz and O’Guinn 2001) has made a case for brands fostering social cohesion among individuals identifying with a brand, rather than fragmenting societies into narcissistic individuals engaging in compensatory brand consumption. Given the nature of logos as condensed branding messages, such symbols obviously play a central role as textual resources for such brand communities (Muniz and O’Guinn 2001: 423). The double-edged nature of branding as a corporate discourse practice is captured in its description “as a (global) ideoscape [that] provides the ideological basis for the establishment of new meaning systems, new practices and new identity forms for the members of the consumer culture” (Askegaard 2006: 98). Although vocal criticism of branding (Klein 2000) has ironically become part of branding itself, companies still have a vital interest in not having their brands demystified. One strategy to mystify brands is naturalization: Verbally and visually, texts promoting corporate brands draw on LIVING ORGANISM metaphors to recast social practices as natural kinds and thus make them less vulnerable to criticism. Rothbart and Taylor’s (1992) observation that social categories tend to be viewed in an essentialist fashion as homogeneous and inalterable natural kinds is crucial in this context. The question has been raised whether essentialist notions of brands are suitable for postmodern consumer identities (Csaba and Bengtsson 2006: 130–131). However, given the persuasive thrust of branding communication, it can equally be argued that brands’ illusions of stability and inalterability not only respond to public mistrust but actually attract stakeholders who lack orientation in highly fragmented societies, for better or worse. Yet, with promotional texts, genre is key: The designing institution in each case is a company whose ulterior motive in producing and distributing texts is promoting itself as a brand and, ultimately, maximize profits. Audiences can be expected to be aware of, and even cynical towards, the profit 64 Veronika Koller motive (Messaris 1997: 159). Encountering brand images in recognized persuasive genres will therefore constrain interpretation and make uncritical acceptance of the communicated brand image unlikely. In this context, it is crucial to remember that often the viewer is invited rather than forced to understand the visuals as encoding the BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS/PEOPLE metaphor. Outside the context of the specific instance of brand communication, there would be little to suggest that illustrations, logos or layout should be taken metaphorically; it is only in the given genre that they suggest metaphoric construal, at least to some viewers. Also, the instances discussed above leave some leeway for alternative interpretations of visual elements, e.g., the rooflike protectiveness offered by the Home Office logo (see n. 10). Finally, as indicated above, at least consumers may simply not be interested enough to engage with corporate branding messages on more than superficial terms. To be sure, this may be different for other stakeholders: Branding messages are also directed inwardly, i.e., they communicate the corporate brand identity to employees with the intention to foster employee loyalty and identification (Schultz, Hatch, and Ciccolella 2006: 143). Given the institutional power of the sender vis-à-vis this particular stakeholder group, employees may be less able to afford the cynicism and/or indifference with which consumers may react to branding messages. Even when employees feel cynical towards their employer’s brand identity, voicing such cynicism on record is rarely advisable. Given the reports of senior management’s attempts to control ethnographic research into corporate discourse (personal communication with Jo Angouri, 13 December 2005), it is therefore difficult to find more than anecdotal evidence for negative or indifferent employee attitudes toward corporate brands. We can therefore expect corporate branding efforts to increasingly be directed inwardly, leading to further “corporate self-absorption” (Christensen and Cheney 2000) on the part of companies with their metaphorical brand personalities and their multimodal expressions thereof. Notes 1. 2. I would like to thank the two editors as well as Rosario Caballero for their helpful comments on a draft version of this chapter. The embodiment approach to metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson 1999) sees kinesthetics as the foundation of basic, “primary” metaphoric models that are Brand images 65 acquired early in life, e.g. GOOD IS UP (Grady 1997). However, note the difference between kinesthetically founded conceptual metaphor as a cognitive phenomenon and gestural metaphor as a surface-level expression of such a metaphoric model. 3. The image of the race could be literal as an illustration of, say, a marathon sponsored by the company in question. A case could be made for sponsoring practices literalizing aspects of the brand personality the company constructs for itself, e.g., that of fastness and speed. 4. Discourse is here defined as the total of texts produced, distributed and received between members of a particular social field, e.g., the business community. 5. In branding and organizational theory, an internally communicated corporate brand image is sometimes referred to as brand identity (Hatch and Schultz 2000: 22). 6. Indeed, the metaphor BRANDS ARE PEOPLE has become so entrenched in corporate discourse that it has been used as a methodological tool. Thus, Davies and Chun (2002) developed a Corporate Personality Scale to measure the difference between internal and external images of organizations. 7. http://www.total.com/identite/portail/en/index.htm, accessed 12 February 2009. 8. http://www.mazda.com/profile/vision/, accessed 12 February 2009. 9. http://www.nike.com/nikeos/p/nike/en_GB/, accessed 12 February 2009. 10. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/, accessed 20 August 2007. In its combination of traditional (coat of arms) and modern (curve) elements, the Home Office logo is a good example of the transition from time-honored heraldic symbols to contemporary abstract logos (see Baruch 2006, Frick 1996, Mautner forthcoming, Pimentel and Heckler 2003). The curved element can also be read as reinforcing the word “home” over which it arches, with both drawing on notions of safety and protection. 11. The metaphoric nature of such logos becomes even more obvious when the curve is interpreted as a movement heavenwards. 12. 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Communication and Organizational Perspectives. and Priscilla Rogers 1995 Discourse and the projection of corporate culture: The mission statement. 2005 Contextual knowledge management in discourse production: A CDA perspective.. In A New Agenda in (Critical) Discourse Analysis: Theory. Gilbert Weiss and Ruth Wodak (eds. Discourse and Society 4: 223–242. Bertrand Moingeon and Guillaume Soenen (eds. Wee. 2002 The discourse-knowledge interface. and oxymoron in pictures: A design-based cognitive approach. Methodology and Interdisciplinarity. 71–100. Marketing. simile. . sensory perception. here the difficulties of communicating smell and taste are particularly conspicuous. Some of the metaphorical frames in winespeak are also exploited to promote wine in commercials and print advertisements – particularly in the latter. This endeavor implies the abundant use of figurative language. Among the genres articulating the discourse of wine. culture. above all. In this regard. should we have to choose one mode of expression for this particular endeavor. the tasting note (henceforth.. Indeed. Introduction Wine is becoming a cultural icon in an emerging hedonistic sub-culture accessible to an ever larger number of consumers. shareable terms. Keywords: Winespeak. perceived by a sense organ). tasting note. The starting point is the tasting note. above all. If we take into account that tasting notes are the verbal translations of organoleptic experiences (i. cross-modal metaphor 1.Chapter 4 Cutting across the senses: Imagery in winespeak and audiovisual promotion Rosario Caballero Abstract The present chapter surveys some of the metaphors recurrently used in wine promotion. TN) has played a . interpreting figurative phenomena rendered via images. my second aim in this chapter is to discuss the problems derived from attempting to “translate” verbal metaphors into images in wine advertising – the metaphors in this case being unquestionably multimodal – and the weight of culture in using and. at the same time. a genre that basically deals with translating a sensorial and highly subjective experience into comprehensible and. wine advertising points to language as the best – albeit also limited – tool at our disposal. the issue here is whether the metaphors used are monomodal or multimodal according to the definition of multimodal metaphor in the present volume. Both genres show that imagery may encompass modes other than language but.e. advertising genres. Indeed. at the same time. irrespective of the growing popularity of this beverage. wine advertising points to language as the best – albeit also limited – tool at our disposal. here the difficulties of communicating smell and taste are particularly conspicuous.e. namely. Particular attention will be paid to the crosssensory/modal quality of such language in the genre and. similes (it smells like a barnyard). hitherto there are few studies devoted to exploring metaphor in wine discourse (although see Lehrer 1975. 2006. their verbalization usually involves using metonymies (ripe flavors). at the same time. wine jargon (winespeak) still retains some of the mystique traditionally associated with the topic – a mystique that partly rests on the use of figurative language. In this regard.e. For “multimodal metaphors” I have adopted Forceville’s definition as those “whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” (Forceville 2006: 384/this volume). Both genres show that imagery may encompass modes other than language (as discussed throughout this book) yet. However. it is one thing to acknowledge the heuristic role of metaphor in wine discourse. In other words. has critically contributed to promoting wine.74 Rosario Caballero critical role in introducing people to wine-tasting procedures and language and. my second aim in this chapter is to discuss the problems derived from attempting to “translate” verbal metaphors into images in wine advertising – the metaphors in this case being unquestionably multimodal. And. since there is no single lexicon with the expressive potential to cover aroma and flavor nuances. as being multimodal in the broadest sense of the term. one of my aims in this chapter is to survey the figurative language used by wine critics in TNs. 1983. In other words.. yet. the metaphors motivating it. the metaphors involved may be equally seen as cutting across various senses and/or modes of expression – i. Gluck 2003). should we have to choose one mode of expression for this particular endeavor. their communication is inextricably linked to metaphor (in the broad sense of the term). and synesthetic metaphors (it smells crisp). 1992. smell and taste. and it is another to ignore the limitations of the modes in which metaphor is instantiated for sharing sensory experiences with a given audience. In this regard. For if we take into account that TNs are the verbal translations of organoleptic experiences (i. Bruce 2000. Peynaud 1987. . Some of the metaphorical frames in winespeak are also exploited to advertise wine in commercials and print advertisements – particularly in the latter. hence.. Amoraritei 2002. those perceived by a sense organ). One of the reasons underlying the figurative quality of winespeak is the shortage of terms available to describe two crucial sensory experiences in wine tasting. Thus. yet have broadened its scope to some extent. above all. knowledge and view(s) of the community articulated around wine – in the latter case. Spanish. 2.Cutting across the senses 75 In the present discussion. culture covers both the shared beliefs. and are prototypically organized in three distinct sections that capture the three canonical steps in any wine tasting procedure. Thus. major insights have been drawn from an ongoing research project devoted to exploring metaphor in a corpus of 12.000 TNs and 100 print advertisements retrieved from American and British wine publications. knowledge and world view(s) characterizing national groups as well as the more specific beliefs. A clarification concerning my use of the term culture in this chapter is in order at this point. and French respectively. It starts with a survey of the figurative language used by wine critics in TNs. interpreting figurative phenomena rendered via images. namely. Figurative language in tasting notes The tasting note is one of the most representative and popular genres in wine discourse.1 The main reason for including these lies in the fact that adverts need not necessarily be translated into the language of the specialized magazine inserting them (French being a case in point given its former status as the language every oenologist and wine lover should master). for this chapter I have also used a small corpus comprising texts and adverts in Spanish and French. as well as a key instrument in the process of wine acculturation. or when images and words combine in wine adverts. the assessment of wines’ (a) color. The chapter is organized as follows. pointing to their heavy dependence on the verbal mode and the difficulties arising from this fact. taste. . (b) smell – metonymically referred to as the wine’s nose/nariz/nez in English. This is followed by a discussion of the cross-modal or multimodal quality of such language and its possible relationships with other figurative phenomena. TNs are short texts (from 20 to 200 words) devoted to describing and evaluating wine. culture cutting across national or regional differences and foregrounding the importance of topic and shared interests in building up discourse communities or cultures within cultures. and (c) mouth-feel – which subsumes smell. comparing how wines from different countries are advertised may bring to the fore the weight of culture in using and. and is metonymically referred to as the wine’s palate/boca/bouche. and touch. However. Then I discuss the use of imagery in advertising genres. In this regard. Moreover. although the metaphors and metonymies underlying winespeak largely cut across languages and cultures (Nedilko 2006). this is not always the case when images are concerned. frock. or mantle. glove. [Very beautiful red purple color/robe … balance due to fine and silky tannins] En bouche. or THREE-DIMENSIONAL ARTIFACTS. pillowy). Los taninos [del vino] … son puro terciopelo. which. soyeux (“silky”). The figurative repertoire illustrated in the genre draws upon diverse metaphorical frames. among which the most salient portray wines as if they were LIVING ORGANISMS. borrowed by Spanish and English).. il se déploie comme un tapis de velours sur lequel dansent les arômes. Spanish TNs yield fewer and less varied textile expressions. In contrast. that is. be used throughout the chapter. this does not mean that wine critics actually equate wines with such entities. Finally. these have a fabric or weft. Nevertheless. and use terms like appret (“starch”). is shared by texts written in the three languages under survey. in fact. [The tannins are pure velvet] Très belle robe rouge pourpre … équilibre dû aux tannins fins et soyeux. “carpet the mouth”).76 Rosario Caballero Another conspicuous characteristic of TNs is their heavy reliance on figurative language. adjectives such as aterciopelado (“velvety”) or sedoso (“silky”) qualifying wines’ mouth-feel. satiny. may burst at their seams. textile terms are mostly used either to describe the structural properties of wines (e. as PIECES OF CLOTHING – which may well suggest a personified view of wines. or tightly wound) or to evaluate their feel in the taster’s mouth (e.g. silky. and can be variously described as a tapestry. but the labels may be helpful for surveying the most salient domains involved in wine commentary and will. as happens with their rhetorical structure. well meshed.g. and étoffé to qualify a full-bodied wine. velvety.2 Textile metaphors are illustrated in the following examples: (1) (2) (3) (4) Blackberry jam and pepper were well integrated into the fabric of this wine A monster in a beautiful frock. it unfurls like a tapestry on which aromas dance] (5) .) Textile renderings of wines in English are conveyed through reference to wine elements as their cloak. [In the mouth. therefore. TEXTILES. although we also find nouns like capa (“robe”) used to refer to the intensity of a wine’s color. open-knit. and descriptions of tannins as cloth that tapiza(n) la boca (literally. … loads of velvety tannins. French critics also refer to a wine’s color as its robe (the term being. and velouté (“velvety”) to assess the mouth-feel of wines. (As discussed later. “joven” or “juvenil. “afilado”). wide (Fr. buttressed. the most salient metaphorical frame in the three languages at issue is WINES ARE LIVING ORGANISMS. In English. “redondo. On the other hand. contours.” Fr. pointed (Sp. The fruit [in this wine] barely peeks through the wall of chewy tannins on the finish. however. On the one hand. and ensamblado (“assembled”) in Spanish. “jeune”). “long”). “vigoreux”). construido (“built”). monolithic. foursquare or skyscraper-like. This is far from surprising since wine is a mutable entity resulting from an organic process: the juice extracted from grapes changes considerably along its life inside both oak casks and bottles – a process referred to as breeding or ageing (Sp. “anguleux”). deep (Sp. Bien armado. among the many terms used to describe wine’s evolutionary state we find forceful (Sp. “rond”). “profundo. tired (Sp. we find wines described as GEOMETRICAL ENTITIES which.” Fr. “profond”) or round (Sp. this metaphorical frame is evoked by reference to wines as edifices or monuments which are constructed. “vigoroso. . and French charpenté (“well structured/built”)3 suggest that critics also draw upon the domain of architecture to discuss the structural properties of wines – see also Lehrer (2006) in this respect. massive. and are often evaluated as being square (Fr.” Fr. Thus. “agotado. angular (Sp. [The mouth has ripe. according to the French wine expert Peynaud. bien fondus mais qui donnent une architecture bien définie. terms like armado (“reinforced”).” Fr. backed up or fortified by all or some of their constituents. “ample”).” Fr.” Fr. “crianza. “puntas”). or by evaluative terms such as monumental. accordingly. layers. can have edges (Sp. long (Sp. con cuerpo y taninos firmes … [Well assembled. Although this architectural frame appears to be less productive in Spanish and French. “élevage”) – as well as during the very act of drinking it. “largo. By way of illustration. backs. built. “anguloso. youthful (Sp. and fronts. consider the following passages: (6) (7) (8) (9) Solidly built yet balanced [wine].” Fr. Indeed. the ideal wine should be round or spherical (Peynaud 1987).” Fr. weak (Sp.Cutting across the senses 77 The metaphorical frame WINES ARE THREE-DIMENSIONAL ARTIFACTS may be further decomposed in two related frames. “carré”). some terms suggest a view of wines as BUILDINGS.” Fr. well integrated tannins which provide a well defined architecture] All in all. “débil. with body and firm tannins] La bouche a … des tanins matures. “faible”). [this wine] will be delicious in its first 3–4 years of life. “étoffé”). Finally. “mince”). con casta y finura. bold. “corsé”) or.” Fr. fleshy (Sp. For instance. “joli”). [A great red from Ribera. and Spanish primogénito (“firstborn”) or hijo (“son”) foreground the “social” and “kinship” dimensions of wines. “carnoso. “réservé”). pretty-handsome (Fr. and spice-scented beauty is medium-bodied. cream. “amable. “léger”) and full-bodied (Sp. or honest (Sp. sexy.” Fr. clone. the trickles on the inside of a glass indicating the alcohol concentration of a wine are conventionally referred to as its legs or tears (Sp. and sultry 2001 Chevalier-Montrachet is a highly expressive. “charnu”). Nevertheless.” Fr. Accordingly.” Fr. “maigre”). supple wine … This white chocolate. as brawny (Sp. or civilized (Sp. lean or slim (Fr. “huraño. mate.” Fr. “agresivo. Like its older sibling. “musclé”). “agressif”). [This wine] has a nicely buried backbone of acidity and tannin. flabby (Fr.” Fr. Wine’s structural components are frequently described by means of anatomically biased lexis. The examples below illustrate several instantiations of this anthropomorphic frame: (10) The big.” and “social” properties. and the general effect or weight of a wine in the taster’s mouth is referred to as its body (Sp. Two other common terms in wine description are masculine (Sp. “con cuerpo.” Fr. pedigree. or old (Sp. “con cuerpo ligero. “cuerpo. but is also used to talk about its structural. “jambes” or “larmes”). with breed and finesse] (11) (12) (13) . English terms like blue blood. “behavioral.78 Rosario Caballero “fatigué”). Un gran tinto de la Ribera. “franc”).” Fr. “lágrimas.” Fr. upfront. “gras”). fleshy. demure or shy (Sp. sibling or peer. “masculino” or “viril.” Fr. or expressive (Sp. … ultimate impression of both muscle and flesh. “viril”) and feminine (Sp. concentrated. suave (Sp.4 The behavioral properties of wines are usually assessed by lexis typical of the human realm. “con poco cuerpo. more conspicuously. “musculoso. “corps”). “vieux” or “senile”). “féminin”). fat (Sp.” Fr. in-your-face. and sexy. or thin (Sp.” Fr. “viejo. This personifying view of wines is cued by adjectives such as aggressive (Sp. “franco. “expresivo”). “civilizado”). truffle. wines can be described as light-bodied (Sp. “aimable”). sister.” Fr.” Fr. “femenino.” Fr. “graso. this organic frame is not only concerned with wine’s physiological dimension. Charnu. Straightforward and voluminous … Beautiful potential for aging] Jambes colorées. flesh … it is still very young … has breed and strength] Nez expressif. 2. compact et âpre. power. this does not rule out the concreteness of both the source and target in certain metaphors. assez complexe. with body. already well open … Beautiful nose.. [Expressive nose. [Reserved. d’une longueur éternelle. estructura. charnu. Simply put. This is the topic of the next section. incredibly long. En boca es musculoso. Nevertheless. . … Attaque franche et volumineuse. one of my aims in this chapter is to show that. firm. fresh and thoroughbred: a big wine still in a dream world which will reveal its true character in ten years] (15) (16) (17) As pointed out earlier. Full-bodied. structure. tiene cuerpo. fraîche et racée: un grand vin encore dans les limbes qui ne dévoilera sa vraie nature que dans dix ans. together with showing the heuristic role of figurative language in conveying disparate sensory experiences. … Joli potentiel de vieillissement. Du corps. Très beau nez … Très belle saveur fruitée. potencia … carnosidad … todavía es muy joven … Posee raza y fuerza. which involves the mapping of concrete. topological information across disparate domains (for a detailed discussion on this type of metaphor see Caballero 2006). complex. non-concrete concepts. although helping our understanding of the most abstract via the most concrete is one of the most salient properties of metaphor. compact and rough. the passages seen so far also point to the multimodal quality of wine critics’ commentary. [Colored legs. Très beau vin.. ferme.Cutting across the senses (14) 79 [Este vino] es una bestia encerrada de gran complejidad. [a caged beast of great complexity … powerful and very complex nose. Metaphors in winespeak: Monomodal or multimodal? A core assumption in cognitive approaches to metaphor is that abstract thinking is heavily determined by the functioning of the human body (Lakoff and Johnson 1999). Very beautiful nose … Very beautiful fruity flavor … Fleshy. quite complex. A case in point is image metaphor.. complexe. fleshy. . … Nariz poderosa muy compleja. In mouth it is brawny. Another conspicuous – albeit often neglected – trait of metaphor is that it can be rendered in . déjà bien ouvert … Joli nez.. our concrete experiences in and with the world provide the basic data for understanding abstract. Very beautiful wine] Réservé. taste. body refers to the “weight” of a wine as sensed in the palate. vision. It is perceptibility that makes the former phenomena concrete. all of which have been discussed as rendering a human view of wines – personification being a canonical example of conceptual metaphor in the literature. or gestures) as well as involve various modalities or senses (e. and the lack of it that makes the latter abstract” (1999: 249). the description of wine as a living organism or. although smell and taste are two of the most basic and firsthand – i..g. Yu 2003).e.. however.e. body or mute.80 Rosario Caballero modes of expression other than language (e. for instance. concrete – human experiences. An extreme example of the latter is synesthetic metaphor. Yet. Of course. the verbalization of the subtle differences among the vast array of aromas and flavors at our disposal is no easy matter. nose refers to a wine’s aroma(s). more specifically. the expressions used in wine commentary denote entities and qualities concrete enough to be of use in this difficult context. and mute or expressive have nothing to do with the articulatory properties of the wine at issue. but mean that the elements making up a wine’s bouquet and/or flavor are difficult or easy to perceive. hear. smell. Most expressions. hearing. pictures. Take. which maps information across sensory domains or modes (Day 1996. touch. Nevertheless. and language (itself expressible in various ways) represent three different modalities or modes.g. in fact. feel. Figurative language compensates for the poverty of the lexicon in this respect: in general. Both the concreteness and multimodal quality of some metaphors are important for discussing the figurative language used by critics in TNs. wine critics use them to describe sensory experience: as has been noted. However. sounds. involve perception through the senses rather than abstract concepts or quali- . Ramachandran and Hubbard 2001. the raison d’être of the genre is to put olfactory and gustatory experiences into words. many other terms apparently drawing from the human domain as well as expressions “borrowed” from the textile or architectural domains are. taste and/or smell easier to understand and categorize than phenomena they cannot. In fact. used to express the sensations provoked by wine in the drinker’s nose and mouth – i. or taste). In turn. Thus. defy Lakoff and Johnson’s claims that “human beings find phenomena they can see. very often the situation in winespeak seems to be the reverse: wine critics need to draw upon experiences other than smell and taste to categorize and verbalize these. which leads to a view of the metaphors underlying winespeak as intrinsically multimodal rather than conceptual in the sense the latter term is used in mainstream cognitive linguistics. as a human being in wine discourse is fully congruent with the “physiological” properties of that beverage. terms like nose. perceptual experiences via sense organs). taste(s) and mouth-feel (i. Imagery in wine advertising Wine advertising is peculiar in a number of ways. hence in the same communicative mode.. In the first place. A final conspicuous characteristic of wine advertising is its heavy reliance on language: when elaborate or innovative images are used. since both the source and target in the figurative expressions are rendered verbally. that is. Indeed. particularly when compared with commercials and adverts promoting other consumer goods. whereas many of the targets of the metaphors are smell(s). Having said this. metaphors whose target and source are (primarily) rendered in different modes (e.e. it is fairly conservative in general. 3..e. Yet. images may be seen as figurative only when their accompanying slogans are also taken into account.. the sources concern both concrete (three-dimensional artefacts or the human body) and abstract (kinship) entities and domains – an idiosyncrasy worth investigating.Cutting across the senses 81 ties. Metaphorwise the word-image combination in wine adverts is challenging for several reasons. This does not mean that some of the metaphors cannot – through repeated use in textual interaction – be further extended and. Moreover. via images and language). raise brand awareness and loyalty). most wine adverts show the product in a very straightforward (“literal”) manner so that audiences cannot be mistaken as to the brand at issue – the underlying assumption being that the brand alone sells. Thus.g. In many cases. they appear to be but illustrations of what is expressed verbally. For one thing. and assess whether these contain truly multimodal metaphors. the complexity – and interest – of the figurative expressions discussed so far arises from the fact that their underlying mappings seem to involve different modes. Pictorial metaphors may also seriously contradict what is being communicated via the . conform to the metaphorical frames discussed earlier. when a given winery enjoys a high status among wine lovers. let us have a look at wine advertisements. these belong to the monomodal type of metaphor in Forceville’s (2006) sense. physical. yet which falls outside the general aims of the present volume. regarding such frames as conceptually rather than cross-sensually concerned would betray the nature of the experience metaphorically portrayed and communicated. adverts usually consist of a close-up of wine labels – which suggests that their purpose is to remind readers of the wine’s existence rather than persuading them to buy the product (i. thus. Nevertheless. the adverts thus oriented favor the anthropomorphic frame outlined earlier. As already pointed out.” When the metaphor is used for this purpose. show the “literal” referent of the entity denoted by a given figurative expression or term irrespective of its relevance and/or meaning in the wine realm (e. as discussed in section 3. We’re proud of you at home. the approach to multimodal metaphor followed in this chapter is the one provided by Forceville (2005. You have a long trip tomorrow. These questions are addressed in the following sections. 2006. SONS OF OUR LAND. NAVARRA REDS. Always remember the land where you were born.e. OK. and nearly always requires acquaintance with wine discourse in general and.82 Rosario Caballero verbal metaphors in the accompanying body text or. Two important steps in Forceville’s scheme are (a) to establish the domains involved in the metaphors – which. when you grow old. how the wine exhibits the characteristics of the vineyard site). Some won’t appreciate your worth: pay no attention. A nice example of this is a Spanish commercial designed for Navarra wines (one of the Spanish guarantees of origin and quality of wines). adverts exploiting anthropomorphic metaphors.1.. This. implies determining whether the metaphors favor certain source domains. and (b) to see which types of multimodal metaphor are illustrated in the data under analysis. Don’t be afraid of time: it will make you mature and. most wine adverts are particularly concerned with explaining the winemaking process followed by the winery so that their products achieve the sought-after sense of terroir (i. I’ll miss you. enough. in turn. Image-language combination Given the fierce competition in the sector and the overuse of certain procedures to enlarge production.. do it with dignity. with the figurative language used by the community of wine lovers. Son. Mmm … Others will see a winner in you: don’t boast. The world awaits you and I’m sure that when they know you they’ll love you. of course. Reproduced with permission. RC] Bassat. .g. I’ve given you everything I know.1. it is mostly instantiated through language. 3. where the audience is shown a middle-aged man who appears to be talking to his departing son in the following terms: You’re leaving tomorrow. in turn. 2007).). [Translated from Spanish. We know that you’ll become one among the great. playing up the kinship and physiological aspects of the wine at issue in order to highlight its “pedigree” or “lineage. Unsurprisingly. suggests that understanding the pictorial metaphors in wine adverts is no easy matter. what is worse. Cutting across the senses 83 Only after the last sentence we are shown the “son” thus addressed: a bottle of wine resting on a table. Torre Muga. Of course. Print ad for the Spanish Torre Muga winery. The advert is true to its purpose. You have also grown up sheltered by the knowledge of one family. Figure 1. whose tradition and character allow you to grow even further and develop new forms of art. namely. the excellence . Figure 1 shows several products of a well-known Spanish winery. WINES ARE PEOPLE Personification is also exploited in the following three examples. all of which promote specific brands and attempt to render a human view of wines via language and images. yet is particularly concerned with promoting the latest product – as explicitly acknowledged throughout the text – namely. You are loyal to one name only … Muga. […]” [translation from Spanish by RC]. the bottle bears no label and the camera is solely concerned with the father. advertising a wine-producing region rather than a particularly winery. The commercial is a true example of multimodal metaphor in that the target (Rioja wines) is rendered visually and the source (“son”) is rendered verbally. yet we are aware of this only after we are shown the bottle-son at the very end of the commercial – this “delay” being a common advertising strategy that seeks to surprise audiences. the language used is unmistakably figurative. “Being the latest generation in a line of truly great wines means that you have evolved from very solid roots. hence Torre Muga. Accordingly. who metaphorically stands for the region. Following the aforementioned prototypical technique. Torre Muga comes from only the best vintages and is pampered throughout its traditional winemaking process. Only if you have grown up/been raised in a basement/cellar within an oak cask. raising and noble origin.e. Thus. we could contend that the wines shown in the advert pose for the audience as in a family portrait. since the advert is particularly concerned with promoting Torre Muga. both exploiting personification as well. yet in subtly different ways. The image does. “With wines it is the other way round. rather. the question remains as to whether the image would be regarded as metaphorical on its own – i. The role of language is also paramount in the following two adverts. the following French advert plays with the idea of wines being born.84 Rosario Caballero of this wine as well as that of its predecessors is warranted by describing the procedures followed in their making.. this is foregrounded in the picture (i.e. indeed. Moreover. reinforce the verbal metaphor: both the wicker recipient and the white cloth resemble a cradle. Figure 2. you are of noble birth” [translation from Spanish by RC]. which helps see the bottle as a newborn baby. Likewise. as literally showing the way wines are usually presented at the table in any restaurant.. The slogan used here is more complex and playful. the image would not be seen as metaphorical but. it has been moved to the front and appears larger than the other two).5 However.6 However. although the . without the accompanying text. The Spanish wine in figure 2 is portrayed as a human being by language focusing on its birth. Advertisement for the Spanish Montecillo wine: WINE IS BABY. should we ignore the text. The situation here is somewhat different from that of the advertisement discussed above: although personification is mainly cued by language. the physiological.Cutting across the senses 85 literal translation is “We show you our latest nose. although using the term “nose” to refer to the wine as a whole may reinforce this human portrayal. it may be seen as a very theatrical way of introducing the wine to an audience due to the low angle perspective of the picture: this shows a veil going up just as curtains do in theatres – the genre’s conventions allowing for this “dramatic” introduction since nobody would do this with a wine. infantile traits suggested by the second meaning get lost. Figure 3. indeed. On the other hand. the adverts seen so far illustrate the penchant of advertisers for anthropomorphic metaphors. On the one hand.” the term “nez” may also be understood as “born” should we read the slogan aloud (nez and né being homophones in French). Moreover. one of their most distinctive and praiseworthy traits) even if this is precisely what the term “nose” means in winespeak. Going back to the questions posed at the beginning of this section. nothing in the image suggests that it is the wine’s aromas that appear to be highlighted in the advert (the nose of wines being. Advertisement for Chatêau Léoville Poyferré The image in figure 3 may be read in – at least – one of two ways. if we use our imagination the veils wrapping the wine may well be seen as resembling the delicate cloth that prototypically covers newborn babies – which would be commensurate with the playful use of nez/né. They also show the usefulness of this frame to foreground traits . However. etc. ageing etc. And some say its eyes were those of a woman (…)” [translation from Spanish by RC]. bouquet. the only trait articulated by body in winespeak is the “weight” of wines as perceived in the mouth – all other properties of human bodies being totally irrelevant in this particular context. . particularly the aforementioned questions of lineage. which can be interpreted in a number of ways.86 Rosario Caballero of both product and producer. length (i. Nevertheless. slowly first – releasing berry notes – then faster – its pink freshness turning violet. Finally. texture. the tactile experience encapsulated in the jargon term body (however unrelated to touch the term may seem to the layperson) gets lost in the image. and combine both anatomically-biased expressions with images of human body parts to do so. the indiscriminate use of male and female bodies to promote the same product deviates from the way the adjectives masculine and feminine are used in wine discourse since both are used to describe dramatically different wines. This is the case in a Spanish campaign which advertises the same wine by showing either a naked male body or a female one under a huge label reading “Body. that is. In the first place.. should we need to determine the type of metaphor instantiated in the adverts – following Forceville’s (1996) scheme – they would be close to what he calls verbo-pictorial metaphor. Among the few exceptional cases where advertisers do try to convey the sensory properties of wines via images I found the following one: “(…) They say that then it started swirling.. Moreover. Adverts playing on the term body are very revealing in this respect. the exploitation of anthropomorphism in wine advertising is not always so successful – despite its weight in wine commentary. a metaphor whose source is visually represented and the target is verbally represented or vice versa.”7 This image-word combination is infelicitous for two reasons. Advertisement for Gran Feudo Chivite wine: SWIRLING WINE IS SWIRLING BALLET DANCER. In other words. This is particularly conspicuous when adverts focus on a concrete – sensory – trait of the wine at issue such as its flavor.e. nobility. Figure 4. aftertaste). Of course. through skin contact) and. as rosés. or both. therefore.e. the dancer’s swirling is used to represent both the wine’s swirling and its texture. Culture and wine advertising As Nedilko points out. smooth and soft or supple. the image does not need the help of language to be understood. reinforce the aforementioned traits of the wine at issue. but. the necessary first step to release its aromas and assess its nose. which leads to a large number of borrowings and neologisms” (2006: 138). In sum.. light. In other words. also appears to successfully convey them in visual form. All such traits are characteristic of rosé wines like the one here advertised. this texture appears to be assessed as fresh. this does not mean that cultural idiosyncrasies do not also slip in verbal commentary or that they cannot be exploited for particular purposes in other genres.2. yet all in all it is the releasing of aromas and the wine’s texture that are at stake in the advert. in this particular case. visually. however useful this “uniformity” may be for discussing wine in some genres (e. swirling also helps tasters grasp the first impression of wines’ texture (remember the aforementioned use of legs or tears in this regard) before this is finally assessed inside their mouths. may be seen as cases of synesthesia particular to the wine domain.. 3. As it is. equating a wine with a ballerina may. the image may be interpreted as also illustrating the metaphor A WINE IS A BALLERINA. Indeed. Yet.e. . draw upon tactile experiences typically felt outside rather than inside the mouth (i.g. the adverts shown so far may be used to discuss the pertinence of culture in metaphor interpretation – whether metaphor is represented verbally. the advertisers have used well-known ballet dancer Tamara Rojo to visually convey the swirling of a wine within a glass – i. according to an informal discussion held with some wine connoisseurs.. the terminology of viticulture and winemaking “is marked by globalization and the interpenetration of different cultures. is pink). the TN). yet. Together with illustrating some of the problems derived from attempting to represent the metaphors in winespeak in visual form. the advert not only is congruent with some of the figurative terms used by expert tasters in TNs. This is also the case with the figurative frames motivating a large number of the lexical repository in the wine realm.Cutting across the senses 87 In Figure 4 we also find language and image side by side. indeed. Moreover. Given the characteristics of the dancer’s dress (which. and usually co-occur with one of the most conventional figurative terms used in texture assessment: silky. Thus. This is also postulated by Forceville. or a more specific community built upon shared – professional or ludic – interests and. Concerning the former. Here we have a comparison between wines and jeans. more often than not. Thus. etc. I think that knowledge of the target domain and. the adjectives “soft. the same image may mean totally different things to people immersed in Western culture. we have both source (jeans) and target (wines) visually represented in the advert. it is connotations rather than denotations of source domains that get mapped in metaphors. WINES ARE JEANS Figure 6. As in verbal metaphors. Although I fully agree with Forceville’s views. of the community whose metaphorization of the world is scrutinized should not be underestimated either. Figure 5. US). and these may substantially differ from one (sub)cultural group to another” (2006: 389).88 Rosario Caballero images are good exponents of the weight of culture in both producing and interpreting messages – whether this is done through metaphors or otherwise. above all. a simile rendered in pictorial form. a national culture within this broader frame. yet also cued through language (“just like our wine”). Before taking this point further. cutting across national differences.” . This textile portrayal is anchored by language: on the one hand. of the conventions. needs. beliefs.” The first advert (figure 5) belongs to a campaign promoting the wines of Ironstone Vineyards (California. who acknowledges that “the old adage that a picture tells more than a thousand words should not blind us to the fact that pictures and other multimodal representations seldom communicate automatically or self-evidently. let us consider two other wine adverts. “Osborne arrives at Malpica. do not need to be kept inside the bottle for a while to acquire such a property. this advert tells us explicitly that Ironstone wines are ready to be consumed – i. Indeed.. soft – albeit new – jeans are the result of modern cloth manufacturing procedures such as stonewashing (which may well be seen as a pun on the winery's name. Age and fashion considerations apart.. the slogan reading “Osborne arrives at Malpica. uncomplicated. uncomplicated quality of both jeans and the wines thus qualified – which encompasses more things than just sensory experience like. be regarded as negative in the sense that it indicates that the wine at issue provides little impact on the palate – i. one of the assumptions in countries such as France or Spain as well as the main feature of some famous vintages is. that both can be worn/drunk with nearly everything and at any occasion. the question remains as to whether wine lovers from other countries would find the wines thus advertised worth buying. Moreover. “soft” and “comfortable” point to texture (i. everyday qualities of the wines at issue – a view that fits the North American lifestyle also promoted by other consumer goods such as cosmetics or clothes. However. for instance.e. for people in their middle age it may seem odd to qualify jeans as “soft” unless they are really old and worn out. Of course. softness may be a desirable quality in a wine (meaning that it is round. is somewhat watery. However desirable – and sought-after – such qualities may be in modern winemaking and in certain wine markets. the verb “try on” reinforces the wines-jeans equation.Cutting across the senses 89 “easy. that great wines stand out among others for their sense of terroir (which rules out the connotations derived from adjectives such as “easy” and “comfortable”) or the winemaking and ageing process used (which usually takes time). the advert . Moreover. tactile sensations).e. the advert could be interpreted as highlighting the casual. on the other. rather. the connotations of jeans – whether visually or verbally cued – cover anything but softness.. “Ironstone”) as well as current jeans fashion. precisely.e. everyday. although softness is usually a result of ageing. Yet. However uncontroversial the advert may seem at first sight.” At first sight. Indeed. for people in their forties. fruity and lacks aggressive tannins) or. part of the success of this advert lies in the fact that the aforementioned adjectives are frequently used in wine commentary focused on wine’s texture. As to the properties involved in the comparison. whereas “easy” suggests the casual. there is nothing figurative here: what we have is a close up of a grapevine and a slogan that tells us that a well-known Spanish brand (Osborne) has been recently established in Malpica (a location in Spain). The advert of a Spanish wine in figure 6 offers a dramatically different picture. young.” and “comfortable” are used to qualify both jeans and wines. I could not help but interpret the metonymy as cueing one of the best compliments a wine may be paid. The first one is: would non-expert audiences understand what is communicated in wine adverts at all? Of course. which was originally created to advertise one of the most popular Spanish brandies (Veterano) in billboards. In my view. Moreover. In . sold to tourists. that is. will be culturally biased. since I am acquainted with Spanish TNs. the adverts may of course be understood. images. and horns are largely responsible for the latter. knowledge and world view(s) characterizing national groups. yet the interpretation of the images and. the advert nicely illustrates a pictorial metonymy. This characteristic shows both in the animal’s behavior and in its appearance. In turn. above all. or both. Several – related – questions are relevant concerning this last point. S/he will presumably make use of her/his background knowledge to interpret the adverts – knowledge which may include different kinds of information and. Finally. breed) would be understood by Spanish people outside the wine realm. most importantly. My specific claim here is that any Spaniard could easily interpret the advert as equating wines with bulls regardless of the presence of the trademark or the connotations verbally cued by the term Osborne. tea mugs. that of being thoroughbred. the surname Osborne in Spain is loaded with connotations that bring to mind wines as well as bull breeding – which may be missed by those people not familiar with Spanish culture. bringing in cultural knowledge in advert and/or metaphor understanding also prompts two more questions: What do we mean when we use the term culture? How do the different ways in which the term may be applied affect the understanding of metaphors in adverts? For if culture is understood as the shared beliefs. and are applicable to any advert. an image that provides access to the entity “bull” via one of its most prototypical traits: its head and. yet would be seen as merely showing a grapevine by many audiences outside Spain. and has become a distinctive landmark of the Spanish landscape – as well as a national identity symbol if we heed the numerous reproductions of Osborne’s bull in the T-shirts. its horns. its Spanish equivalent casta is prototypically used to qualify bulls. of the metaphors thus rendered may very well be more open given the heterogeneous nature of the audience (due to their diverse backgrounds. etc. A different issue is whether the trait metonymically mapped (lineage. more specifically. For whereas this English term is associated with horses or dogs. a bull. any reader acquainted with advertising discourse will know that something positive is being promoted via language.90 Rosario Caballero also includes the brand’s trademark. namely. and hence diverse concerns and expectations). For one thing. and is characterized by specific knowledge schemas. In this respect. Nevertheless. then. however attractive the image-language combination may be to sell the product.Cutting across the senses 91 contrast. particularly those concerned with the sensory properties of wines (the exploitation of the term body being a case in point of the contradictory. with how it is used by wine critics and advertisers to articulate the sensory experience(s) afforded by wines in different media and communicative modes. even wrong views often rendered by the image-language combination). the foregoing discussion has also revealed the problems derived from representing anthropomorphic metaphors in both verbal and visual form. the adverts here shown illustrate a penchant for anthropomorphic metaphors. asks for research procedures that go beyond the purposes of this chapter (namely. The issue. 4. Concerning the latter genre. and largely fall into Forceville’s verbo-pictorial variety of multimodal metaphor. wine lovers) represents a subculture within a much broader cultural frame. that the ways in which the adverts will be understood will differ radically across various communities. It seems reasonable to expect. a particular discourse community like the one articulated around wine (be it composed of professionals or. but is open for further research into how the production and interpretation of the imagery used in the audiovisual genres are affected by the specificity of the audience at which they are aimed. and be aware of the connotations in. needs and interests. a name such as Osborne. a user-centered approach). They may also be acquainted with numerous brands from different wine producing countries. as well as of the jargon used in other promotional genres like the tasting note. A different issue is whether the two adverts in figures 5 and 6 represent successful selling strategies given the possible prejudices towards wines being compared to jeans or to bulls according to national – cultural with a capital C – differences. that is. wine lovers and aficionados bring in knowledge of the domain being metaphorized in the adverts. it also poses many problems for the meta- . simply. I have explained wine critics’ abundant use of figurative language as responding to their need to overcome the difficulties inherent in communicating the various organoleptic experiences conflating in wine tasting. Concerning the former genre. Concluding remarks The discussion in this chapter has been mainly concerned with the experiential dimension of metaphor. I have provided a brief overview of the metaphors found in two promotional genres within wine discourse: TNs and wine adverts. however. Thus. for instance. A point also worth noting is the fact that many of the metaphors rendered in pictorial form are actually the “translation” of metaphors “acquired” or learnt – consciously or unconsciously – via such a cultural manifestation as language rather than being embodied in the cognitive sense of the term. 3. the connotations from the source domains in the metaphors are important in their interpretation. and Vinum. yet these also leave more room for interpreting them.” “fabric. Wine Enthusiast. Eduardo Urios-Aparisi and Charles Forceville for their comments on earlier drafts. this endeavor also requires knowledge of the target domain (in the present case. French tasting notes belong to La Revue du Vin de France. Wine Spectator. The Wine Pages.” “framework” 2. In this regard. indeed. The Spanish data have been extracted from Sobremesa. The English examples belong to the corpus used in the research and have been retrieved from the following sources: Decanter.” The term charpenté derives from charpent. meaning “cloth. In my view. as well as to Ernesto Suarez-Toste (Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha) for his insightful remarks on some of the issues addressed in this chapter as well as for providing the wine magazines used to build the French corpus. as Forceville (2006: 389) acknowledges. This is also the case with Spanish esqueleto (which can be translated as “skeleton. . Wine News. For. A final aim of the chapter has been to draw attention to the role of culture in understanding the metaphors used to advertise wine: both the broad national culture of the audience at which the adverts are aimed as well as the specific culture articulated around wine.” and “framework” and is used in French both to describe built artifacts and people. which means “skeleton. This term is derived from étoffe. The Wine Advocate. Notes 1. The project is currently being undertaken by Ernesto Suarez-Toste and Rosario Caballero.” “frame. Acknowledgments I am grateful to Veronika Koller.92 Rosario Caballero phor researcher since it not always captures the previously discussed crosssensory or multimodal dimension of most metaphors in winespeak. and Guía Proensa de los Mejores Vinos de España. wine) as well as of the schemas underlying the particular worldview of the wine community. and The Wine Anorak. the term is a nice example of the frequent use of anatomical lexis in architecture and vice versa. Caballero. The adverts here discussed are not shown for copyright reasons. A genre approach to imagery in winespeak: Issues and prospects. Loredana 2002 La métaphore en Oenologie. The terms simply state that the drinker’s natural expectations from a specific wine will not be met because the wine is unusual for its group in terms of mouth-feel and structure (for a detailed discussion on how both terms are used by wine experts.de 3: 1–12.Cutting across the senses 93 4. it is undeniable that the current market trends favor power over elegance (i. the underlying metaphor – if any – would involve physical resemblance.de/03/amoraritei. masculine over feminine). Bruce.e. but this is essentially circumstantial. Caballero. Nigel 2000 Classification and hierarchy in the discourse of wine: Emile Peynaud’s The Taste of Wine. Although the terms are used for descriptive purposes. Metaphorik. the sexist connotations of the adjectives are often pointed out by female scholars – as I have personally experienced at various conferences (see also Amoraritei 2002). or. For a detailed account of the relationship between both domains. I am indebted to Raquel Segovia (who collaborated in the aforementioned research project on wine metaphors) and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi for this insight. 6. “structure”). in which case it would illustrate image metaphor rather than any other type.metaphorik. if anything. simply. Thus. Notice also that the winespeak term referring to the wine basket is cradle. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. English for Special Purposes Journal 23–26: 149–164. In Researching and Applying Metaphor in the Real World. see Caballero (2006). and wine lovers defend their “neutral” quality. Rosario 2006 Re-Viewing Space: Figurative Language in Architects’ Assessment of Built Space. in many cases. in spite of whatever expectations the readers’ cultural background may arouse. see Caballero and Suarez-Toste forthcoming). References Amoraritei. Alice . Available from www. both terms are perfect examples of the “intrusion” of culture (and. in this case. 7. 5.. Rosario. Indeed. and Ernesto Suarez-Toste forthc. controversy) in the interpretation of figurative expressions. although. there is no evaluation inherent in the masculine/feminine distinction: there is nothing per se good or bad in being one or the other.htm (last accessed 23 March 2003). and Mark Johnson 1999 Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought. Ramachandran. Low.users. McQuarrie and Barbara J. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: Agendas for research. Gitte Kristiansen. Lakoff. Day.). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.edu/daysa/types. In Go Figure! New Directions in Advertising Rhetoric. 264–284. London: Macdonald Orbis. In Bildwissenschaft: Zwischen Reflektion und Anwendung. Michel Achard. Lynne Cameron. René Dirven. Gluck. Anatoly 2006 Viticulture and winemaking terminology and terminography. In Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives. thought and language.htm. Last acccessed 7 October 2005. Peynaud. and Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza Ibàñez (eds. Michael Schuster.94 Rosario Caballero Deignan. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Charles 2005 Cognitive linguistics and multimodal metaphor. Vilayanur. NY: ME Sharpe. Phillips (eds). Klaus Sachs-Hombach (ed. George. Verbatim: The Language Quarterly 18: 13–15. Useful idiom of idiot-speak? In New Media Language. Ning 2001 Synesthetic metaphor: A cognitive perspective. Cologne: Von Halem. 2006 Wine and conversation: A new look. Adrienne 1975 Talking about wine.). Oxford: CRISPI. József Andor and Péter Pelyvás (eds. Yu. 1983 Wine and Conversation. Sean 1996 Synaesthesia and synaesthetic metaphors. Malcolm 2003 Wine language. Armonk. In Empirical. Language 51: 901–923. Forceville. and Edward Hubbard 2001 Synaesthesia – A window into perception. Journal of Consciousness Studies 8: 3–34. Graham D.). Psyche 2 (32). (eds. 2006/this vol. 379–402. London/New York: Routledge. Émile 1987 The Taste of Wine. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Elsevier Science. Edward F. Terminology 12: 137–164. Lehrer.). Jean Aitchison and Diana Lewis (eds. . 107–115.muohio. Cognitive-based Studies in the Semantics-Pragmatics Interface. and Zazie Todd. Available from www. Journal of Literary Semantics 32: 19–34. 2008 Pictorial and multimodal metaphor in commercials. Nedilko.). 1992 Wine Vocabulary and Wine Description. New York: Basic Books. Trans. 178–204. As Radden (2002: 413) points out. Panther and Thornburg 2003). Introduction: television commercials in the advertising world The presence and importance of multimodal metaphors for the theory of cognitive metaphor and figurative language has been well attested by Forceville (2006/this volume. Keywords: metaphor. those domain mappings can also create metonymy-producing relationships. metonymy. highlighting. TV commercials 1. and how multimodal metaphor and metonymy interact in the cognitive and persuasive aspects of a multimodal genre. Dirven and Pörings 2002. following Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez Velasco (2002). In a multimodal context. words. 2008) and by the chapters in this volume. images and sounds can represent different domains and establish mappings which result in metaphor-producing relationships. advertising discourse. how this interaction can contribute to meaning creation in the commercial. multimodal metaphor-metonymy interaction. except for Mittelberg and Waugh (this volume). Only recently research on metonymy has shown the important role it plays in cognition (Panther and Radden 1999. The analysis shows how metaphor and metonymy interaction hinges on cognitive as well as communicative roles and motivations. 2007. the references to metonymy in relation to multimodal metaphor have generally .Chapter 5 Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy in TV commercials: Four case studies Eduardo Urios-Aparisi Abstract This chapter analyzes four prototypical cases of interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy in television commercials. Three questions are addressed: how multimodal metaphor and metonymy interact. Nonetheless. Barcelona 2000. A holistic analysis of these texts needs to bear in mind the diversity of modes and submodes which participate in this genre as well as adopt a dynamic perspective on the cognitive processes and their taxonymy. expansion. reduction. media. In this chapter. The creative team uses the same resources as. and from a discourse analysis point of view (e. In this sense. the claims made about the product need to be seen as motivated and natural. As Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996: 17) suggest. Except for Forceville (2007. how this interaction can contribute to meaning creation in the commercial. the study of conceptual metaphor in advertising has focused mainly on printed advertising. italics in original). and consequently metonymy can define and represent reality and how the product should be perceived by the audience. Forceville 1996). It is.g. images.. advertising works very much like poetry. 2008) and Yu (this volume). each has “its own possibilities and limitations of meaning. Teng and Sun 2006). highlighting its mappings. therefore. metonymy is an important cognitive process and it not only “reveal[s] rhetorical strategies” (Forceville 2008: 298) but also has an important role in motivating metaphor. as Barthes (1988 [1964]) already argued.96 Eduardo Urios-Aparisi been made in passing. Scott and Batra 2003.g. and how the relation between cognition and persuasion as multimodal metaphor and metonymy are embedded in the genre of advertising. The four cases analyzed in this paper are prototypical cases of metaphor-metonymy interaction within the multimodal context of television commercials. I address the following questions: how multimodal metaphor and metonymy interact. sounds and meanings.. although multimodal metonymy has been deemed “worthy of consistent study” (Forceville 2008: 298). In a commercial. In the context of advertising. in order to . Forceville 1996. In a commercial a metaphor is a primarily unidirectional act meant to define the product and its benefits for the consumer. a poet. verbal and auditory modes and to theorize how they contribute to the overall meaning of the commercial and the intention of the advertiser to represent the advertised product in a positive light. and of their functions” (Kress and van Leeuwen 1996: 33. metaphor is an integrated experience of words. in the environment of all the other modes of communication which surround them. motivate the meaning by associating it to the real experience of the spectator and to his conceptions of the world.” A holistic study of meaning in a multimodal context requires that “particular modes of communication should be seen in their environment. so the spectator feels compelled to buy or use it (cf. Cook 2001). of the visual and verbal modes. Phillips and McQuarrie 2002). necessary to integrate the visual. The creative team uses cognitive resources in order to fulfill the claim about the product. In most cases. from a rhetorical point of view (e.g. Printed advertising has been approached from a cognitive and pragmatic point of view (e.. Tanaka 1994. for instance. The analyses of these commercials show how all of them aim to integrate the advertised product within what Sperber and Wilson (1995) call the “cognitive environment” of the audience. Multimodal metaphor and metonymy A multimodal metaphor is a cognitive process in which two domains are represented in two different modes. the target (often: the advertised product) can be conveyed by one of its parts or by its logo or jingle.” nowadays called “Festival El Sol. In the study of multimodal metaphor. We may be allowed to see either the target or the source. verbal and sound modes. while the metaphoric pole is the result of similarity relations between two domains (cf. For instance.Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy 97 ground the metaphors in common experience and in the knowledge of the consumer. In fact. and the source can be explicitly represented or implicitly inferred. and gestures. television commercials are particularly good examples of interaction between visual. using the modal resources of the cinema and television so that its central message is always somehow in praise of the product. I will discuss the theoretical framework of this chapter. the surface representation should be taken into account in order to further the understanding of the metaphorical mappings. and an analysis of the various types of metaphor and metonymy interaction. The analysis of these multimodal commercials will involve the identification of target and source. This discussion will lead to the microanalysis of four commercials that were awarded prizes at the “Festival Publicitario de San Sebastián. visuals. “clearly. but either of these can be merely suggested by any of a great variety of devices. among others) are chosen to convey a metaphor is a central factor in how a metaphor is construed and interpreted” (2007: 15). 2. sound. a discussion of how they draw on more than one mode. research on advertising has found that making claims about a product by means of indirect representations can create positive inferences and a more receptive attitude toward the brand by the audience (McQuarrie and Phillips 2005).”1 As mentioned before. As Forceville suggests. These types follow and expand on the kinds of conceptual interaction found in Ruiz de Mendoza (1999) and Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez Velasco (2002). Mittelberg and Waugh this volume . Jakobson (1971 [1956]) situated metonymy and metaphor as two poles of cognitive processing: the metonymic pole accounts for contiguity relations between linguistic elements. In the next section. which channel(s) of information (language. etc) correspond to the concepts in the source (travelers. in the metaphor of LOVE IS A JOURNEY the concepts in the target (lovers. Other functions can be “meaning extension” (cf. In contrast with metaphor. not by means of a systematic matching of counterparts.. Radden 2002. the front of the car stands for the whole car or even the whole car company. Barcelona 2002: 226. For instance. head and turning lights) highlights features of the car which the advertiser intends to underscore. in case 4. in metonymy a mapping is connected to the mental highlighting or activation of one (sub)domain over another (Barcelona 2002. for the topic of multimodal metonymy per se. The target and source domains in a metaphor establish symmetrical correspondences between different concepts in a way that does not happen in metonymy. This metaphor is developed from the metonymy which connects both target and source to a single domain: [alcoholic] drinks. italics in original). but two parts of a continuum from literalness to metaphor. as Radden (2002: 409) suggests. metonymy has been considered to have mostly a referential function (Lakoff and Turner 1989: 103).” “demetonymisation inside a metaphor” and “metaphor within metonymy.98 Eduardo Urios-Aparisi on gestures). Warren 2006). which can be either referential or predicative (e. The interaction of metonymy and metaphor shows that they are not two opposite poles. Taylor 2002: 325) or pragmatic inferencing (cf. Goossens (1990) was the first to analyze their interaction in linguistic action expressions and created the term “metaphtonymy. The foregrounding of the source (the car front: bumper. in metonymy this correspondence is asymmetrical: “the metonymic source projects its conceptual structure onto that of a target. love relationship. etc) as Lakoff (1993: 208) has shown. In a printed advert a beer bottle is pictured in a wine cooler. While a metaphorical mapping bridges the distance between entities that are experienced as belonging to two different domains. Panther and Thornburg 2003). The distinctions between metaphor and metonymy are fuzzy. vehicle.” . Metonymy is understood here as an internal mapping of a subdomain within the same experiential domain (Lakoff and Johnson 1980.” This term included four types of combination in cases of meaning extension: “metaphor from metonymy. As Barcelona (2002) says.2 Research on metonymymetaphor interaction has led to different typologies. thus expressing the metaphor BEER IS CHAMPAGNE. For instance. spoiler with company logo. see Yu this volume). but by conceptually foregrounding the source and by backgrounding the target (cf. An instance of how metonymy and metaphorical mappings can overlap is found in a discussion in Forceville (1996).” “metonymy within metaphor.g. Croft 1993). These authors also distinguish two processes: expansion and reduction. see above and Kövecses and Radden 1998 for a detailed analysis of the different metonymies) only the first two are in fact metonymies.Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy 99 These combinatory entities may be useful for the explanation of meaning extension in linguistic expressions. .” the “object” of the source corresponds to “ear” in the target and this is the source for metaphorical mapping with “attention. In this context.” where the basis of the source of the metaphor is a metonymy. in the example Wall Street is in panic: the location of the institution (Wall Street) for the institution (New York Stock Exchange) (PLACE FOR INSTITUTION) and the metonymy of the institution for the people who work in it (Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez Velasco 2002: 512). Metonymic reduction of one of the correspondences of the target domain of a metaphor can be found in “to win someone’s heart” where LOVE is the target domain of the metaphor LOVE IS A PRIZE. Two metonymies can also interact as. They suggest a different view of metonymy which considers that of the three general types of metonymies (PARS PRO TOTO.” knitting is the source of a metaphor with a metonymy in the target: person who frowns for person frowning because of anger. and HEART FOR LOVE is the metonymic reduction within the target domain.” Finally. TOTUM PRO PARTE and PARS PRO PARTE. a metonymic expansion of one of the correspondences of the source domain of a metaphor is found in “to bite the hand that feeds you. as in “to knit one’s brows.” where “hand” is the source domain of the metaphor HELPING IS FEEDING and stands for “feeder” (2002: 522–527). Metonymic expansion of one of the correspondences of the target domain of a metaphor can be exemplified by “to catch someone’s ear. the categories proposed by Ruiz de Mendoza (1999) and Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez Velasco (2002: 512) in terms of target and source seem to be more suitable. In this metonymy the source is “a person beats his breast” and the target “a person beats his breasts in order to show his sorrow about a situation. These processes are present in five types of conceptual interaction. In metonymic expansion of a metaphoric target.” This is the source for the metaphor “a certain person makes an open show – which may be a pretence – in order to express his sorrow about a certain situation” (Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez Velasco 2002: 520–1). although these categories do not seem adequate for the kind of combinations found in multimodal texts.” In the source: “person catches an object. for instance. The names of the two types are TARGET-IN-SOURCE as in She is taking the pill (pill for contraceptive pill) or SOURCE-IN-TARGET as in All hands on deck (hands for sailors) (Mendoza and Díez Velasco 2002: 497). Metonymic expansion of a metaphoric source can be exemplified in the case “To beat one’s breast. Nonetheless. which I will argue is also a case of personification. the metaphor is explicitly represented in the images: CAR IS A LONG-JUMP ATHLETE. 3. The property that is metonymically cued in . In this regard. Case studies 3. In the short length of a commercial.1 Metonymic reduction of metaphorical correspondences between domains: New model of car (1986) In this commercial. The creative team of a commercial is generally aware of each mode and its submodes. The cross-cutting of images enhances the identification of the target with its source including mappings of the athlete’s running shoes and legs. This explicit representation of the metaphor is clearly different from the implicit meaning of case 4. movement and rhythm of the moving image (about these components of the moving image see Block 2008).100 Eduardo Urios-Aparisi Meaning in the context of a commercial is not static but progresses either by creating a short fiction or by layering diverse meanings over the advertised product. As we can see in figure 1. but other submodes could include the line and shape. as Stöckl (2004: 14) says. every single entitiy of the message is considered in order to “elicit our attention and emotions by simulating various significant features of our real-world visual experiences” (Messaris 1997: 266). the source is shown first at a distance. which highlight other features of the car such as its sporty properties. tone. this case is a particularly good instance of the use of metonymy to highlight the features that are being mapped between the two domains. a variant of the metaphor CAR (MACHINE) IS A PERSON. Visual perceptions and these perceptions may be “‘decoded’ by the same specialized mental module” according to Yus (this volume). “submodes constitute a mode in that they provide the building blocks of a mode’s grammar.” The submode discussed in this chapter is color. the visual montage shows the long-jump athlete and the car in cross-cut shots. the interaction of metaphor and metonymy and the processes of expansion and reduction between domains are similar to those in the verbal mode. color. This metaphor is a clear case of personification. Within this metaphorical conceptualization of cars. As we can see from the selected images of this commercial. while the target is only seen in parts until both are on the racing track ready to do the long-jump. the metaphor is represented clearly with an ingenuous use of the montage. But. Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy 101 Athlete Car Words 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ahora más versiones Now more versions 8 9 …Renault 11 10 11 Figure 1. Fasa Renault 1986 01 Salto Renault 11 “Salto” ‘Jump.’ . The attributes by which both domains are cued constrain the metaphorical mappings by highlighting those features which are relevant for the target domain and the intention of the advertiser. summarized in Table 1. and EFFECT FOR CAUSE (Relaxation for Drinking Tea). The montage of the images of the athlete and the car identify both target and source of the metaphor.2 Metonymic reduction in target and motivation of metaphor: Tea drink (1987) Figure 2. 3. Just before the jump. and the power of the athlete who can jump very far. Although both source and target of the metaphor are identified by the montage of images of the athlete and the car. Advertising company: J. the voice-over further anchors the commercial’s message by clarifying the target domain of the metaphor. Product by CPC España. The potential mappings in the metaphor CAR IS PERSON are limited to the ones the advertiser is interested in activating by creating metonymical visual correspondences between the domains and by the verbal modality naming those conceptual features. “Hipnosis” (‘hypnosis’) (1987). the car appears completely and the male voice-over says: “Now more versions…” The verbal mode explicates the target of the commercial: the new properties and more powerful motor of a car model. and verbal anchorage further clarifies the target of the metaphor. The first metonymy highlights the product’s tag as it can resemble a hypnotizer’s watch and allows for the metaphor TEA TAG IS A HYPNOTIZER’S WATCH to be enacted.102 Eduardo Urios-Aparisi both domains is the power of the car’s engine (and metonymically the whole car). The second metonymy EFFECT FOR CAUSE (Relaxa- . Walter and Thompson. In this metaphor the target takes on the role of the hypnotizer’s watch and the movement of the tea tag is one of the cues to the source domain of the metaphor. This commercial creates the metaphor a TEA TAG IS A HYPNOTIZER’S WATCH metaphor in order to transfer the powers of hypnosis to the relaxing impact of a brand of tea. The representation of the tea follows two metonymies: EMBLEM FOR PRODUCT (Tea Tag for Tea Bag). Table 1. Figure Metonymy Components TARGET SOURCE Visual Tea drink Tea tag hanging from tea cup Tea Tag Hypnotizer’s watch Submode 1: movement of the watch Submode 2: Soft colors and low modality. the submodes are building blocks of each mode (cf. SOFT COLOR IS WARMTH Words Sound The logo of the product Metaphor TARGET SOURCE Words a hypnotizer says to a patient Hushed voice of the hypnotizer The tic-toc of the watch The visual mode could be divided into several submodes such as color or movement. As mentioned above. As hypnosis is associated with falling into a trance-like state. The movement of the tea tag acts out the way a .Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy 103 tion for Drinking Tea) motivates this metaphor. the commercial enacts the quintessential feature of tea by identifying and making the tea tag act as a hypnotizer’s watch. Metonymy type EMBLEM FOR PRODUCT Metonymy in commercial Tea Tag for Tea Relaxation for Drinking Tea Explanation Visual representation of the product Highlighted consequence of drinking tea EFFECT FOR CAUSE Table 2. Stöckl 2004: 14). Modes in metonymy and metaphor for case 2. Metonymies to represent TEA. the metaphor is elaborated through a complex interaction of modal techniques.3 Figure 3. The square and bulky shape of the front with its metallic look. thus. Product advertised: Volvo car. The hue and colors are stereotypically warm and thus represent the feeling of wellness that the product is supposed to give and associate to the metaphor SOFT COLOR IS WARMTH and. together with the bumpers and large headlights. most likely aired around a time of high traffic and traveling. relaxation and wellness. The modes and their association with different components in the metonymy and metaphor in this commercial are listed in table 2. The soft colors in a gold and brown hue and the slightly out of focus image represent the view of the person who is falling under the spell of the watch. but it is a public announcement and praise for the safety fixtures and reliability of all the cars of that brand. as we will see. as the voice-over clearly implies: “En estos días mucha gente saldrá a la carretera…” (“These days a lot of people will go on the highway…”). if that is the case. it is a kind of corporate advertising with a public service tone. Advertising company: CID. is a visual metonymy: CAR FRONT FOR CAR. Kövecses 2000: 93) and. Each mode and submode associates the product with the main metaphor TEA TAG IS A HYPNOTIZER’S WATCH and relates it to sensations of warmth. “Respuesta” (‘answer’) (1987). It can be considered an example of metonymy in advertising since all the mapped features are metonymically motivated. The visual mode also activates the sound mode with the speaker’s hushed tonality which is similar to the color and hues of the image. Therefore. The commercial’s design is very simple: the camera focuses on the front grill of a Volvo car from the 240 series which was developed in the 1970s. the color submode would integrate experiences of friendship and emotion with the product. to the metaphor AFFECTION IS WARMTH which can be found in the context of emotional relationships (cf. In conclusion.104 Eduardo Urios-Aparisi hypnotizer’s watch moves.3 Metonymy in source and expansion by implicit metaphorical mappings This commercial’s point is not to advertise any new model. The front . 3. In it we can see the frame of the car with its bulky design.Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy 105 of the car is a complex image. Egyptian according to http://www.org. the license plate with the word Volvo in blue capitals with a white background (the official typeface of the brand. strength and safety. the big bumpers and lights. Metonymies and metaphor in Case 3 Figure Metonymy 1 PART FOR WHOLE Components TARGET SOURCE Visual Car Front of the car Front of the car with logo and official typeface Car’s reliability and safety Front of the car Changing weather conditions Words Sound Metonymy 2 PART FOR WHOLE TARGET SOURCE Changing weather conditions and sounds associated to moving car Person: Advice to a driver by the voice-over Metaphor TARGET SOURCE Car Metonymy 3 PART FOR WHOLE TARGET SOURCE Company “Intelligent” car.volvoclub.4 The image represents the identity of the corporation in three aspects: the product. These two elements are symbolic metonymies of the product and they have metonymical (LOGO FOR PRODUCT) as well as other meanings (on logos as multimodal metaphors. see Koller this volume). Logo and official typeface . and the main features they want to associate themselves with: reliability.shtml) and the logo which is located on top of the radiator.uk /history/volvo_ logo. the corporate signs and symbols. Table 3. It can be explained along the lines of Lakoff and Turner’s (1989: 195) discussion of metaphors like PERSONS ARE ANIMALS (Achilles is a lion) within the cultural model of the GREAT CHAIN METAPHOR. The male voiceover addresses the consumer directly by giving advice about how to drive when there is high traffic during vacation time (the images suggest that it is winter). plant. inanimate object – and consequently a scale of the properties that characterize forms of being – reason. attributes and behaviors are associated with animate creatures within a hierarchical scale: “the Great Chain is a scale of forms of being – human. physical attributes. is mostly referential with respect to the car. the noise and the image of a ball suddenly bouncing in front of the car. Whereas the commercial features various metonymies. its passengers. According to this metaphor. the camera pulls back and the “front of the car” moves through all kinds of weather and driving conditions smoothly and surely. the noise of the car engine. as part of the creation of the corporate image. there is one obvious absence in the visual representations: that of the driver who is directly addressed in the words. animal. instinctual behavior. the turn signal noise and image. sturdiness and immutability towards the changes in the road conditions. the language used does not refer to the product at all. in this case. A personification is a kind of ontological metaphor in which the target is understood in human terms (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). thunder and snow (also visible in the images). the images are metonymies of the car as a whole. As we can observe. we understand the . this commercial features good examples of metonymic references in various modes. the color submodality would also contribute to these meanings. perhaps referentially highlighting the car’s strength. Besides these components. the driver of the car: sensitivity and prudence. Metonymy. and so on” (Lakoff and Turner 1989: 167). but this metonymy can create further implicit meanings by the audience’s knowledge of car-safety and brands. On the one hand.106 Eduardo Urios-Aparisi After the first image of the car. and this driving is accompanied by metonymical sounds and images which can be associated with these driving conditions and to passengers and other persons: the sound of children getting in the car. the car horn and brakes. The words insist that the driver be sensitive. the car seems to be personified (CAR IS PERSON). Also. Therefore. In this commercial. drive safely and prudently. and focus on the importance of the family (referenced metonymically as “carga” or “load”) and on arriving safely (which implies that it is better to arrive safely than fast). the voice-over’s address predicates of the car some of the properties which generally are associated with a person. biological function. as mentioned above. the door closing. and the weather and driving conditions. On the other hand. the rain. human sensitivity and prudence is intelligent and high-order and so car behavior is also intelligent and high-order. As “difícil decisión” or “siempre dura” and “traumática” (respectively. but it is metonymically implied by the “decision” to abort and the “experience” of going through the abortion (both PART FOR WHOLE metonymies). This mapping is complex since it is not only between the properties of the source and the target. we see two fingers starting to pull a thread of the bootie and the words explain how women sometimes have to make a “decision. During the commercial. shots 3. and since this object can be identified metonymically with the baby. Therefore. These words are diagrammatically represented in the images.4 Metaphorical expansion of metonymy in the source domain Commercial 4 advises women to do family planning instead of resorting to abortion. The commercial as a whole is metonymically representing the brand. but also between the relationships of those properties to their domains. while at the same time the front of the car itself is shown and probably credited with the behaviors described by the words. bestowing on it the features associated with the car. Shortly after the male voice-over starts speaking. Another metaphor is more specifically identified by the words and the image: ABORTING IS UKNITTING BABY BOOTIE. The bootie is the source of the metonymy and also part of the source of the metaphor that is developed as the hand pulls the thread. its unraveling is the result of a decision which is considered difficult or traumatic. The first image is easily identifiable with a baby by the metonymy BABY BOOTIE STANDS FOR BABY.4 The metaphor of an intelligent car (CAR IS PERSON) is an extension of a complex metonymy: the front part of the car by juxtaposition to the voiceover which addressees the audience.” and how this decision is hard and sometimes traumatic (see the complete text in figure 4). sensitivity and steadfastness). a variant of the metonymy GARMENT FOR PERSON. Undoing the baby bootie is at the same time the act of making a decision. The first visual metaphor of this commercial is MAKING A DECISION IS PULLING A THREAD. This commercial is another instance of extension of a metonymy but in this case in the source domain. the . 5 and 7) are uttered. The camera focuses on a yellow bootie situated over a soft white light against a diffused dark background. 3.Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy 107 car’s behavior as it goes through different driving conditions in terms of some features that can only be associated with a human being’s behavior (prudence. abortion is never mentioned. traumatic 8. Advertising company: Vitruvio. traumática. Evita esta experiencia Avoid that experience 9. una difícil decisión a difficult decision 4. Planifícate Make plans Figure 4. y en ocasiones and sometimes 7. Spanish Government). The final expression is a conventional metaphor in Spanish and returns to some extent to the first metaphor: MAKING A DECISION IS PULLING A THREAD. se han visto obligadas a tomar have been obliged to make 3. always hard 6. . “Patuco” (“baby bootie”) (1988) Ministerio de Sanidad (Health Department. … 5. Una decisión siempre dura A decision. 1. Muchas mujeres Many women 2. The source has been identified by the visual mode while the target is in the verbal mode throughout the commercial until the final sentence: “no vivas pendiente de un hilo” (“don’t live hanging by a thread”) which is made literal in the image by showing the last thread of the bootie. The commercial leaves the opportunity to reach other conclusions to the audience. No vivas pendiente de un hilo Don’t hang by a thread 10.108 Eduardo Urios-Aparisi perspective on the bootie changes and the camera shows a close-up of the thread of the bootie slowing down. The metonymy motivates the metaphor. it has immediate connections to life and movement: crawling and walking. I have summarized the metonymy and the metaphors of this commercial. The bootie. Table 4.Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy 109 In table 4. Metonymy and metaphor in case 4. it shows with more immediacy the shape of the body. Conclusions In this analysis I have identified the following metaphor-metonymy interactions: . Figure Metonymy GARMENT FOR PERSON Components TARGET SOURCE: TARGET SOURCE Visual BABY BOOTIE Word Metaphor 1 MAKING A DECISION UNDOING A BOOTIE ABORTING: Metaphor 2 TARGET metonymically implied by the words (PART FOR WHOLE) SOURCE UNKITTING BABY-BOOTIE A Metaphor 3 No vivas pendiente de un hilo Don’t live hanging by a thread (extension of Metaphor 1) TARGET TO LIVE OR TO BE IN DANGER IS SOURCE Last thread of the baby bootie [visual representation] TO HANG BY A THREAD 4. also. but also maps other meanings to the target of the metonymy (the baby). is readily associated with a baby (older children do not wear booties). and. out of all the possible pieces of baby clothing. finally. This process together with the music (the so called Brahms’ Lullaby) creates another emotional layer to the commercial by reliving the decision making process in the enactment of undoing a bootie. It is an emotionally charged commercial. The different modes and submodes can contribute to the creation of a pausible representation of reality and can also be associated to other metaphors. on the one hand. c) Source-in-target metonymy represents the product and the company and it is also the target of the verbally expressed source domain (in case 3). as mentioned in case 2. as mentioned earlier. metonymy has mostly a limiting role. do not only substitute for or represent the product. Metaphor. as it identifies the target of metaphor or the correspondences between both domains. For instance. on the other hand. In this case. it is not limiting or exclusively referential but creates further correspondences. Each metaphor builds on the previous one and relates to the first metonymy. the hue and colors are warm and soft. This is clearly contrasted in case 3. the metaphor CAR IS PERSON is determined by the visual identification of the correspondences and thus the commercial takes advantage of the persuasive potentials of a variant of this metaphor: CAR IS ATHLETE. b) Metonymic reduction in metaphorical target visualizes the product and highlights the feature that will motivate the metaphor (case 2). In case 3.110 Eduardo Urios-Aparisi a) Metonymic reduction limits the possible correspondences between domains by highlighting the features of both domains that are to be matched metaphorically (case 1). In this car commercial. the metonymy taps into the background knowledge to suggest further interpretations. Perhaps other cases can identify the same kinds of interactions in the source domain as Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez Velasco (2002) found in their linguistic corpus. Obviously. d) Source-in-target visual metonymy (GARMENT FOR PERSON) is expanded with a series of metaphors. while metaphor expands this identification with other mappings. The metonymy highlights the relevant part and lends it to further mappings because of its visual presence throughout the commercial and because of background knowledge about this particular car and brand. can also make the metonymy progress towards mappings that go beyond the presence of the product and try to convey additional meanings such as emotional representation and poetic effects in the cognitive environment of the audience. To some extent. this is not a comprehensive list and other interactions are possible. Those colors can represent the metaphor SOFT COLOR IS WARMTH and further. it can connect to the metaphor AFFECTION IS WARMTH. In the dynamics of a television commercial. metonymical mappings. mainly in blue and grey . but they can link the product to domains which can be relevant for the product’s promotion: expanding or constraining the interpretation of metaphorical mappings (see El Refaie this volume for other uses of a metonymy as anchoring). In these cases. metaphor needs to be studied within its embeddedness in the context of the commercial and the persuasive functions of advertising. As seen in case 2. In the case of metaphor. In narrative it can highlight conventional belief. a metaphor expands the meaning by associating new domains with the original metaphor or metonymy. In order to understand how metaphor creates meaning. 5. The interactions of metaphor and metonymy show that layering of rhetorical figures is not random. the commercial can create additional metaphorical mappings. While in case 4. which are gender-specific. It creates further imagery that can trigger more emotional or intellectual associations with the product.Interaction of multimodal metaphor and metonymy 111 the colors can be associated not only with the difficult driving conditions but also with the strength and endurance of iron or steel. the choice of yellow in the color of the baby bootie intentionally avoids colors like blue or pink. and this is consonant with general views on this figure. it also can constrain the amount of possible correspondences in a metaphorical mapping. as in case 1. Television commercials are dynamic texts in which all modes can contribute to multimodal metaphors either in the source domain or the target domain. The diffused light of the background highlights the baby bootie and its dramatic undoing. thus. and is frequently used in realist art (Jakobson 1971 [1956]). Metonymy is considered closer to literalness in the literalness-metaphor continuum (Radden 2002 and Dirven 2002). the metonymy activates or highlights an aspect of the reality of the product. the metonymy has a double function: represent the target for the metaphor in a way that can be realistic for the metaphorical representation. 4. but follows clear cognitive patterns which restrict and define their design and persuasion. As shown. 2. I would conclude: 1. The grounding of the meaning of a commercial in the viewer’s knowledge and experience can be accomplished by various means. This feature can be recognized by the audience most easily or can be productive to provoke implicit positive meanings. Pankhurst 1997). In brief. Once metonymical correspondences are mapped. . 3. structure episode development and. In the commercials. metonymy can identify those entities which are to be transferred from the two domains. As shown. help interpretation (cf. and motivate the message of the commercial. they include meanings that aim at supporting the visual consistency and the identification with those features which are stereotypical of the domain. One of them is metonymy. Also. and in 4 it contributes to the dramatic staging of the commercial. Caballero (2006) in architecture discourse. and thorough revisions of. The kind of products which are advertised. . Objects. color and other (sub)modalities which can be construed by the audience’s cognitive resources. The modes in a commercial are structured around a clearly defined target. Underlying cognitive structures are present in the use of the camera. and the need to persuade or represent a product in a positive light. Such criteria underlie the choices made by the creators of these commercials regarding the modes and the entities which are used to represent the product. As we have seen. and even some elements not addressed here such as the length of a commercial. three of the four cases are personifications. Further research is needed to account for the roles of submodes and how they contribute to the domain construction mainly in visual modes. Dirven. This is probably no coincidence. The experience of objects and vehicles as animated human beings reflect the natural application of the cognitive model GREAT CHAIN METAPHOR and also the anthropocentric dimension of this cognitive model (cf. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Charles Forceville. The importance of connecting discourse and conceptual metaphor has been shown by Cameron (2003) in education discourse. montage. Brian Patrick. their contribution to the source domains in 2 and 3 is relevant to the metaphors they form. and Wolf 2007: 1228 for this metaphor and the language of oppression). John Bardem and Cristin Siebert for their insightful comments on. all contribute to the need for interaction of metaphors and metonymies. The analysis of these commercials shows how metonymy engages the products’ representation to the cognitive environment of the audience as it is conceived by the advertiser. earlier versions of this chapter. A comprehensive analysis of multimodal metaphors needs to identify the genre which shapes them and “steers their interpretation” (Forceville this volume). and Caballero (this volume) in winespeak. Polzenhagen. animals and other experiences are best understood as representations or extensions of human beings. Urios-Aparisi (2004) in interaction.112 Eduardo Urios-Aparisi 6. but to what extent can they create other metaphorical mappings? As we have seen. The inextricable relation between metaphorical and metonymical mappings determines how meaning is created. ). The commercials can be viewed online at the Instituto Cervantes in the Museo Virtual de Arte Publicitario (Muvap): http://cvc. shtml).us/experience/ safety. 1–28.swedecar. the slogan maps the features of “talking and reacting with intelligence” associated with humans.volvoclub. 4.volvocars. 2. 2002 Clarifying and applying the notions of metaphor and metonymywithin cognitive linguistics: An update. Both printed ads highlight how beer or juice drinks differ from wine in their production and suggest that both beer and juice drinks acquire the status of wine when they are produced in a cellar.” the section on safety is first and within this section they have another special on “how Volvo saved my life. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. The logo is an adaptation of the symbol for iron: a circle with an arrow pointing upwards towards the right (cf. This slogan is a conventional metaphorical meaning of the word “respuesta” as the effect of an action is the response to a question: the effect of an action is a verbal response.htm). 5.es/actcult/ muvap/in “sala V: Creatividad publicitaria audiovisual. In Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective. Bruce 2008 The Visual Story. Further analysis would pertain to the slogan of this commercial “Respuesta segura” (“sure answer”).” (see http://www. In Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. Roland 1988 [1964] The Semiotic Challenge.cervantes. In their webpage section “Experience Volvo.com/volvo_history. 3. References Barcelona. René Dirven and Ralf Pörings (eds. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. . etc. Amsterdam. Antonio 2000 Introduction: The cognitive theory of metaphor and metonymy. 2nd edition. which were used to set the safety standards against which all new cars on the US market were tested.: Focal Press. 202–277. 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Ning this vol. . and Sewen Sun 2002 Grouping. Norman Y. In Current Trends in the Pragmatics of Spanish. Beatrice 2006 Referential Metonymy. René Dirven and Ralph Pörings (eds. Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor: A unified account. Maria Elena Placencia and Rosina Márquez Reiter (eds. Yus. simile. John 2002 Category extension by metonymy and metaphor. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: Benjamins. Eduardo 2004 Quarrelling about metaphors on love: A pragmatic approach. Francisco this vol. In Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast.). . They all contribute to the central theme of the commercial that China. simultaneous or sequential. therefore. educational advertisements are designed to influence people’s way of thinking and understanding for the purpose of promoting public welfare. it shows how two major conceptual metaphors. aural and verbal elements are interactive with and dependent upon each other when they combine into a “conceptual blend” with “input spaces” in visual. LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LIFE IS A STAGE. The various visual. between primitivity and modernity. within the cognitive linguistic paradigm. which cast in relief the unity and contrast between the Chinese and the Western. In contrast with commercial advertisements. between thought and action. complex metaphor. primary metaphor. nonverbal and multimodal manifestations 1.Chapter 6 Nonverbal and multimodal manifestations of metaphors and metonymies: A case study Ning Yu Abstract This paper intends to analyze. conceptual metonymy. thanks to a motivation for change that originates in her “heart. aural and verbal modes. focusing on the example of an educational advertisement screened on China Central Television (CCTV). They are. and between tradition and innovation. as well as verbal. on CCTV.” has been undergoing the process of modernization and globalization while retaining her cultural identity. the nonverbal and multimodal manifestations of metaphors and metonymies in an educational commercial screened on China Central Television (CCTV). usually called “advertisements for public good” . This blend contains conspicuous juxtapositions of various kinds. discourse. conceptual blend. Specifically. Introduction This chapter intends to demonstrate the nonverbal and multimodal manifestations of metaphors and metonymies within the cognitive linguistic paradigm. Keywords: conceptual metaphor. are manifested in dynamic visual and aural. I analyze the nonverbal and multimodal manifestations of metaphors and metonymies involved to reveal how a multi-faceted metaphorical complex is achieved via contributions from and constructions in visual and aural. metonymy is a more fundamental cognitive phenomenon than metaphor.. I will show that there are two major conceptual metaphors underlying this commercial: LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LIFE IS A STAGE. Actually. which have business promotion as their purpose. following a synopsis of the TV commercial. to refer to the one under discussion in this chapter.. Dirven and Pörings 2002. I will still use the term “commercial” or “TV commercial”. rather than discrete: they seem to be points on a continuum of mapping processes” (Barcelona 2000b: 16). I first provide a brief review of the cognitive linguistic paradigm of metaphor studies. and metaphor is very often motivated by metonymy (see Barcelona 2000a. as the core of the educational TV commercial that is constructed as a blend of cultural beliefs and conceptual metaphors presented visually and aurally as well as verbally. that is how big the stage is While this verbal line is itself metaphorical in nature. i. Panther and Radden 1999). The broad sense includes both metaphor and metonymy in the narrow sense of the terms. I will argue.120 Ning Yu (公益广告). it serves. it can be interpreted allegorically as containing a personification of China. I will suggest that although the TV commercial is centered on a Chinese country girl who dances all the way from a rural village to a modern metropolis. i. however big one’s heart is. modes. whereas the latter is realized as a multimodal metaphor. While educational advertisements on CCTV are distinct from ordinary TV commercials. It converges on the linguistic presentation of a short verbal message like a motto: 每个人心中都有一个大舞台，心有多大舞台就有多大 In everyone’s heart there is a big stage. According to cognitive linguistics. “the distinction between metaphor and metonymy is scalar. in its broader sense.e. a metaphor “whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” (Forceville 2006a: 384/this volume). This cognitive linguistics view of metaphor and metonymy will gain further support in the analysis that follows. as well as verbal. which has been undergoing a process of modernization and globalization. Of these two the former is manifested visually. The TV commercial to be analyzed is about two minutes long. In what follows.e. Then. through visual images. . In this chapter the term metaphor is used in a broad and a narrow sense. cognitive science has seriously challenged the fundamental assumption that most of our thinking about the world is literal. directly corresponding to external reality (see e. are structured and mentally represented in terms of metaphor” (Gibbs 1999: 145). but shaped by cultural understanding. or “conflations in everyday experience” that “pair subjective experience and judgment with sensorimotor experience” (Lakoff and Johnson 1999: 49). metaphor is not merely a figure of speech. Gibbs 1994..g. For instance. Gibbs 1994. Lakoff 1987. shaped by embodied and acculturated experiences (e. reason. Kövecses 2002. Johnson 1987. 1999). especially abstract ones. Lakoff and Johnson 1980. According to the cognitive linguistic view. 1999). According to the conceptual metaphor theory of cognitive linguistics.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 121 2.. Gibbs 2006. 2005. tend to be culture-specific. Cognitive linguistic theory of conceptual metaphor During the past two decades. Cognitive linguistics maintains that our minds are embodied in such a way that our conceptual systems draw largely upon the peculiarities of our bodies and the specifics of our physical and cultural environments (e. giving rise to understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. 1997b. Lakoff and Johnson 1999.g. 2005. 2006. In order to answer the question why some metaphors are widespread or even universal and others are culture-specific. It is worth stressing that the experiential basis of conceptual metaphors is both bodily and cultural. primary metaphors are derived directly from experiential correlations. 2003). understand. In short. Lakoff and Johnson (1999: 60–61) suggest that the complex metaphor A PURPOSEFUL . whereas complex metaphors are combinations of primary metaphors and cultural beliefs and assumptions and. It is argued that “all cognition is embodied in cultural situations” (Gibbs 1999: 156). but also a figure of thought. for that reason. and thinking and reasoning are largely metaphorical and imaginative. The results of cognitive linguistic studies show that human minds are embodied in the cultural world.. the newer version of Conceptual Metaphor Theory puts forth a “decomposition” account based on the distinction between two kinds of conceptual metaphors: primary metaphors and complex metaphors (see Grady 1997a. Lakoff and Johnson 1999). Lakoff and Johnson 1980.1 Conceptual metaphors in people’s conceptual systems influence to a considerable extent how they think. and “many concepts. conceptual metaphors emerge from the interaction between body and culture: they are grounded in bodily experience. and imagine in everyday life. 2006.g. 2002. This is because its validity in a particular culture depends on this culture’s holding the combination of the two propositions (PEOPLE SHOULD HAVE PURPOSES IN LIFE and PEOPLE SHOULD ACT SO AS TO ACHIEVE THEIR PURPOSES) and the two primary metaphors. Oakley. A major difference between conceptual metaphor theory and blending theory is that the former is typically concerned with entrenched conceptual relationships and the ways in which they may be elaborated whereas the latter often focuses on novel conceptualizations. The rise of the cognitive linguistic paradigm of metaphor studies has created opportunities for the study of nonverbal and multimodal metaphors. as Forceville (2006a) points out. the validity of its claims about the existence of conceptual . Fauconnier and Turner 1998. Conceptual Metaphor Theory has so far been restricted in an important dimension. and Coulson 1999. Different from conceptual metaphor theory’s conceptual mapping from a source to a target domain.122 Ning Yu LIFE IS A JOURNEY is composed of the following cultural belief (reformulated here as two propositions) and two primary metaphors: PEOPLE SHOULD HAVE PURPOSES IN LIFE PEOPLE SHOULD ACT SO AS TO ACHIEVE THEIR PURPOSES PURPOSES ARE DESTINATIONS ACTIONS ARE MOTIONS Whereas the two primary metaphors (PURPOSES ARE DESTINATIONS and ACTIONS ARE MOTIONS). this theory postulates conceptual integration of two or more “input spaces. often function as inputs to metaphoric blends in the process of conceptual integration (Grady 2005). Turner and Fauconnier 1995). which may be short-lived (Grady.” which share a “generic space” of common characteristics. are likely to be universal. and Coulson 1999). the complex metaphor (A PURPOSEFUL LIFE IS A JOURNEY) is not or less likely to be so. Oakley.” This multiple-space model can account for various metaphorical and non-metaphorical aspects of conceptual phenomena (see also Grady. However. Forceville 2004 for detailed discussions). based on common bodily experience. it is proposed that primary metaphors. While it characterizes metaphors as primarily conceptual in nature and only secondarily manifested in language. as entrenched metaphoric correspondences between concepts. as listed above.. Kövecses 2002.g. A more recent development that is related to Conceptual Metaphor Theory is Blending or Conceptual Integration Theory (e. into a new “blended space. In an effort to bridge the theories of conceptual metaphor and conceptual integration. If metaphor does not necessarily appear in verbal form. turning around and around. At the beginning. and through a village with small country houses (figure 2). If. the country girl is dancing with a male partner in a swallow-tailed tuxedo. Again. In the light of Forceville’s (2006a) argument. she dances past a traditional-looking tall dark-red wall (figure 3) and then a Western-looking sculpture (figure 4). 3. With the playing of the slow-tempo music of the Chinese folk song Lan Huahua. readers are referred to Forceville’s empirical and theoretical studies (e. it can be seen that she has a gracious smile on her face. For pioneering work on nonverbal and multimodal metaphors within the cognitive linguistic paradigm. Now. Together they make a great variety of beautiful moves and poses (figure 7). 2006b). in an urban setting. 2002. 1996. She keeps turning and turning. and finally up to the top of a skyscraper. all alone. Then.g. apparently absorbed in the joy of dancing the Westernstyle ballroom dance. 1994.2 the girl starts dancing elegantly but repetitively. against the metropolitan background bathing in the sun (figure 5). getting closer and bigger. they dance past the Western-looking sculpture (figure 8) and the traditional-looking dark-red wall (figure 9). and is thus not an exclusive attribute of language. metaphor fundamentally characterizes thinking. that conceptual metaphors can be manifested nonverbally and multimodally as well as verbally. as it claims. At this point. within the cognitive linguistic paradigm. along a country path. Synopsis of the commercial Here is a synopsis of the TV commercial under discussion. the line “In everyone’s heart there is a big stage” appears on the screen. in a snow-covered countryside. conceptual metaphor theory can hardly afford to ignore the nonverbal realm. the audio shifts from the slow-tempo Chinese folk music to fast-tempo Western ballroom dance music. 2005. 2006a. 1999. and then back up to the round . All of a sudden. wearing peasant-style attire and posed for Western ballroom dancing (figure 1). a close-up shot from a low camera angle focuses on a Chinese country girl.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 123 metaphors depends almost exclusively on linguistic evidence in the form of verbal metaphors. despite the fact that she does not even have a dancing partner.. this chapter is part of the attempt to demonstrate. it should be able to produce nonverbal manifestations as well as the purely verbal ones that have so far been the central concern of conceptual metaphor studies. as the backdrop turns into a darkened screen (figure 6). As she dances past. The final scene provides a “global” view . Finally. Posed for dancing Figure 2. followed by the other 24 pairs (figure 10). looking far at the skyline of the modern metropolis (figure 14). with her back toward the audience. At this time. the first pair dances around the top of the skyscraper.124 Ning Yu top of another skyscraper. the girl stands still. Dancing past a village Figure 3. Dancing past a wall Figure 4. After this. the country girl is alone again. Figure 1. While taking the leading role. as the audio shifts back to the Chinese folk music of Lan Huahua. Dancing on a skyscraper Figure 6. “Stage in the heart” . that is how big the stage is” draws nearer and larger while the background fades into a black screen (figure 12).produced by a long shot from a high camera angle . the remaining 24 pairs change into a matrix of four by six dancing in the background (figure 11). the line “However big one’s heart is. Then. as the leading couple dances in the foreground. Dancing past a sculpture Figure 5.of the big city with its many tall buildings. this time with 24 other pairs of similar-looking dancers following them. turning around slowly to a stop (figure 13). “Size of heart and stage” Figure 13. Dancing alone again Figure 14. Analysis In this section. Gazing afar standing 4. Leading the way Figure 11. While the former is realized almost exclu- . Leading and supporting Figure 12. Dancing past the wall Figure 10. Dancing with a partner Figure 8. Dancing past the sculpture Figure 9. I analyze the TV commercial to show that its didactic and aesthetic effects are achieved through.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 125 Figure 7. among other things. nonverbal and multimodal manifestations of two common conceptual metaphors: LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LIFE IS A STAGE. 2005.e. is the center of thoughts. So interpreted. 2007b). with “a big heart”) can one “act big” on the “big stage” of life. accompanied by musical sounds. and help set in relief the unity and contrast of cultural identity and globalization that characterize contemporary China. b. (1a) and (1b) are two propositions that reflect the Chinese cultural conceptualization of the “heart” whereas (1c) and (1d) are metaphors that are rooted in the cultural beliefs of the “heart” as the central fac- . On the “stage” of life. that is how big the stage is. the TV commercial also contains several conceptual metonymies.126 Ning Yu sively through moving images. I first briefly comment on the Chinese cultural conceptualization of the HEART and the verbal message that serves as the core of the advertisement under discussion. the latter one is manifested visually and aurally. some being more important and successful than others. however big one’s heart is. This cultural conceptualization of the “heart” contrasts with the Western dualism that maintains the heart-mind dichotomy. which both motivate and constitute the metaphors.. people play various roles. 2007a. only when one can “think big” (i. as well as verbally through the linguistic message: “In everyone’s heart there is a big stage. d. i.. c. in a metaphorical fashion. I would like to point out that the verbal message in the TV commercial is a manifestation of the Chinese conceptualization of the “heart” as the central faculty of cognition. In the tradition of Chinese culture. associated with the brain. and more generally as the central faculty of cognition (Yu 2003. the heart is the seat of emotions whereas the mind. In light of the above comment.e. HEART IS THE THINKING ORGAN THAT DESIGNS ACTIVITY OF LIFE SUCCESS IN LIFE ORIGINATES IN HEART DEGREE OF MOTIVATION FOR SUCCESS IS SIZE OF HEART MORE MOTIVATED FOR SUCCESS IS BIGGER OF HEART In this group. the verbal message of the TV commercial reveals the following combination of propositions and metaphors: (1) a.” Other than these two conceptual metaphors. the “heart” (心xin) is regarded as the organ for thinking and understanding as well as feeling. Before I proceed to analyze the conceptual metaphors and metonymies that structure the TV commercial. That is. the “heart” (the size of the “heart”). One’s degree of success in external life (the size of the stage) is attributed and related to the mental capacity of one’s internal world. as well as an instantiation of the popular conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A STAGE. going or. f. 4. as well as temporal. dancing all the way from the field of the snow-covered countryside to the top of a skyscraper in a large metropolitan area. makes a literal reading of her dancing impossible. visually. the metaphor LIFE IS A . The arrows indicate the direction of the metaphorical mappings from the source to the target domain. c. In the TV commercial under discussion.3 creates mappings from the source domain of journey to the target domain of life and establishes correspondences between various items within these two conceptual domains. e. JOURNEY TRAVELER STARTING POINT TRAVEL ON JOURNEY PATH OF JOURNEY DESTINATION → → → → → → LIFE PERSON INITIAL STATE EXPERIENCE IN LIFE WAY OF LIFE GOAL The experiential motivation for this metaphor is that people do undertake many journeys as part of their life. The cueing of the dancing as a JOURNEY metaphor for abstract life is achieved mainly through the shifts of scenes that show spatial. more exactly. which is based on the SOURCE-PATHGOAL schema. “leaps and bounds” across various physical settings. In this sense. This journey. the common conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY. While the country girl repeats her monotonous but graceful act of dancing alone. her path extending through conspicuous differences in the environment. In other words.1. is metaphorically designed and constructed to manifest. This understanding can be summarized by a more general complex metaphor: ONE’S MENTAL CAPACITY IS SIZE OF ONE’S HEART. it is not a physical journey taking place through space.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 127 ulty of cognition. b. The metaphorical nature of the culturally constructed understanding of the “heart” is quite obvious. the girl undertakes a journey. (2) LIFE IS A JOURNEY SOURCE TARGET a. but one that is a metaphor for subjective experience and abstract advancement in life. which is fundamentally manifested through moving images. LIFE IS A JOURNEY I first analyze the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY. free from any restrictions. such as those shown in (2). The LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor. d. however. characterized by a conceptual metonymy PART FOR WHOLE. In the TV commercial under discussion. (5a) and (5b) present two propositions as the cultural beliefs or assumptions upheld by people who subscribe to the complex metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY. ACTIONS ARE SELF-PROPELLED MOTIONS g. the traveler is the country girl. STATES ARE LOCATIONS d. For her. SMOOTH PATH → ABSTRACT STATES DIFFICULT WAY EASY WAY This is how conceptual metaphors systematically transfer inferences or entailments. For her. PEOPLE SHOULD HAVE GOALS IN THEIR LIFE b. The correspondences listed in (3) and (4) are some of the entailments of the mappings given in (2) (see also Lakoff 1993): JOURNEY (3) EXPERIENCE IN LIFE IS TRAVEL ON JOURNEY a. PEOPLE SHOULD ACT SO AS TO ACHIEVE THEIR GOALS c. FAST MOTION → FAST PROGRESS d. even though she does it initially without a partner. the path of the journey runs from the cold of the snow-covered countryside to the warmth of the sun-bathed modern metropolis. CHANGES ARE MOVEMENTS (FROM ONE TO ANOTHER LOCATION) e. CAUSES ARE FORCES f. (5c–g) are primary metaphors of the so-called Event Structure .128 Ning Yu has a metonymic basis when JOURNEY is mapped onto LIFE. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS → b. from the source to the target domain. DIFFICULT TRAVEL → BAD EXPERIENCE b. BUMPY PATH → c. as shown in (5): (5) LIFE IS A JOURNEY a. More abstractly. this is a path of going upward in spatial conceptualization of success in life. and from the country field to the top of a skyscraper in a big city. EASY TRAVEL → GOOD EXPERIENCE c. PURPOSES ARE DESTINATIONS Here. SLOW MOTION → SLOW PROGRESS (4) WAY OF LIFE IS PATH OF JOURNEY a. based on our bodily experience. It is noteworthy that LIFE IS A JOURNEY is a complex metaphor that represents the combination of some primary metaphors and a number of cultural beliefs. traveling is dancing a Western ballroom dance that she really enjoys. In the commercial. 5). the marked difference between two states in her life that the change has brought to her. a vantage point on a higher location enables people to see farther. This. I believe. the country girl has her goal in life and she acts. dancing a Western-style ballroom dance) from one location (the field of the backward countryside) to another location (the top of a skyscraper of a modern city). Her destination (her goal) is the top of the skyscraper. the first is metonymic whereas the second is metaphorical. from which she can enjoy “a full view of the world” around her. Ch. A MORE SUCCESSFUL STATE IS A HIGHER LOCATION. Both mappings are manifested in the TV commercial visually. Yu 2004). to attain this goal. which is the force that pushes her to make repetitive but beautiful moves (keeping turning around in her ballroom dance) in a consistent and persistent manner. SUCCESSFUL IS UP The list in (7) below gives some of the conceptual mappings entailed by (6b) from the concrete domain of space to the abstract domain of success. the physical perception of seeing is mapped onto the mental function of understanding in the primary conceptual metaphor UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING (see Lakoff and Johnson 1999. The cause for this change is the motivation or ambition in her heart. Metaphorically.. which looks like a highly elevated stage (the STAGE metaphor). she has changed the state of her life. Sweetser 1990. we have a two-step mapping: HIGHER LOCATION → SEEING FARTHER → UNDERSTANDING BETTER. she has made changes by moving (in this case. The stark contrast between these two locations represents. During the process. Yu 1998. which is combined with the LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor to form another complex metaphor. More specifically. and then followed by 24 other pairs of dancers. LIFE IS A JOURNEY b. Physically. persistently. and that is what happens when the country girl gazes afar on the top of the skyscraper at the very end of the commercial.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 129 Metaphor. I want to underscore another aspect of the significance of the country girl ending up on the top of a skyscraper after dancing all the way from the country field. as in (6): (6) SUCCESSFUL CAREER IN LIFE IS UPWARD MOVEMENT ON JOURNEY a. At this point. when she is joined by a male dancing partner. is the visual manifestation of a primary conceptual metaphor SUCCESSFUL IS UP. metaphorically. i.e. Thus. Of these two mappings. . which is a metaphor system responsible for the conceptualization of various abstract events (see Lakoff 1993. until she reaches her destination. PEOPLE ACT TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS IN LIFE b. again. Since ACTION IN LIFE IS ACTION ON STAGE. In the above list. and here we use a part to stand for the whole. HIGHER e. a complex metaphor that represents the combination of a number of components at different levels.4 In short. UP b. acting in life. she can enjoy.2. ACTION IN LIFE IS ACTION ON STAGE d. HEIGHT OF LOCATION c. PEOPLE’S ACTION IN LIFE IS EVALUATED BY OTHERS c. DEGREE OF SUCCESS IN LIFE IS HEIGHT OF LOCATION. a “global view of her world” that she could not have had if she had not danced all the way from the field of the countryside to the top of a skyscraper in a modern city. which is a specific instantiation of the more general conceptual metonymy PART STANDS FOR WHOLE. ACTION. after the identical item. we have LIFE IS A STAGE. ACTIONS ARE SELF-PROPELLED MOTIONS Here (8c) is the key metaphorical component. on both sides of the equation is eliminated. A higher location represents a more successful status in life. This conceptual metaphor is. At the end of the journey. at a very high vantage point. acting on the stage is only part of the whole. HIGH LOCATION d. the journey that the country girl has undertaken is a journey from a small village to a large metropolis. STATES ARE LOCATIONS e. and from backwardness to modernity. HIGHER is mapped onto MORE SUCCESSFUL whereas LOWER is mapped onto LESS SUCCESSFUL. ACTING ON STAGE STANDS FOR ACTING IN LIFE. LIFE IS A STAGE Now I turn to analyzing the multimodal manifestation of the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A STAGE. But what is the experiential motivation for (8c)? I argue that this metaphor is motivated by a more fundamental figurative relationship. 4. LOWER → → → → → SUCCESSFUL DEGREE OF SUCCESS IN LIFE SUCCESSFUL STATUS IN LIFE MORE SUCCESSFUL LESS SUCCESSFUL That is. (8d) and (8e) represent two primary meta- .130 Ning Yu (7) SUCCESSFUL IS UP a. That is. First consider (8) below: (8) LIFE IS A STAGE a. and a lower location represents a less successful status in life. a metonymy. her persistence and perseverance in pursuit of her goal. just as actors and actresses’ performances are evaluated by their audience.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 131 phors in the Event Structure Metaphor System on which the complex metaphor LIFE IS A STAGE is based. just as performers act to achieve success on the stage. metaphorically representing. are repetitive. In China. Her moves. is unexpected and for that matter really significant. In the second phase. whether concrete or abstract. The LIFE IS A STAGE metaphor establishes. STAGE PERFORMANCE ON STAGE ROLES ON STAGE → → → LIFE ACTIVITY IN LIFE PEOPLE IN LIFE In the TV commercial. b. though graceful. they make all kinds of beautiful moves and poses. so the “stage” of her life is indeed very big. the country girl dances all the way from a small village to a big city. The actions that people take in life.. the correspondences between the following elements in the two conceptual domains.e. Thus.. (9) LIFE IS A STAGE SOURCE TARGET a. a goal that China has been trying to achieve to implement the “reform and open-door” policy is “to be connected with the international track/rail” (与国际接轨). i. to meet the international standard. In the first phase. Thus. In this particular case. actions taken in life are metaphorically conceptualized as artistic moves of ballroom dancing. The fact that the Chinese country girl dances a Western ballroom dance. Their fast-tempo . the conceptual parallel is perceived as follows. for instance. accompanied by Western ballroom dance music. c. I suggest. People act to achieve success in life. Besides. Life is a series of states whereas a stage is a special kind of location. are generally understood as self-propelled motions through space. the country girl’s persistence in dancing the “international standard dance” can be seen as a visual metaphor of China’s effort to meet the international standard. Together. I assume that the cultures that subscribe to the LIFE IS A STAGE metaphor also hold the propositions in (8a) and (8b). as in sharp contrast with her Chinese peasant-style clothing. a black swallow-tailed tuxedo and black leather shoes). the Western ballroom dance is often referred to as the “international standard dance. rather than a Chinese folk dance. their actions in life are evaluated by others. Her performance can be divided into four phases. in combination with (8c). she is alone and starts dancing ballroom dance. the country girl is joined by a male dancing partner wearing the standard ballroom dance apparel (i.e.” During the past 15 years or so. Ch. the entailments all contribute to the systematic mappings from the source to the target domain. i. This cooperation is essential for China’s process of modernization and globalization. and gazes afar while standing still.132 Ning Yu movements. VARIETY IN PERFORMANCE → (11) PEOPLE IN LIFE ARE CHARACTERS ON STAGE a. This is when she achieves some deep understanding of life when gaining a far vision. activated by the LIFE IS A STAGE metaphor. plays a leading role in dancing when followed by 24 other couples. the girl is alone again. the country girl. LEADING CHARACTERS ON STAGE b.” . the country girl is indeed very successful in life since.g. are metaphorical of their speedy advancement in life.. e. especially the Western world. Yu 1998. Such a conspicuous juxtaposition of the Chinese and the Western in the pair dance seems to be a visual cue for China’s cooperation with the outside. SUCCESS ON STAGE → b. see. the girl stands with her back toward the viewers. 4). however big one’s heart is. Yu 2004): “In everyone’s heart there is a big stage. that is how big the stage is.e. SUPPORTING CHARACTERS ON STAGE SUCCESS IN LIFE FAILURE IN LIFE DIVERSITY IN ACTIVITY → → MORE SUCCESSFUL PEOPLE IN LIFE LESS SUCCESSFUL PEOPLE IN LIFE As shown in (10) and (11). The leading role in the group dance seems to cue the increased influence of China in the international arena or on the international stage. stops dancing. and is metaphorically a leader in life. accompanied by the fast-tempo music. i.. have the following entailments.e. In the TV commercial. she is playing a leading role in the foreground of the “stage. with her dancing partner. later in the show. “looking ahead into the future” (since according to the Chinese version of the TIME IS SPACE metaphor the future is ahead.” While enjoying the “global” vision at the high vantage point. they are invited to “follow suit” looking ahead into China’s bright future while sharing the girl’s understanding of life as specified by the verbal message of the advertisement. Lakoff 1993. In the fourth and last phase.. UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING (see Lakoff and Johnson 1999. In the third phase. The metaphorical mappings in (9b) and (9c). FAILURE ON STAGE → c. This shot design seems to put the viewers into a “following” position. for instance. transferring further knowledge from the source to the target domain: (10) ACTIVITY IN LIFE IS PERFORMANCE ON STAGE a. LIFE IS A STAGE is still not sufficient to capture the figurative meaning of the verbal message in particular and the TV commercial in general. (13) SUCCESSFUL IS BIG a. so as to form another complex metaphor. the LIFE IS A STAGE metaphor is manifested visually through moving images. LIFE IS A STAGE b. and 24 other pairs are dancing. (14) lists some of the conceptual mappings entailed by (12): (14) A SUCCESSFUL LIFE IS A BIG STAGE a.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 133 However. SIZE OF STAGE → c. the physical size of an object is mapped on to the degree of success. SUCCESSFUL IS BIG. BIG STAGE → SUCCESSFUL DEGREE OF SUCCESS IN LIFE SUCCESSFUL STATUS IN LIFE That is to say. In summary. (12) A SUCCESSFUL LIFE IS A BIG STAGE a. her dancing partner. The fact that the country girl has made remarkable progress in life is revealed via visual metaphors.5 In (12) the OBJECT is specified as a “stage. Thus. accompanied by musical sounds. the metaphor A SUCCESSFUL LIFE IS A BIG STAGE is manifested visually as well as verbally. SMALLER → → → → → SUCCESSFUL DEGREE OF SUCCESS IN LIFE SUCCESSFUL STATUS IN LIFE MORE SUCCESSFUL LESS SUCCESSFUL That is. the size of one’s stage is metaphorically correlated with the degree of success in one’s life: DEGREE OF SUCCESS IN LIFE IS SIZE OF STAGE. SIZE OF OBJECT c.” Thus. as well as linguistically through the verbal message appearing on the TV screen. This further combination is given in (12). the change in physical location of her dancing from the . BIG OBJECT d. SUCCESSFUL IS BIG Given in (13) below are some of the conceptual mappings entailed by (12b) from the concrete domain of spatial dimensions to the abstract domain of success. BIG b. It is worth noting that the top of the skyscraper. First. The bigger one’s stage is (of course metaphorically). It still needs to combine with another primary metaphor. BIG → b. A SUCCESSFUL LIFE IS A BIG STAGE. where the girl. looks very much like a big stage. the more successful one is in life. BIGGER e. the TV commercial has also deployed a number of metonymies to achieve its didactic purpose and artistic effect. It is through further mapping across the domains that the metaphor ACTIVITY IN LIFE IS PERFORMANCE ON STAGE is constructed. The network of metonymic and metaphoric relations involved is shown below: STAGE FOR PERFORMANCE + LIFE IS A STAGE + SUCCESSFUL IS BIG STAGE SIZE OF STAGE BIG STAGE → → → PERFORMANCE ON STAGE DEGREE OF SUCCESS ON STAGE SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCE ON STAGE → → → ACTIVITY IN LIFE DEGREE OF SUCCESS IN LIFE SUCCESSFUL ACTIVITY IN LIFE That is. also metaphorically suggests her general progress in life. In effect.134 Ning Yu backward countryside to the modern metropolis metaphorically suggests her abstract advancement in life.” we can say that. as has already been touched upon above. Second. I discuss several other metonymies in the visual and aural modes. to dancing as a couple. from solo dancing. as the first step.. STAGE is mapped metonymically onto the PERFORMANCE ON STAGE and. 4. which can be expressed by the metonymy STAGE STANDS FOR PERFORMANCE ON STAGE. in the verbal message “In everyone’s heart there is a big stage. The first visual metonymy is STYLE OF CLOTHING STANDS FOR CULTURE. initially. For instance. The girl wears typical peasant-style clothing. as the second step. the figurative mapping takes place from one thing to another within the same conceptual domain. It fits well into the rural setting at the beginning of the commer- .3. In this section. or more generally LOCATION OF ACTIVITY STANDS FOR ACTIVITY.” i. or more generally LOCATION OF ACTIVITY FOR ACTIVITY. PERFORMANCE ON STAGE is mapped metaphorically onto ACTIVITY IN LIFE. Multimodal metonymies Apart from the two major conceptual metaphors discussed above. that is how big the stage is. which is metonymically associated with traditionally agricultural Chinese culture. STAGE FOR PERFORMANCE ON STAGE. these metonymies under analysis are all integrated into the complex of conceptual metaphors. In this case. however big one’s heart is. the reference to the “stage” is a metonymy for the “performance on the stage.e. It is worth mentioning that the metaphor A SUCCESSFUL LIFE IS A BIG STAGE also has its metonymic motivation. the change in the manner of her dancing. and to dancing as the leading pair of a group. However. we can trace the following steps of metonymic mapping governed by the principle of contiguity: BALLROOM DANCE → WESTERN CULTURE → DEVELOPED COUNTRIES → MODERNIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION. wearing exactly the same attire as they do. this style of clothing is conspicuously at odds with Western ballroom dance. This metonymy is visualized mainly by the juxtaposition of two conspicuous contrasts representing different cultures. we have a cross-domain mapping that is metaphorical: BALLROOM DANCE IS PROCESS OF MODERNIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION. In the countryside. This represents the contrast between the underdeveloped and the . In the process of mapping.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 135 cial. which is the physical setting of the first portion of the commercial. The first contrast consists of the countryside versus the metropolis. is an important component of that complex metaphor. what we see is a “conspicuously inappropriate blend” of the Chinese peasant-looking appearance and the Western elegance of ballroom dance. As is masterfully designed. indeed. In the TV commercial. and it is part of the visual metaphor for the retention of cultural identity in the process of modernization and globalization. Instead. Although her surroundings have changed drastically over time. The metonymy STYLE OF DANCE STANDS FOR CULTURE. we see an open field covered by white snow. realized visually. I would suggest that the country girl’s peasant-style clothing is metonymic for the cultural identity of the Chinese in general. which would have been very appropriate for her identity represented metonymically by her Chinese peasantlooking appearance. In stark contrast. The most conspicuous contrast appears when the country girl in the Chinese peasant-style clothes is dancing the Western ballroom dance with a male partner in a black swallow-tailed tuxedo. if we omit and ignore the two intermediate steps. However. Ballroom dance is associated metonymically with Western cultures in the developed countries that embody modernity and superiority in various areas in the world today. the Chinese country girl dancing Western ballroom dance is a powerful visual metaphor for the process of modernization and globalization that China has been undergoing in the past twenty years or so. what we see in the second half of the commercial is a large metropolitan area with numerous skyscrapers (in Shanghai). which is the standard Western-style ballroom dance apparel. It is a conspicuous visual “blend” of contrasting Chinese and Western styles. The third metonymy to be discussed is STYLE OF PHYSICAL SETTING FOR CULTURE. her Chinese peasant-looking appearance has remained the same. 24 other pairs of dancers join them. and a small village with small wood houses (in the Northeast of China). Subsequently. the country girl could have danced a Chinese folk dance. Another metonymy I want to mention is STYLE OF DANCE STANDS FOR CULTURE. the country girl is alone again. The audio track. to suggest. and aurally by the Chinese folk music played for the last few seconds to complete the commercial. Playing Chinese folk music instead of Western ballroom dance music adds to the cultural context and cultural identity created by the visual images of the country girl’s Chinese peasant-style attire and the physical setting of the Chinese countryside. At the beginning. She is now embedded in a modernized and globalized environment. This shift in musical style is designed. .136 Ning Yu developed. as the country girl starts dancing her ballroom dance. which are both shown twice. the Chinese folk song music. I turn to the metonymy STYLE OF MUSIC STANDS FOR CULTURE. even though her state of life has drasticallychanged. the royal palace that was off limits to ordinary people in the last feudal dynasties of China. standing motionless on top of a skyscraper. the country girl dances past them alone. the retention of cultural identity despite the fact that the physical setting has changed from the countryside to the metropolis. shifts back from the Western ballroom dance music to Lan Huahua. The country girl has not lost her cultural identity. gazing at the panorama of the modern metropolis. LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LIFE IS A STAGE. as visually represented by the “global view” of a modern metropolis. That is. After the pair and group dancing. at this point. her appearance remaining the same. is a visual metonymy of the influence of Western culture present in contemporary China following the implementation of its open-door policy. the accompanying music is not Western ballroom dance music. therefore. as metaphorically and metonymically represented by the change of locations and physical settings. music is used as one of the tools to create cultural context and cultural identity. The first time. the girl and her partner dance past them together. The second contrast is that between the tall dark-red wall and the Western-looking sculpture. metonymically associated with a traditional culture of isolation characteristic of China before it was opened up to the outside world some twenty years ago. and between primitivity and modernity. metonymically. The Western-looking sculpture. but the music of the Chinese folk song Lan Huahua. but her cultural identity is retained. It is. as represented visually by her Chinese peasant-style attire. Two kinds of music are played through the commercial. and the second time. Finally. I argue. and from primitivity to modernity. by contrast. It is worth pointing out that the visual contrasts brought out by the metonymy STYLE OF PHYSICAL SETTING FOR CULTURE play an important part in the visual manifestation of the two conceptual metaphors. for the final seconds of the TV commercial. The tall dark-red wall looks like those enclosing the Forbidden City (in Beijing). These juxtapositions bring to the fore the unity and contrast between the Chinese and the Western. as cognitive linguists have argued. This blend contains conspicuous juxtapositions. thanks to a motivation and ambition for change that originates in . between thought and action. between primitivity and modernity. Conclusion One of the crucial insights of cognitive linguistic theory of metaphor is that verbal metaphors systematically manifest underlying conceptual metaphors. This overwhelming preference to the study of verbal over nonverbal manifestations of conceptual metaphors needs correcting for the sound development of conceptual metaphor theory. There is already ample and still growing linguistic evidence. The present study represents part of the attempt toward that end. 5. discourse. So far. discovered by empirical studies of a broad spectrum of world languages and from a cross-cultural perspective. each other when they combine into a “conceptual blend” with “input spaces” in visual. and metonymies. of contrasting visual. there are not many studies focused on nonverbal and multimodal manifestations of conceptual metaphors despite the fact that such studies are theoretically essential to consolidate the validity of conceptual metaphor theory (see Forceville 2006a). As we have seen. in support of this claim. The various visual.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 137 In sum. I have analyzed the nonverbal and multimodal manifestations of two conceptual metaphors through dynamic visual and aural. aural or verbal images that are metonymic and metaphoric in nature. aural. They all contribute to the central theme of the TV commercial that China. the metonymies discussed in this section all fall into one general pattern. simultaneous or sequential. other complex and primary metaphors. If. as well as verbal. and between tradition and innovation. I have shown that these conceptual metaphors are complex ones composed of cultural beliefs and assumptions. where PROTOTYPICAL ITEMS OF A CULTURE STAND FOR THAT CULTURE or SALIENT FEATURES OF A THING STAND FOR THAT THING. metaphor is primarily conceptual in nature as a cognitive mechanism characterizing the mode of thought or the way of thinking. it follows that conceptual metaphors should emerge in nonverbal manifestations as well as verbal ones. and dependent upon. this conceptual metonymy can be manifested visually and aurally as well as verbally. and verbal modes. aural and verbal elements are interactive with. In this chapter. (2) dancing in pair with a male partner in Western tuxedo. (4) retaining cultural identity in modernization Aural (1) starting with slow-tempo music. (2) switching to a fast speed.” Table 1. however big one’s heart is.138 Ning Yu her “heart. (2) switching to fast-tempo music. (4) still wearing the same peasant clothing in a changed environment The person/China. (2) working in cooperation with the West. (2) gaining a deep understanding upon success and looking into the future the girl in peasant clothing (1) dancing Western ballroom dance alone. (2) switching to Western music.” Target: LIFE (1) Chinese culture. only when one “thinks big” can one “act big” and achieve big success in life. (3) winding down with slow-tempo music again (1) starting at a self-propelled pace. (2) internationalization. (3) ending with Chinese music again “In everyone’s heart there is a big stage.” has been undergoing the process of modernization and globalization while retaining her “Chinese characteristics. (3) retention of cultural identity Success in life originates internally in one’s mind. Metaphors Source: JOURNEY Visual (1) the country girl dancing from the field of the countryside to the top of a skyscraper in the metropolis. (2) enjoying the global view at height and looking afar and ahead (a) the person/China undergoing the process of modernization and globalization. (3) dancing as the leading couple. (3) advancing as a leader in development. Some possible multimodal mappings of the metaphors LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LIFE IS A STAGE. with her cultural identity. (1) making self-propelled effort toward modernization and globalization. . (3) slowing down to a stop Verbal Target: LIFE Source: STAGE (1) starting with Chinese music. that is how big the stage is. titled “Cultural identity and globalization: Multimodal metaphors in a Chinese educational advertisement. Kövecses (2002.Nonverbal and multimodal metaphors and metonymies 139 Table 1 summarizes some possible multimodal mappings of the two major conceptual metaphors. Lakoff and Turner (1989). however. the first metaphor. the verbal message. and appeared in China Media Research 3(2): 25–32. With the second metaphor. In the aural mode. however. the music. 2007. with the tempo of the music indexical of the tempo of the movement on the journey in the visual mode.. Lakoff and Johnson (1980. LIFE IS A STAGE. In playing this metonymic function.” was presented at the 12th Annual Conference of the International Association of Intercultural Communication Studies held in San Antonio in August 2006. LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LIFE IS A STAGE. it is in interaction that the elements in different modes give rise to nonverbal and multimodal manifestation of metaphors and metonymies in the TV commercial. Lan Huahua is a folk song from the northern Shaanxi Province. This message. . with all the details furnished in the visual mode by concrete visual images. LIFE IS A JOURNEY. switched from Chinese to Western and back to Chinese again. Gibbs (1994). Sweetser (1990). e. I am greatly appreciative of Charles Forceville and Mats Rohdin for their insightful comments on the earlier versions of this chapter. Johnson (1987). Barcelona (2000a). reinforces the visual images that are metaphorical of the process of modernization and globalization and the retention of cultural identity. 2005). see. studied in this chapter. but I am solely responsible for any errors that may remain. the contrast of Chinese and Western music is again metonymic for the respective cultures. which is only displayed on the screen. Panther and Radden (1999). 1999). For cognitive linguistic studies of metaphor. 1996). Thus.g. Acknowledgments An earlier version of this paper. is very schematic. is basically realized in the visual mode. Gibbs and Steen (1999). metonymy. and figurative language in general. whereas the aural mode performs a metonymic function in support of the visual manifestation of the metaphor in question. is crucial in its manifestation. As can be seen. Dirven and Pörings (2002). Notes 1. and Yu (1998). Turner (1991. More exactly. The role of the verbal mode is absent in this case. Lakoff (1987). which belongs to the part of China considered as the place of origin of 2. which structures the concept of JOURNEY (starting point. Associated with “big stars” or “big persons” in general are “big things. is analyzed as shaping the understanding of such more abstract concepts as PURPOSEFUL LIFE (ambition. literally “vie for the high and the low”) means “vie with each other to see who is better. The schema. which is internationally accepted as a standard practice in sports competition. literally “high and low”) means “relative superiority or inferiority (e. action. again. literally “hard to distinguish between the high and the low”) means “hard to tell which is better. a VIP in general is a “big person” or “big character” (大人物da-renwu).. trophies. the champion’s platform is usually in the middle. if there are any. is that the first. parallel to IMPORTANT IS BIG.g. zheng ge gao-di (争个高低. Besides. and end) by metaphorical extension.” and nan fen gao-di (难分高低. the champion’s platform should be the biggest if there is a difference in size.e. a “high-ranking official” (高官gao-guan) is also called a “big official” (大官da-guan). and the runner-up’s is higher than the third-place winner’s (and in addition. a “big shot” (大亨da-heng) in business is called a “big sum (of money)” (大款da-kuan). In China. if financial prizes are awarded.” A nonverbal example. songs of this kind are known as “northern Shaanxi folk songs. with the first-place winner given the biggest one. in a contest or competition). too. One lexical example should suffice here: the compound word gao-di (高低. . The verbal manifestation of the metaphor SUCCESSFUL IS UP or A MORE SUCCESSFUL STATE IS A HIGHER LOCATION is extremely rich in Chinese.e. And. and achievement) and STORY (beginning.” ranging from “big cars” (limousines) to “big houses” (mansions).” Thus. middle.” See Forceville (2006b) for a detailed discussion of the SOURCE-PATH-GOAL schema in multimodal manifestations in three documentary films.e. We can go back to the sports example of the platform in note 4. 5. and destination) literally. 4. also vary in size with the places of their winners. travel.. i. Parallel to this distinction in height (and centrality) is the difference in height (and centrality) of the three national flags raised to honor the corresponding three athletic winners. and so on and so forth.. is manifested linguistically in an extremely rich fashion. they should be related directly to the places of the winners too. 3. i.. the champion’s platform is the highest. second. a “big wrist” (大腕da-wan) is a “big-brand shining star” (大牌明星da-pai ming-xing) in acting or singing who has “a big name” (名气大ming-qi da). Various instances of nonverbal manifestation of SUCCESSFUL IS BIG can be found in daily life. the primary metaphor SUCCESSFUL IS BIG. with the champion getting the “biggest” or “largest” amount of money on a “fattest” check. and third place winners of an event are distinguished by the height of the platforms on which they receive their medals or trophies: i. For instance. In Chinese. IMPORTANT IS CENTRAL).140 Ning Yu Chinese civilization. 2002 The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. 1–28. Forceville. New Review of Film and Television Studies 4: 241–261. Antonio 2000b Introduction: The cognitive theory of metaphor and metonymy. Barcelona. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: Agendas for research. 2004 Review of Fauconnier and Turner (2002). and Understanding. René Dirven and Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez (eds. Gitte Kristiansen. In Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics. 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Cognitive Linguistics 14: 141–165. Klaus-Uwe. 1990 From Etymology to Pragmatics: Metaphorical and Cultural Aspects of Semantic Structure. Princeton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Turner. Palmer (eds. and Language: Conceptualizations of Internal Body Organs across Cultures and Languages. Farzad Sharifian. . III Multimodal Metaphor in Political Cartoons . . The main claim underlying this chapter is that the comprehension of verbal and visual metaphors involves similar mental procedures. it is claimed that the comprehension of verbal. mainly with a verbal-visual interface of source and/or target. ad hoc pointers.” as proposed by Sperber and Wilson 1995 [1986]). Introduction In this chapter. Keywords: Relevance theory. Although the perception of images differs from linguistic decoding. ad hoc concepts. When multimodality is analyzed in metaphors. In this chapter. the verbal and visual inputs are wrongly treated as different phenomena demanding different interpretive strategies when searching for a metaphoric interpretation. but also with reference to cognitive linguistics where appropriate. visual metaphor comprehension is compared to verbal metaphor comprehension and analyzed mainly from a cognitive pragmatics point of view (specifically within “relevance theory. reaching an interpretation of metaphors entails similar adjustments of conceptual information of texts and images and multimodal combinations. on the contrary. visual and multimodal metaphors involves similar mental procedures. reaching an interpretation of visual metaphors also entails an adjustment . regardless of the modal quality of the input. While the perception of images is obviously different from linguistic decoding. visual-conceptual interface 1.Chapter 7 Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor: A unified account Francisco Yus Abstract Multimodal metaphors are those “whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” (Forceville 2006: 384/this volume). conceptual upload. as will be illustrated below with several Spanish political cartoons by El Roto. which has to be adjusted inferentially in the same way as in verbal metaphors. that “bread” and . in this chapter it will be argued that both types of metaphor (and also multimodal metaphors with combinations of text and image) are “decoded” by specialized mental modules. reference resolutions. as defined by Forceville.148 Francisco Yus of conceptual information – a stage during comprehension that will be called conceptual upload – in the same way as verbal metaphors. For instance. initially. enrichments. By contrast. Relevance theory and ad hoc concept formation Sperber and Wilson’s (1995 [1986]) relevance theory (henceforth RT) predicts that human comprehension follows two stages: i. 2. no jam. However. whose interpretation involves the hearer’s inferential adjustment of the concept that the speaker encodes in order to obtain the speaker’s intended interpretation. test interpretive hypotheses (disambiguations. in many studies of multimodality visual and verbal metaphors are wrongly treated as different phenomena. Following a path of least effort. as the chapters in this book demonstrate. an advertisement by London Transport quoted in Tanaka (1994) only contained the text “Less bread.” The reader of this ad will follow a path of least effort and conclude. Besides. it follows from my central thesis in this chapter that the model presented here is capable of accommodating multimodal metaphors in the same way as metaphors with only verbal or only visual inputs. Stop when the interpretation satisfies the current expectation of relevance. In this sense. visual metaphors can be arranged on a scale depending on the gap existing between the prototypical referent of the image and the cartoonist’s intended referent. the cartoons analyzed in this chapter contain metaphors of a pictorial/visual nature. Therefore. are “metaphors whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” (Forceville 2006: 384). ii. although it is not denied that the combination of visual and verbal inputs in multimodal metaphors can indeed generate interesting interpretive outcomes. implicatures) in order of accessibility. which deliver schematic information that has to be enriched inferentially in order to obtain the intended interpretation. whereas multimodal metaphors. The first one is in charge of the language module of the mind (Fodor 1983). RT predicts two clear-cut phases during interpretation: one of decoding and one of inference. This does not mean that visual metaphors do not require a great deal of background knowledge for their satisfactory interpretation. The metaphors used in cartoons. Specifically. billboards or magazines. Similarly. according to which “the same neural mechanisms used in perception and bodily movement play a role in all forms of conceptualization. including the creation of lexical fields and abstract reasoning” (Ruiz de Mendoza 2005: 36). and this will make the interpretation of metaphors easier at subsequent stages in discourse. such as the ones analyzed in this chapter. but takes place against a context of previous utterances whose interpretation (stored in the short-term memory) works as a background against which new information is processed. that bread is a colloquial word for “money” and jam refers to “traffic jams. This “cumulative” background context of previous utterances in the conversation is normally absent in the processing of visual metaphors. For example.” the reader will continue testing interpretive hypotheses concluding. Peñamarín 1996. Cognitive linguistics has also drawn attention to the role of context for the right comprehension of metaphors. quoted in Tendahl and Gibbs 2008: 1843). are often related to recent news-worthy events whose knowledge is essential to get the right extent of the metaphoric mappings (cf. for RT. and how they are used to evoke mental representations” (Coulson. but faced with the incongruity between “food” and the advertised “transport company. for Conceptual Metaphor Theory. conceptual blending theory stresses the role of context in metaphor comprehension: “because cognitive activity mediates the relationship between words and the world. By contrast.” The reader will now be satisfied at this interpretation and stop processing here. Forceville 2005). without this readily available “short-term memory store” of information. . at a second stage. and hence the viewers1 have to interpret them from scratch. Schilperoord and Maes this volume. comprehension does not normally start in a communicative vacuum. El Refaie this volume. which apprehends a linguistic sequence and yields a de-contextualized but grammatical “logical form” which has to be enriched in order to be meaningful. cognitive linguistics disregards modularity in favor of what is called the embodied-mind hypothesis. which are inserted in media discourses such as newspapers. metaphors may be activated as part of the hearer’s understanding of context. the study of meaning is the study of how words arise in the context of human activity.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 149 “jam” have to do with food. For example. Pilkington 2000). The cinema is some distance from here. Consider. It’s too wide. This task often involves an adjustment of the conceptual information encoded. at which point processing stops. b. not just the adjustment of concepts regarding metaphor comprehension. This is applicable to almost every concept. skins and cats respectively. despite the apparent differences (see El Refaie 2003: 85–90). The sofa is soft. Baby skin is soft. the ones actually uttered: (1) (2) a. the examples provided in (3) below (Vega-Moreno 2004: 317): (3) a. this model of utterance interpretation is applicable to visual and multimodal metaphor comprehension in the same way as to verbal metaphor comprehension. The cinema is too far to go walking. the hearer’s mind undertakes an inferential process of mutual parallel adjustment of explicit content. In my opinion. As pointed out above. and SOFT***. that is. b. but only clues that help the hearer access the speaker’s thoughts.2 . c. SOFT**. inevitably there is a greater or lesser amount of adjustment of encoded concepts needed in order to grasp the speaker’s intended interpretation. and following a relevance-seeking criterion. Secondly. a. adjust into more relevant ad hoc concepts SOFT*. interpretation involves the creation of ad hoc concepts during interpretation (see Carston 2002. that is. The hearer of (1a-c) is expected to adjust the encoded concept “soft” into a more appropriate and contextualized type of softness that specifically applies to sofas. The cat is soft. implicatures and context (including the information from preceding utterances) until a satisfactory interpretation is achieved. Since we store many more concepts in our mind than words to encode them. language does not encode thoughts.150 Francisco Yus For RT. b. there is always a greater or lesser informational gap between what the speaker says (what is encoded) and what the speaker intends to communicate with the utterance. which are often more complex than the literal meaning encoded by the utterances. for instance. The table that I bought yesterday is too wide to go through the door. the (b) versions of the following utterances are closer to the thoughts that the speaker intended to communicate with them than the schematic (and communicatively useless) (a) versions. b. . Briefly. verbal metaphor comprehension also involves a pragmatic adjustment (broadening. three main types of ad hoc concepts are proposed for verbal metaphors: (a) Ad hoc concepts which contain qualities which are applicable to all the prototypical referents of the encoded concepts and also to a range of other referents. The fish attacked some people near here (FISH* = dangerous fish. It will take some time to fix the car (SOME TIME* = longer than it usually takes). c. cannot look after himself. Tendahl and Gibbs 2008). (5) Within RT. as such.3 These processes are illustrated in (4) and (5) respectively: (4) a.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 151 Ad hoc concepts can be formed either by a process of narrowing of the encoded concept (what the hearer interprets is more specific than the encoded concept) or a process of broadening of the encoded concept (the hearer interprets more general or broader information than that encoded). their conceptual organization and the inference patterns involved in their creation.. as in (6) below: (6) A. The steak is raw (RAW* = undercooked). b. but having some of his/her qualities). These are qualities applicable to all babies (as prototypical referents) and also to some adults such as the speaker’s boyfriend). c. and RT suggests a different approach to metaphor analysis than does cognitive linguistics. Because he is a baby. the former is more interested in the role of metaphor for communication and hence in the role of context favoring a certain adjustment of concepts. the accounts are not mutually exclusive (see Ruiz de Mendoza and Pérez Hernández 2003. But. e. or both simultaneously).g. can’t do things alone. a. She is a genius! (GENIUS* = not literally a genius. (BABY* denotes a person who cannot be independent. Why does your boyfriend want you to go with him everywhere? B. Ruiz de Mendoza 2005. The boy has a temperature (TEMPERATURE* = higher temperature than normal). In Vega-Moreno (2004: 208). sharks). all of them resulting from a relevance-seeking procedure. narrowing. It was quiet in the street last night (QUIET* = with very little noise). while the latter mainly focuses on the cognitive motivation for certain metaphors. etc. these three cases are not only inherent to verbal metaphor comprehension. Wilson and Carston 2006). Indurkhya. He is an iron bar. More generally. etc. Dave has always been the prince of the house. qualities which are not found in iron bars as prototypical referents). in a similar way and with the necessary adjustments.4 I will follow an interesting proposal by Vega-Moreno (2004) within a relevance-theoretic point of view. as in (7) below: (7) Being the only boy. basically through what will be called stable versus innovative conceptual upload. These emergent properties might appear to be found only in the interpretation of verbal metaphors but. Many explanations have been suggested for the creation of these emergent properties. I will show to what extent conceptual assessment is involved in visual metaphor comprehension. and there is an inherent claim in this proposal: that combinations of text and image in multimodal metaphors de- . (c) Ad hoc concepts which contain qualities which are applicable to none of the prototypical referents of the encoded concepts but are applied to other referents. but are also found in the processing of visual metaphors. In this sense. and Scart 2000. and I will argue that this proposal is applicable. (IRON BAR* denotes people who are difficult to convince. Comparisons with verbal metaphor comprehension will be made where necessary. In my opinion. (PRINCE* denotes a subset of princes who are spoilt and do as they please. as will be argued below. they are also frequent in visual metaphor comprehension (cf. to the processing of emergent properties in visual or multimodal metaphors.. Yus 2003a) and in any multimodal combination of text and image.152 Francisco Yus (b) Ad hoc concepts which contain qualities which are applicable to some of the prototypical referents of the encoded concepts and also to a range of other referents. The analysis will be divided into several steps that the reader is expected to go through during the interpretation of a visual metaphor. as well as a set of young boys who are not princes but are spoilt and do as they please). persuade. as in the utterance quoted in (8): (8) I tried to persuade him to change the essay topic but there was no way. case (c) is interesting because it gives rise to the so-called emergent features or emergent properties which apparently do not belong to the target domain of the metaphor but seem to emerge during comprehension (Gineste. these mental modules get activated automatically when the appropriate type of input reaches them. the main difference being the way in which the input is transferred to the central inferential processor..e. The language module and the perceptual module share similar properties: (a) they are fast and automatic (i. it also has to make choices as to what visual information it is actually processing. This context-free information is then enriched inferentially in order to obtain a fully satisfactory (i. (b) they are domain-specific (both modules are only activated by a specific type of input). these qualities of modules do not entail that no choices are ever made during this phase of verbal or visual decoding. they are not “learned” and possess an evolutionary quality). by identifying . which sends a de-contextualized string of linguistic information to the central processor in order to be enriched inferentially into a fully contextualized (and optimally relevant) interpretation that supposedly matches the speaker’s intended one. (c) they are part of our genetic endowment (i. following Fodor’s (1983) theory of the modularity of mind.. it has been demonstrated that although the perceptual module seems to engage in a one-to-one matching between object and referent. a contextfree decoding of a linguistic string by the language module. the language module often has to choose between two possible logical forms for the same linguistic string. In short. Stages in visual metaphor comprehension: A proposal 3. and (d) they have a uniform path of development (unfolding) across individuals and cultures. and they are automatically activated by the appropriate type of input: “linguistic” and “visual” respectively). they start by perceiving the image. that is. in a more linear way in texts).e. However. they are capable of a high-speed transference of information.e. 3. Variations are only found in the way schematic information is obtained by mental modules (in a more holistic way in pictures. Specifically.5 In the same way. RT predicts.. Visual information. For instance.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 153 mand similar interpretive procedures involving conceptual adjustment of encoded information. is decoded by another module: the perceptual module. when readers interpret a visual metaphor.1. and both yield de-contextualized pieces of evidence of the sender’s intention to communicate some information. Perception: Visual versus verbal My claim is that processing visual metaphors does not differ substantially from processing verbal metaphors. relevant) interpretation of the verbal or visual input. on the other hand. as the number of visual features of the image which belong to the prototypical visual referent increases and its prototypical visual syntax fits stored schemas. Hence. on a mat. McMahon 2003: 266). (b) Prototypical visual syntax: other items typically associated with another object depicted in an image. cat on a branch. a sort of “visual schema” that precedes and influences actual perception (cf. playing with wool…). the prototypical referent of an image of a cat would contain visual attributes that are stored as typical of cats (type of hair. processing is faster if the visual arrangement of objects in the image fits our storage of prototypical visual syntax for these objects. as it were.” we will expect to find visual representations of this animal in specific scenarios with objects forming a prototypical visual syntax regarding its representation (e. For instance. paws…) and which allows for an easy visual identification. generating socalled scales of iconicity. ears. processing moves one step beyond into a more conscious stage of interpretation. In the above “cat example. This is done through a subconscious or sub-attentive comparison with previously stored information on the visual attributes of the object or objects depicted (see McMahon 2003. colors. and even influencing the recognition of the object depicted in the image. loaded with inferential activity (see below). In general. but there can be other images containing less prototypical features. whiskers.8 The perceptual module draws on a conceptual repertoire that contains a range of visual referents and is subject to constant revision and updating through subsequent visual perceptions of similar images. In general.6 This mental storage of prototypical referents that we possess is made up of two basic types of information which undergo a constant process of updating and stabilization through subsequent visual perceptions: (a) Prototypical visual referent: encyclopedic entry containing visual elements and attributes that an item depicted in an image is typically made of. When the image is supposed to be intentionally communicated to the readers beyond a simple perceptual recognition. It is bottom-up because the reader constructs and integrates the prototypical visual referents from the available visual elements (as claimed by Gestalt theory). each perception of the . Besides.154 Francisco Yus the visual input.. Perception is never isolated.7 Highly iconic images are normally filled with features fitting the prototypical visual referent of the image that the reader possesses. But at the same time it is top-down because readers test the visual input against their mental storage of prototypical visual referents. and past exposure to objects constrains future perceptions (Villafañe and Mínguez 1996: 100). the effort involved in its processing will decrease accordingly. visual perception shares a bottom-up and a top-down quality. anticipating. Kriegel 2004).g. and hence they will not be cognitively satisfied at a purely denotative level. the key to a shift from a purely denotative interpretation of the image. visual metaphors are integrated in other discourses (images in advertisements. there may be visual ambiguity. often subattentive. This idea entails an increased mental effort in moving beyond a sub-attentive visual perception into an effort-demanding inferential activity in search of the right metaphoric mapping from what we can label “the source image” to what we can call “the target image.2. lies in the detection of an incongruity that turns up between the activation of the stored prototypical visual referents during perception and the actual visual configuration of the image or images making up the visual metaphor (Forceville 1996: 115). that is. alerts the reader towards a connotative interpretation. loaded with inferential processing. often a metaphorical one. in which a metaphoric interpretation of the image is intended but a purely denotative interpretation is also valid. in the sense that an ad hoc visual arrangement or configuration created by the author with specific communicative purposes points towards a connotative interpretation.” Of course.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 155 physical object or picture to which the referent is associated helps the reader to update the prototypical referent that was created when the reader first perceived it. In my opinion. In these cases. Ad hoc pointers The previous section on visual perception is important to understand why certain images are interpreted metaphorically. Incidentally. this volume). to a connotative metaphoric interpretation. it is the readers’ search for an optimally relevant interpretation that will guide them beyond a purely denotative interpretation. . This kind of incongruity has been labeled ad hoc pointer (Yus 2005). as we enter this inferential phase. In general. non-denotative information. occasions on which there is no apparent “ad hoc pointer” and hence the metaphoric interpretation may not be accessed. cartoons in the press) and the readers know that these images are intended to communicate specific. 3. the reader takes the responsibility of grasping the intended metaphoric interpretation (or his/her own personal interpretation) and the author of the image can only hope that the reader will be able to select the appropriate encyclopedic features associated with the visual referents of the images and infer which are the ones involved in the metaphoric interpretation (El Refaie 2003: 81. In short. which are not always clearly distinguishable.. Is the target image supposed to be like the source image? Is it opposed to the source image? (cf. 2. At this stage. This implies that it is of utmost importance to determine whether the author intends the most accessible referents of the images to undergo metaphoric processing or whether the intended sources of metaphor have to be found elsewhere. Visual-conceptual interface Upon detecting the ad hoc pointer. the reader of the image(s) enters another stage in interpretation. some mental effort has to be devoted to identifying the source and target images in the first place. Often both images are present in the picture (either fused together or separated) but sometimes one of them – normally the source image – is absent. the readers would ask themselves questions such as the following: 1. which I will call visual-conceptual interface. mostly of a stereotypical quality. What kind of visual arrangement is there between the images? The reader is also expected to infer what relationship holds between the previously identified source image and target image. Which are the two images related metaphorically? Are both present in the picture? Visual metaphor involves a mapping of information transferred from one image to another. or one of the images is absent and is only accessible through an inferential operation regarding the encyclopedic information on its prototypical referent. metaphoric) interpretation of the image. the reader aiming at an optimally relevant interpretation has to raise a number of preliminary hypotheses concerning the intended relationship that holds between the depicted images and the encyclopedic (conceptual) information stored about the referents of these images.e. Are the prototypical encyclopedic referents of the images themselves the ones that are going to undergo inferential adjustment in order to obtain a metaphoric interpretation or do the images stand for a different encyclopedic referent? I believe that visual metaphor comprehension. also involves an access to and adjustment of conceptual information stored in or attached to the encyclopedic prototypical referents of the image or images depicted. there are different degrees of mental effort involved in processing visual metaphors depending on whether both the source image and the target image are depicted in a metaphoric visual configuration. inbetween a sub-attentive perception of the images and a fully inferential extraction of a relevant connotative (i.156 Francisco Yus 3. This is the case of . even when both images are present. At the same time.3. Phillips and McQuarrie 2004. in a similar way to verbal metaphor comprehension.) 3. Therefore. which we have called source image and target image respectively. whereas in (10). El País. a syringe is depicted with a television tower instead of the needle.” which is the intended target domain. For instance. and they will probably infer. in a cartoon by El Roto (figure 1). Metaphor: BUILDINGS ARE RUBBISH (El Roto. The cartoon also includes the text “la gran droga” (the big drug). (9) (10) Images depicted: Lorry throwing buildings into a garbage dump. Figure 1. Using the cognitive linguistics terminology that distinguishes source-in-target metonymies and . Similarly. which works as an anchorage (in Barthes’ 1977 sense) of the image facilitating the metonymic relationship between syringes and drugs in general. Metaphor: CULTURE IS A PAPER SERVIETTE (photograph by Chema Madoz). 6 June 2003. the visual referent of “book page” is not expected as target domain. and that “television tower” stands metonymically for television in general as a mass medium.9 The readers’ search for relevance will lead them to dismiss the conceptual features of the prototypical referents of “syringe” and “television tower” as the ones undergoing metaphoric assessment. and the conceptual features of “drugs” and “television” are the intended source and target of this visual metaphor.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 157 images that stand metonymically for other referents. in the visual metaphor described in (9). Images depicted: A page of a book as a paper serviette inside a dispenser. An incongruity in the visual syntax of the image works as an ad hoc pointer alerting the readers to a metaphoric interpretation. since it stands for “culture in general. Cartoon by El Roto. instead. that “syringe” stands metonymically for drugs in general. 29–6-2003). El País. it is the prototypical referent of the image “buildings” that works as target domain for metaphoric mapping. or the referents to which these images point metonymically. encounter examples of source-in-source metonymy and/or target-in-target metonymy between prototypical referents depiced and the intended referents. the reader’s search for relevance will lead to a metaphoric interpretation and to a selection of features which can be mapped from the source image to the target image. a mental procedure which can be called ad hoc choice of image-associated conceptual features. 3. the reader will compute conceptual features stored in the encyclopedic information of the intended referents of the images (either the prototypical referents of these images themselves. In this sense. Sometimes this assessment of possible ways in which the images can be related does not result in any metaphorical outcome despite the visual incongruity. as commented upon above) and will try to find the ones that can be applied to the other image. fully inferential phase of interpretation). in this case we would. because the reader is unable or unwilling to find any metaphoric connections between these images. though. Conceptual upload The ad hoc pointer and the preparatory phase of visual-conceptual interface lead to a fully inferential stage in the processing of the image or images. instead.158 Francisco Yus target-in-source metonymies (Ruiz de Mendoza and Díez Velasco 2002). and following a relevance-oriented path of accessibility. Specifically in figure 1. two possible types of conceptual upload can be identified: . which will be called conceptual upload. The reader has now entered a fully inferential stage that takes either the information from the verbal utterance or the identified visual images as blueprints or clues for an optimal metaphoric interpretation. On other occasions. This is a similar inferential activity to the one intended to obtain metaphoric mappings in verbal and multimodal metaphors. Since this stage is centered upon the inferential assessment and adjustment of conceptual information attached to the prototypical encyclopedic referents of the images (or the referents intended through metonymy). both the source image (tower) and the target image (syringe) stand metonymically for the actual source and target referents undergoing metaphoric interpretation (television/drugs). At this stage of conceptual upload.4. the distinction between visual and verbal input to metaphoric interpretation no longer matters (we are now at a cognitive. which is the result of broadening the prototypical concept “rubbish” in order to cover the unusual referent “buildings” of the target image.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 159 (1) Stable conceptual upload of image-associated conceptual features takes place when interpreting the visual metaphor involves an adjustment of one or several features belonging to the prototypical encyclopedic referent of the image depicted. one or several of the features of the prototypical encyclopedic referent “rubbish” (for example “being useless. as it were. In this case. crucially. an ad hoc CONCEPT* is created and applied to the target image. The maker of a visual metaphor fitting this type will expect all the readers to have a similar store of conceptual information filling up the prototypical referent of the image or images depicted. The types 1 and 2 of ad hoc concept formation that were introduced in section 1 above for verbal metaphors would belong to this type of conceptual upload: Type 1. The harming quality of breaking waves can be found in some (but not all) of . One or several conceptual features of the prototypical encyclopedic referent of the source image that the author intends the reader to apply to the target image can be found in some but not all of the prototypical encyclopedic referents represented in the source image (or referred to by this image). Type 2. The author probably intends to communicate metaphorically that the urge to build houses in Spain (the construction wave or construction bubble) will eventually break (or burst) and harm us in the same way as the huge wave is about to break on the surfer and probably harm him as well. its denotation to include the referent associated with the target image. in another cartoon by El Roto (figure 2) the reader can see a man on a surfboard sliding on a huge wave. by means of a process of conceptual broadening. When one or several conceptual features of the prototypical encyclopedic referent associated with the source image that the author intends the reader to apply to the target image can be found in all the prototypical referents represented in the source image.” “having no quality. Again. in the aforementioned cartoon by El Roto depicting a lorry throwing buildings into a huge garbage dump. These conceptual features form an ad hoc concept RUBBISH*. For instance.) are mapped onto the encyclopedic referent “buildings” associated with the target image. but the wave is made of buildings. in this type of conceptual upload the encyclopedic feature of the referent associated with the source image maintains its conceptual stability. For example.” etc. and this unusual wave looks as if it is about to break on the surfer. a process of conceptual broadening is required so that an ad hoc CONCEPT* is created. and the reader only has to broaden. But. instead of water. Cartoon by El Roto. This kind of conceptual upload fits the third type of ad hoc concept construction introduced in section 1 above for verbal metaphors. this mental operation entails the adjustment of one or several of these features and. Inevitably. in the same way as do emergent properties in verbal metaphors. specifically only those waves which are big enough to break onto surfers and harm them. No conceptual features that the author intends the reader to apply to the referent associated with the target image seem to be found in the prototypical encyclopedic referent associated with the source image. In fact. Unlike cases 1 and 2 above. (2) Innovative conceptual upload of image-associated conceptual features. in which the features were minimally adjusted in order to include the new referent but maintained their conceptual quality. the resulting emergent properties are not directly applicable to the target. The reader will consider encyclopedic features not directly applicable to the referent of the target image. and a new ad hoc concept WAVE* is created as a result of an adjustment (broadening) in order to fit the new encyclopedic referent “construction bubble” of the target image. These conceptual features are not stabilized in the prototypical referents but arise. El País.160 Francisco Yus the prototypical encyclopedic referents of the image depicted. as a consequence. 19 October 2003. and hence a deep process of adjustment is . Figure 2. they will be deprived of their conceptual stability when attributed to the referent associated with the target image. in this third case a substantial adjustment of the features is required and only by losing their stability can they be applied to the new referent. as part of the reader’s relevance-seeking interpretation procedure. though. undermining people’s feelings and people’s thoughts. another cartoon by El Roto (El País.g. in any multimodal combination of text and image. but also includes the act of despising. rejecting. in principle. In the metaphor THE BOOK IS A BALL. As will be seen in section 4. Cognitive linguistics would explain this metaphor by claiming that there is an underlying conceptual metaphor THE MIND IS A MACHINE. For example. and hence this metaphoric quality of the boss emerges during interpretation. a type of obstacle. none of the features of the prototypical referent “ball” seems to be applicable to the referent “book” of the target image. 9 June 2002) depicts a goal keeper clearing a book (instead of the expected ball) with his fists. our knowledge of bulldozers does not include information about them being stubborn or disrespectful. in the same way as are emergent properties that arise in case 3 of conceptual adjustment during verbal metaphor comprehension. and will involve more inferential effort than a simple broadening of one or several features of the prototypical encyclopedic referent of the source image in order to obtain an ad hoc concept BALL*. In a nutshell.10 For RT. as a starting point. an ad hoc concept REMOVE OBSTACLES IN THE WAY* is created with an adjustment which not only applies to machines. Vega-Moreno (2004: 318f) exemplifies this possible explanation of emergent properties with the verbal metaphor communicated in (11) below: (11) Jane: “I know I have to speak to my boss but I am afraid of him. the hearer can select. football makes people reject books” or “football stops people from getting real culture” – if “book” stands metonymically for “culture”) will emerge during the processing of the referents of the images. . He is such a bulldozer!” In this metaphor. Whatever metaphoric interpretation the reader chooses (e. These are not directly applicable to the boss (as it would be in stability-preserving cases 1 and 2 of ad hoc concept formation). the hearer creates an ad hoc concept BULLDOZER* which involves a radical adjustment of its denotation so that it also includes a kind of removal.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 161 required. In other words.. the assumptions that bulldozers are machines and are used to remove obstacles in their way. More inferential activity will have to be devoted to adjusting some feature(s) that belong to the prototypical encyclopedic referent.2 below. and a range of situations that warrant the derivation of a relevant metaphoric interpretation. there is a similar conceptual adjustment in the case of type-three visual metaphors and. The continents of the earth are also identified.162 Francisco Yus 4. in which a number of hypotheses are made and the so-called prototypical visual referents of the images (already dealt with by the perceptual module) are contrasted with the parallel prototypical encyclopedic referents of these images. El País. The reader enters a visual-conceptual interface. 23 June 2002. (b) the earth is the target image (a likely conclusion obtained by the reader in a relevance- . The reader finds figure 3 in a newspaper and infers that its author intends to communicate some information by means of this wordless cartoon. Visual metaphor comprehension: Some examples 4. Cartoon by El Roto. 3. An incongruity arises during the perception of the elements of the image. and should include the following conclusions: (a) the saucepan is the source image. These are superimposed on the saucepan.1 Examples of visual metaphor comprehension involving stable conceptual upload Figure 3. 2. 4. The earth and a saucepan cannot be fused in one image. He perceives the iconic signs of the cartoon by a bottom-up and topdown matching with previously stored prototypical visual referents of the item(s) depicted. (a) THE EARTH IS A SAUCEPAN (figure 3) 1. The reader’s hypotheses at this stage will prepare the ground for a fully inferential stage of visual metaphor comprehension. A saucepan is identified. There is an anomalous visual arrangement regarding the mental storage prototypical combinations of objects depicted together (what above was labeled “visual syntax” of the image) that works as an ad hoc pointer that alerts the reader to an intended metaphoric interpretation beyond the simple depiction and perception of the drawing in the cartoon. The reader starts computing assumptions in order of accessibility following a relevance-guided procedure. there was a debate on the Kyoto protocol and whether Japan and Australia would sign it (i. In this case. at the time the cartoon was published. once the prototypical visual referents have been perceived. in RT terms). this could perhaps be a case of ontological metaphor in Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) terminology. as above. in which a number of hypotheses are made concerning the encyclopedic referents of the images.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 163 seeking procedure). This visual metaphor would fit case 1 of ad hoc concept formation. and (d) these are the prototypical referents intended by the author. if this information is manifest to him/her. It would also fit Ruiz de Mendoza’s (1998) one-correspondence metaphor. undergoes a minimal adjustment via broadening).” since the earth. 5. this information will influence both the accessibility to the visual metaphor and the mental effort devoted to its processing. One of the encyclopedic features of the prototypical encyclopedic referent SAUCEPAN seems to be directly applicable to the earth: “heats up gradually. This involves the creation of an ad hoc concept SAUCEPAN* whose quality “heats up gradually” remains relatively stable in the metaphoric process (i. again preparing . 7. The reader enters a visual-conceptual interface.. Cartoons are a good example of a medium in which current news-worthy events play a part in the generation of implicated conclusions. 6. due to global warming and the so-called “greenhouse effect” is also heating up gradually. in which the intended conceptual feature is found in all the prototypical referents depicted by the image plus a number of other entities included through broadening. the images of the earth and the saucepan do not stand metonymically for other referents. (c) the encyclopedic referent EARTH has qualities of the encyclopedic referent SAUCEPAN. 3.e. if the reader knows about the fact that. This new concept is applicable to all saucepans and also metaphorically to the new encyclopedic referent EARTH.. since in this case an inherent quality of saucepans is attributed to the target image. beginning with the ones which belong to the prototypical encyclopedic referent depicted in the source image: SAUCEPAN. and 2.e. The presence of SAUCEPAN* in what can be called the explicit content of the referents attached to the items depicted in the cartoon warrants the derivation of a number of possible implicated conclusions. (b) THE BALLOT BOX IS A DICE (figure 4) Steps 1. since in this case only one correspondence between the source and the target is exploited. In this sense. In this more unlikely case. 4. beginning with the ones which belong to the prototypical encyclopedic metonymic referent of the source image: GAMBLING.164 Francisco Yus the ground for a fully inferential stage. Some conclusions should be derived: (a) the dice is the source image. However. The reader starts computing assumptions in order of accessibility following a relevance-guided procedure. we may also hypothesize that since there is also a kind of gambling that generates a wholly predictable outcome (for instance gambling involving the use of loaded dice which always produce the desired result) in this case not all the referents for image of a dice would contain this quality. the reader would be expected to create an ad hoc concept GAMBLING* whose feature “would involve an unpredictable outcome” applicable to most (but not all) kinds of gambling and also to other unpredictabil- . Cartoon by El Roto. but GAMBLING). if we consider that all dice involve unpredictability. 19 February 2005. One of the encyclopedic features of the prototypical referent “gambling” seems to be directly applicable to political elections: “involves an unpredictable outcome. (b) the dice stands metonymically for “gambling with dice” and more generally for “all types of gambling” (and hence the encyclopedic referent intended by the author to undergo metaphoric transference is not DICE. El País. 5.” Strictly speaking. (c) the ballot box is the target image (facilitated by the reader’s background knowledge about the fact that the cartoon was published in a time of political elections). but POLITICAL ELECTIONS in general or more specifically the ones taking place in the near future). (d) the ballot box is in a metonymic relationship to “political elections” (and hence the referent intended by the author to undergo metaphoric transference is not BALLOT BOX. Figure 4. this cartoon should be included in type 1. (e) the political elections have qualities of gambling. Consequently. 6. starting with the ones listed in the prototypical encyclopedic referent made accessible by the source image: SHARK. The presence of GAMBLING* in what can be called the explicit content of the image depicted in the cartoon warrants the derivation of a number of possible implicated conclusions. would also apply here. this visual metaphor would now fit case 2 of ad hoc concept formation during visual metaphor comprehension. in which a number of questions are asked regarding the relationship between the images depicted (already obtained via perception) and the encyclopedic information attached to them.. although intuitively the reader can feel that the intended interpretation has to do with some form of aggressiveness.e.2.. (e) the player’s skill acquires qualities of a shark (aggressiveness. Example of visual metaphor comprehension involving innovative conceptual upload (a) THE TENNIS RACKET IS A SHARK’S JAW Phillips and McQuarrie (2004: 123) reproduce an advertisement for a tennis racket in which a shark’s jaw has been superimposed on a racket frame. The reader then starts computing assumptions in order of accessibility following a relevance-guided procedure. fearful attack…). 4.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 165 ity-loaded events such as political elections. (d) the racket stands metonymically for THE PLAYER’S SKILL. 5. the unpredictability of Spanish elections) and other weakly implicated (e.. The reader then enters the so-called visual-conceptual interface. The unusual fusion of images and the anomalous visual syntax (i. How would the audience process this ad? Basically steps 1 to 3. 6. (c) the jaw stands metonymically for SHARKS in general.g. some strongly implicated (e. Among others.g. some conclusions that the reader would be expected to derive are these: (a) the jaw is the source image. so that it is eventually purchased). as proposed for the previous examples. 4. the more emotion-connoted implication that no Spanish party is trustworthy). (b) the racket is the target image (a conclusion facilitated by the context of the advertisement. Again. there is nothing in the . bringing together visual elements – racket and jaw – which are not stored as part of the prototypical arrangement of objects such image can normally be made of or surrounded by) work as an ad hoc pointer to a non-denotative interpretation of the images. in which it is made clear that the author of the ad intends to characterize the racket in some way. the metaphor-seeking conceptual assessment can indeed be speeded up by the fact that a particular feature of the prototypical encyclopedic referent of the source image has been made prominent by previous use through verbal means. in Lakoff and Johnson’s 1980 terminology). In a way. it is worth commenting that many visual metaphors are original in the way they create a metaphoric link through an anomalous visual arrangement. Other features such as the way sharks “chase” and “attack” their preys may also be adjusted (depending on the reader’s willingness to devote additional mental resources to this task). as a stereotypical feature of sharks. 8. These adjustments are necessary in order to draw the implicated conclusion that the user of this racket will play with an unusual degree of aggressiveness. 7. In this sense. so the reader has to adjust (broaden) the quality AGGRESSIVE* that belongs to SHARK* so that it also covers the tennis players’ skill. it would also be labeled as ontological metaphor. As above. 5. leading to the ad hoc concepts CHASE* and ATTACK*. while others seem to include an anchorage of previously used verbal metaphors which are simply transferred to a visual medium and were probably stored previously as conventionalized metaphors.” These are possible constituents of the ad hoc concept SHARK* but not directly applicable to playing skill. Verbal before visual or vice versa? From the examples analyzed in the previous section. the adjusted concepts warrant the derivation of a number of possible implicated conclusions. The readers then assess qualities of the encyclopedic referent associated with the source image and will adjust their denotation drastically in order to fit not only the aggressiveness of an animal. and therefore all the eventual transference of information will inevitably involve “emergent properties” arising in the relevance-guided comprehension procedure. These qualities include the information that “sharks are aggressive animals. or even facilitated by the fact that the visual metaphor only exists because there is an underlying verbal one. In these cases. we can conclude that interpreting visual metaphors also involves a great deal of conceptual upload and adjustment following a criterion guided by a search for relevance.166 Francisco Yus behavior of sharks that can be directly applicable to a tennis player’s skill (although. this is the counterpart of . but also the aggressiveness of a tennis player. Whatever conceptual information ends up being applied to the encyclopedic referent associated with the target image will involve a loss in the stability of the storage of this information. it comes as no surprise that so many metaphors involve the mediation of visual sensory information contained in image schemas (see Lakoff 1987). (d) the cartoonist re-visualizes the information contained in the metaphor. (c) the metaphor ends up becoming conventionalized and loses its sensory power (people stop seeing an abyss when uttering the metaphor). This metaphor. 6. An example is a cartoon drawn by El Roto (El País. (b) a metaphor THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH IS AN ABYSS is created containing visual sensory information. and with a big gap between the North and the South hemispheres. forcing the reader to see the sensory qualities of the image schema that had been lost due to conventionalization. There are people trying to jump from the Southern hemisphere onto the Northern one but they inevitably fall into the huge gap. (b) A metaphor is created that contains a schema as a referent.Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 167 the well-studied fact that verbal metaphors also draw on a conceptual repertoire of visual sensory schemas which aid in the metaphoric attribution. an image is much more effective (i.. vivid) than the range of coded options available to communicate a thought. or involve what can be called re-visualization of conventionalized verbal metaphors. forcing the reader to re-incorporate into its processing all the sensory vividness that the metaphor had already lost. to the extent that these images often end up becoming conventionalized in the language and deprived of their sensory metaphoric power.e. which is extensively used by cartoonists. This schema contains visual sensory information.11 Therefore. (d) The cartoonist takes this conventionalized metaphor and re-visualizes it. which can be described as “there is an abyss between the North and the South.” reproduces the aforementioned steps: (a) the sensory information of an abyss is more vivid than other coded options to communicate depth and distance between A and B. Several steps are involved in the comprehension of the cartoons that fit this quality: (a) initially. Both kinds of metaphor are “decoded” by a specialized mental module (Fodor 1983) which delivers schematic information that has to be enriched inferentially in order to obtain the intended interpretation (an . 15 April 1996) depicting the earth split into two parts. as it were.12 (c) Repeated use of the metaphor makes it lose its sensory vividness and it ends up becoming conventionalized and hence people stop regarding it as a metaphor. Concluding remarks Interpreting visual metaphors does not differ substantially from verbal metaphor comprehension. 3. the mode in which the reader is presented with the coded information that has to be adjusted inferentially plays a major role in the quantity and quality of metaphoric conclusions derived. Normally. Utterances. The de-contextualized perception of images is not relevant enough (some incongruity in the image or images works as an ad hoc pointer directing the viewer towards a metaphorical interpretation) and the reader has to engage in subsequent interpretive steps involving the access to encyclopedic information either directly related to the referent depicted in the image. Vega-Moreno (2004: 317) explains this with the metaphor “my boss is a shark. Normally. Notes 1. conceptual information has to be accessed and adjusted in any type of metaphor. previous utterances and background knowledge about the speaker work as an important “short-term-memory storage” of information against which new utterances are interpreted. the concept AGGRESSIVE may be adjusted to denote a kind of (positive) aggressiveness that involves energy and assertiveness (represented as AGGRESSIVE*). or made prominent by metonymic relationship to other encyclopedic referents. Since all the visual metaphors analyzed or referred to in this article are taken from newspapers. on the other hand. I will use the convention of adding asterisks to stress the fact that the accompanying word is an ad hoc concept and not an encoded concept. pictures have a more powerful impact on the reader due to their holistic gestalt-like processing and are good for “visualizing” conventionalized concepts such as “abyss” in the example above. At this stage. are linear. Indeed. in the course of a conversation. and readers make interpretive hypotheses as text is processed in a word-by-word integration into phrases and sentences. In fact. from now on the viewer of the visual metaphor will be referred to as “reader”. the reader will adjust the conceptual information in his or her search for relevance and will generate appropriate ad hoc CONCEPTS*. However. This is the same kind of conceptual adjustment that takes place in the interpretation of verbal metaphors. In short.” If it is clear from previous turns of the conversation or from general encyclopedic information about the speaker that he is happy with his boss. . context plays an important role aiding the addressee in determining the kind of CONCEPT* that the speaker or the author intends. which entails differences in the way literal and implicated meanings are generated. It is only the type of decoded input feeding the inferential processor that makes a difference. processing the metaphor on the assumption that the speaker is afraid of his boss’s tactics 2.168 Francisco Yus optimally relevant one). Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 169 and techniques, the concept AGGRESSIVE would be adjusted to denote a kind and level of (negative) aggressiveness (AGGRESSIVE**). 4. One famous explanation is provided by the so-called conceptual blending theory (Fauconnier and Turner 1998). It suggests that a subset of the attributes and relational structure from the source and target domains are imported into a blended space where they can be combined and supplemented with information from encyclopedic knowledge. These hybrid models, or blends, are useful in explaining emergent properties. 5. The existence of a choice of two possible logical forms for the same linguistic input is often exploited by humorists in some of their jokes. In Yus (2003b: 1304), it is claimed that the source of humor in some jokes lies in the fact that the language module of the addressee has to choose between two possible de-contextualized logical forms extracted from the humorist’s utterance, as in the following example: Postmaster: “Here’s your five-cent stamp.” Shopper (with arms full of bundles): “Do I have to stick it on myself?” Postmaster: “Nope. On the envelope.” 6. It is utterly important to identify the image as intentionally communicated (ostensive in RT terms) and not simply as visual information unintentionally exuded, as it were, from the environment. The former carries a presumption of eventual relevance which the latter lacks. This stage of intention ascription is important because it constrains all the subsequent inferential activity devoted to the processing of the visual stimulus and the amount of effort that the reader will be willing to devote to this inference beyond a purely subattentive identification of the image. 7. In fact, there is experimental evidence that the visual system uses principles of coherence to detect whether the visual information corresponds to a unique object or belongs to separate, interrelated objects, and different specialized brain cells are devoted to these tasks (see Humphreys and Heinke 1998). 8. The fact that we normally perceive only one interpretation very rapidly indicates that we see far more than the immediate information falling on our retina. The highly accurate guesses and inferences that we make rapidly and unconsciously are based on a wealth of knowledge of the world and our expectations for the particular scene we are seeing (Cavanagh 1998). 9. The change in mode from drawing to photographic style in this example may indicate that the visual syntax not only points towards the metaphor but also the “humor” of the vignette by the unexpected association between the building and the syringe. Perhaps the decoding of the photographic mode versus the drawing modes connected in this picture provoke the search for extra implicit meanings besides the anomalous visual arrangement. I would like to thank E. Urios-Aparisi for pointing this out to me. 10. Specifically, “what guarantees the interpretation is the existence of an underlying conceptual mapping from ‘bulldozer’ to ‘human being’ whereby we understand [the boss’s] behavior in terms of the figurative behavior (i.e. the 170 Francisco Yus way the machine functions) that we attribute to a bulldozer” (Ruiz de Mendoza and Pérez Hernández 2003: 29). 11. Tendahl and Gibbs (2008: 1834) assert that “the motivation for metaphorical language is found in recurring sensorimotor patterns of experience that are continually enacted as neural processes in the moment of thinking, speaking, and understanding. Such recurring sensorimotor patterns at least motivate the existence and continued use of many conventional metaphors and some novel extensions or elaborations of these in creative metaphorical language.” 12. As correctly argued within cognitive linguistics, this is an example of the typical mental operation that helps people conceptualize vague or abstract domains of knowledge in terms of more specific and familiar knowledge such as the one provided by sensory input. References Barthes, Roland 1977 Image, Music, Text. London: Fontana. Carston, Robyn 2002 Thoughts and Utterances: The Pragmatics of Explicit Communication. Oxford: Blackwell. Cavanagh, Patrick 1998 Top-down processing in vision. 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Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor 171 Gineste, Marie-Dominique, Bipin Indurkhya, and Véronique Scart 2000 Emergence of features in metaphor comprehension. Metaphor and Symbol 15: 117–135. Humphreys, Glyn, and Dietmar Heinke 1998 Spatial representation and selection in the brain: Neuropsychological and computational constraints. Visual Cognition 5: 1–47. Kriegel, Uriah 2004 Perceptual experience, conscious content, and non-conceptual content. Essays in Philosophy 5 (1): 1–14. Lakoff, George 1987 Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson 1980 Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. McMahon, Jennifer A. 2003 Perceptual constraints and perceptual schemata: The possibility of perceptual style. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 61 (3): 259–272. Peñamarín, Cristina 1996 El humor gráfico y la metáfora polémica. La Balsa de la Medusa 38–39: 107–132. Phillips, Barbara J., and Edward F. McQuarrie 2004 Beyond visual metaphor: A new typology of visual rhetoric in advertising. Marketing Theory 4 (1–2): 113–136. Pilkington, Adrian 2000 Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: Benjamins. Ruiz de Mendoza, Francisco 1998 On the nature of blending as a cognitive phenomenon. Journal of Pragmatics 30: 259–274. Ruiz de Mendoza, Francisco 2005 Linguistic interpretation and cognition. In Cultural Matrix Reloaded. Romanian Society for English and American Studies. Seventh International Conference, Elena Croitoru, Daniela Tuchel and Michaela Praisler (eds.), 36–64. Bucarest: Didactica Si Pedagogica. Ruiz de Mendoza, Francisco, and Olga I. Díez Velasco 2002 Patterns of conceptual interaction. In Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast, René Dirven and Ralph Pörings (eds.), 489–532. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Ruiz de Mendoza, Francisco, and Lorena Pérez Hernández 2003 Cognitive operations and pragmatic implication. In Metonymy and Pragmatic Inferencing, Klaus-Uwe Panther (ed.), 23–49. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. 172 Francisco Yus Schilperoord, Joost, and Alfons Maes this vol. Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons. Sperber, Dan, and Deirdre Wilson 1995 [1986] Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Oxford: Blackwell. Tanaka, Keiko 1994 Advertising Language. A Pragmatic Approach to Advertisements in Britain and Japan. London/New York: Routledge. Tendahl, Markus, and Raymond W. Gibbs 2008 Complementary perspectives on metaphor: Cognitive linguistics and relevance theory. Journal of Pragmatics 40: 1823–1864. Vega-Moreno, Rosa 2004 Metaphor interpretation and emergence. UCL Working Papers in Linguistics 16: 297–322. Villafañe, Justo, and Norberto Mínguez 1996 Principios de Teoría General de la Imagen. Madrid: Pirámide. Wilson, Deirdre, and Robyn Carston 2006 Metaphor, relevance and the “emergent property” issue. Mind and Language 21 (3): 404–433. Yus, Francisco 2003a Conceptos ad hoc en el procesamiento de la metáfora. El caso de las viñetas humorísticas en la prensa, paper delivered at Jornadas sobre Texto/Imagen, Ciudad Real (Spain): University of Castilla-La Mancha, December. 2003b Humor and the search for relevance. Journal of Pragmatics 35: 1295–1331. 2005 Ad hoc concepts and visual metaphor? Towards relevant ad hoc pointers, paper delivered at the 9th International Pragmatics Conference, Riva del Garda (Italy), July. Chapter 8 Metaphor in political cartoons: Exploring audience responses Elisabeth El Refaie Abstract Using data from a study of young people’s responses to British newspaper cartoons, this chapter considers the ways in which readers interpret multimodal metaphors of the verbo-visual variety. One of the central tenets of Conceptual Metaphor Theory is that many metaphors derive from our bodily experience and are thus likely to be understood in similar ways by all human beings. But in fact there is increasing evidence that the interpretation of metaphors is partly dependent upon people’s socio-cultural background, as well as on the contexts in which the metaphors are used. The results of our study suggest that some metaphorical mappings in cartoons, such as those between size and power/status, and between movement through space and the passing of time, might be understood more generally and at a more intuitive level than more elaborate structural metaphors, which tend to be interpreted in different ways by different individuals. Keywords: audience research, embodiment, newspaper cartoons, verbo-visual metaphor 1. Introduction This chapter analyzes the use of multimodal metaphors of the verbo-visual variety in political cartoons and explores the ways in which such metaphors are understood by viewers from different backgrounds. The discussion draws on data from a study of young people’s responses to British newspaper cartoons about the 2004 US presidential elections.1 Political cartoons offer a good opportunity to explore multimodal metaphor, because metaphor is a very common device used by cartoonists (Edwards 1997; Philippe 1982; Morrison 1992; Templin 1999) and most car- 174 Elisabeth El Refaie toons combine visual and verbal codes. As I argue in section 2, using two cartoons from our study as examples, newspaper cartoons typically act as a bridge between fact and fiction, combining actual current events with an imaginary, make-believe world created by the cartoonist (Edwards 1997: 8). While this metaphorical process of transferring meaning from the makebelieve to the real world tends to be conveyed predominantly in the visual mode, most cartoon metaphors also rely to some extent on verbal cues. Sometimes either the target or the source is represented exclusively through language, but more frequently verbal labels in cartoons are used as a means of specifying important aspects of a primarily visual metaphor. In the case of political cartoons, Forceville’s (2006: 384/this volume) definition of multimodal metaphors as “metaphors whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” thus needs to be interpreted in a way that also embraces such asymmetrical verbal-visual relationships. Section 3 explores the issue of universality versus individuality in the understanding of metaphors in cartoons. Conceptual Metaphor Theory is based on the proposition that metaphor derives from our bodily experience and is thus an essential part of our everyday patterns of thinking. This suggests that most instances of metaphor will be understood in similar ways by all members of a language community. But in fact it is becoming increasingly clear that the choice and interpretation of metaphors is partly dependent upon the participants’ social and cultural background (Kövecses 2005; Proctor, Proctor, and Papasolomou 2005), as well as on the specific contexts in which the metaphors are encountered (Ritchie 2004). In section 4, I describe the data and methods used in our study of young people’s readings of political cartoons, including the measures we took to ensure that we did not pre-empt their responses. I also explain our decision to consult the makers of the two cartoons used in the study, Nicholas Garland and Peter Schrank, about their intentions.2 Although we do not consider the artists to be the ultimate arbiters of the meaning of their work, it proved revealing to compare the intended meanings with the analysis of the cartoons by the author of this chapter and with the interpretations generated by the young people participating in the study. The fifth section of this chapter discusses some of the results of our study. The main focus is on the way readers recognize and interpret multimodal metaphors, but this cannot always be separated from more general considerations of how people read visual meaning and how their world knowledge influences the interpretation process. The discussion of the data therefore sometimes goes beyond the issue of multimodal metaphor in the Metaphor in political cartoons 175 narrow sense and includes some reflections on wider issues of cartoon interpretation. In the final section I reconsider the results and propose ideas for further research. 2. Bridging the gap from fiction to fact If, as most researchers now accept, metaphors operate at the level of thought rather than being merely linguistic, then any form of communication can be seen as an instance of metaphor if it is able to “induce a metaphoric thought or concept” (Kennedy, Green, and Vervaeke 1993: 244). Since the early 90s, researchers have been discovering manifestations of metaphor in various non-verbal modes, thereby providing additional evidence for the existence of metaphorical thought patterns (Seitz 1998). It has also been shown that metaphors can be cued in more than one mode simultaneously (Forceville 2004; 2006). However, the search for commonalities must not distract from potential variations in meaning arising from the genre in which a metaphor occurs. As Sol Worth ([1974] 1981: 161) pointed out in an early discussion of visual metaphor, “[i]t is the fact that we learn the agreed-upon rules for the intentional creation of meaning within specific contexts that makes metaphor possible.” Therefore, genre is likely to have an important influence on the choice of metaphors by producers, the form these metaphors take, and the ways in which they are recognized and interpreted by audiences. Most of the research on visual and multimodal metaphor has so far focused upon its use in advertising (Forceville 1996; Kaplan 1992; Messaris 1997; Phillips 2003; Scott 1994), where the communicative purpose is obvious: to attract the attention of potential customers and create (implicit) cognitive links between the product and some desirable abstract quality. Because of this, visual metaphors in advertising are often highly creative and unusual. Researchers have tended to focus on this level of explicit metaphorical meaning and to disregard the issue of whether adverts also contain more basic orientational and ontological metaphors, which are thought to structure human perception and experience at a very fundamental level (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Kövecses 2002). Clearly, in the case of political cartoons we are dealing with a completely different genre, with its own distinctive styles, conventions, and communicative purposes. A political cartoon is an illustration, usually in a single panel, published on the editorial or comments pages of a newspaper. Generally, the 176 Elisabeth El Refaie purpose of a political cartoon is to represent an aspect of social, cultural, or political life in a way that condenses reality and transforms it in a striking, original, and/or humorous way. The field of politics is often complex and bewildering, and cartoons offer a way of explaining the significance of real life events and characters through the means of an imaginary scenario. As Edwards puts it, in cartoons people and events are depicted “as something that they are not in order to arrive at a new definition of what they are” (Edwards 1997: 128). The frame around a cartoon functions as an implicit metacomment, signaling to the newspaper reader that it is to be viewed as part of the dramatic cartoon world, as opposed to the real world of serious news reports, commentaries and newspaper photographs (Baldry and Thibault 2006: 17). Although cartoons often depict clearly ludicrous situations, they draw on readers’ real-life experiences and rely on their wider interpretive competences (Dines-Levy and Smith 1988: 244). A generic convention of cartooning, in contrast to advertising, is that the goal is generally to expose something bad or shameful rather than to highlight the positive. Not surprisingly, cartoonists will thus often fall back on stereotypes and systematic metaphorical concepts that represent the complexity of the world in simpler and often very negative terms. Orientational metaphors, which link spatial orientation with more abstract meanings, seem to be particularly common in political cartoons. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 14ff), our physical and cultural experience of the up-down orientation, for instance, motivates a whole range of common metaphors, including HIGH STATUS IS UP/LOW STATUS IS DOWN and HAVING CONTROL OR FORCE IS UP/BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL IS DOWN. In cartoons, size is commonly used to indicate the relative salience or importance of the various elements (El Refaie 2003: 85), and, since a difference in size is closely linked to up-down orientation, it can also imply power differentials. In her analysis of US newspaper cartoons about the ’88 Primaries, for instance, Edwards (1995) found that the Democratic candidates were frequently represented as the Seven Dwarfs, which very effectively conveyed the message that they were all equally irrelevant, weak and powerless. One of the cartoons we used in our study (figure 1) is another good example of how size can be imbued with a metaphorical meaning. As cartoonist Peter Schrank explained (personal communication, June 2005), he intended the giant boot to express the “utter indifference of the US administration toward the UK; Tony Blair had been used by them, but he’s powerless. I like the way the cowboy boot as a simple object represents the whole administration’s and current US culture’s attitude.” In this case the Metaphor in political cartoons 177 intention was thus to use exaggerated size to signify the abuse of power and force, rather than simply to increase the salience of this visual element. Figure 1. Peter Schrank, Independent on Sunday, 15.10.2004 Some authors believe that there are significant differences regarding what the visual and the verbal mode are able to convey effectively (Messaris 1994; Kress 2000). For instance, the visual mode differs from language in that it is simply not possible to represent abstract meaning visually without recourse to symbols, metonyms, or metaphors (El Refaie 2003; Forceville 2005). So, in our example the concept of an unequal relationship between the British Prime Minister and the US President could not have been expressed literally in pictorial form at all and had to be translated into a metaphorical image. Conversely, because images always represent a particular instance of someone or something, they are more specific than words, capturing nuances of meaning that would be hard to convey through language. Moreover, images often evoke profound emotional responses which are hard to explain and of which the viewer may not always be entirely conscious (Zakia 2002: 233–255). The precise look of the cowboy boot and Tony Blair’s facial expression in figure 1, for instance, speak volumes about the cartoonist’s opinion of both politicians. The cartoon in figure 2, which was published on the day of the 2004 US Presidential elections, uses size and foregrounding to indicate salience: even at a glance, we can recognize that the larger-than-life matchbox is clearly essential to the argument the cartoonist is trying to make. The central metaphor in this cartoon is based on the representation of George Bush as a small child, which could be verbalized as BUSH IS TODDLER. In formal terms, this can be described as a monomodal metaphor of the pictorial variety, or, more specifically, as a hybrid (Forceville 1996: 163) or fusion (Carroll 1996) metaphor, where the target and the source are visually amalgamated into one 2. strong. the target of the metaphor.2004 However. Provided the caricatured personality is recognized. even single-panel images such as political cartoons are able to convey some narrative meaning through the depiction of movement that is “frozen in the instance of representation” (Schirato and Webb 2004: 87). impetuous…) onto the American president. Daily Telegraph. which in this case was paraphrased by the artist Nicholas Garland (personal correspondence. irresponsible. Such fusion is very common in political cartoons. Although still images are not particularly suited to the task of expressing action and events (Kress 2000). the reader is invited to map properties of a prototypical toddler (playful. which represents the source. Rather. since caricatures often overlay the features of a famous personality onto any imaginable being or object (Bell 2004). often diagonal lines formed obliquely by depicted objects or people. The cartoonist thus .11. this example demonstrates that newspaper cartoons are typically about more than just the characteristics of a person. this type of visual metaphor should work perfectly well without the support of a verbal label. Here the face of George Bush. Nicholas Garland. in some cases. they tend to represent a particular situation.” This concept is clearly more complex.178 Elisabeth El Refaie spatially bounded object. stubborn. This sense of activation can be increased by the use of vectors. and it requires the cartoon to be read as a narrative. through conventionalized motion lines (Horn 1998: 136) leading to or from a moving element. but also events and temporal sequence. June 2005) in the following way: “It is dangerous to give a small child a box of matches to play with – President Bush is not to be trusted to be sensible and wise in my opinion. is visually amalgamated with the body of a toddler. representing not just participants. Once both target and source have been identified. Figure 2. which indicate the direction of an action (Kress and van Leeuwen 1996: 43–78) and. event or action in terms of something else. The image of someone walking along and. in accordance with the MOVING OBSERVER metaphor. so that the viewer is facing in the same direction as the main participants and. which has been described as one of the most conventional ways of conceptualizing the link between space and time in Western cultures (Lakoff 1993). Since static images are also unable to express chronology directly. is an instantiation of the LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor. reaching a fork in the road. cartoonists are bound to use spatial relations to indicate the passing of time. action is implied through frozen movement and strong diagonal vectors. a more specific reading of this cartoon.” for instance. which could perhaps be verbalized as FUTURE US FOREIGN POLICY IS BOOT CRUSHING OTHER COUNTRIES. We imagine the passing of time in two different ways: in the TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT metaphor. we are in any case used to thinking about time in terms of space. Perhaps partly because of the conventionality of this metaphor. requires more detailed information about the various slots in this schema. However. the use of this letter in the cartoon is likely to support the reading of the cowboy boot as a visual metonym for Bush. they are nevertheless coherent by virtue of being special cases of the same underlying metaphor TIME PASSING IS MOTION (Lakoff 1993: 217). the present right by us. like them. who. visual information alone may suffice to cue the idea of two destinations representing future decisions. is confronted with the prospect of an uncertain future. In the two cartoons shown above. Although these two metaphors are not consistent. the past is in the foreground and the future in the background. In figure 1.Metaphor in political cartoons 179 relies on every reader’s ability to complete in his or her head what is suggested by an image. which creeps up on us and which we have to meet head on. this additional information is at least partially provided by verbal tags. we are facing toward the future. a reading principally triggered by his Texan background and his famous predilection for Western-style casual . are shown traveling through time from the past to the future. having to decide which way to go. including the actions that precede and follow the depicted moment (Edwards 1997: 53). is further specified through a doubly coded metonym: Since the American President is frequently referred to as “W” in order to distinguish him from his father. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 41–44). The slot of “moving observer. and the past behind. which is firmly rooted in the embodied “source-pathgoal” schema (Johnson 1987). while chronology is suggested through the relative position of the main active participants. time can also be conceptualized as a stationary landscape through which we move in the direction of the future (we’re approaching the end of the year). However. with the future in front of us. This places the viewer in a “knowing” position where. the box of matches thus denotes Bush’s bid to be re-elected and the opportunity this would offer him to cause even more havoc. The detailed drawings of the wall and nuclear power station. he or she is already able to see only too clearly what the next few years are likely to bring. representing war and peace respectively. they are not covered by Forceville’s (2006: 384) definition. including the ability to recognize visual symbols and the targets of metonyms. which we might verbalize as ACHIEVING RE-ELECTION IS GETTING HOLD OF A BOX OF MATCHES. In this case. as do the visual symbols of the vulture and the dove. The verbal elements on the signs pointing to “Israel + Palestine” and “Iran + North Korea” provide important support in the identification of these visual elements in the background. so that the background of the image represents the past and the foreground the future.180 Elisabeth El Refaie dress. Similarly. or more generally the “world knowledge” of the viewers (Forceville 1996: 109). This example clearly demonstrates that reading political cartoons often requires readers to draw on several different kinds of interpretive strategies. which may otherwise be difficult to recognize. Again.” which by the time of the cartoon’s publication were already being seen by many as disastrous. provide additional information about the precise “goals” of the boot. while the target must be gleaned from the pictorial context. strictly speaking. the image of the toddler crawling towards something cues the MOVING OBSERVER metaphor. metonyms for Iran’s controversial nuclear program and the long-running territorial conflict between Israelis and Palestinians. The inscription on the box of matches is instrumental in pointing the viewer towards a more exact interpretation of the general SPACE-IN-FRONT IS FUTURE metaphor. such as the invasion of Iraq and the launch of his socalled “war on terror. This general orientational schema provides the basis for a more complex structural metaphor. any verbal clues. only the source is visually present. which stipulates that . although here the orientation is reversed.3 In this context. In the case of the complex structural metaphors FUTURE US FOREIGN POLICY IS BOOT CRUSHING OTHER COUNTRIES and ACHIEVING RE-ELECTION IS GETTING HOLD OF A BOX OF MATCHES I believe we are dealing with examples of true multimodal metaphors. while the flames are clearly meant to represent some of the President’s foreign policies. since the precise concept of SPACEIN-FRONT IS FOUR MORE YEARS IN OFFICE could not have been rendered exclusively in the visual mode and needed to be supplied partially as a verbal message. in figure 2 the basic interpretation of a conceptual link between space and time involves only the visual mode and is not dependent upon verbal information. even though. in contrast to Bush-the-toddler. Universality versus individuality According to the standard view of metaphor in a cognitivist framework. perhaps. the verbal tags offer additional but nevertheless essential information. Even more importantly.Metaphor in political cartoons 181 in multimodal metaphors target and source must be represented “exclusively or predominantly in different modes. Similarly. very often. This would suggest that everybody understands such basic ontological and orientational metaphors intuitively and. which helps the reader identify the precise source or target of a complex metaphor. such a neat split between universal primary metaphors and more culturally influenced structural metaphors may be deceptive. my wife is an anchor.” In our examples. For instance. since we all feel hot as a result of physical exertion or excitement. While primary metaphors are thought to be universal. It is perfectly possible that some universal experiences do not lead to universal metaphors and that bodily experience may in some cases be overridden by both culture and cognition (Kövecses 2005: 4). may be used to mean completely different things . we all experience a connection between our movement through space and the passing of time. some metaphors may not be based on bodily experience at all. but rather on purely cultural considerations and cognitive processes (Talebinejad and Dastjerdi 2005). at the level of unconscious or barely conscious thought processes. metaphors are based on embodied human experience (Lakoff and Johnson 1999. but in Zulu it is apparently also sometimes understood as OBJECTS IN THE HEART (Kövecses 2005: 69). For example. which is seen as universal. As Ritchie (2004: 277–279) points out. the choice of metaphors by a communicator and the recognition and interpretation of these metaphors by audiences are likely to be strongly dependent upon the social context in which they are used. In order to embrace such typical instances of multimodal metaphor in political cartoons. the same metaphorical statement. they can be combined to form more complex mappings between different domains of experience. there is evidence that in many languages anger is conceptualized as a fluid or gas under pressure in a container. and at least some of these structural metaphors are assumed to be language or culture specific. metaphors based on the concept of INTENSITY IS HEAT seem entirely natural to us (Kövecsec 2005: 18). Turner 1996). Moreover. Forceville’s definition would thus have to be extended to include cases where target and source are partially represented in different modes. 3. However. sport and popular culture in order to ensure that they are in fundamental harmony with the cultural literacy of their public (Fischer 1996: 122. distractions and perceived importance. by all members of a culture or language community. it is perfectly possible that some basic ontological and orientational metaphors are understood in a similar way. However. Building on the concept of working memory. Ritchie (2004) suggests that people interpret metaphors by drawing on readily accessible elements from their long-term memory.182 Elisabeth El Refaie in different conversational contexts. the available time. which makes their use more “risky” for communicators. it is clear that they will be read differently if taken out of their original context and viewed at a later date. perhaps even intuitively. either feelings of contentment and stability or a sense of boredom and frustration. if cartoons were too easy to understand. In fact. Apart from lacking knowledge about a particular event or political issue. In the case of political cartoons. If people’s cognitive representations of the common ground are radically different. at least. and the background and experiences of some individual readers may lead them to interpret a cartoon in very different ways to the one intended. Mumford 2001: xi). the relationship between participants. they would probably not provide the same sense of pride and achievement to those viewers who manage to solve these intriguing mental puzzles. In Western cultures. But cartoonists clearly sometimes misjudge their public. it seems more likely that the interpretation of all metaphors in cartoons is at least to some extent dependent upon the context in which they are used and the working memory of the individual reader. readers may also be unfamiliar with aspects of the fictional world on which the cartoon is based. Metaphor elaboration may also be encouraged by the intrinsic pleasure involved in thinking and solving puzzles. implying. Whether the processing of a metaphor stops as soon as an initial interpretation is reached or whether it continues to generate various metaphorical entailments will depend on the nature of the conversation. . including the perceived relationship between participants and the degree to which they expect their perceptions and ideas to be shared (Ritchie 2004: 272). irrespective of their background and prior knowledge. it is common for cartoonists to use metaphors drawn from everyday life. then they may well interpret the same metaphor in very different ways. Metaphors are by their very nature open to more than one interpretation. but also potentially more interesting for interpreters. for instance. Since political cartoons typically refer to topical events. as well as all the ideas that were recently activated through the communicative interaction. If they read any newspapers at all. during the interviews the Muslim students in particular actually turned out to hold quite passionate views about those geopolitical issues that they felt concerned them directly. Of the 13 men and 12 women. Data and Methods This chapter is based on data collected in phase one of our study into the ways in which young people understand cartoon images. After explaining that the cartoons were all about the recent Presidential elections in the USA. in October or November 2004. a tabloid or the occasional broadsheet newspaper. many of the young participants were thus not very familiar with the political cartoon genre. 13 were Muslims from a Pakistani or Bangladeshi background.4 Not surprisingly. For this purpose. The family of one young man had come to Britain from Afghanistan. one black. we expected them to be on average a little more interested in political issues and more likely to follow the news than others in their peer group. took place at the Technology College and local Further Education College where the young people were studying. none of them related .Metaphor in political cartoons 183 4. and there were also one British-Indian. In fact. such as the invasion of Iraq and the conflict between Israel and Palestine (Hörschelmann 2008). We used five cartoons on the US Presidential elections published several months previously. the respondents tended to read the local paper or. while the articles below the cartoons did generally comment on the US Presidential elections. which lasted between 30 and 45 minutes each. Although more than half of our interviewees initially described themselves as not very or not at all interested in politics. more rarely. using the entire newspaper page in order to ensure that at least some of the context was preserved. In the UK. Since the participants had volunteered to take part in the study. local newspapers and tabloids tend not to carry many cartoons of an explicitly political nature. a city with a large British Asian population. the cartoons were discussed one by one. The semi-structured one-to-one interviews. and six white British-born youngsters who described themselves either as Christian or Atheist. We encouraged respondents to read any of the headlines that they would normally read in conjunction with the cartoon before describing the drawing and then attempting an interpretation. we conducted oneto-one interviews with 25 young people between the ages of sixteen and nineteen in Bradford. including the multimodal metaphors they often contain. while two each were Hindus and Sikhs from Indian families. whereas six of the participants were taking vocational courses. The majority of the interviews were conducted in July 2005 and a small number in November of the same year. Most of our respondents were doing A-levels. This may be linked to the fact that we probably represent the sort of politically minded regular newspaper readers that the cartoonists apparently had in . responses were coded with a letter from A to Y. In addition to completing the questionnaire. In order to ensure that the interview data were comparable. “What are your own thoughts and feelings when you look at this cartoon?” While taking care not to prejudice the participants in their responses. asking them to describe the intended meanings of their drawings. such as the inscription “four more years” on the matchbox in figure 2. In order to preserve the anonymity of the interviewees. we would generally draw their attention to these and ask what they might be referring to. We also sent short questionnaires to the creators of the cartoons used in the study. For instance. most of the artists agreed to a telephone interview. indeed. and the process of making sense of a cartoon is likely to be strongly dependent upon the individual interpreter’s background and experiences. if respondents seemed to be struggling to describe the mood of the figures in the drawing. consisting of a small number of open and non-leading questions such as: “Can you recognize any of the depicted characters?”. The symbol (. why they had chosen particular symbols and metaphors. in the few cases that the respondents did avail themselves of the chance to read the headlines. This meant that.) in the transcriptions indicates a hesitation or pause in the respondent’s delivery. and “KH” stands for my collaborator. we might ask them to describe the relationship between the depicted characters and to imagine what they might be feeling. If they overlooked certain important details. and what they were trying to express through their work. “What do you think the cartoonist wanted to say with this cartoon?”. “ER” indicates that I conducted the interview. the cartoon genre is ambiguous and open to multiple readings. we used the same basic interview schedule. and explained in more detail what had given them the inspiration for the cartoons used in the study. a particular multimodal metaphor – is able to generate. “How would you describe their mood/feelings?”. Kathrin Hörschelmann. the meanings intended by the cartoonist are not the only ones that a particular cartoon – or. during which they talked about their general working conditions and practices. our own detailed analysis of the cartoons corresponded very closely with the artists’ intended meanings. nor are his or her intentions to be equated with its “correct” or most valid interpretation. By its very nature. we occasionally used additional prompts in order to elicit more details or to clarify their answers.184 Elisabeth El Refaie directly to the content of the cartoons. this did not necessarily assist them in their interpretation of the cartoons. In fact. Clearly. ) on in Palestine (. the figure stuck to the sole of the boot embodied the “innocent people in Afghanistan who have suffered George Bush’s wrath or so-called wrath.” Similarly. Results: Interpreting cartoon metaphors As I showed in section 2. In contrast to this. who described the boot as coming from Palestine and other Muslim countries.) and now he’s been to Palestine then he’s going to Iran and so he’s going across the world doing it to all the countries In fact. the young people’s readings of the cartoons and the multimodal metaphors they contained reflected their very different interests and preoccupations. more generally. One exception to this general rule was respondent I. 5. published in the Independent on Sunday (figure 1). with the two signposts pointing in opposite directions representing alternative decisions. since nearly everybody equated the concept of the boot walking towards Iran and North Korea with future actions. eleven respondents did not recognize Tony Blair.) it’s trying to (. For this young man. from the basic connection between movement through space and the passing of time to the more complex associations between a make-believe mini narrative and events in the real world. another basic metaphor that seemed to evoke a common response was that of the darkened sky.) all this war going on (. respondent J. thought the small figure represented a Palestinian: J I think he is trying to show all (. In the case of the cartoon by Peter Schrank. two of the cartoons used in our study contain several layers of metaphorical meaning. where it has caused a lot of destruction.) that’s been going on for the past year or so (. The orientational TIME IS MOTION THROUGH SPACE metaphor also seemed to be understood in a similar way by all the respondents. which for the four participants who mentioned this aspect indicated a sense of danger and impending disaster. people that suffered in Iraq. the weak . as well as perhaps a degree of unfamiliarity with cartoon conventions.Metaphor in political cartoons 185 mind when creating their work. seeing the drawing instead as symbolizing an ineffective politician or. a young Muslim woman who was clearly very concerned with the plight of Palestinian civilians.) it’s George Bush’s fault and you know he is just crushing people for nothing without realizing it and people are yelling at him look what you are doing to our country but he’s not taking no notice and he is just crushing people under his feet (.) show that (. The wall behind the signpost pointing to the left was described by six respondents as a wall or fence.) and that’s why I think that Tony Blair he just isn’t a suitable leader This excerpt also demonstrates that.) he won’t let go ‘cause he’s scared of losing America (. respondents often introduced new metaphors or similes to express their thoughts. Thus. The latter drawing reminded two interviewees of the oil industry. while others described it as “a crane. only the eleven respondents who recognized the references to both politicians were able to read the cartoon in the way it was intended by the cartoonist. status. The description of Tony Blair following Bush around “like a lost sheep” evokes a very different image from the one represented in the cartoon and shifts the focus from the actions of the US President to those of the British Prime Minister. buildings. Many of the participants said it was the “W” on the boot that allowed them to make the connection to George Bush. or force was understood in a similar way by everybody. most of our interviewees read out the place names on the signposts but were unable to make sense of the little drawings in the background. The young people struggled to recognize other aspects of the cartoon image as well.) he’s like scared that (.” or “trampling on” someone less powerful: “sort of don’t care who he steps on” (M). the metaphorical link between size and power. while four students realized that the drawing of a power station on the other side had something to do with nuclear energy or nuclear weapons. Clearly.186 Elisabeth El Refaie and powerless: “So there is a big authority leader going towards the way he wants and there are smaller people getting stuck” (F). although the degree to which the boot was seen as ferocious and sadistic seemed to depend on whether or not Blair and Bush were recognized and the degree to which the respondent identified with the figure squashed under the boot.) even though that Tony Blair does have his own (.) he’s following George Bush round like a lost sheep (.” “stepping.” “crushing. . Even among the eight respondents who did not make the metonymic connection between the boot and George Bush there was still unanimous agreement about the fact that the person symbolized by the boot was powerful and ruthless. For instance.) he wants to do his own things (. while a few seemed to rely more on the general context or the Texan connotations of the cowboy boot to draw this conclusion. namely as a comment on the relationship between the two men and their respective countries: R Tony Blair is basically just (. Participants talked about him having the ability to “go where he likes” or “do as he likes” and his actions were described as “standing. when discussing the meaning of a particular metaphor. or at least they were not able to access them when cued by the cartoon image. Only two of the respondents (K and U) were sufficiently well informed about the related geopolitical issues to be able to refer to these in their interpretation of the cartoon. it was simply that they could not think of the correct term. pictorial symbols and/or metonyms to assemble more precise information about target and source and to apply the general schema to a specific social or political scenario. referring to them instead as “a big bird” (T). 23 out of 25 respondents understood that the matches had something to do with the future. for these respondents the size and other physical features of the birds nevertheless seemed to act as powerful metaphors for particular attitudes and characteristics. Unsurprisingly. “a building with a big ball on top of it” (N) and “a door of a mosque and buildings” (L). most of the young people did not have these facts stored in their long-term memory. like the one in figure 1. Respondent S. The cartoon by Nicholas Garland (figure 2) was again recognized by almost all the participants to be a narrative image. T) or “pigeon” (P) respectively. By contrast. In Ritchie’s (2004) terms. a “turkey” (J). However.Metaphor in political cartoons 187 satellites and communication” (B). greedy. the interpretation of metaphors of a more elaborate structural nature (e. for instance. this influenced their readings of the two metonyms WALL IS ISRAEL-PALESTINE CONFLICT and POWER STATION IS NUCLEAR ISSUE. an “eagle” (K). However. With some respondents. this lack of political background knowledge and familiarity with common cultural symbols did not prevent the vast majority of our respondents from understanding that the fork in the road represented a choice of future actions according to the “source-path-goal” schema. This would seem to support a tentative conclusion that basic orientational metaphors are generally quite widely and easily understood. 21 of the participants were also not able to name either the vulture or the dove (or both). but in many other instances the students were apparently not aware of the conventional meanings associated with these symbols. and as “a normal (smaller) bird” (J. but this interpretation was generally not forthcoming until after the inscription had been noted and read out in the course of the inter- . and spatial relations were used to comprehend the sequence of events.g. described the bird on the left as “homeless” and the one on the right as “selfish. FUTURE US FOREIGN POLICY IS BOOT CRUSHING OTHER COUNTRIES) requires readers to use any verbal tags. particularly if they are represented through a very conventional visual image.” As pointed out above. in this case an understanding of the nature of future action was more tightly connected to grasping the implications of the inscription (“four more years”) on the matchbox. ) there’s smoke and fire in the background . Five of the participants explicitly made the connection between this inscription and the length of a Presidential term in office in the US. However. Six people did not recognize George Bush as the target of this metaphor. As I discussed in section 1.) it could have a double meaning four more years (. 12 of the participants did not seem to see the figure in the drawing as childlike at all.188 Elisabeth El Refaie views.) or it could be branding matches could last a long time In addition to the respondents who did not recognize the US President. it does require the reader to identify the caricature of the American President.) four years (. speculating that it might refer to the age of the child or to the longevity of a particular brand of quality matches: KH have a look at the box of matches (. which meant that the source of this metaphor was also not perceived in the same way by everyone. The great majority (18) seemed to grasp from the context that the inscription must refer to George Bush’s re-election. for instance.) four more years four more years (. In this context.) is that how long he has been president?” Another young person was unsure about how to read the sequence of events: “it looks like he is going for the matches but there’s already a fire lit (.) no idea what that’s supposed to mean” (H). the more elaborate structural metaphor BUSH IS TODDLER is a monomodal metaphor of the visual variety. one participant described the figure as “an old woman” (F) and another as “a gentleman”: B okay there’s an image of a gentleman crawling towards a box of matches which says ‘four more years’ on them (.) what do you think four more years means? E never actually noticed that before (. which is completely independent of the verbal mode. even though they did not explicitly refer to the length of the US Presidential term and may not have been aware of this fact. the interviewee was puzzled by the inscription on the box. in which case they tended to read the cartoon in a rather literal way.) unless a child is four years old or could live for few more years rather than putting the child in danger (. In fact. was clearly worried by the picture of a baby in extreme danger and speculated that the cartoon was “trying to convey a message ‘do not leave matches out for little babies’” (E). Only respondent X seemed not to understand that the “four more years” referred to the future: “the matchbox (.) so I’m guessing it’s to do with the election (. with one young man drawing attention to the number of matches lying on the ground: “there are four matches out representing four more years” (U). as a depiction of the threatening nature of fire. One young woman. ) no ER and can you describe the the = B = I’ve met him I can’t remember his name I’ve met him (.) and can you identify who the character (. For example.) but I can’t remember his name As this example shows. the similarities they saw between the two domains often diverged from or went beyond the meanings intended by Garland. while another participant suggested that the cartoonist had drawn Bush as a grinning baby in order to show his absolute confidence in his victory: “especially at a young age (. . One young woman taking part in our study. the more a child wants to do it.” but she later went on to generate more entailments. he seems to need taking care of: “whenever you see him he is always surrounded by so many I don’t know bodyguards and everything (. the British Labour Party politician and Deputy Prime Minister.) and because of that he’s showing that he can do it without all his American citizens” (I).) like possibly a toddler crawling towards four more years in power (.” Respondent R focused on the idea that the more something is perceived to be naughty.) do you think it’s anyone specific? B no (. He nonetheless seemed unable to see any similarity between this drawing and the US President and was instead trying to name a British politician who might fit the bill. by contrast. by no means can it be taken for granted that all newspaper readers will recognize the caricatures of even the most wellknown politicians. although she thought she had seen him “on TV once in a blue moon” (O).) no I’m an ex member of youth parliament and so I’ve met all of these top guys (. did not appear to be at all sure what the US President looked like. in our subsequent conversation it turned out that he was probably thinking of John Prescott. Cartoonists employ a particular shorthand style when drawing famous politicians and it is therefore hardly surprising that people who are not familiar with this genre or with a particular artist’s work will struggle to recognize some caricatures. clearly had a keen interest in politics and had even met some politicians face-to-face.Metaphor in political cartoons 189 which means perhaps the gentleman is going to strike a match and add more fire to the background make it even worse (. Respondent B.) he likes the attention if you like.) that’s what it shows ER hmm (. for example. one woman (Y) initially explained this metaphor by pointing out that people actually see Bush “as a small child and not very intelligent.) he could be really confident (. suggesting that. like a baby. But even among those respondents who identified both the source and the target of the metaphor BUSH IS TODDLER. 190 Elisabeth El Refaie While most people saw the fire as a metaphor for general problems. These orientational metaphors are also generally monomodal.” Although most of the interviewees did make a connection between the matches. particularly those involving pictures and language. 6. conflict. in the sense that visual information alone is sufficient to cue the conceptual link between a more concrete and an abstract meaning. in view of the relatively small number of participants in this study. reading a cartoon usually requires the various slots of basic schemata to be filled in with more specific and detailed information. by asking them to verbalize their interpretation process. which would require further investigation. We were also at least to some extent able to relate the various responses to the young people’s background.) he has to organize it present it everything so it all goes well. thought the figure crawling towards the match box looked like John Kerry and saw the matches as representing his being under stress: “he looks so pressurized cause he’s got a flame up the back and he’s trying to reach to the matches cause that shows that he’s got tension (. war and destruction. by contrast. only four explicitly mentioned the idea that children should not be allowed to play with matches and that “if you play with matches you get burnt” (U). However. This allowed us to explore the different roles of the verbal and the visual mode in multimodal metaphor and to begin to address the thorny issue of universality versus individuality in metaphor understanding. and experiences. offer the opportunity to explore different people’s understanding of the same material. the following are just tentative conclusions. Conclusion and suggestions for further research Multimodal metaphors. However. In our study we were able to compare and contrast our own analysis of the various levels of metaphor with the ways in which the same metaphors were read by a group of young people. fire and danger of some sort. The results of our study indicate that some metaphorical mappings in political cartoons.) and he’s got a lot of stress due to the voting four more years to work (. prior knowledge. might be understood more generally and at a more intuitive level than more elaborate structural metaphors.” Participant S. such as those between size and power/status and between movement through space and the passing of time. or more specifically the invasion of Iraq or 9/11. respondent A interpreted the fire in the background as a reference to the difficulties George Bush had to face in order to be re-elected: “he has been through hell to get four more years. The . Thus. asking people to verbalize visual meaning is also not without its theoretical and methodological problems. as many authors believe. background. justifies their inclusion in the category of multimodal metaphors. the identification of metaphors is only part of the process of cartoon interpretation as a whole. The data also reveal that the more complex structural metaphors could only be read in the way intended by the cartoonist if respondents had a certain level of general knowledge and a familiarity with current affairs and particular political figures. This is consistent with the view that people interpret metaphors by drawing on elements from their working memory (Ritchie 2004: 272). which in turn are closely linked to an individual’s education. appeared to be particularly conscious of the suffering of the civilian population in the Middle East. for instance. or partially in different modes. the verbal and the visual mode differ with respect to what they are able to communicate. which was reflected in the way many of them tended to map properties of extreme cruelty and ruthlessness from the cowboy boot onto the American President. Even if the target and the source of a metaphor were identified in the way they were intended by the cartoonist. ACHIEVING RE-ELECTION IS GETTING HOLD OF A BOX OF MATCHES and FUTURE US FOREIGN POLICY IS BOOT CRUSHING OTHER COUNTRIES. For instance. Clearly. I propose. Unfortunately. place names on the sign posts) as well. The Muslim respondents. which means that the study of how people understand multimodal metaphors must also include a consideration of more general processes of meaning-making. Another good example of the important role of personal experience in the interpretation process is the way in which respondents applied completely different features of toddlers to George Bush in the context of his bid for re-election. predominantly. in which case Forceville’s (2006: 384) definition would need to be slightly extended to comprise all instances of metaphor where the target and source are represented exclusively. it is hardly surprising that many of them struggled to identify the caricatures of even very wellknown politicians. since most of our respondents were not accustomed to the cartoon genre. If. the exact interpretation of it and the entailments it generated varied a great deal from one interviewee to another and reflected their current interests and preoccupations. This. verbal responses may not provide entirely reliable data for judging what people are actually thinking when they . requires readers to draw on verbal clues (“four more years”. and experience of the genre in which the metaphor occurs.Metaphor in political cartoons 191 interpretation of the complex structural metaphors. then any translation from one mode to the other will involve some loss of meaning. for instance. the study provides striking new evidence for the unpredictability of metaphor interpretation in real life situations. visual or multimodal. 3. Most of the young people were not particularly avid newspaper readers. for instance by providing the whole newspaper page. our respondents were nevertheless very cooperative and tried hard to glean some meaning from the images. they may not have paid them much attention. it is probably inevitable that our own interests to some extent influenced their readings of the cartoons and the metaphors within them. the verbal mode might play another. the interview situation was in fact far from ordinary. if they had. Notes 1. role in this cartoon. Although we tried to keep our interventions to a minimum and not to ask any leading questions. Prompted by our questioning. Apart from a couple of interviewees who were unable or unwilling to continue to discuss the two cartoons beyond a very superficial description.” April 2005–April 2007. which they would otherwise perhaps not have considered at all. or. Perhaps future researchers will be able to devise methods of exploring multimodal metaphor that are not wholly dependant upon respondents’ verbal dexterity. for them. must guard against taking their own interpretations for granted and must pay more attention to the pragmatics of metaphor use in particular contexts. less explicit. “Editorial cartoons and geopolitical perceptions. SG-39469). Although we tried to replicate the ordinary reading situation as closely as possible. they were often prepared to generate further metaphorical entailments. Another difficulty concerns Ritchie’s (1994) observation that the same metaphor can assume entirely different meanings when encountered in different contexts. We would like to thank the British Academy for supporting this project (Grant No. We are very grateful to Peter Schrank and Nicholas Garland for their kind permission to reprint their cartoons and for agreeing to be interviewed. For some readers. Our results suggest that analysts of all types of metaphor. Elisabeth El Refaie and Kathrin Hörschelmann. Under normal circumstances they would probably never have encountered these cartoon images. and they tended not to be very familiar with the political cartoon genre.192 Elisabeth El Refaie look at a visual metaphor. be they verbal. it could be said to represent a striking instance of a cartoon metaphor in which the cartoonist “merely secures what language . the drawing might evoke the verbal expression “playing with fire”. 2. particularly if the respondents are unaccustomed to such essentially artificial verbalization tasks. In spite of these limitations. In this case. El Refaie 2009). Mike Hannay. The Guardian 17 July: 11. Carroll. Lachlan Mackenzie. London/New York: Routledge.). In Words in their Places: A Festschrift for J. 2004/this vol. and Narrative. Bell. and Rod Lyall (eds. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: Agendas for research. 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Mark 1996 The Literary Mind.196 Elisabeth El Refaie Turner. Zakia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. or otherwise noticeable. Six editorial cartoons from The Christian Science Monitor are used as illustrative examples. a tentative thesis is put forward for future research: image alignment renders the abstract concept SIMILARITY visible on the basis of the experiential correlation that motivates the primary metaphor SIMILARITY IS ALIGNMENT. The core idea of this strategy is this: when pictorial components are approximately aligned with one another with respect to size. primary metaphor. Image alignment as a design strategy was explored in Teng and Sun (2002). image alignment. It can be linear. Sometimes it is only implicitly involved in a design choice. Introduction This chapter focuses on image alignment and how it figures in multimodal metaphor. Teng Abstract This chapter focuses on how image alignment as a design strategy figures in the construction of multimodal metaphors. when the pictorial components depict things of different kinds. As another example. which elaborated and extended Forceville’s (1996) account of pictorial simile. or exhibit a two-dimensional pattern. the alignment is apt for expressing pictorial simile. multimodal metaphor 1. evocative. It works by making some constituent components of the alignment salient. curvilinear. Image alignment can take many forms. As to the conceptual basis for image alignment as a design strategy. surprising. the alignment thus formed is apt for expressing an idea that connects these pictorial components. orientation. if the components depict things that . For example. or by making the shape of the overall alignment conspicuous and unexpected. How non-pictorial elements in a multimodal metaphor interact with the aligned pictorial components is explained by concrete examples.Chapter 9 Image alignment in multimodal metaphor Norman Y. and distance. design. Keywords: cartoon. A quick look at the following cartoon (figure 1) may give us a good sense of how image alignment figures in pictorial representation. A newspaper is placed in alignment with books on a shelf. but also plays an important role in the design of multimodal metaphor. It directs attention to the . The word “HORROR” engraved on the front of the upper shelf further supports this reading. The Christian Science Monitor. Figure 1. 2008). however.csmonitor. and the books that flank it on both sides are all well-known horror novels. Teng can be seen as incompatible. the alignment can express an oxymoron in pictorial terms. then. Following the standard A IS LIKE B format of simile. 2004. b) insight that the occurrence of metaphors is not restricted to language. © 2004 The Christian Science Monitor (www. Multimodal metaphor is a newly formed research topic proposed and explored by Forceville (2006/this volume. The newspaper is positioned in the middle of this alignment. This newly defined research topic incorporates Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980a.com). the alignment suggests some similarity between the components. News and horror stories are of different narrative styles and presumably belong in different genres. Reprinted with permission. This cartoon. page 8. The front-page headline of the newspaper indicates that the news is about the United States. May 13. This cartoon features a pattern of image alignment apt for expressing pictorial simile.198 Norman Y. The Horror Show. this pictorial simile can be labeled AMERICAN NEWS IS LIKE HORROR NOVEL (see Teng 2006: 73–74 for further discussion of this example). by Clay Bennett. All rights reserved. suggests that news about the US is similar to a horror story. The expressiveness of image alignment as shown in figure 1 is not confined to pictorial representation. can be labeled TV PROGRAMS ARE GARBAGE.” with the aid of the pictorial element that marks out the difference in image resolution. but it has such high resolution that people can see more clearly what it is about. Six examples are discussed in the next section. Consider figure 2. This alignment and the printed words jointly form a metaphor which. by visiting his personal website at http://www. previously called “verbo-pictorial metaphor” (Forceville 1996: 148–162). I shall restrict my discussion to a subtype of multimodal metaphor. the paper’s editorial cartoonist. In the final section.) The purpose of the following discussion is to give a robust sense of how image alignment participates in the construction of multimodal metaphors. and. (The reader may survey Bennett’s cartoons. Image alignment as a design strategy Let us begin with a simple form of image alignment – juxtaposition.claybennett. The one in the right panel is essentially the same as that in the left panel. 2. Briefly. The word “Television” printed at the bottom of the left panel and the phrase “HighDefinition Television” printed at the bottom of the right panel further suggest what that idea is: TV programs are piles of garbage.com. The one in the left panel is a blurred image of a garbage can brimming with a mixture of rubbish and surrounded by scattered emptied tins and wasted food. and examine how image alignment as a design strategy may figure in it. a tentative thesis concerning the conceptual basis for image alignment as a design strategy is put forward for future research. . in a diverse range of combined versions of different modes of representation. a metaphor is multimodal when its “target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” of representation. which are full of verbo-pictorial metaphors. The alignment suggests that the two images are connected via some idea. This metaphor is multimodal in that the target TV PROGRAMS is chiefly represented through the verbal representations “Television” and “High-Definition Television. which juxtaposes two images. more importantly. and the source GARBAGE is exclusively represented in the pictorial mode of representation. for which they were created by Clay Bennett. and watching programs on a high-definition television will not change that. All of them are taken from The Christian Science Monitor. following the standard A IS B format.Image alignment in multimodal metaphor 199 phenomenon that metaphorical thoughts can be present in different modes of representation. or when its targets and/or source “are cued in more than one mode simultaneously” (Forceville 2006: 384). pandas in Western China. and conveys the message that rhinos in Southern Africa. which is superimposed on the upper parts of the panels. and the words “Southern Africa” above it indicate where the rhino is located. However. by Clay Bennett. All rights reserved. 1998. Joining the doves to the endangered species suggests a metaphorical reading. Consider next figure 3.200 Norman Y.” aided by the depiction of a rhino and a panda that serve as illustrative examples of endangered species. Teng Figure 2. This metaphor is multimodal in that the target PEACE IN THE MIDDLE EAST is chiefly represented by the image of a dove holding an olive branch in her beak. like rhinos in Southern Africa and pandas in Western China.com). and the words “Middle East” above it indicate where the dove is located. The image in the middle panel depicts a panda. The image in the left panel depicts a rhino. and they are not indigenous to the Middle East. Again there is a pattern of alignment. and the readers are expected to take notice of the fact that doves and olive branches are often used as a symbol of peace in Western cultures. and the source ENDANGERED SPECIES is chiefly represented by the category label “endangered species. The Christian Science Monitor. doves are not really endangered species. The label “endangered species. © 1998 The Christian Science Monitor (www. as are pandas in Western China. and doves in the Middle East are all endangered species. June 15. The words “endangered species” are printed on a rectangular box. Following the standard A IS B .” positioned this way. Reprinted with permission. is an endangered species. and the words “Western China” above it indicate where the panda is located.csmonitor. this design suggests the metaphorical reading that peace in the Middle East. It is assumed that people know that rhinos in Southern Africa are endangered. Taken together. page 8. High-Definition Television. The image in the right panel depicts a dove with an olive branch in her beak. suggests that the alignment puts the three depicted creatures in the same category. they all believe in Islam and live according to its rules. Consider figure 4. However. the rifle-bearing man is not really a true believer. and 3 is linear along the horizontal axis. however. 2. Reprinted with permission. or his religion is not true. the depiction of the opposite body-orientation at the center of this alignment suggests that the rifle-bearing worshipper is an exception. At the center of this alignment. © 2002 The Christian Science Monitor (www. the readers may also take in its political stance and read the message as follows: unlike the rest of Muslims. This cartoon depicts scores of worshippers aligning themselves in a two-dimensional pattern. and most of them point their bodies in the same direction. Many readers would undoubtedly arrive at the same interpretation without noticing the word on . While admiring the cartoon’s gentle sense of humor and the empathy it expresses with Muslims. one worshipper. page 10. This cartoon is an editorial cartoon from The Christian Science Monitor. holds his body in the opposite direction. The worshippers are on all fours.csmonitor. The word “terrorism” printed on his belt and the bewildered look of another worshipper beside him reinforces this interpretation. The Christian Science Monitor. May 24.Image alignment in multimodal metaphor 201 format. The white gowns that the worshippers wear and the decorative patterns on the carpets are further cultural elements that suggest to the readers that the worshippers are Muslims. Endangered Peace. by Clay Bennett. this metaphor can be labeled PEACE IN THE MIDDLE EAST IS AN ENDANGERED SPECIES. Figure 3. All rights reserved. but it can also exhibit other patterns. bearing a rifle and a pistol. Alignment in figures 1. The overall alignment suggests the interpretation that all the worshippers belong in the same group. and the readers surely understand this important detail. which is underlined by the layout of the carpets.com). 2002. The metaphor embedded in this overall interpretation can be labeled MISGUIDED BELIEF IS AN OPPOSITE BODY ORIENTATION. two army officers are pondering possible scenarios and what action the military should take. in that it becomes multimodal when the target MISGUIDED BELIEF is chiefly represented through the word “terrorism. that “terrorism” plays an important role from a design point of view. Whether a design is multimodal depends on how it achieves its effect. it frames their interpretation. Call to Prayer. In figure 5. 2001. Figure 4.) From this viewpoint. the metaphor in this cartoon is hardly multimodal. MISGUIDED BELIEF IS AN OPPOSITE BODY ORIENTATION can be considered a multimodal metaphor. or becomes. and. (I thank Francisco Yus for pointing out this to me. © 2002 The Christian Science Monitor (www. The words “war on terrorism” on the door window depicted in the upper left corner of the picture indicate that it is military strategies for war on terrorism that they are pondering. as a result. because of the prototypical depiction of a terrorist. (For further discussion on the guiding and framing of image interpretation. The American flag and the US badge on their upper arms indicate that they are US army officers. see Barthes 1985 [1964]: 28–30. Figure 5 exhibits alignment in a curvilinear form. and for the people who do not take the depiction of the rifle-bearing man as a prototypical depiction of a terrorist. They seem to come . page 8.” aided by the depiction of a rifle-bearing man. and the source OPPOSITE BODY-ORIENTATION is exclusively represented by a pictorial component in the image alignment. Teng the belt of the rifle-bearing man. It is worth emphasizing. September 24.csmonitor. a multimodal metaphor. All rights reserved. which Barthes examined under the concept of anchoring. Reprinted with permission. The Christian Science Monitor. however.202 Norman Y.com). and it is important to specify in what way a particular metaphor is.) This implies that the word “terrorism” does not play any essential role in their interpretation. by Clay Bennett. It guides people’s interpretations. and Forceville 1996: 71–74. which can be labeled THE DEPLOYMENT OF ARMED FORCES AGAINST TERRORISM IS AN INFINITY DEPLOYMENT IN A VAST GEOGRAPHICAL AREA.” The model tanks metonymically represent the deployment of armed forces.com). The Christian Science Monitor. more important. It is . This contrast. All rights reserved. and. This is a multimodal metaphor. It can be linear along the horizontal axis (figures 1. image alignment can take many forms. Figures 2–5 show how this strategic deployment may work. In figure 3. Despite the diverse forms it can take. it is much smaller in size than the other two animals. the map represents a vast geographical area. unlike the rhino and the panda. the dove. In figure 2. page 8. 2004. is a design choice in the framework defined by the overall alignment.Image alignment in multimodal metaphor 203 to terms with a difficult situation. by Clay Bennett. and reach a decision: an endless deployment of armed forces and non-stop military operations throughout a vast geographical area. cannot properly be labeled “endangered species”. it is symbolic of peace. which line up into a curving shape reminiscent of the mathematical symbol of infinity “∞. again. the two pictures of garbage cans are essentially the same except the contrast in image resolution between them. Terrorism Strategy. alignment of any of these forms can be strategically deployed in the construction of multimodal metaphors through its central use for connecting a set of pictorial components in a way that is apt for expressing a certain idea. and the curving alignment reminiscent of the mathematical symbol of infinity metaphorically represents what the strategic deployment will lead to. September 13. The metaphor embedded in this interpretation is chiefly represented by the model tanks on the map.csmonitor. or a curvilinear form (figure 5). 2. This contrast is a design choice made within the framework defined by the overall alignment. a twodimensional pattern (figure 4). © 2004 The Christian Science Monitor (www. and 3). Figure 5. Reprinted with permission. As shown by the above examples. page 8. the model tanks line up into a shape reminiscent of the mathematical symbol of infinity. Teng worth noting here that alignment is defined in terms of iconic features such as size.com). The business person and the laborer are in positions orthogonal to . This is a design choice that makes the shape of the overall alignment conspicuous. In figure 6. Reprinted with permission. 2003. surprising. the symbolic representation in figure 3 is anchored to the alignment via the iconic function of the pictorial components. The Christian Science Monitor. In figure 4. or otherwise noticeable. rather than a particular aligned component. watching a zigzag arrow on a large sheet. the worshipper at the center of the alignment is in stark contrast to the rest of worshippers with respect to their body-orientation. The above discussion of figures 2–5 shows how one may proceed to work out pertinent and well-balanced interpretations.csmonitor. and distance. the symbolic representation in figure 5 is achieved via the overall shape of the alignment. All rights reserved. This is a design choice. but they do not determine their interpretations. In figure 5. and. which covers most of the wall. as a result. evocative. unexpected in that context. a business person and a laborer each stand in an erect position. define an unconventional three-dimensional spatial frame. Design choices of the sort just described point to the directions in which the readers should take their interpretations. The “Y” shaped lines. In contrast to figure 3. November 5. and. Figure 6. which represent the edges and the corner. probably. © 2003 The Christian Science Monitor (www. All these choices make some constituent components of the alignment salient.204 Norman Y. It’s an Escher-type Economy. by Clay Bennett. Figures 6 and 7 show that image alignment may be only implicitly involved in a design choice. too. orientation. The word “economy” printed on the arrow indicates that it is a graphic report on the economy. Image alignment in multimodal metaphor 205 each other within this spatial frame. instead of a normal spatial frame. The laborer’s position defines another viewpoint from which he sees a downward trend in the economy. and the examples we have encountered up to this point are effective in exposing how an orderly arrangement of pictorial components may figure in the construction of multimodal metaphors. and the scattered shreds give further evidence of the clipping and pasting. Moreover. The sheet in the foreground is intact.” The source is the direction that the arrow is supposed to point in.” “Equality. Nonetheless. orderly alignment. This metaphor expresses a critical stance on the economy by reminding people of the existent alternative perspectives. One can tell from the context that the symbols printed on the background sheets were “Liberty. it is represented by the arrow and the word “economy. five sheets of paper are arranged in a rather untidy way. valid. The target is the economic trend. Notice that the business person and the laborer in figure 6 would stand next to each other if they were aligned in a normal. It is against this implicit understanding of the normal alignment that the unconventional spatial frame and the consequent opposing viewpoints are made possible and salient. The symbol “SeCuRitY” thus created on the foreground sheet is a jumble of both lower case and upper case letters. the glue. and the letters are not lined up in an orderly way. The scissors. especially if such an array is intended for a particular effect against a backdrop of some understood. metaphorical account of the economic situation.” but. The business person’s position defines a viewpoint from which he sees a growing trend in the economy. This design gives a succinct. because of the clipping and pasting. Figure 7 is a case in point.” and “Freedom. In this cartoon. and the letters cut out from the background sheets have been pasted on it. spatial frame. and using the unconventional spatial frame. the four sheets in the background have been damaged – some letters were cut out from them. or no longer. metaphorically suggests that the conventional assumption that a growing economy will eventually benefit all people is not. Alignment implies an orderly arrangement of pictorial components. a disorderly array of pictorial components may also participate in the construction of multimodal metaphors. This design suggests the following interrelated interpretations: (a) the . Connecting the target to the source yields a metaphor that cannot but be formulated in somewhat laborious terms: THE DIRECTION OF THE ECONOMIC TREND IS THE DIRECTION OF THE ARROW AS IT IS VIEWED FROM EITHER THE BUSINESS PERSON’S POSITION OR THE LABORER’S POSITION IN THE UNCONVENTIONAL SPATIAL FRAME. they are now in bad shape.” “Justice. It is represented by the arrowhead and its spatial relations to the positions of the business person and the laborer. It can be carefully crafted so as to suggest that an action has been performed. page 8. “Television” and “HighDefinition Television” are essential to the interpretation of the cartoon. © 2001 The Christian Science Monitor (www. Various uses of this strategy and the design choices that point out the directions the interpretations should take are described. justice. All rights reserved. justice. Homeland Security. and freedom have been curtailed in the service of security. Figure 7. equality and security have not been handled carefully. Teng cuttings metaphorically mean that liberty.csmonitor. How verbal and other non-pictorial elements in a multimodal metaphor interact with the aligned pictorial components is explained by concrete examples. freedom. The Christian Science Monitor. the fact that the five sheets of paper are not well arranged suggests the metaphorical reading that issues concerning liberty. The disarray in figure 7 testifies to such a design choice. I have focused on image alignment as a design strategy in the construction of multimodal metaphors. On top of all this. Reprinted with permission. 2001. by Clay Bennett. and (c) the jumbled form of “SeCuRitY” metaphorically mean that security measures have been badly managed. 3. equality. (b) the clipping and pasting metaphorically mean that liberty. A few further suggestions that are more amenable to empirical evaluation may be considered. Conclusions and suggestions for further research In this chapter. Most . It is the implied actions. and freedom have been severely and dangerously compromised.com). It is worth emphasizing that disorder need not be a poorly thought-out design choice.206 Norman Y. equality. October 11. In figure 2. justice. that figure importantly in this construction of multimodal metaphor. rather than the things portrayed. one version of which runs as follows: “Metaphorical mappings preserve the cognitive topology (that is. When the target audiences are conversant with the symbolic and cultural meanings. in a way consistent with the inherent structure of the target domain” (Lakoff 1993: 215. the terrorist in figure 4. the garbage in figure 2. It is also likely that many people will have no idea what figure 3 is intended to mean if “endangered species. The idea of image alignment as a design strategy discussed above offers a perspective from which different modes of representation (here pictures and language) can be deftly combined and coherently understood.” “Southern Africa. but they are also pictorial components by design.” “Western China. Finally. By contrast. see Turner 1991: 172– 182. see El Refaie. As to the mathematical symbol of infinity in figure 5. those pictorial components can be good choices for communicative purposes. In addition to the texts guiding and framing readers’ interpretation.” and “Middle East” are deleted from it. “Economy” in figure 6 is also likely dispensable because of the typical portrayal of a boss and a laborer. the American flag in figure 5. the metaphorical meaning would be lost. for a discussion of how this principle should be . (For an empirical study of audience responses to political cartoons. It is also worth noting that the patterns of image alignment discussed above should not be taken to be instances governed by the invariance principle. if the target audiences are already familiar with the political cartoon genre. and the verbalizations of the metaphorical meanings can sometimes be a laborious task. see Turner 1996: 108–109. From a design perspective this should not be a surprise. and the boss and the laborer in figures 6 are all pictorial components that carry symbolic or cultural meanings familiar in the Western world. the lower and upper case letters in figure 7 are definitely verbal elements. “terrorism” in figure 4 is probably dispensable because of the prototypical depiction of a terrorist. for a critical discussion. for example. this volume) It is worth noting that the cartoon’s metaphors are mainly pictorial in their mode of representation. the dove-with-olive branch in figure 3. Lakoff 1990. see Brugman 1990. is a case in point (see Forceville 2006: 390–392 about the implications of this phenomenon for metaphor research).Image alignment in multimodal metaphor 207 people probably will have no clue how to read the garbage images if the verbal representations are removed from the picture. the image-schema structure) of the source domain. Figure 6. since words and pictures belong to different modes of representation and are suitable for different communicative purposes. if the model tanks were lined up into a shape other than the mathematical symbol for infinity. Turner 1990. for a slightly different version. for a discussion of how this principle fares against blending theory. the shared structure of which coincides largely with parameters relevant to the characterization of basic grammatical categories in cognitive grammar. orientation is a basic parameter for perceptual/cognitive classification. Johnson 2007: 178–179. for a discussion of elaboration. 2005. Let us suppose that Grady is correct about this metaphor (and I think he is). My guess is that this metaphor provides . Examples: Her new dress is very much in line with those worn by her co-workers.) It also suggests the hypothesis that primary metaphors may well serve as a common conceptual basis for multimodal constructions. The patterns of image alignment. The linguistic examples and the experiential motivation for this metaphor are given below: Motivation: Objects may be oriented in the same way because they serve similar functions. Teng further revised. see Lakoff and Johnson 2003: 253–254). A metaphor is primary in the sense that the association of the target with the source is directly based on an experiential correlation between them (Grady 1997a: 47–48. despite their image-schematic and topological nature. (I thank Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza and an anonymous reviewer for prompting this clarification. Instead. Lakoff and Johnson 1999: 45–73). (Grady 2005: 1606–1607).) This line of thinking gives us a way to apply cognitive grammar and its usagebased approach to design research. Grady and Johnson 2000. are not something to be preserved or overridden in the metaphorical mappings.208 Norman Y. Moreover. see Langacker 2008: 167– 174. the source and target concepts refer to basic dimensions of experience. the idea of target domain overrides is just not appropriate to frame the issues concerning the role of image alignment in the construction of multimodal metaphors. (For a recent discussion of constructional schemas in cognitive grammar. or abandoned. it is more suitable to consider them as constructional schemas. are involved in similar processes or acted on by similar forces. and the metaphorical mappings appear not to be governed by the invariance principle. see also Grady 1997b. One entry in Grady’s (1997a: 281–299) list of primary metaphors is SIMILARITY IS ALIGNMENT. and the design choices described in the previous section as elaborations of the schemas. There are stunning parallels between these two novels (Grady 1997a: 283). see Langacker 2008: 198–205. One may ask what is the relationship between this metaphor and the image alignment discussed in this chapter. Or to put it differently. 1999. And/or. Taiwan. and an anonymous reviewer for their helpful critical remarks. Der-Chin Horng. Francisco Yus. References Barthes. 21–40. I thank Kathleen Ahrens. it is this primary metaphor that sustains the framework for the design choices described above. It seems then that image alignment renders the abstract concept SIMILARITY visible on the basis of the experiential correlation that motivates the primary metaphor SIMILARITY IS ALIGNMENT. Acknowledgments This study is supported by a grant from Taiwan’s National Science Council. . and Representation. I was kindly given an opportunity to present an earlier version of this chapter at the International Symposium on Language. Sewen Sun.Image alignment in multimodal metaphor 209 the requisite conceptual underpinning for image alignment (I thank Charles Forceville for suggesting this point to me). Wan-Chuan Fang. Richard Hwang. One may further hypothesize that each design strategy that enables people to render an abstract concept visible on the basis of the relevant experiential correlation in fact is based on a primary metaphor. I have greatly benefited from Charles Forceville’s extensive comments and suggestions on earlier versions of this chapter. More data from a diverse range of designs have to be examined before one can substantiate this conjecture about primary metaphors and design strategies. Another version was given as a lecture talk at the Institute of European and American Studies. Claudia 1990 What is the invariance hypothesis? Cognitive Linguistics 1: 257– 266. New York: Hill and Wang. by Richard Howard] In The Responsibility of Forms: Critical Essays on Music. In the last resort. Chyong-Fang Ko. Academia Sinica. I thank LeeJoy Cheng. Art. Brugman. Roland 1985 [1964] Rhetoric of the image. and Judd Kinzely and Jeffrey Cuvilier for their hints on how to improve the writing. Culture and Cognition. Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza. I thank William Croft and I-wen Su for their comments and suggestions on that occasion. [Trans. Te-Hsing Shan and Ruey-Ling Tzeng for their probing questions and suggestions on that occasion. . (ed. Ph. . In The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Raymond W.). 379–402. 2005 Primary metaphors as inputs to conceptual integration. Journal of Philosophy 77: 453–486. 2003 Metaphors We Live By (with a new Afterword). 533–554.. Mark 2007 The Meaning of the Body: Aesthetics of Human Understanding. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. and Mark Johnson 1980a Metaphors We Live By. Cognitive Linguistics 8: 267– 290. resemblance. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 462–482. 1980b Conceptual metaphor in everyday language. 2nd ed. Jr.. Gitte Kristiansen. Grady. 1997a Foundations of meaning: Primary metaphors and primary scenes.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Steen and Raymond W. and Christopher Johnson 2000 Converging evidence for the notions of subscene and primary scene. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: Benjamins. Berkeley. George 1990 The invariance hypothesis: Is abstract reason based on imageschemas? Cognitive Linguistics 1: 39–74. In Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics. Andrew Ortony (ed.). 2006/this vol.D. Gerard J. London/New York: Routledge. Lakoff. Michel Achard. René Dirven and Ralf Pörings (eds. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: Agendas for research. Joseph E. University of California.). Johnson. Gibbs. George. Gibbs. René Dirven.). Grady. 79–100. 1997b THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS revisited. 202–251. Teng Forceville. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1993 The contemporary theory of metaphor.210 Norman Y. Lakoff. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (eds. Journal of Pragmatics 37: 1595–1614. Charles 1996 Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising. In Metaphor and Thought 2nd ed. In Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. 1999 Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought. Joseph E. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Jr. diss. and Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez (eds. 2008 Metaphor in pictures and multimodal representations. In Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives. New York: Basic Books. 1999 A typology of motivation for conceptual metaphor: Correlation vs.). Cognitive Linguistics 1: 247– 255. Norman Y. Norman Y. . Teng. Turner. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Teng. and oxymoron in pictures: A design-based cognitive approach. simile.. Ronald W.Image alignment in multimodal metaphor 211 Langacker. Metaphor and Symbol 17: 295–316. Metaphor and Symbol 21: 67–85. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2008 Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1991 Reading Minds: The Study of English in the Age of Cognitive Science. Mark 1990 Aspects of the invariance hypothesis. and Sewen Sun 2002 Grouping. 1996 The Literary Mind: The Origins of Thought and Language. 2006 Metaphor and coupling: An embodied. action-oriented perspective. . thus far.. following the two types of source domains distinguished by Shen (1999).Chapter 10 Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes Abstract Typical of metaphors in editorial cartoons is that they not only require somehow the mapping of features from one object or domain to another. cognitive linguists. critical viewpoint. We will argue that the “full” interpretation of editorial cartoon metaphors can best be accounted for on the basis of the combination of two cognitive interpretation strategies. as all metaphors do. for example to explain things to people (a heart is like a motor). we argue that schema-based reasoning tends to trigger the rich variety of features to be mapped from source to target domain. and that taxonomic reasoning is often the crucial trigger in interpreting the critical stance expressed in editorial cartoons. cognitive psychologists and philosophers have studied the ways in which different types of .e. taxonomic reasoning. i. but their interpretation also includes a critical stance towards a particular socio-political situation. metaphors are considered a conceptual rather than a linguistic phenomenon. Introduction Metaphors are employed to pursue a range of communicative goals. visual metaphor. Keywords: editorial cartoons. schema theory. In the chapter. But. language has been the privileged input modality when it comes to studying metaphoric conceptualization. to persuade people (this car is as fast as a leopard) or to carry away readers (my thoughts are playing in my head like young lions in the evening sun). Since the seminal work of Lakoff and Johnson (1980). schematic vs. Over the last decades. event or person. categorical metaphor interpretation 1. In recent years. The latter process is usually called cross-domain mapping. proposals for a typology of visual rhetoric. commercial advertisements abound in metaphorical images (Phillips and McQuarrie 2002) and therefore offer a natural habitat and a rich and promising resource of data on visual metaphors.. i. Gibbs 2005. and Boronat 2001. McQuarrie and Phillips 2005. Phillips and McQuarrie 2002. with a special focus on visual metaphors and similes (Forceville 1996. Scott and Batra 2003..e.. Huhmann.g. i.g. But editorial cartoons. Tom and Eves 1999. Obviously. The processing of a metaphor thus implies the understanding or experiencing of the target in terms of the source. sound and gestures can trigger metaphors as well (e. Wolff. too. Mothersbaugh. Scott 1994. Lakoff and Johnson 1980. and Franke 2002. Teng and Sun 2002. and reflections on the medium (in)dependence of visual rhetoric. Forceville 2006/this volume. Van Mulken 2003. there is broad agreement on the basic template of metaphor. is conceptualized in terms of another entity (object or domain). and Hoeken 2005). Van Mulken. the source. Cienki and Müller 2008. Zbikowski 2002). Phillips 2000. Despite many different theoretical positions and claims with respect to metaphor interpretation. 2003a.This process underlies for example Gentner’s career of metaphor theory (Bowdle and Gentner 2005) as well as Glucksberg’s (2001) class inclusion idea. Teng 2006. on how they are shaped and combined with verbal rhetoric. 2002. what meaning operations are involved. are a metaphor- . 2006.. 1999). This understanding and experiencing involves a dual process: the two entities have to be identified as source and target respectively. It is considered a rhetorical figure in which one particular entity (an object or domain). McQuarrie and Mick 1992. Bowdle. 1996. Kenney and Scott 2003. The conceptual nature of metaphor implies that not only language can be used as a stepping stone for metaphoric conceptualization.e. Deutscher 2005. McCarthy and Mothersbaugh 2002. the better part of the research into visual metaphors takes commercial advertisements as the main context of study. 2003. 2003b. and correspondences between the entities originating from two distinct domains have to be found in order to establish what aspects of the source also apply to the target. The research efforts include analyses of the form-meaning relationships involved in visual rhetoric. Pictures. 2008. we have witnessed a rapidly growing research interest in visual rhetorical figures. To our knowledge. 2004. Gentner. 1999. the target. how new metaphors emerge and how language users process metaphors triggered by linguistic cues (e. studies into readers’ responses associated with different types of visual rhetoric.214 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes metaphor are conventionalized in language. Bowdle and Gentner 2005. Van Enschot-van Dijk. Metaphorical editorial cartoons According to Wikipedia. which – as we will argue – requires a categorical interpretation of the source domain. . Nicholas Garland (cited in Plumb 2004: 432) tellingly portrays the force of an editorial cartoon as being derived “from the vehicle itself which. Wikipedia observes that “most [editorial cartoons] use visual metaphors and caricatures to explain complicated political situations. we would specify this definition in that the social message implies that a certain socio-political event or personality is depicted and commented on.” The communicative functions of editorial cartoons and advertisements differ considerably. Editorial cartoons are widely studied. Most of these studies focus on cartoon selections related to particular political situations (such as presidential elections. and thus sum up a current event with a humorous picture. Section 2 briefly characterizes editorial cartoons. surrealism. we will discuss a number of building blocks which we consider crucial in constructing a cognitively plausible interpretation of metaphors in editorial cartoons. which makes it interesting to investigate whether and how these differences are reflected in the metaphoric conceptualizations found. requires some or all of a mixture of caricature. especially in different areas of sociology and journalism. an editorial cartoon can be said to have a descriptive and an evaluative communicative function. On the one hand. On the other hand. distortion. In section 3. world wars. Section 4 discusses four cases of editorial cartoons. That way. representing different structural types of visual metaphor. 2. we will present two interpretative ingredients which we consider crucial in metaphoric cartoons and which enable us to account not only for their metaphoric conceptualization.” For our purposes. but also for their critical stance. metaphor. metaphoric cartoons tend to evoke scenarios and thus require a schematic interpretation of the source domain. they almost exclusively propagate a critical stance towards a certain topic. besides caricature. the method of selecting and defining metaphors in editorial cartoons will be discussed. that usually relates to current events or personalities. For example.”1 The political cartoonist for the Daily Telegraph.Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 215 rich communicative area. in which clusters of (rather than individual) attributes or relations are mapped from source to target domain. an editorial cartoon is “an illustration or comic strip containing a political or social message. We conclude the chapter with a discussion on the multimodal nature of editorial cartoons. deliberate misunderstanding and mockery. In this chapter. In section 5. Morrison 1992). Edwards 2001. positioned upside down. Japan or Austria. Gilmartin and Brunn 1998. Becker 1996. the reverse often holds for editorial cartoons. if not radically negative stance towards the topic. beliefs. Figure 1 (taken from Forceville 1996) shows a bottle of Mobil motor oil. with liquid pouring out of it. Whereas commercial ads intend to evoke positive attitudes and feelings with respect to the target. e..g.216 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes or the cold war. Groarke 2002). Together with the header text Intensive Care. El Refaie 2003..g. Edwards 2001). One goal of this paper is to demonstrate the necessity of making this point of view explicit in order to properly analyze the way metaphors operate in cartoons (cf. rather than at changing or influencing behavior.. The Mobil oil advertisement (Forceville 1996). historical. Figures 1 and 2 may serve to illustrate these points. convention tells . they almost invariably express a particular critical. and perspectives on socio-political affairs. and some of them extensively explain metaphors within the pragmatic (political) context in which they thrive (e.. Since the message is about Mobil motor oil. or they study the work of a particular cartoonist (e. to our knowledge there has been no attempt to account for the generic structure of metaphoric conceptualization as it takes shape in editorial cartoons. e. Cartoons aim at affecting states of minds. As already indicated.g. Most importantly. and contextual knowledge. In addition. the processing and interpretation of cartoons requires a complex mix of political. points of view. cultural. Although the role of metaphor is often acknowledged in these studies. however. particular countries (such as the US. editorial cartoons differ considerably from commercial advertisements. El Refaie 2003). the following metaphoric X IS Y scheme can be derived: MOBIL OIL IS INTRAVENOUS DRIP. Figure 1.. Feldman 1995) or particular societal issues (such as the role of women in society. Plumb 2004).g.g. e. e. De Nieuwe Linie. amongst others Mobil. 1977) Now look at figure 2: an editorial cartoon drawn by the Dutch artist Bernhardt Willem Holtrop (“Willem”).. The ad thus expresses the message that the product is the “life-blood of one’s car” (Forceville 1996: 159). presented with this image. sitting in a wheelchair and connected to several bottles of intravenous drips. The context of medical care is attributed to the maintenance of one’s car: MOBIL OIL IS TO A CAR WHAT AN INTRAVENOUS DRIP IS TO THE HUMAN BODY. Figure 2. providing professional care and expert treatment. The central tenet of the message seems to be that the . Mobil’s support of the Smith-regime is to that regime what an intravenous drip is to the human body. The cartoon shows us Ian Smith. leader of the former Rhodesian apartheid regime (presently Zimbabwe). or. Smith is portrayed in quite a deplorable physical condition. That is. which was published in the magazine De Nieuwe Linie in 1977.Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 217 us that this entity should be identified as the target. i. On these bottles the names of various Dutch and multinational companies are shown. S/he would then clearly misunderstand the essence of this cartoon. The Mobil oil cartoon (Bernhardt Willem Holtrop. The viewer/reader is invited to map positively oriented elements like professional care and expert treatment from source to target. We can paraphrase the metaphor in this cartoon as INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT OF SMITH IS INTRAVENOUS DRIP. interprets it by mapping the same elements to the target object as intended by the Mobil oil ad. s/he infers that Mobil oil is like a doctor to the Smith regime. Now suppose a viewer. specified to Mobil as one of the supporters: MOBIL IS INTRAVENOUS DRIP. we consulted a number of websites with collections of (international) editorial cartoons. However. Our decision to focus mainly on Dutch cartoons is practical as it offers the best guarantee that we are able to understand as precisely as possible the public events and persons the cartoons refer to. such as hyperboles.218 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes Rhodesian apartheid regime can only survive by (an overkill of) external treatment. figure 2 aims at precisely the opposite. whereas the Mobil advertisement in figure 1 aims at cross domain mappings that should lead to a favorable attitude towards Mobil. Willem. 3. Jos Collignon and Peter van Straaten. Therefore. Russia-as-bear) or other rhetorical figures. we intend to characterize the dominant generic structure of metaphoric conceptualizations in editorial cartoons and to analyze the way visual metaphors are employed to make a point or express a viewpoint. our analyses will primarily focus on metaphorical conceptualizations of target domains. Opland. In collecting cartoons. we did not systematically control cartoons per artist. our main criterion in selecting cartoons is that they should contain a visual metaphor. we sampled a corpus of 117 Dutch and 27 international cartoons. such as Fritz Behrendt. In our view. many also contain caricatures (Bush-as-elephant. In other words. Sample and selection of editorial cartoons We used two main sources to collect the sample of editorial cartoons that we discuss in this chapter. Tom Janssen. where one domain (X) serves as target and the other (Y) as vehicle. this short analysis suggests a systematic interpretative difference between editorial cartoons and commercial advertisements and brings to light that the same visual metaphor serves widely distinct purposes in these two communicative genres.2 That is. In addition.3 This way. and to take care of its existence itself. publication medium or type of public event satirized. as we are not interested in (representative analyses of) particular periods. . or a combination of visual and verbal metaphor. Many of the selected cartoons obviously contain more than just a metaphor. large enough to make observations and cautious hypotheses about representative characteristic features and generalizations. Rather. as it is no longer able to stand on its own. the image is to refer to (at least) two domains X and Y that have a metaphorical relationship (rather than a literal analogy) X IS Y. artists or event types. For example. Most of the cartoons were taken from collections of cartoons published as separate books (containing work) by various famous Dutch cartoon artists. time period. that is. we carried out the following analytical steps. we will ignore such variation. in analyzing and discussing the cartoon metaphors. objects and situations and has sufficient factual knowledge to understand the gist of the cartoon. we take a cognitive rather than a pragmatic point of view. and situations and on their knowledge of the relevant facts. we take the position of a fully informed viewer. 4. historical facts. such an approach has its flaws. such as news events. a viewer who not only knows the conventions of the genre. Also. Clearly. and the like. This knowledge is indispensable for a full interpretation of the intended meaning associated with metaphors in cartoons. as El Refaie (this volume) demonstrates. For example. Analyzing the cartoons: Four case studies For each cartoon. the interpretation of cartoons crucially depends on the viewers’ ability to recognize persons. viewers will more or less expect cartoons to criticize or ridicule situations or persons. contextual/pragmatic knowledge they bring to bear on interpreting the cartoon. This means that we focus on the information contained in cartoons that viewers are to process. Nevertheless. cultural habits. For example. and the accomplishment of the evaluative position. contextual/pragmatic knowledge varies from viewer to viewer. Hence. but also recognizes the relevant persons. in analyzing cartoons.Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 219 It is obvious that the interpretation of cartoon metaphors is to a certain extent driven by genre-related. and this might cause interesting and complex interpretation problems – problems that are fully worth to be studied in their own right. rather than in terms of the cultural and general discourse context. we hope to detect generic meaning ingredients and interpretation mechanisms related to metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons. That way. pragmatic considerations. We intend to account for the metaphoric conceptualization and critical stance of editorial cartoons in terms of what is actually shown in the image. – We defined the conceptual content of a cartoon by paraphrasing the metaphor using the X IS Y template. and concentrate on unraveling the source-to-target mapping mechanism. This being said. thus determining target and source domain and the aspects to be mapped. objects. thereby assuming (rather than assessing) all available and relevant background knowledge. and they will therefore most probably arrive at an interpretation of a cartoon to that effect. . rather than on the prior. 220 – Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes We determined the way in which the two domains are realized. We will show that the three structural classes are relevant in detecting relations and attributes to be mapped and argue that cartoons need an additional interpretation step in which the critical point of view is extracted. cases in which the two domains are expressed separately (i. we reconstructed as objectively as possible the point of view expressed.e. The cartoon dates back to 2002. and the metaphorical structure can be rephrased as FOOTBALL IS SUN.. – Following the practice of Groarke (2002) in analyzing the argumentative structure of editorial cartoons. This qualifies the cartoon as an example of replacement in that the sun is replaced by a football. fusions). juxtapositions).com. or the tournament. Hence.. where it . In this section we will illustrate these analytical steps by discussing four cartoons. the object FOOTBALL is to be labeled the target object. FOOTBALL IS June 2006). and SUN the source. What comment does this analogy express? The sun very often appears as source object in commercial ads. On the smaller object latitude and longitude lines are projected. and cases in which the two domains are visually integrated (i.e. for example in ads for fruit juices. so its topic is football. Philips and McQuarrie (2004) and Teng and Sun (2002). www. which suggests that we are to interpret the large object as the sun. a conventional way of visualizing the earth. the metaphorical objects involved here can be paraphrased as FOOTBALL and SUN.cartoonweb. Figure 3. Hence. we tried to distinguish cases in which only one domain is expressed visually (so called replacements). retrieved Figure 3 shows us a solar system of two celestial bodies. SUN (BAS. Following Forceville (1996). Tachydromos. the year in which the world champion soccer tournament took place in Japan and South Korea. ” As we will discuss further in section 5. Two pictorial details are important in this interpretation. Although natural events are hardly suitable to form an opinion about. Figure 4. First. the proportions of a solar system with a tiny earth and a large football moreover hint at the ironical stance towards the topic. TSUNAMI IS ary 2007) SHARK (Tom Janssen. so to speak.tomjanssen.net. www.Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 221 attributes positively oriented notions like “health.” “giving energy. Figure 5 shows a case of juxtaposition.2. with the accompanying text (to be translated as And now . football has become as important as the sun is to life on earth. If the objects were juxtaposed or fused. the cartoon expresses the message that from now on we should also include tsunamis as members of the set of horrible things. We see a dog and a television both tied to a tree. Evoking such positive attitudes is not what this cartoon intends to do. the cartoon ironically comments on the worldwide impact of the championship. expressing the artist’s opinion that. this requires a categorical interpretation: by using sharks as a source. retrieved Janu- Figure 4 is a case of fusion: two objects are fused into one hybrid visual image which expresses the metaphor TSUNAMI IS SHARK. The cartoon appeared right after the news of the disastrous tsunami in Indonesia in December 2004.” and “providing light and warmth” to the product. suggesting that it is the most important thing in the world. the complete replacement of the sun by a football may make the impact of the latter object stronger than a fusion or juxtaposition of these two domains would have done. whereas now it has completely disappeared from the scene. to many people. the viewer might infer that at least the sun would still be there. Second. the metaphor expresses the horror of the event by fusing the tidal wave and shark teeth. Rather. The cartoon thus exploits the source entity (SHARK) as a prototypical member of the set of “horrible things. net. Figure 5. retrieved As a final example. and this way of grouping them invites readers to solve the cognitive dissonance caused by the apparent differences between the objects and to look for relevant connections between the objects (cf. TELEVISION IS (LIKE) January 2007) DOG (Tom Janssen. The name Cuba projected on the back of the boy allows us to identify the first meta- . This cartoon refers to the situation in a class room where an angry teacher punishes a bad school boy by putting him in the corner. the artist thus expresses the idea that Dutch broadcast organizations who are responsible for summer TV programming relate to their audience the way dog owners who leave behind their dogs relate to their pets. only the image of the dog refers literary to a real-world state of affairs. summer broadcasting in the Netherlands (and elsewhere) is often criticized for mainly repeating old programs. Although the phenomena are equally deplorable. Teng and Sun 2002). First.222 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes we repeat last year’s summer broadcasting programs). www. We may conclude that this should be the source object. we consider a cartoon (published in the 1960s) in which there is more than one metaphor present within the same image (see figure 6). Second. By metaphorically grouping these objects. Note that the two objects DOG and TV-SET are placed next to each other. This knowledge enables us to identify the metaphorical objects as SUMMER TV PROGRAMMING and LEFT-BEHIND PET. and to determine the crucial element which connects the two objects: they represent comparable examples of contemptuous human behavior. Pets are often left on their own in just the way this cartoon depicts. Distilling the critical comment in this cartoon requires some contextual knowledge about the two objects. many people have the deplorable habit of going on holiday unwilling to take proper care of their pets.tomjanssen. and that the metaphorical structure can be rephrased as SUMMER TV PROGRAMMING IS (LIKE) LEFT BEHIND PET. note that the metaphorical scenario evokes the inherently unequal teacher-pupil relationship. In this case the cartoon not only maps attributes of bad boys and angry teachers onto the target domains Cuba and America respectively. the four cases show that the domains involved in visual metaphors can be realized or represented differently: by the replacement of one visual domain by the other or by a combination of two . What is special about this cartoon is that the two metaphors together trigger a scenario or scheme. All nations are equal. rather than to comment on it. To conclude this section. retrieved March 2003).politiekespotprenten. emphasized by the visual perspective taken in the cartoon.” Like the cartoon in figure 3. as it only seems to tell the reader: This is what the political situation of Cuba and the US is like. AMERICA IS ANGRY TEACHER (www. the US acting wrongly because it treats Cuba like a naughty boy. However. CUBA IS LITTLE BAD BOY. As such the cartoon expresses the idea that Cuba relates to America like a little bad boy relates to his angry teacher.nl. Figure 6. but it also maps certain typical roles. as is in fact the case with a large number..e. so if one nation (the US) considers itself as superior with respect to another nation (Cuba). that accounts for the cartoon’s critical stance. So the image merely seems to signify some complex political situation to the reader. In international affairs there is no actor who is inherently superior to the other. It is not easy to distill the critical stance of the cartoon. it is the very choice of the metaphoric scenario.Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 223 phor as CUBA IS LITTLE BAD BOY. i. This may hint at its critical stance. if not all of the cartoons in our corpus (see section 5). whereas the stars on the sleeve of the pointing figure tell us the second metaphor is AMERICA IS ANGRY TEACHER. then that first nation is “wrong. together with pictorial details. socsci . the pupil and the teacher). their scenario character. The next section discusses these characteristics in more detail. De Telegraaf. www. who gather around the sickbed of a patient.. This cartoon was published in 1980. . the former Polish leader Wojciech Jaruzelski.e. or juxtaposed. Hospital scenario metaphor (Fritz Behrendt.nl/ped/owk/activeworlds/prenten/. the first free labor union under a communist regime. It depicts union leader and Solidarnosc founder Lech Walesa. Pictorial details in cartoons may trigger schema or scenario domains involving prototypical relations between objects (the little earth and the large football. Figure 7. 5. and they may trigger category domains including prototypical members (i.. retrieved January 2007).e.1 Signifying states of affairs: schematic source domain interpretation Especially the Cuba-US cartoon suggests a pervasive characteristic of editorial cartoon metaphors. The majority of cartoons in our corpus introduce a familiar scenario as a basis of the visual metaphor. sharks and left pets).224 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes visual domains. the personification of Poland. i. 1980. A typical example is given in figure 7.kun. Two basic interpretation ingredients 5. both in signifying a certain state of affairs and in commenting on it. and Karl Marx. integrated (fused). The cartoon triggers an entire conceptual domain that we may call a hospital scenario. Walesa is holding a syringe and Marx a copy of his book Das Kapital. we suggested two characteristics which indicate how in a cartoon a visual metaphor is involved in visual argument. Apart from that. during the heyday of the former Polish free labor union Solidarnosc (Solidarity). scenario metaphors can be seen as Idealized Conceptual Models.e. people tend not to map properties like tubular or hollow from source to target. Shen provides an explanation why. the receptacle. Shen accounts for this preference by proposing that the source domain of the drinking straw evokes a schema that not only contains the object itself. and more in general the affordances. roles. the liquid being drunk. For instance. patient).Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 225 The scenario contains several elements: persons (staff. locations and attributes which all are more or less fixed. Besides sources-as-schemas. roles (doctor. certain features are mapped from source to targets in preference to others. and attributes (being sick). but also entities such as the person using the straw. in processing metaphorical messages. Hence. and functions associated with these objects grouped together in this particular constellation. and conventionally known by all members of the cultural community in which they appear. With this notion. patients). experiences. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980). their understanding of the metaphor is likely to involve the notion of a drinking device. A more fine-grained account of this type of metaphor can be found in Shen’s (1999) notion of schematic source domain. temporal and other sorts of relationships between persons. he also distinguishes sources-as-taxonomic categories. but the scenario also imposes an additional conceptual structure onto the image by virtue of the conceptual relations that hold between the scenario elements. (2001). cognitive networks with causal. with respect to the topic of this cartoon the scenario serves as a supplier of various metaphorical relations: WALESA IS DOCTOR JARUZELSKI IS DOCTOR MARX IS DOCTOR POLAND IS PATIENT DAS KAPITAL IS MEDICINE “SOLIDARNOSC” IS MEDICINE POLITICAL DOMAIN/PUBLIC AREA IS HOSPITAL ROOM Not only do scenario elements serve as source objects. as also noted by Gentner et al. a drip). . We return to this type of source domains in the next section where we attempt to account for the critical stance of editorial cartoons. and the relation between the person/object that drinks and the liquid being drunk. i. Rather.. relations (doctors and medical instruments) and objects (instruments. in comprehending a metaphor like plant stems are drinking straws. Equally frequent is the cooking-scenario. i. spatial and temporal relations” (Shen 1999: 1633). Promoting the reorganization of the Dutch election system was the main reason for founding De Graaff’s party D66 in 1966. an idea which is consistent with Gentner’s structure-mapping theory (Gentner et al. The cartoon shows us De Graaff. In our sample. Cooking scenario metaphor (Tom Janssen. eight cartoons exploit this scenario (see also figure 2). Figure 8. who is busy cooking the new election system (see the Dutch label nieuw kiesstelsel on the kitchen pot). a knowledge structure consisting of a set of entities which are connected to each other “via relations of contiguity.e. In interpreting metaphors on the basis of this schema paradigm.. April 2004) The cartoon was published in April 2004. and higher order relation mappings are preferred over lower order relation mappings. causal. 2001). Trouw. there are different roles here that may serve as individual metaphors: MINISTER IS COOK POLICY IS DISH MEASURE IS INGREDIENT MEASURE IS COOKING EQUIPMENT . such as thematic. the former Dutch minister of administrative innovation Thom de Graaff was deeply involved in defending and implementing his proposal for a new system for electing mayors and Dutch congress representatives.4 The hospital or medical scenario-as-metaphor is a recurrent one. the mapping of relations is preferred over the mapping of isolated attributes. an example of which is given in figure 8. As in the medical scenario. At that time.226 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes A schematic source domain thus represents a cognitive schema. June 2006) Finally. states or political parties. In one case a ship (quite a marked one. blood-thirsty dogs. Ships are often used as source domains for nations. The marriage scenario is often employed to portray coalitions or political treaties. i.. www. both commenting on the special anti-terrorist act of the Dutch minister of Justice by portraying the act and terrorism as two equally big. retrieved. treaties or other products of politicians are often portrayed as animals. thus expressing the opinion that in this case the cure may be worse than the illness. published during the 2004 US presidential election campaign. it is not difficult to infer other metaphors such as PEOPLE ARE CONSUMERS OF DISH. depicting George Walker Bush and John Kerry as boxers in a boxing ring. as they are used metaphorically to evoke a wide range of semantic categories (see also figure 4). For example. especially ships and animals. Other frequently encountered metaphorical scenarios in our corpus are marriage. and (boxing) games. Another animal that is frequently used as metaphorical source do- . we found two Dutch cartoons. The use of animals in cartoons justifies a study in its own right. Laws. The sports game scenario is well suited to metaphorically depict political opponents or election campaigns. in fact) is even used for a person.cartoon web. Boxing game scenario metaphor (KAL. An example is figure 9. funerals. dating from March 2005. the Titanic as a source domain for former US president Bill Clinton.Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 227 Once the schema is triggered. The Economist.e. Figure 9. there are some prototypical source objects (not scenarios) that we observed on several occasions.com. If we look again at figure 8. editorial cartoons differ from commercial advertisements in that they often express some critical point of view. A full account of visual metaphor in cartoons requires this point of view to be made explicit.. Consider again the difference between the Mobil metaphors in figures 1 and 2. rather than how they relate to other objects or events in a scenario. According to Shen.2 The critical viewpoint: categorical source domain interpretation As we already noted. is based on the taxonomic interpretation of a hawk as a particular type of bird. The metaphorical expression Bush is a hawk. the categorical attributes of a hawk with a high diagnostic value in the given context are its ferocity and invulnerability. which. or comes too slowly.228 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes main is the snail. The tenet of the Mobil ad in figure 1 seems to rely primarily on the underly- . schematic) relation. It is based on the second type of source domain proposed by Shen (1999). which is based on a set-member relationship. stating that the mapping of properties with high diagnostic value is preferred over the mapping of properties with low diagnostic value.e. Applied to the Bush is a hawk metaphor. an idea which is congruent with Ortony’s salience imbalance theory of metaphor understanding (Ortony 1979). rather than a part-whole (i. But on what grounds precisely do we conclude this? In this section. in an attempt to substantiate the plausibility of the relationship between categorical reasoning and the critical stance in cartoons. we will reanalyze some of the cartoons discussed above.e. i. which suggests that he is not able to cope with his job. enables us to explain the critical stance of editorial cartoons. The categorical interpretation is guided by the so-called diagnosticity principle. the domain as category. Such details allow us to conclude that the cartoon expresses a critical standpoint towards both the minister and his policy. That is. De Graaff is portrayed as a child. sometimes source domains require a taxonomic or categorical interpretation. In the remainder of this section. These pictorial aspects suggest that there is something wrong with both the dish and the way he is preparing it. For example. for example. Animals often evoke this type of categorical interpretation in editorial cartoons. the interpretation is based on how hawks relate to the set of birds. which is reminiscent of Glucksberg’s (2001) class inclusion idea. it is striking that De Graaff’s kitchen is a mess and that black smoke evaporates from his kitchen pot. 5. often employed to express the opinion that some measure or action has been undertaken too late. we discuss an interpretation mechanism.. we believe. instrument. the diagnostic potential of the categorical interpretation of medical care as a member of the set of external assistance offers the crucial trigger for the critical point the cartoon attempts to make (i. In particular. patient. A strictly schematic interpretation (as provided in section 5. Political leaders or statesmen are good to the extent that they are supported by internal forces and assistance from inside. So who belongs to which category in this cartoon? Our knowledge of the political circumstances in Poland by the time. namely that he is to form positive attitudes towards the advertised product. Conversely.e. Obviously. for example their own governments and people. the relative large size of the drips. however.Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 229 ing medical scheme: by using Mobil oil a car owner takes care of his car like a doctor takes care of his patient.. the medical care domain has to be viewed as a member of the set of external forces or assistance from outside. But in order for the viewer to distill the critical tenet of the cartoon.g. and even as a member with a high diagnostic value. a drip may also be seen as member of the category of things used to treat sick patients. the facial expression and posture of Smith. Jaruzelski. In our view. otherwise. but this adds little to what the viewer already knows. rests on a multiple categorical interpretation of the source domain element doctor. The medical schema evokes entities like doctor. Two opposite diagnostic properties of the class of doctors (or the superset of caregivers) are crucial. A similar categorical interpretation can explain the critical position expressed in the Poland cartoon (figure 7).1) actually does little more than signifying the state of affairs in Poland in 1981: Walesa. additional interpretation is required. and the visual perspective of the dangling wheelchair). The critical tenet of the cartoon. A doctor can either be a member of the set of caregivers who help and cure other people or he can be a member of the set of caregivers who mistreat patients and destroy their lives. this additional interpretation is critically dependent on categorical reasoning about the medical source domain. this categorical interpretation has a rich diagnostic potential.. s/he would simply feel invited to understand the international support of the Smith regime in terms of medical care. and the interpretation of the metaphor is based on the standard relations of contiguity between these entities in the medical scheme: actor. With respect to the target domain (political leaders or regimes). and Marx relate to Poland like a doctor relates to a patient. Hence. political leaders who can only stay in power due to external support are considered bad. Note that pictorial details are in line with this interpretation (e. and so on. international support for the Smith regime is “bad”). medicine and patient. and the political points of view of the . Now consider figure 2. This cartoon triggers exactly the same medical schema. we believe.e. the bad cook idea in figure 8 seems to rely on the relative size of the cook and his cooking pot. But a closer look reveals a bigger glove on Kerry’s right hand with the word “Iraq” projected on it. such as the messy kitchen. . the intended critical interpretation. For example. he himself believes this to be so).e. Figure 9 is another example.. However. But this same conclusion is also warranted by pictorial elements. it is evident that factual pragmatic knowledge is an essential condition to come up with these fine grained interpretations of cartoons. and bad doctors have bad medicines. metaphorical entailment allows us to make the following inference: Because good doctors have good medicines.e. the relative size) of objects are good candidates. Solidarnosc is a good medicine. and thus to require only a schematic interpretation..230 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes cartoonist will lead us to infer that Walesa is the good doctor. Similar observations can be made with regard to the cooking source domain. Furthermore. So. and the critical position of the author is accounted for by a categorical aspect of the source domain. in that the small cook cannot be supposed to master his much too large cooking pot. he can attack Bush with the war in Iraq and therefore he is likely to win the elections (or at least. and Das Kapital a bad one.. the gist of the message. setmember classification) is at work which accounts for the evaluative aspect of visual metaphor in cartoons as it is triggered by pictorial details. which results in the interpretation that Kerry has the better weapon. At first sight. highlighted by pictorial details. again. only a categorical interpretation evokes the diagnostic property which reveals the critical stance of the cartoon: the cook is to be seen as a member of what can be termed the set of bad cooks. In sum. cooks who are not up to the task of organizing their work in the kitchen and preparing a proper meal. is carried by the diagnostic potential of the categorical interpretation of the source domain element doctor. especially by the different facial expressions of the three doctors. This enlarged glove suggests a categorical interpretation.. and reveals the relevant properties to be mapped to the target domain. The cartoon in figure 8 rests on a cooking schema to the extent that it clarifies how this minister relates to his policy and the people affected by it. or the black smoke. But the point that we want to pursue is that a generic cognitive mechanism (i. i. We are only beginning to understand the kind of pictorial devices that can be interpreted in terms of point of view. i. the cartoon just seems to portray the presidential election as a boxing game with Bush and Kerry as boxers in the ring. Bodily expressions and the scaling (i. This categorical interpretation is supported by a number of visual details. So. that it is a member of the set of decisive weapons.e. mineral water or canned fish often express the message that the products are as fresh and tasty as the real thing. If indeed categorical interpretations are responsible for the (often negative) critical stance of editorial cartoons. Commercial ads for products like orange or tomato juice. In a particular schema. the artful deviation of the image is based on the activation of an ad hoc class. As we discuss in more detail in Maes and Schilperoord (2008). an empirical account of this hypothesis requires a large scale study of metaphors in commercial ads. In cases like these. salmon. in this case the class of robust things. In sum. the real thing idea is based on a categorical source domain interpretation. The interpretation mechanism is not exclusive for editorial cartoons and can be used to trigger negative as well as positive diagnostic properties. But in interpreting editorial cartoons. Again. but not related to a critical stance. but certainly not absent. Such ads attempt to counter the commonly held opinion by consumers that such products are just a surrogate. we contend that categorical source domain interpretations are relatively rare in commercial ads. The viewer is stimulated to believe that the juice. But the analysis shows that categorical reasoning can be used successfully as a heuristic in finding the critical stance in editorial cartoons. For the time being. the notion of categorical source domains seems to offer a suitable interpretation mechanism for explaining the critical stance expressed in editorial cartoon metaphors. they may be rare in commercial ads in which such a critical position is absent. In our view. The mechanism is assumed to come on top of a basic schematic source domain interpretation. Many more cartoons have to be analyzed to justify this conclusion. thus evoking the idea of imperturbable robustness. as is illustrated in the analyses above. specific roles trigger the construction of ad hoc categories enabling viewers to find the diagnostic property which is responsible for the critical stance of the cartoon. .Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 231 The recognition of this set-member mechanism does not necessarily mean that the critical stance in any cartoon is based on this same mechanism. with a hippo as a prototypical member. Another type of advertisements that seem to require a categorical interpretation are the so-called real thing ads. or mineral water is a member of the set prototyped by the real thing. there seem to be at least two types of commercial ads for which a categorical source domain interpretation is crucial. The first type is represented by ads in which one attribute of a product is highlighted instead of a network of relations and attributes within a schema. Take for example an ad for a four-wheel drive vehicle representing the car together with some hippos in the water. In their view. Donner. or a particular political stance towards a certain public topic. persuasion is first and foremost the process of directly trying to regulate the behaviors or points of view of an audience. Because the opposite forces in the target domain are linked to the same source domain (of blood-thirsty. from a rhetorical point of view. we believe. metaphor is argumentative. The ultimate message a cartoon communicates is criticism. the notion of persuasion should be focused on. However. which results in the detection of the critical stance which is typical of editorial cartoons as a genre. Ever since Lakoff and Johnson (1980). standing between two large.1 The persuasive force of message form In its essence. this means that especially the choice of the source domain is responsible for the type of conclusion we are supposed to draw on the basis of the image. Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) famous model of persuasion is essentially an information processing model of influencing attitudes. so if we are to properly characterize the role metaphor plays in editorial cartoons.232 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes it most probably is the dominant mechanism accounting for the critical evaluative stance.. This raises the question of the role metaphor plays in persuasion. dangerous . The cartoon depicts the minister as a small figure. and this is. One famous Dutch cartoon (one we already alluded to in section 5) comments on the measures that the then Dutch minister of Justice. Conclusion In this chapter we have argued that most schematic source domains of metaphors in editorial cartoons require an additional categorical source domain interpretation. best accounted for by the categorical aspect of the source domain 6. Socio-psychological theories of persuasion mostly stress the importance of exchanging information in persuasion processes. one that has the word terrorism on its back and the other the word anti-terrorism. rhetoric in its most essential appearance. Applied to our rhetorical case here. its content. we believe. attitudes have an informational base. took upon him to combat terrorism in the Netherlands. blood-thirsty dogs. we know that metaphor is the content of the message and this is. 6. black. Metaphor has long been considered an ornamental addition to the thing that really matters in communication: i.e. These are determined by the rhetorical choices. Forceville (2006) states that multimodal metaphors are metaphors whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes. the minister is playing with fire”). the cartoon expresses the message that in this case the cure is at least as harmful as the pain. In this case. Donner is presented as someone who is not capable of mastering his own dog (let alone the other one). She has in mind the verbal signs that often appear on persons or objects depicted in a cartoon. the target would be triggered visually. She contends that in the cartoons she has analyzed. as the names of the multinationals in figure 2. So. by depicting the owner of the antiterrorism dog as much smaller than his dog. THOM DE GRAAF IS CHILD. but much more important here is the persuasive impact of the message form (sameness. etc. viewers will also draw on “broader contextual information” in doing so. NEW VOTING SYSTEM IS COOKING POT. El Refaie (this volume) does address this issue. Moreover. In addition. there is a message involved in this cartoon (“with his new antiterrorism policy. That way. this would suggest the following metaphors: MULTINATIONALS ARE DRIPS. especially the strategic choice of the source domain. the viewer should probably succeed in identifying the target objects from the caricatured features of the politicians appearing in her cartoons. the verbal messages also play a role in pointing the viewer towards the precise targets. big versus small) and the conclusions we have to draw from it. In both cartoons. and the visual details providing us with the conceptualization of the problem and the critical position towards it. And because vision and . The designer could do this by depicting a cat and have it make a trumpeting sound. 6. she states. and the source by means of sound.Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 233 dogs). Certainly. if indeed these verbal signs point the reader towards the target entities. the surname Thom and the noun new voting system in figure 8. we should first ask ourselves what multimodal metaphors are. we think that the interpretation of metaphors in editorial cartoons nicely illustrates the pervasive force of message form in establishing meaning.2 The multimodal nature of cartoon metaphors In the preceding. To address the question whether these metaphorical relations are real multimodal metaphors. we did not explicitly address the issue whether metaphors in editorial cartoons are a multimodal phenomenon. His example is the cueing of the metaphor CAT IS ELEPHANT in an animation film. Not all verbal labels have the same function. If the viewer misses the necessary factual knowledge and does not know who secretary De Graaff is. If we apply this view to the cartoons in this chapter one may simply conclude that the above-mentioned cartoons with verbal cues are multimodal metaphors. the proper name Thom is removed from the trousers of the cooking child. this would not destroy the metaphor DE GRAAFF IS CHILD.g. since the latter is to be figured out on the basis of the scenario evoked. the surname label (Thom) on the trousers will not be helpful. on the basis of a straightforward entailment: “if this secretary is portrayed as a cook. All that would remain is a picture of a cat or the sound of an elephant. or is intended to do. Take the MEASURE/POLICY IS COOKING POT metaphor in figure 8.” e. such as the time of publication and broader contextual information. So. we believe there are at least two reasons to doubt this characterization. So. for example the context of the ongoing public discussion in news media about the new voting system. At first sight. but not at the type of target (policy making). as there seems to be only one way of identifying the source (the visual sign) and the target (the verbal label sign on the cooking pot). As soon as the viewer identifies the image as metaphorical (an aspect of interpretation that is evidently triggered by pragmatic considerations and knowledge of the genre) s/he would have little trouble identifying the cooking pot as “some policy. because visual and verbal codes are different representational modes. on the other hand.. the resulting metaphor would be truly multimodal. Look at the little cook in figure 8. And since that immediate context is evoked . this metaphor appears to be truly multimodal (albeit not a very exciting one). This is exactly the case in the CAT IS ELEPHANT example. then the cooking pot and the stuff he is preparing must be his policy. and will not make his metaphoric conceptualization multimodal. But this is probably too simple. is to provide the viewer with an additional aid to make sure that the person is recognized. Nonetheless.234 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes sound are different modes. This pragmatic knowledge should direct the viewer at the precise target (the new voting system). All the proper name does.” The exact identification will. The first has to do with the metaphorical scenario itself. of course. If. depend on various external sources of knowledge. we should read and apply Forceville’s characterization in such a manner that metaphors are multimodal only if the identification of a metaphorical term really depends on the presence of that label. The removal of one of the modes (either the image or the sound) would simply cause the metaphor to evaporate. it would seem that the visual metaphors with proper noun label are not automatically multimodal. 2.g. not all of these metaphoric cartoons fit in with Forceville’s (2006) definition of multimodal metaphor. At the very least. One obvious alternative is Blending Theory (e. is particularly well suited to metaphorically conceptualize abstract concepts such as political coalitions and policy making. the Cuba cartoon in figure 6 blends the conceptual domains of the schools (teachers. In the analyses to follow. it seems too hasty to conclude that since metaphors in editorial cartoons use both visual and verbal signs. To conclude. Although Blending theory is not a theory of metaphor proper. representing disparate conceptual domains. If so.org/wiki/Editorial_cartoons. 3. Fauconnier and Turner 2002). but it does not seem too farfetched to hypothesize that making food (cooking). Many cartoons can in fact be considered a conceptual blend of (at least) two so-called input spaces. which instantiates the more general conceptual metaphor IDEAS ARE PHYSICAL OBJECTS. but a general theory of . This does not mean that Shen’s framework is the only one suitable for the analysis of metaphorical conceptualizations in editorial cartoons. which suggests that this type of metaphoric conceptualization is cognitively anchored. Coulson and Oakley 2001. As we will discuss in the conclusion. consulted 2007-02-19. Gibbs 2005). it may well be that the verbal label in figure 8 is merely a secondary supporting feature designating the exact type of policy hinted at. Notes 1.. pupils) and that of international political relationships into one integrated conceptual domain.wikipedia. as we suggest in the concluding section.g. they are multimodal. For example.Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons 235 visually as well. so often employed in cartoons. The difference between these two types is not unproblematic. we are convinced that there is such a thing as “multimodal metaphor.” but its precise delineation awaits further (preferably empirical) research. We are only beginning to ask questions regarding the way basic and complex visual metaphors are anchored cognitively. rather than the verbal part of the multimodal metaphor.. Our second reason for doubting the multimodal nature of this cartoon has to do with the possibility that the cooking scenario is actually a broad visual manifestation of one basic conceptual metaphor in the sense of Lakoff: IDEAS ARE FOOD. we adopt the theoretical framework proposed by Shen (1999) where two kinds of source domains are distinguished (see next sections). 4. Verbal expressions that relate ideas to food are omnipresent and well documented (see e. See en. the metaphor NEW VOTING SYSTEM IS COOKING POT is at least not entirely multimodal. Seana in press What’s so funny: Conceptual blending in humorous examples. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Coulson. References Becker. Bowdle. As we hope to make clear. his idea of source domains as cognitive schemas may be very useful in order to account for the way metaphor is involved in depicting certain political and sociocultural events and persons. (ed. Jonathan A.g. while his concept of categorical source domains allows us to account for the way the artist evaluates such events or persons.. because both frameworks strongly employ Gentner’s systematicity principle (see Gentner et al 2001). Psychological Review 112: 193–215. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. as it emphasizes the role of conceptual/cognitive schemata in the process of interpreting (visual) metaphors. Alan. The same kind of conceptual integration applies to the other cartoons as well. and Dedre Gentner 2005 The career of metaphor. Vimala Herman. Brian F. while the cartoon in figure 7 can be seen as a blend of the conceptual domains of hospitals and politics. and Cornelia Müller (eds. e. the fact that in order to establish correspondences between disparate conceptual domains. and the Cuba and US relation in the international politics input space.. Cienki. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 73: 609–619. However. The crucial structural analogy between the input spaces in the Cuba cartoon pertains to the relation between pupils and teachers in the school input space.236 Joost Schilperoord and Alfons Maes cognitive conceptualization. Our reason for nonetheless adopting Shen’s framework is strictly practical. people will primarily look for structural analogies between the various elements and entities within the two domains. it has been shown to be fruitfully applicable to (visual) metaphors as well (Coulson in press). . 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This will on the one hand yield. 1999.Chapter 11 Anger in Asterix: The metaphorical representation of anger in comics and animated films Bart Eerden Abstract This chapter analyses anger in two Asterix comics albums and two Asterix animated films. comics. Based on verbal evidence in several languages. thus allowing for comparisons between theories developed in metaphor scholarship and the practices of animation artists. The methodological framework constructed for the analysis in this paper is applicable to (a) other emotions and (b) other pictorial manifestations of emotions in static and moving images. 1995. Introduction In cognitive metaphor research. Lakoff 1987) can be charted. Zoltán Kövecses has systematically analyzed the ICMs of various emotions (Kövecses 1986. metaphorical expressions are the verbal manifestations through which Idealized Cognitive Models (ICMs) or Folk Models (Lakoff and Johnson 1980. enrich. Keywords: Idealized Cognitive Model. anger. 1990. Kövecses argues that people structurally conceptualize emotions metaphorically. By contrast. In investigating the structural part of the emotion metaphors. animation 1. and qualify Forceville’s (2005a) earlier findings on the visual representation of the Idealized Cognitive Model of anger in the Asterix album La Zizanie and on the other hand enable insights into medium-specific representations of the ICM of anger. 2002 and 2005). emotions. “he has a ferocious temper” and “he unleashed his anger” draw on ANGER IS . In investigating the structural part of the emotion metaphors. Comics provide good source material for research. These lines realistically represent a visible phenomenon. Consider the wavy lines used by a cartoonist to depict smoke. Kövecses’ model. Non-verbal metaphor The perception psychologist Kennedy is one of the first to mention cartoons as a source of non-verbal metaphors (Kennedy 1982). building on Eerden (2004). 1993). 1999).” “spirals” and “bulging eyes” that are frequently used in the Asterix comic to depict anger. 2006/this volume. this chapter. These lines are not realistic but . Whereas Forceville confined himself to anger in one comics album. Over the past decade the research of visual and multimodal metaphors within the cognitivist paradigm has taken shape in the work of Carroll (1996). provides a good starting point for the investigation of structural emotion metaphors in non-verbal and multimodal representations. The methodological framework constructed for the analysis in this paper is intended to be subsequently applicable to (a) other emotions and (b) other pictorial manifestations of emotions in static and moving images. Khordoc 2001). Forceville (1996. will analyze anger in two other Asterix comics albums and two Asterix animation films.244 Bart Eerden A CAPTIVE ANIMAL (Kövecses 2000: 21). because of their rich use of pictorial metaphors to convey a vast array of emotions (see also Fein and Kasher 1996. Forceville (2005) introduces various pictorial signs such as “red face. thus allowing for checking theories from the realm of metaphor scholarship against the practices of comics and animation artists. 2008). Now imagine the same wavy lines used in a cartoon to represent the strong smell of garbage. The nature and use of these signs appear to confirm that these are not just creative metaphors in the sense of Black (1979) and Forceville (1996) but indeed manifestations of structural metaphors (like the “he spat fire” example) in the sense of Lakoff and Johnson (1980. Elaborating on findings by Kennedy (1982. This will on the one hand enrich and qualify Forceville’s earlier findings and on the other hand enable insights into how yet another medium (animated film) can represent the ICM of anger. 2. handbooks for comics and animated films will be taken into account as well. Forceville (2005) examines visual representations of anger in an Asterix comic. Whittock (1990). but most of this work focuses on creative rather than on structural metaphors. Kennedy (1993). 2002. Khordoc (2001). however. 2005b. based on a metonymic relation between sign and emotion. Kennedy’s observation of the representation and understanding of abstract concepts through concrete perceptible phenomena in fact reflects one of the central principles of Cognitive Metaphor Theory. Forceville’s analysis of anger in La Zizanie will be the reference point for the current analysis. Kennedy introduces the term “pictorial rune” for non-realistic visual metaphors. tightly closed . pictorial runes are often used to depict abstract concepts which are difficult to depict literally. and anger is expressed through twelve different signs (Forceville 2005a: 75–77). the indexical sign seems to function much like a pictorial rune. it is important to look at the results of Forceville’s (2005a) earlier analysis. Much of the importance of Kennedy’s work resides in the fact that he argues how the signs used in comics need not always be derived from verbal metaphors: “there may be pictorial devices which are metaphoric but which have no clear equivalent in language” (Kennedy 1982: 600). bold face and jagged text-balloon lines) and indexical signs (bulging eyes.Anger in Asterix 245 exemplify a metaphorical representation of (invisible) smell (example from McCloud 1994: 128). smoke above a head. Both pictorial rune and indexical sign signify anger through a metonymic relation (as opposed to arbitrary signs or literal depiction). The second category is formed by “indexical signs. One category consists of pictorial runes. The twelve “angry signs” can be further divided in two categories: pictorial runes (ex-mouth.1 spirals around the head. Anger in comics Before presenting the results of the analysis of anger in two Asterix comics. Kennedy’s concept of pictorial runes is further fine-tuned by Forceville (2005a). Emotions are a good example of such abstract concepts: “States such as anxiety and pain are difficult to depict […]. According to Kennedy. Apart from its realism. Cartoonists often turn to pictorial runes to show these states” (Kennedy 1982: 600). a term reserved for non-realistic (not perceptible in real life) signs. 3. comics use realistic and non-realistic signs to depict emotions. La Zizanie contains 103 angry characters.” The indexical sign differs from the pictorial rune in that it is a realistic sign (although often exaggerated). In the same way. Forceville’s analysis of the non-verbal representation of anger in the Asterix album La Zizanie (Goscinny and Uderzo 1970) introduces two categories of visual representations of anger. “bulging eyes” occur 47 times in La Zizanie on a total of 103 angry characters. arm/hand position and shaking.) La Zizanie Pictorial runes Smoke/steam Helmet Ex-mouth Bold face Jagged line Spirals head Indexical signs Bulging eyes Closed eyes Wide mouth Tight mouth Red face Hand/arm Shaking body 46 37 4 0 1 3 1 7 5 0 6 42 50 34 15 32 59 5 59 41 48 4 7 70 1 1 13 38 31 44 2 3 21 34 16 50 16 48 4 35 Asterix Légionnaire Asterix et Latraviata The pictorial runes in La Zizanie. For example. Signs of anger in percentages of total number of angry characters per album. red face. in some cases. just as the indexical signs (Forceville 2005a: 82). This means that in 46 (45. Forceville argues.246 Bart Eerden eyes. Forceville acknowledges the possibility that the runes under scrutiny here “have become conventionalized as. (Percentages in the table are rounded to whole percents. However. the runes in La Zizanie. somehow. are metonymically motivated. ‘visual translations’ of verbal manifestations of ICMs” (Forceville 2005a: 83). wide mouth. thus confirming Kennedy’s claim that pictorial metaphors do not necessarily have a verbal counterpart (Kennedy 1982: 600). tightly closed mouth. Table 1. appear to be direct manifestations of the ICM of anger. More importantly.63) percent of all angry characters in La Zizanie “bulging eyes” is present. Both indexical signs and pictorial runes are commensurate with the important central conceptual . A closer look at the “hand/arm” category in the two Asterix albums reveals two additional elements of this sign. The signs depicting anger in Asterix Légionnaire and Asterix et Latraviata correspond largely. to the signs in La Zizanie. they represent a cross-section of the Goscinny/Uderzo oeuvre. Forceville (2005a) uses a threefold distinction to differentiate the “arm/hand” category: (i) fisted hands. two other Asterix comics. and (iii) pointing with the index finger. including Forceville’s. “Helmet” is a new pictorial rune. often emphasized by clamped teeth and the ‘hidden arm/hand’ position” (Forceville 2005a: 83–83). See table 1 for the results. As is noticeable from table 1. the two “eyes. in form and in frequency. Positions (i) and (ii) are particularly associated with attempts to control anger whereas position (iii) suggests the eruption of anger. A helmet flying off a head as well as a character with smoke or steam around its head appear only three times but these signs are certainly worth mentioning. (ii) hands/arms emphatically close to the body.3 They are good examples of the depiction of different categories or stages of anger.2 Asterix et Latraviata is a relatively recent album whereas Asterix Légionnaire was published in 1967. with fisted hands or arms close to the body (as if to keep the anger inside the body-container). In this chapter.4 The second element (“stretching forward”) typically co-occurs with the outward pointing arm/hand position (iii) in an outburst of anger. With almost twenty-five years between the two albums. The forward stretched body appears to convey the eruption of the pressurized container. “Smoke” as a sign occurs right before the explosion of anger when the emotion is (still) suppressed. This stage of anger is described by Forceville as “typically [comprising] a tightly closed mouth. “stretching forward” seems to be preceded by the “upright” position. The “hand/arm” sign is a rather large category of different arm positions occurring in different stages of anger.” and the “hand/arm” categories are the most frequently used signs in the three Asterix albums. Asterix et Latraviata (Uderzo 2001) and Asterix Légionnaire (Goscinny and Uderzo 1967) are analyzed to test the insights of Forceville (2005a). “upright position” and “stretching forward.” The first element (“upright”) seems to appear with Forceville’s description of arm/hand position (i) and (ii). thus conveying a . three years before La Zizanie.Anger in Asterix 247 metaphor ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A PRESSURIZED CONTAINER (as discussed by Kövecses 1986). which does not appear in Forceville’s list. These positions of arm/hand often occur in combination with an upright position of the body in which the head is tilted with the nose pointing upwards.” “mouth. The helmet flying off is a sign that occurs with the outburst of anger. Moreover. to a certain extent. the same signs to represent anger in different examples suggests the existence of embodied concepts that are. suggesting that the most important conceptual metaphors of an ICM transcend at least national/language borders. which is an important issue for the current analysis. 2002. The results of a short survey of handbooks (Blair 1994. contrary to its Western equivalent. in the static images of a comics album. Handbooks for comics and animation films Kövecses (2000. (a) the rising or suppression of anger. Williams 2001) not only show a great similarity between the advice proffered by the different handbooks among themselves.248 Bart Eerden sequence of anger consisting of two stages. However. After all. The use of. Shinohara and Matsunaka (2003) demonstrate that in Japanese the metaphor ANGER IS GASTRIC CONTENTS IN THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM is saliently present. V-shaped heavy brows and small. cross-culturally represented through the same signs in comics and animation. black . and emphasis on. “upright” and “stretching forward” are difficult to recognize. Yu (1998) describes how the Chinese container metaphor. 4. But within Western culture. differences between verbal (and visual) metaphors in different languages seem minor. Previous research (Kövecses 2005) shows evidence of quite fundamental differences between for example the verbal manifestations of the Chinese and Western container metaphor for anger. only three comics albums by the same artist have been examined in this chapter. Maestri 1999. a prototypical angry character has fisted hands. but also between the handbooks and the findings on anger in the three Asterix comics investigated. Blair (1999) describes a number of prototypical characters and facial expressions pertaining to standard emotions. Handbooks for comics and animated films in western culture can prove to be helpful in further investigating the structural part of the anger representations. According to Blair. Thomas and Johnston 1981. This further distinction of the “hand/arm” sign will become relevant in the discussion of animation film in section 5. followed by (b) the explosion of anger. clamped teeth. 2005) and Forceville (2006) as well as Lakoff and Turner (1989) and Gibbs and Steen (1999) emphasize the influence of culture and context on (the representation of) ICMs and the interpretation of source domains. His description of the standard anger face strikingly resembles Forceville’s description of the visualization of anger in La Zizanie. does not involve a hot fluid but a gas which produces pressure on the body container and which is not associated with heat. All these elements appear in Forceville’s analysis as well as in the current analysis of two new Asterix albums (“arm/hand (i). however. specifically the ICM of anger. do not correspond with the signs found in the Asterix albums. which ties in with “eyes” being the largest and most differentiated category in all three Asterix albums under scrutiny here. the handbooks present “eyes” as the most important part of the face for expressing an emotion. According to Thomas and Johnston. Thomas and Johnston describe how Disney Studios initially tried to copy facial expressions from real actors. These are among the most differentiated signs in the Asterix albums. Moreover. brows. the same few pictorial signs of anger can be found. the eyes (pouches.” “I could see the fear in his eyes”). As a final point. it does present data in support of the idea that pictorial anger signs metonymically instantiate conceptual metaphors. might represent a headache (“spirals”) or a person who has eaten spicy food (“red face”) rather than anger. 53). Interestingly. They also emphasize that emotions more often than not are represented by a certain combination of signs. 52. While a combination of signs visually represents an emotion.” “tight mouth” and “bulging eyes”). appear to focus on representing the intensity of an emotion in. 2002) yet again emphasize the eyes (with brows) and the mouth as the main sites for the expression of emotions. This seems to confirm a metonymically motivated connection between sign and emotion instead of a sign iconically depicting an emotion. visual signs. emotions are most importantly expressed via the eyes. and also around. and “weak” signs which can only represent a certain emotion in combination with other signs. Williams (2001) and Maestri (1999. an isolated sign from such a combination. lines). is consistent with Thomas and Johnston’s (1981) views. say anger. In digital animation. at least of anger. My earlier claim (Eerden 2004) about the existence of “strong” signs which prototypically represent a certain emotion.Anger in Asterix 249 pupils located in the corner of the eyes (Blair 1999: 24. Whereas verbal expressions seem to focus on the presence and kind of emotions (“love showed in his eyes. consistent with the idea of eyes as “mirror of the soul” (Kövecses 1990: 173). The verbal expressions found by Kövecses. Kövecses (1990) gives numerous examples of eyes as the source domain of emotion metaphors in English and Hungarian. . and again the similarities with angry eyes in the analyzed Asterix comics are evident. to conclude this brief survey of handbooks. or such a sign in combination with other signs. Although the fact that the handbooks corroborate the theoretical findings should not lead to sweeping conclusions. This method proved unsuccessful and Disney’s designers turned back to their drawing boards to experiment with and try out other ways to represent emotions visually. Asterix et la Surprise de César is very different from the original. This obvious fact has a great influence on the appearance and interpretation of certain anger signs. and some consequences for the analysis of anger. 5. both visual and verbal expressions of emotions in eyes can be traced back to the conceptual metaphor EYES ARE CONTAINERS FOR THE EMOTIONS (Kövecses 1990. The films under scrutiny here are Asterix et la Surprise de César (Brizzi and Brizzi: France 1985) and Asterix chez les Brétons (van Lamsweerde: France 1986). the second film was selected more or less randomly. The fact that animated films can convey “motion” also sheds new light on certain anger signs. in this case the pictorial metaphors. In the animated films. by contrast. Another example of different visualization in animated . it is easy to see how Obelix’ braids and moustache sometimes unrealistically swing up when he expresses anger. unlike comics. the hair of the characters turned out to be a difficult sign in comics. It is for instance hard to see if the braids of Obelix (one of the main characters in Asterix) swing up to express an emotion or just because they follow the movement of his head. Since neither of the two other albums exists as animated film. Lakoff and Johnson 1980). These examples substantiate the hypothesis that visual metaphors can be direct manifestations of an ICM instead of merely being visual translations of verbal metaphors. Although based on the original comics album Asterix Légionnaire (Goscinny and Uderzo 1967). The first animated Asterix film is an adaptation of the album Asterix Légionnaire (Goscinny and Uderzo 1967). In the following paragraphs I will discuss the most salient differences between these two media. The analysis of the representation of anger through different media is an important way to determine the influence of a medium on its message. comics are static and films are animated.250 Bart Eerden Although different in appearance. “Hair” as a sign is for that reason not included in the analysis of the comics.” used to indicate speed or motion in static images (Kennedy 1982: 501). are much rarer in animated films. For example. more importantly for present purposes. can actually show moving characters and moreover include sound. there are salient differences in the visual representation of anger due to the fact that animated film. Not only has the story been altered but. For example. the “famous” pictorial runes “speed lines” and “shape changes. Animated films This section examines the visual representation of anger in Asterix animation films. First of all. Since a comics album consists of a sequence of separate panels. 6. According to Forceville’s (2006) list of modes. comics contain pictorial signs. Moreover. This makes it difficult to analyze and compare the two animated films because the length of shots in Asterix et la Surprise de César and Asterix chez les Brétons varies from less than one second to more than ten seconds. If “bulging eyes” appears in a panel it counts as one appearance. Since the present study focuses only on visual representations of anger. Animated films contain the same three modes plus spoken signs. For the average viewer the smallest unit of an animated film is one shot (since normally a viewer can not discern a single frame but only the succession of frames). and music will not be included in the analysis. One last important difference has to do with the multimodality of the different media. it is possible to analyze the use of emotion signs across the different animated films and to compare similarities and differences between emotion signs used in different media in a more general sense. In fact the panel can be seen as the smallest unit of a comic. In section 3 the new categories “stretched forward” and “upright” were introduced as subcategories of Forceville’s “hand/arm” sign. animated films consist of shots and sequences instead of panels. However. where every panel shows a more or less new situation. and what if “bulging eyes” appears five times in a single shot? The inevitable conclusion is that reliable quantitive comparison between both media is impossible. written signs. sounds. the comparison between a sign in a panel and the same sign in a shot is difficult to express in numbers. which makes it easy to detect a change in body position.Anger in Asterix 251 films is the position or posture of a character’s body. and gestures. but how to count “bulging eyes” in a shot of half a second or ten seconds. This means that mutually exclusive signs (in comics) such as “wide mouth” and “tight mouth” can easily appear multiple times in a single shot with a single character. In contrast. too. A change in posture that is caused by an emotion is difficult to recognize in static images. sounds. This sign typically appears in combination . Signs of anger in animated films The new indexical sign “stretched forward” returns in the expression of anger in the two animated films. readers can decide for themselves how long they want to look at a panel. A second big difference is related to the moving aspect of animation. and music. But in the context of comics these posture signs are difficult to define. spoken signs. followed by the release of anger.5 Figure 1. The upright position is a manifestation of the building up of pressure in the container. The outward pointing arms also suggest the release of pressure. usually in combination with arms close to the body and/or clenched fists. (iii) (a) line(s) running over the cheek from the nose to the corners of the mouth” (Forceville 2005a: 76). Because animated film is not static. In the following analysis these signs will be examined more closely. An important aim of the analysis is to find out if these new signs can be attributed to a conceptual metaphor – and if so. see figures 1 and 2. The “stretched forward” sign expresses the release of pressure from the body container. some other completely new signs materialize in the animated films. to which one. expressing the build-up. Apart from “stretched forward” and “upright. These signs either do not appear in comics at all or vary substantially from their equivalents in comics.1 Wide mouth As with “bulging eyes” the “wide mouth” sign in animated films also appears to differ from the same sign in comics because of the multimodality (especially the presence of the sonic modality) and the motion aspect of the animated film.” which could already be seen in comics. the “wide mouth” requires the presence of only one of these three features to . both associated with keeping the pressure in the container (Forceville 2005a: 81). 6. “a mouth counts as ‘wide’ if at least two of the following are visibly present: (i) the tongue. it is even better able to build up a sign through different stages. In the Asterix comics. Upright (hand-traced still from Asterix et la Surprise de César). In animated films. For examples of both signs.” These signs usually appear one after the other. although not very clearly.252 Bart Eerden with the other newly introduced sign “upright. (ii) teeth. by contrast. “Stretched forward” usually appears in combination with stretched arms and pointing or fisted hands. This has to do with animated film’s ability to express the building up of an emotion through time in a continuous sequence.2 Bulging eyes The two animated films show a wide variety of “bulging eyes. communicate anger. 6. The animated films show a greater range in the depiction of bulging eyes. This feature of animated film along with the presence of the sonic modality makes it much easier to identify the emotion anger in a sequence. Stretched forward (hand-traced still from Asterix et la Surprise de César).Anger in Asterix 253 Figure 2. include a V-shaped brow with pouches and frowns as already described by Forceville in the Asterix comics album (Forceville 2005a: 75). however. and moreover is not restricted to the “expressed anger” stage. The two animated films for example have “bulging eyes” wide open but also with one eye closed and the other wide open or all the traits of bulging eyes with . A wide mouth typically represents the release of pressure from the body-container. Wide mouth (hand-traced still from Asterix et la Surprise de César). The medium animated film and its specific features (moving images) possibly plays an important role in the variation in pictorial signs of anger. An example of “wide mouth” in animated film is provided in figure 3.” All signs. Figure 3. An earlier study of pictorial signs representing love in animated films suggested that “shaking” is also used as a sign when love “strikes” a person or when a person instantly falls out of love (Eerden 2004: 53). The character instantly loses control. “Shaking” is a manifestation of the (immense) internal pressure of the container. Kövecses (1990. 2000. marks the sudden “entering” of one of the final stages of an emotion. 6. As a result the self loses control and at a final stage responds to the emotion with emotional behavior (Kövecses 2000: 58–59).254 Bart Eerden the eyelids still slightly closed. The “shaking” sign appears especially at moments where suppressed anger turns into an outburst or when an outburst ends. but not in a single (freeze)frame. 2005) describes the folk theory according to which an emotion can be characterized as a five-stage scenario. which makes “ex-mouth” a pictorial rune. a difference in form. The new subcategory of “shaking. This could be explained as the release of pressure. The shaking of the head can be traced back to the folk theory of emotions. There is.” and in other cases the head of the character is the only shaking part. The lines express something forcefully coming out of the mouth. however. This particular example of the “shaking” sign is limited to the head only. Bulging eyes are a manifestation of the (release of the) internal pressure of the body-container. “Shaking” can appear in animated film without the superimposition described for the comics version of “shaking. 6.4 Ex-mouth In comics this sign has “straight lines emitting from the mouth” (Forceville 2005a: 77). The absence of superimposition or extra lines inevitably means that “shaking” is only recognized in a sequence of frames. the straight lines might simply represent . In this cognitive model the emotion affects the self as a force that causes a change of state.3 Shaking This sign expresses anger in the same way as does the “shaking” sign in comics which consists of (i) multiple superimposition of a character and/or (ii) a non-moving character depicted as “loose from the ground” (Forceville 2005a: 76). On the other hand.” which focuses specifically around the head. As with “shaking. In animated films the lines disappear and are replaced by sound. . it seems. see figure 4. The “ex-mouth” sign appearing in the animated films obviously has “something forcefully coming out of the mouth” but without the straight lines visible in comics albums. These unrealistic traits confirm the idea of “ex-mouth” being a pictorial rune. In that case “ex-mouth” should fall in the category of indexical signs. Probably the waving of clothes is a motion hard to depict in comics.5 Upright As an indexical sign for anger. “upright” has an erect position of the body with the back of the head usually pressed against the neck and the nose pointing upwards. are replaced by sound (shouting) and an unrealistic stream of air emitting from the mouth.” this is again an example of a sign which loses all its “speed lines” or superimpositions when “translated” from comic to animation. For an example of “ex-mouth” in animated films. These lines. The stream of air is perceptible in the waving of clothes or hair of the “victim” who is shouted at. This is a good example of how pictorial signs have medium-specific manifestations. The upright position of the body signals the build-up of internal pressure in the body-container.Anger in Asterix 255 inadvertent spitting as an expression of anger. hence support is needed in the form of lines to accentuate the release of pressure. Ex-mouth and the waving movement of clothes in the Roman soldier’s cape (hand-traced still from Asterix et la Surprise de César). There is no example of spitting with anger to be found in either animated film. Figure 4. 6. the “low angle” sign represents a part of the ICM of anger that is not. 6. This sign can be interpreted as the violent release of pressure from the container. Possibly. it appears as if the “low angle”-shot functions as an arbitrary sign for anger. following Grady. however. Since ICMs have hitherto mainly been charted on the basis of verbal expressions. According to Bordwell and Thompson the context of a film will determine the function of a low angle shot. but fear.6 Stretched forward “Stretched forward” is particularly associated with the outburst of anger and is often preceded by the “upright” sign. But then again the analysis resulted in only one example of a point of view shot from a frightened character. offers a possible explanation for cultural variations between conceptual metaphors and their verbal representations. complex conceptual metaphors are built up from a combination of simpler primary metaphors. Kövecses (2005).256 Bart Eerden 6. If “low angle” is considered neither a Peircean symbol sign nor a Peircean iconic sign. the question will be whether “low angle” can be explained as the visual representation of a conceptual metaphor of anger. INTENSITY IS .6 This shot (see figures 5 and 6) is often used to show angry or threatening characters. expressed in language. “low angle” is the representation of the conceptual metaphor ANGER IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL (an animal to which a character looks up from a low angle).7 Low angle At first glance. that framing does not automatically possess absolute or general meaning (Bordwell and Thompson 2004: 263). or at least differently. Yet Kövecses (1990: 63) does not derive metaphors from this concept that confirm the above hypothesis. According to Grady. the analysis of visual expressions might result in new representations of known conceptual metaphors or possibly even new conceptual metaphors. making it an indexical sign. His outline of ANGER IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL focuses on the growing or height of the angry person whereas “low angle” seems to convey the experience of the “victim” watching a huge angry character. “Stretched forward” usually appears with arms pointing outwards and clenched fists or pointing hands. In this way the complex metaphor ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER is for example based on a combination of primary metaphors such as INTENSITY IS HEAT. Film theorists such as Bordwell and Thompson stress. Perhaps the sign “low angle” does not express anger. Possibly. Figure 5. combinations of primary metaphors vary between different cultures. but were not reported by Forceville . Figure 6. 7. The analysis of comics and animated films reported in this chapter has also resulted in the identification of some new signs of anger. thus resulting in different complex metaphors. Results Many of the signs found in the analyzed comics and films are commensurate with the results of previous research (Forceville 2005a. Low angle (hand-traced still from Asterix et la Surprise de César). Eerden 2004).Anger in Asterix 257 QUANTITY and INTENSITY IS SPEED (Kövecses 2005: 27). I suggest that different modes of communication can account for variations in conceptual metaphors in much the same way as cultural context does. which accounts for cultural variation in verbal expressions of anger. Although the primary metaphors seem universal. Low angle (hand-traced still from Asterix et la Surprise de César). Some of these occurred in the two Asterix comics albums. This same phenomenon seems to be relevant for different modes of communication. However none of these examples seem to be related to the “low angle” sign. Kövecses also presents verbal expressions that do not refer to the container metaphor but to other conceptual metaphors. by contrast. Maestri 1999. Further analysis is necessary to chart the conceptual metaphors which are expressed through the newly found animated signs. These three categories are the most used and most differentiated signs in the comics. respectively. The question here is whether different signs of anger downplay or highlight different parts of the ICM of anger in verbal. While all the other signs can be explained as referring to embodied metaphors. This again confirms the idea that complex conceptual metaphors might be constructed and expressed differently in different media and modes of communication.” The verbal expressions largely pertain to EYES AS CONTAINER FOR EMOTIONS with the emotion being visible in the eyes (“I could see the fear in his eyes. such as ANGER IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL or ANGER IS AN OPPONENT. animated films. others appear to be specific for the medium of animation. “low angle” has no relation to the body of the angry person. The representation of anger in animated films results in the identification of at least one new sign (“low angle”) which does not seem to fit in with the central conceptual metaphor of anger (ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A PRESSURIZED CONTAINER) as derived from verbal expressions. it is the viewer who experiences the anger through a virtual point-of-view-shot. . as well as its stage. comics. The “eyes” and “mouth” signs. Thomas and Johnston 1981. but also the intensity of an emotion like anger. The analysis of handbooks confirms the important role of the three largest categories of signs and the rich variations existing within each category (Blair 1999. and animated form. and handbooks examined. 2002. An example of the differences between verbal and visual representations can be found in the source domains for “eyes. The “low angle” sign originates from the unique possibilities (such as framing and motion) of the animated medium. When a “victim”-character is not present in the story. But however important these signs are in visual representations. followed by “arm/hand” are omnipresent in both comics and animated films. Comics and animated films. Also “low angle” seems to focus more on the perspective of a “victim” experiencing or witnessing the anger expressed by another character.” and “love showed in his eyes”). which explains why it is not compatible with the container metaphor.” “his eyes were filled with anger. verbal equivalents seem hard to find.258 Bart Eerden (2005a). Williams 2001). are able to express not only the presence of a certain emotion. Kövecses emphasizes the role of the container concept as central to the concept of anger. both in comics and animated films. It seems warranted to conclude that certain complex and central embodied concepts such as CONTAINER and FORCE play a central role in metaphors. wind. These metaphors are good examples of concepts that are not primarily based on embodiment but seem more related to behavioral aspects. as the signs do not seem to appear structurally. I would venture the stronger claim that the container metaphor is at the center of the representation of anger in the analyzed comics as well as the animated films. The green text balloons seem even more arbitrary because they do not appear in the next two albums. followed by “mouth” signs. or flowers often occurring in Japanese Manga. The three categories are not only the largest in numbers but also the most differentiated signs. and the category “mouth” can be found in 51 percent of the anger panels. Forceville labels this sign as arbitrary and thus excludes it from his analysis. This is not included in the current analysis.” which appears in La Zizanie. irrespective of medium or mode.Anger in Asterix 259 Animated films and comics in general contain yet other examples of signs conveying emotions that are not related to the body. “eyes” appears in 85 percent of anger panels. Certainly this area of pictorial metaphor needs more research. based on verbal evidence. A similar version sometimes appears in the Asterix comics. using the sign as an independent indicator of anger. for “hand/arm” the average is 63 percent. The three signs are at the very least commensurate with the conceptual metaphor ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A PRESSURIZED CONTAINER. One such sign is “green text balloons. The results in table 1 present “hand/arm” and “eyes” as the largest two categories of signs. since the green text balloons appear in over 50 percent of the anger panels (Forceville 2005a: 75). However. However. One might think of a light-bulb or rain cloud above someone’s head. Shinohara and Matsunaka (this volume) give examples of such external signs as thunder. but further research is important here. These background and text balloon signs might be arbitrary. a closer look at the emotion anger in Asterix et Latraviata and Asterix et la Surprise de César shows many unrealistically colored backgrounds in panels with angry characters. but in light of Shinohara and Matsunaka’s research it is possible that these signs actually express certain conceptual metaphors. It seems that visual representations of anger focus almost entirely on embodied container . On average. ANGER IS AN OPPONENT IN A STRUGGLE and ANGER IS A CAPTIVE ANIMAL (Kövecses 2000: 21). They also give examples of background scenes of panels which are used to express the emotional state of the character in the panel. the concept of anger consists of a number of other important metaphors such as ANGER IS A BURDEN. A specific medium draws heavier on certain unique combinations of primary metaphors to construct complex conceptual metaphors.260 Bart Eerden concepts whereas verbal expressions regularly draw on non-embodied. it is important to verify or falsify the results of previous research. it will draw more on those primary metaphors concerning the progression of an emotion through different stages. however. some conceptual metaphors are in fact limited to a specific mode of communication. Presumably. The visual part of comics and animated films. Further research Since research into non-verbal and multimodal metaphor is relatively new. This is one of the main reasons for me to use a clearly defined corpus of research. it appears that verbal expressions more strongly reflect culture-specific expressions of anger. The emphasis on embodied concepts and the temporal development of an emotion are examples of new insights from analyses of clearly defined corpora.” This sign is all-pervasive in the analyzed films and is an important sign in the representation of anger.” To achieve a complete insight in an ICM means one has to study the metaphorical representations in every mode of communication. in this case three comics albums and two animated films. Since culture and context influence behavior rather than physical aspects. or are at least very rare in other modes. Since animated film (as opposed to comics) can depict movement. The current analysis of pictorial signs in comics and animated films supports Forceville’s (2005a) and my own earlier (Eerden 2004) assumption that pictorial signs provide medium-specific representations of the ICM of anger. behavioral concepts. This metaphorical sign. which draws heavily on embodied concepts. 8. further research can move into largely unexplored areas. Such medium-specific representations appear to occur on two levels. does not seem to have a verbal equivalent. Consider for example an indexical sign that is tied to animated film such as “low angle. Moreover. Tying in with the “blind spots” of the “charting project” is the idea that a particular medium draws on specific medium-related possibilities and impossibilities to represent a certain emotion. In addition. Future research into other modes of communication will certainly yield new aspects of ICMs that have hitherto been downplayed in verbal (and visual) contexts. the charting of ICMs through verbal expressions alone creates “blind spots. seems less influenced by culture-specific metaphors. The more eclectic approach of Kövecses or Lakoff and Johnson makes it more . Anger in Asterix 261 difficult to compare results. Especially for this kind of research and its comparison with earlier findings. Complex nonwestern media such as manga and anime are important source material for further investigation in cultural variations (Shinohara and Matsunaka 2003. . Both signs occur in Asterix Légionnaire and steam/smoke occurs once in Latraviata. The helmet can be seen on page 19 and 23 and the steam/smoke occurs on page 15 and 16 and in Latraviata on page 17. 3. 2. Research should. Moreover. sounds. including at least pictorial signs. Further research into these modes can present important insights. MMORPGS can prove especially interesting for research into cultural variations because MMORPGS create a new cross-cultural online community. Finally. the use of empirical research and verifiable experiments is crucial if we are to present evidence about the structural use of metaphorical signs and conceptual metaphors. The albums used here are Dutch translations (since language is not a part of the analysis) of Asterix Légionnaire (Goscinny and Uderzo 1967) and Asterix et Latraviata (Uderzo 2001). Other forms of communication and especially multimodal communication should be included. however. Forceville (2006) distinguishes nine different modes of metaphorical representation. gestures. spoken signs. Gibbs and Steen (1999) as well as Kövecses (2005) underline the important influence of culture on ICMs. This sign shows straight lines emitting from the mouth. Considering the current analysis and results. the use of a clearly defined corpus is important. The current analysis already suggests that certain medium-specific signs in comics appear as “sonic” signs in animated films. written signs. Notes 1. smells. and of the representation of emotions in Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPGS) such as Second life. First of all. This suggests cross-cultural differences in the conceptualization and representation of emotions. tastes and touch. this volume). some important research projects come to mind. more research into the visual representation of anger and other emotions is needed to substantiate and verify the results reported in the current chapter. music. not be limited to comics and animation alone. A particularly interesting area is the representation of emotions in various new media. One can think of the representation of emotions through emoticons and different fonts in internet communication or the use of emotionspecific avatars. 5.262 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Metaphor and Symbol 14: 179–98. Preston 1994 Cartoon Animation. Bordwell.). Alan 1998 Metaphoric gestures and some of their relations to verbal metaphoric expressions. 7th ed. Journal of Pragmatics 34: 1–14. David.). for example words in a language are symbolic signs. 19–43. Fein. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6. and Asha Kasher 1996 How to do things with words and gestures in comics. Charles 1996 Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Stanford: Center for the Study of Language and Information. References Black. Carroll. Noel 1996 A note on film metaphor. A symbol is characterized by the arbitrary link between sign and referent. University of Amsterdam. 2002 The identification of target and source in pictorial metaphors. London/New York: Routledge. In Metaphor and Thought. Bart Eerden Forceville (2005a) also recognizes an upward tilted head in combination with anger and suggests that it might correspond with pride. 189–204. all figures are hand-traced stills from Asterix et la Surprise de César (Brizzi and Brizzi: France 1985). Max 1979 More about metaphor. Bart 2004 Liefde en woede: De metaforische verbeelding van emoties in Asterix. Eerden. “Symbol” is the term used by Charles Sanders Peirce. and Kristin Thompson 2004 Film Art: An Introduction. Ofer. Harold Pinter’s. Blair. 212– 223. Andrew Ortony (ed. 1999 The metaphor COLIN IS A CHILD in Ian McEwan’s.] MA thesis. In Theorizing the Moving Image. Forceville. Jean-Pierre Koenig (ed. In Discourse and Cognition: Bridging the Gap. Cienki. . and Paul Schrader’s The Comfort of Strangers. Department of Media Studies. [Love and anger: The metaphorical visualization of emotions in Asterix. For copyright reasons and in order to emphasize the relevant details. Laguna Hills: Walter Foster. The Netherlands. Journal of Pragmatics 26: 793–808. In Bildwissenschaft zwischen Reflexion und Anwendung. René. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: agendas for research. Cologne: Halem. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 2008 Metaphor in pictures and multimodal representations. and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Pride and Love. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Zoltán 1986 Metaphors of Anger. Jr. Journal of Pragmatics 37: 69–88. 2006/this vol. and Gerard J. (ed. George 1987 Women. 2000 Metaphor and Emotion: Language.. In The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought.). Khordoc. Kövecses. Goscinny. John M. 156–173. 1990 Emotion Concepts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1970 La Zizanie: Une Aventure d’Astérix. 2002 Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Raymond W. 465–485. Fire. and Body in Human Feeling.. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. 1982 Metaphor in pictures. Klaus Sachs-Hombach (ed. 1993 Drawing and the Blind: Pictures to Touch. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2005b Cognitive linguistics and multimodal metaphor.). George. In Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives. Perception 11: 589–605.). Catherine 2001 The comic book’s soundtrack: Visual sound effects in Asterix. Michel Achard. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kennedy. . Raymond W. and Mark Johnson 1980 Metaphors We Live By. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. René Dirven. 2005 Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation. Lakoff. 264–284.).Anger in Asterix 2005a 263 Visual representations of the Idealized Cognitive Model of anger in the Asterix album La Zizanie. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gibbs. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Steen (eds) 1999 Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics. Jr. Lakoff. Neuilly-sur-Seine: Dargaud. Gibbons (eds. Culture. Gibbs. Gitte Kristiansen. New Haven/London: Yale University Press. 379– 402. Robin Varnum and Christina T. In The Language of Comics: Word and Image. and Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza (eds. New York: Springer. Paris: La Hachette. and Albert Uderzo 1967 Astérix Legionnaire. George 1999 Digital Character Animation: Volume 1 Essential Techniques. Maestri. 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Albert 2001 Astérix et Latraviata. and Yoshihiro Matsunaka 2003 An analysis of Japanese emotion metaphors. 1993. Grady 1997. We can conclude that metaphor is a matter of concept and cognition not limited to language. verbal metaphors that are motivated by cross-domain conceptual mappings have attracted researchers’ attention and the theory itself has experienced revision and elaboration (e. Lakoff 1990. and that (3) culture-specific aspects found in verbal emotion metaphors in Japanese may also be found in pictorial emotion metaphors in Japanese comics. and disappointment shows that (1) the conceptual metaphor ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER is shared by verbal and visual modalities. Lakoff and Johnson 1999. manga.g.Chapter 12 Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka* Abstract In this chapter. This theory has had a great impact on the view of metaphor. anxiety. happiness. 2005). mappings between conceptual domains (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). love. surprise. indexical signs. changing its fundamental understanding from a rhetorical to a cognitive one. that is.. emotion. Though metaphor tends to be thought of as a device of poetic ornamentation that is added to ordinary . we analyze pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics (manga) within the framework presented by Forceville (1994. Keywords: pictorial metaphor. 2005) and support his argument that many of the metaphors expressed through the verbal modality and those expressed through other modalities appear to share the same fundamental motivation. that (2) differences can emerge due to the different properties of each modality though basic conceptual mappings are shared by both modalities. Kövecses 2000. 2002. Introduction Since the foundation of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). conceptual mappings 1. Our analysis of the data including emotion types such as anger. is fundamentally metaphorical in nature” (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 3). we examine pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics. CMT claims that “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life. Thus. The source of this type of metaphor is pictorial or visual. in recent developments of the study of metaphor. 1999. however. We also try to extend Forceville’s view to other types of emotions such as happiness. The central tenet of CMT is that metaphor. and he maintains that “to further validate the idea that metaphors are expressed by language. as opposed to the idea that they are necessarily linguistic in nature. and how. not only affects surface linguistic expressions but also characterizes cognitive/conceptual structure. we try to demonstrate that at least some manifestations of anger are found in visual no less than in verbal metaphors. has not been fully explored. previous studies on multimodal metaphors strongly support the argument that metaphor is a matter of concept and cognition not limited to language. what is expressed as a picture can be interpreted as representing some emotion. The target is emotion. 1996. love. anxiety. 2005. emphasis in original). multimodal metaphors that are based on nonverbal sources have unique properties that can be traced back to the nature of the medium’s modalities (Forceville 1994. Thus. where meanings are conveyed via pictorial or visual representations. which deals with pictorial metaphors of anger in a French comics album. although some researchers have started to apply this idea to the study of multimodal metaphors. by its very nature. surprise. Data are taken from some of the present day popular Japa- . they can occur non-verbally and multimodally as well as purely verbally” (2006: 381/this volume. Following Forceville’s view. in terms of which we both think and act. not just in language but in thought and action. This chapter builds upon these previous studies. and it is assumed that surface linguistic expressions of such a metaphor emerge from that conceptual mapping. Metaphors expressed through the verbal modality and those expressed through other modalities appear to share the same fundamental motivation. they share the underlying mapping between conceptual domains with verbal metaphors. a conceptual metaphor is defined as the systematic mapping between two different conceptual domains. In CMT.266 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka language. especially the one by Forceville (2005). Although. Forceville (1994) suggests that metaphors are not limited to linguistic ones. Carroll 1994). In this metaphor. it is necessary to demonstrate that. To attain this goal. or disappointment.” and that “[o]ur ordinary conceptual system. and thus they cannot be regarded as totally separate phenomena. which belongs to a more abstract domain of psychological experience. of course. This tenet of CMT. researchers’ attention is being drawn to the new field of multimodal metaphors. we can find examples like the following. 2. of course. which is manifested in expressions of anger. It has been argued that there are structural correspondences between the source and the target domains of each metaphor.” b. its physiological effects increase. and interference with accurate perception. increased internal pressure (blood pressure. boil-up “Gut boils up. .1 For example. Many of the anger metaphors suggested by researchers are based on this or similar folk theories.1 Emotion metaphors in Japanese Since Lakoff and Johnson (1980) established CMT in cognitive linguistics. For anger metaphors. She is blowing off steam. agitation. Previous studies and issues 2. In Japanese. muscular pressure). gut-Nom. efforts have been made to establish generalizations for various emotion metaphors.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 267 nese comic (manga) books written by several different authors. This is not.2 The following are examples from English. One such metaphor is ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER (Kövecses 2000: 21). As anger increases. it has been suggested that the correspondences are mainly based on folk theories of anger that are commonly accepted within a speech community. in particular. atama-kara yuge-ga deru head-from steam-Nom. b. There is a limit beyond which the physiological effects of anger impair normal functioning. Innumerable comic books are published in Japan now. limited to English.” harawata-ga niekurikaeru. Lakoff (1987: 381–382) describes the common folk theory of anger in English-speaking communities as follows: The physiological effects of anger are increased body heat. You make my blood boil. (1) a. the data and the analysis we are providing in this chapter will clearly show that there are pictorial metaphors that manifest conceptual metaphors that are also expressed verbally. but despite the diversity. come-out “Steam comes out of (one’s) head. (2) a. These four languages and cultures are remarkably similar with regard to their basic structure of emotion metaphors (Kövecses 2000: 146).” nikushimi-ga mune-ni uzumaku. Shinohara and Matsunaka 2003). tear “Chest tears with sorrow. Previous studies on Japanese metaphors confirm that Japanese also has such emotion metaphors (Matsuki 1995. emotions such as sorrow. and Japanese. Matsunaka and Shinohara demonstrate that there are at least some examples of metaphors of emotions in Japanese that imply an outer force rather than an inner force. sorrow-by beat-flat-Passive “(Self) is beaten by sorrow. hatred-Nom. and this similarity is explained in terms of the same physiological processes all humans experience when they are in the state of a certain emotion (Kövecses 2000: 156).” b. (3) a. or they stay in the container in an unstable state. .268 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka This emotion metaphor is observed cross-linguistically. and arrives at a single underlying master metaphor: EMOTION IS FORCE. sorrow-by chest-Nom.” kanashimi-ni mune-ga shime-tsuker-areru. Matsunaka and Shinohara (2001b) call this kind of force the inner force.” yorokobi-de mune-ga ippai-ni natta. Chinese. which makes it tear apart or become full. In addition to this. sorrow-by chest-Nom. since the force affects the container from inside. screw-put-Passive “Chest is screwed up by sorrow.” b. a great deal of attention is paid to the internal pressure in a container. As these examples show. They either exert a kind of force upon the container. chest-Loc. 2002) examines several basic emotions in English. At the same time. joy-by chest-Nom. kanashimi-de mune-ga harisakeru. In Kövecses’ argument of the master metaphor EMOTION IS FORCE. joy and hatred are thought of as contents in the container (the chest). Hungarian. having a certain impact on the container. c. it is observed that the general metaphor is elaborated in different ways at a more specific level of metaphor in each language. Kövecses (2000. kanashimi-ni uchi-nomes-areru. which is assumed to be the source concept of force. (4) a. full-Loc. became “Chest was filled up with joy. billow “Hatred billows in chest. f. black-cloud-Nom. heart-Loc. (A person is getting badtempered.)” kumo-yuki-ga ayashii. become. feeling-Nom. Shinohara and Matsunaka 2001).weather “My heart clears up.” kimochi-ga harebaresuru.” kyouhu-ni osow-areru.flat-hang “Anxiety hangs over chest. (I am very sad. kokoro-ni honokana hikari-ga sasu. terror-by chest-Nom. e.)” b. The following Japanese examples illustrate that both intense and mild emotions can be expressed in terms of natural or meteorological phenomena (Matsunaka and Shinohara 2001b.fine. The force of emotion affects the container from the outside. chest-Loc.)” kokoro-wa doshaburi da. c. heart-Topic heavy.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics c. d. push-approach “Anxiety inundates chest. huan-ga mune-ni noshi-kakaru.” huan-ga mune-ni oshi-yoseru. (I feel very happy. shine “A weak light brightens heart. anxiety-Nom. Though previously it was assumed that only very intense emotions are conceptualized as outer forces such as natural forces (Kövecses 2000: 72). strange “The weather is getting squally. cover-lap “A black cloud (=anxiety) covers chest.)” kuro-kumo-ga mune-ni ooi-kabusaru. it has been found that weak or mild emotions can also be conceptualized in terms of natural or meteorological phenomena in Japanese.” kyouhu-de mune-ga oshi-tsubus-areru. anxiety-Nom chest-Loc. (5) a. fear-by attack-Passive “(Self) is swept by fear. chest-Loc. faint light-Nom. making its shape change. e. or even breaking it down.” 269 d. (One feels relieved a little bit. make.rain be “It rains heavily in (my) heart. These examples show that the metaphorical force of emotion can exist outside the self or the part of the body that is regarded as the container of emotion. push-squash-Passive “Chest is squashed by terror. cloud-go-Nom. . the mappings between natural/meteorological phenomena and emotions seem to be experientially motivated. fall “Thunder falls. heart-Loc. ikadekawa tori-no nakuran hito-shirezu omou-kokoro-wa mada yo-hukaki ni (anonymous) [Why does a morning bird chirp.)” g. h. thunder-Nom.] .” kokoro-ni arashi-ga hukiareru. Yoshitsune) [Feeling sad. storm-Nom. This is called seasonal affective disorder (NihonSeikishoogakkai 1992: 42–43). Through analyses of these examples. this metaphor may also be attributed to the socio-cultural background of the Japanese. push-approach “Tsunami of anger inundates (self).” kaminari-ga ochiru. bluster “Storm (of anger) blusters in (my) heart. tsunami-Nom. In general. Less intense natural phenomena like clouds. Severe natural phenomena such as tsunami or storms are mapped onto intense emotions. As the above examples show. Changes of weather can affect mental or physical states of human beings. (A person gets very angry and scolds another. even though my heart that yearns for you in private is still deep in night?] sabishisa-ya omoi yowaru-to tsuki mireba kokoro-no sora-zo aki hukaku-naru (by Kujou. or the inner emotions are regarded as natural/meteorological phenomena. For example. In such poems. the outside natural phenomena reflect inner emotions of the poet. rain. at least in the Japanese language. depression can be caused by low atmospheric pressure or by lack of sunshine. Here. the intensity of natural phenomena corresponds to the intensity of the emotion. anger-Gen.270 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka f. Japan has a long tradition of regarding the heart as a microcosm. ikari-no tsunami-ga oshi-yoseru. Shinohara and Matsunaka (2003) suggest the existence of an emotion metaphor that they name EMOTION IS EXTERNAL METEOROLOGICAL/NATURAL PHENOMENON THAT SURROUNDS THE SELF. which appears in many old Japanese poems. anger may be intense and sadness or anxiety may be less intense. in despair. or sunshine are likely to be mapped onto less intense emotions. my heart’s sky is deepened into autumn. but each emotion seems to have a range of intensity. As Yamanaka (2003) argues. Moreover. and looking at the moon. 2. He takes data from a French comic album. (3) the source domain of natural force is highly elaborated in Japanese emotion metaphors and displays various levels of intensity. Category I (straightfor- . which are verbal in nature.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics takitsuse-ni hito-no kokoro-o miru-koto-wa mukashi-ni ima-mo kawarazarikeri (by Go-suzaku-in) [It is unchanged in all ages to regard river rapids as one’s heart/mind. we will examine whether these findings from a cognitive linguistic viewpoint also occur in pictorial/visual metaphors of emotion in Japanese manga. If this emotion metaphor is culture-specific. This tendency may not be so universal as the rise of blood pressure and temperature during the experience of anger and thus its physiological motivation for the conceptual metaphor of emotion may perhaps be rather weak. An important study in this line is the one by Forceville (2005). As the discussion proceeds. To sum up this section. Consequently. we have reviewed the cognitive linguistic analysis of emotion metaphors. we have argued that (1) the general schema of the anger metaphor ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER is applicable to Japanese emotion metaphors. the mappings between natural/meteorological phenomena and emotions do not seem to be totally arbitrary or unmotivated. they seem to be supported by the biometeorological tendencies mentioned above. which are basically experientially motivated but allow for the possibility of culture-specificity. but rather.2 Semiotic characteristics of pictorial metaphors In the previous section. metaphors based on this tendency may be culture-specific. In recent developments of the study of pictorial and multimodal metaphors analyses of the expressions of emotion in comics have provided intriguing data and insights.] 271 These wakas (Japanese old-style poems) date back to the 11th or 12th century. However. or landscapes such as rivers. then it may be due to this type of tradition in Japanese society. seasons. The data are classified into two categories. and (4) some Japanese emotion metaphors have mappings from natural or meteorological phenomena to emotions. La Zizanie. Since that time. and analyzes the pictorial expressions of anger. This cultural tradition of Japan may be one of the background factors that motivate EMOTION IS EXTERNAL METEOROLOGICAL/NATURAL PHENOMENON THAT SURROUNDS THE SELF in Japanese. (2) there is an elaborated distinction between inner and outer force in Japanese emotion metaphors. our hearts have been thought of as experiencing night. In addition to this.” “tightly closed mouth. We will add evidence taken from works of Japanese comics written by several authors. a term coined by Kennedy 1982) includes “spirals. 2. thus enabling manifestations in multimodality.” “arm/hand position. some of our examples will show how pictorial runes can deviate from indexicality (being related to physical states of a person in anger that actually occur). Our analysis will basically support Forceville’s (2005: 82) discussion that the pictorial runes signaling anger are Peircean indices rather than Peircean symbols. motivatedness is an important notion.272 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka ward indexical signs) includes “bulging eyes. This constitutes evidence to support this line of ideas. it has been repeatedly argued and demonstrated that the most basic linguistic metaphors are motivated in such a way that the motivation can be traced back to our perceptual or bodily experience.” “tightly closed eyes. The above-mentioned study of pictorial metaphors by Forceville and other researchers along this line provide strong support for this view of mind.” and “shaking.” wide mouth. Category I (indexical signs) and Category II (pictorial runes). In CMT.” and “jagged line. Forceville concludes. “the pictorial runes signaling anger appear indeed to be Peircean indices rather than Peircean symbols.” These “are not perceptible in real life. First. One of the theses of cognitive linguistics is that language is embodied and therefore our mind is fundamentally embodied. Some of the visual signs of anger in .” “smoke. In our study we aim at the same goal. this will strengthen the claim that metaphorical mappings are not merely a matter of language but reside in a deeper layer in our mind. but use a different kind of data. If we can find additional evidence that demonstrates parallel structures between linguistic metaphors and pictorial and multimodal metaphors. Through the analysis of the collected examples of expressions of anger in La Zizanie. Category II (pictorial runes.” These are indexical signs since “we recognize them as symptoms accompanying anger from our everyday experience” (Forceville 2005: 77). we will analyze pictorial emotion metaphor in Japanese manga using the two categories suggested by Forceville.” “ex-mouth.3 Issues and goals What we try to do in this study is two-fold. since they are motivated rather than arbitrary signs” (2005: 82).” “bold face. Here.” “pink/red face. and their indexicality is therefore less evident” than those in Category I (2005: 77). Eerden (this volume) demonstrates that Forceville’s arguments also apply to animated films. 2003. (iii) Azumanga Daiou. birds. 16. EMOTION IS EXTERNAL METEOROLOGICAL/NATURAL PHENOMENON THAT SURROUNDS THE SELF (Shinohara and Matsunaka 2003) is not restricted to verbal metaphors but is also instantiated pictorially in Japanese comics. and other naturally occurring or existing phenomena are used as the background-scene of panels. Vol. by Barasui. Thunder. The first three authors (Akahori. (viii) Crayon Shinchan. Though they share cross-domain mappings with the verbal expressions of conceptual metaphor ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER. wind.. Second. (i) Kashimashi: Girl Meets Girl Vol. a possibly culture-specific Japanese metaphor. fog. we can see that some pictorial metaphors have different and novel ways of representing the conceptual metaphor of anger from verbal ones. (iv) Yotsubato. (x) Crayon Shinchan. . by Akahori [story] and Katsura [art]. by Azuma. 1. their readership extends beyond gender differences. (ix) Crayon Shinchan. 1993. and can express emotional states of a person described in a panel. are well known long-selling comic artists for broader age groups in Japan. 1992a.g. 2006. 3. 5. Thus. Vol. which are experientially motivated. are more vulgar and comical than Tezuka’s serious medical drama. and though originally written as comics for girls. The sources of data that are used in this study are as follows. Such cases of deviation sometimes cannot be verbally expressed. Most of their works selected for this study are about young heroines’ school and family lives. 2005. Azuma. 2000. 1. (ii) Azumanga Daiou. Vol. 1997. by Usui. “veins” in the air).Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 273 Japanese manga. by Azuma. 2002. Vol. 4. Vol. by Usui. Vol.1. can be drawn in physically impossible places (e. or they become hard to understand if they are directly translated into words. rain. Tezuka and Usui. 2005. (vi) Ichigo Mashimaro. 1. (vii) Black Jack. 4. Usui’s works. Vol. which describe the daily life of a kindergartener and his parents. cloud. 1992b. (v) Ichigo Mashimaro. by Azuma. Vol. The last two authors. and their pieces used in this study. and Barasui) have been popular among young people in recent years. 3. flowers. Vol. by Barasui. by Tezuka. these pictorial anger metaphors have a broader range of use than verbal expressions of this metaphor. by Usui. since half-open slanted eyes can also express anger. Slanted eyes and eyebrows are sometimes accompanied by wrinkles near their inner edge or be- .” “tightly closed eyes. © Kiyohiko Azuma). Forceville’s (2005) Category I is defined as indexical signs.1 Category I: Indexical signs As described in 2. but they are all indexical in the sense that they are recognizable physical symptoms of anger.” “pink/red face. 5: 80. the detailed parts of eyes like the pupils are sometimes omitted but still the reader can recognize that the person is angry.” “arm/hand position. Slanted open eyes representing anger (Yotsubato vol. Some of them are included among the items that Forceville finds in La Zizanie. “Bulging eyes. but the angle (slant) seems more noticeable than size. So does a shaking body. The slanted shapes of eyes and eyebrows are so expressive that. Figure 1. For example. We find such indexical signs of anger in the Japanese manga we have investigated.” “wide mouth. They correspond to Forceville’s “bulging eyes” and “tightly closed eyes” respectively. These eyes can be either wide open or narrow/closed.” “shaking. which are recognizable as symptoms that we often perceive in daily life as accompanying the emotion of anger.274 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka 3. since we can perceive them when we see an angry person. and others are not. Anger metaphors in Japanese manga 3.2. These are metonymic rather than metaphorical. as figure 1 shows.” “tightly closed mouth. a red face stands for anger of the person metonymically. A typical pictorial expression of an angry person in Japanese manga is “slanted eyes” (figure 1) or “slanted eyebrows” (figure 2).” and “ex-mouth/spit” are reported to have been observed in La Zizanie (2005: 77). and wide mouth representing anger (Yotsubato vol. Slanted eyebrows. Figure 2. In figure 4.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 275 tween them. slanted eyes. © Kiyohiko Azuma). Shrunken or round pupils are also typical pictorial expressions of anger in Japanese comics. In figure 3. Even . like the ones that Forceville (2005) found in La Zizanie.” as suggested by Forceville.2 as pictorial runes. tightly closed eyes. “Arm/hand position. is also expressive of anger. which symbolizes the knitting of eyebrows in anger. © Kiyohiko Azuma). and shaking body representing anger (Yotsubato vol. tightly closed mouth. (The girl in figure 3 has also Y-shaped signs on her forehead and cheek. Shrunken pupils. 5: 85. which will be analyzed in 3. the girl on the left side raises her arm and clenches her fist. 5: 82. A tightly closed mouth and shaking body also appear in this picture. Figures 1 and 2 also show “wide mouth.” as found by Forceville.) Figure 3. shrunken round pupils are used to express the person’s anger. ” “bold face. The types of pictorial expressions of anger shown in this section are.276 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka though her face is not drawn. Figure 4. © Kiyohiko Azuma). showing that the angry girl is about to hit. However. as mentioned earlier. and the raised hand and fist represent this act. not purely metaphorical. That is.” “smoke or fire. They may be. the pictorial expressions are in most cases exaggerated and schematized to some extent. and their indexicality is therefore less evident than those in the first category” (2005: 77). This may be because the final stage of the scenario of the folk theory about anger is that an angry person loses control of herself and vents her anger in the act of retribution (Lakoff 1987: 397–398). the actual shapes of eyes of an angry person are not like the ones in the figures. in that sense.” It is Kennedy’s (1982) label but Forceville uses it in a broader sense.2 Category II: Pictorial runes The other category examined by Forceville is called “ pictorial runes. pictorial runes “are not perceptible in real life. but the pictures can invoke the typical physical change in the shape of eyes or eyebrows of an angry person. metonymic in nature. 1: 112. readers can easily understand that she is angry. as figures 1–3 show. or at least threatening to hit. Examples found in La Zizanie are “spirals.” Forceville (2005: 82) explains them as follows. Thus. . According to Forceville’s definition.” and “jagged line. For example.” “ex-mouth. 3. Raised arm/fist representing anger (Azumanga Daiou vol. what are included in Category I (indexical signs) constitute examples of pictorial metaphor of anger. the other girl. they are perceivable physical states of a person who is angry. 1: 30. If the “something” coming out of the mouth …… is understood as signaling loud noise. linking the text balloon to the speaking character] is a less obvious cue for anger.. Figure 5. Smoke (in other comics also often “fire”) is clearly an effect of the heating up of the fluid or gas in the body-container…. in the letters in the text balloons] can be seen as … equivalent to saying “he spoke very. which is explicable as the release of pent-up pressure built up within the body-container in the HOT FLUID metaphor. or with its expression. The angularity of the “jagged line connection” [i. Bold face and larger fonts [i. Instead.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 277 The fan-shape of the spirals surrounding the character’s head appears to convey the effect of its risen temperature. but if we characterize it as “non-smooth” as opposed to the rounded and hence smooth way of connecting balloon to character that is the default. radial straight lines are often drawn as emanating from the front of the entire angry person.” The large fonts and bold face. Radial straight lines representing anger (Azumanga Daiou vol. as seen in figure 5. “spirals” were not found. In the Japanese manga we have investigated. we may hypothesize that it fits in with a whole category of “tense” behaviors..e.” that is.e. this is a pictorial rune. very loudly. or indeed as a non-physical phenomenon. its almost bursting with the exertion of either trying to suppress the anger. These straight lines may have the same function as Forceville’s “ex-mouth. then. and loudness is metonymically associated with (expressed) anger. signaling loud voice or the release of pent-up pressure in the body- . cue loudness via a more generic metaphor. © Kiyohiko Azuma). . emission of some kind of energy seems to be expressed by these radial lines. Figure 7. Thus. There is only a little variation in the shape of smoke (steam).278 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka container in the HOT FLUID metaphor (2005: 81). Figure 8. © Osamu Tezuka). 3: 16. as in figures 6. © Barasui). © Yoshito Usui). Smoke (steam) is also seen in Japanese manga. Steam representing anger (Ichigo Mashimaro vol. 7. Steam representing anger (Black Jack vol. 3: 98. Steam representing anger (Crayon Shinchan vol. Figure 6. Whether it is temperature or voice. it shares motivations with verbal anger metaphors. 4: 136. 8. ” since the same shape can be used to express steam coming out of a boiling pan. An example is shown in figure 9. “Fire” is quite another kind of sign in Japanese manga. It comes out the whole body. (6) atama-kara yuge-ga deru head-from steam-Nom. we have a verbal metaphor of anger using the word for “steam” (example (2a) in Section 2. 5. As Forceville argues. Fire representing anger (Crayon Shinchan vol. .Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 279 The small cloud-like shape and the line(s) under it represent that the angry person is blowing off steam from the head. © Yoshito Usui). there may be a mediating generic metaphor LOUDER IS BIGGER. It may represent a loud voice and is often accompanied by an exclamation mark. We have verbal metaphorical expressions corresponding to the concept of “fire” in Japanese as in (7). Figure 9. (7) Taro-wa ikari-ni moe-teiru Taro-Topic anger-Loc. 1: 98. the use of “smoke” or “steam” in this metaphor is motivated by the folk theory that assumes the rising of temperature in an angry person’s body. burn-State “Taro is burning with anger.” Figures 2. It seems to be “steam” rather than “smoke. repeated here). and a loud voice may metonymically stand for anger. 8 and 9 include examples of “bold face” as well.1.” As often argued in CMT. the motivation for the use of “fire” is provided by the folk theory about anger. Indeed. Again. as if the person’s body is in flames. come-out “Steam comes out of (one’s) head. This sign is very commonly used in Japanese manga to express anger. Figure 10 illustrates two variants of this rune. Indeed. nor the scenario in the folk theory of anger. it is the balloon itself that is jagged. This rune has a very simple shape that represents pressurized veins on one’s temples. Since loud voice is not physically jagged. this is a kind of metaphor. these Japanese cases seem to represent a loud voice or shouting. This may be seen with old or middle-aged people. whose facial skin and hypodermic tissues have decayed so that their veins are no longer hidden. when a person’s blood pressure is very high. cut-likely “My veins are just about to snap (I’m very angry). Though Forceville (2005: 82) suggests that the jagged line is related to tense behaviors in general. Though several differences were identified between Forceville’s findings and ours. Two variants of pressurized veins. 5. the veins near the temples sometimes stand out. what is jagged is mainly the connecting line between the balloon and the person. 7. we find in addition a very peculiar pictorial rune in Japanese manga which is not found in Forceville’s study.3 We can see some examples in figures 2. as illustrated by example (8). However. (8) kekkan-ga kire-sou veins-Nom. and loud voice metonymically stands for anger. as radial straight lines seem to do. We have so far examined the items of pictorial runes suggested by Forceville (2005) and demonstrated that the same or similar kinds of runes are observed in Japanese manga. Figure 10.” we have a similar kind of signal in Japanese manga. The most basic use is to put this sign on a character’s temple. This is an example of ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER.” . but not exactly the same as the one Forceville presented as an example. In the examples taken from La Zizanie.280 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka As for “jagged line. but most cases in Japanese manga. and 8. there is a verbal metaphor in Japanese that refers to one’s veins in the brain. those differences do not exceed the scope of the conceptual metaphor ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER (Kövecses 2000) or ANGER IS THE HEAT OF A FLUID IN A CONTAINER (Lakoff 1987).4 Physically. This pictorial rune can be detached from its original (physically occurring and perceivable) place. one of the most typical and productive pictorial runes of anger in Japanese manga is a sign of pressurized veins.5 In figure 12.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 281 Being based on the physically occurring states. the signs are on the hands of the angry mother who is pinching the boy’s face. four of the people waiting in the queue have this sign on their head but three of them have no detailed face. it appears on the neck (or the lower part of the cheek). In figure 13. does not coincide with the shape of the veins in the temple. 3. Moreover. In figure 11. This displacement is a very interesting phenomenon that deserves discussion. this sign might be classified as an indexical signal of anger. The sign of pressurized veins can be seen in most of the above figures of manga. For example. 3: 16. whose temple veins are not likely to stand out. the shape of the sign. So it is not certain where the pressurized vein is. and can be drawn in places that seem to be physically impossible. Figure 11. one’s temples. © Yoshito Usui). this sign is indiscriminately used even for young girls or children.3 Deviation of pictorial runes As mentioned in the previous section. it seems reasonable to classify this sign as a pictorial rune. We will examine it more closely in the next section. However. However. it is drawn on the forehead and cheek. . in figures 3 and 6. Displaced sign of anger (Crayon Shinchan vol. Thus. that is. but we can easily conclude that they are all angry from the narrative and the utterances. especially the cross-shape. it may be noticed that the location of the sign varies. Figure 13. Though this sign can be traced back to its original status as a metonymy. it seems that it has become a sort of independent sign representing anger and thus can enjoy free displacement and deviation of a kind that is not seen in verbal metaphors. At this stage. In figures 4 and 8. and . except in the case of hands. it is on the back of the head. © Yoshito Usui). it is in the balloon. example (8) implies hemorrhage in the brain and nowhere else in the body. In verbal metaphors.282 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka Figure 12. on the back of the head. 1: 34. Displaced sign of anger (Crayon Shinchan vol. even in places other than temples. it is in the air. beside the words. this sign can also be witnessed in unexpected places. or on the hair. © Yoshito Usui). 3: 16. in the air. Finally. To verbally express the location of the sign such as on hands. In all the above cases. the sign seems to have been freed from its feature of appearing on a person’s skin. the sign of pressurized veins can express anger. However. This indicates that the sign can even become detached from the human body. Displaced sign of anger (Crayon Shinchan vol. in figures 9 and 11. just above the head. Thus. as if indicating the intonation or tone of voice with which the words are uttered. It is definitely impossible to see pressurized veins standing out on one’s hair. the signs of the pressurized veins appear on a person’s face. In figure 5. This suggests that pictorial metaphor is not a mere substitution for or equivalent of verbal metaphor. though these two obviously share experiential motivations and the same cross-conceptual mappings. would make no sense. or anxiety can be conceptualized in terms of natural or mete- . As Forceville (2006: 281) maintains. Japanese emotion metaphors have an elaborated distinction between inner and outer force. and there is a conceptual mapping we call EMOTION IS EXTERNAL METEOROLOGICAL/NATURAL PHENOMENON THAT SURROUNDS THE SELF. the metaphorical force of emotion is conceptualized as being outside the self or the body-part that is regarded as the container of emotion. sadness. So far. we have seen that there are the same or similar kinds of pictorial runes in Japanese comics as Forceville finds in the French album La Zizanie.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 283 so forth. we agree with Forceville in maintaining that pictorial runes should be classified as indexical signs. but also weak or mild emotion types such as happiness. It seems that the free deviation of this pictorial rune is made possible by the visual properties of the medium in which it is used. Not only intense emotions like anger. They are all compatible with the verbal expression of the ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER metaphor or its background folk theory and the scenario of anger events. since they are not arbitrary but are motivated. “…an exclusive or predominant concentration on verbal manifestations of metaphor runs the risk of blinding researchers to aspects of metaphor that may typically occur in multimodal representations only. 3.” Displacement of the pictorial rune of pressurized veins may be an instantiation of the aspects that Forceville argues. Considering the importance of the notion of motivation in the study of metaphor. but are realized in at least two language communities. as Forceville (2005: 82) argues. It is a “visual” manifestation of a conceptual metaphor of anger and its meaning cannot be fully covered by the corresponding verbal metaphor. It is only in the visual mode that this sign can be displaced. In this conceptual mapping. The present study provides further supports for this claim by giving evidence from Japanese comics. Forceville provides examples from a French comics album. Motivated pictorial runes are not confined to French.4 Atmosphere and natural phenomena As mentioned in 2. they are not symbols in Peircean sense either. The pictorial runes are not straightforward expressions of physically perceivable states of an angry person. However. For this discussion.1. disappointment. so they are not straightforward indexical signs in Peircean semiotic theory. by which readers can recognize how the person in that panel is feeling. In Japanese manga. © Kiyohiko Azuma). Instantiations of this possibly culture-specific conceptual metaphor are not restricted to verbal ones. Thunder representing anger (Yotsubato vol. rain. They are drawn as the background scene of a panel. 5: 84. Figure 14. The following figures illustrate some of such uses. cloud. we also find them in pictorial expressions. . or fog.284 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka orological phenomena.1). it seems that the rich realization of this emotion metaphor in Japanese is motivated by the traditional Japanese view that the heart is a microcosm and the outside natural phenomena reflect inner emotions. wind. 5:79.6 As Matsunaka and Shinohara (2003) argue. © Kiyohiko Azuma). and some life forms in nature like flowers or birds can be used to express a person’s emotional state. Figure 15. English does not have as rich a repertoire of this kind of highly elaborated mappings between natural phenomena and emotional states of a person as Japanese does. To our knowledge. Cloud or fog representing anger (Yotsubato vol. meteorological phenomena such as thunder. or inner emotions are regarded as natural/meteorological phenomena (see 2. however. Thunder. perhaps with a loud noise. So far. the storm is here a metaphorical expression of the person’s emotion. The effect of the storm does not reach the boy. Other types of emotions like love. Figure 16 has wind and rain besides thunder. 1: 100. this cloud or fog cannot be a physical occurrence.” Since there is no actual storm in this scene. The following are some examples. a cloud or fog-like substance is described. and rain representing anger (Crayon Shinchan vol. which may be metaphorically mapped onto the loudness of the person’s shouting voice. . thunder appears. It may be noticed that this “storm” is drawn only around the mother. Thunder may be associated with emission of intense energy. together with the drops between them. The lines may also represent rain. we have observed meteorological or natural phenomena in pictorial metaphors that express the emotion of anger. not around the boy. visual representation of meteorological phenomena can be used very effectively and expressively in manga. Since the setting of this scene is in the living room at sunny lunchtime. disappointment. surprise. or anxiety can also be expressed by meteorological or natural phenomena that are not physically present. happiness. They all combine to represent a “storm. These kinds of pictorial metaphors are. In figures 15 and 16. and in typical cases. The image of storm may be associated with intense energy and destructive power that will affect the person nearby. In this way. In the background scene of figure 14. It expresses the girl’s anger. which expresses that the angry person is releasing his/her anger.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 285 Figure 16. shouting out. not limited to anger. The slant lines and the onomatopoeia written on the left side (which reads “Gooooo”) represent strong wind. © Yoshito Usui). This clearly means that the mother is very angry but the boy does not care at all. which is getting more and more intense. wind. © Kiyohiko Azuma). 4: 58. 4: 137.286 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka Figure 17. Figure 18. 4: 158. © Barasui). . Figure 19. Birds representing joy/happiness (Azumanga Daiou vol. © Kiyohiko Azuma). Darkness representing disappointment/anxiety (Azumanga Daiou vol. Lightning representing surprise (Ichigo Mashimaro vol. © Yuukimaru Katsura). Flowers representing love (Crayon Shinchan vol. . Flowers representing joy/happiness (Ichigo Mashimaro vol.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 287 Figure 20. Figure 22. Figure 21.1: 152. Flowers representing love (Kashimashi vol. © Yoshito Usui). 16: 12. 1: 51. © Barasui). two girls are holding their heads in surprise or shock. As a more lasting and static environment. The relation between disappointment/anxiety and darkness is observed also in verbal metaphors. in which they have no confidence. The motivation behind this pictorial metaphor may be that the impact of surprise or shock on one’s heart is similar to that of lightning on one’s eyes.1. In this scene. © Barasui). and this is symbolized by the birds surrounding them. and its intensity. In figure 19.288 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka Figure 23. darkness is expressed by narrow vertical lines in figure 18. This emotional state is emphasized by the background lightning. as mentioned in 2. unexpected occurrence). Consistent with what he argues. the girls are happy and full of joy. Dropping petal of a flower representing disappointment (Ichigo Mashimaro vol. In figure 17. This is an example of what Forceville (2006) calls a “realistically motivated” metaphor. in temporal aspect (abrupt. the presence of birds is not totally implausible. the girls are talking about their exams. That these negative emotions are experienced as “dark” may be experientially motivated by a biometeorological tendency. Figures 19–23 differ from figures 17 and 18 in that they use natural life forms instead of meteorological phenomena to express emotional states. This is expressive of the persons’ emotional state of disappointment or anxiety. or just by what we tend to feel in actual darkness. 1: 42. Since this is an outdoor scene. the . Thus.” It is. She is very relaxed and happy. Pictorial runes of meteorological or natural phenomena . This is also observed in verbal metaphor in Japanese. however. culture-specific. Considering these properties. As already mentioned. this use of flowers is experientially motivated. that is. The petal dropping indicates incompleteness of the flower. We have argued elsewhere that experiential motivation does not imply universality. pictorial metaphors in Japanese manga should be classified as Peircean indices rather than Peircean symbols. In the first panel. This state of emotion is expressed by surrounding flowers. Since birds can fly in the air. meteorological or natural phenomena used in pictorial emotion metaphors we have examined are experientially motivated. This may hold in other languages as well. but they do not represent anxiety or shock. one petal of the flower drops. since it is a typical reaction for us to feel relaxed and happy when we see flowers. Figure 23 has a more complex structure. to regard natural scenes as reflections of one’s internal or emotional states may be an aspect of Japanese sociocultural tradition which may not be shared by other cultural groups. how she became disappointed when she heard those utterances. at least to some extent. whose presence is very unlikely. What makes pictorial metaphors of this kind comprehensible and interpretable resides in the motivation or grounding that supports their mappings. it should be noted that the use of meteorological or natural phenomena to express emotional states may be. as in the second panel. this deficiency means “destroyed happiness. after she hears what other persons say. or lack of something. in which a rich vocabulary about flowers is associated with love. Flowers can represent happiness or love. and it illustrates that dynamic or complex use of visual signs is possible in this kind of media. which is shown in the two balloons. Figure 20 represents a girl drinking beer after taking a bath. Thus. However. Since flower represents a happy state. deficiency. not a severely destructive experience because the flower is still a flower even when it has lost one of the petals. the conceptual mapping HAPPY IS UP may motivate this use of birds.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 289 metaphor is subtler in this case than the case of thunder. To sum up. the flower behind the girl has a complete shape. In figures 21 and 22. This change of state of the flower represents the girl’s emotional state. The relationship between happiness and flowers is obvious. this pictorial metaphor is highly expressive of such dynamic state of one’s emotion. However. it could still be culture-specific. This pictorial metaphor consists of two successive panels. flowers represent love. Even when a conceptual mapping has physical motivation. That is.) The parallel structures between verbal and visual metaphors indicate that metaphors are not merely a surface linguistic phenomenon but rooted more deeply. we have argued that culture-specific aspects found in verbal emotion metaphors may also be found in pictorial emotion metaphors.290 Kazuko Shinohara and Yoshihiro Matsunaka in multimodal emotion metaphors may constitute an instantiation of this argument. Readers/viewers of the pictorial expressions of anger such as the ones discussed in this chapter require no verbal information. though these do not require verbal information either. to assess the emotion depicted. Conclusion In this chapter. We are also indebted to Kotaro Yamamoto for his role in collecting many of the panels we used as the data. Even though basic conceptual mappings are shared by both modalities. however. structuring our cognition and concepts. Some examples of the pictorial metaphors are specific to the visual mode. However. Moreover. This point. either in the form of talk by a character in the panel. culture-specificity may be observed in both verbal and visual metaphors. are invited to this promising field. By examining EMOTION IS EXTERNAL METEOROLOGICAL/ NATURAL PHENOMENON THAT SURROUNDS THE SELF. it seems that differences can emerge due to the different properties of each modality. or in the surrounding narrative context. especially of other languages and cultures. we have also observed that verbal and visual metaphors are not completely equivalent. we have examined some works of Japanese manga to demonstrate that there are pictorial metaphors that are motivated by the same conceptual mappings as verbal metaphors. We have shown that the conceptual metaphor ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER is shared by verbal and visual modalities. Notes * We would like to acknowledge Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi for their constructive comments. 4. Researchers of multimodal metaphors. (Emotions expressed by meteorological/natural phenomena are sometimes ambiguous and thus need to be aided by facial expressions of a character. readers know what kind of emotion is expressed from only pictorial signs of the types we have presented. . needs more investigation. Vol. Discussions on anger metaphor within the field of cognitive linguistics can be found e. Yu 1998) and gastric contents in Japanese (Matsunaka and Shinohara 2001a) have been suggested as instantiations of the “fluid. 1. Tokyo: Media Works. 2005 Ichigo Mashimaro [Strawberry Marshmallow]. Barasui 2003 Ichigo Mashimaro [Strawberry Marshmallow]. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 9: 1–29. this example may be an indexical sign of physically occurring states. 5. Azuma. though it has found its way to English language comics. 1. Gevaert (2002). Kotze (2005).” It is suggested that jagged balloons sometimes appear in also European comics as well (Forceville.4. personal communication). Tokyo: Media Works. Vol. Kiyohiko 2000 Azumanga Daiou [Azumanga the Great]. As McCloud (2006: 97) points out. 1. 5. In that case. Forceville. The veins on one’s hands may stand out when he/she strains the muscles of the hands. Tokyo: Media Works. this sign is one of the symbolic expressions which vary from culture to culture. Vol. There are a few similar cases of this kind in English (Kövecses 2000: 71). Satoru. Noel 1994 Visual metaphor. References Akahori. “fluid” is mainly assumed to be blood. but they are confined to strong emotions.” Other than blood. and Yuukimaru Katsura 2005 Kashimashi [clamorous]: Girl Meets Girl. 2002 Azumanga Daiou [Azumanga the Great]. 2006 Yotsubato [With Yotsuba]. In Aspects of Metaphor. Vol. qi (‘gas’) in Chinese (Kövecses 2000.). 291 2. Carroll. Charles 1994 Pictorial metaphor in advertisements. in Geeraerts and Grondelaers (1995). In this metaphor. Vol. . 6.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 1. Jaakko Hintikka (ed. Tokyo: Media Works.. 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Japanese metaphor of sorrow. 137–151. Osamu 1993 Black Jack. 2003 An analysis of Japanese emotion metaphors. Kazuko. McCloud.Pictorial metaphors of emotion in Japanese comics 1999 293 Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought. 2001b Emotion and outer force schema: A perspective from Japanese. 16. 2003 Clouds and sunshine in mind: Meteorology-based Japanese emotion metaphors. 3. 1992b Crayon Shinchan. London: Methuen. Yoshihiro. USA. Vol. Paper presented at 5th International Conference on Researching and Applying Metaphor. Matsunaka. Yu. . V Metaphor in Spoken Language and Co-Speech Gesture . . anthropologists and linguists. monomodal metaphors. Finally. but point out the relevance of studying metaphors in other articulatory forms such as stress and intonation. pointing out more specifically how metaphors are being elaborated within and across modalities. multimodal metaphor. gestures. social psychologists. We will focus particularly on metaphors that are realized in speech and/or gesture. verbo-gestural metaphors 1. verbal metaphors. suggesting that multimodal metaphors in spoken language are products of the process of creating metaphoricity (by a speaker/gesturer and ideally also by a listener/perceiver). The different forms of multimodal metaphors are systematically based on different relations between metaphoric and gestural expressions. which is essentially independent of modality and expressive form. and which rather unanimously has been characterized as a communicative situation that is inherently multimodal.and multimodal metaphors may take in face-to-face communication. and beyond: Forms of multimodal metaphor in the use of spoken language Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki Abstract This chapter offers a systematic account of the forms that mono. The account is based on the relation of source and target domains expressed either in one modality only (thus forming a monomodal metaphor) or in two modalities (forming a multimodal metaphor).Chapter 13 Words. thinking for speaking and gesturing. We will then illustrate the inherent dynamic nature of metaphors when used in spoken interaction. implications for metaphor theory and for the dynamic aspects of “thinking for speaking” are discussed. Keywords: Activation of metaphoricity. Introduction The situation which has been most influential for the form that spoken languages have is arguably the face-to-face encounter. . gestural metaphors. We take it as a scenario that has been described by sociologists. gestures. What are the characteristics of the most usual interaction between two people. or back to front. which the addressee can perceive visually.. but also the production of various kinds of bodily motion in space. As Clark indicates. to interact socially with other people.e. inspired by Goffman (1967). […] That is. positions and verbal statements’ that constitute the stuff of face-toface encounters” (Kendon 1990: ix). John and Mary? For our purposes. perhaps even needs. Herb Clark. the use of spoken language in this context is inherently a process of multimodal communication. these conditions would no longer be optimal. i. John is in Mary’s positive perceptual field.’ from “their referential aspects. in turn.1 it is a form of interaction which is extremely common in the cultures of many areas of the world and which does imply reciprocal audibility and visibility (although to varying degrees). If John and Mary were side by side. gesture simply considered as ‘movement. directed attention to the fact that the hand gestures people seem to use unwittingly and very regularly when they converse with each other are so deeply intertwined with spoken language that in his empirical investigation of cross-cultural differences between Jewish and Italian immigrants to New York City he distinguishes “spatio-temporal aspects. involving not only the oral production of sound and its aural reception. David Efron. This face-to-face situation is what I would like to refer to. The multimodal nature of spoken communication has been especially emphasized in recent years by those researching spontaneous gesture with speech.298 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki Adam Kendon. i. one of the pioneers of gesture studies. was interested in the interactional aspects of this situation and he has devoted many of his early studies to finding “responses to Erving Goffman’s (1967) call for a study of the ‘ultimate behavioral materials’ of interaction. or in any other position. man is a social animal. or back to back. gesture envisaged as ‘language’” (Efron 1972: 67. suggesting that gesture . for convenience. […] ‘the glances.. It is in this position that John and Mary are situated for the optimal perception of messages – both verbal and nonverbal – from the other person. Granting that the canonical encounter as described above does not imply that co-participants literally face each other. It is no accident that normal conversations are carried out face-to-face. This face-to-face encounter between two people will be the context in which we will treat the use of spoken language in this chapter. gestures. the most important property is that they will be facing each other a short distance apart. emphasis in original). who enjoys.e. and Mary is in John’s. as the canonical encounter (Clark 1973: 34–35). has described the face-to-face situation of communication as the “canonical encounter” of human beings: From the social psychologist’s viewpoint. and indeed over the past years quite a substantial body of research on metaphor in gesture. Our understanding of articulatory form partially overlaps with Forceville’s use of the term mode. this volume.” . 2003. and sign language has been carried out (cf. including prosodic features. Núñez 2004.g. Similarly within the spatial/visual modality. such as stress and intonation. Given that spoken language involves multiple modalities. McNeill 1992.. 2005b. Cienki and Müller 2008a. 2008. 2004). etc. Calbris 1998. We will refer to these as different articulatory forms within this modality.. speech. Bouvet 1997. Wilcox 2000. body shifts. However. McNeill 1992. we will restrict the term “modality” to two dimensions of face-to-face communication: one will refer to what is expressed orally and perceived primarily aurally as sound (the oral/aural modality).g. In order to clarify what we are discussing. 2005).. intonation and stress can be discussed separately from each other and separately from the words being articulated. can all be considered different expressive forms. In the oral/aural modality. gestures. there are various forms which can be used for expressive purposes. Webb 1996. Mittelberg 2006. eye gaze. 2008b. Kendon 2004) or proposing that gesture and speech are dynamically based in different forms of thought but constitute one integrated system (e. Cienki 1998. Mittelberg and Waugh. The topic we want to explore here in particular is the different forms that multimodal metaphors may take in face-to-face communication. In his critical stance towards giving “a satisfactory definition of ‘mode’” or of compiling “an exhaustive list of modes. Müller 1998. Within each modality. Müller 2008) and this chapter offers a systematic account of the forms of metaphors that occur either in speech or in gesture or in both modalities at the same time. In this sense. We will specifically concentrate on the kinds of relations between metaphors that are realized in speech and/or gesture. 2000.g. It is not by accident that the study of metaphor is increasingly taking data from gesture studies into account (e. there are additional properties of spoken communication which have received much less or no attention in terms of their implications for the expression of metaphor. Cienki and Müller 2008a.. 2008). manual gestures. and the other will refer to bodily forms and movements in space which are primarily perceived visually (the spatial/visual modality). and beyond 299 and speech are visible and audible actions that form one single utterance (e.Words. 2008b. we would also like to point out that beyond gesture. 2001. we will see that gesture/word combinations can constitute multimodal metaphors. it makes sense that metaphor should have the potential for multimodality when used in this form of communication. and the time course in which all of these expressive forms are used during acts of speaking (for the latter point see Müller 2007. Núñez and Sweetser 2006. or verbo-gestural utterances.” This means we will distinguish monomodal verbal metaphors from monomodal gestural metaphors. and for the present chapter this means that we will document and discuss verbogestural metaphors. After presenting an overview of what appear to be the most common ways in which the use of metaphor can play out in the oral/aural and spatial/visual modalities and articulatory forms. (5) sounds. Monomodal and multimodal metaphors in words and gestures To begin with we need to clarify our understanding of mono. since the phenomenological level we are concerned with in our analysis is that of verbal. If. Eventually we will suggest that these observations indicate that multimodal metaphors are products of the process of creating metaphoricity (by a speaker/gesturer and ideally also by a listener/perceiver). or verbo-gestural metaphoric expressions. We do. (2) written signs. However. 2. which is essentially independent of modality and articulatory form. at least. (9) touch” (Forceville 2006: 382–3/this volume). (6) music. con- . Following Forceville (2006: 383). In short.300 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki Forceville argues that this fundamental difficulty “is no obstacle for postulating that there are different modes and that these include. which are realized in an aural/oral or spatial/visual modality. and if so how. we will point out the inherent dynamic nature of metaphors when used in spoken interaction. What one can express via a given modality and expressive form will have an effect on what one will express using that modality. (8) tastes. we will consider as monomodal those metaphors “whose target and source are exclusively or predominantly rendered in one mode. In fact. gestural. (7) smells.and multimodal metaphors. and even more precisely. if metaphoricity is a matter of understanding one idea (or domain) in terms of another. spoken words and gestures are articulatory forms or modes. We will conclude by considering the implications this has for how we can think with metaphors while we are speaking. (3) spoken signs. these expressions relate to a general level of conceptual metaphors (such as LOVE IS A JOURNEY) remains unaddressed. the following: (1) pictorial signs. however. this means that we are actually talking about verbal and gestural. (4) gestures. we will also argue that the different modalities and forms that are involved in spoken interaction afford the use of different expressions for metaphors. or attending to someone who is speaking. We will consider as multimodal those metaphors “whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” (Forceville 2006: 384). we will indicate words so identified via this procedure with underlining. foot gestures. as appropriate. or relations. as we have found it extremely rare in our research to date. body shifts. effortful movements of parts of the body whose primary purpose is apparently not that of self-adjustment (for example. Abstract referential gestures are inherently metaphoric by virtue of rendering a non-physical idea in terms of a physical. orientations. and (b) when the contextual meaning is interpreted via comparison with the more basic meaning. Thus for the sake of brevity only we will henceforth use the terms metaphor and metaphoric expressions as synonyms in this chapter. Thus the same two-handed gesture with thumb and index finger on each hand forming a 90 degree angle could be used when talking about a picture frame or when describing the “framework” of a theory. intended to identify words which may even potentially be understood metaphorically in the given context of use. To put it briefly. spatiotemporal representation. Second it is central to illustrate what we mean by “gesture. Here we will focus on positions.” unless specified otherwise. and movements of the hands and forearms. or to abstract notions in terms of such physical means. In the examples that follow. gestures. We can note that a concrete referential gesture can also be metaphoric in certain contexts (e. as with grooming behavior) or object manipulation (such as lifting a cup to take a drink). It is a maximally inclusive procedure. We should also mention our criteria for identifying verbal expressions as metaphoric. Müller (1998: 110–1) notes that referential gestures can refer either to physical objects. Which gestures will be considered metaphoric? Here we will restrict the discussion to gestures whose primary function can be identified as abstract reference. unless otherwise indicated.” Here we will be focusing on visible. and so on.g. One could focus on many different parts of the body. properties. or a combination of both – to be conceptual (adhering to the cognitive linguistic assumption that meaning in general is “conceptual”). but we will not focus on such usage here. The examples below are from our qualitative analyses of videorecorded conversations from four different languages: American .Words. with language-specific adaptations. For a detailed account of the procedure see Pragglejaz Group (2007). such as head gestures.. eye movements. and beyond 301 sider the meaning of those metaphoric expressions – be they verbal. these are what we will mean henceforth with the term “gesture. For this we rely on the procedure developed by the Pragglejaz Group (2007). shoulder shrugs. actions. the procedure has been designed for the identification of (a) when a word is being used in a given context with a meaning which is different from another physically more basic meaning that it may have. when someone imitates an animal referring to a person in a derogatory way). gestural. we will offer a sketch of what appear to be common forms of mono. and were on abstract topics so as to increase the likelihood of use of metaphoric expressions.302 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki English.). McNeill 1992). we can confirm that we often find the use of metaphoric verbal expressions without co-occurring metaphoric gestures.. the onset of gesture notation is synchronized in the transcript with the beginning of the gestural movement and bold face indicates the entire duration of gestural movement (preparation. stroke.). Cuban Spanish. that is: in one modality (spoken words or gestures) or in a combination of the two.) marks a final intonation unit falling to a low pitch at the end. retraction. Put differently. we will now give an overview of what is known about the manners in which metaphor may be expressed in speech in real time. each separate gesture is indicated by a number (G1. Participants were asked to give accounts of important events in their lives (a wedding) or to talk about life in Cuba in general. left or both hands. Each example cited here comes from a different conversation. respectively). one American . Building on the possible relations that Cienki (1998) has found between metaphors expressed in words and in gestures and on Müller’s (2008) discussion of different realms of metaphor.) indicates an intonation unit with a terminal pitch that signals continuation. and a double dash (--) shows that the intonation unit was truncated.and multimodal metaphors in words and/or gestures. The Cuban data were all recorded in Havana. In the transcription of the examples. For example. Monomodal metaphors: source and target within one modality First. The English and Russian conversations were between pairs of university students who were talking about how they take exams at their universities (in the United States and Russia. A comma (. and Russian. a period/full stop (. cf. The German data come from middle-aged German women who were talking with the researcher (the first author) about their first love relationship. A longer pause by the given speaker is indicated with three dots (…). The conversations in each language were elicited from pairs of native speakers. with one exception of a speaker who was 54 years old). 3. They were roughly of the same age (in their thirties. bh. lh. hands involved in gesturing are noted as rh. indicating right. unless noted otherwise. G2. Kendon 2004. and a shorter one with two (. and mixed with regard to gender. etc. German. Each line in the transcript indicates a new intonation unit (see Chafe 1994 on intonation units as units of analysis for spoken discourse). Even if peer pressure involved physical contact. keeping her hands resting on her leg as she was sitting. The student is trying to characterize the Russian concept of “chestnost’. hands at rest in his lap. but sometimes might not behave in accordance with them. the peer pressure. the right .” Example 2 (from Russian): Dlia menia chestnost’ eto nekaia absoliutnaia kategoriia. G1 preparation bh raised in front of torso.Words. the speaker made no gestures while saying it either time. At this point she says (Example 1): Example 1: Just because of the pressure. gestural metaphoric expressions that are used concurrently with speech. Example 2 comes from one of the Russian students talking about how they take exams at their university. The student begins seated. that is. flat in vertical plane.” which may be translated as “honesty. he lifts his two hands in front of his torso. and beyond 303 student talks about how people may verbalize certain beliefs about honesty. We also find the converse monomodal pattern of metaphor use: metaphors expressed in gestures without metaphors in the co-occurring speech. gestures. We might refer to such a use of metaphor purely on the verbal level as monomodal metaphor or as verbal metaphoric expression. and starting when he says “situatsiia” [= situation]. An English translation is provided below the transliterated transcript of the Russian. When there’s this situation. the word still can be understood with the abstract sense of coercive behavior (it has potential metaphoricity). For me chestnost’ is a kind of absolute category. Although the word was coded as metaphorically used. The word “pressure” was coded as metaphoric in this context because “peer pressure” normally involves behaviors other than physical pressing – the more basic physical meaning of the word. fingers pointing out Kogda vot iest’ situatsiia. G1 stroke bh move straight downward slightly seichas postupit’ chestno tak. then [you need] to act honestly like this. . Neumann 2004). in which the metonymic target of the sign-formation process turns into the source of the metaphoric gesture (see also Mittelberg 2007). b). maintaining their position relative to each other and flat in the vertical plane. a. this volume. Mittelberg 2006. Morris 1977. Thus we might speculate whether this is an instance of a multimodal utterance consisting of a monomodal gestural metaphoric expression which is being inserted into a verbal utterance.. The targets of the metonymic process in our cases are the modulated actions: i. a. b. offering or receiving something (the palm-up-open-hand gesture).304 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki hand somewhat higher than the left. and his hands move in temporal coordination with the verbal deictic. Streeck 1994): presenting. Müller 1998. since not only are the gesture’s source and target independent from any verbal metaphoric expression (in fact there is none in the concurrent speech). picking up small objects with the index finger and thumb (the ring gesture).. Examples are the palm-up-open-hand gesture (cf. palms and fingers flat in the vertical plane. but the gestural metaphoric expression is used in place of words. manner of behavior (honest) is expressed gesturally as a physical form (flat/straight) with a certain motion (brief and straight). a. part of . Müller and Haferland 1997. Teßendorf in prep. The speaker uses a verbal deictic particle to direct the attention of his co-participant to the gesture: “like this” points to the gesture. These are gestures that recur in form and function over a large amount of contexts and therefore we term them recurrent gestures (cf. (See Cienki 1999 for further discussion of this and related examples. or the brushing aside gesture (Müller and Speckmann 2002. Mittelberg and Müller in prep. These gestures all share a common origin. Müller 2004. you don’t know what he thinks it means to act honestly (“chestno”).. in prep. What we observe in these gestures is a two-step semiotic process as identified and described by Mittelberg and Waugh (this volume). Bressem and Ladewig in prep. the ring gesture (Fatfouta in prep. Ladewig in prep. Teßendorf in prep. Mittelberg and Waugh. or brushing aside small objects. Speckmann 1999. In this instance. Kendon 2004. Here the speaker explicitly uses the gesture to make reference – if you don’t see the gesture. b). at which point he moves them both slightly downward in unison.e..) Note that this is a particularly interesting case. fingers pointing forward. Thus verbally he makes clear that the gesture contains relevant information. Kendon 2004. but there is no verbal mention of a metaphoric source. in that they are all metonymic derivations of everyday actions (cf. Streeck 1994). Another type of gestural metaphoric expression that is very common among different cultures involves gestures which perform a speech-act or more generally a communicative activity. He holds his hands there until he gets to the word “tak” [= “like this”]. each of them relating to a different person voting emphatically for another program: “Yo quiero vel aquello yo quiero ver lo otro yo quiero ver esto” (“I want to see this one. see Teßendorf in prep. indicating the preciseness of arguments. The more programs to choose from. I want to see that one G2 lh points straight yo quiero ver lo otro. In Example 3 the speaker thinks out loud about the possible consequences of what it would be like to have four instead of two TV-channels in Cuba. (For a detailed analysis of the brushing aside gesture used by speakers of the Iberian Peninsula. I want to see that one. Example 3 (from Cuban Spanish): G1 rh point to the right yo quiero vel aquello. For instance the brushing aside gesture is widely used to express negative assessments. Example 3 comes from free conversations recorded in Cuba (Müller and Speckmann 2002. gestures. This modulated action is used now as a metaphoric source for symbolizing abstract issues such as presenting a discourse object on the palm-up-open-hand. a. I want to see the other one”). b). He describes the big arguments this would raise in a very lively way. and he indicates three different places. b). or brushing aside unpleasant topics. I want to see the other G3 G4 rh points straight rh brushes aside yo quiero ver esto (. and in doing this becomes himself part of such an imaginary situation: he imagines himself standing in the living room. thus consituting a “classical” instance of a synecdochic relation (Müller in prep. a. It is clearly not desirable to have four channels on Cuban TV and correspondingly he concludes his discussion with a negative assessment performed gesturally as a brushing aside gesture.) I want to see this one (.) . Speckmann 1999). He is convinced that this would disturb family life by causing endless discussions about which program to watch. and this is what we will see in the next example.Words. and beyond 305 the action stands for the action as a whole. the more arguments you have in your family – this is the moral of the speaker’s imagined scenario. In the second example the communicative function is metaphorical reference. As for gestural metaphoric expressions we have found two different kinds: on the one hand there seem to be gestures that are more likely to be created on the spot (such as example 2. example 3). the gesture takes over the entire communicative burden. and G3 point to three different places in the imagined apartment. telling us how the propositional content (the choice of various programs) is being assessed by the speaker. suggested the term “gestural particle”). We may conclude that monomodal metaphors are frequent in words but they also can be found in gestures. but for the sake of brevity it might be characterized as a difference between gestures contributing information to the propositional content of the utterance and gestures contributing meta-communicative information. There is no verbalization of a negative assessment. whereas in example 3 the gestures’ function is the performance of a communicative action.) What the brushing aside gesture shares with the other recurrent gestures mentioned before is that it has a performative or (more general pragmatic) function rather than a referential one. “honesty” with a “straight” gesture). (For a detailed cognitive semiotic analysis of this process. and it is obvious that metaphor plays a different role here than in example 2. G2. Thus while metaphor as well as metonymy are clearly involved in these gestures. they come in at the level of the semiotic process of sign formation rather than on the level of communicative function.306 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki The first three gestures the speaker uses relate to the propositional content of the utterance. a. precisely where a verbal evaluative particle could have been placed. b. and the gestural meaning is derived from the negative connotation of the practical action. and others that appear to recur with a relatively stable form and function (the “brushing aside” case. localizing three different persons with three different wishes. The difference is not a simple matter. see Teßendorf in prep. It is noteworthy that the gesture is placed at the end of the phrasal unit. It seems as if the brushing aside gesture would do the “same job” as a verbal particle would (which is why Müller and Speckmann. Instead the speaker pauses and produces a gesture with similar content. G1. The brushing aside gesture (G4) is located in a micro-pause at the end of this utterance – and clearly assesses this imagined situation as an undesirable one. It gives a negative evaluation of a situation being described. While in the second example the metaphoric gestures expressed aspects of the propositional content (honesty as a physical form and movement) in the third example the metaphoric gestures are used for meta-communicative purposes (they qualify the propositional content). These two . Hence the first use of the metaphoric gestures belongs to the realm of semantics while the other one belongs to pragmatics. and beyond 307 kinds of gestural metaphors furthermore seem to fall into two different functional groups: one of them expressing parts of the propositional content. are very common forms of multimodal metaphors in words and gestures. The kind of variation and distribution of “duties” over the two modalities involved tell us something about the nature of the collaboration of words and gestures in spoken language. whereas one is extremely rare. and it offers insights into the cognitive activation of metaphoricity during speaking. this is pretty clingy. as well as different source and same target in two modalities. whereas same source and different target appears to be rare. it is not only interesting to note that once again we encounter quite some variation with regard to which articulatory mode expresses which aspects of the metaphor. Of the three theoretically possible variations. well. as one might expect. . two are common. It seems that the latter ones show a tendency for conventionalization. created ad hoc. We find that the same source and target in two modalities.Words. the other one performing meta-communicative acts in the widest sense. G1 continued des is ganz schön klebrig. when the source domain of a conceptual metaphor appears simultaneously in both verbal and gestural form. 4. gestures. Multimodal metaphors: source and target in two modalities Turning to multimodal metaphor. Consider example 4. which is why we are able to put together repertoires of those forms but not of the spontaneous referential gestures. in which a young woman is describing how her teenage love became more and more clingy (“klebrig”) and intense (“heftig”): Example 4: G1 open palms touching each other repeatedly also da hab ich schon gemerkt naja’ So there I had already realized. 4.1 Same source and same target in two modalities A very common form of gesture word collaboration in expressing metaphor is. ” literally “setting the tracks. These cases appear to be widespread and to occur frequently. “Well I already realized” and it is held through the pause in the third line and recycled while she offers another metaphoric qualification of the relation (“strong.) or intense. moving apart and then back to “sticking” together. sometimes they are held up and “wait” for speech. and in order to make his point he uses a German idiomatic expression “die Weichen stellen. and we may therefore characterize this metaphor as “waking” for that very speaker at this moment in time. but it does so significantly before the verbal part of the metaphor is uttered. As is widely known from gesture studies. This is precisely what happens here.” Note that when he is . The gestural metaphor enacting clingyness begins with the first line in the transcript. similar example below. 2008). It is as if the palms were sticky and it was hard to separate them. The speaker’s flat hands repeatedly touch each other. intense”). they indicate activation of metaphoricity of conventional and transparent metaphors (Müller 2003. He thinks that the first job one takes on determines the path of one’s future career.2 In Example 5 a young man challenges his co-participant’s opinion on the future implications of one’s first job after graduating from university. gestures may dynamically foreshadow and maintain verbal metaphors over longer stretches of discourse. indicating that metaphoricity of this expression was activated or in the foreground of the speaker’s attention. Put differently. 2007. Put differently. the semantic coexpressiveness that we observe in this example does not imply that the gestural and the verbal parts of such a multimodal metaphor must also be expressed simultaneously in real time. (. the speaker had activated metaphoricity. even before the speaker actually verbalizes the metaphoric expression “clingy” she begins to enact “clingyness” gesturally. However. Gestures expressing the source domain of a verbal metaphoric expression therefore indicate that at this very moment in the production of a verbo-gestural metaphor. The gesture enacts the source domain of the verbal metaphoric expression. In fact the temporal overlap of the verbo-gestural metaphor is surrounded by an ongoing gestural enactment of the metaphor. This is a case of a verbo-gestural metaphor in which the gesture enacts the source domain of the verbal metaphoric expression. Here “clingyness” is being expressed verbally and gesturally.) oder heftig. and sometimes they continue past the expression. gestures often precede words they are co-expressive with. and we will consider another..308 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki G1 continued (.. Moreover. he only begins to gesture with his first reformulation of the verbal metaphoric expression. 2 joined flat hand point towards left es is schon ne Weiche-— it does set tracks The speaker begins to develop his alternative viewpoint with a very common rhetorical pattern in German conversations. In short.” No gesture is produced along with this first formulation of his counterargument. das is das Problem. he does not gesture. Kendon and Versante (2003) show that in Neapolitan conversations speakers use the index finger to point out objects.Words. beginning with “but”: “but it obviously sets tracks. Having had no ratifying reaction from his co-participant he begins to elaborate his argument. held vertically. we see here another example of a source being expressed in words and in gestures. are used to indicate a certain direction. In our case the vertical open palms of the two hands are joined to indicate one direction of a future career. Note that there is a systematic variation of form and function in pointing gestures. in which a preceding suggestion is first confirmed and then challenged. Example 5: nein es is nich so. and beyond 309 using this idiom for the first time. and the gesture visualizes and spatializes this aspect of directionality of the source: gesturally the future career is located to the left hand side of the speaker. this is not the case. and he does this metaphorically: “it obviously sets the tracks. Gesturing begins with his elaboration and illustration of this metaphoric argument. and these entail a verbal metaphoric expres- .” hereby confirming his interlocutor's point of view. whereas the flat hand is used to indicate directions. aber es stellt natürlich Weichen. Note that the pointing gesture is one in which the extended palms. but it obviously sets tracks. which is then followed by the counterargument in line two. the goal of a track is to lead the train into a certain direction. the “nein aber” (“no but”) pattern. The confirmation in our example is verbalized in the first line: “no. That this pointing gesture is a metaphoric one only becomes clear when considering the words with which it is co-expressive. no this is not the case. And with this elaboration he performs a pointing gesture towards his left.” He verbally formulates his alternative viewpoint. G1. gestures. this is the problem. We begin with an example in which the target of the gestural metaphoric expression is verbalized non-metaphorically. palms facing self. The shape is as if her hands were surrounding a medium-sized ball that she were squeezing. G1 bh in front of chest.2 Different source and same target in two modalities Here we encounter two different types of multimodal metaphor: one in which there is a gestural metaphoric expression with a target that is verbalized in a non-metaphorical fashion. We sometimes see verbal and gestural metaphoric expressions being uttered at the same time.” “stract. As soon as the speaker says “far” she lifts her two hands up and places them next to each other with the palms of her hands basically facing herself. Given that she holds her hands in this position for the entire phrase “abstract thought of honesty is” (making rhythmic beats on the syllables “far.” and ‘hon-”) we argue that this is a way in which she physically characterizes this “abstract thought” in gesture. In example 7 there is a color metaphor expressed verbally with a .as far as an abstract thought of honesty is. with the fingers tense and curled inward halfway towards the palms. Note that there is no metaphoric expression on the verbal level.” Example 6: y'know. We therefore find the metaphoric target domain in her words and the source domain (a solid form like that of a round object) in the gesture. and the student describes honesty as a kind of “abstract thought. Thus in both cases the target is shared. The example comes from conversations between American students in which they discussed honesty as a moral value in the context of taking exams. each using a different source to express the same target. 4. and another one in which a gestural metaphoric expression goes along with a verbal metaphoric expression. but only in one case is it metaphorically conceptualized in both modalities.310 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki sion “Weiche” (“tracks”). and these cases are what Müller (2008) terms “verbo-gestural metaphors” (cf. Words and gestures share source and target of a metaphoric expression. Forceville’s 1996. and turned slightly towards each other. fingers curled a. Both hands are cupped. 2002 concept of verbopictorial metaphors). there is no gradations. alternating slightly to the left (L) and to the right (R) vL vR vL vR Either you're right you're wrong y'r black 'r white y'know.” “wrong. the left and right sides of the palm of her hand. y'know. G2 bh palms together. While verbally describing these oppositions (G3). flat in horizontal plane. the words invoke an opposition between black and white. then slightly to the right side (while saying “wrong”). and beyond 311 spatial metaphor expressed gesturally (see also the discussion of this example in Cienki 2008. palm up and open. flat. but at the same time it indicates those very spaces. rh sweeps left to right across palm of lh ther. and taps the right edge of her palm against her open left hand in time with the speech as she says each of the words “right. by tapping them. In one sense the gesture appears to be the dividing line. black or white. Whereas the gesture indicates each member of the two sets of opposing categories as two spaces. with the palm held vertically. and repeats these left and right taps when saying “black” and “white. she moves her left hand out in front of her. Here the speaker from Example 6 above continues the thought which was begun there describing honesty as something that does not have “gradations”: instead it is characterized by clear oppositions: right or wrong.” Her right hand taps the left hand first slightly on the left side of her palm (while saying “right”). lh palm up. gestures. Example 7: I mean-y'know. separating the space on the palm of her left hand into two parts (left and right spaces). outer edge taps palm of lh (‘v’ marks tap). G1 bh in front of chest.” and “white.” “black. and Cienki and Müller 2008b).” respectively. She holds her right hand above it.Words. palms facing self. G3 lh flat and palm up.as far as an abstract thought of honesty is. rh flat. … y'know. fingers curled a. While colors (or the lack of them) would be difficult to represent in an . if the verbalized content is “gesturable. One could picture a situation where somebody talks about brushing off crumbs of potato chips (crisps) from one’s sweater while doing a dismissive brushing aside gesture. spatial concepts are easily rendered. therefore. or certain parameters that they share. described above.e.4 Discussion If we consider the examples of metaphoric expression in gesture.e.3 Same source and different target in two modalities It is interesting to note that. words are part of the symbolic system of a language. It seems. We will return to this highlighting of source information through gestures later. such as the . This is theoretically interesting because it puts the source information rendered gesturally into a specific light. leading in this case to multimodal metaphoric expressions that have different sources but share the same metaphoric target (different categories of behavior).312 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki iconic way with gestures. i. First. We see here how the specific characteristics of the expressive modality may inform the type of metaphors expressed. (The well-known exceptions are the “emblem” gestures which can substitute for words. 4. While within a given culture there may be recurring forms which many gestures take. We generally accept that individual words and the phrases they comprise have ascertainable meanings motivating their use... although theoretically possible.” recall the color metaphor example). These expressions might be tentatively termed “verbo-gestural metaphoric compounds. by using different sources. What we do find instead is that the gestures appear to have a tendency to “follow” the semantics and pragmatics of the verbal utterance. that when the source is shared the target is also shared. and consequently the metaphor used in gesture (different spaces) is different than the one used in words (different colors). 4. characterizing this as a negative aspect of eating potato chips. we find certain aspects which are qualitatively different than what we see in metaphoric expression in words. if they can (i. most gestures do not have highly codified symbolic form-meaning pairings. this variant does not appear to be used at all – at least insofar as our sets of data are concerned.3 Cases like these seem to be extremely rare.” They differ from verbo-gestural metaphors (source and target are shared) in that they work together in expressing the same target metaphorically but do so with different means. and can add up to complex structures. at least in many European cultures. or the hands appear to hold an idea. we find they have properties when serving as expressions of metaphor source domains which are different from those of words expressing metaphoric source domains. The dynamic nature of metaphoric expressions in the flow of discourse Metaphors can be successively elaborated and specified. In addition. and of a size comparable to that of objects we manipulate with our hands every day. as if it were an object. gestures. and obviously because they consist of physical forms and movements in space. Müller 2007). Gilot and Lake 1964.. painting. it is well known that many gestures present abstract ideas. Here the “abstract thought” is shown to be something quite concrete. and as this volume demonstrates they may appear in a broad range of media and modes among them film. 5. discrete.” she holds her two hands out in front of her. tidy characterization of these metaphors for research purposes is problematic. For example. But this reification is not a simple reification of ABSTRACT AS CONCRETE (what Lakoff and Johnson 1980 called ontological metaphors). in which the formula X IS Y (e. the pinkie-finger sides next to each other with her palms facing herself. particularly when using a theory like Conceptual Metaphor Theory. photography. we find that metaphors do not necessarily occur as single units. Mittelberg 2002. This holds for monomodal verbal metaphors as well as for multimodal metaphors realized . As this description shows. GOOD IS UP) is the standard way of analyzing metaphoric mappings. relative location as imagined by the speaker in the space before him/her. Because of the spontaneously determined form. In addition. and sculpture (Forceville 2006. the hands half curled in a tense position. perhaps even their metaphorical evaluation as good or bad by their placement in a high or low space (respectively). placement. as concrete entities in front of the speaker: the gestures indicate particular spaces and locations for the idea. which are being mentioned in the speech. and duration of their use. as if the hands were cupping and holding an object about the size of a grapefruit. but they can also extend over time. and beyond 313 thumbs-up gesture used as a positive response to something. in Example 6 when the speaker says “abstract thought of honesty.) In this way they contrast with the manually produced signs of a signed language. We will return to this dilemma towards the end of the chapter.g.Words. The gestures also show us certain properties of the objectified ideas or topics – their size. Müller 2007.” literally. such as for instance film or cartoons (Forceville 1999. Example 8 is a continuation of Example 5 and it shows such a successive multimodal elaboration of a verbal metaphoric expression. Recall that he uses a German idiomatic expression “die Weichen stellen. but it obviously sets tracks. Example 8: nein es is nich so. 2008). 2005. He only begins to gesture as he offers a succession of examples which illustrate and elaborate his understanding of “setting the tracks” by choosing a specific job after graduation. aber es stellt natürlich Weichen.” when expressing his point verbally. “setting the tracks. this is the problem. no this is not the case. G1 2 joined flat hand point towards left es is schon ne Weiche-— it does set tracks G2 flat hands point forward es is wieder ne Weiche-it sets another track G3 flat hands point upward wenn de sachst ich studiere Medizin-when you say I will study medicine G4 2 flat hands point towards left oder Germanistik-or German studies . The current speaker rejects his co-participant’s position and argues for the important consequences that the first job may have for the path of one’s future career. 2006. das is das Problem. In this example the co-participants are discussing their differing viewpoints regarding the future implications of one’s first job after graduating from university.314 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki in spoken language as well as for those instantiated in other media. right. In the first part of his response he expresses his alternative viewpoint with a verbal metaphoric expression: “it does set tracks. and they locate the different future career paths in three alternative directions in the gesture space (left. Subsequently the verbally expressed metaphoric concept of “setting the tracks” is illustrated by listing three job alternatives – medicine. gestures.. agriculture to the right.” This last re-formulation ends with a gestural expression of the idiom that replaces the words and is inserted into the . But this is not the end of the speaker’s argument. or become a tennis coach des is schon ne Weichenstellung.. he summarizes and comes back to the verbal metaphoric expression that he had used initially: “this is a kind of setting the tracks”. this is a kind of setting the tracks 315 G7 1 flat hand points forward twice.” they embody directionality.” These first verbal moves set the stage for a sequence of verbal illustrations and gestural enactments of the verbal metaphoric expression. After verbalizing three alternatives and enacting three different directions for three different jobs.. and beyond G5 2 flat hands point towards right oder Landwirtschaft-or agriculture G6 2 flat hands point upwards and clap during pause oder (. The gestures visualize the source of the metaphoric expression “setting the tracks.” We see no gesture going with this first formulation. held through pause nachm Studium mußte dir wirklich überlegen welche--(. once again this verbal metaphoric is not accompanied by a gesture. rather this counterargument is highlighted verbally through a meta-comment: “this is the problem.) after graduating [from university] you really have to think carefully which... agriculture. By returning to his initial expression he retrospectively frames his verbo-gestural elaborations as examples for the metaphoric expression he had used to challenge his co-participant’s argument while at the same time preparing his last and now fully explicit reformulation of his counter-argument: “after graduating you really have to think carefully which-. up). and tennis is located in the upward direction.) werde Tennislehrer.Words. tennis – each one being gesturally situated in a different direction: medicine is the path to the left.(…). what we may find here is a metaphorical growth point that structures a whole unit of discourse (McNeill 1992. and which may provide grounds for the ad hoc creation of new metaphoric gestures. To sum up. Metaphors beyond words and gestures But there is more to multimodal metaphor in spoken language use than words and gestures. This example nicely illustrates that metaphoricity is a dynamic feature which may trigger metaphoric elaborations in multiple modalities successively in time. Pierrehumbert and Hirschberg 1990) may be reinterpreted in terms of revealing the potential of intonation for metaphoric significance.316 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki speech-pause.” We may argue that when the verbal metaphoric expression was uttered first. The metaphoric possibilities of prosodic expression have received less attention in the literature. repeated twice. such that we may now speak of waking metaphors. we can take Pierrehumbert and Hirschberg’s . only as the speaker is moving on is he building his elaborations in words and gestures on this sleeping metaphoric expression. and held through the speech pause at the end of the turn. we find no indication that metaphoricity was particularly active for the speaker at that point in time. As an example. in this segment of talk we find a verbal metaphoric expression at the onset which is further verbally illustrated with concrete examples. directed towards the recipient. metaphoricity was not in the foreground of the speaker’s attention. Moreover the gesture is highly articulated in shape: it is supported by the left hand. Put differently. but this one is performed with one hand only and it is directed forward – a direction which has not yet been “occupied” by any of his preceding examples. McNeill and Duncan 2000). He uses yet another pointing gesture. at this moment the metaphor was sleeping. enacted and elaborated in gestural metaphoric expressions. as he moves along with his argument. and with this gesture the counter-argument and the turn end. Doing this makes clear that metaphoricity becomes successively more active. which can be more or less highlighted (Müller 2008).g.. However. thus using it as source. some of the existing research on prosody (e. the formula of TARGET IS SOURCE problematically reifies the two domains as static entities. doing “different jobs. Formulated in McNeill’s terms. and completed with a final gestural metaphoric expression at the end of this counterargument. 6. Let us return to the various expressive forms involved in the oral/aural modality.4 For conceptual metaphor theory this raises questions about how to account for metaphoricity as a dynamic property. Again. Thus perhaps metaphorical mappings such as POSITIVE IS UP and NEGATIVE IS DOWN may appear in the use of intonation. In response to a question about whether someone likes something or not. plus the alternative of “other. correlating with the metaphors GOOD IS UP and BAD IS DOWN. Thus the speaker’s belief about whether or not s/he shares information mutually with the hearer may be expressed metaphorically via low or high pitch accents. but we will not dwell on that here. force. and beyond 317 discussion of a well-known role played by intonation in speech. to indicate a positive reply. and the relative pitch with which they were produced in experimental settings. even without accompanying words that have corresponding lexical meanings. or at least non-confirmational uncertainty. that of expression on the metanarrative level. and path.) Other research shows a connection between the lexical semantics of words rated as positive or negative. In terms of metaphoric expression in speech which is independent of metaphoric verbal semantics. might they ultimately be grounded in the metaphorical patterns of reasoning (known since Lakoff and Johnson 1980) concerning what is KNOWN AS DOWN and what is UNKNOWN AS UP? (In fact these themselves are secondary metaphors based on our Western metaphorical understanding of pitch along a vertical scale. The set of image-schema names from which participants could choose was limited to the following: container. The term “image schemas” is being used here in the sense of Johnson (1987) to refer to simple patterns which frequently recur in various aspects of people’s everyday experience (especially visual. object.Words. gestures. think of vocalizations that are not lexical words and how their interpretation can differ by the intonation with which they are uttered. another 20 participants performed the same task of having to characterize the same phrases using the given set of . respectively. One study (Cienki in prep. Looking at these findings from the perspective of metaphor studies. and force-dynamic experience). one (at least an American English speaker) can utter “Mmm” starting with a high pitch accent. tactile.) provides some evidence about the degree to which individuals interpret the quality of prosodic features (stress and intonation contours) in metaphoric terms. which could indicate a negative reaction. cycle. But one could also say “Mmm” with a level low tone. For example. Herold (2006) found in her study that words with positively rated meanings (like happy and yummy [“tasty”]) were produced with a higher fundamental frequency (pitch) than words with negatively rated meanings (like sad and weak).” For comparison in this study. and then letting the pitch fall. The study involved having 20 participants categorize a series of phrases which they simultaneously heard and read using a set of “image schemas” as descriptors. not really” and “like. such as “no. It is worth noting with these examples of metaphor in intonation that we are not dealing with verbal semantics. such as “their tests are difficult” and “it’s like you’re performing. or to accomplish a performative act (Kendon 2004: ch. Here as in the other recurrent gestures discussed above. but this second group only read the phrases and did not hear the recordings of the speakers’ voices uttering them. 9).” After completing the categorization task. The results revealed that they sometimes categorized some of the phrases according to their acoustic properties. The experiments were actually conducted as controls for another experimental setting in which the participants saw and heard the video clips in which the speakers uttered these phrases and made co-verbal gestures (Cienki 2005a).” We see how metaphor may play a role in interpreting how an utterance was spoken. whereas when the tone steadily rose it seemed like a path.” to comments and interjections. In terms of conceptual metaphor theory. The findings underscore the importance of considering the mode of presentation of experimental stimuli (in oral versus written form) because of the effect it may have on the interpretation of the “same” linguistic expressions. ranging from more substantive ones. the words and phrases themselves were rather random. The primary function of some gestures appears to be to highlight interactive or interpersonal relations. we find a parallel phenomenon of metaphor on the pragmatic level in gesture. this could be important for metaphor researchers in terms of setting up stimuli for experiments on metaphor interpretation. referring to unpublished observations by Jürgen Streeck. the metaphor does not simply work on the level of what the speaker’s words express . Consider the following response as an example: “a phrase where the tone rose and fell back again seemed cyclical. The gesture can indicate that what the speaker is saying is to be interpreted as an idea to be discussed. discusses the pragmatic functions of the palm-up open-hand (PUOH) gesture. a proposal. Since the utterances were chosen because they were ones which occurred with gestures of various kinds. As a side note. but with metaphor on the pragmatic level – what the speaker meant with the use of a given intonation contour. rather than referring to the meanings of the lexical items.318 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki image schema names. which can serve to “present an abstract. the participants in the first group were asked to write a sentence or two explaining how they used the image schemas to categorize the phrases they heard. manipulable entity” (2004: 233). or a question (Kendon 2004: 159). we might say that this gesture uses the pragmatic metaphor of INTRODUCING AN IDEA IS PRESENTING AN OBJECT. Interestingly. Müller. discursive object as a concrete. to parse the discourse. Mittelberg and Müller in prep. processes (see Mittelberg 2006. personal communication). 2007.” “shepherds that economic strength. This raises a problem. this also has critical implications for metaphor theory in that it calls for refined empirical methodology as well as for a new theoretical understanding of the different forms of multimodal metaphors and their constitutive semantic relations. and beyond 319 semantically.Words. A major implication of the insights gained through the analysis of multimodal metaphors in the use of spoken language is the fact that as spoken language is inherently dynamic. Implications for metaphor theory A major conclusion we can draw from the fact that metaphors can be realized in multiple modalities is that metaphoricity is modality-independent. the study of metaphors as expressed in the dynamic processes of speaking presents us with metaphoric source domains which are themselves contingent on time for their realization. and the target is what the speaker is doing with his/her words as well as with his/her gestures. one solution is to characterize them by using schematic images. It documents that the establishment and creation of metaphoricity is a cognitive process with products in various modalities. Mittelberg and Waugh this volume). so is multimodal metaphor. president in 2000 he used the same gesture at several points during the televised debates: a gesture with one or both hands palm up and cupped slightly with the fingers slightly curved.” “the power of example is America’s [greatest power] in the world” (with square brackets indicating the timing of the gesture in the last . in that the source is expressed in the gesture.S. It also directs our attention to the necessity of including a cognitive-semiotic analysis of metaphoric. For some types of source domains. 2008). As already indicated above. This gesture occurred with phrases such as “enable us to project the power for good. However. thus offering strong support for Lakoff and Johnson’s initial idea of moving metaphor(icity) out of the realm of literary discourse into the mundane world of everyday thought (Müller 2003. An example described in Cienki (2005b) is that when Al Gore was a candidate for U. namely that it involves the static verbal formula of TARGET IS SOURCE (an issue raised long ago by the anthropologist Bradd Shore. Rather. Various authors in recent research have suggested alternatives to try to overcome the limitations of this analytic device. it works on the pragmatic level. a. as if he were holding a small ball. gestures. given the traditional means of conceptual metaphor analysis. as well as of metonymic. 7. 2007. See also Calbris’ (2003) schematizations of gesture hand shapes and motions in diagrammatic form. Finally. In light of the meaning added by the cupped hand shape. by extension. the manner of presenting is significant. They discuss how the idea units which we are continually developing and unraveling for expression while we talk. Thus the lexical and grammatical means of expression available in a language are used by speakers already as they are anticipating how to utter what they want to utter. such a hand shape would be used not only to support a small object in the hand. “‘Thinking for speaking’ involves picking those characteristics [of a perceived event. which he calls thinking-for-speaking. the imagistic content receives partial expression in the gestures that the . 8. thus protecting it in a way. which McNeill and Duncan (2000: 157) note is perhaps a more accurate way to refer to the phenomenon. the gesture serves basically the same purpose as the PUOH gesture discussed by Müller (2004). in that they can be presented as moving schematic images. the increasing use of digital publishing (online or on CDs or DVDs) allows for video characterization of source domains which are dynamic in nature. CM and AC] that (a) fit some conceptualization of the event. In a physical situation. which he is presenting to the addressee (the moderator of the debate and. combine both imagery and linguistic-categorical content. but also to prevent it from falling off the extended hand. but that he is also showing something about his attitude toward the idea he is presenting. and (b) are readily encodable in the language” which the speaker is using at the moment (Slobin 1987: 435). As he describes it.320 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki example). 1996) argues that there is a special form of thought which is mobilized in the process of talking. McNeill and Duncan (2000) suggest that gesture needs to be taken into account in this process as well. what McNeill (1992) has called growth points. In the process of thinking while speaking. Implications for thinking for speaking and gesturing Slobin (1987. for example as small animations. and (as argued in Cienki 2005b) could be indicated by a diagram or schematic image – see the ones Efron (1972) used in his analysis of the linguistic properties of the gestures used by Italians as compared to Eastern-European Jewish immigrants to New York City. perhaps that it is something good which he wants to support (all three utterances expressed positive ideas which Gore espoused). the television audience). but that there is an added element here indicated by the cupped shape of the hand. Thus the gesture not only suggests that the speaker is treating AN IDEA AS AN OBJECT. We would argue that in the examples from Gore. 1998. Both the nature of the available linguistic forms as well as the expressive potential of hand-gestures which one can use in the expression of one’s thoughts while speaking are significant for what thoughts ultimately get expressed. one in which a preconfigured thought is being “translated” into gesture.Words. 2008). or sound. 9. Not only do they underline the stance of Conceptual Metaphor Theory with regard to the principally modality-independent nature of metaphoricity (this means metaphor as a cognitive mechanism). that one distinguishes metaphors in grammar and usage. word. Conclusion The insights gained through the analyses of multimodal metaphors in language use have rather far-reaching consequences for a theory of metaphor. 2008. rather we must conceive of it as an interactional .). and also between system and use (Müller 2008. and beyond 321 speaker produces. the embodied nature of many metaphoric source domains. 2007. Consequently we (Müller and Cienki 2006) have discussed the process as “thinking-for-speaking-andgesturing”. speaking and gesturing (cf. more generally. including the elaboration of metaphoric expressions in the discourse as well as the dynamic activation of metaphoricity. Müller and Cienki 2006. which imagery is expressible in gesture is a factor in how the verbo-gestural utterance is produced. they uncover that the hitherto static view on metaphor in thought and language must be supplemented by a dynamic view on metaphor in thinking. This means that there are important connections between which single or multiple modality/ies are at one’s disposal for expression and the kind(s) of metaphoric ideas which one ultimately conceptualizes and expresses – either monomodally or multimodally. 1999. which for a specific and often short moment in time may turn sleeping metaphors into waking ones (Müller 2003. Müller 2003. be they approached as symbolic structure or as forms of behavior. cf. Steen and Gibbs 1999) or one that cross-cuts these dichotomies as Steen (2007) has recently proposed. Steen 2006. also Cameron and Low 1999). Indeed. 2007. Further consequences of realizing the multimodal nature of metaphoric expression in the use of spoken language include that in co-speech gesturing as well as in prosodic features of speech we may see manifestations of the imagistic or. We also see that the metaphoric process is not a unidirectional one. Such a dynamic view takes into consideration the procedural nature of meaning creation in situations of face-to-face communication. Put differently. these observations indicate that we need a theory that distinguishes between products and processes (Gibbs 1992. gestures. e. personal communication). varying with the amount of participants involved but also within dyadic encounters: “In Fformations of two indidviduals. In both cases.. Taub 2001).322 Cornelia Müller and Alan Cienki process which takes into consideration the nature and the expressive potential of the respective modalities (colors do not lend themselves to expression in gesture. in the process of communication – or to put it in Wallace Chafe’s (1994) terms. moving beyond the level of the words can uncover many facets of metaphoricity that had previously lain hidden. or even a sideby-side pattern” (Kendon 1990: 250). For . A dynamic approach to linguistic theory (such as that proposed by McNeill 2005) or to metaphor theory (as in Müller 2008) which can accommodate the multimodal potential of language production and reception can provide a more complete picture of the complexity of this form of human behavior than the static views of language. in a side-by-side configuration. In conclusion. However. but for spatial relations the opposite holds true). to an L-shaped pattern. In his work on ‘F-Formations’ (facing formations) Kendon (1990) indicates that facing formations may actually show different forms. Kendon (personal communication) has also observed that Australian aboriginals conduct conversations in certain situations all facing the same direction. and thought which currently dominate the field of cognitive linguistics and beyond. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Charles Forceville. gesture and sign language. in the flow of discourse – these modality-specific properties can be exploited to varying extents in any given event of speaking. for researchers of spoken language. and Linda Waugh for insightful comments on an early draft of this chapter. namely in sign language. Tzeltal speakers appear to quite commonly choose a side-by-side configuration in dyadic situations (Stephen Levinson. metaphor. we may see arrangements that vary from a direct face-to-face pattern. for example. Compare for instance what is known about metaphoric expression in another use of the manual modality.. Notes 1. although gestures with speech are normally co-verbal. as opposed to constituting linguistic signs in and of themselves. i. Irene Mittelberg. the iconic nature of visual/manual expression affords different potentials than aural/oral expression does (Müller in prep. Paris: L’Harmattan. Danielle 1997 Le corps et la métaphore dans les langues gestuelles: A la recherche des modes de production des signes. Handmade patterns: Recurrent Forms and Functions of Gestures. For further discussion and more examples of dynamic metaphoricity in gesture and speech see Müller (2003. and Silva Ladewig (eds. For the metonymic and metaphoric links necessary to transform this action into a pragmatic gesture see Teßendorf (in prep. Gesture 3: 19–46. In Discourse and Cognition: Bridging the . 2008) and Cienki and Müller (2008a). the interactive structure of establishing such F-formations. 2007. Bloomington. gestures. Alan 1998 Metaphoric gestures and some of their relations to verbal metaphorical expressions. Cienki. Cameron. Jana. References Bouvet. see Müller and Bohle (2007). 3. Consciousness.Words. see Müller (2008). 4. 2003 From cutting an object to a clear cut analysis: Gesture as the representation of a preconceptual schema linking concrete actions to abstract notions. and Graham Low (eds. 1998 Geste et images. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. leurs aspects métonymiques et métaphoriques. and Time: The Flow and Displacement of Conscious Experience in Speaking and Writing.) 1999 Researching and Applying Metaphor. Geneviève 1990 The Semiotics of French Gestures. functioning here as an object manipulation. Paris: Peeters. b). Semiotica 118 (1-2): 105–120.) in prep. IN: Indiana University Press. Lynne. a. 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Sarah 2001 Language from the Body: Iconicity and Metaphor in American Sign Language. 2004 A cognitive key: Metonymic and metaphorical mappings in ASL. Eve 1998 Regular metaphoricity in gesture: Bodily-based models of speech interaction. Documentação de Estudos em Lingüística Teórica e Aplicada – D. Rebecca 1996 Linguistic Features of Metaphoric Gestures. Jr. Gerard J. and Raymond W. Ms. in prep. Phyllis P. We then introduce a dynamic two-step interpretative model suggesting that metonymy leads the way into metaphor: in order to infer the imaginary objects or traces that gesturing hands seem to hold or draw in the air. metaphor second: A cognitivesemiotic approach to multimodal figures of thought in co-speech gesture Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. gesture. by working together in multimodal communication. Keywords: metaphor. e. While the chapters in this volume contribute to a unified approach to the role of metaphor in multimodal representations. a metonymic mapping between hand (source) and imaginary object (target) is a prerequisite for the metaphorical mapping between that very object (source) and the abstract idea (target) it represents.. in gesture. thus discerning various principles of sign constitution and indirect reference within metaphoric gestures (whether or not the concurrent speech is metaphorical). semiotics. function to convey complex meanings. Introduction Work done by scholars in many disciplines has shown that metaphor and metonymy rely on general cognitive processes of conceptualization and association that may materialize in modalities other than spoken and written words.g. . we demonstrate how these two figures of thought jointly structure multimodal representations of grammatical concepts and structures. and particularly his distinction between internal and external metonymy. cognitive theory 1.Chapter 14 Metonymy first. Waugh Abstract Based on spoken academic discourse and its accompanying gestures. we will show here that it is both metaphor and metonymy that. We discuss Jakobson’s view of metaphor and metonymy. metonymy. Combining traditional semiotics with contemporary cognitivist theories. this chapter presents a cognitive-semiotic approach to multimodal communication that assigns equal importance to metaphor and metonymy. 1998). Thus. In the gestural representations of grammar we will investigate here. pictorial metaphor has been studied as a way of expressing an analogy between two entities (e. Goossens et al... Carroll 1994.g. Lakoff 1987. including kinesthetic features (Hampe 2005. Barcelona 2000. this volume). 1995. if we compare gesture to solid sculptures or pictorial signs. Multimodal representations of knowledge domains such as grammar have a long-standing tradition and visual metaphor. This difference is crucial for an understanding of gesture. Turner and Fauconnier 2002.g. Lakoff 1987. Forceville 1994. to various degrees. Panther and Radden 1999. just as speech in the auditory domain is inherently dynamic and fleeting. 1999). 1996. we realize that. Besides figurative language. The discourse here is classroom lectures by linguists about grammar and syntactic theory and. Panther and Thornburg 2003. so with gestures the interplay of time. both metaphor and metonymy play a crucial role in presenting these abstract phenomena. space. 1999. One of our aims here is to present ways in which co- . Waugh just as they motivate. Gibbs 1994. However.. Johnson 1987. spoken academic discourse and accompanying manual gestures (see also Müller and Cienki. Dirven and Pörings 2002. we agree with many other scholars that more attention should be paid to metonymy: it is equal in importance to metaphor but crucially different from it in its contribution to communication (e. Wilcox 2004). We will show this by focusing on a multimodal combination of verbal and bodily communication – namely. 2002. all processes of signification (Jakobson 1990 [1956]). Croft 1993. We are primarily interested here in the ways in which the gesture modality generally can provide insights into situated cognition because it helps to externalize concepts. Sweetser 1990. Lakoff and Johnson 1980. the hands and arms serve as a resource for making meaning as they correlate with the on-going speech through co-speech gestures (McNeill 2005). Lakoff and Johnson 1980. 2005.330 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. Kennedy 1982). as we will demonstrate. Thus. has widely been used to illustrate linguistic explanations (see Mittelberg 2002 on Early Modern printed images of grammar).g. in particular. Cognitive linguists have provided a detailed picture of the different ways in which the human body serves as a (re)source for a large array of metaphors (e. Kövecses 2002. structures and practices through the use of both space and the body – thereby creating an “ex-bodiment” of these concepts and structures through motor actions and other forms of interaction with the physical and social environment (Mittelberg 2006). and motion typically engenders transient rather than lasting images that have to be understood quickly in time. this work rests on the premise that concepts (and other aspects of conceptual structure such as image schemata) are embodied and are themselves multimodal. discursive phenomena such as theatre. Hiraga 1994. 2000. Second. Sweetser 1990) with the older but still relevant work of C. 2005. myths. 1998) and Roman Jakobson (1956. 2008). Lakoff 1987. our focus here will be on Jakobson’s approach and its relevance for gesture research from a cognitivist perspective. as others have suggested (see Bouvet 2001. Jakobson and Pomorska 1983). McNeill 1992). 1999. 2008. Another is to show that some of the claims about the relationship between source and target domains made on the basis of multimodal representations without gestures fail to account for gestures satisfactorily. 2005. Peirce (1960. 2004) and Peircean perspectives on the gestural sign (Mittelberg 2006. Mittelberg 2008. Sweetser 1998. gestural sign constitution through synecdoche and indirect reference. Jakobson emphasized the importance of metaphor and metonymy as different semiotic and cognitive strategies that structure both verbal and non-verbal signs and messages (Jakobson 1956. Lakoff and Johnson 1980. 1998. Wilcox and Morford 2007). b. and in particular to multimodal metaphor and metonymy. Waugh 1998. Lodge 1977. McNeill 1992. music. rituals. 2007. Cienki and Müller 2008. Müller 1998. 1987a. Our rationale for combining these theoretical perspectives rests on the fact.Metonymy first. Waugh et al. poetry. firstly. that Cognitive Metaphor Theory (CMT) and Peirce’s semiotic share central assumptions about the link between image-schematic structures and metaphorical (and diagrammatic) projections. b. Since we have treated in detail elsewhere Peirce’s theory (Waugh 1992. Building on these considerations. 2008. 1992. S. Waugh and Monville-Burston . 1999. 2005. Cienki 1998. Taub 2001). metaphor second 331 speech gesture provides additional evidence for conceptual metaphor and metonymy by revealing in a dynamic fashion dimensions of schemata not necessarily expressed in the concurrent speech (Calbris 2003. Our approach combines contemporary cognitivist theories (Gibbs 1994. 1987a. The Jakobsonian and Peircean semiotic approaches continue to provide rich perspectives for multimodal research and lend themselves to being applied to gesture. Gibbs 1994. as well as about habitual patterns of experience and interpretation (Danaher 1998. Mittelberg 2006. Wilcox 2004. we present an approach to multimodal communication. 1990. see also Fricke 2007. for they are broader in scope than linguistic theories and have been used to analyze a wide variety of dynamic. 1993. Müller 1998. since the metaphorical meaningmaking processes cannot be elucidated without taking into consideration how they interact with metonymic modes. for instance. 1991. that has been shaped by both theoretical motivations and by the nature of our data. cinema. We will also show that metonymy assumes distinct functions regarding. Johnson 1987. etc. . however. gestures can provide a window into thought processes and their pragmatic and ecological anchorage (Goodwin 2003. are trying to see how the gestures help the viewer to understand the conceptualization of abstract ideas that the speaker/gesturer is communicating.e.. As Jakobson noted. Waugh et al. Thirdly. both Jakobson and Peirce stress the point of view of the interpreter of a given message: in similar fashion. consciously or unconsciously. giving. discourse-pragmatic factors and concurrent speech help to disambiguate them (Calbris 1990. thus. cognition. spontaneous gestural signs tend to be polysemous and need a contextual support to be correctly interpreted. society and culture. From a cognitivist viewpoint.” The only way to know is through the accompanying speech (Jakobson 1953: 567). or prohibiting the cigarettes. from representational to deictic. Kendon 2004. selling. taking the perspective of the speaker. or mismatch (GoldinMeadow 2003. thoughts and attitudes that speech might conceal (McNeill 1992: 246). redundancy. complementation.” The viewer does not know if the pointer is “simply showing.. on the other hand. The spontaneous gestures we will be analyzing here are not part of an elaborated sign system but are created by the speaker as he/she speaks. We. or from accentuating the rhythm of the speech to attracting attention and managing interaction between the interlocutors. the student. 2. Müller 1998). or a package in general. language.g. or. Characterizing the data: Semiotic idiosyncrasies of metalinguistic discourse and its accompanying gestures Connecting the body.332 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. still more generally. Ochs et al. 2005). Gestures are thus visuo-spatial “motor signs” (Jakobson 1987a: 474) that derive their . including juncture or disjuncture. A single gesture could also fulfill several functions at once: e. something to smoke. the gesture analyst) through both metaphor and metonymy. or it may add components of meaning not expressed in the speech it accompanies (Kendon 2000). Streeck 2002). by pointing at a concrete referent that is linguistically only referred to via an unspecified pronoun). 2004). one cigarette or many. our aim will be to explicate how gestures are interpreted by the viewer (e. Waugh 1990. a pointing gesture at a package of cigarettes could be interpreted to mean “this package in particular. a certain brand or cigarettes in general. 1996.1 Often. i. research has shown how hands (and arms) may reveal. A gesture may disambiguate linguistic information and thus make meaning more precise (for instance. McNeill 2000.g. McNeill 2005. and thus gesture and speech can produce very different effects. More specifically. and perhaps also a belief in. what is unique to gestures is that they are conveyed by the body of the lecturer and correlated with the speech that is emanating from that same body. This means that in order to understand the gestures under discussion here. or behaviors. Now. and the socio-cultural and material environment the person interacts with.Metonymy first. attributes of objects and people. handouts. our data come from one specific spoken genre: metalinguistic academic discourse in lecture format. The lectures were videotaped in a naturalistic setting. whether concrete or abstract (Müller 1998. . Consequently. a gestural sign does not exist. including the coding and annotation systems used. 2007). gestures that depict objects. see Mittelberg 2006. and cannot be analyzed. black/green/white boards with writing and other visuals on them. by turning them into (partial) visuo-spatial and embodied manifestations of these concepts. while they were teaching introductory linguistics to undergraduate and graduate students at two major American universities. Thus. see also Cienki 2005). they did not know that the analysis was to focus on gesture). As indicated above.g. detached from either the human body or the here and now of the speech event (the origo in Bühler’s terms.” that is. slides and power point projections. Our focus will be on what Müller (1998: 110–113) calls “referential gestures. the concepts being discussed. from a corpus of such lectures by four professors (three women and one man). The gestures have the same complex multifunctionality as they contribute to the communication and understanding of the lectures.. regularly scheduled classes where neither the teacher nor the students knew about the purpose of the taping (in particular. metaphor second 333 locally-situated meaning from the very human body that articulates them. the assumption is that the gestures used by the professors were not affected by the videotaping (for a detailed description of methods of collecting. actions. It has multiple functions: it conveys information about language that reflects the beliefs of the speaker and is directed at the audience (the students in the class) with the aim that the students will gain at least an understanding of. However important these are for the communication of information in the classroom. the gestures analyzed here are all attempts at making fairly abstract grammatical concepts and aspects of the syntactic structure of sentences more understandable for the listener/viewer. that is. we first need to characterize the speech they accompany in terms of its genre and functions. editing and transcribing the data. see Fricke 2007). the speech they accompany. in the typical classroom setting there are other visual modalities: e.2 The speech that is at issue here is highly complex. all native speakers of American English. g. Shapiro 1983. In addition. antonymy.334 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. Jakobson differentiated between two major subtypes of metonymy: (1) “external metonymy” (“metonymy proper”). similarity and contiguity. Waugh 3. Jakobson paid equal attention to both tropes. cognitive linguists revisit and offer a great deal of evidence for Jakobson’s theory. but the two are in opposition with each other and thus create a fundamental polarity that is at the root of all symbolic processes. Contiguity. While until not too long ago metaphor consistently received much more scholarly attention than metonymy. Jakobson and Pomorska 1983. causeeffect relations. Dirven and Pörings 2002). metonymy. cultural manifestations. index and symbol.. Jakobson: Metaphor and metonymy (internal and external). similarity is at the root of iconic relationships between the sign and the object it represents – and he includes metaphor as a specific sub-type of icon (Peirce 1960. For Jakobson. in which “the name of an object is replaced by the name of an attribute. According to Peirce. deictic categories. In recent publications (e. or of . etc. similarity and contiguity are bipolar opposites. In his view. representing the two essential structural relations between signs that permeate all of language (Shapiro 1983: 194). Thus. as Jakobson (1956. on the other hand. analogy. 1998). 1966) also emphasized. etc. similarity is the basis for metaphor. 1992. metonymy is not a sub-type of metaphor. and contiguity underlies metonymy. Thus. as well as synonymy.3 Jakobson (1956) contends that metaphor and metonymy are two different modes of association that structure both linguistic and non-linguistic signs. Whittock 1990) and is particularly valuable and compatible with contemporary. selection and combination Roman Jakobson’s view of metaphor and metonymy has been successfully utilized in the analysis of a wide variety of monomodal and multimodal texts (Bradford 1994. In defining the difference between metaphor and metonymy. and. and human thought in general. Jakobson was particularly inspired by Peirce’s famous trichotomy of signs: icon. This chapter attempts to show that adopting his balanced approach and exploring the interplay of these “two different mental strategies of conceptualization” (Dirven 2002: 75) has the potential to illuminate the semiotics of gesture and of multimodal communication more generally. cognitively-oriented accounts of metaphor and metonymy since it is in fact one of their predecessors. studies concerned with metaphor ought to pay (more) attention to its interaction with metonymy. a view that is also present in the work of quite a large number of cognitive linguists. is inherent to the index. as well as spatial and temporal neighborhood (both proximity and remoteness). Jakobson 1956. paraphrase. a given gesture is concurrent with the simultaneously occurring words. the similarity/contiguity relations between signs are different from the basic types of operations by which any linguistic utterance is constructed by the speaker. (place for person). features) and serves as the context for other signs.” in which “hands” stands for the whole body). metaphor second 335 an entity related in some semantic way (e. the term ”the White House” when referring to the President of the U..” In the case of multimodal messages.g. and (2) “internal metonymy”(synecdoche). Such combinations may be concurrent and/or sequential: so. see also Waugh and MonvilleBurston 1990). [… C]ombination and contexture are two faces of the same operation... phonemes. According to Jakobson (1956: 117. and as we will see. instrument. Jakobson insisted that similarity and contiguity – and metaphor and metonymy – are not mutually exclusive: just as signs can exhibit both similarity and contiguity in differing hierarchies (Jakobson 1966: 411). gesture combined with speech. ..g. That is. source)” (Wales 2001: 252).g.. morphemes. Understanding by the addressee implies the reverse order of operations: the combination of units of greater complexity has to be dissolved into the individual linguistic entities selected..Metonymy first. and the way in which gestures unfold in time (with or without speech) is an example of sequential combination. part stands for whole and whole for part (e.g. Most importantly. words) and their combination into linguistic units of a higher degree of complexity (e. in which “the name of the referent is replaced strictly by the name of an actual part of it” (Wales 2001: 252) or by the name of the whole of which it is a part. cause and effect. these two types of metonymy are crucial to the study of gesture.S. Both “modes of arrangement” (Jakobson 1956: 119) reflect the structural reality of language: selection relies on the organization of the linguistic system. so the nature of a given sign is dependent on the preponderance of one of the two modes over the other (see Jakobson 1956: 130).g. signs from more than one mode are selected and combined to constitute the contexture for one another: for example.” e. Any act of utterance formation involves the selection of certain linguistic entities from the code (e.. e. Jakobson integrated synecdoche as an important sub-type of metonymy. phrases and sentences). Jakobson (1956: 119) referred to this kind of semiotic contextualization as “contexture. words. “all hands on deck.g. while combination is evidenced in the fact that every sign is made up of constituent signs (sentences.g. the process by which “any linguistic unit at one and the same time serves as a context for simpler units and/or finds its own context in a more complex linguistic unit. e. Müller 2003. 2008). Bouvet 2001. Lakoff and Johnson 1999. Mittelberg 2006. 4. 2005. These observations attest to the importance of gesture as a rich data source in cognitive linguistics in general (Sweetser 2007) and for embodiment theory in particular (Gibbs 1994. For each metaphorical meaning construal. the hands may depict only the locally essential elements (parts) of the object or action (whole) in question (cf. for example. via synecdoche. 2005. it is necessary to determine locally whether the underlying metaphor is materialized in the speech and/or in the manual modality and how the relationship of source and target domains can be defined.g. spontaneous referential gestures tend to be polysemous and often need contextual support to be correctly interpreted. Müller and Cienki this volume). Much less work has been done on metonymy in gesture. 2008. and gesture and speech may be motivated by different but compatible metaphors (see also Cienki and Müller 2008. we will show that the interpretation of the gestures in our corpus is anchored in metonymy.336 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. we suggest that due to its spontaneous and ephemeral nature co-speech gesture allows insights into the dynamics of figurative thought. Calbris 1990. Webb 1996). Nuñez and Sweetser 2006. Sweetser 1998. . Conceptual metaphor and metonymy in gestural representations of grammar Offering new insights into multimodal instantiations of conceptual metaphor. Cienki 1998. 2006. Müller 1998. The objective of this section is two-fold. Müller 1998). previous work on metaphoric gestures has shown that they are not random. For example. language and gesture do not necessarily exhibit the same metaphorical understanding. source and target domain (for implications regarding static versus moving images. Waugh 4. see Forceville 2003. Parrill and Sweetser 2004. but exhibit recurrent forms and formmeaning mappings (Bouvet 2001. 2008. Moreover. McNeill 1992. 2003. 2006/this volume). e. a metaphorical gesture relies on metonymic principles of sign formation: for example.. 2005. Taub 2001).1 Non-metaphorical discourse and ad-hoc metaphorical visualizations in gesture As indicated earlier. and our analysis contributes to existing views of the definition of multimodal metaphor and the relationship between. In referring to an abstract notion. 2003. Cienki and Müller 2008. Secondly. gesture may reveal metaphorical understandings even if the concurrent discourse is non-metaphorical (Mittelberg 2008. unsystematic hand movements. Mittelberg 2006. for instance. First. the gesture would receive a concrete interpretation through metonymy. some sort of parallelism – or similarity – between the form and function of a physical frame and the form and function of an abstract frame structure (Köller 1975). metaphor second 337 one and the same gestural form may potentially refer to either a concrete or an abstract entity. the essential panels of the frame itself.g. In both interpretations. Adopting a cognitivist perspective. what is common to all of the metaphorical interpretations is that they rest on a first interpretation of the gesture through metonymy: e. open hands held fairly far apart with palms facing each other (the right hand is partly closed because it contains a piece of chalk). the traces in the air have to be interpreted as meaning a frame of some sort.Metonymy first. For example. the gesture is synecdochic since it provides only some aspects of the frame by rendering the parts that are pragmatically salient in the given discourse context. not the other elements that hold the painting in place). Stated in McNeill’s (1992) terms.. the gesture would be regarded as representing both the conceptual frame and the physical frame). physical structure (e. in Peirce’s (1960: 157) terms. In the case of a metaphorical interpretation. a gesture with two hands may trace the frame of a painting or the frame of a theory. such images of abstract ideas (originally called metaphorics) represent both source and target domain information (in this example. Sweetser 1998). only then can the metaphorically-motivated object be accessed. In fact. Let us look at some examples from the data to determine how metaphor and metonymy are manifested in gesture and how source and target domains play out in the two modalities. the metaphorical gestures we will be discussing here are not directly iconic of the concrete source domain they involve. the synecdochic gesture further represents. When used nonmetaphorically. referential gestures may either portray predominantly iconic sign-object relationships (representing concrete objects or movements). we can say that the gesture is interpreted with respect to the metaphorical concepts IDEAS ARE OBJECTS and CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE IS GEOMETRIC PHYSICAL STRUCTURE (Lakoff and Johnson 1980. or they may rely on metaphorical sign-object relationships (involving abstract entities) and thus call forth a metaphorical interpretation. The gesture represented in figure 1 is an example of a frequently occurring form that has several potential interpretations. relatively relaxed. Depicting via metonymy contextually pertinent features of objects or actions.. If the speaker was referring linguistically to the length of a physical object such as a large box. as we will see. However. Looking simply at the morphology of the gesture. as if the speaker were holding an elongated object . the synecdochic gesture can be interpreted as referring to a spatial. we see that it consists of two.g. the gesture may be said to reflect some basic metaphorical concepts proposed in the cognitive linguistic literature: e. however. Waugh like a box between his hands.. CONCEPTUAL STUCTURE IS GEOMETRIC PHYSICAL STRUCTURE (Lakoff and Johnson 1980.. This is a case of external metonymy. which are assumed to be marking the beginning and end of its projection in space. the viewer first has to take a metonymical path from the hands to the space or the imaginary object. \ G1 pvoh-bh far apart (. In other words. in this case.) aren’t made up of words.. the speaker is referring to a sentence and represents the sentence metonymically by the hands.4 (1) (sentences) . adjacent) to the object..e. because the speaker is holding the imaginary object between his hands.) [while they’re made up of words. Thus. its gestural portrayal is first metonymical in nature and then interpreted metaphorically. IDEAS ARE OBJECTS... \] Figure 1. The sentence is conceptualized metaphorically as bounded space or a large. which are external (i. the viewer has to take a metaphorical path from the imaginary concrete entity (or space) to the abstract entity (the sentence).g. there are two interpretative moves needed to get to the imaginary object: (1) the hands represent.338 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. However. A sentence as an elongated object held (or space extending) between two hands It should be noted here that while the term “sentence” is non-metaphorical. _ G1 being held (. Sweetser 1998). elongated object. Sentences. via (external) meton- . And then to get from the object (or the space extending between the hands) to the sentence. CATEGORIES ARE CONTAINERS.. CONTENTS ARE CONTAINERS. To get to the idea of a sentence. By contrast. and then. For this example. this open hand is combined with a closed fist.e. there is no direct similarity (i. small physical objects. the left hand serves as a CONTAINER and the right hand as a SUPPORT .). REPRESENTATION FOR REPRESENTED (Panther and Thornburg 2004. contains the grammatical morpheme “-er. which opens up into a relaxed palm-up open hand during the demonstration.. and grammatical categories such as noun and verb are often represented by a single hand. or CONTAINER respectively. Wilcox 2004). metaphor second 339 ymy. But the underlying metaphorical mapping. Here. (2) the object is a metaphorical representation of a “sentence” (which is a non-metaphorical linguistic expression). phrases. The imaginary object being held is metonymically inferred through the gesture itself (ACTION FOR OBJECT INVOLVED IN ACTION. and the open hand as holding. LOCATION FOR OBJECT. units below the word level. The speaker. the enclosed fist is interpreted metonymically as containing. Thus. single words. can only be inferred by a metaphorical interpretation of the metonymically conveyed object. illustrates the fact that the English noun “teacher” consists of two morphemes by forming two closed fists held next to each other. Instead.” Although the interpretation of the linguistic expressions relies on neither metaphor nor metonymy. ACTION FOR OBJECT INVOLVED IN ACTION. the gesture is interpreted metonymically to mean that there is an object on the hand. According to our analysis. etc. or CATEGORY and the source domains PHYSICAL STRUCTURE. the object held between them. IDEA. this definition holds: the target domain (“sentence”) is expressed linguistically and the source domain (object) is conveyed manually. a noun. image iconicity) between the form of the gesture and the objects it refers to (as in the frame example discussed above). Panther and Thornburg 2004). e. OBJECT. who is talking about morphological structure. In example 2 (figure 2).g. The gesture above recurs in the data in slight variations referring to linguistic units of different degrees of complexity (words. for example by an open hand with the flat palm turned upward. through metaphor. multimodal metaphors are metaphors whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” (Forceville 2006: 384).. the two figures of thought again are involved in a two-step process in this semiotically complex instance of indirect gestural reference. involving the target domains CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE. thus forming a surface on which to present something to the addressee (see Müller 2004 for a detailed discussion of this gesture type). His left fist seemingly contains the lexical morpheme “teach-“ and his right fist. constituents. or a verb. sentences. Forceville suggests that “[b]y contrast to monomodal metaphors.Metonymy first. a morpheme. that object is interpreted as a word. however. they point to the invisible target concepts (“teach-” and “-er.” sitting in/on the hands) that are mentioned in the concurrent discourse. the abstract notions are metaphorically construed as imaginary objects. According to the two interpretative moves we introduced above. thus making it perceivable and present in the immediate context and pointing to the unperceivable target.3 [that the teacher] consists [of the] [and teacher (. “reference points” (Langacker 1993). since the imagined objects are adjacent to (contained in or sitting on).4 1.2 1. they evoke. see also Croft 1993. and thus the gesturer can expect the viewers to easily relate to the action from their own experience and to build the basis for accessing the metaphorically construed objects. The gestural form embodies the source.6 In light of this domain-based definition of metonymy.5 1.340 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. that is. Mandler 1996). Johnson 1987.5 And in both cases. Barcelona 2000a. independently of the speech content. Radden 2000). these imagined objects are metaphorically construed as being the two morphemes (IDEAS ARE OBJECTS. So while the associative relation between visible source and associated invisible target is based on conceptual contiguity.1 1. metonymy again comes first: the gestural vehicles (e. these two basic image schemas (cf. Waugh structure for the imagined objects.. we can say that both manual actions constitute common experiential domains of holding objects. but external to.7 [not] 1. it should be noted that one of the received understandings holds that whereas metaphor is based on cross-domain mappings. Meton- . the hands.g.9 1. (2) (the teach-er) “…our understanding of this is as speakers of English you know G1. the hand configurations) serve as visible metonymic sources.10 1.6 and [teacher] [consists of ‘teach’] [and ‘er’] 1.11 [the teacher con]sists [of the] [and teach] [and er]. These are instances of external metonymy.” Without going into the theoretical views regarding the differences between metaphor and metonymy currently debated in the cognitive linguistics literature.)] 1.. metonymy consists of mappings within the same experiential domain (cf.8 1. Lakoff and Johnson 1980). serves as both the target of the metonymic mapping (the hand stands for the object resting on it) and the source of the metaphoric mapping (a morpheme is a small object). the metonymically accessed imaginary object – or. The same holds for the gesture shown in figure 1. presented on the right hand of the speaker. PART FOR PART. Morphemes as small objects on open hand or in closed fist We are now in a position to define the relationship between source and target domains more clearly. figurative principles guide the interpretation of these dynamic multimodal representations: first metonymy and then metaphor contribute to the meaning-making processes . Radden 2000: 93) holds in all the examples in our corpus. Figure 2. Again. Lodge 1977: 111. manual modality triggers cognitive access to the abstract target via two interrelated mappings in which chunks of space extended between two hands or the imagined physical objects serve as a juncture between metonymy and metaphor. the chunk of space extending between the two hands – is both the metonymic target and the metaphoric source. The assumption that some metaphors are grounded in metonymy (Barcelona 2000a: 33. the hands (metonymic source) point to the object or the space (metonymic target) extending between them. 1960. since it stands for the “sentence” (metaphoric target). Geeraerts 2002. 1963). in which the speaker seems to be holding a large object between his two hands. the action of holding an object (metonymic source) stands for the object (metonymic target) itself.Metonymy first. put differently.. the imaginary object. metaphor second 341 ymy is also based on the fact that the two hands positioned somewhat near each other hold associated objects – the metaphorically inferred lexical and grammatical morphemes referred to in the speech – that together make up a word (PART FOR WHOLE. consists of technical grammatical terminology). The perceivable. Jakobson 1956.e. In figure 2. Thereby. Goossens 1995: 171. Whereas in these cases the speech itself is for the most part non-figurative (i. or. Jakobson 1956. As we hope has become clear in our discussion. In other words. In the next section. which is a diagrammatic metaphor used in generative grammar for the structure of complex sentences with subordinate clauses. More importantly. “er”). Figure 3 shows such a diagonally descending movement that is meant to represent an embedded clause.” “teach-“. Waugh linking the manual modality to cognitive processes of association and imagination via contiguity and similarity.2. 4. the concurrent speech is non-metaphorical (“sentence. we will now turn to more complex multimodal representations of syntactic structure that are based on a specific model of linguistic structure. The bodily modality thus spontaneously and dynamically expresses a metaphorical understanding of abstract entities as imaginary graspable objects. In these cases. an elaborated tree structure. thereby making a wave-like movement by tilting the hand from side to side. a speaker employing this framework used the right hand to sketch a branch of a tree structure diagram extending toward the lower right of her body. in order to arrive at the meaning of these gestures. when explaining dependent clauses in English. in the examples discussed so far. which stand metaphorically for the ideas concurrently mentioned in the discourse. in order to interpret these spontaneous expressions conveyed through the manual modality. the gesture depicts the image schema (OBJECT) underlying the metaphorical projection (IDEAS ARE OBJECTS). what is important to note here is that although. This can be assumed to roughly sketch out. we rely on our embodied cognitive and sensory-motor abilities and schemata to see and feel the contiguity between the hands and the objects they seem to manipulate (or the hands and different amounts of space extending between them). For example. To conclude this section. through synecdoche. Metaphorical discourse and theory-based metaphorical visualizations Having discussed some of the most basic gestural forms that recur in the data. such tree structures are used in linguistic textbooks for . we will examine multimodal representations of more elaborate theoretical constructs based on a well-defined set of conventionalized metaphors. there are ready-made metaphorical visualizations provided by the theory (tree structure diagrams to depict syntactic structure) that can then be referred to by the gestures. namely generative grammar.342 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. 2004). The speaker illustrates the idea of subordination (G1) by repeatedly moving her right hand first up to eye-level and then downward to her right side. the viewer can be assumed to perform an act of “pragmatic inferencing” (see work on metonymy in language by Panther and Thornburg 2003. An embedded clause as a wavy diagonal line The gesture is synecdochic (i. there is a tree diagram behind the speaker on the white board. an instance of internal metonymy). but its proper interpretation entails a metaphorical interpretation of the metonymically given object. At this point the speaker extends her right arm towards the floor and points with her index finger straight to the ground in a deictic gesture (for a Peircean approach to deictic gestures see Fricke 2007). (3) (wavy embedded clauses) G1 (G1 repeated) (G1 repeated) rh diagonal wavy line from head downward to the right … [but this is gonna be another one with embedded sentences (G1 repeated) G2 rh extended arm and index finger point toward ground coming in verb phrases] [all the way down].e. a right-branching language. metaphor second 343 learners and in research articles by scholars – and in the case discussed here. Without the background knowledge of the theory . The fact that the speaker (who is left-handed) is talking about English. which is then inferred to be the same as the metaphors in the textbook or on the board. may motivate the use of her right hand for the gesture even further.Metonymy first. Figure 3. In the next gesture in the same utterance (G2) the speaker uses in her speech the metaphor (also tied to the tree diagram) “all the way down” to indicate the fact that in certain cases embedded sentences may continue almost without stopping.. relations of dominance are not alluded to linguistically. The question that arises is whether. in which the speech was non-metaphorical (sentence. the speech here is metaphorical in two compatible ways. compatible because spatial and social hierarchies both draw on spatial relations such as UP and DOWN. these two different source domains are made manifest in the verbal and/or manual modalities. Subordinated (embedded) entities are thought of in generative grammar as below the ones that dominate them.).e. This indicates that the theory the speaker has in mind when talking about sentence structure motivates the form the gestures take. the speaker draws a tree chunk in the form of a triangle in the air. these terms do not necessarily entail spatial relationships. see Lakoff and Johnson .g. with certain values attached to each location in the corresponding system (e.344 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R.. the gestures could not be interpreted correctly.1. dominance. As shown in figure 4. Waugh and its canonical metaphors and diagrams. then they might not be represented in exactly the same way (e. the theory of syntactic structure proposed within generative grammar rests on a combination of spatial metaphors (i. “branching” does not necessarily have a downward orientation). the tree diagram) and power relations (i. Moreover. Outside of this theoretical model. control.. how. the notion of “embedded sentence” (mentioned in the concurrent speech) as a wavy line descending in a diagonal toward the floor. as we just saw. or if they do. POWER IS UP. interactions of more than one metaphorical understanding can also be observed in the data. This is different from the more intuitive examples in section 4.e.. with both hands starting out at the center top (the node) and then tracing diagonals outward and downward to either side of the body. she quickly changes from the hierarchical understanding of dominance back to the spatial tree metaphor involving a node being “on top of two things. The subordination gesture (G1) in example (3) represents. domination.” In the speech modality.g. The gesture is a synecdochic depiction that is metaphorically interpreted as meaning several technical terms (nodes alpha and delta. but let us look at another sequence where the same speaker makes reference to the idea of dominance in the speech modality. the gesture derives its meaning from the movement and the virtual traces left in the air. Since linguistic theories are often built on many specific metaphors. Just as in figure 3. morphemes) and the gesture rendered a metaphorical understanding of abstract entities as objects or chunks of space without any ready-made visualization to fall back on. and if so. and branching).” Thus. In the example above. An interesting moment occurs when the speaker realizes that she was talking about a node dominating elements without actually having introduced the idea of “dominance.. etc. alpha and delta. Lakoff and Johnson 1980.) [when the nodes]--.) it branches... branch triangle. / G3 rh branch G4 bh triangle. \ (. / G1 bh. metaphor second 345 1980). Following canonical tree diagrams. Sweetser 1998). BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL IS DOWN. provides a spatial projection of compatible metaphors stemming from the domains of physical structures and social hierarchies with a built in up-down orientation (POWER/HIGH STATUS IS UP.. branching movement x2 [a node] [dominates--]. for a moment. which is a conventional part of the theory. (4) (branching. / (. branching movement x2 [branch. these gestures depict . branching movement x2 (.) woops I said a technical term too soon. domination) …No=des.. Although in the speech modality there is. HAVING CONTROL IS UP. G5 rh draws triangle G6 bh triangle branching (. a slight hesitation about which metaphor to use.Metonymy first. the gesture modality consistently and repeatedly represents the spatial features of the tree model and thus is motivated by the corresponding spatial metaphor. gesture. a semiotic system exploiting space..) when [the node is on top] [of two things] or more. these gestural diagrams all reflect the metaphor SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES ARE GEOMETRIC PHYSICAL STRUCTURES.. LOW STATUS IS DOWN.7)] okay? / so that’s a technical term. of the triangle) and (2) the repeated downward movement that reinforces the idea of an active branching process. As for the underlying conceptual metaphors. branch triangle. / (. the node. \ / Figure 4 represents (1) the very beginning of the branching gesture (hands are joined at the top. Given its specific semiotic affordances. based on CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE IS GEOMETRIC PHYSICAL STRUCTURE (Sweetser 1998) discussed above. _ G2 bh. overriding metaphorical understanding that motivates the representation of the behavior and relationship of elements in a sentence. Mittelberg 2008. Waugh logical relations between entities (which is one of the central functions of diagrams. Figure 4.1. and (2) through metaphorical projection these spatial tree structures depicted by the gesture (metaphorical source) simultaneously represent the abstract conceptual structure (metaphorical target). The difference between the examples discussed in this section and section 4. Waugh et al. As in the examples discussed in section 4. While within the domain of meta-grammatical discourse “dominance” is indeed used metaphorically.346 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R.1 is that whereas in 4. Also. we can also discern a double mapping here: (1) there is external metonymy between the hand (metonymical source) and the trace left in the air (metonymical target). intertwined figures of thought What all the examples in this paper show is that whether the metaphorical interpretation of the metonymic gesture is simple and easily accessible (e. in the manual modality the theory-driven spatial conceptualization of linguistic structure seems to be the predominant. 2004). Sentence structure as a laterally branching tree chunk 5. here it is metaphorical and the metaphors referred to are associated with theory-based canonical visualizations of abstract structure that can be easily mimicked by gesture. a sentence. or in the air).g.. the speaker had probably drawn many such tree diagrams on blackboards or paper before depicting them gesturally.1 the speech is non-metaphorical. on a blackboard. see Peirce 1960. whereby the hand and the line drawn are part of the same experiential domain of drawing a tree structure (whether it is on paper. morphemes) or complex and only understandable in the context . Concluding remarks: Cross-modally achieved. e. the object. in which the speech is metaphorical... that is. but also metonymy and metaphor. there is also synecdoche between the diagram on the blackboard. metonymy.1. metaphor second. the metonymic target. But metonymy is needed to access the metaphor: e.g. In the ensuing metaphoric process.” the perceivable fist serves as a metonymic source triggering cognitive access to the imaginary object inside of it. Due to the abstract nature of the subject matter in linguistics courses. for example. thus grounding them in the immediate teaching context and making them graspable for the student audience. the addressee of these dynamic multimodal representations needs to interpret a combination of not only speech and gesture. whether external (adjacency/contact) or internal (synecdoche). The metonymic mapping functions as follows: in the case of the closed fist that co-occurs with the mention of the morpheme “teach. In order to arrive at what is referred to.. a tree structure. when the teacher is unable to point to words or diagrams written on the board). however.g. metaphor second 347 of a given linguistic theory (e. multimodally achieved efforts are needed to make abstract entities and conceptual structures visible (e. the fist and the small object it seems to enclose. the metaphors used in the . the linguistic unit “teach. or to say it in another way. becomes the metaphoric source that is mapped onto the metaphoric target. for instance.. dominance). Using the terms of contemporary metonymy theory. that is. Taking the material side of gestures as a point of departure. Whereas in the examples of the “sentence” or the morpheme “teach-. in that order. i. branching. In the latter case.” Both of these figurative. These ad-hoc gestural metaphors stand in contrast to the sequences discussed in section 4. the gestural illustrations are metaphorically motivated. we have also claimed that the hands and the actions they perform constitute a common experiential domain and that the imaginary objects or traces are pragmatically inferred from the performed actions. or between the hand drawing a line in the air and the imaginary trace that this movement leaves behind. leads the way into metaphor.2.” discussed in section 4. they still adhere to the general principle of metonymy first. the speech is technical rather than metaphorical. and the sketchy hand movement representing it. We also saw that metaphorically motivated gestural forms do not always coincide with metaphorical speech. featuring imaginary physical objects or assigning meaning to chunks of space extending between the manual articulators.Metonymy first. the metonymic target. we thus identified associative processes involving two intertwined mappings leading from the form of the gesture to the metaphorically construed entity it stands for. the objects in question are conceptualized via metaphor. external metonymy (contiguity through adjacency/contact) between.g. . or the knowledge of the linguistic theory talked about. 2002.. Schilperoord and Maes. as has been shown already (e. And the question of whether the linguistic explanations and the linguistically expressed metaphors could be recognized and understood by the audience without the gestural support is not answerable on the basis of our data.e. The Jakobsonian (and Peircean) notions. which also provides conventional ways of diagramming syntactic structure in the form of inverse tree diagrams. Cienki and Müller 2008. there are also instances in the data in which the speech is metaphorical but there is no gesture. 1998) from the discourse and/or physical context (neighborhood/contexture. this volume. In the light of the importance that those who work on multimodal manifestations of figurative thought place on the specific materiality and logic of each modality (e. Mittelberg 2002. Gibbs 1994. Since gesture is a largely unconscious. 2005. El Refaie 2003. the gestures that depict aspects of “embedded sentences” or “dominance” are more or less sketchy (i. Jakobson 1956). synecdochic) renditions of those ready-made visualizations. 2006). the multimodal metaphors discussed here can hardly be compared with elaborated and consciously chosen metaphorical messages in cartoons or advertisements (see Forceville 1996. 1992. this volume. Waugh speech are given by the theory of generative grammar. Interpreting gestures entails combining perceivable visual and verbal materialized information. In the multimodal manifestations of metaphor and metonymy examined above. a more detailed scrutiny in other forms of multimodal communication. 2001.g. Whittock 1990). Kress et al. source and target domains of a mapping are not necessarily co-present in a given instance of multimodal representation: they may need to be inferred by interpretative hypotheses (Peirce 1991.348 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. spontaneous means of expression.g. open hands. Forceville 2005. it is interesting to realize that making sense out of what a speaker-gesturer is trying to convey involves our imaginative abilities as much as our visual and auditory senses. Müller and Cienki. Kress and van Leeuwen 2006. Yus. combined with contemporary cognitivist . the interplay between metaphor and metonymy deserves. Forceville 2006. Bouvet 2001. and gesture may be the only modality in which the metaphor is expressed (especially when it is spatial metaphor). Accordingly. this volume). However. for example. As we saw. or lines drawn in the air. when inferring objects and actions from gestures involving closed fists. source and target meanings are not always neatly distributed across the two modalities (see Forceville 2006). Of course. this volume. but the manual configurations and movements also appeal to our capacity during the process of interpretation to assign meaning to empty space and to fill in missing information.. ” For more details see Mittelberg (2006. an image schema is defined as “a recurring. the speech segments that coincide with a gesture are set off by square brackets. Barcelona (2000a: 4) gives the following definition: “Metonymy is a conceptual projection whereby one experiential domain (the target) is partially understood in terms of another experiential domain (the source) included in the same common experiential domain” (italics in original).Metonymy first.” “bh” stands for “both hands. [1996] for work on multimodality in the science classroom). . are a way to account for not only the materialized dimensions of figures of thought motivating multimodal discourse. Acknowledgements We wish to thank the editors of this volume. but also for their cognitive and imaginative dimensions. The abbreviations used in the transcript are to be read as follows: “puoh” stands for “palm-up open hand. 3. [2001] and Ochs et al. metaphor second 349 approaches. 5. According to Johnson (1987: xiv). 2007). For reasons of space.” See Mittelberg (2006.” As for gesture-speech synchrony. 4. speech segments highlighted in bold face represent the gesture stroke (the peak of a gestural expression). G1 in example 1 stands for “Gesture 1. dynamic. 6. See Furuyama (2001) regarding Jakobson’s concept of the poetic function in gesture. as well as Alan Cienki and Cornelia Müller for insightful comments on an earlier version of this chapter. Notes 1.” “pvoh” stands for “palms vertical open hand. 2. This is very similar to Barthes’ concept of “anchoring” (see for discussion Forceville 1996: 71). We are also grateful to Allegra Giovine. the functions fulfilled by the additional modalities and artifacts in the class environment and by the teachers’ facial expressions or gaze cannot be included in the analysis here (see Kress et al. Joel Ossher. and Daniel Steinberg for their help with data coding and to Yoriko Dixon for providing the artwork. Charles Forceville and Eduardo Urios-Aparisi. and underlined speech segments indicate a post-stroke gesture hold. forthcoming) for a complete list of the image-schematic and geometric schemata that emerged from the data. pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. Language. 2003 From cutting an object to a clear cut analysis: Gesture as the representation of a preconceptual schema linking concrete actions to abstract notions. Danaher. In From Perception to Meaning: Image Schemas in Cognitive Linguistics. . Cienki. Stanford: CSLI Publications. In Discourse and Cognition: Bridging the Gap. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press. Antonio 2000a The cognitive theory of metaphor and metonymy.350 Irene Mittelberg and Linda R. In Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective. William 1993 The role of domains in the interpretation of metaphor and metonymy. Cognitive Linguistics 4: 335–370. Bouvet. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. In Aspects of Metaphor. London/New York: Routledge. David 1998 Peirce’s semiotic and Cognitive Metaphor Theory. J. Cienki. Bradford.) 2008 Metaphor and Gesture. 189–204.). Jean-Pierre Koenig (ed. Calbris. Alan 1998 Metaphoric gestures and some of their relations to verbal metaphoric expressions. Alan. 89–218.). Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Les Marques PosturoMimo-Gestuelles de la Parole. Hintikka (ed. 2005 Image schemas and gesture. Semiotica 119 (1–2): 171–207. and Cornelia Müller (eds. Gesture 3 (1): 19–46. Paris: Peeters.). Art. 421–442. Beate Hampe (ed. et leur Rôle au Cours d’un Récit. Waugh References Barcelona. Noel 1994 Visual metaphor. leurs Aspects Métonymiques et Métaphoriques. Antonio Barcelona (ed. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. in cooperation with Joseph Grady. 1–28. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Richard 1994 Roman Jakobson: Life. Antonio (ed.). 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Sarah 2001 Language from the Body: Iconicity and Metaphor in American Sign Language. Cambridge. Wilcox. Updated version published as 2002. Gesture 2 (1): 19–44. MA: Harvard University Press. Roman (1896–1982). Wales. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Phyllis P. Waugh. 85–102. 1–45. abstracts. Linda R. Sherman. René Dirven and Ralf Pörings (eds. metonymy. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Linda R. diagrammatic iconicity and academic texts: Global structure. VI Metaphor Involving Music and Sound . . Bach. conceptual blending. I conclude with a brief discussion of how conceptual blending theory can be used for the analysis of text-music relations. The close relationship between language and music suggested by Wittgenstein’s observation is borne out by similarities between the two: both are unique to the human species. both have syntactic properties. I explore the different ways music and language structure thought. near the end of his Philosophical Investigations. where language does not. Schubert. wrote. language. and the multimodal metaphors that may result. There are also. Schubert 1. Examples of musical passages from Palestrina. both unfold over time. 527).Chapter 15 Music. and both make use of sound. music often involves simultaneous events. Introduction Giving voice to an idea that took a number of forms in his later work. and Jerome Kern are used to demonstrate how music contributes to meaning construction and thus may serve as a source domain for a multimodal metaphor. and multimodal metaphor Lawrence M. popular song. of course. Zbikowski Abstract This chapter considers the topic of multimodal metaphor from the perspective of cross-domain mappings between the musical and the linguistic domains. text-painting. Beginning with an example of what musicans call “text painting” (in which music is used to “paint” an image related to the text of a vocal work). Ludwig Wittgenstein. “Understanding a sentence is much more akin to understanding a theme in music than one may think” (Wittgenstein 2001: frag. Keywords: music. Bach. musical grammar. and there is more of a sense of play in ordinary music than there is in ordinary . notable differences: musical meaning is on the whole much less precise than linguistic meaning. Biber. a construal that follows from the characterization of pitches as “high” or “low” with respect to one another. On the other hand. Christ’s descent from heaven is thus represented with a cascading fall through musical space. With the first statement of the word “descendit. possibilities that can be exploited through multimodal metaphors. Credo of the Pope Marcellus Mass. On the one hand. these differences suggest that language and music belong to two different conceptual domains. Figure 1. came down from heaven”).360 Lawrence M. and that structure from one domain may be readily mapped to the other to create meaning. Zbikowski language. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. and for our salvation.” each voice begins a scalar descent. This representation exploits the common construal of musical pitches as situated in vertical space. consider the passage from the Credo of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina’s Pope Marcellus Mass (printed 1567) given in figure 1. . Understanding a sentence is like understanding a musical theme because both language and music offer possibilities for constructing meaning. the similarities between the two suggest that language and music may recruit some of the same cognitive resources. mm.1 The text Palestrina sets here is “Qui propter nos homines et propter nostram salutem descendit de cælis” (“Who for us men. a series of overlapping movements “down” the musical scale. As an example. 53-58. Music, language, and multimodal metaphor 361 Although this characterization seems quite natural, it is actually rather arbitrary. For instance, when you play “higher” notes on the piano, you move your hand to the right; when you play “higher” notes on a cello, you move your hand down toward the ground.2 Describing musical pitches in terms of “high” and “low” is in fact a product of mapping structure from one domain of knowledge (relationships among points in vertical space) onto another (relationships among musical pitches). From the perspective provided by the contemporary theory of metaphor (Lakoff 1993), this mapping relies on the conceptual metaphor PITCH RELATIONSHIPS ARE RELATIONSHIPS IN PHYSICAL SPACE. Language, of course, facilitates this mapping. In that language belongs to one mode (that of either spoken or written signs) and music to another, the metaphorical description of pitches as “high” or “low” is multimodal in at least a minimal sense. If, however, we take a closer look at Palestrina’s compositional choices, a somewhat more textured view of multimodal metaphors that involve music emerges. Were Palestrina interested only in portraying a move from “high” to “low,” he could have used a single falling interval rather than his stepwise descending scale. Using the resources offered by six voices, he also reinforced and inflected his sonic image of descent through a series of multiple, and subtly different, descending gestures, all of which culminate in the important cadential arrival of measure 58. What Palestrina gives us, then, is the sound of descent, realized as an orderly, stately process. Contrast his setting of “descendit” with that of Heinrich Biber at the corresponding point in the Credo from Biber’s Missa Christi resurgentis, written a little over a hundred years after Palestrina’s mass. As shown in figure 2, the path sketched by Biber is much more involved, comprising fifteen notes and proceeding through a series of twisting turns before reaching its goal. Palestrina, for his part, takes only eight notes, and never changes direction.3 The sonic image of descent offered by Biber is consequently quite different than that offered by Palestrina. Biber’s descent Figure 2. Comparison of melodic passages from Heinrich Biber, Credo of the Missa Christi resurgentis, mm. 51-57 and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Credo of the Pope Marcellus Mass, mm. 53-55. 362 Lawrence M. Zbikowski is a leisurely, almost caressing, affair in which the journey is at least as important as the goal. Indeed, when Biber approaches the cadence that articulates the end of this section of the Credo he leaves behind the melodic material of figure 2 and adopts a much more proclamatory style, effectively bracketing off the sensation of descent from its goal. Palestrina’s and Biber’s settings of “descendit” demonstrate, in a concise way, the different resources offered by language and music for the construction of multimodal metaphors. Language gives access to a rich network of conceptual frameworks. “High” and “low,” for instance, are used not only for orientation in physical space, but also as evaluative terms: Christ’s descent is from heaven, where everything is good, to earth, where it is not, a perspective that relies on the conceptual metaphor STATE OF BEING IS ORIENTATION IN VERTICAL SPACE.4 As another example of the conceptual frameworks to which language offers access, the continuum of vertical space can be divided up into a series of points with distances between them. When these points are mapped onto musical pitches (through the conceptual metaphor PITCH RELATIONSHIPS ARE RELATIONSHIPS IN PHYSICAL SPACE) it becomes possible to measure the “distance” between any two notes. I would emphasize that neither of these conceptual frameworks has immediate relevance for Palestrina’s or Biber’s setting of “descendit,” yet both are accessible through the conceptual networks to which the “high” and “low” of musical space is connected. Music, for its part, infuses the process of meaning construction with a crucial dynamic aspect. It is not simply the concept of descent through vertical space that we draw from the musical domains set up by Palestrina and Biber but particular kinds of descent, each with its own texture and shape. Where language provides us with only the bare prompt of the word “descendit,” a notion we fill out with our own experiences with the process of descent, music actively sketches different sorts of descents through carefully arranged sonic materials. In this chapter I want to explore in greater detail multimodal metaphors that involve language and music from both theoretical and practical perspectives. The theoretical perspective, which is developed in the first main section that follows, concerns the different functions of language and music in human culture. I should note that in this section, and indeed throughout this chapter, I shall be concerned with the ways musical materials actually give rise to meaning rather than the meanings with which they may become associated.5 The practical perspective, which is developed in the second main section, begins with a treatment of my opening examples in terms of the theoretical perspective for which I have argued and expands the discussion to consider relationships between text and music in greater detail. In a con- Music, language, and multimodal metaphor 363 cluding section I shall return to Wittgenstein’s observations about understanding in language and music, and consider what multimodal metaphors can tell us about how we understand language and music. 2. Function and structure in language and music As was noted above, there are numerous similarities between language and music, and there are any number of cultural practices that blur the boundaries between the two modes of communication (Boiles 1967; Fornäs 2003). It is still the case, however, that we do not live our lives inside the equivalent of a grand opera or Broadway musical, with every utterance sung and every action accompanied by an orchestra. So why is it that human cultures have developed both language and music? Although there is any number of ways to approach this question, I take the position that language and music have different functions within human culture. In doing so I am influenced by the work of the developmental psychologist Michael Tomasello, who situates the emergence of language in our species within the broader development of human culture. In Tomasello’s view, the primary function of language is to direct the attention of another person to objects or concepts within a shared referential frame (Tomasello 1999: chap. 5). I would argue that music is similarly part of a cultural framework unique to our species, but one whose primary function is to represent through patterned sound various dynamic processes that are common in human experience. Chief among these dynamic processes are those associated with the emotions (which, following recent work by Antonio Damasio, can be construed as sequences of physiological and psychological events that subtend feelings [Damasio 1999, 2003]) and the movements of bodies – including our own – through space. The difference in function between these two modes of communication is matched by a difference in the forms through which the functions are realized. In the case of language, this is accomplished through symbolic units that correlate with functions such as those represented by nouns and verbs, as well as with the many other parts of speech recognized by grammarians (Croft 2001: chap. 2). Through the use of these symbolic units we can direct the attention of another person to objects or concepts within a shared referential frame. In the case of music, the basic formal unit is what I call a sonic analog, which represents through patterned sound the central features of some dynamic process.6 “Descent,” for instance, is one such dynamic process: Palestrina, in the example shown above, provides one sonic analog for this 364 Lawrence M. Zbikowski process; Biber, in the Credo from his mass, provides another. I would hasten to add that neither musical passage stands for descent in a direct or unequivocal fashion. Instead, the phenomenal properties of these passages are such that they can serve as analogs for the process of descent.7 Given this perspective, it should be clear that mappings between the domains of language and music will involve structures that are fundamentally different in kind. Language tends to focus on objects (whether real or imagined) and relationships between objects. Language can direct our attention to a process (that is, the noun “descent” picks out a dynamic process that involves a traversal of space), but it is less common for language to embody such a process. When it does – when, for instance, we imitate the sound of a horse’s step with the words “clip-clop, clip-clop” – language starts to become more like music. Music, for its part, does not tend to be involved with the rich symbolic systems typical of language.8 In those cases where music does exploit this sort of symbolic system – as, for instance, through musical topics of the type employed by Mozart and Haydn (Ratner 1980; Allanbrook 1983; Agawu 1991, 1999) – its dynamic aspect tends to recede in importance. In sum, then, mappings from language to music will tend to focus on static aspects of the musical domain; mappings from music to language will draw out the dynamic aspects of the domain of language. Although any attempt to determine a crisp boundary for what counts as language or what counts as music may be an endeavor destined to generate more heat than light, it seems clear that, at least in their characteristic usage in the contemporary world, language and music have different functions. While the range of language functions is broad, primary among these is the use of symbolic tokens to direct the attention of another person to objects and relations within a shared referential frame. Music, by contrast, provides sonic analogs for a wide range of dynamic processes that are marked in human experience, especially those associated with the regulation of emotions. Multimodal metaphors that involve language and music draw on both of these resources, as the analyses in the next section shall make clear. 3. Text Painting Because so much of our communication is done through language, the contribution of non-linguistic forms of communication to the construction of meaning often goes unnoticed. However, as work on the gesture that accompanies speech has shown (Goldin-Meadow 2003a; Goldin-Meadow 2003b; Kendon 2004; McNeill 1992, 2005; Müller and Cienki this volume; Mittel- Music, language, and multimodal metaphor 365 berg and Waugh this volume), non-linguistic forms of communication are an important way humans shape their thought. Evidence for a similar role for prosody has been provided by a recent set of experiments that demonstrated the use of pitch inflection as an analog for motion through space, and rate of delivery as an analog for the speed of an object (Shintel, Nusbaum, and Okrent 2006). With regard to the latter, when subjects were asked to characterize the motion of a dot that moved horizontally across a screen at one of two speeds by saying either “It is going left” or “It is going right,” they spoke more rapidly if the dot was moving quickly than if it was moving slowly. Moreover, listeners were able to make accurate judgments about the speed of the dot when they heard recordings of these statements. In the case of multimodal metaphors that involve language and music, a consequence of the emphasis on language has been that mappings from language to music have received the most attention (Zbikowski 2008). Mappings from music to language – which function, as do gesture and prosody, to shape thought – have been, by comparison, rather neglected (although see Lidov 2005 for a recent corrective). The compositional technique of text painting provides an opportunity to explore both ways of mapping in more detail, and to develop a better understanding of multimodal metaphors that involve music. The basic idea of text painting is simple enough. When a particularly strong or compelling image occurs in the text for a musical work, the composer writes the accompanying music to suggest, or “paint,” the image. Thus if the text mentions a galloping horse, the music coincident with the text might imitate the sound and action of a horse proceeding at full speed. The passages from Palestrina’s and Biber’s masses that I discussed in my introductory comments are typical examples of text painting, but with one illuminating characteristic: there is in fact nothing in Palestrina’s or Biber’s music that imitates the sound of an actual descent. Indeed, the sounds associated with descents have little in common with a descending scale, and in some cases – for instance, walking down a hill – descent may be virtually soundless. Text painting is, in consequence, not so much about imitating some naturally-occurring sound as it is about providing sonic analogs for various dynamic processes. In Biber’s and Palestrina’s masses, the music provides a sonic analog for the dynamic process associated with descent (correlating descending pitch with a decrease in potential energy), and our understanding of this analog is structured by the accompanying text. In terms of the contemporary theory of metaphor, text painting occurs when concepts prompted by the text for a musical work (which serves as the source domain) are mapped on to a series of musical events (which serves as 366 Lawrence M. Zbikowski the target domain). This mapping structures our understanding of the musical domain: we hear the sounds as “descending.” But as I suggested in my introductory comments, the sonic analog provided by the music also shapes our understanding of the text, for the music gives the delivery of the words a specific contour and duration.9 Again, given our tendency to give priority to linguistic domains, the notion that the seemingly indefinite and nonconceptual domain of music could be used to structure thought may seem at best little more than a passing curiosity, and at worst downright nonsense. But consider three situations: “descendit” spoken; “descendit” sung by Palestrina’s singers; and “descendit” sung by Biber’s singers. If there are any differences between these three utterances, they come from the structure music can impose on language. Two further examples of text painting can help to elaborate this point. The first of these comes from the fourth movement of Johann Sebastian Bach’s Advent cantata “Nun komm der Heiden Heiland” (BWV 61). The text and music for each of the three preceding movements of the cantata have all focused on the coming of Christ (as befits the Advent theme). In the fourth movement Christ is suddenly before us, speaking words from the third chapter of Revelation: “Behold, I stand at the door, and knock. If any man hear my voice, and open the door, I will come in to him, and will sup with him, and he with me.” Bach sets this text as an accompanied recitative for baritone, with the strings playing pizzicato throughout; a shorthand version of the string parts and solo bass melody for the first four measures is given in figure 3. Figure 3. Measures 1-4 of the fourth movement (Recitativo) from J. S. Bach’s cantata “Nun komm der Heiden Heiland” (BWV 61). Bach’s text painting centers on the words “und klopfe an” – that is, “and knock.” Bach uses three compositional techniques to paint this activity. First, he summons the repetitions we associate with the act of knocking by repeating the words, and by using three notes to set the first syllable of the initial “klopfe” (a device called a melisma) such that the articulation of the Music, language, and multimodal metaphor 367 syllable is repeated. Second, he uses staccato marks on the three notes of the melisma, which place silences between these notes; these silences are similar to those that fall between knocks on a door. Third, he sets the words with a broken chord (or arpeggio). This places a kind of distance between each successive note but also allows us to hear all as belonging to a single connected gesture. Again, as an out-and-out imitation of the act of knocking Bach’s setting of “und klopfe an” leaves something to be desired. Knocks are usually unpitched, for instance, but Bach gives us different pitches for each blow. Knocking is not usually accompanied, but here we have pizzicato strings pulsing in the background.10 The reason we hear these musical events as knocking (to the extent that we do) is that our understanding of them is structured by mapping concepts from language onto music. Again, once we hear these musical events as the sound of knocking our understanding of the text starts to change, for the music creates a rather specific analog for the dynamic process of knocking on a door. This sonic analog relies on the rhythmic and pitch resources of music: the delivery of “und klopfe an” is at first halting and then (when it is repeated) hurried; the rhythmic structure of the passage is coordinated with a notable expansion of pitch space (from the span of B3 to D#3 in measures 1-2 to the span of C4 to B2 in the first part of measure 3) which is then compressed by the final F#3-B3-F#3-G3. These resources in turn shape our understanding of the text. We not only know that someone is knocking at the door, but how they are knocking: first tentatively, and then with more urgency. My final example of text painting is from Franz Schubert’s song “Gretchen am Spinnrade,” which takes as its text a scene from Goethe’s Faust. In the scene we overhear Gretchen as, alone in her room, she describes her love for – or perhaps enchantment by – Faust. The song begins, as shown in figure 4, with the briefest of introductions by the piano, a swirling sixteenth-note figure that circles around a D minor chord, a few sparse and repetitive bass notes sounding beneath. This pattern, or some version of it, continues throughout the entire 120 measures of the song, with but one interruption (to which we shall return in a moment). At first glance, the text (the first lines of which translate as “My peace is gone, / My heart is heavy, / I will find it never / and never more”) may seem to have little to do with this monotonous accompaniment. The link is provided by the title: this is Gretchen at the spinning wheel. Schubert’s accompaniment is, of course, meant to evoke the sound of the wheel in action, with the swirling sixteenth notes summoning the wheel itself and the repetitive, off-beat accents in the middle voice representing the clack of the bobbin, but for modern listeners 368 Lawrence M. Zbikowski this sonic image will not typically resolve itself until we have mapped conceptual structure from the domain of the text onto the domain of the music. The text thus serves a function similar to what Roland Barthes has called “anchoring,” rendering transparent an aural image that might otherwise remain opaque. Figure 4. Measures 1-13 from Franz Schubert’s “Gretchen am Spinnrade,” op. 2 (D. 118). Again, Schubert’s accompaniment does not, in any direct way, imitate the sound of a spinning wheel (which is unpitched) although it does provide a surprisingly accurate analog for the act of spinning. Typical treadle speeds start at about 60 treadles per minute, with the main wheel turning around once with each push of the treadle.11 Each complete pattern of sixteenth notes in Schubert’s accompaniment (with two complete patterns per measure) takes a bit less than a second to complete at standard performance tempos, meaning that Schubert’s “wheel” spins at approximately the same speed Music, language, and multimodal metaphor 369 as does Gretchen’s. And, as does Gretchen’s wheel, Schubert’s continues uninterrupted until, midway through the song, Gretchen seems to forget herself and the accompaniment momentarily breaks off. The resumption of the musical pattern – and, presumably, Gretchen’s spinning – is at first halting, getting under way only with the return to the music shown in figure 4. In my other examples of text painting, the mappings between language and music were more or less focused: a particular musical passage provided a sonic analog for descent, or for the act of knocking. In “Gretchen am Spinnrade” the mappings are rather less focused: the correlation is not between a word or cluster of words and a particular musical passage, but between the situation described in the title and the accompaniment pattern that permeates the song. As a result, the music informs our understanding of not just one word from the text but the text as a whole. Through the music we can hear Gretchen’s obsession with Faust (in the relentless patterns of the accompaniment) and sense its fevered intensity: over the course of the song Schubert makes sparing use of the sort of normative harmonic syntax used to suggest progress, and relies instead on quicksilver gestures toward various harmonic centers indicative of a mind that cannot settle down to anything. The curious situation evident in this last case of text painting, where a sonic analog informs our understanding of an entire scene rather than just a single word, points to an interesting feature of multimodal metaphors that involve language and music, and that can be illuminated by a brief consideration of directionality in metaphor. As has often been noted, metaphors are directional: the statement “The hippopotamus is a ballerina” is rather different from the statement “The ballerina is a hippopotamus.” In the first case, attributes associated with a ballerina are mapped on to the hippopotamus; in the second case, attributes associated with a hippopotamus are mapped on to the ballerina. One relatively straightforward explanation for the obvious differences between these two mappings views metaphor as a special case of analogy, in which the correlated domains are conceptually distant from one another (Holyoak and Thagard 1995: 213). From this perspective, the directionality of metaphor can be viewed as a consequence of mapping conceptual structure from a source domain to a target domain when there is relatively little conceptual overlap between the two; when the mapping is reversed, the large amount of new information introduced creates a second metaphor markedly different from the first. In the case of linguistic metaphors, the more abstract structure of the correlated domains is nonetheless retained: objects are mapped to objects (“ballerina” to “hippopotamus”) and relations to relations (“dances” to “lumbers”). Given the account of the different functions of language and music that I have offered, however, even this aspect of (This is a view basic to much musical analysis. Zbikowski correlation drops away in the case of multimodal metaphors that involve language and music: the objects and relations of language do not have an obvious correlate among music’s sonic analogs. When language is used to structure our understanding of music. Conceptual blending and song As was contemporary metaphor theory. the result will be a view of music that is static and reflective. or from music to language.370 Lawrence M. are the concepts summoned by “descendit” and the passages by Palestrina and Biber really different from one another? The answer is “yes and no.” “No” in that the meaning structures activated by all share certain elements and relations. in consequence. the theory of conceptual blending was developed primarily with respect to linguistic phenomena.12 Early on. My . it depends.) When music is used to structure our understanding of language. in part because blending involved mental spaces (Fauconnier 1994) rather than conceptual domains (with the former understood as ephemeral and pragmatic and the latter as relatively stable and abstract. First (and returning to my initial examples). or do both domains contribute more or less equally to the process of meaning construction? The answer is. Cook 2001). one which Hans Keller 1994 tried to counter with his wordless musical analyses. On just what it depends can be made clearer by exploring the perspective on cross-domain mapping provided by the theory of conceptual blending. In the preceding analyses of text painting I have deliberately tried to be even handed: I have described how language can structure our understanding of music. Do the novel meaning structures created by these mappings really reflect mapping either from language to music. but I have also tried to describe how music can structure our understanding of language. 4. While this strategy reflects my long acquaintance with music – music for me does not simply accompany thought. But “yes” in that the way these elements and relations are configured is decidedly different in each case. I would like to explore a conceptual blend in which one of the input spaces is set up by language. but the other is set up by music. The directionality of mappings between the domains of music and language will. take on an added dimension. but actively shapes it – it raises two problems. the result will be a view of language that emphasizes moment to moment transitions and semiotic indeterminacy. however.) In the following. The second problem is one of source and target. its application was extended to non-linguistic areas (Zbikowski 1999. in which the third stanza contrasts with the others in both the length of its lines and its rhyme scheme. I would like to concentrate on the first verse and explore the mental space set up by . and Aldi Music. Inc. Kern’s musical form meshes with that of Field’s lyrics. Jerome Kern and Dorothy Field’s “The Way You Look Tonight” is typical of many of the tunes produced during what some have called the Golden Age of American song. Figure 5. or even one basic image. Lead sheet for Jerome Kern and Dorothy Field’s “The Way You Look Tonight” © Polygram International Publishing. and multimodal metaphor 371 focus here will not be on one moment. with a “tag” added at the end). Kern chose an AABA form for the tune.Music. In the following. often called the bridge) is introduced in the third sixteen-measure unit (measures 33-48). That is. language.. and this is then followed in measure 49 by a return of the A section (in a slightly modified form. Contrasting music (the B section. but on concepts that are developed over the course of an entire song. As can be seen from the lead sheet given in figure 5. the music for the first sixteen measures (the A section) is re-used with little alteration for the second sixteen measures. the space builder establishes a mental space focused on a future state of affairs rather than on the present. From a musical perspective. the mental space set up by the music. This arrival coincides with a return to the rhythm of the opening gesture. with one person gazing on another. Fields’s lyrics open with a characteristic space builder: “Someday. the simplest interpretation (and one supported by the opening D major chord) is as the fifth and first notes in a D scale. what is involved here is not simply a kind of passive looking.372 Lawrence M. then. It is worth noting that while the D4 of measure 2 and the D4 of measure 10 are the same pitch. and then the blended space that results from their combination. but an intimacy of association that has both power and depth. the song opens with a space builder roughly equivalent to the “Someday” of the words. The melody for the song also begins with a space builder. but in this case the falling fifth A5-D4. beset with rather dire circumstances (“When I’m awfully low / And the world is cold”) will be comforted by the remembrance of the object of his affections and. Although these pitches could be understood in a variety of ways. after which . for instance. but which now lead directly to the D4 that concludes the melody of the A section in measure 13. These figures ultimately move past A5 (in measure 7) and arrive on the high note of the melody (D5) of measure 9. by the way she looks on this particular night (“I will feel a glow just thinking of you / And the way you look tonight”). but with the A5-D4 falling fifth replaced by a D5-D4 descending octave. and the temporal space between the two whole notes has been filled in by the moving quarter-notes in these same measures. The followings lines fill out the picture: the speaker. The mental space established by the first verse thus develops into a scene in which what is of moment is not some future opportunity to look back to the present as a golden past but the centrality of “the way you look tonight” to a highly charged romantic relationship. Zbikowski the lyrics. more specifically. As is hinted at by the transformative effect of the appearance of the beloved (an effect confirmed by the second verse’s “There is nothing for me but to love you”). their context is quite different: the registral space above the D4 of measure 10 has been expanded through the sequential figures of measures 3-8. The “Someday” space builder is thus somewhat misleading: what is important is not the future but the present. D minor). Measure 10 is followed by a final passage that owes something to the compositional strategies that filled out the musical space in measures 3-8.”13 Here. In the music that follows the registral space between D4 and A5 is filled in by a sequence of arch-like figures that flesh out the musical topography with notes from the key of D major (rather than. although the D major harmony of measure 5 represents a return to the opening harmony. the music is kept moving by the melodic sequence that accompanies this harmony. While the harmonies used by Kern – a four-measure pattern repeated (with slight variation) four times – are quite typical in American popular music (what musicians would call a I-VIII-V pattern). with the quarter notes of measure 11. the note which correlates with the arrival on the last syllable of “The way you look tonight.” Essential features of the mental spaces set up by the lyrics and the music for the first verse of “The Way You Look Tonight” are given in the conceptual integration network diagrammed in figure 6. the appearance of the beloved and its importance for “romance”) the mental space set up by the music is concerned with a set of coordinated processes that lead to the final phrase in the section. First. a goal whose culmination is the D4 of measure 13. and whole note of measure 13 (tied over into the quarter note of measure 14). The melodic process that leads to the arrival on D4 in measure 13 is reinforced by rhythmic and harmonic processes that are to some extent independent of the melody. is centered on the idea that focused attention is a form of intimacy. which defines the core cross-space mapping and basic topography for the network. rhythmic. although D major returns once more in measure 9 (and supports long notes that recall the long notes of the opening measures). which reflects the insights captured in the invariance principle (Lakoff 1990. This is followed (as has already been noted) by the whole notes of measures 9-10. and harmonic – is to make measures 11-13 a goal for the A section. The generic space. language. Kern destabilizes the chord by turning it into a dominant seventh. Where the mental space set up by the text is concerned primarily with objects and relations (namely. and it . The overall effect of all of these processes – melodic. This sort of attention is behind the fixed gaze of the lover. Turner 1990). Guiding the integration of these concepts is the generic space (represented in the top circle of the diagram). Second.and longer-duration notes is then revisited in a more orderly fashion. with each mental space represented by a circle. two details contribute to the overall dynamic shape of the A section. half notes of measure 12.14 Over the course of measures 1-8 the number of shorter-duration notes increases until it reaches its maximum density in measures 7-8. When these two spaces are correlated with one another (as they are in the song) aspects of their structure are projected into the blended space to yield a dynamic representation of the development of an intimacy of association. and multimodal metaphor 373 the space is filled out – with notes instead of words – to solidify and stabilize the conceptual realm prompted by the space builder.Music. The contrast between shorter. Zbikowski is also behind our discomfort when confronted with the unbending stare of a stranger. where she rests her hand on his shoulder. for her part. This gesture coincides with Astaire’s arrival at the music of measure 61 (the penultimate statement of “The way you look tonight”). and.” The development of this sort of intimacy was at the heart of the scene from the 1935 movie Swing Time (starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers) where “The Way You Look Tonight” first appeared. however. As the song unfolds. turns to a mirror and discovers her appearance. a play on “the way you look . has locked herself in her room and has started shampooing her hair. Conceptual integration network for the first verse of “The Way You Look Tonight. In this scene Astaire is trying to win Rogers over: he has managed to get in to her hotel suite. and in response to it he sings the words one more time. observing this change. This comedic moment is.374 Lawrence M. Rogers. At the conclusion of the song his gaze becomes quizzical as he notices the lather on her head and she. she emerges from her room in a bathrobe with hair lathered. first smiling on Astaire and then soundlessly walking over to stand behind him at the piano. of course. even though she has repeatedly spurned him. gives it his best effort by singing this song (“accompanying” himself at the piano). Figure 6. turning to look into Rogers’ eyes. rushes back to her boudoir – but subsequent scenes do make clear that Rogers’ and Astaire’s characters are now a pair. and multimodal metaphor 375 tonight. in some cases words and music will prompt the construction of two independent but correlated mental spaces. not the least because language is the primary means most humans use to structure their understanding of the world. Both of these spaces contribute structure to a third mental space. None of these possibilities concludes the scene from Swing Time – Rogers. language. the bridge (with its music momentarily suspending the process enacted by the first two A sections) adds the detail of “that laugh that wrinkles your nose. But whether metaphor or conceptual blending is involved. First. rather than one domain (the source) providing structure for the other (the target) – a mapping that gives rise to the directionality of metaphor noted above – in a blend correlated spaces each contribute to structure that is mapped onto the blend. Mapping from music to language might seem a stranger alternative. they may also destabilize them by extending the system in novel ways. or perhaps just to stare into each other’s eyes.” From the perspective of conceptual blending theory. aghast at her appearance. but I believe it is a real possibility. but over its entire course. especially when language is for some reason ambiguous (as it is in the opening of Schubert’s “Gretchen am Spinnrade”). I hope I have demonstrated the resources for meaning construction provided by these two different modalities. blending typically involves highly fluid and thoroughly pragmatic mental spaces rather than established domains.Music. in which concepts drawn from each of these two input spaces are blended. For the conceptual blend created by the words and music for “The Way You Look Tonight. This intimacy is one that is worked out not only in the first verse of Kern and Field’s song. Most readers will find mapping from language to music to be simple enough. then. and thus push against the boundaries of the domain. This new space typically serves as a site for the imagination. while blends may exploit such systems.” we might well imagine that the intimacy established between the lovers is one that would lead them to dance together. or to exchange loving words. Second. and thus have at least the potential to .” but Astaire and Rogers have just shared an encounter typical of a much more intimate relationship than they have enjoyed thus far. The mappings associated with a conceptual blend of this sort are different from those associated with a metaphor in two important ways.” and the final verse finds the singer speaking directly to the beloved: “Never. The second verse moves from generalities of appearance to specifics (“With your smile so warm / And your cheek so soft”). never change. Additional evidence that music can serve as a proper conceptual domain. Metaphorical mappings often yield systems of metaphor. Conceptual blending raises at least as many questions as it answers. Although the established models of cross-domain mapping can tell us much about the different contributions language and music make to multimodal metaphors. physical gestures (like knocking). (I discuss further instances in Zbikowski 2002: chaps. recollections and such like” (Wittgenstein 1980: 69e-70e). and through these representations we can direct the attention of another person to things within a shared referential frame. and the somewhat more fluid construct of a mental space basic to this methodology. for such metaphors make clear the different functions of language and music in human culture. Music. the methodology of conceptual blending. A key to understanding how this is possible is offered by multimodal metaphors that involve both .376 Lawrence M. offers one way to capture the unique contribution of each mode of communication to the process of meaning construction. A place to begin understanding how we understand music is with such sonic analogs. This is not to say that language and music accomplish their ends by the same means – I have in fact argued just the contrary – but that they draw on some of the same cognitive resources for constructing meaning. Images. In a fragment that dates from 1948 he wrote. and emotional states (such as obsession or the development of intimacy). but it has the potential to place language and music on an equal footing so that we may better understand the contribution of each to multimodal metaphor. sensations of movement. 2 and 6. “If I now ask ‘So what do I actually experience when I hear this theme and understand what I hear?’ – nothing occurs to me by way of reply except trivialities. Language gives us the means to represent symbolically objects and relations. processes that include movement through space (such as descent). As Wittgenstein suggested.) 5. comes from instances of conceptual blending where music provides one of the input spaces for a conceptual blend. Conclusion Although Wittgenstein believed that how we understand music provided important insights into how we understand anything in general – and language in particular – he himself struggled with what it meant to understand music. by contrast. Multimodal metaphors that involve language and music have the potential to provide crucial insights into this question. understanding a sentence is much more akin to understanding a musical theme than we might first think. and the different ways they construct meaning. provides us with sonic analogs for dynamic processes. Zbikowski structure our understanding of language. “representation” does not have to entail a full semiotic system. 2003). 2). 3). 11. for such metaphors give us compelling insights into the rich and varied world of meaning within which humans dwell. “which represent the relations … of the parts of one thing by analogous relations in their own parts” (Peirce 1960. language. where Palestrina’s is only about twenty seconds long. I discuss this passage at greater length in Zbikowski (2002: chap. 7.hjsstudio. 5. For the sake of concision I have given only one of Biber’s melodic strands. I draw my perspective on the unique symbolic aspect of language from Deacon (1997. 10. A dynamic process may be provisionally defined as a coherent sequence of phenomena that is distributed over time and typified by parametric modulation or change.html (accessed 26 September 2006). 9. and multimodal metaphor 377 language and music. As I use the term. and together with the instrumental ensemble the melodic contour shown in example 2 is replicated no fewer than four times (in most cases with pairs of voices). Sonic analogs are akin to Charles Peirce’s notion of an icon. This information was gleaned from http://www. With regard to the associational meanings of music. 2) and Ashley (2004). Further discussion of ways to characterize relationships between musical pitches can be found in Zbikowski (2002: chap. yielding something like “It is going dooooowwwwnnn” spoken with a descending inflection. The temporal span of Biber’s setting of “descendit de cælis” is also significantly longer than that of Palestrina: Biber’s setting runs to forty-five seconds. This perspective is similar to that adopted by Naomi Cumming (2000: chap. At this point in the Credo there are nine vocal parts. 3. but this seems something of a stretch. and in particular to the form of an icon he called a diagram. but with general ideas about victory.com/espinner. 1:277). 4. This conceptual metaphor is a variant of STATES ARE LOCATIONS discussed by Lakoff and Turner (1989). . 6.Music. it is worth noting that one of the most well-known depictions of the pounding of horse’s hooves in American popular culture – the use of a portion of Gioacchino Rossini’s overture to Guillaume Tell for the theme music for the radio and television series The Lone Ranger – does not have any associations with horses in its original context. A few writers have gone so far as to interpret the steady plucking of the orchestra in this movement as a further embodiment of knocking. 8. Notes 1. more like Edgar Allen Poe’s telltale heart than a summons from the Savior. The rough equivalent in prosody would combine the two parameters studied by Shintel and her colleagues. Not only are the attack points too widely spaced to sound much like knocking but the effect is far too persistent. 2. Cook. and Peter Webster (eds. Music scholars often analyze music in terms of three primary parameters: melody. 13. elements within them. Lipscomb. Naomi 2000 The Sonic Self: Musical Subjectivity and Signification. Allanbrook. Wye Jamison 1983 Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart: Le Nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. and relations holding between the elements. 64–67. Oxford: Oxford University Press. References Agawu. Princeton: Princeton University Press. and rhythm. Richard Ashley. Ashley. Victor Kofi 1999 The challenge of semiotics. Cumming. both the harmony (indicated by the chord symbols above the staff) and the rhythmic frame (indicated by the notated durations of pitches and by barlines) are relatively clear-cut. Australia: Causal Productions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Boiles. Ethnomusicology 11 (3): 267–92. Nicholas Cook and Mark Everist (eds. Robert O. Scott D. Croft. Gjerdingen. In Rethinking Music. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition. Adelaide. see Forceville (2004). 14. In “The Way You Look Tonight. 138–60.). 2002). William 2001 Radical Construction Grammar: Syntactic Theory in Typological Perspective. Fauconnier describes a space builder as follows: “Linguistic expressions will typically establish new spaces. 1967 Tepehua thought-song: A case of semantic signaling. Charles L. For an overview of the theory see Fauconnier and Turner (1998. the manifestation of these parameters is not always obvious or unequivocal. . Richard 2004 Musical pitch space across modalities: Spatial and other mappings through language and culture.378 Lawrence M. For a review of the latter. Nicholas 2001 Theorizing musical meaning. I shall call space-builders expressions that may establish a new space or refer back to one already introduced in the discourse” (1994: 17). Music Theory Spectrum 23: 170–95. 1991 Playing with Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classical Music.). Zbikowski 12. harmony. In the same way that the very notion of “music” varies broadly across cultural practices.” however. Christiansen. MA: Harvard University Press. In Language Evolution. 2002 The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. Adam 2004 Gesture: Visible Action as Utterance. 2003 Universal grammar and semiotic constraints. and Simon Kirby (eds.. Sorrow. 111–139. 2nd ed. Morten H. New York: Basic Books. Christopher Wintle (ed. The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. Cognitive Science 22: 133–87. In Essays on Music. Keith J. Fauconnier. and Paul Thagard 1995 Mental Leaps: Analogy in Creative Thought. Norton. and Mark Turner 1998 Conceptual integration networks. With a foreword by George Lakoff and Eve Sweetser. FL: Harcourt. Goldin-Meadow. Fornäs. and multimodal metaphor 379 Damasio. Kendon. 2003 Looking for Spinoza: Joy. language. George 1990 The invariance hypothesis: Is abstract reason based on imageschemas? Cognitive Linguistics 1: 39–74. Popular Music and Society 26: 37–51. New York: Psychology Press. New York: W. 1999 The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. Keller. 126–28. 2003b The Resilience of Language: What Gesture Creation in Deaf Children Can Tell Us About How All Children Learn Language. Cambridge.). Fauconnier. 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Intégral 16–17: 251–68. Raymond W. . In The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. . and music. The activation of connotations. The present chapter demonstrates that sound and music can play a role in multimodal metaphor (1) by cuing a source domain. The chapter ends with hypotheses that invite further testing in theoretical and experimental research. and the visual mode is also now theorized more broadly. 2007. the “verbo-pictorial metaphors” in Forceville (1996: 148–62) belong to this category. The present chapter is an exploration of how non-verbal sound and . non-verbal sound. since these connotations qualify for mapping on the target domain. genre. presupposes that the source domain is identified by means of one or more modes/modalities. non-verbal sound and music as (source) domain-cueing modes/modalities still await exploration. Keywords: non-verbal sound. While the linguistic mode. in its written and spoken varieties. film 1. Ten examples of multimodal metaphors involving sound and music from two different genres (advertising and film) are discussed. advertising.Chapter 16 The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor1 Charles Forceville Abstract Any object or phenomenon that evokes clear-cut connotations for a community of users can function as the source domain of a metaphor. written language. 2006/this volume. Introduction As defined in Forceville (2005. and/or (2) by triggering mappable connotations of a source domain signaled in a nonverbal mode. but so do verbal metaphors whose target and source are presented in written and spoken form respectively. multimodal metaphors are metaphors whose target and source domains are predominantly or entirely presented in different modes. 2008). has received ample attention. music. these modes including minimally visuals. spoken language. According to this definition. in turn. ChF) The fragment (composed by Sander Baas and Iwan den Boestert) sounds like a hit song of the kind popular in Holland at the time of writing. a mobile phone service.” the woman sings the following song fragment: Je bent de liefde van mijn leven/ voor altijd verbonden. brand. (My translation. and move. Its aim is to chart parameters that need to be taken into account in a full-fledged theory of multimodal metaphor by discussing ten case studies. or service.php [accessed 9 July 2008] under KPN Telecom “Volslagen Mobiel”). with [my] whole heart and soul/ I am completely mobile. A Dutch commercial from KPN for Hi. and five are fragments from fiction films. here and throughout the chapter. but was in fact specifically composed for the commercial (see http://www. with its clearly specifiable genre-convention of attempting to persuade an audience of positive qualities adhering to a certain product. I call and SMS. and what its source domain? (3) Which feature or (structured) cluster of features can/must be mapped from source to target? (see Forceville 1996: 108) 2. megamediamagazine. Specifically. (b) the role of sound and music to (help) identify features that can be mapped from source to target. .nl/mvtr. Jij hebt mij vrienden en vrijheid gegeven/ ‘k kan niet meer zonder. met heel hart en ziel/ Ik ben volslagen mobiel. Case studies Example 1 (Hi): MOBILE PHONE IS PIANO. instruct. shows an attractive woman playing an instrument that looks and sounds like a piano.384 Charles Forceville music can play a role in the construal and interpretation of multimodal metaphor. The analyses are guided by the three questions that need at the very least be capable of being answered for something to count as a metaphor: (1) What are its two domains? (2) What is its target domain. Playing the “piano. a genre which is supposed – let us say with Horace – to delight. Five examples originate in advertising. but on closer inspection turns out to be a visual hybrid between a piano and a mobile phone (figure 1). I will focus on (a) the role of sound and music to (help) identify the metaphor’s source domain. You are the love of my life/ connected forever. You have given me friends and freedom/ I can no longer do without Ik bel en SMS. It is to be noted that the original Dutch text has (near-)rhymes: “leven/gegeven”. non-verbal sound does play a role in the construal and interpretation of the metaphor. the music enhances the similarity that is created between mobile phone and piano. A commercial for a salty cookie called “Tuc” shows a Tuc cookie moving from left to right. and going up and down (figure 2).” followed by an audiologo (“So Hi …iii!”). too. Look on Hi. Secondly. We interpret this movement as self-propelled due to the commands of the male voice-over (“And … left! … . nor spoken text. it is suggested. turn Hi-subscriber. but as nonverbalized features they strengthen and enrich the MOBILE PHONE IS PIANO metaphor. This month as from no more than €10. “Turn completely mobile. neither written text. The visual homology between striking a piano’s keys and pressing a mobile phone’s buttons is complemented by the effect of this action: singing a song while accompanying oneself on the piano (a source domain action). The commercial’s makers could hardly have spelled out these mappable features verbally on penalty of appearing ridiculous. a female voice-over says. in the target domain transforms mobile-phoning into a playful. nor music is necessary for their identification. The Netherlands). so that her ode becomes aligned with numerous pop songs in which singers romantically address their lovers. Since both domains (mobile phone and piano) are cued in the visual mode. “zonder/verbonden”.The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor 385 Figure 1. Example 2 (Tuc): COOKIE IS PERSON DOING FITNESS EXERCISES. and hence this specimen is strictly speaking a monomodal metaphor of the pictorial variety.” contributing to the sense that this is a song. artistic act with aesthetic effects. “ziel/mobiel. However.nl. An attractive woman “plays” on a mobile phone that is shaped like a piano (still from HI mobile commercial. After the last line. In the first place the fact that the text is sung rather than spoken adds emotion to the woman’s appeal to the mobile phone. the specification of the source as not simply a person but as a person doing fitness exercises is cued by the voice-over text as well as by the rhythmic beat. The images in the commercial are those of beautifully colored. Thus the target domain is cued visually alone. And where do you find a gasoline that guarantees such a good performance as V-Power? Shell. A Tuc cookie jumps up and down like a fitnesser. The sounds we hear are traffic sounds – revving motors. we go further. . And relax”). and a small fish darting away just in time from a swordfish trying to stab it. This text evokes the domain of doing fitness exercises. but so does the rhythmic beat accompanying the voice-over. Where you stop. then moving on. The Netherlands). Figure 2. claxons. Text: “But Tuc is most of all a lot more tastier” (still from Tuc Commercial.386 Charles Forceville Two. in everyday traffic. and all the verbal cues are (mentally) eliminated. of a gasoline that has been developed in collaboration with the people at Ferrari’s? V-Power is a new gasoline that ensures better performance. USA 2003). right! … And up! …. Thanks to a better combustion. We see a school of fish all stopping in mid-swim (figure 3). So that your car can respond faster … when necessary. animated fish apparently swimming just above the bottom of the sea (reminiscent of the animation film Finding Nemo. The voice-over reinforces the traffic domain: What is the advantage. screeching tires. Each of these would suffice alone for this specification. a siren. three. If the sound is switched off. although no doubt their combination facilitates and probably quickens comprehension of the metaphor COOKIE IS PERSON DOING FITNESS EXERCISES. Example 3 (Shell): CARS ARE FISH. the personification of the cookie might still be inferred by some viewers: after all it seems clear that the cookie jumps to and fro entirely of its own accord. However. Since speed embodies a quality claimed to be facilitated by the product advertised (V-Power). That is. or perhaps an amusement park with an aquarium. In the first instance.” but also by the revving sound. the product promoted. irrespective of the modalities they draw on. I submit that just as inferences made on the basis of the visual track tend to prevail over those made on the basis of the non-verbal soundtrack. Once the audience has accessed this domain. In view of the claim that in principle metaphors. the assumption that the fish are to be taken literally is probably discarded. it is not until this moment that viewers will reinterpret the fish as the source domain of what is to be construed as a metaphor. some movements of the fish. or belong to the domain of. do not allow for reversal of target and source (Forceville 1995.” words that strongly connote the realm of cars and driving. The Netherlands). suggested by street sounds (still from Shell commercial. At the moment they hear the words “traffic” and “gasoline. this is meaningful. for instance. it is interesting that in this metaphor its distribution is not immediately clear. can be interpreted as signaling the traffic domain (here: stopping before a traffic light). they might at this stage speculate. Indeed. 2002). before the voice-over is audible. inferences on the basis of verbal lan- . for instance their completely synchronized stopping and moving. the sound adds liveliness and precision to the images: for instance. and verbally by the brief pause before “when necessary. Fish halt suddenly as if cars stopping before traffic lights. The traffic domain is thus cued by both non-verbal sound and spoken language. the little fish’s escape from the swordfish is emphasized not just visually by the quick movement. Moreover. that this is a commercial for a zoo. I suspect viewers hypothesize that the fish are.The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor 387 Figure 3. but these visual cues alone would not suffice to ensure its recognition. most viewers would not access the source domain on the basis of visual cues until the rice . At the moment the male voice-over says “exactly” we hear a faint voice say “yes. the Wedding March being audible on the sound track (still from commercial for Iglo meals). It is thus the verbal track. since the anthropomorphizing of the two does not suffice to turn them into a wedding couple. Their movements alone already suggest anthropomorphizing.388 Charles Forceville guage override those originating in the visual track. Example 4 (Iglo): CORNCOB AND FRENCH BEAN ARE BRIDE AND GROOM. The target-status of cars is further reinforced once we hear the name of the brand advertised: Shell – and see one of a series of shells on the sea bottom transform into the Shell logo. rice showered upon the couple. A min-corncob and a French bean walk as a married couple. A voice-over tells us: In our newest Iglo dish there are mini-corncobs and French beans – a combination of young and crispy. The metaphor CORNCOB AND FRENCH BEAN ARE BRIDE AND GROOM is cued mainly by the Wedding March tune. that makes viewers postulate the metaphor CARS ARE FISH. followed by a kissing sound. under cheers and applause. And what should of course never be missing on such a joyful occasion? … Exactly! … And together with chicken filet and soy sauce these make up the delicious new Iglo dish. now!”. but it is the tune of the Wedding March which metaphorizes the two into bride and bridegroom (and makes us realize that the Iglo package actually resembles a church). walking together toward an Iglo package (figure 4). and we see. supported by the traffic sounds. An Iglo instant-meal commercial features a mini-corncob and a French bean. Figure 4. If the sound were turned off. Senseo. The metaphor COFFEE MAKER IS MOTORCYCLE is further emphasized by concurrently showing a finger pushing the coffee maker’s on/off button and sounding a kick-starting motorcycle. Note that despite the reference to a “joyful occasion.” The metaphor in this commercial is cued at least as much aurally as visually. one after the other.” Switching off the sound of the commercial presumably eliminates the most important cue for the source domain. therefore. moreover. or brand name is promoted. on the images: “designed with a vision … developed with passion … makes of each moment a sensation … that delights all senses.The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor 389 shower. since this might lead to a mistaken conception of pictorial and multimodal metaphor’s . but it is the Wedding March tune that turns the vegetables not just into humans. That these connotations are considered important by the commercial’s maker is confirmed by the written pay-off line at the end of the commercial: “three years old. too. (I owe this example and part of the analysis to Victor 2004. Both target and source are cued pictorially. but into bride and groom – even before we see the rice-shower.” the verbal text alone. the product is the target and the source is something else. unconventionality. The shiny black covering of the coffee machine. The following phrases are superimposed. However. In most metaphors in commercials. it is important not to theorize multimodal metaphor exclusively on the basis of case-studies exemplifying a single genre. sixties’ counterculture – a whole range of qualities nostalgically associated with Easy Rider motorbiking that are potentially mapped to making your coffee with a Senseo machine. which enormously facilitates and constrains the preferred interpretation of everything visible and audible in them. freedom. service. but more importantly the music evokes connotations such as living life in the fast lane. would not be sufficient to cue WEDDING at all. which means that it is positive features that are mapped from source to target (Forceville 1996: 104). This commercial. We hear a throbbing motorcycle engine and a fragment of Steppenwolf’s Born to be Wild featuring the line “Get the motor running. That is.) Watching commercials is governed by the strong genre-expectation that some product. there is no unambiguous verbal reference to the source domain. and already a legend – at least in the kitchen. hit it on the highway” – made famous by the opening sequence of Easy Rider (Dennis Hopper. shows the metallic machine first in a number of extreme close-ups defying recognition. Example 5 (Senseo): COFFEE MAKER IS MOTORCYCLE. One mappable feature is clearly the high-tech design. including the metaphors. A Philips coffee maker. is best classified as a multimodal metaphor. USA 1969). if then. looks like the surface of a motorcycle and the dripping coffee resembles a drop of oil (figure 5). youth. Easy Rider motorbike. Yus this volume. The Netherlands).) Figure 5. he loads the cannon (figure 6). see El Refaie this volume. we hear the soft-and-quick drum on the soundtrack that we recognize as a cliché device to create tensive expectation. 1996 theory of pictorial/ visual metaphor expose this misconception). Metaphors in art are usually not amenable to the kind of clear-cut. set during the American Civil War. One crucial artistic convention is that it is. It is commendable. but the conven- . Example 6 (The General): REAL CANNON IS CIRCUS CANNON. five examples of multimodal metaphors from fiction films. while the firing of the canon ball itself is accompanied by a very unrealistic popping sound (the music and sound of the version discussed here is by Konrad Elfers). singular intentions found in advertising. Here are. As such.390 Charles Forceville prototypical characteristics (Forceville’s 2002 criticisms of Carroll’s 1994. Just before Johnnie fires the cannon. features Keaton as the train driver Johnnie Gray. Schilperoord and Maes this volume. there is nothing much metaphorical about this. A drop of what looks like oil – an impression reinforced by the accompanying “Born to be Wild” song – is in fact a drop of coffee (still from a commercial for Senseo. hitches on to the loc a wagon with a cannon. therefore. When he has the Northerners in sight. 2 and 5. to consider specimens from a different genre as well. Buster Keaton’s brilliant film The General (1927). (For discussions of multimodal metaphors in the cartoon genre. see also Forceville 1999a). more poly-interpretable (see for discussion of Schmidt’s “fact” versus “aesthetic” and “monovalence” versus “polyvalence” convention Fokkema and Ibsch 2000: chap. therefore. ready to fire over the cabin of his own loc. Johnnie gets hold of another locomotive. and single-handedly goes in pursuit along the same railway track. in the words of Siegfried Schmidt (1991). whose locomotive is stolen by enemy Northern soldiers. risk-taking. the film increasingly literalizes the metaphor. Hence construal of the metaphor REAL CANNON IS CIRCUS CANNON is invited. resulting in a climactic . “the typical program had musical accompaniment. gave ad-libbing musicians opportunities to create multimodal metaphors involving sound where these may not have been envisaged by the films’ makers.. in vaudeville theatres. such as pleasurable excitement. Starting out realistically. This. USA 1927). Example 7 (If …): PUBLIC SCHOOL IS ARMY. has an interesting consequence from the point of view of metaphors involving music and sound. the film gradually begins to show bizarre and surrealistic events that.” Indeed. destabilize the status of the “real. Incidentally. In the more modest presentations. the idea of watching a performance – and of course the mapping onto real-cannon firing turns Johnnie’s action into slapstick. (UK 1968) is a satire on the perverse aspects of British public school life. The mapped features in this case are the connotations evoked by a circus context. commensurate with the counterfactuality suggested by the title. Johnnie (Buster Keaton) loads a cannon. 1927. In the pre-sound era. the fact that this film predates the sound era (Al Johnson’s The Jazz Singer. where a “human cannon ball” is fired.The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor 391 tional drums anticipating the firing will no doubt remind many viewers of a similar situation in circus acts. The verbal and visual references to battle and war. a pianist might play. while tensive “circus-act music” is audible (still from Buster Keaton. Figure 6. The General. is conventionally credited with being the first sound film).. the house orchestra provided music” (Thompson and Bordwell 1994: 13). Lindsay Anderson’s If . combined with the violence and the expectation of blind discipline in a hierarchical system gives rise to the metaphor PUBLIC SCHOOL IS ARMY – a conceptual metaphor that is reinforced throughout the film. then.. Because of a celebration. which be- . the sound track features a rumbling sound. constitutes the performance of a script. When he returns from the toilet. He has planned for a gun to be hidden in the toilet in the restaurant where they will be having dinner. potential mappable features being the circumstances that in a ritual event everything is anticipated. until they are smoked out by the rebels. and has profound meaning. are positioned. with the gun. USA 1972) prepares to take revenge on his family’s enemies. the army. Michael (Al Pacino) in The Godfather I (Francis Ford Coppola. staff. The very last scene of the film can be construed as a multimodal metaphor in which music provides the source domain. heavily armed. Since he is not an experienced killer at this stage of his life. this is an emotional moment for Michael.392 Charles Forceville machine-gunning of the established order by a small band of rebels. During the last images of cross-firing. the same melody is audible that had been sung in the chapel. ritualized behavior (canings and other humiliating punishments such as cold showers and pupils being hung upside down in a toilet pot). and given the film’s consistent focus on cruel. The massacre in the college quadrangle (still from If …. Lindsay Anderson. and the church) are gathered in the college chapel. (The Godfather I): MENTAL STATE IS FAST TRAIN. on the roofs surrounding the college’s quadrangle. UK 1968). Sollozzo and McCluskey. it is possible to construe the multimodal metaphor MASSACRE IS RELIGIOUS RITUAL. pupils. led by Mick (the first major role of actor Malcolm MacDowell). Example 8. and various officials (tellingly: representatives of the royal family. The rebels. Outside they are gunned down helplessly (figure 7) until they manage to access a weapon depot in the college (!) and are able to retaliate.2 This hymn-like melody metonymically connotes the rituality of a religious service. parents. Figure 7. that is. but then diegetically. suggesting the metaphor MICHAEL’S MENTAL STATE IS FAST TRAIN. and somehow mapped associations adhering to that source to the target MICHAEL’S MENTAL STATE have or that they have not processed the metaphor? Or have they processed differ- . a type in which a source domain structures a largely unstructured target domain.The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor 393 comes identifiable as that of a riding train. The sound is in this scene nondiegetic. this would be an example of a “projective metaphor” (Indurkhya 1991: 16). They may. Lena Chatzigrigoriou (to whom I owe the example and part of the analysis) interprets the scene as follows: “The sound of the shrieking train breaks gradually. it does not emanate from the actual events portrayed at this moment. say. but not in the shots of Sollozzo and McCluskey left behind at the restaurant table. That the sound is a train’s is confirmed in the DVD commentary track by Francis Ford Coppola. who observes that there was an elevator train in the vicinity of the restaurant where the scene was shot. Possible mappings are such a train’s unstoppability. This comment also suggests that we indeed already heard the same train sound earlier. but who did cue. SWELLING RUMBLE. say. it is nonetheless clear that presumably few spectators will consciously construe the concept TRAIN as a metaphorical source domain in this highly suspenseful scene. Michael’s determination. the inexorable rhythm of its progress. namely during the car trip to the restaurant. then. is difficult to verbalize unambiguously. As in the If … scene discussed in example 7. the circumstance that its noise drowns out other sounds – which in the target domain translate as. This leaves intact the claim that the sonic source domain brings to the fore to the audience what Michael thinks – which is not directly made visible (although Al Pacino’s facial expression arguably also helps the audience interpret what he is thinking). This sound tells us that Michael is not listening anymore. and that it was. In Indurkhya’s (1991) terms. Should we say that members of the audience who failed to cue TRAIN. overpowering Sollozzo’s voice. instead. he is ready for action” (Chatzigrigroriou 2006: 13). But the example points up an issue that is particularly pertinent to multimodal metaphors whose source. in fact. construe the sound more generically as “swelling rumble” or something like that. the sound used as source domain in the metaphor had been cued realistically in an earlier scene. for whatever reason. Even if the analysis is accepted. or his refusal to reconsider his plan to kill. The sound is thus used to convey Michael’s mental state. the sound of this train that provided the idea for its usage in the scene. That this is so is made clear by the fact that the sound is not continuous: it is audible in the shots when we see Michael in the toilet. the metaphor is deployed to indicate the hero’s temporary confusion. Its Godlike animator keeps ordering Adam about on his miniature planet earth. in the second.) This issue deserves sustained discussion. A similar situation occurs in one of Phil Mulloy’s bleak animations. A simple example is the juxtaposition of a human(oid) creature and a recognizable animal sound. so that for a moment the viewer is invited to entertain the metaphor ADAM IS DOG. only their feet being visible.” meaning reddish clay. goes down on all fours. to convey his insanity. UK 1991). the barking narrows down the animality to that of a dog – thus potentially activating in the audience a whole range of connotations adhering to DOG – and hence contributes information not available in the image track. Figure 8. At one moment Adam. USA 1973) at one moment a group of creatures in a tent scurries over a plain. that the metaphor is used for different narrative purposes: in the first case. confused what behavior his creator expects of him. Note. In the animation film Robin Hood (Wolfgang Reitherman. Adam (Peter Lord. incidentally. biting the hand of his creator (still from Adam. Adam as dog. UK 1991) is a short claymation which playfully refers to the fact that the eponymous hero derives its name from Hebrew “Adamah. Example 10 (Robin Hood): TENT IS TRAIN. while redundant to cue the source domain “animal” (the fact that both Adam and Ezekiel go down on all fours provides sufficient visual cues for that).394 Charles Forceville ent metaphors? (See Bartsch 2002 and some responses to Bartsch in Forceville 2006. barks. Furthermore. Peter Lord. and snaps at his creator (figure 8). The pheBEING IS DOG. “Remember to Keep Holy the Sabbath Day” in the Ten Commandments series: Ezekiel Mittenbender kneels down and begins to bark. Example 9 (Adam and Remember to Keep Holy the Sabbath Day): HUMAN Animation films are rich in metaphors in which sound plays a role. . and transforms the porch into a TUNNEL. sonic. Such identity can. Eggertsson 2006. cues the literal target under discussion. I owe this example to Bensdorp and Vergeer (2004). be enhanced by many devices: a sound that is lip-synchronous with a character opening her mouth. takes precedence over the visual track in cueing the target rather than the source (the same holds. Without the sound. the case studies enable the formulation of observations and hypotheses that can be tested in further research. That is. The sound is seldom alone responsible for the identification of the source domain. Usually. The visual component. Discussion and conclusions While it impossible to make sweeping generalizations on the basis of the examples discussed above.. or a montage pattern that has the same rhythm as the accompanying sound or music. pertaining to sound in multimodal metaphor. correlations between non-verbal modes depend on well-timed simultaneity. In this respect Gibbs’ remark that “even a cursory examination of theories of linguistic interpretation reveals a . that is. both theoretical and empirical. for the CMG commercial discussed in Forceville 2003). more spectacularly. but the sound specifies the vehicle as a TRAIN. The Shell example suggests that the spoken language variety of the sound track. who discuss many more sound metaphors in animation films. in order to suggest a multimodal metaphor that does not draw on spoken or written language. we hear a train whistle. of course. The non-verbal and musical sounds that play a role in the metaphor tend to cue its source rather than its target domain.g. however. visible movements that correspond with sonic rhythms (due to its abundant use in mainstream animation this is called “Mickey mousing”). or musical information via deixis (e. but unspecified vehicle. the identity relationship between target and source must be triggered by making them visible/audible at the same moment. Whereas language has the means to correlate verbal information with visual. facilitates the identification of the source. “this man” or “the train”). in turn. Eggertsson and Forceville this volume). we might have opted for the metaphor TENT IS VEHICLE. but the rhythmic percussion steers us into understanding it as a train – an interpretation that is further supported when. 3. the pictorial and/or verbal information provides hints about the identity of the source domain (see also Forceville 1999b. upon the “tent’s” approach of a porch.The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor 395 nomenon reminds us of a fast-moving. whereas the sonic component metaphorically transforms this target. The sound. Only in example 5. This is particularly pertinent in films and commercial advertising. motorcycling. In the artistic metaphors. but as bride and groom. fitnessers also do well. one of which transforms into the Shell logo. It is noticeable. or allows that identification to be made with greater confidence than on the basis of the visual and/or verbal track alone: in the Iglo example. is diegetic (that is: it belongs to the events in the story world as presented at that moment) or quasi-diegetic. aids the speed with which a source domain is identified. a fitnesser. As a consequence. which do not. In example 2. although the slogan “already a legend” is supposed to bridge the distance between Easy Rider-motorbiking and Senseo-coffeemaking. even if it does not contribute mappable features. the Tuc cookie is not only.396 Charles Forceville tremendous diversity in the emphases on the different temporal points at which an utterance or text has supposedly been understood” (1994: 115–116) is no less pertinent for multimodal metaphors than for verbal ones. under normal viewing circumstances. and thus in some quasi-logic “literalized”: in example 1 the piano and its music are not only the source domain for a mobile phone: they also help produce the love song supposedly addressed to the phone. in my reading of it. In example 4 the rice showered over the wedding couple is part of the Iglo product promoted. in several examples the soundtrack provides information that steers identification of the source domain on a more specific level. In addition. the metaphor is less obtrusive. the metaphor is “naturalized” because there is a metonymic link between the source and the target domains.. In example 3. That is. metaphorically.e. the organ music that helps metaphorize. or part of it. in the earlier . that in four of the commercial examples. as we have seen. allow for the kind of backtracking that for instance written verbal metaphors permit. may not be particularly noticeable because the same organ song was used just before in a “literal” context. too. for instance. If the source domain. the underwater world of fish leads naturally to a shot of a number of shells. Time is an important factor here: it is likely that the sound in multimodal metaphors. for instance. it is the Wedding March that is the first cue that the viewer is not just to see the mini-corncob and the French bean as persons. to eat Tuc cookies because they are so light (i. the voice-over tells us. the final scene of the film. there is sometimes a degree of naturalization of the source domain. the source domains are metonymically linked to the target domain. and possibly less easily identifiable as such than when the source domain is plainly non-diegetic. A complete analysis of a multimodal metaphor involving sound – as indeed of any kind of metaphor – requires an assessment whether the source domain cued is diegetic or non-diegetic. there is not really a diegetic motivation for the source domain. In Lindsay Anderson’s fragment from If …. presumably “calories-poor”). political manifestos. I am indebted to Eduardo Urios-Aparisi for comments on an earlier draft of this new version. flash-backs) may reveal patterns specific for such genres or sequences. Notes 1. hallucinations. in which the elevator train had been diegetically audible in an earlier scene. see Forceville 1999b). The same holds true for the fragment from The Godfather. video clips. because they never have a verbal “is” to explicitize them. horror films. Systematic investigation of sonic metaphors in different genres (e. This chapter is a revised and expanded version of a paper that appeared earlier of Forceville (2004). for their use in wine-tasting notes). or sequences within films (dreams. one could venture that. and religious texts in the Bible and the Koran. metaphors with sonic source domains may exercise their persuasive or narrative influence more subtly than. As always. multimodal metaphors tend to be less explicit than purely verbal ones (for more discussion on implicitly versus explicitly signaled metaphors. for instance. In fact. metaphors whose terms are both presented in pictorial terms. the genre to which a representation belongs steers the possible or most plausible interpretations of any element in it. computer games). Not all examples presented here are metaphorical with a high degree of explicitness.The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor 397 scene it was diegetically motivated music. art films. the signals used to cue the source domain must be comprehensible by the envisaged audience for a metaphorical construal to be possible in the first place. commercials. including metaphor (see Charteris-Black 2004 for corpus analysis of metaphors in genres such as sports news. .g. which in the latter scene has become non-diegetic (but recalls its diegetic use). Finally. Experimental research on multimodal metaphors with a sound dimension in which sound tracks are suppressed or altered (see Chatzigrigoriou 2007) is imperative to gain more insight into the working of sonic metaphors. and Caballero. Caballero 2006 for an in-depth examination of metaphor use in architectural building reviews.. The effect. I propose is similar to the effect in the commercials: it reduces the sense of artificiality necessarily associated with the presentation of a source domain that has no realistic motivation whatsoever. this volume. Bordwell and Thompson point out that “sound can achieve very strong effects and yet remain quite unnoticeable” (1997: 315). Inasmuch as sound is less consciously registered than images. and Arjan Vergeer 2004 Geluid en de Populaire Animatiefilm: Een Cognitivistisch Onderzoek naar Betekenisvorming. Charles Forceville The melody of the song is that associated with J. which fortunately I had recorded when we were on location. In Aspects of metaphor.ac. Bartsch. Carroll. 49–74. In Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. René Dirven and Ralf Pörings (eds. David. New York: McGraw-Hill. Dordrecht: Kluwer. References Anderson. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. In Theorizing the moving image. Lindsay Anderson himself wrote about the melody that he “had originally asked Marc Wilkinson to write some music for the final onslaught. whose text I have not been able to locate. University of Amsterdam.is. 5th ed. Bensdorp. Thomas. where Mick alone on the roof tries to hold at bay the attacking forces of Establishment. Renate 2002 Generating polysemy: Metaphor and metonymy. the hymn’s melody was used for a college song. Berlin/ New York: Mouton de Gruyter. [Sound and the popular animation film: A cognitivist approach to meaning formation. Lindsay 1975 Using music. Jaakko Hintikka (ed. UK] http://www. this vol. 189–218. Noel 1994 Visual metaphor. but we found when we played with the sound tracks in the cutting room that a simple organ version of the College song. Caballero.. Apparently.).] MA diss. php (last accessed 8 July 2008).” but the words sung. so far as they can be deciphered. Bordwell.uk/libraries/collections/anderson/music. Library collection University of Stirling. Erik Hedling. 212– 223. then.). fitted the sequence much better” (Anderson 1975). . The Netherlands.stir.398 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. and Kirstin Thompson 1997 Film Art: An Introduction. do not fit that hymn’s text. Cutting across the senses: Imagery in winespeak and audiovisual promotion. I am indebted to Thomas Elsaesser. 1996 A note on film metaphor. and Andrew Webber for help in my hunt for clues on the song. Threlfall’s “Hosanna. Rosario 2006 Re-Viewing Space: Architects’ Assessment of Built Space. Department of Media Studies. [Typed draft. Loud Hosanna. MA diss. 2007 Trans-Diegetic Sound: In-Between Spaces in Post-Classical Cinema. and Elrud Ibsch 2000 Knowledge and Commitment: A Problem-Oriented Approach to Literary Studies. Amsterdam: Faculty of Arts. Department of Media Studies. In Words in their Places: A Festschrift for J. Klaus Sachs-Hombach (ed. 2004 The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor. Department of Media Studies. VU Amsterdam. Gunnar Theodór. 1999a Art or ad? the influence of genre-attribution on the interpretation of images. 2003 Bildliche und multimodale Metaphern in Werbespots [Tr. Chatzigrigoriou... 264–284. Lachlan Mackenzie. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Mike Hannay. 2006/this vol. Elizabeth this vol. 2002 The identification of target and source in pictorial metaphors. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: Agendas for research. In Bildwissenschaft: Zwischen Reflektion und Anwendung. Eleni 2006 Take-home exam pictorial and multimodal metaphor.). from English by Dagmar Schmauks] Zeitschrift für Semiotik 25: 39–60. and Paul Schrader’s The Comfort of Strangers. The Netherlands. Charles 1995 (A)symmetry in metaphor: The importance of extended context. University of Amsterdam. MA diss. Jonathan 2004 Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis. 1996 Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising. Henk. London: Palgrave-MacMillan. Cologne: Von Halem. Aertsen. Manuscript. Gunnar Theodór 2006 Animal Horror: An Investigation into Animal Rights. University of Amsterdam. SPIEL 18: 279–300. Department of Media Studies. Metaphor in political cartoons: Exploring audience responses. Journal of Pragmatics 34: 1–14. El Refaie. Eggertsson. and Charles Forceville this vol. and Rod Lyall (eds. 2005 Cognitive linguistics and multimodal metaphor. 1999b The metaphor COLIN IS A CHILD in Ian McEwan’s. Eggertsson. Poetics Today 16: 677–708. London/New York: Routledge. 65–78. Horror Cinema and the Double Standards of Violent Human Behaviour. Douwe. In Cognitive Linguistics: Current Ap- .). Fokkema. Metaphor and Symbol 14: 179–98. The HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor in extreme horror films. Forceville.The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor 399 Charteris-Black. Harold Pinter’s. Universiteit van Amsterdam. Thompson.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. MA diss. Department of Media Studies. McQuarrie and Barbara J.. Schilperoord. Yus. Gitte Kristiansen. GA: Rodopi. Bipin 1991 Modes of metaphor. In Go Figure! New Directions in Advertising Rhetoric. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 6: 1–27. Phillips (eds. 379–402.. René Dirven.ca/. Language. Amsterdam/Atlanta. Armonk. Siegfried J. Dick Schram. 1994 The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought. 2008 Pictorial and multimodal metaphor in commercials.). and Gerard Steen (eds. In Empirical Studies of Literature. Michel Achard. Kristin. Public Journal of Semiotics 1: 19–51. 272–310. Visual metaphor versus verbal metaphor: A unified account. Indurkhya.400 Charles Forceville plications and Future Perspectives. Edward F. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Victor. Paul 2004 The Metaphorical Use of Sound in Film. http://semiotics. Francisco this vol. University of Amsterdam. and Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez (eds. 1991 Literary systems as self-organizing systems. Schmidt. Elrud Ibsch. and Understanding. Raymond W. Jr. The Netherlands. and David Bordwell 1994 Film History: An Introduction.). NY: ME Sharpe. 2007 Multimodal metaphor in ten Dutch TV commercials. 413–424. Gibbs. Visual metaphoric conceptualization in editorial cartoons. . Joost and Alfons Maes this vol. New York: McGraw-Hill. VII Metaphor and Film . . Chapter 17 Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory from the 1920s to the 1950s Mats Rohdin Abstract This chapter presents the discussion of multimodal metaphor in classical film theory from the 1920s to the 1950s. Many famous film metaphor examples from the silent era are multimodal since they involve not only moving images but also written texts (intertitles, that is, shots inserted in the film providing explanatory text or dialogue). The breakthrough of sound film in the late 1920s enhanced the construction of multimodal metaphors since speech, music and sound effects were added to images and written texts. Throughout this paper questions of identification and interpretation of film metaphor are discussed, and it is claimed that formal criteria are not sufficient to adequately describe the rich variety of multimodal metaphors. Keywords: Conceptual metaphor, film metaphor, film theory, monomodal metaphor versus multimodal metaphor. 1. Introduction Arthur Danto (1992: 74) has suggested that a possible explanation why art criticism never developed a concept for pictorial metaphor in ancient Greece was that scholars were too much concerned with mimesis. Danto’s opinion is no less pertinent to film scholars during the first decades of the twentieth century, when the new medium was regarded as the culmination of the old mimetic tradition, almost as “reality representing itself” (Hake 1993: 277). The close connection between film and perceptual reality is probably one important reason why there is not any systematic account of metaphor in film theory until the late 1920s. Another reason is, of course, that many 404 Mats Rohdin writers regarded the concept of metaphor as exclusively a verbal matter (e.g., Arnheim 1933: 260–270; Stanford 1936: 95). In this chapter I will focus on multimodal metaphors in classical film theory from the 1920s to the 1950s. Multimodal metaphors are metaphors “whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” (Forceville 2006: 384/this volume). In fiction film these modes include five different signs: (1) pictorial signs, (2) written signs, (3) spoken signs, (4) non-verbal sounds, and (5) music. Classical film theory refers to “a theory of cinematic representation premised upon mechanical duplication (upon the existential relation between film and referent) and is therefore based upon an extensional semantic theory of meaning” (Buckland 2000: 26). Principally I will elaborate on some tenets from my Ph.D. “Vildsvinet i filmens trädgård. Metaforbegreppet inom filmteorin” [‘The wild boar in the garden of film. The concept of metaphor in film theory’] (Rohdin 2003), where I examine film theory texts that explicitly include the term “metaphor.” For this occasion my investigation concerns the question whether some of these metaphors would qualify as multimodal metaphors. Worth remembering is that many examples discussed are difficult to fully describe due to the lack of information from the writers as to what guides the identification (what are the two terms? which are target and source, respectively?) and interpretation (what is mapped from source domain to target domain?) of the metaphor. Consequently some examples of identification and interpretation may be more rightly attributed to my inferences and guesses than to the author in question. As Forceville stresses, such verbalization “is never neutral” (2006: 390). When dealing with the identification and interpretation of multimodal metaphors I attempt to delineate three questions, which according to Forceville (1996: 65–66, 2002: 2–3, 2005: 266), have to be answered: (1) Which are the two terms of the multimodal metaphor? (2) Which is the metaphor’s target domain and which is the metaphor’s source domain? (3) Which features are mapped from the source domain to the target domain? One reason why I have chosen to examine classical film theory is that the definitions and film examples presented by these theorists, especially in the 1920s and 1930s, have formed the canon to which film historians and theorists frequently return. These examples of metaphor have later been repeated extensively in film studies (e.g., in film theory and film history, as well as in film dictionaries), thus fulfilling a function similar to the classic examples in handbooks of rhetoric. Above all, these examples have illustrated for generations of university students the formal characteristics, which constitute criteria for defining film metaphor. Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 405 2. Classification of multimodal film metaphors up to the late 1950s In silent cinema during the 1920s experiments were done in different countries in order to find filmic equivalents of verbal metaphor. Soviet montage cinema, and especially Sergei Eisenstein, is particularly renowned in this respect. Eisenstein (1996: 222) even claimed that experiments dealing with montage tropes, including film metaphor, was Soviet montage cinema’s most important contribution to film history. As a matter of fact, many of the canonized examples of film metaphor from the silent film period are multimodal, since they involve not only moving images (visual signs) but also intertitles (shots inserted between liveaction shots, providing explanatory text or dialogue). The breakthrough of sound film in the late 1920s further enhanced the possibility of multimodal metaphors since three more modes were added to the standardized film product: speech, sound, and music. When it comes to the question of how to identify a verbal metaphor, early theories often assumed that metaphor was a thing or an object in the text, which could be identified thanks to some sort of deviation or anomaly at the surface level, for example, semantic anomaly or logical absurdity when taken literally. In film theory the equivalent has often been a disruption of or deviation from a mimetic form of representation (for example by a superimposition, that is when two or more images are “combined into one over the whole area of the frame by double printing or double exposure in the camera,” Salt [1992: 329]) or against narrative codes (for example by using a nondiegetic insert in a mainstream fiction film, that is a “shot or series of shots cut into a sequence, showing objects that are represented as being outside the world of the narrative” [Bordwell and Thompson 2007: 480]). However, modern verbal and non-verbal metaphor theories often claim that there does not have to be any deviation or incoherence at all on the surface level of the representation in order to identify a metaphor (Black 1993: 34; Cohen 1997: 223–225, 1999: 399; El Refaie 2003: 79–80). In the writings of classical film theory between the 1920s and 1950s, a preliminary classification of different formal characteristics which are said to cue the spectator in identifying the film metaphor would, according to my analysis, look like this: - Superimposition (e.g., Arnheim 1933; Carroll 1996a) - Verbal image (e.g., Balázs 1930, 1952; Ejxenbaum 1981; Eisenstein 1987a, 1987b, 1996) - Montage (primarily the nondiegetic insert) (e.g., Arnheim 1997; Balázs 1930, 1952; Bazin 1967; Eisenstein 1974, 1996) 406 - Mats Rohdin Cinematography (e.g., Balázs 1930; Bazin 1981; Eisenstein 1991, 1996; Tynjanov 1981) No formal characteristics on surface level (e.g., Balázs 1952; Bazin 1971, 1973) 2.1 Superimposition In general, the superimposition is part of a dissolve, which is “a transition between two shots during which the first image gradually disappears while the second image gradually appears; for a moment the two images blend in superimposition” (Bordwell and Thompson 2007: 478, emphasis in original). This type of metaphor is often considered an anomaly in popular fiction film because two elements belonging to different categories are presented as a homospatially unified figure. In the early years of silent cinema, superimpositions were done in the film camera, which required a lot of skill from the photographer. A famous example of this is when Sergei Eisenstein in Strike (Stachka, 1925) blends an image of a police spy with that of a fox, thereby proposing the spectator to map aspects from the source domain, FOX, to the target domain, POLICE SPY, for example cunning and shrewdness. Thus the superimposition suggests the conventional metaphor MAN IS AN ANIMAL (figure 1). When the optical printer was invented in the late 1920s superimpositions could be produced in laboratories during postproduction, which was less complicated. However, at that time this type of film metaphor almost disappeared from popular fiction film. Another example of superimposition, discussed in Carroll (1996a), appears in Fritz Lang’s futuristic film Metropolis (1927), when the young protagonist visits the gigantic underground power plant. In a horrific vision, produced by a dissolve (thus including superimposition), he sees a machine transforming into a man-devouring monster. An intertitle explains that the monster is “Moloch” (figures 2–4). Thus the metaphor could be expressed as MACHINE IS MOLOCH: the machine is the target (pictorial signs) and Moloch is the source (pictorial and written signs). In the source the machine has been transformed in a number of ways, for example, the stairs have now become Moloch’s tongue and the former opening at the top of the machine is now the monster’s mouth. The intertitle was probably considered necessary for the spectator in order for him or her to identify Moloch, the ancient deity from the Old Testament (Lev 20: 2–5; Jer 32: 35). There would of course still be a metaphoric relationship without the intertitle, namely, MACHINE IS MONSTER, but the source would in this case be confined to man-devouring mon- Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 407 sters in general, thereby losing specific connotations that are attached to the Moloch figure. Thus the pictorial signs and the intertitle, I would suggest, qualify the metaphor as multimodal. Mappable features from the source domain are, for example, how innocent people in ancient times were sacrificed into the fire-burning opening of Moloch, which can be compared to how workers in the film slave to death at the machines, and so on. Moloch is literally “eating” people, while modern industrial machines are metaphorically “eating” human beings, and thereby killing them. Figure 1. Superimposition in Sergei Eisenstein’s Strike. Figure 2. In Fritz Lang’s Metropolis ... Figure 3. … the intertitle helps the Figure 4. … the man-devouring deity from the Old Testament. spectator to identify the transformation of the machine to Moloch … This metaphor could be read as reflecting the basic or conventional metaphor DEATH IS A DEVOURER (Lakoff and Turner 1989: 77), but the specific context triggers mappings not available from the devourer scheme as such, 408 Mats Rohdin for example, extra-textual mappings dealing with metafilmic connotations from the intertitle of the source domain. That is to say, the graphics of the intertitle, oblique and vertical lines, resemble those used in another famous German Expressionist film, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (Das Cabinet des Dr. Caligari, Robert Wiene, 1920). This sort of genre mixing (science fiction, horror) facilitates new mappings from the source domain MOLOCH to the target domain MACHINE, for example, connotations like madness, tyranny, disorder, death, evil supernatural forces out of man’s control, and so on. A good example of how metaphors can generate new interpretations is the way in which Janet Ward (2001: 164–165) connects Moloch in Lang’s film to the institution of cinema during the Weimar period in German history: “[T]he mouth of the devouring Moloch-machine into which workers are led parallels the electrically lit entrances of the movie palace, into which the new white-collar employees would stream, blissfully unaware, in their leisure time” (164). Thus I will claim that we have a new metaphor: (THE INSTITUTION OF) CINEMA IS MOLOCH. This means that from the same source (MOLOCH) an implicit target domain (CINEMA) has been constructed, which is not part of the film. Although Ward does not stretch her interpretation any further, it is easy to map more features from the source domain MOLOCH to the new target domain CINEMA. For instance, the fact that it was mostly children who were sacrificed in the ancient Moloch rituals could be paralleled to the censorship debate in Germany during the early decades of 1900, which often centred on film’s allegedly detrimental influence not only on the working class but also on children (for early German film, see Hake 1993). Although Ward’s example is taken from a recently published book, and thereby does not belong to the period under study, it is illuminating since it shows how metaphors can build on earlier interpretations, underpin, challenge, revise, or revitalize them, etcetera, thereby changing meaning in the course of time. 2.2 Verbal image A verbal image is a filmic expression building on a verbal expression (metaphor, cliché, pun, or proverb), which it visualizes literally (e.g., Carroll 1996b). Soviet montage cinema during the 1920s is famous for this sort of experiment (e.g. Ejxenbaum 1981; Eisenstein 1974, 1987a, 1987b, 1991, 1996; Tynjanov 1981). Often these verbal clichés and metaphors were appropriated from other media and art forms, for example, poster art and pup- Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 409 pet theatre, which were very popular at that time because of illiteracy amongst the majority of the people. Sergei Eisenstein often used these sorts of clichés when portraying capitalists, kulaks, priests, policemen, etcetera. Thus the film viewer could use experiences from other media and art forms, which shared codes and conventions with film. As a result, the spectator’s processing of the film narrative was facilitated considerably, which was important due to the typically fast editing of Soviet cinema at that time. Sergei Eisenstein’s film debut Strike includes many scenes built upon the visual expression of verbal metaphors and clichés. The famous slaughterhouse sequence at the end of the film, for example, is preceded by a scene in which the police chief gets furious and knocks a bottle of ink over a map showing the streets of the striking workers’ district, thus literalizing the metaphor “the streets running with blood” (Bordwell 1993: 58–59) (figure 5). The verbal expression is target, while the ink on the map is source. The map metonymically stands for the streets, while the spilled ink metaphorically stands for the workers’ blood, which gives the metaphor STREETS RUNNING WITH BLOOD ARE MAP SPILLED WITH INK. Figure 5. When the police chief in Sergei Eisenstein’s Strike rages and knocks a bottle of ink over a map, the verbal image “streets running with blood” is visualized. A mappable feature from the source domain is the manner in which the spilled ink overflows the streets of the map, which correlates with how the next scene shows the massacre of the workers, as “the streets running with blood.” In order to understand the metaphor the interpreter has to construct the implicit target domain, STREETS RUNNING WITH BLOOD, which requires awareness of the metaphoric expression, either in spoken or written form. 410 Mats Rohdin Thus the source is presented before the implicit target, but the target is then visualized in the following scene, a common method used by Eisenstein when dealing with verbal images. The Russian formalists, who also worked as film critics and scenario writers, were fond of using verbal images, which may not be surprising considering their literary background. Boris Ejxenbaum (1981: 79), for example, claimed that verbal images, or “internal speech” as he called it, were the only way to express metaphors in film. One advantage of visualizing verbal images, according to some critics, was that they revitalized conventional and worn out metaphors and clichés (Balázs 1952: 111–112, 127), a method used in different media of today as well, for example in political cartoons (e.g., El Refaie 2003: 89). A change in the medium will also, of course, in one way or another, affect the content, which is always important to remember. Nevertheless, many critics and filmmakers (e.g., Clair 1972: 48) condemned this way of metaphorical filmmaking as too “literary,” a common accusation at a time when proponents of film claimed the medium to be an independent art form. Quite soon, indeed, filmmakers realized that metaphors in the form of verbal images would forever subordinate film to language. The result of this would be that novel metaphors could not be created in film since they had to exist verbally in order for the spectator to be able to identify them at all. For this reason, filmmakers began to seek other ways to express metaphors. 2.3 Montage (primarily the nondiegetic insert) Filmmakers in the early years soon realized how important montage was to achieve filmic signification. Some critics suggested that the film metaphor could be created within the story world (diegesis) by juxtaposing different objects or things by montage. For example, Balázs (1952) paid attention to this type of “metaphorical montage,” as he called it, which during silent cinema often was visual and monomodal, since the two domains belonged to the diegetic world. He exemplifies this subtype using a sequence from Eisenstein’s Battleship Potemkin (Bronenosets Potemkin, 1925), where close ups of the faces of the sailors are crosscut with the ship’s engines: “Such repeated juxtaposition compels comparison. A visual parallel inevitably conjures up a parallel in the mind. The angry, resolute faces of the sailors transfer their own expression to the wheels and cranks. Yes, they are fighting side by side in a common struggle” (Balázs 1952: 126). This suggests the conventional metaphor MACHINES ARE PEOPLE (Lakoff and Turner 1989: 132) Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 411 that attributes human properties to machines. Thus Balázs wanted to stress how even the mechanic world revolts against injustice by joining the revolutionaries. Other critics did not accept montage images such as these as metaphors, since they did not disrupt the mimetic model of the film representation. Instead they claimed that these expressions ought to be named “similes,” since the cut juxtaposed the two objects or things as the words “is like” do in verbal similes (e.g., Balázs 1930: 51–53). However, when the montage juxtaposition included a nondiegetic insert it was often labeled a film metaphor. In Rohdin (2003) I claimed that it is the nondiegetic insert that is usually referred to when questions concerning film metaphor are discussed. The fact that the nondiegetic insert does not belong to the story world is the anomaly or conflict that cues the spectator to carry out a metaphorical interpretation. References are often made to Sergei Eisenstein’s films in the 1920s, for example, Strike (1925), October (Oktyabr, 1928) and Old and New (Staroe e novoe, 1929). The ending of Eisenstein’s Strike includes a well-known example of a nondiegetic insert when images of the military’s massacre of defenceless workers are intercut with scenes from the slaughter of an ox: WORKERS ARE SLAUGHTERED OXEN. Another often-quoted nondiegetic insert appears in Eisenstein’s October (1928), where shots of the politician Kerensky outside the Tsarina’s bedroom in the Winter Palace are intercut with images of a mechanical peacock: KERENSKY IS A PEACOCK. Both these examples include intertitles and elaborate montage but could be referred to as monomodal since in both examples target and source, as well as their metaphorical coupling, can be identified visually. The breakthrough of sound film in the late 1920s stirred an array of debates. In Soviet film, for example, proponents of the montage cinema were worried that sound film would be detrimental to their own film style, built upon fast editing. In a manifesto Sergei Eisenstein, Vsevolod Pudovkin, and Grigori Alexandrov (1988) claimed that sound film could be justified only if sound was used contrapuntally: “The first experiments in sound must aim at a sharp discord with the visual images” (Eisenstein et al. 1988: 114, emphasis in original). An innovative use of sound in line with the Soviet directors’ beliefs, including a nondiegetic insert, appears in the comedy/musical The Million (Le Million, 1931) by the French director René Clair. When a couple of men in a theatre are fighting about a coat containing a valuable lottery ticket, it looks as though they are playing rugby. On the sound track a nondiegetic sound from a sport arena is heard, that is, noise from the rugby play as well as from the spectators (figures 6–7). Clair explained the metaphor as the men the German gestalt psychologist and film theorist. Perhaps it would be possible to argue that this is a monomodal metaphor because the metaphor is possible to understand without the nondiegetic sound. disturb the film’s representation of reality and thus. must be condemned. Nondiegetic inserts. by definition. …a nondiegetic sound from a sport arena is inserted to give the impression that they are playing rugby. a writer would say” (cited in Arnheim 1933: 264–265). Forceville (this volume) has observed that non-verbal and musical sound which influence the multimodal metaphor tend to cue its source rather than its target domain.412 Mats Rohdin “throwing the coat ‘like’ a football. Figure 6. The nondiegetic sound in Clair’s film helps the spectator to trigger the source faster. by contrast. and so on. This. but a fake” (Arnheim 1997: 41). which may be important in film and its temporal development under normal viewing circumstances. Clair (cited in Arnheim 1933) characterized the experiment as a “soundfilmic metaphor” equivalent to a metaphor in literature (265). Rudolf Arnheim. When a couple of men in René Clair’s The Million are chasing a coat inside a theatre… Figure 7. criticized the scene. Arnheim’s reaction is a good example of his and other contemporary theorists’ view that the fiction film must obey a mimetic form of representation. superimpositions. Although the source domain “men playing rugby” is cued by both visual and aural elements. qualifies as a multimodal metaphor: MEN CHASING COAT ARE MEN PLAYING RUGBY. which he found unacceptable to the spirit of the film medium: “The result? Not a metaphor. I believe that many viewers would miss this metaphor if the obtrusive nondiegetic sound were missing. Furthermore Forceville claims that a multimodal . which is also true of the example in The Million. I would argue. the metaphor can . Surprisingly. Hollywood also experimented with film metaphors of the nondiegetic type a couple of times. This is also confirmed in the example from The Million. However. Arnheim. this example from Fritz Lang’s Fury could indeed be considered a multimodal metaphor. finally. visuals. The use of these various modes speed up recognition. praises the scene as skilful: “[T]he things that do not go together are fit together so cleverly that the viewer cannot help combining them psychologically” (1997: 41). at least instantaneously during film viewing. For example. because it raises important questions concerning the criterion governing the distinction between monomodal and multimodal metaphor. consequently. which is followed by a dissolve to people in a hurry coming up from the subway in the rush hour going to work (figures 8-10). At the same time we hear the mimicking music in the background. and. the nondiegetic sound of cackling fowl can be heard on the soundtrack a moment before the nondiegetic insert appears (showing the fowl). Charlie Chaplin’s Modern Times (1936) is also interesting. since the visuals seem to suffice to cue both target (the gossiping women) and source (the cackling fowl). which further emphasizes the connection between the women’s chatter and the noise of the fowl.Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 413 metaphor including sound tends to be more unobtrusive and “naturalized” when part of the source domain is diegetic. At the beginning of the film Chaplin uses a nondiegetic insert showing penned sheep. while the volume of the mimicking music increases. Later. Thus the two domains of the metaphor are SHEEP (source) and WORKERS (target). but worth taking into consideration is also that without the aural cues it would presumably be unclear or less clear. It could be considered a monomodal metaphor of the visual variety. since the source is signaled both aurally and visually. Fritz Lang dissolves from a shot of gossiping women to a nondiegetic insert showing cackling fowl: GOSSIPING WOMEN ARE CACKLING FOWL. In Fury (1936). when another group of women is gossiping. by including other modes in addition to the visuals. noise. who is so negative about the nondiegetic sound insert. nondiegetic music is heard simultaneously on the soundtrack. it is important to note that the transition to the nondiegetic insert has been prepared for in a number of ways in the film. speech. the sound of cackling fowl. In sum. as it will turn out later. when the gossips start among the women in the village. After a short while the women’s voices fade out and become inaudible. To sum up. and two films made by former European directors are famous in this regard. music. what is supposed to be the mappable feature. four different modes are working together to create this metaphor. which mimics not only the voices of the women but also. Since the identification of both target and source can be made on the basis of the visual images alone. that cannot fit into the system among loyal industry workers and other law-abiding citizens in the film. The intertitles “‘Modern Times. I propose. may also draw on the subtitles that precede the nondiegetic insert and the accompanying intense and aggressive music. Both workers and sheep can be seen as victims of modern large-scale industry and its inhuman assembly line production. dressed in black. this metaphor would be monomodal. of individual enterprise – .414 Mats Rohdin be expressed as WORKERS ARE SHEEP. a nondiegetic insert of penned sheep … Figure 9 … dissolves into a shot showing workers … Figure 10 … hurrying in the early morning rush. Figure 8 Charlie Chaplin’s Modern Times.’ A story of industry.” and finds its counterpart in the little tramp (Chaplin). The mapping may be a comparison between the workers who are forced to take employment in industry in order to survive in the same way as the sheep are forced into the pen. But the metaphor. The “black sheep” among the white flock is a visualization of the proverb “to be a black sheep. Among other things. according to these theories. Devices commonly used include different sorts of camera angles. But in the middle of the 1930s things change. To summarize. a number of remarkable metaphors that represent a fierce critique of modern industrial society and its inhuman treatment of workers. heading for the slaughterhouse. which reflects the general view among contemporary film critics and theorists. that is. For example. Symphony of a Great City (Berlin. 1927).4 Cinematography When filmmakers realized that nondiegetic inserts and superimpositions did not match with the norms of popular fiction film. and so on. and where there is a war there are victims. Balázs (1952: 111–114). paid much attention to this type of metaphor in his writings. in the 1920s and early 1930s the film metaphor is considered as one of the most interesting novelties of the fiction film. which makes it almost impossible to integrate metaphor into the narrative since metaphor. in films such as Metropolis. according to me. The main problem. he points out how the camera . camera lenses creating perspective distortions. is the insistence on a mimetic model of film representation. Berlin. they tried other solutions to create some deviation or anomaly on the surface level. and Roman Jakobson writes that “there is an increasing aversion to filmic metaphor” (1987: 464). is characterized by an explicit anomaly or deviation disrupting the spatio-temporal and narrative continuity of traditional fiction film. for example. and Modern Times. Metaphors built on superimpositions or nondiegetic inserts supposedly ruin the impression of a closed diegetic reality in the fiction film. The sequence may also be read as an intertextual homage to Walter Ruttman’s Berlin. the religious connotations in the word “crusading” imply a war. die Symphonie der Groβstadt. distance of framing. 2. Both the written text and the music may play important roles when deciding on mappable features to be transferred from source domain to target domain. and the controversial sequence where workers in the rush hour on their way to work are crosscut with a herd of cows being pushed through the city streets in the morning. “all the manipulations of the film strip by the camera in the shooting phase and by the laboratory in the developing phase” (Bordwell and Thompson 2007: 477). A common way of producing these deviations was aided by cinematography. Thus we have within a period of a few years.Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 415 humanity crusading in the pursuit of happiness” are superimposed on a clock whose second hand is moving relentlessly. In the shot in question a man is barely visible behind a gigantic book. concise. without depriving them of their own. and not very informative: “A pictorial metaphor whose meaning is obvious” (Balázs 1930: 36. which dwarfs the clerks in the background (figure 12). etcetera. because the rules state that the farmers can only be given the loan after they have completed the harvest. “to hide behind bureaucracy. The source domain’s image of the rulers of that time. This ought to be labeled multimodal. symbolical significance. features which are mapped to the target domain “Mother Russia. MR). perhaps a literal visualization of the verbal image. Eisenstein wanted to disparage the system of bureaucracy. the ability to take advantage of the film image’s capacity to embrace two different meanings at the same time. 1927) shows the rulers of Russia with their heads cut off by the frame (figure 11). This type of metaphor could be based upon unusual camera angle and framing. as the detail of an ordinary film scene. real. thus probably some sort of visualization of a verbal image: MOTHER RUSSIA IS HEADLESS PEOPLE. But the local authorities deny them this. people sitting on chairs with their heads cropped by the frame. law book) in gigantic close-ups made with a wide-angle lens. indicates their headless politics when Russia entered Word War I. which describe how “Mother Russia calls” the people to enter World War I with enthusiasm. Petersburg (Konets Sankt-Peterburga. a second. Balázs’ commentary is. pencil sharpener. but how it also can express metaphoric meanings: “In such metaphoric sequences the objects photographed are real … the set-up merely gives them a deeper meaning. normal meaning. as usual. and he did this in different shots by showing objects (writing machine. marching soldiers. with their heads cut off by the frame.416 Mats Rohdin set-up makes the film image look “real” in the diegetic story world. However. as when Vsevolod Pudovkin in The End of St. The intra-textual context is recounted with various shots and intertitles: the farmers are applying for a loan to buy a tractor in order to be able to bring in the harvest.” Another example of this type of metaphor cued by cinematography comes from Eisenstein’s Old and New (1929). According to Balázs such metaphors show the skillfulness of the artist. the intra-textual context includes a lot of intertitles. were the director uses a close-up with wide-angle lens and low camera angle to criticize the Soviet bureaucracy. even to those who failed to grasp this second meaning” (1952: 113). my translation. Probably “Mother Russia” (the rulers) is target and the image of the rulers with their heads excluded is source. since the intertitles are important to aid the spectators to process the rapidly changing images showing cheering people.” Thus the . The shot would be comprehensible. camera framing) cues the spectator to identify a metaphor in Vsevolod Pudovkin’s The End of St. Pudovkin’s and Eisenstein’s examples show the importance of distance of framing. In “Dickens. for example. But we talk of the qualitative side of the phenomenon that is linked to its significance … For an American. Figure 12. Figure 11. with the evaluation of what is seen” (Eisenstein 1996: 226. This example shows that a medium and its tech- . i. For us..e. for example. just as the clerk hides behind the book so we can barely see him. Cinematography (e. according to Eisenstein.. behind rules and regulations so that we get the impression that there are no humans any longer making decisions. the long shot or medium shot. is that a metaphorical interpretation is facilitated..” he speculates on the reasons which made the Russians realize the importance of the close-up: “In Russian we talk about an object or a person being shot ‘on a large scale’ [krupnym planom]. the term is associated with vision.g. emphasis in original). Thus Eisenstein seems to imply that there are verbal reasons which made the Russians connect the close-up with an “evaluation of what is seen” instead of linking it to “the physical condition of seeing. According to Eisenstein. The result in the former case. Griffith and ourselves. Americans talk about the physical conditions of seeing.” as we do in the West. in the same way authorities hide behind bureaucracy. the close-up makes an image more abstract than. especially in the close-up. and so on. Petersburg. large. From the source domain CLERK BEHIND BOOK mappings are made to the target domain AUTHORITIES HIDING BEHIND BUREAUCRACY.g. close-up and camera angle) indicates a metaphor. An American says: closely (the literal meaning of the term ‘close-up’). An example from Sergei Eisenstein’s Old and New where cinematography (e.Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 417 metaphor can be expressed as follows: AUTHORITIES HIDING BEHIND BUREAUCRACY IS CLERK BEHIND BOOK. 5 No formal characteristics on surface level This type of film metaphor challenges the old demand for a deviation on the surface level since there are no formal characteristics that cue the spectator to perform a metaphoric interpretation. purgatory. tired crook. The story is about an old. Nevertheless. The last thing he sees before he dies is a group of women and children passing by on the road. Thus the source domain is absent. They find out his plans. but is cued by the similarity between the women’s bundles of sticks on their backs and angels’ wings. A good example of his metaphoric interpretations occurs in an article when he writes about a scene at the end of Federico Fellini’s The Swindle (Il bidone. 150–151). who suddenly decides to become a better man and start anew. But it is also possible that Bazin’s religious interpretation rests upon his knowledge of the works of Dante. carrying bundles of sticks on their backs. however. Dante is guided into paradise by Beatrice in the same way as . for example Vita Nuova and La Divina Commedia. which is a healthy reminder of the extent to which metaphors are governed by culturally embedded rather than universal knowledge. and DIVINE IS UP (Lakoff and Turner 1989: 9– 11. as is the case in Fellini’s film. which begins with the following words: “In the middle of life’s road / I found myself in a dark wood. The two domains are the PEASANT WOMEN (target) and ANGELS (source) respectively: WOMEN ARE ANGELS. After the last swindle. Bazin did speak favorably about cinema and its “plastic reproduction of reality” as “an art of potential metaphor” (1981: 151). he tries to cheat his accomplices out of a large sum of money. which has a correspondence in the film’s journey from the hectic city nightlife to the top of the mountain near heaven. The former deals with a man’s wish to start anew. Among film scholars he is frequently regarded as one of the most important proponents of a realistic film style in film history. and so does the latter. 2. and leave him to die on a mountain slope.418 Mats Rohdin nology. and paradise). 1955). beat him unconscious. due to cultural circumstances like language.” La Divina Commedia has a geographical composition (hell. The following example is taken from the writings of the French film critic André Bazin in the 1950s. This can be compared to well-known conceptual metaphors like LIFE IS A JOURNEY. DEATH IS DEPARTURE.” which he sees as a typical element of Fellini’s preoccupation with the angel metaphor (1971: 89) (figures 13–14). may be understood in different ways in different parts of the world. Bazin interprets this as “angels pass. I would categorize this scene from The Swindle as a multimodal metaphor since speech and non-verbal sounds play such an important role in identifying the absent source domain. In the Bible.Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 419 the group of women lead the crook to heaven after his last words: “Wait. But what is most important in this religious interpretation is the sound of the wind. What Balázs and Bazin have in common is that they connect the identification of the metaphor with the style of the film. angels are regarded as messengers between humans and God.g.. especially after death when every human is guided to heaven by angels (Nationalencyklopedin [The National Encyclopedia] 1996: 408–409). when he dies. sound film. The crook is ready to meet the Lord. angels. thus connoting his death. film . … showing no formal characteristics on the surface level cueing a metaphoric interpretation.” In early Christian belief. for example. for example in Genesis (8:1). God sometimes appears in disguise as the wind. non-verbal sounds of dry leaves scattering in the wind are heard. thematic elements. with a metaphor … Figure 14. stylistic expressions. which makes the history of film an ongoing story of technological changes in the form of improvements and innovations (e. I’m coming. and so on. It is interesting to note that this type of film metaphor is reconcilable with the norms of “invisible storytelling” of classical Hollywood cinema. Moreover. Fellini’s earlier films. Figure 13. Federico Fellini’s The Swindle ends. To summarize. Instead his interpretation is based on different contextualizations which underpin the metaphoric interpretation. Bazin’s metaphor example does not show any explicit deviation on the surface level from a realistic motivation. which activates ideas of God. according to Bazin. Style has always been important in film due to the medium’s technological base. graphic correspondences. Learning to recognize a style is like learning to recognize a person’s touch or his character” (1981: 207. Summary and concluding remarks One of the most interesting findings in this chapter. Bazin’s opinion about style is subtle. And learning to recognize a style is not a simple taxonomic exercise. stereo sound. which gives each period and each film a particular appearance. I propose. When early film theorists wrote about metaphors they often presented them out of context. in order to prove that film could be accepted as an independent art. that is. thereby ignoring the intertitles. which often were of vital importance for identification and/or interpretation of the metaphor. the “repeated and salient uses of film techniques characteristic of a single film or a group of films” (Bordwell and Thompson 2007: 481). of course. zoom lens. 3. cinemascope.420 Mats Rohdin stock.. intertitles had to be downplayed. moving camera. Consequently. Lindsay 1916: 177). which made the written text auxiliary by definition. But many of the metaphors taken from the silent era listed above are to a high degree dependant on intertitles when spectators identify and/or interpret these metaphors.g. many of these examples qualify as multimodal metaphors (of the verbo-pictorial variety). color film. for example. . and unfamiliar camera set-ups were invading the screen. metaphor experiments in Soviet montage cinema were dependent upon intertitles. both target and source were visuals. that is. nondiegetic inserts. is the important role of intertitles in the canonic examples of film metaphors in the silent cinema. This may be surprising considering that the film medium during this period often was characterized as “moving images” or “visual Esperanto” (e. The reason for this is. MR). and can be compared to Arthur Danto’s view on style attribution in The Transfiguration of the Commonplace: A Philosophy of Art: “The structure of a style is like the structure of a personality. that the predominance of the visual mode in film was taken for granted. At the same time it should not come as any surprise that. since the spectator needed help to understand the logic of the story when suddenly superimpositions. etcetera). Evidently. Bazin’s way of using the concept of style is restricted and pertains mainly to formal characteristics. many film scholars seem to have proceeded from the conviction that film metaphors of silent cinema had to be monomodal. emphasis mine. A possible explanation why early film theorists put so much emphasis on the visual mode is that. An exception is the example from Metropolis. In fact. sound. for example. Fury. which blind them to the rich variety of manifestations of metaphor where target and source are decided on different . film studies at universities. the women. where the notion of God in the barren mountain landscape is conveyed by the sound of the wind. Symptomatically. This is also in line with the view of metaphor/figurative processing as a reader strategy in contexts which stress novelty and originality. CINEMA IS MOLOCH. which of course was important considering the irreversibility of the spectacle (the spectator can not stop the film during projection in the theatre to think over or re-examine obscure passages). for example in The Swindle. is Fellini’s WOMEN ARE ANGELS. My opinion is that this is quite uncommon in classical film theory texts. elements such as speech. An alternative interpretation could be that the metaphor should be reversed. The only metaphor example discussed in this chapter that draws on an absent source. this is an interpretation from our time. for example. much current metaphor interpretation deals with how to find a target to match a source in order to create a metaphor (Johnson and Malgady 1980: 266). when reader-response theories have influenced criticism and interpretations in.” This would correspond to the view that the source in linguistic metaphors “is always supplied by the description (the text)” (Indurkhya 1992: 18–19). where the target is supplied by extra-textual information. In most of them. as though the visuals alone are sufficient to make up the metaphor in question. Another pertinent question in this chapter is how target and source have been presented in these examples. and The Swindle show that speech. Sound could also produce meanings that were difficult to represent visually. which is rare. both Indurkhya and Whittock put forth principles that are more prescriptive than descriptive. in the Fellini film. and music played an important role in both the identification and interpretation of multimodal metaphors. Often different modes interacted in order to make it easier for the spectator to quickly identify and interpret the metaphor. “angels are women. but much more accepted today. where the angels are implied by extra-textual interpretation. Another suggestion for how to decide on target and source is to choose as target the domain with the strongest denotation or which belongs to the story (Whittock 1990: 31–32). sound. However. Modern Times. that is. see also Steen 1994). in academic writing (Gibbs 1994: 448–449. and music are often neglected in early film theory when metaphors are discussed.Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 421 With the breakthrough of sound film in the late 1920s it was possible to include new modes in metaphorical compositions. that is. Nevertheless. both target and source are visually present. Sound films like The Million. in The End of St. for example. workers and sheep (Modern Times). but was motivated by my decision to adhere to the vocabulary of Cognitive Metaphor Theory. THE RULERS and THE CIVIL SERVANTS respectively. see Forceville 2005: 279). and not the angels.. Therefore. spy and fox (Strike). Notable in these examples from classical film theory is that a majority of the film examples are of the metaphor type CONCRETE A IS CONCRETE B. etcetera (for questions concerning what features are to be mapped. Petersburg). Also worth considering is that the fables of . Various contexts make interpreters choose different ways of determining target and source. For example. Petersburg and Old and New I proposed two abstract targets. socio-cultural knowledge. Are we to look for embodied or for cultural explanations? Many of these examples come from the Soviet Union in the 1920s. According to Kövecses the source domain of animals is “extremely productive” (2002: 17). politician Kerensky and peacock (October). political cartoons. This chapter also shows the rich variety of different features that are mappable from the source domain to the target domain. instead of two more concrete targets that also would have been possible. for example. genre expectations. Another interesting finding is that many film metaphors in classical film theory could be summed up in the conceptual metaphor MAN IS ANIMAL. it is important to notice that the interpreter of a non-verbal multimodal metaphor may influence the categorizing when suggesting a verbal rendering of the metaphor. and MOVEMENT and DIRECTION (The Swindle). GAMES and SPORT (The Million). in the Fellini film my suggestion is that it is the women who are the target. for example. This makes the type different from conventional verbal metaphors. where politicized art and ideology went hand in hand. when extra-textual knowledge is involved). are ABSTRACT A IS CONCRETE B. THE HUMAN BODY (The End of St. since we use the angels to predicate something about the women. MOTHER RUSSIA and AUTHORITIES. the mappings may build on connotations and contextual factors of all sorts. MACHINES and TOOLS (Metropolis). according to Lakoff and Johnson. which. The reason for this did not rest upon any objective fact. other films. caricatures. Forceville 2006: 387). Since these examples deal with “creative” metaphors. workers and oxen (Strike). for example. that is.422 Mats Rohdin grounds (for example. CONCRETE A IS CONCRETE B (e. However. But also other common source domains theorized in Cognitive Metaphor Theory (Kövecses 2002: 16–20) are found in the film metaphors discussed in this chapter. women and fowl (Fury). influenced by poster art.g. and so on. without giving priority to a certain mode of procedure determined in advance in the way Indurkhya and Whittock do. As scholars have pointed out novel metaphors in art often belong to the former type. it is that the classical and standard definitions of ‘metaphor’ are unreliable. 2002: 2–3. with Lakoff and Johnson’s well known definition of metaphor: “The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another” (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 5. Entzenberg 1998: xviii–xxvii). superimpositions. In contemporary metaphor theory. In the introduction of this chapter I posed three different questions. it is not a necessary condition. would yield interesting results. “is not a simple taxonomic exercise. emphasis mine. Therefore I think that corpus-based studies of metaphors in different genres. it has also shown that the question of how to identify the metaphor.. This is in accordance. Kittay 1989: 103. to quote Danto about style. I argue. and the metaphors of language derive therefrom” (1965: 94. Therefore. Worth remembering when dealing with questions like these is Forceville’s critique of Noël Carroll’s restricted metaphor classification: “Categorizing and name-giving should follow analysis of phenomena. and nondiegetic inserts). It is important to remember that with film we have a new me- . I think. and proceeds by comparison. and among individual directors. But it is interesting to note that the term “metaphor” already had been used for several decades in film theory since the 1910s (for example.g. In Rohdin (2003) I have demonstrated that the same holds true for any filmic material.Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory 423 writers like Aesop and La Fontaine have always been popular in authoritarian societies like Russia and later the Soviet Union. must suppose that we are dealing with formally undefined phenomena” (Cohen 1999: 399. which. A. II. references often start with I. Lindsay 1916: 172. writers seem to agree that any linguistic material can be used to make up a metaphor (e. and so every sensible person. However. 68). especially in the early examples. and not the other way round” (2002: 9). I agree with the philosopher Ted Cohen when he asserts: “If we have learned anything since the explosion of interest in metaphor that began about twenty-five years ago. movements. Epstein 1974 vol. emphasis in original). this should not prevent us from examining which filmic expressions have been used in metaphorical interpretations throughout film history. when the history of non-verbal metaphors is outlined.” Although some sort of deviation or surface anomaly frequently holds. have to be answered: (1) Which are the two terms of the multimodal metaphor? (2) Which is the metaphor’s target domain and which is the metaphor’s source domain? (3) Which features are mapped from the source domain to the target domain? Although my classification in this chapter mostly deals with formal characteristics (for example. Richards’ The Philosophy of Rhetoric: “Thought is metaphoric. according to Forceville (1996: 65–66. Finally. national cinemas. emphasis in original). 2005: 266). MR). ). and how it has changed over time. Simon (transl.). Edith Bone (transl. Madison/London: The University of Wisconsin Press. M. In Film Essays and Criticism [1977]. and transl.). 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Janet 2001 Weimar Surfaces: Urban Visual Culture in 1920s Germany. In Russian Formalist Film Theory. Whittock. 81–100. Jurij 1981 On the foundations of cinema [1927]. Trevor 1990 Metaphor and Film.428 Mats Rohdin Tynjanov. in both monomodal and multimodal form. animal rights 1. and animal rights. this volume. After all.Chapter 18 Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor in horror films Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville Abstract In this chapter. 2003. we analyze the structural metaphor human victim is animal in three modern horror films. Forceville 1999a. this volume). These latter studies. but also that the extent of their systematic occurrence is investigated.” In the concluding section we discuss some implications of our study for metaphor theory. scholarly studies focusing specifically on non-verbal and multimodal metaphor are still relatively rare (Whittock 1990. assessing the validity of the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) paradigm launched by Lakoff and Johnson requires not only that non-verbal and multimodal expressions of conceptual metaphors are studied as such. Keywords: structural metaphor. or rather moving images in general. 2005. However. Rohdin 2003. allowing for numerous different surface manifestations of a single conceptual metaphor. discuss metaphors that are at the creative end (see Black 1979) rather than at the structural end of the continuum (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). a central tenet of CMT is that human beings conceive certain phenomena systematically in terms of certain other phenomena. It is shown that its pervasive manifestations. and argue that the metaphor is characteristic of the horror genre. genre. It is suggested in Forceville (2006a/this volume) that examining multimodal metaphors (as indeed many other discourse phenomena) is best . moreover. see also Carroll 1996. Introduction Within the medium of film. create what Musolff (2006) calls a “metaphor scenario. horror film. Although this is not an exhaustive list (Mittelberg and Waugh this volume and Müller and Cienki this volume extensively discuss the gestural mode). which cues both target and source visually (Forceville 1996). (b) to demonstrate how this metaphor is expressed multimodally. In film. as opposed to multimodal metaphors in the strict or narrow sense). and one mode only. probably by far the majority of multimodal metaphors in moving images cue target and/or source in more than one mode simultaneously (we could label these multimodal metaphors in the broad sense. The broad definition of multimodal metaphor is particularly pertinent if a metaphor is not a creative metaphor that surfaces only once in a multimodal “text. we want to clarify briefly our use of the labels “multimodal” and “monomodal” metaphor. 2006b). 1999b. HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL would be a “scenario. we will in the present chapter restrict ourselves to these. By contrast. The current chapter aims (a) to highlight the importance of the structural metaphor HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL in the modern horror film. multimodal metaphors are “metaphors whose target and source are each represented exclusively or predominantly in different modes” (Forceville 2006a: 384).” but is an expression of a conceptual metaphor that keeps appearing throughout a narrative or argument. since the meanings that can or must be gleaned from representations are strongly steered and constrained by the audience’s awareness of the genre to which a discourse belongs (Forceville 1996.430 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville done by focusing on specific genres. monomodal metaphors present target and source domains both in the same mode. A “pure” multimodal metaphor thus presents a target in one mode/modality. the list of modes includes at least: visuals. and music. 2. According to Forceville (2006a).”1 In such a situation. the same conceptual metaphor can well be expressed in a . as acknowledged by Forceville (2006a: 385). sound. The best-known variant of monomodal metaphor is verbal metaphor. What should count as a multimodal metaphor? Before addressing the central metaphor itself. written language. But such pure multimodal metaphors are distinguished for analytical purposes only: there is nothing inherently better about “pure” than about “impure” multimodal metaphors. spoken language. Indeed. Another variant of monomodal metaphor is the pictorial one. and to formulate some tentative generalizations about the surface manifestations of the metaphor. which until Lakoff and Johnson (1980) was considered the only type of metaphor anyway. In Musolff’s (2006) terminology. and the source in another mode/modality only. Atrocious crimes are no longer the subject of far-away places or past realities. It would of course have been possible to assess for each individual manifestation of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor in the three films to be discussed (a) whether it exemplifies a monomodal or a multimodal metaphor. human skin suits. Investigators will enter the house of one Edward Theodore Gein to find the remains of numerous female bodies. The case of Ed Gein becomes infamous in its time and a subject of infinite conversation and shock among the public. something truly horrifying is waiting to be discovered. Leatherface. USA 1960) to The . in the next as a narrowly defined multimodal metaphor of the pictorial-sonic type. the modes in which target and source of the metaphor are cued are bound to vary across different instantiations (for a similar situation. and Buffalo Bill. However. see the discussion of the structural metaphor COLIN IS A CHILD in Forceville [1999a]). respectively. In fact. whether it is a multimodal metaphor in the strict or in the broad sense. 3. The modern House of Horror The year is 1957 and in the small deer hunting community of Plainfield. (b) if the latter. Ed Gein constitutes the prototypical serial-killer-next-door and goes on to directly inspire such horror film legends as Norman Bates. as we claim. Bowls made of human skulls. in one instance it can surface as a monomodal metaphor of the verbal variety. Wisconsin. but with some musical underpinning as well.Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 431 variety of ways in each individual instantiation. including the woman they were looking for. ranging most notably from Psycho (Hitchcock. in the concluding section we will make some tentative general observations about this issue. and in the third as a broadly defined multimodal metaphor with a target that is cued in visual terms only and a source that is cued primarily verbally. the story becomes a source and influence for at least three generations of horror cinema. The realization that danger can lurk in the neighborhood and that not everyone can be trusted becomes the new reality. That is. But since. to avoid tedious cataloguing we will not systematically list the various types. and (c) which mode(s) is/are involved in the target and the source domains. furniture upholstered by body parts and a necklace made of nipples are a few examples of the horrid imagery presented to those willing to know about such things. The house will quickly be dubbed the “Gein House of Horrors” by the press as reports of strange artistic experiments and disturbing uses of the human body become apparent. freshly killed Bernice Worden. the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL is a structurally occurring metaphor. USA 2003). and cleaver-wielding maniac who has stalked America’s movie screens for the past thirty years” (Internet Zombie 2006.htm last accessed 11. and cast a shadow of doubt and paranoia over even the most lovable neighbor. Worden hanging upside down in Gein’s House of Horrors back in 1957. This element can be directly traced to the films that sprang from the obsession with the case of Ed Gein. But there is a more deeprooted argument to be made regarding the extent of Gein’s crimes – one that will be inspected more closely in this chapter. his violent crimes and methods have been recreated and imitated in countless cheap horror flicks since the 1960s. Not only did he bring terror into suburban reality. But there is more to the Gein influence than meets the eye. decapitated body of Mrs. Deranged (Gillen and Ormsby. Horror scholars generally see the release of Hitchcock’s Psycho as marking the shift from classic to modern horror film. USA 1972). By the time of his death in 1984. vampires. USA 1980). aliens – but after checking in at Psycho’s Bates Motel the home became the new territory for horror. Gone are the mad scientists. this seems very obvious. USA 1974) and The Silence of the Lambs (Demme. This shock derives from a very particular aspect of his violent crimes – something that provided the base for the public’s extremely horrific reactions to his actions. Gein had already become a legend in horror folklore. Other horror films influenced by the Gein story include Three on a Meathook (Girdler. and House of 1000 Corpses (Zombie. This metaphor went unnoticed at the time but after . The monsters populating classic horror films were always foreign in a way – mummies. the remote islands and settings. Canada/USA 1974). the shock of such atrocious and horrific crimes taking place in the peaceful rural community had an extreme and long-lasting effect not only on the evolution of horror art but on the American psyche in general.07). Maniac (Lustig.05. For the purpose of this chapter.com/gein. On the surface. USA 1991). Reynald Humphries claims about modern horror that “the element that needs to be stressed is that we are dealing with the modern. Sure enough. an inspiration to decades of horror cinema and “revered by horror buffs as the prototype of every knife-. the dangers of invasion and radiation” (Humphries 2002: 85). http://www. where horror found a new home – right next door in Anytown. Ed Gein (Parello. not with one situated in the past. this statement can be rephrased as: Ed Gein created a metaphor that has been embraced and recycled by horror cinema ever since investigators came upon the gutted. and that was responsible for a crucial element in horror cinema ever since: Ed Gein treated human beings in precisely the same way human beings treat their non-human counterparts.houseofhorrors.432 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville Texas Chain Saw Massacre (Hooper. axe-. USA 2000). everyday world. or nourishment. The same goes for instance for the crea- . he is after the victim for its flesh or bones or because he wishes purely to indulge his sadism or desire to kill. on top of the food chain. the justification can be a purely biological one – they are creatures that can not sustain themselves except on blood. territorial interest. Therefore this chapter will concentrate on that special group of serial killers and madmen in horror films which does not draw any distinctive line between killing an animal and killing a human being. the human victims have their status as social human beings reduced to the status of non-human animals in Western society – an expendable resource. so ultimately a great deal of fear comes from the idea that something unexpected can jump in and eat us. Metaphorical vulgarity The idea of human victims presented as animals is not necessarily anything new in the history of horror. Werewolves. then the human is quite simply a non-metaphorical prey – an animal subjugated to a higher species that fits into the “natural” chain of events. then something different happens. but these monstrosities are not relevant to the subject of this chapter. self-assuredly. obvious justifications would be present for most of the violence in cases where the attacker’s reasons can be explained away simply as acting on impulse or by natural instinct in terms of. The focus will be on three films where human beings abuse other animate creatures.2 or to be more descriptive: HUMAN VICTIM IN HORROR FILM IS ANIMAL USED AS RESOURCE. If monster movies were to be included. It used to be the case that the human race had to fear other predators. In other words. No one feeds on us anymore.Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 433 fifty years of roaming wild and pervading the genre it is time to finally analyze it: HUMAN BEING IS ANIMAL. treating them as animals. as there is no metaphor in how they are presented. horror is about fear. selfdefense. but those days are long since gone (at least in contemporary urban societies) and we have placed ourselves. atomic mutations and maggot-infested living dead corpses immediately spring to mind. After all. and fear derives from something that is out of one’s control. If a monster is hunting a human being for food. Even in cases of monsters that appear to be very human in nature. The attacker considers his victim purely in terms of utilitarian value. for instance. But if a human being is hunting another human being. vampires. A very natural thing for us to fear is something that has power over us – such as a being that holds a higher place in the food chain. 4. such as humanoid vampires. The victim becomes a metaphorical prey and the killer a metaphorical predator. After spending an afternoon by the Wolf Creek crater they return to find their car broken. “you name it.434 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville tures from the Alien (Scott. A man comes by on a truck and offers to tow their car back to his place where he can fix it for them.1 The mapping of the hunt: Wolf Creek In Wolf Creek (McLean. When human beings attack other human beings. and generally leaning towards some sort of intellectual process in the viewing experience. the actions are more difficult to justify.” he proudly exclaims. The subgenre of extreme horror is furthermore an interesting field for metaphor studies. horses. This constitutes a great part of why these movies are generally frowned upon by the advocates of “proper” cinema – which tends not to show everything. Mick. on the other hand. The extreme horror movie. The man. the more clearly does the film belong to the genre. usually existing solely in order to string together different scenes of gratuitous violence where the pleasure of the killer is shared by the audience rooting for progressively elaborate effect sequences of blood and gore. The genre of extreme horror is one famous for poorly constructed narratives. such as kangaroos. But this veteran hunter has been forced out of his job because people use poison nowadays instead of hiring shooters. producer. This has led to the claim that it is in fact the special effects crew that ranks first. metaphors abound – be they intentionally created or not. three backpackers are driving through the Australian outback. or actors. screenwriter. above director. It is through this evening’s discussion that the group discovers he used to be a professional “shooter” – getting rid of vermin for clients. as it is generally considered to be of lesser aesthetic quality than the more “conservative” horror movie – that style of horror which actually aims at scaring the audience. But in the genre of extreme horror. in such films. In many cases hardly even an attempt is made in the films themselves to provide proper justification. keeping up a reasonable storyline. but ultimately decides to accept his offer. who need to kill other life forms in order to procreate. but they will soon find out. drives them in the dark of night to his secluded home. UK 1979) cycle. It is always more in the style of fine arts to metaphorize instead of vulgarly presenting the subject. buffalo. focuses purely on the bodily experience: the more body-harassing details are provided. Dur- . Therefore he has taken it upon himself to hunt people for his own pleasure – the backpackers do not know that yet. pigs. 4. The group is hesitant. Australia 2005). where they sit together and chat for a while before going to sleep. as part of a running reference to the characters as kangaroos to be hunted. mutilating her hand and severing her spinal chord in order to disable her. one of the victim girls stumbles upon a room full of hunting memorabilia. where she is . In a telling scene.Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 435 ing their conversation Mick describes different ways of hunting and killing animals and when one of the girls asks him if he really kills kangaroos he replies that he is in fact doing people a favor. he proceeds to torture and kill them as he sees fit to appease his sadistic desires. which mainly focuses on Mick hunting down two of the escaped backpackers. After trapping and caging the backpackers. combined with his weapons of choice (including a hunting knife and rifle) and his method of trapping and caging his prey: he tampers with people’s cars and then offers them help. making the following explicit analogy: “they’re everywhere out here now – like tourists!” The HUMAN IS ANIMAL metaphor in Wolf Creek comes from different verbal references to kangaroos. through a bullet hole in a kangaroo warning sign. The most obvious way the metaphor HUMAN IS ANIMAL surfaces is through the contextual information of Mick’s hunting background. Mick gets his first victim up close and personal (Clover 1992: 31–32) when he cuts her up with a big hunting knife. thereby luring them to his home where he subsequently drugs his victims. And even though he does not intend for his victims to escape. including video footage of other people having fallen prey to Mick in precisely the same way. The second girl manages to flee out to the highway. When the two girls manage to flee he goes on the road to pursue and kill them. thus turning the game into a proper hunt. But he steps away from his genre colleagues when he pulls out his hunting rifle – a weapon made to use at a distance. In a similar manner to most cinematic serial killers of his genre. Figure 1. and from visual cues in the latter half of the film. The victims of Wolf Creek are shown driving. he is well prepared for that possibility. Mick’s evening speech about hunting. Very early on. Figures 2a and 2b.436 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville picked up by an old man whom Mick shoots from far away. There are a few other hints to bring out the animal metaphor. In addition . The last survivor is cross-cut with the kangaroos to further emphasize his role as a hunted. A close-up of the road sign fills the screen. and the kangaroo image. the specific metaphor HUMAN VICTIMS ARE KANGAROOS is first introduced. the bullet hole. given throughout the film as part of a running reference to the characters as kangaroos to be hunted. driving down the road. Through a juxtaposition of the car. Kangaroos jump around the outback. wounded animal (Wolf Creek). showing viewers not only that the sign portrays a shaded image of a kangaroo. seen through the hole. with the focus on the victims’ car in the background. but that the hole in question has been made by a bullet. the group of victims is filmed through a bullet-hole in a kangaroo warning sign (figure 1). Even as he arrives at the crash site and finds her still alive. The focus then quickly shifts to the foreground. The girl takes the car and a chase ensues. he does not kill her up close but ultimately shoots her from a few feet away. Mick shoots her tires with the rifle. After having been thrown off the road. from the waist down). presumably alive. 2004) provides a very vivid example of a human being whose rights are violated to satisfy the most whimsical desires of a fellow human being. The metaphor HUMAN VICTIMS ARE KANGAROOS surfaces in two ways – monomodally through the use of language (during Mick’s speech) and monomodally through visual juxtaposition (the road sign and the kangaroo herd). 4. in which the victims could easily be substituted by an animal and the serial killer by a sports hunter. It is in these final scenes of the film that for the first time real-life kangaroos are finally shown roaming the outback. wounded. using terms of trapping.e. the more general metaphor HUMAN IS ANIMAL is created through the context of Mick’s hunting background and the unabashed nature of his murders. then his victims surely fall into that category of ultimate game hunting: HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL RESOURCE. He is nailed to a cross next to a locked pen of starved dogs. wandering around until he is picked up by travelers. And if Mick the killer constitutes part of the metaphor SERIAL KILLER IS SPORTS HUNTER. Thus he becomes reminiscent of animal game hunters. He manages to free himself and escape into the wild. juxtaposed with the last survivor to further emphasize his role as a hunted. From this short description it should be clear that Mick employs explicit methods of animal game hunting. stealing would hardly justify the torture and killing – he could easily do that without resorting to his violent methods. where the object of desire is not the victim itself. It is possible that he uses the material possessions stolen from the victims as a source of income.. The HUMAN IS ANIMAL metaphor surfaces strongly through the more specific metaphor . but the pleasure gained from the sport of the hunt. Nevertheless he gains no utility from their bodies other than the pleasure and thrill of the kill – he is shown either burning the victims or leaving them to hang and rot in his home. Belgium/France/Luxembourg. sharing the room with the corpse of a previous torture victim (eaten. and lost animal (figures 2a and 2b).Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 437 to Mick’s explicit reference to tourists (i. the backpackers) as kangaroo vermin. Furthermore. there is another juxtaposition involving the kangaroo domain later in the film. After being trapped by Mick. Furthermore. but from what is shown on-screen it seems that their sole purpose is to substitute for hunting trophies.2 The mapping of caging: Calvaire/The Ordeal Calvaire/The Ordeal (Du Welz. chasing and killing his victims with popular hunting weapons. the third protagonist victim is not shown again until after the two girls have been killed. Here the specific metaphor MARC IS BELLA or HUMAN IS DOG surfaces as part of the more inclusive HUMAN IS ANIMAL metaphor (figures 3a-c). But Bartel becomes convinced that Marc is his lost wife returned. who offers him a place to stay and a helping hand. As the days go by a group of villagers start showing interest in the affairs at the old inn. all the while pretending that Marc is his wife. He meets Boris. . Therein lies the true terror of Calvaire. This analogy is further emphasized later in the film. who manages to escape into the woods. They also become convinced that Marc is Gloria returned and subsequently attack Bartel’s inn. trapped until nightfall. by understanding Marc in terms of a trapped animal. the viewer can become even more sympathetic towards the character – it adds to the terror of Marc’s atrocious ordeal and taps into the idea that horror films systematically explore an inherent fear in humans to be treated in the same way as we treat animals. The two characters are regularly juxtaposed visually and both are clearly out of their minds.438 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville PERSON IS CAPTIVE ANIMAL. Boris stumbles upon him. hoping to get on his way the following morning. who is out looking for his dog – in fact. With his hands tied together. where the character of Marc is so presented in order to further emphasize his defenselessness towards his captor. crying. he simply sits down and starts stroking his head and talking about his dog. He shaves Marc’s head (figure 4c). In a hauntingly beautiful scene Marc agrees to sing a song for Bartel. Bartel is especially interested in Marc’s role as a singer because his wife Gloria. In other words. dresses him up in her old clothes. treating Marc as if he were Bella incarnate. who has left him long ago. he is completely unable to move and lies there. he has been looking for his dog for a very long time and seems quite insane – and brings Marc to innkeeper Paul Bartel. In the final scenes the camera leaves Marc alone in the woods and takes off to wander aimlessly until the end credits roll – perhaps implying that there is no turning back for our protagonist. There is an explicit analogy between Boris and his long lost dog on the one hand. but instead of helping out. Cabaret singer Marc Stevens is traveling alone when his van breaks down in the middle of rural nowhere. killing both Boris and Bartel and attempting to gang-rape Marc. was also a singer. and keeps him in his bed at night. Bella. and Bartel and his long lost wife on the other. destroys Marc’s car. Marc bites Boris in the thigh in a desperate act of frustration. and takes the singer captive in his home. when Marc has become stuck in a woodland trap after a failed escape attempt. who is constantly seeking out his dog. The first example of the animal metaphor is found in the character of Boris. Marc pleads with Boris to untie him but gets no answer – and as if their positioning is not reminiscent enough of a man and his dog. he is looking into his own future near-fate: to be sexually exploited by a bunch of crazy men (figures 4a. with the added sexual implication of Marc as an object of desire. b). The calf is the source domain of a premonitory metaphor – MARC IS CALF – derived from the larger animal metaphor and created from . Another manifestation surfaces relatively early in the film. Boris treats the trapped Marc as if he were his lost dog.Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 439 Figures 3a-c. In a way. A few small dead animals hang from the stable rafts behind the men. Marc is hunted in the final chase through the woods (Calvaire). when Marc takes a walk in the woods and comes across a farming area where he hears animal noises coming from a nearby stable. It is a clear case of an innocent animal being used for sexual pleasure in the same way as Bartel – and these same villagers – will use Marc later on. There is also a pig present and a cow looking on. as Marc peeps through the wooden boards of the stable. From top to bottom: Marc ensnared in a trap in the woods. Silently he sneaks towards the sounds and spies on a family of male villagers – the same ones that will raid the inn later on and attempt to rape Marc – standing around one family member who is getting his genitals licked by a calf. who are all enthusiastically watching their relative lying on the stable floor getting a bestial blowjob to the sounds of their squealing pet pig. The final noteworthy sub-metaphor is that of the trap and the hunt.” where he is locked up. the visual juxtaposition of Marc and the calf at the stable. and returned to his “cage. In the end. the villagers’ rape attempt). during the second escape attempt – after the villagers have killed both Boris and Bartel – the viewer is again reminded of a hunt. as well as the sounds of the farm animals during the stable scene. and subjected to cruel and degrading treatment. Bartel. From top to bottom: Marc peeks into the barn and into his own future. Marc is caught in an animal trap. constantly watched over. Figures 4a-c. they pass two villagers who are in the process of gutting a boar they have hunted. Marc is “shorn” by Bartel. as previously mentioned.440 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville the contextual information of what lies ahead for Marc (Bartel taking him to bed and dressing him up. During his failed escape attempt. the villagers within take sexual pleasure from one of the farm animals. creating a graphic hunting juxtaposition. Marc is left alone in the woods. Furthermore. When Boris drives Marc back to Bartel after freeing him from the trap in the woods (with Marc lying on the back of the tractor like a hunted animal). where the villagers bear hunting rifles and use their pigs as a tracker or bloodhound. most notably the pig squealing. completely lost and . and subsequently brought back to his captor. and decoration) resonates throughout the film as the metaphor HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL RESOURCE comes to life in numerous scenes. He is defenseless. as food. one by one they fall prey to the cannibalistic family next door. but retains the claim to fame as one of the greatest butchers this rural community ever had. However. The father works as a gas station attendant and the two boys seem to be employed only to rob graves and hunt people and animals for the family unit..Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 441 out of place in the world. Upon arrival. All of these features belong to the “social status” of nonhuman animals in contemporary society but they do not usually apply to human beings – at least not in a society that bases its legislation on “universally declared” human rights. their father. The theme of slaughtering human beings like animals and putting their bodies to use (e. The storyline has become horror movie stock material. Sally. Driving past the dead armadillo the youngsters are filmed heading to their imminent doom on the open road. it is famously inspired. until the last surviving girl. much like the last survivor of Wolf Creek.g. 4. they have lost their jobs due to new farming technologies. by the Gein murders. whose business used to be slaughtering cattle. similar to Wolf Creek’s killer Mick. By presenting the protagonist in such a way. Five friends head into the countryside to visit an old family house that is currently uninhabited. Fictionally represented as being based on a true story. certain elements become highlighted for his character portrayal. suffering. subjugated. and stripped of freedom. clothing. USA 1974). The cannibal family consists of two brothers. Grampa is long retired. The first shot to greet viewers after the opening credits is that of an armadillo road kill in the street.3 The mapping of slaughter: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre Few horror films deal as explicitly with slaughter or are as full of references to meat as the original The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (Hooper. HUMAN VICTIMS IN CAR ARE DEAD ARMADILLO IN STREET. The juxtaposition clearly mirrors that of the kangaroo warning scene in Wolf Creek and serves as part of the running HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL RESOURCE metaphor – or in this case. and their grandfather. at least in part. . These scenes all hint at the metaphor MARC IS HUNTED ANIMAL. manages to escape into the open road and gets picked up by a truck driver and wheeled away to safety. but most importantly his life and well-being depend solely on the will and desire of his captor. In each manifestation of these sub-metaphors Marc is presented in terms of animals that are in human captivity – thus creating the metaphor MARC IS CAPTIVE ANIMAL. reminisces about how his grandfather used to sell his cattle to that place. at which point Franklin. cross-cut with cattle (The Texas Chain Saw Massacre). This lends support to the specific metaphor HUMAN VICTIMS ARE CATTLE. when Sally is held captive with her head over a basin. involving bashing in heads with a large sledgehammer. which is emphasized by crosscutting the youngsters’ discussion with images of cows in small stalls. whose relatives used to own the house they are driving towards. huddled together on their way to slaughter. is particularly reminiscent of old-fashioned cattle slaughter. Figures 5a-f. precisely reproducing common procedures as described by Franklin in the car. The scene at the film’s end. since the head-bashing will be acted out on some of the human victims as the film progresses. Thus the metaphor is monomodally presented through the use of dialogue and visual juxtaposition. Discussions in the car about slaughtering. . and the legendary butcher grandfather makes vain attempts to bash her head in. as the car drives past (figure 5a-f). Although the audience does not yet know it at this stage – unless they are alert to extreme horror’s genre conventions – here the abused-animal story helps build up the metaphor’s source domain. respectively. He describes old-fashioned cattle slaughter methods in vivid detail.442 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville As they head down the road they pass the old slaughterhouse. and multimodally through verbal and visual references to killings with sledgehammers. Furthermore. The whole room is decorated with animal remains (human and nonhuman alike. When Kirk enters the opposite room. Even though in the case described above the victims all wandered in the house of their own free will. which closes with a heavy steel door. When Pam follows to investigate she goes into a different room where she falls into a pile of animal bones. and shots of animal remains are crosscut with the nervous chicken and the shocked Pam. Inside. As she stumbles back out of the room Leatherface emerges to pull her into the slaughter room. He lets her hang there. such as a couch made of bones and fetishized human skulls. one of the brothers. Suddenly Leatherface reappears and kills Jerry with the sledgehammer. The room is filled with macabre artworks. and the caged chicken) that the victims are symbolized to be at the same level as subjugated animals. pounds his head with a sledgehammer. reminiscent of an industrial slaughterhouse. The cannibal family hunt their victims and subsequently kill them. shortly after they arrive at the country house. when their friend Jerry comes looking for them he follows a strange sound into the slaughter room. A couple – Kirk and Pam – go knocking on the cannibal house next door looking for gasoline. The metaphor resounds mostly through the contextual nature of cattle slaughter as well as repeated hints of juxtaposing. The father sells barbecue equipment at his local gas station and it can be read between the lines that the meat he is selling is most likely human meat (possibly mixed with that of animals). The way the violence is presented – from the telling descriptions of slaughter by sledgehammer to the storing of meat in an icebox – is all done in terms of animal treatment. clucking as it anxiously tries to move around its confined space. after getting no answers from their knocking. The family mem- . Finally. Pam stays outside in a swing as Kirk enters the house. resonating from within a big icebox. it is clearly put forth in the film that the brothers’ job is to catch people out on the road. the pent-up cattle. Upon opening it he finds Pam still twitching. screaming and convulsing. who subsequently becomes nauseous. her body being kept in cool storage. Kirk’s body twitches and writhes like a freshly slaughtered animal as Leatherface hits him repeatedly and drags him into the room. where he sticks her up on a large meat hook hanging from the ceiling. as he begins to cut up her boyfriend’s body with a chain saw. it remains obvious through crosscutting (the dead armadillo. Leatherface. presumably) and to further emphasize the metaphor there is a live chicken hanging in a small cage.Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 443 Another gruesome scene involves the first two murders of the friends. powerless to act against their impending doom as weak prey for a stronger attacker. a wall is decorated with animal remains and on the soundtrack the constant noise of a squealing pig can be heard. and the house is filled with monstrous artworks made from human bones and/or skin. but the traditional interpretation does not include references to animal treatment. In the end Sally. rather it is volunteered in the context of the Vietnam War as being the great machine that. and Les Yeux Sans Visage/Eyes Without a Face (Franju. exploring the slaughter/meat metaphor. UK 1997). they put their human victims to more use than only for food. has come to realize what it is like to be treated as an animal for the slaughter and may bring that realization with her back into society as she rides away on the truck in the finale scene. mining the hunting/trapping metaphor. Unlike the sports hunter of Wolf Creek these human hunters are interested in more than just the thrill of the kill. visual. much like for the people of Plainfield. symbolized by his trademark mask. 2006b. We want to end by presenting our findings in the form of some tentative conclusions that can guide further theoretical and experimental research. Hostel (Roth. To them. Forceville and Jeulink 2007). We have provided further support for the insight that the medium film can coherently exploit verbal. The symbolism of people-as-meat is a well known interpretation for The Texas Chain Saw Massacre. Other pertinent examples include The Hills Have Eyes (Craven. France 1960). but make no distinction between eating humans or animals. the sole survivor of the unfortunate five. Furthermore. revealing the caging metaphor but with the added dimension of torture and experimentation (see Eggertsson 2006 for more discussion of these films). at the time. we propose that the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor dominates many more such films.444 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville bers eat other types of meat as well. similar to the objects found in the Gein house of horrors. and sonic modalities to cue a specific conceptual metaphor (see Forceville 1999. Sometimes manifestations of HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL take the form . was eating America’s youth (an interpretation presented in Ursula MacFarlane and David Richardson’s Clive Barker’s A-Z of Horror. USA 2005). Leatherface makes clothes out of human skin. and unlike the loveseeking innkeeper of Calvaire their prey is not merely an object of sexual desire. it is one of their main sources of income and sustenance. USA 1977). Discussion and conclusions Although we investigated in detail three horror films only. The animal metaphor around the cannibal house is vividly based on the work of Ed Gein and serves as a constant reminder of the role our victims play throughout the film. 5. The cannibalistic family members of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre meet their desires mostly through their love of meat. The mentally deranged innkeeper of Calvaire satisfies his sexual desires by using his victim as an object of pleasure and entertainment. “the scenario-based presuppositions are needed to understand the inferences suggested in the texts” (Musolff 2006: 36). The metaphor is a highly embodied one (Lakoff and Johnson 1980. Here is an (incomplete) list of these mappings: Target domain HUMAN VICTIM IS Source domain ANIMAL No inherent social right to life Stripped of freedom and liberty Subjugated within a hierarchy Subject to imprisonment Subject to excessive pain. relentlessly drives the insight home. trapping. The serial killer of Wolf Creek quenches his desires through the sadistic joy of killing. in many different stylistic guises. All of the victims are presented as animals to emphasize their subjugated position towards their attackers. Kövecses 2005) inasmuch as it highlights behaviors toward animals that are sanctioned or even encouraged by mainstream society. While in each film the victims are a resource for desire.Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 445 of monomodal metaphors (verbal or pictorial). Gibbs 2006. the desires are of different kinds. The HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor manifests itself structurally. after all. sometimes multimodal in the broad sense (Forceville 2006a). The conceptual nature of the metaphor transpires largely through its constant repetition. sometimes they are multimodal in the narrow sense. its reiteration. killing) directed against animals. hunting. slaughtering. suffering Defenseless towards captors Voiceless towards society Object of sexual desire Object of entertainment Resource for food Resource for material goods Life and well-being depends on the will and desire of captor . caging. While we might be in doubt whether to construe the metaphor on the basis of single occurrences. but also has cultural dimensions (Gibbs and Steen 1999. but in various dimensions in the modern horror film. The pertinent mappings in each case thus depend on the nature of the victimizers’ desires. Johnson 2007) in exploiting the mapping of very physical actions (shaving. the central metaphor in these films is HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL – but the precise mappings vary in many small and not-so-small ways depending on the precise narrative context in which the metaphor surfaces. 2002). calf) and includes a trap that is obviously made to catch the leg of an animal (probably a rabbit or a fox). Hence the films discussed illuminate that structural metaphors can contribute to genre theory (Altman 1999. perhaps calling for a blending theory approach. but makes references to horses. furred or feathered. The recurrence of the metaphor HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL can be considered an important indication to characterize a film as a horror film. see Fauconnier and Turner 2002). edible or non-edible. specifically those pertaining to animal rights. the fable (although here the thorny question remains whether the metaphor is HUMAN BEING IS ANIMAL or ANIMAL IS HUMAN BEING. Calvaire presents farmyard animals (pig. because they help counterbalance “classic” CMT’s sometimes one-sided emphasis on the conceptual level. arguably. Thus Kövecses’ observation that “the mappings of the same metaphor may be different across any two languages or [language] varieties” (2005: 123) needs to be even further refined to accommodate the specificities of ad hoc context. Yes. In the cases discussed in this chapter. Note that this claim only holds if the metaphor is verbalized in this particular way. big or small. The centrality of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor in the horror genre could be further investigated by focusing on promotion materials such as trailers and posters. Finally. the horrific mistreatment of humans that is central to the horror genre’s conventions can apparently be no more hauntingly presented than through the metaphor HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL. Such considerations are important. the consistency with which the metaphor under scrutiny is deployed in horror film inevitably focuses attention on issues of morality. This view ties in with more recent work in CMT. cow. It is to be noted that the precise way in which an animal can be abused varies per species – depending on such factors as whether it is wild or domestic. which are typically hunted in Australia. Neale 2000. The more allencompassing HUMAN BEING IS ANIMAL may contribute to the characterization of other genres such as. The Texas Chain Saw Massacre mainly presents cattle as the metaphorical source. although it also refers to a pig squealing as well as to a caged chicken.446 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville Although by and large the mappable features apply across the range of animal species. pigs and buffalos as well. in a given instantiation the species may play a role: Wolf Creek mostly discusses kangaroos. in which . As Lakoff and Johnson point out. “the most fundamental values in a culture will be coherent with the metaphorical structure of the most fundamental concepts in the culture” (1980: 22). In Theorizing the Moving Image. 2. etc. disgust. Acknowledgment The authors are indebted to Mats Rohdin for his thoughtful comments on an earlier draft of this chapter.” (Musolff 2006: 28). permissible or illegitimate. its participants and their roles. the metaphor should read HUMAN ANIMAL IS NON-HUMAN ANIMAL.). Arguably.Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 447 behaviors considered more or less conventional and acceptable when displayed toward non-human creatures become a source of fear. The structural nature of the metaphor under discussion thus reveals the moral double standard that surfaces when it becomes apparent that it is not the violence itself that creates horror for the viewer – it is rather the type of animal the violence is administered to (Singer 2001). Notes 1. normal or abnormal. References Altman. and conventional evaluations of whether they count as successful or unsuccessful. but since the English language differentiates between humans and animals the more typical anthropocentric phrase will be used. see Johnson 1993). Musolff characterizes a metaphor scenario as “a set of assumptions made by competent members of a discourse community about ‘typical’ aspects of a source-situation. Black Max 1979 More about metaphor. Carroll. Andrew Ortony (ed. London: British Film Institute. Rick 1999 Film/Genre. but of course remain entirely responsible for all views expressed. Noel 1996 A note on film metaphor. the ‘dramatic’ storylines and outcomes. 19–43. . and repellence when mapped onto human beings (for more discussion on the role of metaphors in the constitution of cultural values. for example. In Metaphor and Thought. 212– 223. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The role of non-verbal sound and music in multimodal metaphor. Van der Keuken. and Mark Turner 2002 The Way we Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. Forceville. Gilles. . Michel Achard.ca/ this vol. Barry Keith (ed. and Paul Schrader’s The Comfort of Strangers. René Dirven. Media Studies Department. and Marloes Jeulink 2007 The Source-Path-Goal schema in animation film. July) at Jagiellonian University. Gunnar Theodór 2006 Animal Horror: An Investigation into Animal Rights. Fauconnier. 264–284.). Krakow (Poland). from English by Dagmar Schmauks] Zeitschrift für Semiotik 25: 39–60. TX: University of Texas Press.448 Gunnar Theodór Eggertsson and Charles Forceville Clover. and Francisco Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez (eds. In Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives. Public Journal of Semiotics 1: 19–51. 1992 Men. Charles. Cole. Grant. 379–402. London/New York: Routledge. Research MA diss. Cologne: Von Halem. Metaphor and Symbol 14: 179–98. SPIEL 18: 279–300. 2003 Bildliche und multimodale Metaphern in Werbespots [Trans. http://semiotics. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitivist framework: agendas for research. 1999b Art or ad? The effect of genre-attribution on the interpretation of images.). Harold Pinter’s. New York: Basic Books. 2005 Cognitive linguistics and multimodal metaphor.) 1996 The Dread of Difference: Gender and the Horror Film. London: British Film Institute. Gitte Kristiansen. Paper presented at 10th International Cognitivist Linguistics conference (ICLC. Charles 1996 Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising. Carol J. In Bildwissenschaft: Zwischen Reflektion und Anwendung. Austin. Klaus Sachs-Hombach (ed. Women and Chain Saws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film. Universiteit van Amsterdam. Eggertsson. Forceville. 2006a/this vol. 1999a The metaphor COLIN IS A CHILD in Ian McEwan’s. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. New Review of Film and Television Studies 4: 241–261.. Horror Cinema and the Double Standards of Violent Human Behaviour. 2006b The Source-Path-Goal schema in the autobiographical journey documentary: McElwee. 2007a Multimodal metaphor in ten Dutch TV commercials. 318–329. . Zoltán 2005 Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation. Irene. Whittock. gestures and beyond: Forms of multimodal metaphor in the use of spoken language. Musolff. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Singer. Peter 2001 Animal Liberation. 2007 The Meaning of the Body: Aesthetics of Human Understanding.Multimodal expressions of the HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL metaphor 449 Humphries. Andreas 2006 Metaphor scenarios in public discourse. and Alan Cienki this vol. Kövecses. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cornelia. Words. Johnson. Steve 2000 Genre and Hollywood. Mittelberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Neale. London/New York: Routledge. New York: Harper Perennial. George. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chicago/ London: University of Chicago Press. Metaphor and Symbol 21: 23–38. diss. Lakoff. Metonymy first.. Reynald 2002 The American Horror Film: An Introduction. In: Vildsvinet I Filmens Trädgård: Metaforbegreppet inom Filmteorin [The wild boar in the garden of film: The concept of metaphor in film theory]. metaphor second: A cognitive-semiotic approach to multimodal figures of thought in co-speech gesture. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. and Linda Waugh this vol. this vol. Neale. Ph. Rohdin. Steve (ed. Müller.D. and Mark Johnson 1980 Metaphors We Live By. Multimodal metaphor in classical film theory from the 1920s to the 1950s. Mats 2003 Summary in English. Mark 1993 Moral Imagination: Implications of Cognitive Science for Ethics.) 2002 Genre and Contemporary Hollywood. Stockholm: Edita Norstedts Tryckeri AB. Trevor 1990 Metaphor and Film. London: British Film Institute. . 168 ad hoc pointer. 123. corporate. 375. 333. 8. 102. 9. 184. 187. 191. 270 interpretive strategies by ~. 348. 184. 97. 397. 207. 390. 46. 430. 28. 149. 265–267. 214–236. 284. 376. 176. 122. 95–98. 157. 33. 148. 147–153. 81. 190. 229. 370. 100–112. 29. 122. 349. 207. 32. 442 background of ~. 165. 348. 110. 149. 23. 6–7. 215. 106–108. 243– 262. Caligari [Robert Wiene]. 236. 359. 421. 147–149. ~ compared with conceptual domains. 375. 384. 222. 10. 197– 199. 86. 231. 320. 91. 388. 178–182. 271–285. 223. 243. 75. 9. 46. 148. 187–189. 20. 10. 6–9. 274. 165. 119. 153. 175. 33. 3. 99. 96. 9. 27. 8. 12. 12. 78.Subject index ad hoc concepts. 213. 181. 57. 34. 73. 81–85. 387. 216. 244–255. 89. 257–259. 90–92 anchoring. 233. 5. 91. 168 advertising. 213. 28. 107. 74. 276. 214. 347. 389. 332. 47. 31. 396 wine ~. 120. 236. 7. 23. 375. 218. 8. 93. 205–207. 291 anthomorphism. 85. 159–161. 314. 447. 199– 201. 49–65. 101. 155. 376. 180. 191. 74. 348. See also personification Asterix [Alberto Uderzo and René Goscinny]. 204. 155–158. 126. 60. 174. 119. 236. 149. 232. 122. 53. Symphony of a Great City [Walter Ruttman]. 217. 7. 24. 437439. 149. 89. 173. 163–166. 73–76. 49. 82. 408 Calvaire [Fabrice Du Welz]. 169. 20. 415 blending theory. 131. 90–93. 148– 149. 63. 410 Berlin. 375. 201. 214. 132. 202. 110– 112. 423 . 202. 155. 60. 384. 359. 273. 375. See also logo and layout The Cabinet of Dr. 235. 83. 390. 102. 45–47. 106. 261 audience (readers). 169. 34. 62. 86– 89. 28. 104. 173–193. 49. 434. 383. 90. 90. 376 ~ involving music and language. 410. 290. 368 anger. 421 Battleship Potemkin [Sergei Eisenstein]. 97. 62. 83–92. 173–176. 378 brand. 6. 384. 192. 204. 388. 393. 387. 444–446 cartoons. 162. 213. 163. 290. 251. 110. 124. 152–169. 157. 388. 112. 3. 166. 394. 370– 373. 376. 370. 81. 149. 26. 235. 446 mental spaces in ~. 244. 137. 81–84. 21. 228. 235. 304. 6–9. 54. 218–221. 153. 265. 174. 12. 226. 75. 341. 76–78. 199. 126. 22. 91–93. 148. 257–261. 422. 257–260. 53. 121. 291. 87. 49 decoding. 227. 73. 346. 110– 112. 348 domain(s). 271. 27. 189. 90. 300. 9. 131. 6. 14. 12–14. 170. 259. 147. and runes). 261. 271. 277–281. 192. 283–287 conceptual upload. 347 corpus analysis 7. 121. 27. 8. 265–269. 189. 208 Cognitive/Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT). 244. 34. 291. 173. 8. 257. 207. 316. 53–62. 216. 415– 419. 93. 336. 388 Japanese ~. 291 French ~. 182. 140. 413. 376. 245. 82. 159–165. 223. 7. 291. 122. 9. 289. 75. 13. 131– 134. 29. 89. 207 editorial ~. 284. 126. 9. 334 design strategy. 265–269. 260. 247– 255. 179. 249. 319. 215. 339. 197. 283. 334. 273. 173. 152. 139. 87. 273. 97–100. 423. 7. 376. 206. 430. 307. 148–149. 223–233. 20. 283. 4. 332. 364–366. 340. 290 critical discourse analysis. 85. 148. 28. 313. 20. 226. 120. 245. 265–267. 313. 207. 310. 7–9. 19. 213–215. 9. 14. 320. 134–137. 158–162. 431. 429. 248. 217. 235. 76. 336. 298. 319–321. 137. 345. 181. 331. 271. 149. 127–129. 23.452 Subject index Chinese ~. 283 ~ and anger. 29. 236. 9. 182. 347. 166 constructional schema. 97. 184. 92. 92. 34. 437. 191 cognitive grammar. 368–370. 340. 273. 265– 275. 265–267. 277. 9. 84. 27. 344–349. 208. 337. 406–410. 86. 313. 90. 153. 346 ~ tree. 7. 161. 79–82. 229. 25. 9. 174. 316. 312. 181. 167. 318. 119. 149. 331. 423 culture. 343. 135. 207. 422. 389. 2. 385 English ~. 404. 121. 248. 77. 26. 27–30. 75–78. 200. 218. 393–397. 122. 11. 46. 290. 342. 359–362. 152. 29. 176. 135–139. 102. 375. 215. 24. 167. 279. 222. 95. 147. 446 comics (see also animated film. 284. 267. 208 contiguity. 245. 107. 131–136. 21. See also manga Spanish ~. 383–389. 179. 157. 8. 297. 98. Western ~. 77. 232. 165. 321. 59. 247– 255. 260. 30. Chinese vs. 412. manga. 28. 363. 261. 153. 108 ~ specific. 397. political ~. 119. 176–179. 88. 75. 330. 182. 186. 186. 308. 157. 174. 342. 88. 283 ~ and other emotions. 260. 33–35. 169 deictic categories. 275. 121–123. 248 Dutch ~. 333. 123. 51. 63. 209 diagram. 21. 7. 148. 199. 272. 45–48. 384. 9. 131. 52. 258. 13. 173–193. 268. 184. 51. 271. 446 . 289. 248. 335. 230. 169. 218. 90. 423 ~ as genre. 191. 12. 14. 157. 92. 284. 213–236 cartoonist. 245 intentions of ~. 181. 423. 422. 301. 169 encyclopedic ~. 218. 343 functions of~. 397. 329–349. 395 classical ~ theory. 92. 102. 348 referential ~. 330. 415. 424 453 horror ~. 73–76. 207. 21. 364. 307. 408. 298. 403–405. 14. 408. 342. 322. 384. 411. 24. 385. 266 schematic source ~. 27. 396. 13. 332. 417. 403. 175. 25. 442. 341. 191. 415. 314. 336. 333. 61–64. 127. 47. 98. 407– 409. 321. 413. 430. 233. 307. 236. 11. 396. 166. 25. 332. 421 silent ~ (cinema). 309. 14. 28. 332. 32–34. 95. 107. 415. 157–161. 64. 140. 330. 348 ~ and words. 235. 166. 347. 225. 21. 405. 163. 9. 248. 310. 390. 152. 225. 446 film. 179. 316–319 grammar. 340. 228–232. 422. 416. 321. 7. 3–5. 131. 215. 183. 445 The End of St. 265. 214. 422. 10. 377. 408. 409. 446 gesture(s). 110. 248. 347 spontaneous ~. 337. 254. 224–226. 397. 97. 421. 407. 27. 315. 384. 213. 348 metaphoric ~. 80. 243. 161. 336. 112. 342. 80. 24. 397. 6. 330. 300–302. 429. 113. 343. 163. 305. 383. 359 . 11. 91. 404. 34. 258–260. 385. 32–34. 272. 394. 337 synecdochic ~. 383. 27. 236 embodied knowledge. Petersburg [Vsevolod Pudovkin]. 3. 45. 405. 189. 336. 306. 441. 442. 421. 55. 96. 46. 364. 111. 344. 389. 51. 423. 234. 309. 422. 422 genre. 298. 318. 410. 323. 346. 14. 437. 342. 159. 330. 181. 304–306. 313. 22. 121. 23. 433–435. 8. 299. 30. 10. 85. 102–105. 250–261. 386.Subject index 439. 135. 98. 12. 389. 52. 9. 213. 5–11. 336. 33. 7. 13. 29. 339. 348 musical ~. 416. 337 metonymic ~. 396. 336. 429. 376 co-speech ~. 6. 342. 221. 333. 9. 22. 149. 344. 184. 244. 430–446 superimposition in ~. 421. 413. 333 manual ~. 344. 28. 392. 413. 112. 185. 121. 316. 340. 134. 336 deictic ~. 423. 230–232 categorical source ~. 255. 232. 198. 422 features. 5. See also target and source conceptual ~. 423 ~ montage. 391. 192. 261. 251. 390–392. 313. 346. 412. 19. 403– 424. 410. 12. 100. 389. 9. 100. 420 Fury [Fritz Lang]. 321. 395. 436. 272. 405. 219. 392. 365. 4. 446 animated ~ (also ~ animation). 164 mappable ~. 333. 446 emergent ~ (properties). 20. 329. 20. 10–12. 87. 160. 406–408. 297–322. 19. 28 embodiment (embodied meaning). 384. 225. 297. 89. 46. 155. 430. 336 generative ~. 127. 126. 228. 33. 64. 47. 276–281. 97. 254. 129. 284. 98. 29. 348. 285– 287. 302. 5.454 Subject index manga. 411. 420. 226. 147–150. 81. 135. 6. 57–65. 102. 22. 13. 373. 7. 333. 244. 250. 287. 21. 321. 8. 441. 133. 179. 418–421. 140. 106. 61. 190–192. 347 partial ~. 244. 30. 53. 6. 339. 105. 267. 165. 180–184. 9. 283. 290. 266. 8. 187. 422. 96. 330. 53. 219–221. 151. 45–47. 104. 224. 410. 285. 24. 434. 4. 24. 307. 163. 13. 272. 29. 236. 334. 429. 218. 250. 128. 317. 431. 111. See also blending intertextuality. 346. 289. 30. 331. 197–209 image schema. 214. 99. 255. 97. 336. 372. 46. 79. 55 medium. 317. 113. 34. 373. 9. 26– 28. 112. 289. 361. 130. 348. 341. 7. 283. 213. 418. 32. 9. 265. 299–300. 12. 8–10. 20. 285. 444 metaphor articulatory forms of ~. 112. 55. 255. 207. 300. 408. 11. 259. 31. 367. 246. 258. 160– 162. 374. 138. 110– 112. 445 nonverbal and multimodal ~ of metaphor. 201– 207. 181. 341. 234. 342. 389. 331. 337. 375. 271–274. 169. 213–216. 47–49. 190. 437. 408. 8. 444 inference(s). 403. 95. 283. 273. 249. 347 metaphoric(al) ~. 139. 430. 373. 243. 248. 13. 167–169. 391. 120. 62. 19. 217–219. 28–30. 343. 339 image alignment. 224. 129. 341. 173–175. 339. 149. 403. 266. 134. 243. 169. 157. 423. 45. 207. 445 integration. 271. 359. 149. 27. 385. 431 mapping(s). 254. 214. 313. 446 double ~. 289. 6. 122. 372. 388. 258–261. 97. conceptual. 136. 52. 167. 59. 107. 412. 125. 10. 407. 261. 422. 235. 175. 123. 248. 414. 112 happiness. 341. 64. 370. 284. 396 love. 20. 265. 110. 127. 336. 12. 123. 320. 90–93. 187. 51–53. 289 indirect reference. 230. 265. 329. 60–61. 23. 376. 92. 439 verbal ~ of metaphor. 375 metonymic(al) ~. 384. 346. 58. 13. 364–367. 283. 445. 266. 13. 179. 430. 208. 98. 266. 385 (audiologo). 393. 252. 122. 340. 395. 87. 387. 56. 34. 173. 201 logo (see also brand). 331. 100. 369. 290 manifestation. 28. 431. 103. 228–232. 119. 20. 152–158. 166. 317. 396. 348. 110. 61. 155–158. 29. 10. 208. 140. 270. 417. 424. 384. 349 SOURCE-PATH-GOAL ~. 415 invariance principle. 373 layout. 13. 46. 265. 128. 132. 139. 307 Great Chain of Being. 329. 98. 250. 404. 318. 120. 397. 47. 8. 187 interpretation. 208. 266. 207. 139. 21. 253. 137. 340. 32. 272. 444 . 418–420. See also invariance principle dual encoding in ~. 302– 309. 96. 26. 260. 218. 125–130. 47. 10. 123. 91. 188. 73–75. 422 creative ~. 19. 304. 137. 10. 81. 273. 430 diagrammatic ~. 27. 310. 319. 28. 395 ~ in artistic texts/discourses. 312. 246. 34. 306. 74. 270–272. 119. 407. 29. 34. 190. 303. 235. 321. 331. 55–57. 9. creative) ~. 13. 422. 243. 14. 438. 3–14. 290 455 gestural ~. 127– 131. 321 emotion ~. 442. 233. 161. 173. 429. 410. 9. 302. 403–406. 113. 149. 31. 96– 99. 259. 53. 313. 304. 60.Subject index artistic (also metaphor in artis tic texts / discourses. 340. 24. 25. 306–308. 430. 297. 82. 346. 7. 10–12. 86. 80. 48. 7. 419. 21–22. 329. 429. 19. 4. 318. 122. 252. 64. 120–122. 384. 300. 10. 28–31. 12. 13. 28. 81. 88. 397 conventional (conventionalized) ~. 302. 411. 213–216. 6. 336. 284. 317. 342. 6. 284. 441. 53. 337. 95. 45–49. 429– 431. 336. 28. 396. 301. 331. See also metaphor in gesture ~ in advertising. 444– 446 ~ in gesture(s). 218. 175. 437. 361. 104. 62 dynamic ~. 323. 45. 283. 140. 410. 31. 403. 303. 112. 79. 28. 321. 334. 341 interaction theory of ~. 280. 410–414. 319. 410–413. 214. 14. 297. 345. 235. 139. 112. 321. 436. 33. 12. 390 ~ in animation. 321. 268. 375. 34. 258. 122. 320. 33–34. 316. 415 directionality in ~. 181. 384. 397. 59. 51. 33. 313–316. 25. 13. 175. 12–14. 9. 422. 385. 342 diegetic/nondiegetic ~. 336. 21. 9. 10. 265–268. 182. 429–431. 12. 283. 297. 299. 177. 244. 180. 234. 396 complex ~. 105. 316. 30. 8. 316–318 ~ in speech. 111. See also Cognitive / Conceptual Metaphor Theory construal of ~. 79–83. 316. 92. 49. 137. 390–392. 176. 22–25. 21. 125. 321 elaboration of ~. 62–64. 25. 344 monomodal ~. 298. 19. 112. 90–92. 347. 265–267. 303. 134. 130. 444. 311. 65. 219. 300. 369. 24 interaction of ~ with metonymy. 243. 111. 336. 9. 87. 248–250. 215. 11. 170. 6. 191. metaphor. 33. 108. 313. 54. 413. 19. 109–112. 330–332. 300. 256–260 conceptual ~. 95–100. 298. 383. 420. 300. 25. 394. 179. 120. 318. 339. 445. 334. 391. 104. 19. 370. 119–123. 14. 137. 24. 297. 25. 396. 34. See also gestural metaphor ~ in intonation. 383. 65. 119. 256– 261. 7–10. 136. 170. 9. 391. 96. 139. 396 ~ in film. 26. 403. 47. 385. 307. 304. 244. 316. 167. 271. 442. 309. 20. 48. . 393. 6. 290. 299. 313. 133–135. 33. 74. 445 multimodal ~. 33. 166. 415. 406. 308. 148. 6. 127. 329–331. 92. 383. 342. 63. 407. 244. 329. 393 prosody in ~. 431. 11. 430. 230. 74. 271. 129. 384. 48. 9. 187. 74. 132. 389. 122. 339–341. 181. 259. 236. 383. 110. 383. 370. 45–48. 49. 192. 132. 46. 190 pictorial ~. 202. 187. 308. 188. 321 projective ~. 310. 316. 8. 203. 245. 6–8. 173–175. 430. 178. 7.456 Subject index 178. 79. 21– 24. 316 source and target in ~. 192. 271–273. 252. . 24. 53–57. 412. 406–423. 206. 213–215. 84. 312– 314. 248. 413. 208. 445 verbalization of conceptual ~. 302. 276. 34. 315. 148. 175. 430. 416. 4. 181. 165–168. 336. 396 ontological ~. 47. 207. 266. 348. 365. 120. 137. 6. 87. 297. 106. 336. 3. 446 spatial ~. 445 naturalization of ~. 395. 148. 308. 283. 86. 389–393. 310. 306. 310. 123. 119. 88. transparent ~. 416. 182. 62. 315. 183– 185. 234–236. 26. 341. 385. 10–14. 337. 266. 54. 148. 140. 202. 319–321. 205. 271. 128. 235. 147. 429–431. 439. 316. 282–284. 208. 265–267. 431. 23–25. 215. 161– 163. 245. 304. 191. 290. 375. 321. 278–280. 396. 152. 348 systems of ~. 260. 133. 175. 300–304. 131. 199. 431. 300. 297. 163. 19. 33. 256. 161. 140. 307–310. 249. 199. 344– 346. 420 verbo-visual ~. 22–25. 313 orientational ~. 305. 180. 189. 199. 403. 176. 256. 390 primary ~. 30. 297. 273. 244. 288– 290. 8. 29. 257. 92. 128. 9– 14. 207. 312. 82. 202. 185. 334. 383–389. 297. 331. 228. 390. 209. 344. 251. 107. 174. 266. 339. 442. 208. 82. 27–31. 187. 166. 158–161. 330. 360–365. 376. 300. 442. 205. 444. 49. 258. 181. 297–300. 419–424. 370. 128– 130. 408. 359. 218. 257. 156. 31. 403–405. 81. 302. 404. 49. 285. 177. 33– 35. 233– 235. 28. 435. 283. 155–166. 404 verbo-gestural ~. 213–215. 90. 19–21. 121. 271. 121. 311. 4. 140. 244. 81–83. 23. 313– 317. 135. 81. 197. 153. 405. 137. 174. 19. 147. 319. 304. 158. 55. 122. 147. 319. 46. 166–168. 169. 59–62. 223. 217–222. 197. 243. 150– 153. 173 visual ~. 224. 288–290. 321 verbo-pictorial ~. 393–397. 108. 224– 234. 19. 176. 260. 316. 155–157. 197–200. 313. 180– 182. 97– 102. 243–246. 47. 397. 272. 181. 180. 200. 307. 31. 91. 175. 150. 312. 260 products and processes in ~. 159. 147–150. 265–267. 248–250. 346–349. 107. 131. 445 poly-interpretability of ~. 347. 74. 152. 392. 300. 177. 73. 267. 104. 190–192. 308 verbal ~. 250. 128. 111. 369. 218. 409. 321 sleeping ~ (versus waking ~). 422. 395– 397. 46. 31. 359. 88. 13. 308–310. 86. 312. 369. 112 types of ~. 415. 308 ~ as cognitive process. 130. 90. 81. 174. 346–348. 329. 95. 100. 278. 330. 261. 341. 383–385. 135. 430. 167 language ~. 134. 413–415. 190–192. 308. 119–120. 306. 134– 137. 108. 109–111. 10. 102. 347 functions of ~. 207. 47. 208. 7. 180. 13. 4–11. 420–422. 300. 148. 13. 300 foregrounding of ~. 300. 282. 387. 107. 289 physiological ~. 339. 134–137. 347. 405. 375. 383. 251–253. 318. 80. 248–250. 272. 139. 307. 261 Modern Times [Charlie Chaplin]. 413 metaphoricity. 134–137 Metropolis [Fritz Lang]. 131. 103. 98. 130. 319 creation of ~. 347– 348 external ~. 334. 290. 290. 139. 316. 110. 329. 97. 306. 347 highlighting in ~. 6. 119. 257–261. 329– 332. 348 visual ~ (pictorial ~). 364–370 . 139. 308. 45–47. 349 ~ and metaphor. 139. 431 text painting in ~. 411– 413. 359–378. 95–100. 137. 151. 340. 169 perceptual ~. 106. 73–75. 430. 431. 103. 297. 13. 265. 331. 421 mode/modality. 359. 139. 119. 385. 129. 147. 407. 330. 5. 329. 313. 316. 24. 233. 96. 340. 271. 258. 411. 225. 177. 120. 404. 100. 2. 319. 289. 96. 331. 413. 321 metonymy. 307. 300. 300. 46–48. 349. 123. 321. 421. 335. 5. 120. 363. 297. 341. 457 100. 342. 347 multimodal ~. 397. 23–25. 343. 376. 19.Subject index 248. 128. 50 Idealized Conceptual Models (ICM. 104. 153. 62. 149. 413. 422 The Million [René Clair]. 98. 389– 392. 346. 266. 334. 95. 21–25. 12. 169. 344–346. 319. 403–405. 154. 310. 106. 100. 334. 148. 110. 91. See also synecdoche ~ mapping. 112 abstract ~. 80. 323. 322. 266. 51. 405 models mental ~. 127. 33. 444 sub ~. 299. 168. 243. 395–398. 329–343. 300. 175. 10. 303. 396. 316 modality independent ~. 51–53. 61. 419 experiential ~. 95. 60. 34. 339–341. 395. 110– 112. 112. 149. 412. 265. 162 specialized ~. 23. 126. 302. 12. 283. 53. 106. 136. 279. 415. 31. 10. 297. 29. 421. 289 music. 34. 98. 21–23. 283. 96. 57. 256. 300. 4. 244. 25. 110. 105. 53. 319. 390. 321 ~ and attention. 422 module. 250. folk models). 213. 22. 7. 148. 48. 329. 288. 271. 348. 90. 46. 199. 100. 111 internal ~. 404. 120. activation of ~. 35. 346. 133. 153. 158. 316. 103. 13. 102. 102. 421. 181. 312. 188. 338. 334–337. 111. 234. 333–337. 6. 167 motivation. 7. 361. 260. 170. 95–112. 104. 120. 246. 139. 251. 250. 91. 330. 397 nondiegetic ~. 154. 299. 91 ~ motor abilities. 259. 245. 334. 310. 393. 24. 56. 59. 280. 80. 306 sensory ~ domain. 23. 48. 198. 360. 330. 266. 258. 54. 283. 9. 120. 100. 281. perceptual. pictorial. 23. 411. 80 ~ schema. 234. 106. 105. 33. 277. 148– 166. 97 visual ~ (pictorial ~). 191. 47. 305. 329. 430. 405. 297. 89. 261. 8. 386. 100. 397. 83. 416. 13. 259. 446 ~ meaning. 347. 147. 281. 283. 290. 378. 404. 386 pragmatic adjustment. 331. 276. 383. 430. 149. 413. 332. 9. 55. 300. 245. 28. 199. 178 ~ and action/events. 185. 80. 272. 202. 148. 373. 102. 256. 447 Semiotic(s). 341. 417. 207. 51. 74. 28. 82. 106. 266. 304. 329. 167 ~ information. 394. 429. 404. 207. 397. 289 scenario. 430 artistic ~. 376. 396. 373 gestural ~. 404. 46. 9. 204. 372. 187. 178. 261. 254. 348 surface ~. 235. 393. 411. 245. 332. 224. 31. 34. 255. 100. 244. 176. 6. 342. 97. 174. 33 cinematic / film ~. multimodal explicitness of ~. 5. 185. 285 resemblance. 395 runes. 290. 260 metaphorical ~. 331. 335. 246. 33. 79. 415. 187 ~ styles. 302. 301. 434. 31 rhythm. 233. 283. 313. 113. 341. 36 ~ image. 111. 347. 348 Peircean ~. 6. 29. 275. 334 Jakobsonian ~. 377. 11. 154. 422 Old and New [Sergei Eisenstein]. 80 ~ experience. 215. 243. 276. 56. 74. 411. 250. 412. 339. 11. 25. 248. 73. 120. 109. 11. 223–228. 405. 178. 260. 429. 431 narrative. 342 ~ perception. 254. 88. 256. 21. 367. 5. 415 dynamic ~. 235. 422 personification (see also anthropomorphism). See also metaphor. 405. 413 multimodal metaphor definition of ~. 396. 446 film ~. 445. 13. 112. 111. 151 Relevance Theory. 54.458 Subject index representation. 280. 339 multimodal ~. 62. 84. 53. 409 October [Sergei Eisenstein]. 331. 168. 336 medium specific ~. 283. 297. 199 . 178 ~ and time/chronology. 198– 199. 10. 393. 167 diegetic ~. 198 ~ context. 336. 100. 22–25. 397 types of ~. 190. 346. 247. 430 ~ versus monomodal metaphor. 29. 24. 430. 348 ~ process. 4. 359. 260. 55. 21. 377 song. 261. 174. 281. 412. 384. 74. 342. 419–421. 53. 444–446 . 160. 422 Surrealist art. 412. 24. 441. 80. 214. 251. 251. 409. 95–97. 5. 162 459 universality vs. 86. 337 indexical ~. 23. 411. 19. 413. 385. 91 Wolf Creek [Greg McLean]. 103–106. 421. 396. 10. 152. 393. 23. 246. 25. 75. 255. 335. 233. 291 sonic analogs. 88. 417 visual-conceptual interface. 405. 34. 407. 152. individuality. 406. 413 Strike [Sergei Eisenstein]. visual. 444–446 thinking for speaking. 300 trope. 276. 342 The Texas Chain Saw Massacre [Tobe Hooper]. 405. 256. 7. 148. 3–6. 152. 110.Subject index simile. 298. 92. 405. 85. 24 The Swindle [Federico Fellini]. 6. 165 winespeak. 162. 163. 148. 405 television commercials. 397. 432. 158– 160. 57. 147. 370. 419. 376. 25. 190. 186. 166 innovative ~. 159. 75. 234. 93 wine tasting note. 404. 59. 22. 250. 7. 411 sign iconic ~. 73–74. 8. 12. 272. 111. 162. See also internal metonymy syntactic structure. 197. 331. 369–375. 162. 333. 119 upload. 336. 136. 47. 79–80. 398 sound. 299. 23. 359–368. 86. 369. 245. 10. 274. 261. 416. 181. 422 synecdoche. 367. 96. 255. 408–410. 321. 363–367. 31. 442. 22. 320. 24. 383–397. 165 stable ~. conceptual. 430 diegetic versus nondiegetic ~. 137. 165. 418. 377. 74. 198. 47. 80. 297. 347. 214. 97. 123. 156–158. 265. 434– 436. 334. 283. 390. 256. 396. 321 touch. 289 verbal image. 441. . 364 Ajzen. 12 Cumming. 112. Herbert. 63 Culpeper. Renate. 405. 394 Baruch. Rajeev. Jay David. 258. 406. 420 Becker. 415. Claudia. 317. Robyn. 321 Cappetta. 323 Boiles. 29. Seana. Béla. 332. Charles L. Naomi. 120. Victor Kofi. 405. 331. 349 Bartsch. Wye Jamison. 176 Bengtsson. 216 Buckland. 409. Ann L. Jonathan. Preston. 320. 31 Bruce. 390. 331 . Francesco. Rosario. 397. Bouvet. 60 Batra. David. 58. 340. 122. 406. 298 Cohen. 64. Bazin. 410. 423 Collins. Antonio. 50. 149 Crisp. James C. 21 Cook. 348. 340. 244.. 410. 322 Charteris-Black. 416.. Nigel. 331. Herbert. 25. Lars Thøger. 12. 176 Balmer. 214.Author index Agawu. 51 Carroll. Stanley D. 95.M. 348 Bressem. Brooke-Rose. 420 Baldry. 169 Chafe. 96 Cook. 321. Ulrike. 404. 302. 50. René. 93. Arnheim. 64 Chun. 430 Clair. 46. Gerry D. 177. 50. 24. 21 Bordwell. 34 Czerniawska. 32. 93. 364. 57. Christine. 419. 331. 249. 63. 6. 323. Black. 256. Rudolf. Jonathan.. Icek. 12. David. 405. 52 Damasio. Max 12. 304. 216 Bell. 112. 330. Jonathan A. 214. 207 Brunn. 446 Amoraritei. Noel. 364 Altman. 248. Danaher. 330. 311. 304. 5. 363 Bolter. 413 Askegaard. 65 Ciccolella. 13. Yehuda. Bohle. Wallace. 60. 50. Anders. 406. 404 Caballero... 377 Cunliffe. Lynne. Jana. 411 Allanbrook. 429 Blair. 391. 405. 51 Cupchik. Fiona. Patrick. Guy. 33. John T. 408. Rick. 330. 57. 26. 336. 412. 299. 363. 420. Ted. 34. Fabian. 397 Cheney. 98.. 52 Barcelona. Danielle. 9. 266. 30. Grigori. Rossella. Antonio R. 363 Csaba. 46. 319. 96. 397 Calbris. 429 Carston. 302. 79. 21. André. Loredana. 98. 297. 24. 244. 370 Coulson. Cienki. 14. 405. William. 336 Cameron.. Steve. Alan. Søren. Peter. 139. 411. 51. 405. Anthony. 13. 232 Alexandrov. 405. 412 Clark. Nicholas.. 411. 74. George. 74 Brugman. 32. 28. 299. 50. 299. 64 Christensen. 150. 152 Cavanagh. 423. 330. 336. 320. 27 Croft. 51 Colston. 333. Geneviève. 50. Warren. 60. 318. 20. 341. Rosa. 406. 63 Balázs. 58. 418. 313. 120. 431. 259. Gilles. 405. Renata. 207. 55. 244–249. 220 . Leslie. Louis. Dennis. H. 384. 121. 216. 4–11. Elizabeth. 216 Fischer. 80 de Chernatony.462 Author index Danto. René 12. 7. 28. 49. Sergei. 349 Geeraerts. 34. 173. 395. 169. 24. 193 Goodwin. 180. 395. 390. 320 Durand. 256. Susan. Guy. Ernst H. 174. 7. 147– 149. 310. Nobuhiro. 193. 314. 330. 24. 34. 348. 149. 216. 9.. Sean. 429. 13. 313 Gineste. 300. 112. 219. 11. 424 Eves. 416– 418 Ejxenbaum. 333. 274–277. Marie-Dominique. 10. 260. Joseph. Ofer. Jean. 56 Furuyama. 110. 235. 214. 86. 298. Christopher D. 155. 378. Richard. 214. 339. 257. 226. 61. Susan. 395. 176. 177. 177. 74 Glucksberg. 208. 81. 197–199.. 216 Gilot. 179. 413. 377 Deutscher. Ellen. 216 Eerden. 272. 262. 330. 331. 175. 21. 247. 251–254. 279. 446 Fein. 29. John. 320 Eggertsson. 348.. 13. 8. 91. 27.. 20. 51. 261 Grady. Claes. 8. 13. 98. 260. 445 Gilmartin. 181 Davies. 248. 232 Fodor. Caroline. Charles. 214 Díez Velasco. 217. 14. 430. 20. 216. 291. 191. 444 Eisenstein. 244 Feldman. 410 El Refaie. 95. 421.. 341 Goscinny. 422. Sam. 403. 330. 92. 220. 65 Day. 423 Dastjerdi. 74. Vanessa. 25. 170. 24. 321. 192. 14. 228 Goatly. 137. Dirk. 47. Johan. 139. 167 Forceville. 182 Fishbein. 214 Frick. 408. Malcolm. 46. 122. Terrence W. 288. 46 Deacon. 394. René. 13. Arthur C. 243. Roger A. 139. 99. 283. 235. 65 Fricke. 236 Gevaert. 410 Elliot. 336. 51 Entzenberg. 378. 112. 121. Jerry. 330. Wolfgang. Charles. 95. Vahid. 265. Jacques.. 158 Dines-Levy. 364 Gombrich. 291. 194 Groarke. 404. 120. 383. David. 397. 27. 32–35. George R. 181. 111. 343 Friedman. 65. 51 Gluck. 332. 152 Gioia. 29. Raymond. 153. 370. 265 Green. Olga Isabel. 150. 331. 82. 225. 60. 151. 316. 97. 245. Patricia. Anmarie. 330. Gail. Françoise. 149. 420. 341 Gentner. 249. Dedre. 140. Leo. Andrew. 332 Goossens. 88. 174. 59. 405–411. 233. 214. 257. 28. 250. 110. 334 Duncan. Martin. Gunnar. 123. 214. 155.. 336. 214 Fauconnier. 46. 423. 387. 23 Edwards. 363 Fox. 349. 266. 233–235. 261. Gray. 244. 389. 291 Gibbs. Janis L. 348. 20. 390. 95–98. 405. 52 Franke. 176. 207. 149. 423 Epstein. 444 Fornäs. 271. 8. 176 Dirven. 33. 122. Ofer. 272 Efron. 261. 280. 52 Fox. 202. 254. 14. 299. Boris. 122. 31 Goldin-Meadow. 8. Bart. 341. 64. 28. 6. 3. 421 Johnston. 349 Kriegel. 446 Kress. 65 Heinke. Sabine. 46 Holyoak. Lucy. 423 Klein. Kathrin. 393.. Lake. 50 Kaplan. 260. 430. 235. 35. 60. 340. 175–176. Feder. 192 Hubbard. Celia V. 319. 246. Ollie. 257. Jean-Noël. 243. 106. 175 Kasher. 58. 53 Hols. 139. 19–21. 422 Jakobson. Ziva. 177. 276. 181. Roman. 370 Kendon. Ulla. 4. 232. 24. Michael. 225. 20. 25. 59. 6. 53 Johnson. Adam. 348. 267. 106. 429. 329– 332. 183. 23 Koller. 169 Herold. 364 Kennedy. Mary Jo. 34. 243. 5. 421. Sabine de. Uriah. 61. 122. 9. 169 Humphries. 26. 11. Bipin. Gitte. Veronika. 132. 269. 174. 99.175–176. Eva. 105 Köller.Author index Grondelaers. 23 Holt. 245. 336–338. 272. Naomi. 121. 250.. Silva. 225. 299. 97. 50 Kunda. 65 Hayward. 29. 24. Douglas B. 51 Haser. Reynald. 12. Lisbeth S. 24. Marloes. 65. 79–80. Zoltán. 154 Kristiansen. 332.. Edith. 377. 345. George. 322. 429. 46. 111. Stefan. 28. 265–267. 309. 35. 104. Mark. 280. 244 Keller. Christopher. 250. 330. 317. 319. 34. 179. 415 Jeulink. 344–345. 445–447 Johnson. 317. 349. 46. 331. 96. 98. Wilhelm. 21 Haferland. 232. 64. 198. 13. 139. 57 Kittay. 163. 32 Heckler. 267. 64. 298.. 335. 249. 445. Dietmar. 254. 50 Ladewig. 291 Grusin. 256. 179. Gunther. 258 463 Kapferer. 175. 313. Catherine. 14 Hatch. 23. 132. 244 Killgren. 207–208. 29. Carlton. 302. 166.. 80 Huhmann. 410. 348. 430. 316 Hoeken. 98. 349. Malcolm. 259. Edward. 50. 403. 139. 268. 178 Hörschelmann. 419. 445–447 . 304 Hake. 49. 3–4. 337 Kotze. 317 Hiraga. Richard. 407. 152. 313 Lakoff. Bruce A.. 422–423. 57. 121. 249. 258. 373. 291. John M.. 19–21. 166–167. Robert E. Glyn. 121. 243–244. 280. 331 Hirschberg. Verena. 163. 313. 207–208. 361. 336– 338. 244. 14. 265–266.. 344. 330 Khordoc. 213– 214. 422–423. 51. Harald. Stuart J.. 260. 61. 340. 214 Humphreys. 181. Asha. 214 Holm. Masako. Julia. 184. 244. Debora. 261. Zacharias. 422. Susan E. 432 Indurkhya. 208 Johnson. 369 Horn. 444 Johansson. 260. 63 Knop. 52. 304. 304. 178. 250. Hans. 276. 213–214. 198. 181. Keith J. 175. 291 Kövecses. 128–129. 248. 49. 330–331. 244. 250. 79– 80. Hans. 334. 27. 247. 318. 330. 408 Harquail. 265. 248. Paul.. Ioanna.. 272. Andreas. 150 Pimentel. 313... 299.. 228 Pankhurst. Albert M. 97. 49 Laudenbach. 77 Philippe. Barbara. 21 McMahon. 34. 214 McCloud. 120. 301 Pratt. 346. David. Peter. 35 Lassen. 13. 173. 302. Graham. 19. Christine M. Émile. 20 Peirce. 248. 25. 429. 417 . 268–270. 337. Norberto. Frank. Adrian. 65 McCarthy. 446 Neumann. Stefanos. 343. 365 Lindsay. 9. 377 Peñamarín. 156. Alfons. Greg. Steve. 336. 34 Mínguez. 349 Okrent. 340 Larson. Janet. 304 Morrison. 49. 216 Mothersbaugh. George. 156. 63 O’Halloran. 330. 214 Pierrehumbert. 122. Scott. 100. 97. 14. Edward. 245. Arika. Vachel. 34. 333. 149 Perlman. 5 Oakley. 364. Anne. 364 McQuarrie. 447 Neale. 48. 10. 11. 74. Jill. 349. 173 Phillips. Ragnhild. Kay. 320.464 Author index Langacker. 365 O’Guinn. Ronald W. 283. 339. Marshall. David. 174 Pascual. 9. 182 Muniz. Jerry. Keiko. 95. 331. Irene. 29. 390 Maestri. Tony. Zouhair. Alan. 165. Eleanor. Cristina. Marcus. 334. 63 Musolff. 316 Pilkington. 13. Ralf. 430. 235 Ochs. 262. 304 Nusbaum. Klaus-Uwe. Polzenhagen. 13. 302. 332. 14. 95. 430 Moingeon. 53 Proctor.. 330. 330–332. 33 Low. 3. 98. 34. 215. Steve. 256. 214. 336. 331. 313. 416. Desmond. 25. Michael G. Stella. 348. 249. 216. 175. 34. 346. 311. 340 Matsuki. 214 Müller. 58. 113. 154 Mittelberg.. 154 McNeill. 330–333. 322. 120. 341 Loewenstein. Susan. 304. 174 Proctor. 310. 261. 12. 268 Matsunaka. Steve. 34. 57. Bertrand. 258 Mandler. 24. 332. 321 Maalej. 59 Lindsay. 331 Morris. 9. 259. 291 Mautner. 231. 430 Mumford. Glen. 348. 113.. 316. 299. 314. 64. 74. 220 Messaris. Vsevolod. Adrienne. 348. David. 14 Petrakis. Thomas C. 77 Lidov. 304–306. 50 Morford. 214 Miller. Jean. 20 Peynaud.. 65 Plumb. Ronald W. 96. Howard C. 111 Panther. 308. 149. 411. 299. 342 Papasolomou. 29 Maes. 348. 175. Esther. 420. 336. 301. 289. Todd. 214. 316. 337. David L. 95. 273. 112 Pörings. Jennifer A.. Robert. Inger. 284. 424 Lodge. 291 McLuhan. David. Gerlinde. 318– 323.. 96. 13. 330. 208. 248. 174 Pudovkin. Yoshihiro. 165. 98. 339. Cornelia. 334 Porras. 51 Pragglejaz Group. 319. 331. 139. 177 Mick. 49. 365 Ortony. Michael S. Jerry I. Andrew. 8. Charles Sanders. 62 Lehrer. 158. 95. Hartmut. 304. Ken. 320 Smith. 46. Gerard J. 377 Shore. 331. W. Joost. 24 Ruiz de Mendoza. Dan. 176 Smith. 331. 340. Gerald. 13. 378. Thomas.. 363 Turner. 170. 181. 419. 225. 390 Schirato. 11. Jay A. 406. 249. 35 Thornburg. 50. 34 Rothbart. 27 Streeck. 34. 306. 65 Schwartz. 405 Scart. 13. 61. 220. 423. 14. Christian. Paul J. Jan. 248. 106. Norman. 170 Teng. Vilayanur. 248. 52 Sweetser. 98 Taylor. 365. 261. 98. Linda L. 391. 163. 447 Slobin. Jurij. 98. Francisco. 305. 345 Talebinejad. 64. Keiko. 207. Warren. 25– 28. 336. 248. 99. Mats. 99. 5. H.W. 405. 95. 120. 222 Terkourafi. 397. Majken. 11 Ritchie. 8. José. 50 465 Speckmann. Michael. 148 Spitzer. 63 Rozik. 446 Tversky. 197. 174. Véronique. 34. 95. 139. 129. 103 Stockwell.Author index Radden. 20. 23 Soenen. 147. 342 Tillyard. 52 Richards. 406. 181 Tanaka. 53 Ramachandran. 32. 96. 8. Peter. 61. 139. 23 Shinohara. 24. 51.. 80 Ratner. 291 Shintel. 148 Taub. Mark. 52 Rohdin. Elena. 226. 20 Teßendorf. 173 Tendahl. 235. John. van. Markus. 152 Schilperoord. Michael. 330. 258 Thompson. 175.. Frank. 213. 321. 120. 28. 198. Gregory. Guillaume. Paul. 306 Sperber. Jonathan. 96. 7. Marjorie. Barry. 404. 10. 175 Semino. David. 341 Rafaeli. 97. 235. 61. Barbara. John. Paul. 214 Tomasello. 261. 197. 373. 330. 13. 323 Thagard. 139. 421. 338. 369 Thibault. 7. W(illiam) B(edell). 214. 48 Scott. 29 Singer. 23. 228. Sarah. 208 Salt. 322. 178 Schultz. Peter. 10. 13. 96. 151. Michael. 220. Leonard G. 8. Dan I.. 182. 423 Ricoeur. Yeshayahu. Linda. Myron. 191. 248. 299. 8. 139. 445 Stöckl. 377. 35 Stanford. 28. 96. 284. 407.. Priscilla. 305. 27 Tom. 151. 181. 408 . 149. 259. 364 Rayson. Sedinha. 273. 330. 304. 35. 304. 334 Shen. 337. 12 Shapiro. 63 Templin. Eve E. 149. 256.. Ivor Armstrong. 139. 192 Rogers.. John. 33. Tony. Sewen. 339. E. 23 Tynjanov. 318. Reza. 332 Strunck. 336 Taylor. 330. Bradd. Charlotte. 14. Günther. 187. 404 Steen. 122. 111. Kristin. 268–270. Jürgen. 411. 9.. 429 Rompay. 97. M. 420 Thorau.M. 319 Shotter.. Gail. 110. 415. Eli. Anat. 149. Paul. 98. 13. 29. 214 Seitz. Hadas. Kazuko. 236 Shibles. 51 Simons. 348. 49 Sun. 214. 222 Swales. Marina. 34. 176 Thomas. 231. 169. 20. 410. Jeanne. 100. 96. 336 Wee. 175 Vestergaard. 50 Whittock. 61. Margot. 422. 32 . Eduardo. Theo. 47. 151. 331 Willenbrock. 112 Van Dijk. 299. Phyllis P. 13. 319. Philip. Linda. Fiedrich. Teun A.. 214 Worth. Deirdre. Laura.. 291 Yus. Rosa.466 Author index Uderzo. 112 Wolff. 65. 100. 169. 334. 10. 98. Eija. Richard. Beatrice. 10. 214. HansGeorg. 129. Katie. 214 van Leeuwen. 299. 390 Zakia. 175. 55 Urios-Aparisi. 152 Wittgenstein. Lawrence. 335. 152. 331. 96. 359. 147. Francisco. Albert. 13. Sol. Jean-Pierre. Torben. 34 Wilcox. 178. 139. 376. Rolf. 8. Richard D. 408 Warren. 23 Vega-Moreno. 348. 152. 7. 363. Renske. 35. 299. Justo. 34. 34 Versante. 14. 49 Van Enschot-van. 59. 13. 168 Ventola. 377 Zwaan. 332. 126. 98 Wattanasuwan. 348 Van Mulken. John. 249. 404 Yamanaka. 49 Villafañe. Rebecca. 24. 270 Yu. 370. 178 Webb. Dijk. 365. 214 Van Noppen. 330. 5. 13. 8. 48. 339 Wilcox. 429 Wiggin. Ruth. 48 Wolf. 51 Waugh. 348. 7. 346. 335 Ward. 177 Zbikowski. 62 Williams. 247. 95. 245. 261 Ungerer. 154 Wales. 258 Wilson. 80. 24. 28. Trevor. Ning. Kritsadarat. 155. 304. 150. Janet. 365. 430 Webb. 244. Jen. 98. Amy A. 161. 13. Thomas Tan Tsu. 5. 331. 248. 376 Wodak. 34. 132. 8... 28. Harald. 250. 12. 148. Keiichi. Sherman. 97. 309 Vervaeke. 248. Ludwig. 53. 267. 258. 65 BUILDINGS ARE RUBBISH. COOKIE IS PERSON DOING FITNESS EXERCISES. BRIDE AND GROOM. 431 COMPANIES ARE LIVING ORGANISMS. 56. 441 ANGER IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL. 107. . CONTAINER. 198 ANGER IS A BURDEN. 256. ANGER IS SWELLING. 290. 64 BRANDS ARE PEOPLE. 256. BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL IS 107. 122. 61. 345 31 ABSTRACT A IS CONCRETE B. 259. 280. BOOK IS MEDICINE. 396 CORNCOB AND FRENCH BEAN ARE 446 AUTHORITIES HIDING BEHIND BUREAUCRACY IS CLERK BEHIND BOOK. 60–62. 422 ABSTRACT AS CONCRETE. 345 422 CONCRETE IS CONCRETE. 48 CARS ARE FISH. 223 COUNTRY IS PATIENT. 422 388. COUNTRY IS LITTLE BAD BOY. 258 ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A 225 THE BOOK IS A BALL. 51–53. 46. 100. STRUCTURE. 265. (PRESSURIZED) CONTAINER. 140 ABORTING IS UNKITTING A BABY BOOTIE. 259 ANGER IS A CAPTIVE ANIMAL. 273. 283. 128. 337. 238. 278. 388 CATEGORIES ARE CONTAINERS. 339 ACTIONS ARE (SELFPROPELLED) MOTIONS. 338. 259 ANGER IS FIRE. 386. 279 ANGER IS GASTRIC CONTENTS IN THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 159 CAR IS A (LONGJUMP) ATHLETE. 164 121. ANGER IS THE HEAT OF A FLUID IN A 385. 291 ANGER IS AN OPPONENT (IN A STRUGGLE). 271. 109 176. 244. 417. 389 COLIN IS A CHILD. 248 181 27 27 ANGER IS OBJECTS IN THE HEART. 396 223. ANGER IS HEAT. 110 AMERICAN NEWS IS LIKE HORROR NOVEL. BAD IS DOWN. 338 COFFEE MACHINE IS BUTLER. 30 COFFEE MAKER IS MOTORCYCLE. 110 386. 57. *ACTION FOR OBJECT INVOLVED IN ACTION. 130. 243. 248. 104.338 CONCRETE A IS CONCRETE B. 131 AFFECTION IS WARMTH. 27 CONTENTS ARE CONTAINERS . DOWN. 161 BRANDS ARE LIVING ORGANISMS. 313 BICYCLE IS DRESSAGE HORSE. 47. 259. 122. 317 163. 247. CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE IS GEOMETRIC PHYSICAL CAR IS PERSON. 258. THE BALLOT BOX IS A DICE. 157. 229 COUNTRY IS ANGRY TEACHER. 30 COFFEE MACHINE IS SERVANT . 110 106.Metaphor and metonymy index This index contains the verbalizations used by authors to designate conceptual metaphors and *metonyms A PURPOSEFUL LIFE IS A JOURNEY. 277. 6. 102. 280 ANIMAL IS HUMAN BEING. 225. LIFE IS A BURDEN. 26. 133. 289 26. 338. 345 HUMAN (BEING) IS ANIMAL. 176. 442 HUMAN VICTIMS ARE KANGAROOS. 127– 129. 8. 317 GREAT CHAIN OF BEING. 205 162. 29. DEATH IS A DEVOURER. 26. 441 HUMAN VICTIMS ARE CATTLE. 437. 126. 139 LIFE IS BONDAGE. 433. *EFFECT FOR CAUSE [Relaxation for Drinking Tea]. 394 HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL. 20. 120. 406 406. 345 LIFE IS A JOURNEY. 408. 138. FOOTBALL IS SUN. 125. 139. 119. LIFE IS A STAGE. EYES ARE CONTAINERS FOR THE EMOTIONS. 179. 136. 13. 130. 35. 126 THE DEPLOYMENT OF ARMED FORCES 203 167 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH IS AN ABYSS. 181. 270. 258 FINANCIAL SUCCESS IS NATURAL GROWTH. 98. 339 LOUDER IS BIGGER. 256. 11. 408 . DOWN. 55 220. 176. INTENSITY IS QUANTITY. MACHINE IS MOLOCH. 110 GOOD IS UP. 134. 26. 109. 257 INTENSITY IS SPEED. 221 *GARMENT FOR PERSON [Baby bootie for baby]. 441. 429– 431. 279 LOVE IS A JOURNEY. 54. THE DIRECTION OF THE ECONOMIC TREND IS THE DIRECTION OF THE ARROW AS IT IS VIEWED FROM EITHER THE BUSINESS PERSON’S POSITION OR THE LABORER’S POSITION IN THE UNCONVENTIONAL SPATIAL FRAME. 446 HUMAN (BEING) IS DOG. 102. 283. 318 317 KNOWN IS DOWN. 419 LIFE IS A PLAY.468 Metaphor and metonymy index 157 HAVING CONTROL IS UP. 441 235. 9 EMOTION IS FORCE. 437 HUMAN VICTIMS IN CAR ARE DEAD ARMADILLO IN STREET . 131. 7. 421 INTENSITY IS HEAT. 102. THE EARTH IS A SAUCEPAN. 250. 103 EMOTION IS EXTERNAL METEOROLOGICAL/NATURAL PHENOMENON THAT SURROUNDS THE SELF. 342 (THE INSTITUTION OF) CINEMA IS MOLOCH. 122. 103 *EMBLEM FOR PRODUCT [Tea Tag for Tea]. 65. 273. 26. MACHINE IS MONSTER. 136. 107. AGAINST TERRORISM IS AN INFINITY DEPLOYMENT IN A VAST GEOGRAPHICAL AREA. 271. 300 LOW STATUS IS DOWN. 340. *LOCATION FOR OBJECT. 176. 163. 290 268 EMOTIONS ARE FORCES. 7. 436. CULTURE IS A PAPER SERVIETTE. 257 INTRODUCING AN IDEA IS PRESENTING AN OBJECT. IDEAS ARE (PHYSICAL) OBJECTS. 433. 345 HIGH STATUS IS UP/LOW STATUS IS 407 *DEGREE OF MOTIVATION FOR SUCCESS IS SIZE OF HEART. 444–446 HUMAN VICTIM IS ANIMAL RESOURCE. 337. 313. 27 HAPPY IS UP. 437. 130. 103. REAL CANNON IS CIRCUS CANNON. 391 PURPOSES ARE DESTINATIONS. 341 *PLACE FOR INSTITUTION. 222 SUCCESSFUL IS BIG. 128. 377 *PART FOR WHOLE [Car front for Car]. 422. 7. 229. NEGATIVE IS DOWN. 225. 189. 344. 228. 225 POLITICIAN IS TODDLER. See HUMAN IS ANIMAL and PERSONS ARE ANIMALS MASSACRE IS RELIGIOUS RITUAL. 180 STATE OF BEING IS ORIENTATION IN VERTICAL SPACE. 99. STATES ARE LOCATIONS. 406. 230 POSITIVE IS UP. 106 PERSON IS CAPTIVE ANIMAL. 201 438. 137 PUBLIC SCHOOL IS ARMY. MISGUIDED BELIEF IS AN OPPOSITE 201. 384. 422. 317 POWER/HIGH STATUS IS UP. MENTAL STATE IS FAST TRAIN. 345 *PROTOTYPICAL ITEMS OF A CULTURE STAND FOR THAT CULTURE. 217 OBJECT A IS OBJECT B. 180. SWIRLING WINE IS SWIRLING BALLET DANCER. 469 410. ONE’S HEART.Metaphor and metonymy index MACHINES ARE PEOPLE. THREAD. 99 PEACE IN THE MIDDLE EAST IS AN STREETS RUNNING WITH BLOOD ARE 200. 412 392. 137 SIMILARITY IS ALIGNMENT. 107. 188. SPACE. 8. 110 SPACE-IN-FRONT IS FUTURE. 128 POLICY IS DISH. 109. 129. PITCH RELATIONSHIPS ARE RELATIONSHIPS IN PHYSICAL MAKING A DECISION IS PULLING A 107–110 MAN IS AN ANIMAL. 385 MOTHER RUSSIA IS HEADLESS PERSON. 226 MEASURE/POLICY IS COOKING POT. 177. 234 MEN CHASING COAT ARE MEN PLAYING RUGBY. 226 MEASURE IS INGREDIENT. 416. 122. 392 MEASURE IS COOKING EQUIPMENT. 197. MAP SPILLED WITH INK. 86 . OIL IS INTRAVENOUS DRIP. 105. POLITICAL DOMAIN/PUBLIC AREA IS HOSPITAL ROOM. POT. 104. 441 PERSONS ARE ANIMALS. 422 MULTINATIONALS ARE DRIP. ONE’S MENTAL CAPACITY IS SIZE OF 127 362 128–130. 130. 339 *SALIENT FEATURES OF A THING STAND FOR THAT THING. 393 THE MIND IS A MACHINE. 209 SOFT COLOR IS WARMTH. 140 SUMMER TV PROGRAMMING IS (LIKE) LEFT BEHIND PET. 409 133. 208. 191 POLITICIAN IS DOCTOR. 202 MOBILE PHONE IS PIANO. 134. BODY ORIENTATION. ENDANGERED SPECIES. 161 20 226 361. 225 POLITICAL MOVEMENT IS MEDICINE. 390. 391 *REPRESENTATION FOR REPRESENTED. 362 226. 233 317 NEW VOTING SYSTEM IS COOKING 233–235 28 216. MINISTER IS COOK. MIND IS BODY. 140 SUCCESSFUL IS UP. 414 WORKERS ARE SLAUGHTERED OXEN. 179 199 464 TV PROGRAMS ARE GARBAGE. 317 84 87 345 WINE IS A BALLERINA. WINES ARE PIECES OF CLOTHING. 495 ARTEFACT. 421 WORKERS ARE SHEEP. 76 418. 165 26 179 26 WINES ARE GEOMETRICAL ENTITIES.470 Metaphor and metonymy index UNKNOWN IS UP. 419. 77 WINES ARE JEANS. 411 . 88 77 83 TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT. 77 77 THE TENNIS RACKET IS A SHARK’S WINES ARE BUILDINGS. TEA TAG IS A HYPNOTIZER’S WATCH. TSUNAMI IS SHARK. WINE IS LIVING ORGANISMS. WINE IS A BABY. WOMEN ARE ANGELS. 185 TIME PASSING IS MOTION. JAW. 26 TIME IS MOTION THROUGH SPACE. WINES ARE PEOPLE. TIME IS A THIEF. WINE IS A THREEDIMENSIONAL 394. SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES ARE GEOMETRIC PHYSICAL STRUCTURE. WINE IS A TEXTILE 102–104 TENT IS TRAIN. TIME IS A MOVER. TIME IS A DEVOURER.