Muhammad Black Arabs China Site

Prophet Muhammad and the Black Arabs: The Witness of Pre-Modern Chinese SourcesBy Wesley Williams, PhD © 2011 Wesley Williams 1. Introduction China has a remarkable Sinophone Muslim community, the Hui, which is at least 1300 years old and may actually go back to the time of the Prophet Muhammad (d. 632) who, according to Chinese Muslim tradition, is supposed to have sent ambassadors to China to teach Islam [Lipman 1997; EI2 s.v. al-Sin]. Numbering around nine million today, this Chinese Muslim community began as Arab (and later Persian and Central Asian) migrants (diplomats, traders, soldiers) during the T‟ang dynasty (618-907) who settled, married local women and, through a long and gradual process of assimilation and acculturation, became nearly totally sinicized [Leslie, 1998; idem, 187; Israeli, 1979; Lipman, 1997]. This community of Islam is remarkable on a number of accounts: (1) While Islam arrived in China around the same time Judaism and Christianity did, these latter along with other nonindigenous religious traditions like Manichaeism failed to survive the purge of all things foreign by and during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Islam not only survived this purge, but prospers, a fact that continues to raises questions for researchers. (2) Chinese Islam survived and prospers despite its near-total isolation from the centers of Islamic spirituality and learning in the Middle East [Chuah, 2004]. It was not until the 18th-19th centuries that Chinese Muslim scholars had access to enough Arabic and Persian literature to develop a Muslim apologetic literature of their own and a Chinese translation of the complete Qur‟an did not appear until the 19th century [Peterson, 2006]. What has sustained Islam in this sometimes hostile environment for so long? Despite this geographical and intellectual isolation, but also because of it, Chinese annals and Hui traditions prove to be an important alternative source of information for a reconstruction of early Arabian Islam. In particular, the relevant pre-Modern Chinese sources – Muslim religious literature as well as official dynastic histories – confirm what we learn from the Western Christian (Crusader) sources and the Late Antique and Medieval Jewish sources: that the Arabs that erupted out of Arabia in the seventh century were black-skinned Arabs, likely the descendants of the African(Proto-) Semites who entered the peninsula maybe as far back as the eighth millennium B.C.E. [See Williams 2011: 5-9]. These non-Arabic sources - nonMuslim and Muslim - challenge popular conceptions about Arabs and Islam that are mainly based on late Arabic and Persian Muslim literature and iconography. On the other hand, these sources agree with an earlier Arabic tradition wherein Arabs self-identify as black [Ibid: 9-11]. 1 red hair. with his hands clasped and murmuring prayers. in obedience to the heavenly portents?” The Emperor then said: “At midnight I dreamed of a turbaned man and a demon which had a black face. pursued the demon closely. and in distressful voices pleaded for forgiveness. a jeweled girdle of jade encircled his loins. Now. His clothes were white and powdered. his moustache and beard were cut off.e. chasing after a demon. 629-649). saying: “In the night. his whiskers stood outward.e. China). on his head was a plain hat. large and prominent teeth. totally unlike ordinary men. His land is rich and powerful.” the Emperor continued. He woke up and was puzzled by the dream. „the Middle Kingdom (i. I also saw in the West a felicitous light brightly manifested and encircling the Tzu wei star as a wall of protection. I saw a strange and evil appearance which impinged on the Tzu wei star. in the evening of the 18th of the third month. for he knew not what it foretold. he (the turbaned man) indeed had a strange countenance. The Imperial Astronomer respectfully reported to the Emperor.” Thereupon the diviner of dreams reported: "The turbaned man is a Huihui (i. he had phoenix eyebrows. his face was the color of black gold. Muhammad: Chinese Islam’s Black Prophet The Hui have a foundation myth that both recounts the origin of Islam in Zhong Guo. and at the sound of a voice the turbaned man disappeared. the Emperor in his sleep dreamed that a turbaned man came running into the palace grounds. The man in the turban. But the turbaned man read on for a little. a high nose and black eyes.heirs to a dual legacy of civilizational greatness. It was no doubt revised during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911). his ear lobes reached his shoulders. as might be that of a sage descending to the palace. His presence was awe-inspiring and dreadful to behold.‟ and also seeks to provide meaning to Chinese Muslim existence as both Chinese and Muslim . When the demons saw him they were at once changed into their proper forms. This popular myth. short and even. out beyond the Jiayu Pass. as I observed the appearance of the heaven.2. reading the book he held in his hand. would it not be well for your Majesty to send a messenger to enquire. Muslim) from the Western Region. To look on. The demon 2 . and around it a cloth turban like a coiled dragon. “whether this be a good or an ill omen I‟m sure I don‟t know. When he entered he knelt towards the West. In the Third Year of Zen Guan [Tai Zong] of the Tang Dynasty (r. On the following day he assembled all the officials of the court to discuss the matter. I opine that in the west there must be a sage who can control the threatened evil. till the demons turned to blood and at last to dust. and was of very evil appearance generally. called Huihui yuanlai („Origins of the Hui‟) circulated in several oral versions among different Chinese Muslim communities before being committed to writing sometime during the Ming. and I feared this might portend trouble for the Empire. The kingdom of Arabia is ruled by a Muslim king of great knowledge and virtue. " The Emperor did as was advised.E. The literary use of the motif of “the Emperor‟s Dream” to justify a faith newly introduced to China also appears in legendary accounts of the origin of Buddhism in China. [He travelled to Mecca and saw the Prophet Muhammad]. Qays). 2006.000 Muslim soldiers to accompany the turbaned elder in China. it was clearly to be told him that no one was to worship the picture… The Emperor received them with full honors. by his request. which you will only be able to dispel with the help of a Huihui"… The general reported: "The Huihui are impeccably honest in their dealings. [Broomhall. This myth is a „community biography. according to which emperor Han Mingi (57-75) in 64 C. 204. 1929: 53].‟ aimed at legitimizing Arabian Islam within a Chinese cultural and political environment [Benite. such as the eighth century rebellion of An Lushan against the Chinese emperor Xuan Zong (712-756) which brought. 2001: 192. Mason. 1966 (1910): 68.entering the palace grounds surely means that there is evil lurking. The Emperor was delighted. 1966 (1910): 64-67. You may send an emissary to the Western Region to see the Muslim king. and request the services of an enlightened one (zhenren) to keep the portended evil at bay. 1985: 12] The apocryphal nature of this story is fairly obvious to those familiar with Chinese history and religious literature [Israeli. The Muslim king was delighted upon receiving the letter. Uways and (Sa‟d b. Nevertheless. These 3. which could be likened to the Five Classics of China. who when he sees it. and are the ancestors of the followers of Islam in China today. He then expounded the difference between Eastern and Western ritual and teachings. 2002: 62]. 2001: 191. they will serve you loyally and with no care for reward. 2004: 85. 1907: 64]. 1929: 46-53. Parker. Mason. It is also the case that references to events that occurred much later can be discerned in this story. had a dream of a person from the West identified by an interpreter as Buddha. If you meet with them peacefully. and asked what were the ritual and scriptural differences between his land and China. will naturally understand (about the dream)…” He then charged the official that when the portrait was given to the king of T‟ang. Broomhall. Muhammad said to the official: “When you return to China take with you my portrait to give to the king of T‟ang. and so selected 3. Abī Waqqās) to China to offer their services. and sent the senior official Shi Mingtang on a mission to present a letter to the Muslim king. Israeli. The turbaned man (Sa‟d or Qays) replied that the revealed scripture of the Western Region was called the Quran. and sent with the official his senior disciples (Thabit b.000 T‟ang soldiers to move to the Western Region. The Emperor thus sent envoys to the Indus region to find out all about the new religion [Israeli. in exchange for 3. Garnaut. 3000 Muslim soldiers to China who settled their and whose descendants became a part of the nucleus of the developing Hui community.000 Muslims had countless descendants. there is undoubtedly a 3 . Lunde. 300-270 B. al-Tha„labī. 2006: 81-82]. refined blackness (sawad al-takrūr). In the latter context. though late. Ibn Manzur. 9]. what is that to me? So are coals. Like the complexion of the people of India. What could this possibly mean and what is the source of this very eccentric Chinese description of Islam‟s prophet? Black gold. Singularly arresting is the description of his color: black gold. XVIII: 251-253].g. is. and gave rise to the metaphoric use of coal (another „black gold‟) to describe Ethiopian blackness. brown and black (asmar wa ādam). 1955-1956. but when we burn them. IV: 209. one of several „colored golds‟ used for jewelry.C. [al-Dhahabī. Stratanovich. 2011: 2 n. See e. a black complexion that is imbued with a luminosity or glow [Williams. Muhammad. Shāms al-Dīn Abū `Abd Allāh al-Dhahabī (d. 2011: 245. 1981-1983: 563). also suggests a „black luminosity. 1992. the date of the earliest extant Arabic Islamic literature. 4 . is abyad [Williams. i. contra Badawī. 1999: 119.) who wrote concerning a certain Didyme: Gazing at her beauty I melt like wax before fire. 1992. As eccentric as such a description may seem vis-à-vis the popular. VII: 124. 2011: 23-24]. 1955-1956. 1348). 1971: 42-43 (Dyer. 1991:336]. 1965. 2011: 25-28]. 5.‟ viz. This is the ideal of beauty in early Arab society [al-Zabīdī.‟ they mean a golden brown complexion with a black appearance (al-hintī al-lawn bi-hilya sudā’). II: 574. a black complexion with a golden-brown undertone and it is a complexion free of blemish or dark patches [al-Asyuti. al-Zabīdī. a clear. This term usually means „white‟ in contexts not related to human complexion. „so-and-so is white (abyad). this Chinese description actually is curiously consistent with an earlier Arabic description. 1954: 52-66 (Dyer. But in Classical Arabic there are several distinct „blacknessess‟ or „shades of blackness‟ [alAsyuti. If she is black. Abyad. however. II: 574. Sushalo. they shine like fire [Anth.„grain of truth‟ underneath all of the apologetic accretions [Hongxun. 1985. like the black gold analogy. Pal. One quite fascinating piece of this grain of truth is no doubt the remarkable description of the turbaned Muslim who appears in the Emperor‟s dream and who turns out to be the Prophet Muhammad himself (See Endnote 1). XVIII: 251. Arabic/Persian description found in the more central Muslim lands according to which Muhammad is ruddy white [see Williams. the words of the epigrammatist Ascelepiades (fl.E. When Arabs say. 1981. 1973]. 1965. II: 168] Abyad. Shivtiel. 1981-1983: 563)]. is gold with a black oxidide layer resulting from a cobalt component and heat treatment.210]. by antiphrasis abyad frequently means black [Stewart.e. According to the important Syrian hadith scholar and historian of Islam. Ibn Manzur. the most common descriptor of Muhammad. The most common description of the Prophet in Arabic sources of the ninth century. Abyad is a particular shade or „type‟ of blackness. like this black gold. and a white turban was around his head. how is it that Chinese Islam clung to this black-skinned Arab Muhammad for so long? The Chinese myth is difficult to date. ruddy white-skinned [see Williams 2011:25-28]. and a brown face. Vollers. certainly by the early Qing [Leslie. However. 1994: 237.v. Muhammad: here he is brown complexioned. but also because in Arabic coal is euphemistically called abyad [EI2 s. 1999: 129. He had deep eye sockets.This association of ethnic blackness with coals alit is relevant here. But this general description of Muhammad as a very dark-skinned Arab more or less completely disappears from the Arabic literature of a later period and is replaced by what will become the orthodox and popular description of Muhammad: abyad musrab bi-humra. 1923:274]. Benite. 2006. Asmar is a color term denoting a dark brown. 1622). Daye and Youssef. 2011: 20]. the two descriptions of the Arabian prophet that feature in the central and most wide-spread myth of Chinese Islam – indeed the defining myth – precisely correspond to the two descriptions we meet with in the early Arabic literature. though the narrative as we currently find it is apocryphal and its 5 . but a printed version of it was probably in circulation in the late Ming period (ca. 2004: 83] While this version of the myth continues in a way similar to the above. but it was intercepted and pushed back by the right hand of a man. Therefore. He had a towel draped over his should and a water kettle in his left hand. 2004: 84]. 2006: 144. It is thus unsurprising that we find in this Hui myth the black gold complexion of the Prophet in implied contrast to the black and generally evil appearance of the demon. Being that the black-skinned Muhammad completely disappears from the Arabic Islamic tradition and is almost totally forgotten. not only because „black gold‟ is a common metaphor for coal. [Li and Luckert. Thus. a high nose bridge. 1910: 88]. 1981: 55. Leslie. legends such as this are the material of oral literature. There is an alternative version of this myth of the Chinese Emperor‟s dream that is relevant also: One night the Emperor Tai Zong of the Tang dynasty dreamt that a roof beam of his golden palace was collapsing. and the earliest written accounts represent only the endpoint of a long process of oral narrative development [Garnaut. The man wore a green robe. our attention is drawn to the description of the turbaned Muslim. Stewart. Mālik and „Abd Allāh b. and that the ruddy-white Muhammad becomes universally recognized throughout Muslim and non-Muslim literature and iconography. „Abbās the Prophet is described as having a “beautiful brown-complexioned (asmar) body” [See sources in Williams. as Anthony Garnaut reminds us. 2006]. The roof beam nearly smashed his head. Lawn]. 1996: 199. Benite. Garnaut. It should be noted here that in early Arabic society a beautiful. clear and luminous blackness was distinguished from an „ugly‟ blackness. blemished by excessiveness due to scorching [Ibn al-Faqīh al-Hamadānī. This too is consistent with what we find in the Classical Arabic tradition. 1999: 111-112. al-Dimashqī. In two reports on the authority of the famous Companions Anas b. short of black [Borg. Abī Waqqās (d. anti-Arab sentiment which ultimately „de-Arabized‟ Muhammad by transfiguring him into a ruddy-white Persian [Williams. 6 . these have lacunae as it relates to Sa‟d. was a virulent anti-black. 1922: 3. which was commenced in 1370 and published in 1461. These processes seem to have had minimal impact on Chinese Islam at the time this myth of the Emperor‟s Dream was canonized and popularized. though obviously not on the instruction of Muhammad who had been dead for several years by then [Pickens. This account of Chinese Islam‟s origin is also found in official records. Sa‟d b. al-Sin. While such an embassy is not mentioned in the extent Arabic historical sources. such as the Ming dynasty‟s official history Ming Shi. 2006]. These shifts had a general de-Arabizing effect on Islam. it seems to have been minimally impacted by the major intellectual.g.e. as Persian and other non-Arab converts became the main shapers of Islamic tradition following the Revolution. This Old Arabic description of Muhammad as a dark-skinned Arab is no doubt a part of the ancient Muslim tradition that was brought to China early. coupled with the standard Muslim tradition that he died in al-Aqīq and was buried in Medina [EI2 s. where Arab and Persian maritime merchants formed communities as far back as the Tang dynasty (618-907). 2006]. the conqueror of Persia and founder of Kufa. despite some sporadic intercourse. other than the relatively late documentation. The main reasons. The assumption by Western scholars that Sa‟d “never came to China” is baseless. 1966 (1910): 77-79. are two: (1) the impossible dates offered in the various versions of the narrative (e. and it is precisely during this period (i. 3. The stele mentions briefly: “In the Kaihuang reign (581-600) of the Sui.v. Because Chinese Islam was. and demographic shifts that occurred in the Muslim heartlands following the „Abassid Revolution of the eighth century. there is a stele commemorating the rebuilding of the mosque in 1348 during the Yuan dynasty (1206-1368). Sa’d b. 1980: 95]. intellectually isolated from the main centers of Islam. came to China on instructions from the Prophet and introduced Islam there [See Ma. Jun-yan. 650) that this embassy likely happened (see below). the oldest mosque in China located in Dingzhou city. Broomhall. His activities between 648 and 653 are unrecorded. 1942: 203].e. The latter argument is unpersuasive. 664). Mason.” Nevertheless.historical context is late [Ma. culturally. our Companion Sa‟d Waqqas (Sa Ha Bo Sa Ha Di Wo Ge Si) first brought the teaching to China.v. There is a tomb built in his honor in Guangzhou in southeastern China. it certainly incorporates ancient Muslim tradition. EI2 s.” The is the oldest documented reference to the canonical Hui legend according to which the maternal uncle of the prophet Muhammad. Hebei Province (in eastern China). Abī Waqqās: Chinese Islam’s Black Saint On the Dingzhou Mosque.g. among other things. between 581-600). most scholars reject this claim as completely legendary [e. 2011]. Sa‟d b. There it is stated: “Sahib Sa‟d Waqqas came to China in the years of K‟ai Huang of the Sui Dynasty (i. Abī Wakkās]. Muhammad sending Islamic ambassadors ten years before he had his Prophetic call) and (2) the lack of Arabic documentation of a trip by Sa‟d to China. Newly introduced into Islamic society. E. He was the first of Yathrib to swear allegiance to Muhammad. flat-nosed and tall [al-Dhahabī. but it also probably has an accurate date underneath it. Leslie. – 220 C. 1985.E. Their alleged tombs in Guangzhou and Hami. before the second century B. Sa‟d and another Arab ambassador. 1942: 208. Hui tradition and Chinese official records thus agree. the date most commonly offered in the Hui sources for this embassy. sent an embassy to China appealing to the T‟ang emperor. however. grandson of Chosroes and Sasānian ruler of Persia. Wahb and uncle of Muhammad. Jun-yan. Formal relations with Arabia.) Chinese trading ships had anchored in the Gulf and traded with Arabs. Thabit b. T‟ai-tsung. It is now know that the conversion of Muslim lunar dates to the Chinese luni-solar calendar introduced a twenty-one/two year error into the Chinese retelling of Islamic history. 1990: 409-411. Hongxun. Over thirty Persian embassies from 455 to 651 are noted in Chinese sources and trade and diplomacy flourished between the two countries. as it relates to the rise of Islam are certainly found in the dynastic annals and should not surprise us [Wakeman. cousin of the prophet‟s mother. made a similar appeal in 650. 2011: 16-17]. 1998: 11 and below).E. Hongxun. 1929. Amīna bt. 1871]. Chinese-Persian relations were quite intimate before the rise of the Muslim Arabs.) with caravan reached Arabia ca. n. 1997: 25. As late as the fifth century C. 628. al-Qays. Sa‟d b.). 1985].Nor is the chronological problem insurmountable. When corrected for this error. which was contemporary with the rise and zenith of Arabian/Islamic power [Baojun. Gladney. This is not surprising. 628. suggesting that they “have a foundation in fact” [Pickens. a notoriously black tribe [see Williams. Xinjiang are holy centers to which distressed Believers travel seeking blessings and praying for protection [Garnaut.E. I:97]. Yazdigird‟s son and the last Sasānian ruler. Drake. 176]. al-Qays was chieftain of Banū Khazraj. during the Liu-Sung dynasty (420-479 C. for assistance against the Arabs who had invaded his realm. 206 B. The Black Arabs in Official Chinese Records China had contacts with Western Asia as early as the pre-Imperial Period. Envoys of the Han dynasty (206 B. Abī Waqqās. Sa‟d certainly the holiest.E. was from the Banū Zuhra and was thus described as black-skinned (ādam).C. the Chinese Muslim date of the embassy. These saints of Chinese Islam were black-skinned Arabs. According to Hui tradition. idem. began only with the T‟ang dynasty (618 -907 C. are among the forefathers of the Hui. These two famous black Arabs are considered the forefathers of Islam in China and are among Chinese Islam‟s most holy figures. Thabit b. 2006. Persian (Mazdean) temples were 7 . the basic claim that Islam first came to China in the seventh century with an Arab embassy (that included Sa‟d) has nothing militating against it [Lipman. 1998: 3]. Even though the Hui tradition undoubtedly has legendary accretions. 1943: 23. Bretschneider. 1981. In 638 Yazdigird III.C. In addition. becomes 649-650 and agrees precisely with the date we get from the official annals for such an embassy (Leslie. 2001: 80. second only to Muhammad. Errors. 4. 1980: 91. 1987: 497-500].E.C. chronological and otherwise. Fīrūz. is likely wrong on the surface.E. As a high official Tu yu would have had access to governmental archives. but did send an embassy to the third Caliph Uthman to plead the case of his Persian ally. obtained swords and killed…the men of the country have large noses. Sasānian Iran. and the latter‟s overthrow of the former. Uthman sent an embassy to China in 650 bearing tribute. 1990: 892-904]. This latter circumstance. an encyclopedic administrative tract written by the T‟ang official Tu yu (d. modified with Wakeman.e. Arabia. the Quraysh tribe and its political division between the Banū Marwān (i. 1923]. He also used as a source the first-hand account of his nephew. He was incarcerated in Iraq until 762. the Umayyads) and the Banū Hāshim (i. Tu Huan made a record of his observations of the Muslims during his incarceration. the „Abbāsids). his son. apparently with [a spirit‟s aid]. Tu Huan. and thousands of his followers were given asylum in China. some caliphal ceremonial. Fīrūz‟s appeal for assistance was made while he.‟ a history of China‟s relations with the peoples on its western frontier: Central Asia.e. 812). This was the beginning of formal relations between the Islamic and the T‟ang dynasty. though the Arabic historical tradition makes little mention of them. Northern India. when he was allowed to return to China. makes the Chinese sources that much more valuable [Gibb. and his unsuccessful siege of Constantinople. Tu Huan was taken prisoner after Arab and Chinese forces clashed at the Battle of Talas in 751. it was said that they were originally Persian Hu who. and this record was utilized by Tu yu. Behbehani. the Arab/Muslim conquests and the rise of the caliphate. no doubt a consequence of the above mentioned lacunae which characterizes the Arabic tradition. 1980: 93]. some of them are contemporary with the events they record and in general show a good awareness of the major events in the Muslim world through the reign of the „Abbāsid caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd (786-809). 1990]. Between 650 and 798 the Muslims will send thirty-nine formal embassies to China [Junyan. In return. The oldest relevant T‟ang source at our disposal is the T’ung Tien. While the Chinese records possess gaps of their own and are prone to the occasional error. 1998: 3-4]. is described in the last section. Mu‟awīya. which reads in part: During the Yung-Hui period (650-651) of the Great T‟ang dynasty. Arabia [Wakeman. After 36 years Tu yu completed the work and presented it to the throne in 801. The T‟ang emperor declined to offer military assistance. They have heavy beards and whiskers. Their country is said to be located to the west of Persia or alternatively.established in China and the relatively accurate accounts in official Chinese sources of preIslamic Persian customs and religion suggest that real communication was taking place [Leslie. One portion of the T’ung Tien is a section dealing with the „western barbarians (His jung). They are slender in shape and dark brown in color. These sources also demonstrate Chinese awareness of Arab Muslim ethnicity. These sources show Chinese awareness of: the rise of Muhammad (though the account is garbled). Tibet. like the Indians. the Roman Orient. Official Chinese records document these embassies. the first Umayyad caliph. 1989: 99. Their women are graceful and pretty [trans. called Ta-shi. 8 . the Arabs (Ta-shi) dispatched missions to China. however. d. the Chinese double-character term for the Arabs. They wear silver girdles. the Chiu T’ang shu (Old T‟ang History). The significance of this point can be fully appreciated only when we consider the following observation by scholar of Arabian ethnography Dana Marniche: “These Yemenite tribes of Tayyi and his brother Madhj were notoriously black and the early Arabic writings make clear that they also held fair-skin in derision or low regard [Marniche. Tayyi‟]. al-Sin. the dark-brown or black-skinned uncle of the prophet Muhammad [Pickens. Ta-shi.v. which properly means “Arab of the tribe of Tayyi‟”[EI2 s. Drake. Liu Hsü. 1942: 210-211]. The latter is the Persianized form of the Syriac tayyāyē. The woman are very fair and when they go out they veil the face. that their specific name became the general term for „Arab.]. 1989: 93]. Mason. But the Chinese sources distinguished between ethnic Arabs. 1910: 8. As is frequently noted. Five times daily they worship God. Abī Waqqās. in 945 and presented to the new emperor Shao-ti.” It is thus unsurprising that Ta-shi or Arabs encountered by and known to the Chinese are described as “dark brown in color. the Lakhmids of Iraq.” This embassy of dark brown Arabs that visited the Chinese court in 650 likely included Sa‟d b.This is likely the earliest extent reference to the embassy of 650. n. The men have high noses. Behbehani. was completed by the chief minister and director of National History. The Hsin T’ang shu records: Ta-shi was originally part of Persia. Some comment on this text is in order. 1989: 93]. This is no doubt the context of the “alternative” account that the Arabians were originally Persian (clients). and bearded. called Ta-shi. In 941 the Chin emperor Kao-tsu ordered the production of a full-scale dynastic history of the T‟ang.v. Behbehani. with silver knives suspended. The description of Ta-shi (Arabia) and its inhabitants is not much different from what we encounter in the T’ung Tien. doubtlessly derives from the Persian Tā-zī. 9 . This nomenclature is significant. in fact. cf. 1929: 68-69. Prior to the rise of the caliphate the Chinese considered Arabia a part of Persia. before their rise to independent power and their extinguishing of Sassānian Persia [Broomhall. This work. A century later an imperial decree went out for a revised version: the Hsin T’ang shu (New T‟ang History) was presented to the throne in 1060. They do not drink wine. are black. The Banū Tayyi‟ were a southern Arabian tribe that migrated north and who became one of the most prominent tribes in pre-Islamic Arabian history [EI2 s. The second Chinese source treating the Arabs as encountered during the T‟ang is the official T‟ang History (T’ang Shu). and ethnic Persians. called Bosi [Leslie. It had important relations with Persia and its clients. Note also that this description of the Arab as dark brown in color with an high nose and whiskers agrees with the description of Muhammad himself as recorded in Chinese Muslim tradition [above]. They were so prominent in Pre-Islamic Arabia.‟ Sogdian Persians regarded the Tayyi‟ as representative of the Arabs in general and thus designated the latter Tā-zī. nor use music [trans. 1998: 11]. 1943: 23]. Ahl al-Bayt.‟ the Umayyad dynasty and resulted in the establishment of the de-Arabized „Abbasid caliphate. He said. These pre-modern Chinese sources therefore make an immeasurable contribution to our efforts to reconstruct the „Old‟ Arab Islam. as Chinese contact with Arabs continued after the revolution of 749-750 ended Islam‟s „Arab Dynasty. A Qurayshi Arab and descendant of Muhammad. Conclusion The pre-modern Chinese records on the Arab Muslims as well as the religious traditions and memory of China‟s peculiar Sino-Muslim community support the claim that the Arabs who spread Islam from the East to the West were black-skinned Arabs.e. replaced there with a ruddy-white Persian Muhammad. He let it be known at the Chinese court that he was ahl al-bayt. The Prophet Muhammad was no exception. 5. Endnotes 1. Only after the emperor ordered an inquiry into Ibn Wahhab‟s familial claims and these were confirmed did he meet with the Arab visitor [Israeli. In the Dungan version. „family of the [Prophet‟s] house‟.” [Dyer. This consistent presentation in official Chinese sources of ethnic Arabs as black-skinned is not unexpected. Some surviving Umayyad‟s (the Umayyads were slaughtered after the success of the revolution) showed up in 760 at the court of the Chinese emperor Su Zong. and his friend. it says also: “The Great Sovereign of the Middle Kingdon (i. reportedly travelled to China in 870 and sought an audience with the emperor. Ibn Wahhab.Here again we find the Arabs described as black-skinned with high noses. 2011: 1-2]. 1929: 70-75]. 1910: 20]. 10 . the Ma hui-hui [Muhammad]. were in the main black-skinned [Williams. the monster. There is also a report that earlier some descendents of Ali (ahl al-bayt) had fled Umayyad persecution to China [Broomhall. Mason. This black-skinned Arab Muhammad all but disappears in the Arabic/Persian Muslim literature. Not only do hostile Christian sources preserve the black-skinned Muhammad. the Chinese Muslims sources do as well. 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