Source Number 1: Secondary Source Document Citation: United States. National Park Service. "Palo Alto Battlefield" National Parks Service . U.S. Department of the Interior, 29 Nov. 2015. Web. 29 Nov. 2015. Setting the stage "The jurisdiction of the United States…has passed the capes of Florida and been peacefully extended to the Del Norte." That's how President James K. Polk, in his December 1845 message to Congress, characterized the recent annexation of Texas by the United States. With that statement, Polk declared the boundary between Texas and Mexico was the Rio Del Norte or Rio Grande. Sea to shining sea Polk campaigned for the Presidency with a pledge to extend the United States to the Pacific Ocean. The addition of the Republic of Texas as the 28th state represented a major step toward that goal. A Fight for Texas The 28th star In the Spring of 1846, disputes over the ownership and boundaries of Texas pushed the U.S. and Mexico towards war. On December 29, 1845, President James K. Polk fulfilled a longstanding campaign promise by welcoming the former Republic of Texas into the Union. But Mexicans insisted Texas was rightfully part of their country. Although Texans claimed independence from Mexico in 1836, Mexican leaders had never recognized Texas sovereignty. The Mexican government still held faint hopes of regaining control of the rebellious state. They denounced U.S. annexation of Texas as an act of aggression against Mexico. Boundary questions Tensions intensified when President Polk announced the Rio Grande formed the southern boundary of Texas. While Texans maintained this river as their boundary, Mexico mapped Texas as a much smaller region bordered in part by the Nueces River. The differing views on the boundary left in dispute a huge stretch of land between the two rivers. In July of 1845, Polk sent an army led by General Zachary Taylor to Corpus Christi, on the banks of the Nueces River. Troops were officially dispatched to help defend Texas from a potential Mexican attack on Texas. But they also represented a display of power as a U.S. negotiator headed to Mexico. Tensions mount The advance of U.S. troops and Polk's new demand that Mexico sell its New Mexico and California territories infuriated Mexican President Joaquin Herrera. President Herrera refused to meet with the American envoy when he arrived but his willingness to allow him into the country brought about his ruin. In December of 1845, General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga overthrew Herrera and installed himself as President. The new president vowed to discuss nothing but the return of Texas. Polk continued to apply pressure. In January 1846, he ordered General Taylor to claim the Rio Grande as the U.S. boundary. In March, Taylor led 4,000 troops to the river's edge. Taylor's army set up camp across from the city of Matamoros and began construction of Fort Texas, the earthen fieldwork that would serve as a U.S. base. Show of force General Paredes was not swayed by this show of force. He expelled the U.S. envoy from Mexico, declared his willingness to fight, and sent thousands of troops to the city of Matamoros. In April 1846, he appointed General Mariano Arista as the commander of this growing force. Polk hesitated to respond with hostilities against Mexico. Many political foes within the U.S. questioned his claims to the Rio Grande boundary. Polk realized crossing the Rio Grande or firing the first shots might sway public opinion against his cause. Instead, he waited for Mexican forces to initiate fighting north of the river so he could portray the conflict as one of national defense. War is declared Mexican military leaders viewed U.S. occupation of the Rio Grande as an invasion of their territory and did not hesitate to cross the river. On April 25, 1846, Mexican troops overwhelmed a U.S. scout party on the north bank of the river, at Rancho de Carricitos. Word of this clash reached Washington D.C. on May 10. The news caused President Polk to announce Mexico had "spilled American blood upon the American territory". Polk demanded a response and on May 13, 1846, amid a spirit of nationalism, Congress complied and declared war. Source Number 4: Secondary Source Document Citation: United States. National Park Service. "Soldier Pastimes "National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, 29 Nov. 2015. Web. 29 Nov. 2015. Soldier pastimes Boredom the invisible enemy Think about the last time you were bored. Maybe you were surfing the channels, but there was nothing good on TV. Perhaps you were staring at the computer at work and the clock just would not move. Sweet escape With the availability of the internet, smartphones, and social media, we should never get bored! Right? Whatever your preference, these outlets offer a diversion from the stress and routine of daily life. No such luck in 1846. Chores were timeconsuming and tedious without the help of today's technology. Quick and convenient escapes, such as the TV and the internet, did not exist. Gasp! Just how did soldiers deal with the monotony of their daily routine? Battling boredom In 1846, thousands of U.S. and Mexican soldiers left the comforts of home to fight in the Mexican War. Many came looking for action and ended up battling a different enemy –boredom. Instead of live combat, they engaged in hours of drilling and repetitive fatigue duty. Boredom from the monotony of camp life soon set in. U.S. soldiers were first stationed at the small trading post of Corpus Christi, Texas. Second Lt. George Meade called Corpus a "dull and stupid place, nothing but drill and parades . . . nothing is seen or heard but the regular sound of the drum." His fellow soldiers longed for an escape. Where there's a will... Resourceful U.S. soldiers created ways to amuse themselves. With no immediate threats from the enemy, men had time to build a makeshift theater. These soldier/actors did their best. Although, 2nd Lt. James Longstreet called 2nd Lt. Ulysses S. Grant's portrayal of one of Shakespeare's leading ladies "less than convincing." The Mexican Army of the North was stationed in the northern city of Matamoros, a fortified town with beautiful gardens and farms. In the evening, soldiers watched "fair señoritas gracefully flitting their fans" in the balconies. Matamoros also had several churches and a cathedral which offered soldiers an escape from daily worries. Reading respite Most U.S. and Mexican officers were welleducated. They often spent their time writing and reading letters. Paging through copies of hometown newspapers brought memories of home. Letters were read around the campfire fire "so that one letter gave pleasure to half a dozen or more." During these tranquil moments, "all minds reverted to scenes of home." An avid reader, 1st Lt. Richard Graham asked to bring a small case of books. Col. Whistler balked at the request, stating they "couldn't encumber our [wagon] train with such rubbish as books." Another officer, claiming to be sick, asked permission to bring a keg of whiskey as a "stimulant." Whistler granted permission, as whiskey was "within reason." Whistler was later courtmartialed for drunkenness. Song & dance Singing was another popular pastime. Some U.S. soldiers formed glee clubs. Popular songs included "Hail, Columbia!" and "The Girl I Left Behind Me." In Mexican camps the "Clarín de Campaña" or Bugle Call for Battle was popular. The corrido (Mexican folk song) called on soldiers to forget their sorrows and remember the life's joys for today may be your last. During this gentleman's war, some Mexicans invited U.S. soldiers to dinners and dances. Curiosity of this foreign culture led many U.S. soldiers to accept these invitations. The bright colors and beauty of the popular fandangos attracted U.S. troops. Major Benjamin L. Beall exclaimed they were "all fun and frolic" a "brilliant night" with "brilliant girls. Know when to fold them Cards were another popular pastime for soldiers of both armies. After the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, U.S. troops occupied the Mexican city of Matamoros. They seized over 4,000 decks of Mexican playing cards from the government stores and distributed them among the troops. Soldiers were surprised to find swords, clubs, cups, and coins instead of hearts, diamonds, clubs, and spades. Lt. Dana marked the cards he mailed to his beloved wife Sue so she could "tell the suit." Mexican prisoners passed the time playing monte and tresillo. Many of these games have stood the test of time, such as poker, blackjack, cribbage, and pinochle. For some, cards and kegs of whiskey were gateways to more dangerous diversions. Traders lured soldiers into bars, bowling alleys, billiard rooms, and gambling halls. Lt. Col. Ethan Allen Hitchcock described this darker side of Corpus Christi "the day will go as other days drinking, horseracing, gambling . . ." Traders followed the soldiers deeper into Mexico, profiting the entire way. Captain Furber of the Tennessee volunteers stated "gambling rooms, where roulette tables, chuckaluck, faro, and monte‟ banks were constantly going." Gambling knows no borders In Ciudad Victoria, Furber witnessed U.S. soldiers and Mexican citizens "crowded together, the Mexican in his serape and the American in his uniform, around the roulette, rondo, or billiard tables (for in every town there were fine billiard rooms) . . . all freely bet." In Santa Fe, many U.S. soldiers squandered their pay to the "goddess" Doña Tules –the "most expert monte dealer in New Mexico." Vice to virtue One officer did not partake General Winfield Scott. To Scott, gambling and all its vices was a curse. So, Scott turned a vice into a virtue. During the U.S. occupation of Mexico City, anyone soldier or civilian caught gambling was fined. Scott raised over $9,000 in gambling fines that he later put to good use by building the Soldier's Home, "an asylum for old and disabled veterans." After the war, U.S. Army regulations strictly prohibited cards and dice. However, these regulations were rarely enforced. Maryland volunteer John Kenly contemplated "why was this gambling suffered? . . . The answer is plain;what else were they to do? If forbidden to play, order could not have been enforced." Kenly recognized the power of a pair of dice to make you forget you were thousands of miles away from home. He understood arguing over cards was an escape from the monotony of drilling and fatigue duty. Source Number 3: Secondary Source Document Citaiton: United States. National Park Service. "Women in the U.S.Mexican War."National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, 29 Nov. 2015. Web. 29 Nov. 2015. Women in the U.S.Mexican War In 1846, warfare was very much a male activity. Elder statesmen in Congress made the decision to declare war. Military men devised the strategies for waging war. Thousands of young men, some barely older than boys, took up arms and served on fields of battle. Women had very little say in the whole affair. Nevertheless, women did leave their mark on the U.S.‐Mexican War. On the home front and on the battlefront, north and south of the Rio Grande, women served their nation in a variety of ways. Camp followers Women from both countries accompanied soldiers to war, sometimes in official capacity but often by their own choice. Whether serving as cooks, laundresses, nurses, or maids, these women were usually referred to simply as "camp followers". Wives of U.S. enlisted men were allowed to travel with their husbands as cooks or laundresses. In addition, the U.S. army hired four laundresses for each company, about 65 men. Laundresses received one food ration a day and were paid based on the amount of clothing they washed. These women kept the soldiers clean, fed, and healthy. More importantly, camp followers raised troop morale and brought a bit of home to the monotony of daily camp life. Mexican women frequently accompanied loved ones serving in the Mexican Army. A U.S. soldier noted seeing "a woman of 60 or more, a mother with an infant wrapped in her rebozo (shawl), a youthful Señorita frisking along with her lover's sombrero on her head, and a prattling girl who had followed father and mother to the war." In the line of fire Most camp followers did not serve on the field of battle. However, some women took great risks in aiding soldiers during combat. Maid of Monterrey During the Battle of Monterrey, María Josefa Zozaya worked tirelessly to bring food and water to all, regardless of nationality. While gently lifting a soldier's head into her lap and binding his wounds with her own handkerchief, she was struck and killed by gunfire. U.S. soldiers buried her body "amid showers of grape and round shot." Deeply moved, U.S. soldiers praised her humanity in the midst of war. Songs and poems were written to commemorate the compassion of the "Maid of Monterrey". The Great Western U.S. women also put themselves in harm's way to support the troops. During the siege of Fort Texas, camp followers were ordered to stay in underground magazines for protection. These women worked diligently sewing sand bags to strengthen the fort. One woman, Sarah Bowman, refused to take shelter and served food and water to the troops during the siege. Even though a bullet went through her sunbonnet, she served "her boys" as they defended the besieged fort. Her determination during the siege earned her the nickname "the Heroine of Fort Brown" and the honorary title of Colonel Bowman. When she died, this courageous woman was buried with full military honors. Warriors Women like Zozaya and Bowman ended up on battlefields by chance. Others specifically sought to place themselves in the fight. Some determined women managed to join the ranks and a few even experienced combat. Elizabeth Newcome, of Missouri, participated in the conquest of New Mexico. "Bill" Newcome served as a Private in Steven Watts Kearney's Army for 10 months before her true identity was discovered. A doctor's examination of the Missouri soldier quickly revealed the private was female, and she was forced to leave. She was discharged from duty, but still received a veteran's land bounty after the war. Like Elizabeth, other women disguised themselves to serve as soldiers. Some wanted adventure, others to watch over a loved one in the ranks. Most shared the traits of the young Missouri volunteer who had a "frail constitution" and avoided all men except his brother. War comes home Some women never left home but nonetheless found themselves engaged in combat. As the war pushed south to Mexico City and west to California, combat moved into heavily populated areas. U.S. Captain William Henry saw several examples in Mexican hospitals after the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. "Beside one poor fellow," he wrote, "a beautiful girl of seventeen was seated, keeping off the flies. In another corner, a family group, the mother and her children, were seated by the wounded father." Heroine of Monterrey When her home city of Monterrey was invaded, Maria de Jesus Dosamantes donned a full Captain's uniform to "enter the ranks of the brave." Despite warnings from General Ampudia of the dangers she would face as a woman, she fought valiantly, earning the nickname the "Heroine of Monterrey." Local hero Before U.S. troops occupied the city of Los Angeles, Igania Reyes –a local elderly woman ‐ hid the city's main cannon in the reeds behind her house. Later, the cannon was retrieved and used to repel an attack by U.S. marines. The Battle of Dominguez Ranch is better known as "The Battle of the Old Woman's Gun" in her honor. Shared sacrifice Women did not need to experience combat to contribute to the war cause. One notable example was the wife of Captain John Page. When she learned of her husband's mortal wound at Palo Alto, Mrs. Page sprang into action. Determined to see her dying husband one last time, she immediately boarded a ship from Baltimore to New Orleans. There she hoped to catch a steamboat sailing for the Rio Grande. Undeterred Her plans went astray as the ship made several unscheduled stops. Upon reaching Point Isabel, she discovered her husband was en route to New Orleans. She waited almost a week for the next boat back to that city. By the time Mrs. Page finally caught up to her husband, she had become a national icon. Her journey had been followed daily in the newspapers. The Philadelphia Public Ledger praised her devotion, stating her action raised her "from the condition of wife of officer to that of a 'daughter of the Republic." On the home front Other women showed similar determination and devotion by keeping businesses and households running until their soldiers came home. When soldiers did not return, or returned wounded, they guided their families through the difficult times. Leaving their mark Although the war was waged predominantly by men, women left their mark on the U.S.‐Mexican War. On the homefront and the battlefront, with courage and determination, these women served as daughters of their republics. Source Number 2: Primary Source Document Citation:"John L. O'Sullivan on Manifest Destiny, 1839." John L. O'Sullivan on Manifest Destiny, 1839. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2015. John L. O'Sullivan on Manifest Destiny, 1839 The American people having derived their origin from many other nations, and the Declaration of National Independence being entirely based on the great principle of human equality, these facts demonstrate at once our disconnected position as regards any other nation; that we have, in reality, but little connection with the past history of any of them, and still less with all antiquity, its glories, or its crimes. On the contrary, our national birth was the beginning of a new history, the formation and progress of an untried political system, which separates us from the past and connects us with the future only; and so far as regards the entire development of the natural rights of man, in moral, political, and national life, we may confidently assume that our country is destined to be the great nation of futurity. It is so destined, because the principle upon which a nation is organized fixes its destiny, and that of equality is perfect, is universal. It presides in all the operations of the physical world, and it is also the conscious law of the soul the selfevident dictates of morality, which accurately defines the duty of man to man, and consequently man's rights as man. Besides, the truthful annals of any nation furnish abundant evidence, that its happiness, its greatness, its duration, were always proportionate to the democratic equality in its system of government. . . . What friend of human liberty, civilization, and refinement, can cast his view over the past history of the monarchies and aristocracies of antiquity, and not deplore that they ever existed? What philanthropist can contemplate the oppressions, the cruelties, and injustice inflicted by them on the masses of mankind, and not turn with moral horror from the retrospect? America is destined for better deeds. It is our unparalleled glory that we have no reminiscences of battle fields, but in defence of humanity, of the oppressed of all nations, of the rights of conscience, the rights of personal enfranchisement. Our annals describe no scenes of horrid carnage, where men were led on by hundreds of thousands to slay one another, dupes and victims to emperors, kings, nobles, demons in the human form called heroes. We have had patriots to defend our homes, our liberties, but no aspirants to crowns or thrones; nor have the American people ever suffered themselves to be led on by wicked ambition to depopulate the land, to spread desolation far and wide, that a human being might be placed on a seat of supremacy. We have no interest in the scenes of antiquity, only as lessons of avoidance of nearly all their examples. The expansive future is our arena, and for our history. We are entering on its untrodden space, with the truths of God in our minds, beneficent objects in our hearts, and with a clear conscience unsullied by the past. We are the nation of human progress, and who will, what can, set limits to our onward march? Providence is with us, and no earthly power can. We point to the everlasting truth on the first page of our national declaration, and we proclaim to the millions of other lands, that "the gates of hell" the powers of aristocracy and monarchy "shall not prevail against it." The farreaching, the boundless future will be the era of American greatness. In its magnificent domain of space and time, the nation of many nations is destined to manifest to mankind the excellence of divine principles; to establish on earth the noblest temple ever dedicated to the worship of the Most High the Sacred and the True. Its floor shall be a hemisphere its roof the firmament of the starstudded heavens, and its congregation an Union of many Republics, comprising hundreds of happy millions, calling, owning no man master, but governed by God's natural and moral law of equality, the law of brotherhood of "peace and good will amongst men.". . . Yes, we are the nation of progress, of individual freedom, of universal enfranchisement. Equality of rights is the cynosure of our union of States, the grand exemplar of the correlative equality of individuals; and while truth sheds its effulgence, we cannot retrograde, without dissolving the one and subverting the other. We must onward to the fulfilment of our mission to the entire development of the principle of our organization freedom of conscience, freedom of person, freedom of trade and business pursuits, universality of freedom and equality. This is our high destiny, and in nature's eternal, inevitable decree of cause and effect we must accomplish it. All this will be our future history, to establish on earth the moral dignity and salvation of man the immutable truth and beneficence of God. For this blessed mission to the nations of the world, which are shut out from the lifegiving light of truth, has America been chosen; and her high example shall smite unto death the tyranny of kings, hierarchs, and oligarchs, and carry the glad tidings of peace and good will where myriads now endure an existence scarcely more enviable than that of beasts of the field. Who, then, can doubt that our country is destined to be the great nation of futurity? Texas Ranger The Maid of Monterrey earned the praise of U.S. troops. Mexican guerrilla Camp followers served as cooks, laundresses, nurses, and maids.