Medicinal Plant Conservation

Medicinal Plant ConservationVolume 15 Newsletter of the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Chaired by Danna J. Leaman MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIALIST GROUP Chair’s note........................................................................................................................................... 2 Taxon file Conservation of the Palo Santo tree, Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb, in the South America Chaco Region - Tomás Waller, Mariano Barros, Juan Draque & Patricio Micucci.............................. 4 Manejo Integral de poblaciones silvestres y cultivo agroecológico de Hombre grande (Quassia amara) en el Caribe de Costa Rica, América Central - Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez........................ 9 Regional file Chilean medicinal plants - Gloria Montenegro & Sharon Rodríguez.................................................. 15 Focus on Medicinal Plants in Madagascar - Julie Le Bigot. ................................................................ 25 Medicinal Plants utilisation and conservation in the Small Island States of the SW Indian Ocean with particular emphasis on Mauritius - Ameenah Gurib-Fakim. ................................................................ 29 Conservation assessment and management planning of medicinal plants in Tanzania - R.L. Mahunnah, S. Augustino, J.N. Otieno & J. Elia...................................................................................................... 35 Community based conservation of ethno-medicinal plants by tribal people of Orissa state, India Saujanendra Swain & Nihar Parida. ................................................................................................... 41 Estado de la conservación de las plantas TRAMIL incluidas en la Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña Sonia Lagos, Xinia Robles & Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez............................................................. 46 FairWild in the South Caucasus - Heiko Schindler & Bryony Morgan................................................ 52 Notices World Health Organization Consultation on Conservation Guidelines for Medicinal Plants Danna J. Leaman.................................................................................................................................. 57 Notices of publication - Helle O. Larsen.............................................................................................. 59 May 2012 Chair’s Note Danna J. Leamann In late March of this year I participated in the 2nd meeting of all the chairs of IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) specialist groups, held in Abu Dhabi with support of the Abu Dhabi Environment Agency and the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund. Like the 1st Chair’s Meeting (Al Ain, 2008), this gathering brought together specialist group chairs and Red List Authorities with SSC staff, SSC focal-points within the IUCN secretariat programmes, and representatives of other IUCN commissions. The meeting provided opportunities to report on MPSG’s activities and successes, learn from experiences of other specialist groups, explore ideas for collaboration with the IUCN programmes and other commissions, and to articulate some future goals that will contribute to the IUCN Species Strategic Plan for the next quadrennium (2013-2016). The meeting was timed to promote preparation for and participation of SSC members in the upcoming 5th IUCN World Conservation Congress, 6-15 September, Jeju, Republic of South Korea. A summary of useful information presented at the meeting a publication containing all of the SSC specialist group summary reports is available in the new “members area” of the recently restructured and more accessible SSC pages on the IUCN website: http://www.iucn.org/about/work/ programmes/species/who_we_are/about_the_species_survival_commission_/ssc_members__area_/ Achievements and ongoing activities Implementation of the FairWild Standard In the previous volume of Medicinal Plant Conservation, Wolfgang Kathe described the process through which the International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) became a part of the comprehensive FairWild Standard and the formation of the FairWild Foundation to oversee its further development and implementation [MPC Volume 14, pp 14-17; www.FairWild.org]. As of Decem- ber 2011, approximately 30 species of terrestrial plants were being wild-harvested under FairWild certification, involving 7 companies, and resulting in 10 finished products on the market containing FairWild-certified ingredients. MPSG retains a strong interest, on behalf of IUCN, in supporting the FairWild Standard, and indeed many members of MPSG continue to be involved in its management and implementation: for example, five members of MPSG are currently FairWild Foundation trustees. However, our formal role has become more closely focused on providing advice and solutions for key technical challenges. These include: • elaboration of a risk/resilience analysis tool applied as a first step in the FairWild certification process, enabling the requirements of the standard to be applied more or less rigorously to species at higher or lower risk of unsustainable wild harvest; • adaptation of FairWild Standard and implementation tools, particularly risk/resilience analysis and resource assessment guidance, as guidance for undertaking non-detriment findings required by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) for perennial plant species listed on CITES appendices I and II; • refinements of resource assessment guidance to address the different needs of low risk/high resilience species compared with high risk/low resilience species; and • initial steps to expand the risk/resilience analysis tool and resource assessment methodology to address sustainable wild collection of fungi and lichens in collaboration with the SSC lichen and fungi specialist groups and the Sustainable Use Specialist Group. Revised global “Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants” Many MPSG members have been involved either in developing the initial 1993 “Guidelines” or in the revision process ongoing since 2003, or both. Recent progress towards a final text agreed amongst the four author organizations (WHO, IUCN, WWF, and TRAFFIC) is reported in this volume of MPC [pp. 57-58]. Page 2 May 2012 Red List Assessments Last summer the European Commission published the European Red List of Vascular Plants (BILZ ET AL. 2011) which includes approximately 100 species of medicinal plants, primarily species listed in the EU Habitats Directive and / or the Bern Convention. During that assessment, coordinated by Melanie Bilz, a member of the IUCN Red List unit staff based in Cambridge, UK, a large number of individuals with expert knowledge of the spatial distribution, population sizes, and likely conservation threats affecting plant species in Europe participated in preparing and reviewing the Red List assessments. A new project began in December 2011 – also with EC funding – to assess the Red List status of 300 additional medicinal plant species native to Europe. This assessment, to be completed in 2014, will result in the first comprehensive assessment of a regional medicinal flora, and provides an opportunity for MPSG members with knowledge of the European medicinal flora to contribute to and review Red List assessments. The geographic range of this assessment extends from Iceland in the west to the Urals in the east, and from Franz Josef Land in the north to the Canary Islands in the south. Future goals Securing Useful Wild Plants Understanding the current status and trends in conservation status of medicinal plants, both globally and regionally, is an information gap that limits our ability to facilitate and undertake conservation action for these species. Useful plants (including crop wild relatives, medicinal plants, and trees) are identified as a priority for Red List assessments in the upcoming IUCN quadrennium (2013-2016). MPSG is working with the Crop Wild Relatives Specialist Group and the Global Tree Specialist Group to develop and find funding for a global project focusing on these species important to human survival. The project as currently proposed has the following main components: • assessing the conservation status of at least 1,500 medicinal plant species drawn from global, regional, and national priorities, and building capacity throughout the MPSG membership for Red List assessment; • identifying conservation gaps, focusing particularly on existing protected areas and identifying important areas for medicinal plant conservation; • assessing the vulnerability of medicinal plants to climate change, and contributing to the development of climate change vulnerability indicators for plants; • developing an integrated (in situ and ex situ) conservation strategy for medicinal plants, with a focus on sustainable use; and • increasing the profile of medicinal plant conservation needs and actions. Promoting involvement of MPSG members in the development and implementation of this project will be a priority for MPSG in the coming IUCN quandrennium. Results of this project will support and improve our continuing contributions to broad global initiatives and policies, including: • supporting progress on conservation and sustainable use targets under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), particularly the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation; • reporting on a global indicator of biodiversity used for food and medicine [see MPC Volume 14, pp. 24-29]; and • supporting sustainable wild collection of medicinal plants through the FairWild Standard. Many thanks to Helle Overgaard Larsen for her dedicated efforts as editor of this newsletter, and to all of the authors for their contributions to this volume. References BILZ, M., KELL, S.P., MAXTED, N. & LANSDOWN, R.V. (2011): European Red List of Vascular Plants. – Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/ conservation/species/redlist and http://www.iucnredlist.org/europe Page 3 May 2012 sharing the area with other typical lo. Juan Draque & Patricio Micucci Introduction Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb (Zygophyllaceae). during a meeting of the Canadian Natural Health Products Research Society in Toronto. The MPSG owes a particular debt of gratitude to Professor Farnsworth for his contribution to our Global Checklist of Medicinal Plants. in the South American Chaco Region Tomás Waller. Farnsworth died in 2011 The renowned pharmacognosist and medicinal plant researcher died at 81 on September 10. This list. Bolivia.000 species with documented medicinal uses derived from the NAPrAlert (Natural Products Alert) Database he created in 1975. Paraguay and. locally known as Palo Santo (holy tree). I described to Professor Farnsworth the challenge we face to answer questions such as “How many species of medicinal plants are there?” and “How many of those species are threatened with extinction?” A few weeks later. Danna J. The Palo dense patches known as palosantales. Leamann Taxon file Conservation of the Palo Santo tree. In very speSanto can be found mixed in the forest throughout cific sites trunk timber volumes can reach up to ten 25 million hectares. Figure 1. 30 m3/ha (ZERBATTO Page 4 May 2012 . was an important contribution to our Global Checklist of Medicinal Plants. 2007a).000 species of plants with well-documented medicinal uses. GIMÉNEZ ET AL. 2009). Mature individuals reach a height of 8 to 20 m and 30 to 70 cm in diameter. marginally. is a large endemic tree of what is known as the Gran Chaco region of Argentina.Norman R. which now includes more than 28. In 2008.e. Distribution range of Bulnesia sarmientoi in the Gran Chaco with locality records from the Missouri Botanical Garden (MOBOT) Data Base. In these areas average trunk standing The species inhabits the semi-arid sectors of the volumes range from 0. Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb. and exhibit a high-density aromatic wood (1.spots old trees dominate the forest in relatively cal hardwoods (ZERBATTO ET AL. Professor Farnsworth sent a base list of more than 20. where annual rainfall varies from 600 1979.280 kg/m3). but it only achieves adequate fold the regional average.7 to 3. i.3 m3/ha (MUTARELLI Gran Chaco. 2011. These communities in Paraguay cover about 3. together with the MAPROW database created by former MPSG Chair Uwe Schippmann. Mariano Barros. Brazil (Figure 1).5 million ha (FB 2010). however. settlement conditions in more sparsely distributed soil-specific plant communities. at localized to 900 mm.7 million ha (UNAGTZ 1991) and in Argentina about 2. has been used to perfume luxury soaps by masking the unET AL. grouping in this category other Zygophyllaceae Local uses The common name. HARBORNE & BAXTER 2011). a by-product of the timber industry. gout. cause of the pleasantly-smelling essential oil that MERELES & PÉREZ DE MOLAS 2008. lumbago and skin wounds and diseases. to relieve stress and depression. Mixed with pyrethrum it is used to make mosquito repellent coils. sarmientoi oil is characterized by containing a high proportion of Bulnesol (>45%) and Guaiol (>31%). is treated with solvents to produce ‘Palo Santo’ resin. it has been estimated most widely used in the perfume industry because that trees reach 45 cm basal diameter at 100 years of its mild and pleasant Rose (and Violet) fraof age (GIMÉNEZ ET AL. rheumatoid arthritis. JANZEN 2010. CITES 2010. sarmientoi extracts have been used for decades by different industries. also known as ‘lignum vitae oil’. oil’. ‘guajol’. to heal gastric pain. It is applied sustainability of Palo Santo trade the species was through aroma lamps. syphilis. mainly from China. JANZEN 2010). has been a driver for tributed: mood uplifting. helpful for meditation large-scale exploitation in Argentina and Paraguay. however. mainly as a fixative in perfumes. 2007b. The essenFigure 2. this industry treats it as ‘Guaiac oil’ in broad sense. tree can tial oil. As a result of increasing concerns regarding the relaxing. ‘guayacol’. It is ity to regenerate vegetatively. rheumatism. says it all about what local people feel for this species. ALPACA 2010. CITES 2010. is widely used in the perfume and soap industry. It has traditionally been employed for domestic purposes: the burning of its wood is used as an insect repellent and its long-lasting wood is harvested for the production of posts to build cattle fences or for manufacturing handicrafts. and rest. It is locally used as a blood cleanser. crust or leaves. stress and tension reduction.excipient in the manufacturing of cosmetics. Palo Santo (holy tree). B. pleasant smell of synthetic components and as an The species exhibits slow growth and has the abil. The Palo Santo. light bulb rings.The oil of Palo Santo is highly valued in aromatil recently very limited. 2009). According to JANZEN (2010) wood scraps and logs are shredded into small chips the size of beans. Its ethyl acetate is used as a natural fixative The Palo Santo has historically been exploited be. calming. leprosy. These woodchips are loaded into autoclave stainless steel distillation stills. Residual sawdust. JANZEN 2010). or ‘guayaco’. However. waxy in consistence (solid) at room temperature and with a strong warm woody aroma. Qatar). It is obtained by simple steam distillation of wood chips. It is pale yellow. The wood/oil yield is reported to be around 3. Steam Page 5 May 2012 .in aromatic compositions (DI LELLA & RIQUE 1955. which is used to manufacture varnish and dark paints. Commercialisation of Palo Santo timber was un. of the Conference of the Parties to CITES (Doha. high therapy to which the following advantages are atdemand. Bulnesia sarmientoi. which has a very unique place in the culture throughout the Gran Chaco region. and prevent atherosclerosis and colds (MERELES & PÉREZ DE MOLAS 2008. Figure 2). improvement of mental clarity. moreover. diuretic. massage and listed in CITES-Appendix II at the 15th Meeting mist spray (SCHILLER & SCHILLER 2008).5 4% in weight (JACOBS 1990. ‘guaiac reach a height of 20 m and a trunk diameter of 70 cm. as of 2002. The species is highly valued as a medicinal plant for the many healing powers attributed to infusions brewed from of its species from the Genus Guaiacum. control blood pressure. sudorific (induces perspiration). grance.bark. Essential oil trade B. 2008s harvest levels by the end of 2011. and its ecological optimum (sensu MORELLO 1968) to 1. Based on MORELLO (1968) we estimate the area of occupation to about 8. Timber trade Timber primary production (in tons of logs) of B. favouring the production of sawn wood to foster local labour (FB 2010). which is afterwards cooled in condensers and separated in Florentine vase units.is passed through the layers of chips. Main destination countries for the last three years were. sawn wood finished for flooring ready to export (bottom). but after World War II this was carried out locally (JANZEN 2010). respectively. the Netherlands and Switzerland. respectively. Bulnesia sarmientoi debarked logs being transported to a sawmill (above). Timber exports from Argentina (pooled data from 2006-2008) and Paraguay (pooled data from 2000- 2004) have mainly been destined to China: 94% and 89% of each country’s exported volume. sarmientoi in Argentina and Paraguay soared from less than 500 tons in 2000 to 35. with more than 20. both countries traded sawn wood (mainly tables for flooring): 13% and 33% of total exports. most of the wood used in the distillation of Guaiac oil is the byproduct of timber extraction or land clearing activities. sarmientoi timber for the international market. Argentina seems to be the main producer. sawmill leftover boards and sawdust. wood is used for handcrafting top-quality furniture and for apartment floorings. United States. Formosa and Salta. Photo: T. Germany. cylinders and posts).7 million hectares.000 tons of timber harvested each year. United Kingdom. This information still needs to be corroborated (JANZEN 2010. The species occurs in three different provinces: Chaco. Since 2008 internal provincial regulations in Argentina have limited the sale of raw wood (logs). Page 6 May 2012 . The recent inclusion of the Palo Santo in CITES-Appendix II is expected to improve trade control and reporting in both countries. According to Paraguayan producers. Spain.000 tons of timber. local authorities expect that trade will reach.000 tons annually in the last years. WALLER & PUCCIO 2010). Export records from Argentina diminished sharply in 2008 in the context of a global economic crisis (FB 2010). In the beginning. fallen or useless trees. but extraction stopped completely by the 1970s (ZERBATTO ET AL. Korea. equivalent to an annual harvest of up to about 5. Most of the timber is destined to the international market as logs or sawn wood. however. India. Paraguay exported the entire logs to Europe for oil distillation. France. Trade statistics available from Paraguay are dubious and probably under-represent actual trade volumes due to inconsistencies in reporting schemes (FB 2010). respectively (Figure 3).3 million hectares. Secondarily. or even exceed. Argentina started the distillation of Palo Santo essential oil in the beginning of the last century. Waller. Paraguay currently supplies most of the international demand of Guaiac oil (MERELES & PÉREZ DE MOLAS 2008) and during the last decade the country exported 130-180 tons of essential oil per year. Main products exported by Argentina (pooled data from 2006-2008) and Paraguay (pooled data from 2000-2006) were trunks in different stages of processing (debarked logs. Dynamic of Palo Santo timber harvest in Argentina Argentina is currently the main supplier of B. Figure 3. such as branches. considering both countries together. 2009). representing 87% and 67% of all products exported by each country. in order of importance. According to traders. Different taxes and rules with regard to wood processing levels have indirectly fostered smuggling activities between provincial jurisdictions. it was observed that the amount of felled logs abandoned in the forest. sarmientoi in these bean used to be marketed under similar commer.countries will depend on land use planning and cial names (“Lignum Vitae” or “Guaiac”) as B. of the distribution range of Palo Santo. B. 2000. A recent study highlights the mining nature of the selective B. The two provinces allow harvest and transport of timber under a weak enforcement system. Figure 3). while trade in its essential oil dates back to the beginning of the century. In Argentina the deforestation rate is about 1. mostly in the province of Salta (Figure 4). minimum log diameter restrictions.3% per year (UMSEF 2006). deforestation is expected to increase along the Palo Santo range area due to livestock rearing projects. On the other hand. Accordingly. logs are known to rarely proceed from declared harvest sites (FB 2010). 2010). arborea has not been properly documented. according to CITES statistics direct trade in Guaiacum essential oil for the last two decades seems negligible (i. An analysis of the health condition of standing B. new legislation in Argentina and Paraguay seeks to foster the Trade in similar species Bulnesia arborea from Northern South America progressive settlement of land management plans and other Zygophyllacea species of the Genus to ensure forest persistence. 41% of the original standing volume. At one hand. sarmientoi logging at the local or plot level (ZERBATTO ET AL. Up to 2008 deforestation has affected less than 5% of the original Palo Santo distribution area. regulation and the proper management of the resarmientoi. but on the other hand. deforestation over the last 5 years has reached unprecedented levels for the region. the Guaiacum from Central America and the Carib. All Guaiacum species are listed in maining Chaco forests (FB 2010). and would therefore be discarded by the industry. In fact. The proportion of Palo Santo of total timber exports increased from 0% in 2000 to about 9% in 2007 (FB 2010). The timber volume extracted was equal to or higher than the volume of timber remaining in the forest.e. Habitat trends Deforestation has increased dramatically over the last 15 years throughout the Chaco region in Argentina and Paraguay. Adulteration of transport permits and false declaration of origin are usual practices – in fact. plus the volume of the thick branches of felled trees. CITES but this is not the case for B. Formosa has accounted for 74% of all exports (data pooled for all years. extraction permits and transport certificates.Formosa and Salta have been the main sources of Palo Santo timber. current timber trade in Palo Santo is due to the increase in the demand from China since 2002.long-term conservation of B. Figure 4). 2002. arborea (CITES Page 7 May 2012 . mostly based on quotas. most size classes of Palo Santo trees were harvested in six sites evaluated. with 85% of extraction corresponding to trees larger than 30 cm in diameter (as required by the industry). on average. however. sarmientoi trees suggests that when large trees persist in the forest these are cracked. hollow or have crooked logs. It seems that Germany was a major importer of chips and wood pulp of Guaiacum that could be attributed to this industry (CITES 2000. Large trees are thus not conserved because of forest management. There is no clear indication that timber and essential oil trade in Palo Santo have augmented as a result of the increased CITES-derivated controls over Guaiacum species. essential oil trade from Guaiacum species and B. The situation in Paraguay is no better. Overall recorded trade in Guaiacum timber and extracts accounted for about 345 tons in 29 years. or in the periphery. and mostly involved Mexico as the exporter and Germany as the importer and reexporter (CITES Trade Database). Trends in Bolivia are much better: about 95% of its Chaco region is still under forest cover. 386 kg). arborea should be included in Appendix II for look-alike reasons and identification material either for essential oil and timber must be developed. Finally. Main constrains identified are the result of low levels of in situ control of the harvest and of timber transportation. but mostly occurring out. The volume of wood extracted was. CITES Trade Database). is twice the volume of timber effectively removed by the industry (ZERBATTO ET AL. 2009. In this scenery. 2009). (1955): El palo santo: su industrialización. – Administración Nacional de Bosques. (2007a): Diversidad vegetal en siete unidades demostrativas del Chaco semiárido argentino. 2010). Available at: www. Paraguay. Mathias Loertscher (CH) and Stephan Verbunt (NE). Palo Santo inventory information is very scarce. Proposal 15. HARBORNE J. CITES. Available at: www. R. de Cs. An anonymous reviewer provided useful comments that helped us to improve this publication. Emilio Buongermini gathered information related to Paraguay.cites. We hope that the recent inclusion of Palo Santo in CITES-Appendix II will contribute to monitor international trade and to foster internal management schemes both in Argentina and Paraguay to warrant the sustainable utilization of this precious species.42. Closing remarks Argentina is currently the major exporter of B. References Figure 4. HERNÁNDEZ.. but for this to be confirmed it will be necessary to clearly demonstrate that wood used in oil distillation is byproducts of other activities (i. GEREZ. (2010): Palo Santo Bulnesia sarmientoi in Argentina – Timber trade and sustainability. DGCRNMA. Timber trade statistics in Paraguay are not reliable to assess the magnitude of the harvest. Juan Draque and Mariano Barros carried out field-work in the provinces of Formosa and Salta. E.B. abandoned logs. 13(1):61-78. (2010): 15th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES. GEREZ. Forestales Quebracho.M.pdf. A. Qatar. to Hajo Schimtz-Kretschmer (DE). FB. (2000): 11th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES. P. Acknowledgements We would like to express our acknowledgments to the Governments of Germany. saw-mill debris.pdf) GIMÉNEZ. technical specifications.org/eng/cop/15/prop/E-15-Prop-42.pdf.A.cites. HERNÁNDEZ.M. (2007b): Anatomía de leño y anillos de crecimiento de Palo Santo (Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorez ex. T. – Madera y Bosques (México). Argentina. (2006): Exportación de Palo Santo. paragraph 2(b). (2002): 12th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES. & RIQUE. – Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina.A.e. (2010): Al Pa Ca S. and much less at plot scale. Griseb Zygophyllaceae). P. – Informe inédito de la Dirección General de Control de los Recursos Naturales y el Medio Ambiente de la Contraloría General de la República (CGR) del Paraguay. sarmientoi. Marcelo Zerbatto and Walter Degano designed field inventory activities.org/eng/cop/11/prop/62. & SPAGARINO. 20pp. & BAXTER. & RÍOS. N.org/eng/ cop/12/prop/E12-P54. Available at: www. Proposal 11. Proposal 12.. Santiago del Estero.. sarmientoi timber.biodiv. conditions for sustainability at the regional level are not yet ensured for this species. particularly. R.The Netherlands for supporting our research. It is worth mentioning that Argentina is currently undertaking a major effort to establish provincial management plans aimed to protect the most important forest regions. Bulnesia sarmientoi. Guaiac Wood Oil. – Available at: www. in Appendix II in accordance with Article II. Inclusion of Guaiacum spp. Doha. Inclusion of Bulnesia sarmientoi in CITES-Appendix II. Producers argue that essential oil trade is not a threatening factor for the B. – Rev.pdf. Jonas Luthy (CH).cites. (2001): Chemical Dic- Page 8 May 2012 . Additionally. A. Switzerland and ALPACA. CITES.org. Transfer of Guaiacum sanctum from Appendix II to Appendix I. land clearing).. Deforestation (black areas) throughout the Palo Santo distribution range (stripped area) in Northern Argentina (FB. Information document prepared for the 15th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES. H. GIMÉNEZ. Under the observed pattern of extractive and selective use of Palo Santo in Argentina. 14:23-35. As a result of this process large tracts of woods are expected to persist and to be managed for sustainable use. Publicación Técnica N° 20. DI LELLA. 13 to 25 Mach 2010. – Unpublished data sheet. C. Años 2000-2006. CITES.54. while Paraguay is the main producer of essential oil for the international perfumes industry.ar/images/stories/pdfs/ Palo-Santo-Bidodiv-en.62. J. WALLER. (1990): Vegetationsanalytische und strukturelle Untersuchungen einer regengrunen Trockenwaldvegetation im östlichen Bereich des zentralen Chacos unter Berucksichtigung des Einflusses der Viehweide. (Ed. Paper presented at the International Conference “North African and Mediterranean Essential Oils and Aromas: 2010 Tales and Realities of our Industry – a new decade of challenges and opportunities”.. Arboles forestales. (1991): Vegetación y uso de la tierra de la region occidental del Paraguay. Inc. (1979): Riqueza de los bosques espontáneos. ha sido objeto de comercio en América Latina. (2008): The Aromatherapy Encyclopedia: A concise guide to over 385 plant oils. (1968): La vegetación de la República Argentina. DRAQUE. ALVARENGA. Marrakech. 113 p. Photo: Autor. London. Tomo II. & WALLER. Manejo Integral de poblaciones silvestres y cultivo agroecológico de Hombre grande (Quassia amara) en el Caribe de Costa Rica.. JANZEN. W. – John Wiley and Sons Ltd. (Simaroubaceae). – Diplomarbeit der Forstlichen Fakultät der Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. 2010. Apt. Asunción. 60 • Buenos oecológico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea Aires • Argentina • email: biodiversidad@fibertel. – Fundación Biodiversidad – Argentina. por parte del Jardín Agrgentina • Juncal 754. Paraguay. Page 9 May 2012 . 1 al 4 de noviembre de 2010. (2010) Guaiac wood oil. & SCHILLER. (2008): Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb (Zygophyllaceae): estudio de base para su inclusión en el Apéndice II de la Convención CITES. Editorial ACME. 2). pp 18-33.. 7th Floor. – In: COZZO.ar ibe de Costa Rica. – Basic Health Publications. D. – WWF.. UNA–GTZ. Provincia de Formosa. G. Serie Fitogeográfica 8:125pp. (2009): Situación de la especie Palo Santo (Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb) en la provincia de Formosa: estudio de sitios de extracción en los Departamentos Matacos y Bermejo. Buenos Aires. D.A. es una importante planta medicinal nativa del Trópico Húmedo de América Tropical (Figura 1. 235pp. – International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Trades. E.cación de la especie. en mayores volúmenes (OCAMPO 1999). BARROS.tionary of Economic Plants. England.). L. en inglés se conoce como Surinam quassia (Quassia amara). DEGANO. – Estudio de Base para la Fundación Biodiversidad con el apoyo de la Oficina Federal para la Protección de la Naturaleza – Alemania. MUTARELLI. H. MERELES. para abastecer el mercado regional. Segunda Edición. Primera parte: objetivos y metodología. M. Buenos Aires. JACOBS. en condiciones de cultivo agroecológico en el Carcom. Las grandes unidades de vegetación y ambiente del chaco argentino. Tomás Waller • Mariano Barros • Juan Draque • De igual forma se han dado acciones de domestiPatricio Micucci • Fundación Biodiversidad Ar. & PUCCIO. San Lorenzo. Quassia amara L. – INTA. ZERBATTO. Las Buenas Prácticas de Cosecha de Poblaciones Silvestres constituyen una forma de contribuir con la conservación de la especie. J. Constituye una materia prima que.K. por más de 150 años. 26 30 Sept. América Central Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez Introducción La madera del arbusto tropical conocido en Costa Rica como Hombre Grande. SCHILLER. Asunción. (2010): Informe de la Fundación Biodiversidad sobre la Misión a Paraguay. Paraguay and CITES. caracterizado por volúmenes pequeños. & PÉREZ DE MOLAS. West Sussex. C. M. MORELLO. J. Figura 1. F. en dos direcciones: localmente. – Universidad Nacional de Asunción and Misión Forestal Alemana. Enciclopedia Argentina de Agricultura y Jardinería. T. maderas y silvicultura de la Argentina. T. Fascículo 16-1. H. E. bajo la supervisión técnica de un Técnico Forestal. Paraguay. Por esta razón la empresa Bougainvillea (Box 1) ha adoptado las normas creadas por el Centro Agronómico de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) para su aplicación. e internacionalmente para Europa y Estados Unidos de América. para completar un buen manejo del recurso natural debemos aplicar acciones en la cosecha silvestre que respeten árboles productores de semilla. por esta razón. empleado como saborizante en la industria Familia Simaroubaceae (OCAMPO & MORA 2012). en asocio con el árbol maderable. Los radios medulares son de solo una o dos células en el sentido de la anchura pero de hasta 30 células en sentido longitudinal (TREASE & EVANS 1988. Talamanca. am. cado internacional hacia las poblaciones silvestres Estas características de contenidos de humedad conlleva que para el año de 1999 la materia prima constituyen aportes para lograr la industrialización exportada ya no corresponde a la especie de Q. denominado laurel (Cordia alliodora). 1996) si la madera proviene de la especie y su variabilidad genética. el tema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación en Costa contenido de humedad promedio de la madera más Rica.3% (GUZMÁN 2000). VILLALOBOS (1997) hace referencia a dejar 60 árboles mayores de 6 cm de diámetro por ha. Page 10 May 2012 . Photo: Autor. Se analiza una estrategia de aprovechamiento de materia prima por un período de 8 años. Limón. mientras que en el material poblaciones silvestres establecidas dentro del Sis. que esta poniendo la especie en peligro ciones silvestres esta entre un rango de 0. solamente estamos aprovechando el producto de cosecha. y de poblaciones silvestres en Costa Rica.de la madera de la Q. es importante señalar que Q. La materia prima de la Q. Costa Rica. con el propósito de aplicar una práctica de cosecha silvestre bajo un Plan de Manejo. Matina. El contenido de de los bosques tropicales húmedos. Además. Hojas de Quassia amara. amara tiene la capacidad de rebrotar posteriormente a su cosecha. en su lugar se incorporan otras especies de la arizado. que se podría relacionar con la desaparición de la Q. el aumento de la que corresponde a diámetros de 4. sin poner en peligro el recurso natural. También contiene neocuasinas y alcaloides del tipo de la catin-6-ona. amara esta constituido por la corteza y la madera. Esto para lograr abastecer mientras la corteza contiene. amara. Características químicas de la materia prima La industria requiere una materia prima que responda a normas de calidad. es urgente establecer sistemas de produc.20% de extinción y. ción agroecológicas. en el Jardín Agroecológico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea. 60% la demanda y contribuir con la conservación de (Villalobos et al. Costa Rica. bajo un Plan de Manejo. 1. es el cambio de uso del bosque húmedo tropical.28-0.Como fortaleza de las acciones de manejo y conservación de la especie. en relación con el suministro de madera proveniente de poblaciones silvestres. lactona intensamente amarga. en promedio. CÁCERES 2006). cuasinoides en la madera proveniente de poblaamara. de las pocas poblaciones silvestres. amara. referido a la autenticidad taxonómica de la especie y al contenido del amaroide cuasina. proveniente de ambos sistemas de producción. Precisamente la presión ejercida por el mer. amara silvestre. Limón. para su trans La investigación va en la dirección de analizar y comparar el abastecimiento de materia prima del arbusto de Q. en otra dirección. hábitat de Q.la corteza es de 49.5 cm a hasta de demanda local e internacional de la madera de Q. formación a otros sistemas de producción agrícola y ganadera. En este sentido.proveniente de rebrotes de iguales poblaciones.5 cm. respectivamente.La madera (xilema) tiene una humedad de 40%. amara como extracto estandara. Figura 2. Pero el mayor problema. Estos últimas se estima a nivel nacional en 40 ton como cosecha potencial para su comercio justo y el aprovechamiento de madera producida bajo un sistema productivo agroecológico. en la Reserva Indígena de Kekoldi.. ambos de coloración Bajo esta realidad latinoamericana de desaparición blanco-crema. con sabor amargo. en la Comunidad rural de la Esperanza. Figura 3.000 km2. la En Guatemala se usa la infusión. el polvo y la tin. el volumen de materia prima proveniente de poblaciones silvestres dentro del territorio nacional. hay varios usos etnomédicos de Q. Indígena de Kekoldi (MARMILLOD ET AL. en ambas regiones costeras del Caribe y Pacífica. que aporte ración de una pequeña cantidad de madera. por mace. estimulante del apetito. No existen estudios técnicos que identifiquen.este manejo. Por atonía de los órganos digestivos. en bosques de baja altitud (0-500 metros sobre el nivel del mar). de manera sistemática. agua fría o infusión y es reconocido como uno de Posterior a la cosecha de la población seleccionalos mejores tónicos amargos empleados contra la da. febrífugo y en forma de enemas.capacidad productiva de 125 ha es de 12 ton. Quassia amara cultivación. esta razón se analiza el escenario de aprovechamiEn Argentina y Bolivia. lo que conduce a la existencia de un 10%. en donde la situación de rendimiento es más compleja. la madera del palo amargo. Uso tradicional e industrial En Costa Rica. el polvo y la decocción de la un corte promedio anual de 1. uso veterinario y fitofármaco. alimentaria. mal do con este estudio a nivel nacional se estima un de orin. En Nicaragua las hojas y madera se emplean en forma externa para el control de garrapatas. Page 11 May 2012 . factores de luminosidad de forma natural. existe poca investigación. amara . amara en Costa Rica (VILLALOBOS 1996) confirman poblaciones dispersas y de tamaño reducido.onsejable dar rendimientos por hectárea. Photo: Autor.6 ton. También se usa como antihelmíntico contra oxiuros. diarrea y migraña. En Costa Rica se ha desarrollado un fitofármaco a partir de la madera y corteza autorizado por el Ministerio de Salud. es un país de solamente 51. amara. contra la fiebre y chamiento Sostenible. ento de rebrotes procedentes de poblaciones silvesmacerada en alcohol se emplea en forma externa tres. un 30% está bajo diversas categorías de protección por parte del Ministerio del Medio Ambiente. También se utiliza la volumen aprovechable de 40 ton. diabetes. contra las afecciones De acuerdo con la ejecución de un Plan de Aprovegástricas.800 kg y una rotación raíz y en homeopatía. lo que representa corteza cocinada para lavados de heridas. amara tiene la capacidad de rebrotar. Además de su aprovechamiento como planta ornamental por sus atractivas flores rojas. de los cuales un 40% corresponde a cobertura arbórea. visitadas por aves e insectos. para elementos para su rendimiento. para purificar la sangre. al igual que en otros países latinoamericanos y de Europa. debido a que su crecimiento depende de para el control de piojos. igual situación se da En Colombia se usa madera en maceración en en este caso. además combatir la nausea y mejorar la digestión. 1995). de área potencial para el aprovechamiento de poblaciones silvestres de Q. que debido a ser plantaciones silvestres. Los estudios de distribución de Q. planificado en la Reserva los parásitos intestinales. una cosecha anual de 6. no es acEn Honduras se toma la corteza hervida para el do. no es viable dar rendimientos por ha. fortificar la sangre.producto no maderable del bosque Costa Rica. con tura de la madera. De acuerlor de estomago. En Italia se usa contra los piojos. se usa tradicionalmente la infusión de la corteza y madera partida en trozos como tónico amargo. De esta cobertura. amara. Q. En Costa Rica. en Costa Rica se utiliza la madera en el uso veterinario para desparasitar animales. El vino amargo se usa para de 6 años. Es importante aclarar que no toda el área de 125 ha es productiva comercialmente. Además del uso etnomédico ya mencionado.combatir nauseas. biopesticida. la Q. Sobre En Europa se preparan vinos amargos. de material seco. amara. ducción agroecológica en el Caribe de Costa Rica. ya que la respuesta va a ser muy especifica. por año. bajo un sistema de propequeños agricultores que aumentan el volumen. de 134 g/tallo/año. pues este es el caso de un arbusto que provee madera como materia prima.E. con el propósito de aumentar la producción de materia prima.2006. el rendimiento por individuo no se repite en el futuro. debido a lo heterogéneo del dosel superior. además de ser objeto de extractivismo de los bosques.C. Aprovechamiento de poblaciones silvestres.000 semillas para su multiplicación. amara cultivado en un sistema agroecologico y de poblaciones silvestres La empresa Bougainvillea. realizada en Talamanca (GUZMÁN 2000). amara desde 1986. para su industrialización. En la actualidad. van a aportar elementos técnicos para su ajuste La investigación en progreso es importante. Por esta razón cuenta en el Jardín Agroecológico con una población aproximada de 2. bajo un plan de manejo. que responde a una zona productiva de alta luminosidad. en donde de acuerdo con las tasas de rebrote de la especie. esta en capacidad de producir un volumen de 20 Condiciones ecológicas y Sistema de siembra ton de madera deshidratada. es importante señalar que no existe aún referencia sobre los contenidos de cuasinoides en la madera. para el año 2004.A. Cultivo agroecologico Las características ecológicas de poblaciones silvestres de Q. además. para su análisis.siembra acumulada. Estrategia de aprovechamiento de madera de Q. De igual forma existen iniciativas de La empresa ha implementado el cultivo orgánico. El proyecto avanza con el establecimiento de 62. planteándose el establecimiento de 100.I. Por esta razón el Jardín Agroecologico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea inició acciones de manejo de Q. El aprovechamiento en ambos casos va a estar bajo supervisión técnica de la Empresa Bougainvillea S. a partir del año 2001 y hasta oecológico y se cuenta con la producción de mad. va a procesar esta especie para el mercado. transformada en extractos estandari.A. Esta situación es diferente cuando se trata de la primera cosecha de poblaciones silvestres. El Cuadro no.000 arbustos que. con una precipitación de 4. una temperat- Page 12 May 2012 . Es importante señalar que las proyecciones establecidas parten de un proceso de investigación en progreso y diagnósticos preliminares que. GUZMÁN 2000). Al presente se cuenta con una cosecha estimada de 2 millones de semillas anual.D “Desarrollo de Tecnología de Cultivo de Plantas Medicinales y Producción de Fitoterápicos”. con el transcurso del tiempo. VILLALOBOS 1995. amara a partir del año 2000.000 plantas en un período de 10 años. en las cuales la primera cosecha produce volúmenes entre 9-16 kilos por individuo./A. Para las consideraciones del estudio de proyección partimos de que la empresa Bougainvillea – Extractos Vegetales. 1995.000 individuos dentro de un modelo Agroecológico de producción.A manera de estudio de caso se hace referencia a una primera investigación.A. Es importante señalar que al aplicar el Plan de Aprovechamiento. determinada por las condiciones de sitio. cultivo asociado a cultivos agrícolas por parte de utilizando semilla sexual. amara. estarán aportando más de 8.000 mm. 1 muestra la población estimada de Para el año 2012 se ha establecido el cultivo agr. la empresa Bougainvillea – 2012). S. Abastecimiento de Q. con el apoyo financiero del Proyecto O. en kilos la Q. Estas producciones no contemplan la producción de poblaciones silvestres. seis años después de la siembra. Además estima la producción anual de mateera y hojas para abastecer la industrialización de ria prima. ya que responde a un crecimiento silvestre que ha consumido mucho tiempo. ha implementado acciones de domesticación de Q. LEIGUE 1997. por un período de 5 años (2007 zados. de una distribución restringida en el sotobosque y con una alta respuesta de producción de biomasa por efecto de la luminosidad (MARMILLOD ET AL. 2. Aprovechamiento de poblaciones cultivadas bajo buenas prácticas agrícolas. principalmente como biopesticida. amara Dos estrategias están definidas: 1. contribuyen a buscar alternativas para su manejo agroecologico. 600 6.400 10. la prosuperficie del suelo de 0. Fecha de siembra de Quassia amara y primera cosecha estimada. que año.920 Cuadro no. kg de material seco3 5.000 10. Período 2001 – 2012. como cultivada. con vestres un diámetro mayor a 2.000 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 6. 2. con un rendimiento de 1. posterior a partir de la primera cosecha. amara.000 individuos investigación establecido en 1998 en donde se ob.3 kg de matedio de acodos y se investigan métodos de reproducrial fresco por individuo-rebrote (OCAMPO & DÍAZ ción por estaca. que las cosechas de rebrotes se pueden realizar cada ura media de 28 C.600 7. y una humedad relativa de 90%. a nivel de empresa.000 Año de cosecha2 Producción anual. A partir de la primera cosecha (2009 – 2014). la empresa únicamente está procesando un 20% de material silvestre y. se va a incentivar el manejo de las poblaciones silvestres y el enriquecimiento del área para aumentar el rendimiento y su rentabilidad.400 8. Año 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Cosecha. aunque en Producción de primera cosecha de cultivo agr. el Cuadro no.200 2. por ser rebrote con menor rendimiento. Estimación de rebrote de Quassia amara rendimiento es alto (9 – 16 kilos por árbol).000 10. kg fresco1 7. solamente un 10.en un área estimada de 14 ha. tiene la capacidad de rebrotar. es tas seco.600 6. 3. El propósito de los dispositivos de 2006). Page 13 May 2012 .400 Volumen. Período 2009 – 2014.080 1 (2001) 2 (2002) 3 (2003) 4 (2004) 5 (2005) 6 (2006) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Cosecha de rebrotes La Q. 3). El Año No.000 12. oecológico El Cuadro no.000 12.. se considera un menor volumen de aprovechamiento.000 10. Por esta A partir del año 2013.720 8. basado en observaciones previas.Cuadro 1.000 10.920 7. para un volumen pro. de plan.30 m.000 7. Costa Rica.5 cm.200 4.000 10.. acumulado de plantas 8. a partir del 2013. Referido a un período de 6 años 3 Calculado para una producción de 1. 2 muestra la producción de la pobPara realizar las estimaciones de producción por lación por un período de 6 años (2007 – 2012). estimado en 2 ton. que a partir del año 2012. No se cuenta con datos de investigación que investigación es aumentar el rendimiento por árbol demuestren la vida útil de la plantación.forma silvestre es perenne. la primera cosecha de poblaciones silvestres.080 10. a nivel Además se cuenta con material sembrado por mede la base. se inicia el rebrote que se permite desarrollar por un 1 Siembra Octubre – Diciembre 2 período de dos años (determinado por la empresa). Es importante señalar.280 6.000 12.0%. tuvieron los siguientes resultados: la primera cosecha se ejecuta a los 6 años. Aprovechamiento de madera de Quassia amara silvestre. a partir de la primera cosecha.000 razón. previamente se contó con un dispositivo de corresponde a una población de 62. kg seco2 4. rendimiento de 60% Se estima. y un contenido de ductividad de poblaciones silvestres es estimada. consecuencia de mayor período de crecimiento. Año de siembra1 No. dos años.200 4.000 10.000 7.000 2. También es importante señalar que para ejecutar cuasina no menor a 0. kg estimado para un lapso de tiempo de únicamente 5 años (2009 – 2014) (Cuadro no.1 kilo fresco por arbusto. 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 8.1 kilos/planta y un en dondeestá lista la planta para volver a cosechar.200 4.400 8.000 7.400 3.Rebrote año Masa de material período de cosecha silvestre.20 %. cuando se realiza la cosecha de la madera.000 12. a una altura sobre la Como se mencionó en párrafos anteriores. bajo Plan de Manejo.000 3.Cosecha sustentable de madera de poblaciones silmedio estimado de 1. 200 4. no satisface el desarrollo industrial de una pequeña empresa basado exclusivamente en poblaciones silvestres de Q. U.600 + 6. OCAMPO.Aprovechamiento integral de materia prima procedente de cultivo y poblaciones silvestres.C. De igual forma. existen herramientas importantes para lograr un aprovechamiento integral de las poblaciones silvestres y cultivadas.080 108. Durante el primer año de producción. al Centro de Investigación y enseñanza (CATIE) en Turrialba. Potencial de Quassia amara como insecticida natural. El Cuadro No.920 + 8.920 + 8.). Año 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Totales Cultivado Silvestre Masa de material seco. CHANG.920 + 20.280 6. L. (AICD). A. (ed. – Proyecto OEA/AICD/USAC-089/05. al menos en Costa Rica.840 kilos.840 0 0 4. Turrialba. V. 93p. BEDOYA. Heredia. R. 89p. por la iniciativa de investigación de la Quassia amara como producto no maderable del bosque (PNMB).).000 129.920 + 10.600 6. Referencias CÁCERES.. Tesis Mag. Es importante señalar que se cuenta con herramienLa materia prima está constituida por corteza y tas técnicas básicas para lograr un manejo sustentmadera con un promedio de humedad entre 12. sin poner en peligro la especie dentro del medio ambiente y contar con volúmenes adecuados en la fase de industrialización de la madera de Q.400 7.520 20. – Universidad Nacional.able. Sc. hacia el futuro.720 6. MARMILLOD. D. amara.200 4.520 20. Período 2007 – 2014.E. – CATIE. (1997): Elementos ecológicos para la silvicultura de Quassia amara en Talamanca. kg 5. demuestra que es factible desarrollar herramientas técnicas para contribuir a la conservación y desarrollo de la biodiversidad nativa. 68-90. y al Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBIO) dentro de la iniciativa del Proyecto INBIO/BID/Fomin. 4 hace referencia a los volúmenes de materia seca por un período de 8 años (2007 – 2014) y su procedencia para una industrialización total de 132. R. propio del bosque tropical húmedo. (2006): Propuesta de Monografías Farmacopeicas de 10 plantas medicinales Centroamericanas. 4. LEIGUE. (2000): Evaluación del crecimiento de Hombre Grande (Quassia amara) como respuesta a la poda en “Baja Talamanca”. Costa Rica. Abastecimiento estimado de madera seca de Hombre grande. (1999): Situación de comercio de plantas medicinales en América Latina In: Memorias XII Discusión Es evidente que para el aprovechamiento de la madera de Q. amara. Costa Rica. manteniendo factores de calidad. Por esta razón el lograr un Page 14 May 2012 . informe técnico 267.R. es evidente que el suministro exclusivo de materia prima de poblaciones silvestres. Costa Rica. (ed. al CIPRONA.000 20. en el 2007. GUZMÁN.600 + 8. que ha sido explotado de poblaciones silvestres.280 kilos de material secos procedente de cultivo.280 6.080 7. In: Ocampo.800 5. Turrialba. pero ello implica el considerar la realización de investigaciones para lograr mejores resultados 18%. Serie técnica. (1995): Plan de aprovechamiento sostenible de Quassia amara en la Reserva Indígena de Kékoldi. Cuadro no.200 4.200 20. Esta iniciativa desarrollada con un importante producto no maderable del bossque. dentro del Proyecto de Conservación y Desarrollo.400 7. manejo integral constituye la forma adecuada para enfrentar una demanda creciente en el futuro. 88p.000 2. R.200 2. Guatemala. Y.640 Agradecimiento Al Proyecto Desarrollo de Tecnología de Cultivo de Plantas Medicinales y Producción de Fitoterápicos O. por el aporte financiero para establecer el modelo agroecologico para el cultivo del arbusto de Q. Limón.520 19. que la empresa Bougainvillea fue participé. – CATIE. Costa Rica. Escuela de Ciencias Ambientales.600 17.(OLAFO). Tesis de grado.000 20.A.. pp. amara.400 7. amara en el Jardín Agroecologico Bougainvillea. la planta será abastecida con 5. Matina. en un período de 8 años. MORA. Biotechnology. International Society for Horticultural Science. 2001. R. D. in a surface of 155. D. & EVANS. Threats to Chilean medicinal plants Wild harvesting of plant material from natural habitats of the medicinal species in central Chile is a Gloria Montenegro & Sharon Rodríguez very popular tradition and practice. mainly because of the lack of knowledge (CINCOTTA ET AL. OCAMPO. conservación e industrialización del Hombre Grande (Quassia amara). Guatemala. Enfield. In fact.082 species regarding in situ regeneration and the conservation have been described for continental Chile (ARROYO status of species that are intensively harvested. Turrialba. – Litografía e Imprenta LIL.).. In Chile a few exotic and introduced Santo Domingo. and increasing human population density people. In: RAI.. II WOCMAP Congress Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Part 3: Agricultural Production. J. San José. accounting for 20 percent of the total country. OCAMPO. 2003. standardization for Rafael Ángel Ocampo Sánchez • Jardín Agr. Leuven. and Rosmarinus officinalis. TREASE. 2010). Rosa rubiginosa. – CATIE.630 species.. Calendula officinalis.. VILLALOBOS. ACHARYA. (1995): Distribución de Quassia amara en Costa Rica y su relación con los contenidos de cuasina y neocuasina (insecticidas naturales) en sus tejidos. VILLALOBOS. revitalization of traditional knowledge of herbs. LORENZ. Rosa eglanteria sin. 2000). 2003) Chilean medicinal plants Page 15 May 2012 . W. GIULIETTI. ROJAS. Heredia. (2012): Ethnomedicine of Quassia and related plants in tropical America. – Science Publishers. R.000 km2. and there is concern due to the great amount of biomass collected Introduction every year. R. CRAKER. (1988): Tratado de Farmacognosia 12 ed. reaching 51. Post Harvest Techniques. & DÍAZ. Examples are: Matricaria chamomilla. MATHÉ. (eds.F. L. Concerns of mehotspots on earth. G. 127-132. New Hampshire. and around half of these are few case studies focusing on species biology have found in the Mediterranean climate area of central been done (MONTENEGRO ET AL. R. M. pp. 301-332.. MONTENEGRO ET AL. Costa Rica • e-mail: species of medicinal and aromatic plants are under bougainvillea@ice. particularly endemic species and those of restricted distribution. 174p. (2006): Cultivo. 70p. RÍOS. R. Chile.co. as well as an important source of income for these sectors. Ethnomedicinal plants. Tesis Mag.cr cultivation. A. Seminario Nacional de Plantas Medicinales. & MORA. is threatened by indiscriminate extraction for medicinal and aromatic uses (MONTENEGRO 2000. A total of 5. (1997): Variations in the Quassin and Neoquassin content in Quassia amara (Simaroubaceae) in Costa Rica: ecological and management implications. Besides wild harvesting a source of plant material is through cultivation. MARMILLOD. R.In Chile. Hypericum perforatum. with high plant diversity and en. 80% of the country’s population is distributed in this area thus and the high demand for land to develop cities and agriculture has caused a significant reduction in the area occupied by native wild vegetation (ARROYO & CAVIERES 1997).dicinal plant trade reach to policy makers and local demism. M. Furthermore.. OCAMPO. This flora has a high degree of endemism with 2. a fundamental resource of primary health care for a great part of the population in indigenous and rural zones. the survival of some species. G.pure products. G. pp.8% of the total number of species (MARTICORENA 1990). – Editorial Interamericana México. (eds. A & CAVIERES 1997).. Sc. Petén. G.. A.. there is a vast traditional knowledge on medicinal plants. In: GILBERTI.). D. G. 1979. As quality requirements are becoming more and more stringent.L. especially regarding plants classified as Central Chile represents one of the biodiversity vulnerable (SQUEO ET AL. extracts or crude drugs is of crucial oecológico de Plantas Medicinales Bougainvillea • importance.. Favorable growing conditions and public-private investments in research has enabled Regional file increases in the national supply of plant material and production for export. Central Chile has also supported a long history of human occupation and has a relatively high density of population. FISCHER ET AL. Photo: G. He details the investigations of Fa- Figure 1. A history of studies of medicinal plants in Chile The high floral diversity of Chile incorporates a great number of species with healing properties. Native species’ seeds generally cannot tolerate temperatures above 100 degrees Celsius and the soil seed bank is reported reduced (MUÑOZ & FUENTES 1989. An example is Helenium aromaticum. forming diverse pharmacological varieties of astringent. MONTENEGRO 2006. The curative attributes of some plants have been historically transmitted by indigenous populations through many generations. identified by the doctors then. Fabiana imbricata. MUÑOZ & FUENTES 1989. 2004). whose seedlings do not emerge after application of intense fire on soil samples (GOMEZ-GONZALES ET AL. especially the matorral. 2010). Native plants like cachanlagua (Centaurium cachanlahuen). The diversity of the Chilean flora made possible the natural growth of more than a thousand species of medicinal plants.Peamus boldus. antipyretic and soothing. aromaticum appears today as one of the most vulnerable annual species due to severe fires and heavy commercial harvesting during the vegetative growth period. paico (Chenopodium ambrosioides). The main species used for charcoal production in the Chilean Mediterranean arid and semiarid zone are: Balsamocarpon brevifolium. CRUZ-COKE (1995) is one of the first authors to compile information on medicinal plant species used in Chile. MONTENEGRO ET AL. diuretic. In the arid zones of the country charcoal production from woody shrubs is one of the main threats to native vegetation (ESTEVEZ ET AL. Peumus boldus. 2011). analgesic. viravira (Gnaphalium viravira) and cinnamon tree (Drymis winteri) are some of the bestknown by their therapeutic uses during the Colonial Period in Chile (CRUZ-COKE 1995). suggesting the right way to harvest a given species in a sustainable way. seasonality and the position of renewal buds.WILCKENS 2005. Page 16 May 2012 . 2010) to establish models of plant regeneration based on morphology. But anthropogenic fires affect thousands of hectares. Boldo . mainly orally and with great development in the 19th century. H. an important medicinal plant growing on the herbaceous strata of the matorral. Acacia caven. quinchamalí (Quinchamalium chilense). among others attributes. GOMEZ-GONZALEZ & CAVIERES 2009). every year in central Chile (CONAF 2010). Montenegro. Quillaja saponaria. Natural fires have not played an important role in plant species evolution of the Chilean matorral (ARMESTO & GUTIERREZ 1978. Adesmia hystrix. Porlieria chilensis and Schinus polygamus. 2010). published in 1714. cos. antimicrobial and antihypertensive activity levels of native plants and on the identification of types of MONTENEGRO ET AL. made a contribution sis has been extensively developed (MONTENEGRO to the rescue and preservation of the cultural patri. eating industry. 2001. Lastly. Research on determining levels of antimicrobial activity (HEDERRA 2011).ther Luis Feuilleé. VOGEL ET AL. perfumery. plants in their natural state were already part of medical studies. In the early twentieth century. which described chemical characteristics of some Chilean medicinal plants. compounds that make murta (Apis mellifera) for collection of nectar yielding a very attractive element for the dermatological honey with medicinal properties (MONTENEGRO industry.Chilean medicinal plants and their use Only a few species of Chilean medicinal plants are tering 460 different species (PROTEGE 2009). 2007. 2009. (2009) in their work “Secret responsible compounds for this activity through of our plants and other species: how to use them the combination of bioassays with chemical analyfor the benefit of the people”.Extraordinary medicinal and cosmetic properties metic. those native plants used selectively by honeybees terpenes and tannins.2000. 2003. FISCHER ET AL. harvesting and medicinal use of Chilean native plants and their chemical principles (active ingredients) that are used in fields like medicine. 2001. 2007. 1993. The Chilean flora has shown to be a good resource of biologically active compounds. MONTENEGRO ET AL. GUSINDE (1936) published works related to the traditional uses of medicinal plants by the southern indigenous tribes of the country. putting together antecedents related 2008. Recently. and he informs of Guajardo’s work in the year 1890. who indicated medicinal uses of plants of Peru and Chile. he provides information on the social and medical work of Doctor Adolfo Murillo. primarily from Chile’s central regions (ARROYO & CAVIERES 1997). 2006. 1977. MUÑOZ ET AL. regis. and antioxidants (MONTENEGRO 2000. diversifying the medical practices (PACHECO ET AL. Results of scientific investigations ratify the efficacy of the majority of the medicinal plants used by native towns on specific illnesses. MONTENEGRO ET AL. to the multiple uses of the plants (medicinal. on the antioxidant. cosmetics. mony of Chile. 2010). 2010). 2005. 2001. Supported by the constant development of chemistry it was possible to investigate the active ingredients of medicinal plants. however. mainly the publication of the Chilean Pharmacopoeia in 1886. a southern native Chilean fruit that hisour country. the Department of Health who carried out an empirical land registry of the medicinal plants. among others) that form have been identified in murta or murtilla (Ugni part of the traditions and traditional knowledge of molinae). it is worth mentioning the significant qualities. as well as for their antioxidant. 2010. VOGEL 2000. Scientific publications from the second half of last century strengthened medicinal herbs through the study of the chemical components that give value to medicinal plants. MONTENEGRO 2000. which are closely associated with the botanical origin that they have (ÁVILA ET AL. MONTES & WILKOMIRSKY 1987. like skin and urinary infections or hypertensive crisis. LOOSER & RODRÍGUEZ (2004) described the medicinal attributes of the Chilean pteridophytes based on an unpublished manuscript of the naturalist Walterio Looser. given its regenerative tissue and healing 2007). MUÑOZ ET AL. such as antibacterials. (2003) identified and described medicinal plants commonly used in Chile through ethnobotanical information about the traditional medicinal uses of more than 60 species of Chilean plants. It has a high content of poliphenols. SIMONSEN ET AL. 2009. (2010) rescue the value of (INIA 2005). and domestic uses. Examples are chemical compounds present in honey and propolis. 2008. HOFFMAN ET AL. Chemical properties of native plants There is an ancient knowledge regarding the identification. industrial and agricultural use. 2001). that in relation to Chilean medicinal plants “many points that have to be clarified still remain”. antifungals. Page 17 May 2012 . MONTENEGRO ET AL. antirheumatic or diuretic properties (RUZ 2011). Because of the high degree of endemism. The authors do clarify. it is reasonable to propose that products with unique and particular bioactive properties are likely to be found. MUÑOZ ET AL. 2006. besides multiple uses already applied in contribution made by a group of experts called by the national agro food industry. In a similar trend MONTENEGRO (2000) torically has been part of the diet of native towns and MONTENEGRO ET AL. are associated with safety and efficiency records. Sustainable harvest: regeneration models in Chilean medicinal plant trade plants used for medicinal purposes Medicinal plants are traded in fairs and local mar. Fig. The quantification The industrialization of the medicinal herb prod. implies a greater control in their sale and widely available in natural populations.of biomass gathered.combination with the information about the availaditional medicine herbs’ is a measure that. vathat purpose. their taxonomic identification. 1982. with Chile the major producer and exportnatural plant populations with commercial poten. cosmetics and practices on the conservation of intensively hardrugs. by MONTENEGRO ET AL.Research on conservation and sustainable use of kets by fruit pickers and herbalists. POLANCO Sustainable medicinal plant management strategies based on regeneration models have been developed 2011).liar area and length of the stems provides informamanding markets of Europe and USA is challeng. with no need of management for protection.with people who collect and sell medicinal plants. (2007). the exports of conservation state of native Chilean plants with plants extracts have considerably increased. Data from 2007 show the entrance of medicinal Biodiversity Group (ICBG). 1979. rubiginosa) and oregano (Origanum vulgare). vation of natural plant resources in collaboration This has encouraged the development of compa. Page 18 May 2012 . MARLES 2011. it shows native and endemic species nilla and parsley. focusing mainly on folk medicine (EVENSON vested species (MONTENEGRO 1994. 2003). Species-specific growth measurements.and location on types of branches of renewal buds. nationally and internationally. For this reason it is useful to characterize the France. and clinical knowledge. then allow determination of recognizing officially the curative properties of the sustainable use rates and use types (cutting of trees.The main species exported from Chile are rosa mosqueta (Rosa aff. The recognition of the 1987). the frequency of collection. Also.tion on the seasonal dynamics of vegetation growth ing and requires elaboration and implementation (MONTENEGRO ET AL. nies and research institutions to use plant products with a focus on explaining the impact of local and plant selection in areas of food. form. foucts has great potentials but entrance to the de. Table 1 was constructed with them. Still the data on species threatened by overexploitation has yearly per capita consumption of purchased me been collected: areas of exploitation. GUZMÁN ET AL. these species has been studied to develop morphoThere is in Chile a recent approach to the global logical models of regeneration based on position market for medicinal plants (POLANCO 2011). the studies seek to herbs in Chilean homes. Germany and Japan. ures from the last decade (FIA 2008) indicated an Based on monitoring of experimental plots growth increase of almost 60% in exports of medicinal dynamics have been studied to calculate rates of herbs. and state of conservation. plants. Shortcomings identified in relation to trade regeneration after harvesting (MONTENEGRO ET AL. the amount dicinal plant based material is low compared with. among others (LOBOS 2011. with an average growth in strike a balance between exploitation and conserthe consumption of around 20% (PROCHILE 2007). has place in the national and international cosmetic positive effects in promoting the conservation of dustry. and methods of plant harvesting. mainly to tial. standardization.of the increment rates of the number of leaves. processed extracts of quillay. distribution. So far & WESTPHAL 1995. 2005). Rosa mosThe increase in demand for natural products (es. hiperico. MONTENEGRO of supportive regulations. 2004). The products are medicinal plants is being developed at the Catholic hand-packed and characterized by irregular qual. and also a growing production in Chile.queta and hazelnut seed oils occupy an important pecially plants).University as part of the International Cooperative ity.er of rosa mosqueta oil in the world. with a considerable increase in the production of chamomile and boldo. in Chilean Department of Health of 52 herbs as ‘tra. growth and export of peppermint essential oils (FIA 2008). besides bility of the resources. among medicinal potential. Many of the plants that are part of Chile’s national herbarium are in a state of vulnerability associated mainly with informal indiscriminate harvesting. The biology of Europe. Aromo Cepacaballo. Hallante Avellano. Nogal silvestre S Equisetum bogotense P Escallonia illinita Escallonia pulverulenta T A A. B P V Escallonia revoluta Escallonia rubra Escallonia virgata Eucryphia cordifolia Fabiana imbricata Francoa appendiculata T S S S S S P P A S P S S S P S S T.TABLE 1. Pañil Capachito morado Capachito. Lechón Correhuela. Huique. Hierba de la vida. Coliguay. Espino blanco Canelo. description and conservation status of major Chilean plants. Raral. Parqui. Piñonero Cardo santo Cardo blanco Oreja de zorro. Copihuito Matico. Palo negro Fuinque. Boighe. S P P S P S V Araucaria araucana Argemone hunnemannii Argemone subfusiformis Aristolochia chilensis Aristotelia chilensis Azara mycrophylla Azorella compacta Berberis empetrifolia Bomarea salsilla Buddleja globosa Calceolaria arachnoidea Calceolaria thyrsiflora Centaurium cachanlahuen Cestrum parqui Cheilanthes glauca Cissus striata Colletia spinosa Colliguaja odorifera Convulvulus arvensis Coriaria ruscifolia Corynabutilon viride Corynabutilon vitifolium Cryptocarya alba Cuscuta chilensis Discaria serratifolia Drimys winteri Elytropus chilensis Page 19 May 2012 . Paramilla Cedrón del monte/Chilean lemon beebrush. Cacho de cabra Manzanilla del cerro Bollén Lampaya Palo muerto. Solupe. Cunco Colliguay. Palmilla Radal. Hediondilla Doradilla Voqui colorado Crucero. Hierba dulce Cachanlahue. Trihue Ñancolahuén. Kachan-l-awen Palqui. Yang-yang Mata negra. Dutchman’s pipe Maqui Chin-chin. Pangue Baylahuén Cuerno de cabra Bailahuén. Retamilla Litre Tabaco del diablo. Trupa Piñol. Tupa. muermo Pichi. Fuñe. Mataratones Huella Huella Peumo Cabello de ángel Chacay. Transmontana. Kore Paramela. Roblecillo Llareta Uva de la cordillera. Canutillo Barraco. Zarcilla. Ñipa. status Cons. Gevuín Viravira. Peta. Pipevine. Birthwort. Cadillo Cadillo. Romero Llaupangue. Correvuela Deu. Identification. status V E Scientific name Common name Growth form Scientific name Common name Growth form Ephedra chilensis Pingo-pingo. Cons. Hierba de la Virgen María. amores secos Rica-rica. Chilca. Hierba de la plata. Corontillo. Lemon verbena Araucaria. Boique Quilmay. pehuén. Poroto del campo T. Latué Laurel. Avellanillo. Palo de brujos. Palo blanco Chaura Geranium core-core Hierba del clavo. Barberry Salsilla. Limpia plata. abrojo. Yaqui. Siete camisas Lun Siete camisas colorado. Sea grape Yerba del platero. Ñipa Madroño. Cachen. Vara de mármol Chilco. Meki Ulmo. Corontillo. Palo amarillo. S T A S T S V V V Fuchsia magellanica Gaultheria mucronata Geranium core-core Geum quellyon Gevuina avellana Gnaphalium viravira Gunnera tinctoria Haplopappus baylahuen Haplopappus foliosus Haplopappus multifolius Helenium aromaticum Kageneckia oblonga Lampaya medicinalis Latua pubiflora Laurelia sempervirens Linum chamissonis Lithrea caústica Lobelia tupa Lomatia dentata Lomatia ferruginea Lomatia hirsuta P P T P S S S S P T S S T P T S T T T S S T S S T S P S S Acacia caven Acaena alpina Acaena splendens Acantholippia deserticola Adesmia emarginata Aloysa salvifolia Espino. Hierba de la diuca Nalca. It is important to emphasize the local responsibility in the conservation of the biological diversity. their growth dynamics and the way and time that they sprout allows for determination of patterns of regeneration (MONTENEGRO ET AL. Causes of overexploitation. in the case of extract pieces of bark of Quillaja saponaria. Tautau. The knowledge about the cycles of life of the species helps using products of economic interest in the biologically most appropriate periods. Puya. A: annual herb. Lahuénlahuén Toronjilcillo. cultivation and protection. T: tree. Hierba de Santa María Quilloi-quilloi Siempreviva Quintral Murta blanca. the ability of a species to recover from extraction can be established. Palo negro. Palo negro Chagual. Palo colorado Chequén. the rate of productivity per plant with the rate of removal by harvesters can be compared. that are rich in boldina. in autumn and part of winter would be a good idea. Pasionaria Boldo Mitique. Pitra. For example. Through an analysis of productivity per season. This requires involvement of local communities in the recovery of the traditional knowledge about species-specific utilization activities (TIMMERMANN & MONTENEGRO 1997). Also. their potentiality and the specific rates of regeneration after harvest must be identified (SIMONETTI & MONTENEGRO 1996). Puya. Hierba del chabalongo. Some results show that regeneration is possible when the harvest is done allowing the renewal buds to remain untouched in the plant (BOX 1). Palo santo 1 2 P: perennial herb. Growth form Cons. Another example is the use of the leaves of Peumus boldus Mol. exploiting individuals during their biological inactivity. Hierba de la culebra Pitrilla. Patagua de Valdivia Roble Flor de San José. Molleca Hierba negra. by either folk medicine or for export purposes requires the evaluation of the conservation status of medicinal plants. 1987. a saponin-rich species. Murta. Arrayán blanco Hierba de la perilla Maitén Botellita.. Its Lophosoria quadripinnata Ampe.Chilean plants. The study of the mechanisms of species regeneration used in folk medicine. Continued . Pesebre Luma apiculata Luma chequen Margyricarpus pinnatus Maytenus boaria Mitraria coccinea Muehlenbeckia hastulata Mulinum spinosum Arrayán. status Scientific name Common name grazing and harvest for human medicinal use) by the community (MONTENEGRO 1986. The massive extraction of certain plant species for medicinal use. Cardón Chagual. Common nightshade Salvia blanca. Voqui negro. Cardón Quillay Quinchamalí Tevo. 2003). Don Diego de la noche amarillo.e.TABLE 1. So when growth resumes the extracted bark can be regenerated. Tebo Pimiento. as well as the efficiency in the use of the available resources. Murtilla F T S S T S S S Myrceugenia exsucca Myrceugenia planipes Nothofagus obliqua Oenothera stricta T T T P Passiflora pinnatistípula Peumus boldus Podanthus mitiqui Puya berteroniana Puya chilensis Quillaja saponaria Quinchamalium chilense Retanilla trinervia Schinus molle Schinus latifolius Senecio fistulosus Solanum crispum C T S P P T P S T T P S Sphacele salviae Stachys albicaulis Stellaria arvalis Triptilion spinosum Tristerix corymbosus Ugni molinae S P P P S T T Weinmannia trichosperma Tineo. specifically the location and activity of the renewal buds. Pitra. Comparing the extraction and regeneration of plants at individual sites currently used by growers with the ones used in the past and projecting the data to be applied at community level. Flora de la pasión. correlating the regeneration rate with the frequency and amount of material removed. falso pimiento Molle. Patagua Picha. Evening primrose Granadilla. promoting programs of sustainable production. Natri. Lilén Hualtata Natre. Vochi-vochi Quilo. Palmilla. it is possible to evaluate whether the population of a given species is maintaining or decreasing as result of resource extraction. ÁVILAET AL. 1988). V: vulnerable Page 20 May 2012 . i. S: shrub E: endangered. Many species can tolerate the removal of a certain amount of biomass and can regenerate from renewal buds or other meristematic tissues. the pattern types of plants of biomass productivity throughout the growing season. the reproduction through seed germination. has generated and incorporated changes in the legMontenegro. extraction of plant species oriented to the sustain thereby affecting the formation of new organs. from a management point of view because the old leaves have larger amounts of the active compound Existing regulations regarding medicinal plants in and because extraction of leaves during the grow. Regulatory framework In Latin America and the Caribbean Islands countries medicinal plants are protected under regulations of CITES. These meristems are capable of regenerating the bark removed when part of them has been allowed to remain in place. Regeneration models that promote extraction procedures. the knowledge about the life cycle of species BOX 2. Medicinal plant vendor. have been elaborated for these specific cases (MONTENEGRO ET AL. vegetative propagation and/or tissue culture will provide a powerful tool to recover degraded areas and to conserve endangered species helping to preserve the fragile plant biodiversity of our planet. able use of plants or plant structures such as leaves Thus. with some accuracy. 2003.baceous species that develop underground stems where the reserve of renewal buds is found TENEGRO ET AL. including Chile. 1988). the Ministry of Health FIGURE 2. Photo: G. Page 21 May 2012 . About 30 countries of the region. The permits and certificates of origin are issued by the SAG (Agricultural and Livestock Service of Chile).Regeneration model 1 represents perennial hermulation of dry matter at different times (MON.Chile are associated (i) to the stage of productioning season reduces the photosynthetic activity. islation to ensure the rational use of medicines deleaves grow from September to December. their rived from medicinal plants and natural products extraction during the inactive time is advisable (PARADA 2011). Apart from all the procedures used to promote sustainable use of the natural plant resources. Another example is a model related to the woody species used for their leaves: the extracted Regeneration model 2 represents the perennial herbaceous species that develop a bank of buds in the crown located at ground level Regeneration model 3 is linked to cushion plants that have a reserve of protected buds at ground level or underground. consistent with a sustainable use of natural resources. such as a regeneration pattern of the bark from lateral meristems (vascular cambium and phellogen) located on the periphery of the trunk.biomass can be regenerated if renewal buds located in apical or axillary places are kept in place. have become signatory of the Convention. Other models of regeneration from specific parts of the plant can be added to the previous models. Box 2). which help to regenerate their biomass if the woody structure that protects them is not destroyed Regeneration model 4 represents the woody species that have between the trunk and the root. enabling determination of the rate of accu. Regeneration models for different helps to quantify. In Chile. a lignified tuber (lignotuber) which generates buds from vascular cambium when the aerial part has suffered a serious environmental impact Regeneration model 5 represents annual plants that have a reserve of renewal buds in the seeds. What do we know and how can we assure its protection. Aspectos ambientales. (2010): Estadísticas históricas de Incendios Forestales. from which mainly its bark is extracted. & MONTENEGRO. (2000): Human population in the biodiversity hotspots. TRAMÓNE. Santiago. & MONTENEGRO. GÓMEZ. M. However. It is necessary to regulate access to genetic resources in Chile to prevent leakage of material and protect traditional knowledge (MANZUR 2004).. TORRES-DÍAZ. BERTI.V. meta 2. pp 81-89... (1997): The Mediterranean type climate flora of central Chile. R.. & WESTPHAL. R. Estudios sobre sus espacios montañosos. Santiago.E. – Ciencia e Investigación Agraria 20(3): 119125.. E.. M. & PASTENE. boldo (Peumus boldus) for the removal of its leaves. – Anales del Museo de Historia Natural 11: 43-48 ARROYO.012. E. Bailey (Asteraceae).10. (2010): Producción de carbón vegetal a partir de arbustos nativos de la Región de Atacama. Chapter 37. C. – In: JANICK. R. CRUZ-COKE.). VA. & GÓMEZ. G. G. GOMEZ-GONZALEZ.. specifically the exploitation of quillay. & ALJARO. MORA. WILCKENS.). Crops Prod. Ecología del paisaje de Chile Central. (2010): Characterization and propagation of some medicinal plants in the central-south region of Chile. R.cl Accessed June 2011. INOSTROZA. BAEZA..). GUZMÁN. – Fundación para la Innovación Agraria. A. M. (1988): Incendios en la vegetación mediterránea. C. R. M. SQUEO. Proyectos de Innovación en Regiones V.. Noticiero de Biología 5(2): 48-56. B.. 67 pp FIA (2008): Resultados y lecciones en plantas medicinales y aromáticas.. M. G. – Ind. M. E.. & GONZALEZ. Alexandria. and (ii) to the processing of medicinal herbs for therapeutic use. L. CONAF. G. S. S. – In: FUENTES. – In: TIMMERMANN. BERTI. (2009): Litter burning does not equally affect seedling emergence of native and alien species of the Mediterranean-type Chilean matorral.N. H.L. conaf. ESTÉVEZ. Chile. (2011): The effects of fire related cues on seed germination and viability of Helenium aromaticum (Hook) H. 584 páginas. Serie Experiencias de Innovación para el Emprendimiento Agrario. – Anthropos XXXI: 555-571. ÁVILA.. – International Journal of Wildland Fire 18: 213-221. R. éticos. R. Ministerio de Agricultura. 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(2007): Composición y capacidad antioxidante de especies aromáticas y medicinales con alto contenido de timol y carvacrol. & SILVA. J. PATRICK. R. FAO. M.. Gobierno de Chile. maritime Remy: a medicinal plant from Chile. MUÑOZ. & RIOSECO.. G.. REYES. 162pp.. – Phyton International Journal of Experimental Botany 213-223.. 2011. Química y farmacología. E. J. Available at: h t t p : / / w w w. PIZARRO.. M. A. 78pp. TIMMERMANN. Chile. P. Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena. MONTENEGRO.cl Page 24 May 2012 . BENOIT.. N. (2011): Normas para registro de productos de origen vegetal en Chile. – Instituto de Salud Pública. POLANCO. Proyecto Farmacopea Chilena.cl • Sharon Rodríguez • Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal..T. PALMA.. 2011. PROCHILE (2007): Plantas medicinales cada vez más atractivas. ideológicos y políticos en el debate sobre bioprospección y uso de recursos genéticos en Chile. & WILKOMIRSKY. PACHECO P. L. & LETELIER. K. M. PARADA. ECHENIQUE. ESTADES. 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(2005): Adaptación de plantas medicinales en la zona centro-sur y sur de Chile: resultados proyecto FIA PI-C-2000-1-A-003. Ediciones UC. M. 3-5 August. MONTENEGRO. L. E.. R. G. – Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 83: 511-529. B. 330pp. Marzo 29–32. G. C. O. & FUENTES. 58pp. – Scientia Et Technica 13(33): 125-128. RAZMILIC. BLANCO. (2005): Determination of the Botanical Origin and some Chemical Properties of Honeys from the Central Zone of Chile. & MONTENEGRO. R. A.R. M. MONTENEGRO.. MUJICA. Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal. – Boletín Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas 9 (5): 333-342. – BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6(29): 1-4. Santiago. BERTHELSEN. Ministerio de Salud.E. GÓMEZ. MUÑOZ.. T. F. constitute the only therapeutic contribution of traditional practitioners. The three objectives of the association are the knowledge and valorization of the use of medicinal plants. SPMT) was created. The floristic inventory. the Malagasy Ministry of Health has wished to restructure the traditional practices in order to improve them.000 to 13.implementation of what is called integrative mediable genetic diversity. Currently are sometimes very far from villages. the receptacle of symbols” (BENOIST 1995:53). health centres (Centres de Santé de Base.avertem. some basic the Ministry of Health and its Traditional Medicine Page 25 May 2012 .Focus on Medicinal Plants in Madagascar Julie Le Bigot This work is part of the pilot project “Madagascar: people.We can also observe in Madagascar the developventional medication is costly (in 2005 85% of the ment of Improved Traditional Drugs (Remèdes Malagasy people lived on less than 2 USD per day Traditionels Améliorés. A Malagasy pharmacopoeia including hundreds of species has then been initiated.statistiques-mondiales. introduction of conventional medicine. Medicinal plants do not. mpanaody or nentin-drazana. The herb-remedy can be perceived as the “vehicle of representations. rapid response in a country where health facilities herbal tea. the use of In 2007 the National Association of traditional so-called traditional medicine and herbal remedies practitioners was created. amounts today to 12. Medicinal plants can be used in different ways: by self-medication at home in the family circle or in consultation with a traditional practitioner (called mpitsabo. In recent years. balm. mostly practising allopathic medicine) being located at several hours’ walk. Medicinal plants. WHO (2009) has estimated the Ministry of Health to issue diplomas to tradithat about 70% of the people in Madagascar use tional practitioners recognized as “efficient” and this form of medicine. CSB. so far the first of four volumes have been completed. in other words. and finally. Despite the ern medicine“ (MACFARLANE & ALPERS 2010). and cine. still poorly understood.000 vascular plants species. which is not yet completed. Introduction Considered a “hot spot”. As part of this plan. Traditional medicine also uses animal (including insect) and mineral material. tradi.fr). the return of information gathered from local people to improve primary health care and the preservation of local biodiversity. secondly. This flora is also remarkable for its very high endemism which is around 90% (GSPM 2011). age. and to deny access to this this figure: first of all this medicine is ancestral and official title to traditional practitioners considered part of the Malagasy cultural practices and herit“charlatans”. Several reasons may explain considered legitimate. however. both biological and symbolic. their use and the substances to which they are associated. carry also a meaning and a therapeutic efficacy. depending on the types of practices they exercise and the components they use to treat). the use of medicinal plants allows for inexpensive treatments in a country where con. that can evolve according to their packaging. These RTA are in the form of cream. soap.clove tree’s forest . The pharmacopoeia is intended Medicine and medicinal plants in Madagascar to be distributed to CBS in order to facilitate the Biodiversity in Madagascar represents a consider. The multidisciplinary team of AVERTEM operates since 2009 in three villages around the coastal rainforest of Tampolo. “the official recognition of which has long been used by local populations in traditional medicine and its integration with westparticular for therapeutic purposes. RTA) which notably allow (www. plants. a service of Pharmacopoeia and Traditional Medicine (Service de la Pharmacopée et de la Médecine Traditionnelle. www.). or raokandro (literally meaning “action of collecting plants every day”).optimizing component proportions to prevent toxtional medicine is easily accessible and provides a icity. the island of Madagascar is exceptional for its biological diversity. syrup or essential oil. a protected area located on the east coast of the island (Analanjirofo . Madagascar is one of the world priorities in terms of biodiversity conservation. remedies” by the association AVERTEM (Association of Valorization of Ethnopharmacology in tropical and Mediterranean regions.region). it was commissioned by is still largely present. The Malagasy Institute for Applied Research (Institut malgache de recherche appliquée. most are still widely collected in the Our data does not permit at present to determine to what extent the use of plants at the national level threatens the resources. Centella asiatica. both in quantity and value. but the island also has aromatic plant resources. It still could be considered to provide collectors with basic tips to optimize practices (such as not taking all the leaves from the same plant or not taking all the bark from the same tree. literally meaning “plant that overcomes the most serious ailments”). etc). The latter species has numerous properties (broncho-pulmonary. but they also collect plants from the wild. including in Europe and North America. In addition. Thus. Madagascar (Institut national de la statistique de Although the cultivation of medicinal plants is Madagascar. anti-infective. the use of medicinal plants does not appear to pose a threat to the sustainability of the resource since the collecting is found to be relatively low. is causing great concern. detrimental to the survival of the specimen was substituted by the leafy parts. This export industry is based on 50 species. Do they have wild plant supply networks? What is the proportion of cultivated plants compared to what is obtained from the wild? All these questions remained unanswered for now. A case was reported to us about a plant in Madagascar whose roots were usually used as a medicine. over 900 tons of plants were exported in 2010. FIGURE 1).mg/) tell us that developing. its export quota is currently zero. However laboratory studies have shown that the leaves contain the same active ingredients as the roots. These two introduced species are being planted on a large-scale. FIGURE 1.980 million Ariary (one euro equals about 2800 Ariary). IMRA and Homeopharma grow crops. of which 33 are from the forest (REPUBLIC OF MADAGASCAR 1995. Malagasy medicinal plants are also widely exported as they represent a quality raw material for pharmaceutical industries. the use of underground parts. Madagascan endemics such as Cinnamosma fragrans (mandravasarotra. Photo: Author.instat.Department are considering the introduction of low cost RTA in the CSB to improve primary health care. laboratory studies could be initiated and generalized to give traditional practice a sustainable orientation. Cinnamomum camphora (in Malagasy ‘the good plant’).by exporters. Harvest of Catharanthus roseus roots in south Madagascar. Another species. Helichrysum gymnocephalum and Ravensara aromatica are also much sought after The export of Medicinal plants from Madagas. Prunus africana. is listed on Appendix 2 of CITES. etc. generating foreign exchange earnings of nearly 7. Most medicinal plants are exported from Madagascar in raw form. over-exploited for its bark. The two non-indigenous species Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) and clove (Syzygium aromaticum) make up almost the entirety of essential oil exports.) and car all its parts are aromatic (its vernacular name haData from the National Institute of Statistics of zomanitra means “aromatic tree”). IMRA) and Homeopharma are the two largest manufacturers of RTA in Madagascar. In view of all these elements it can be recognized that the practice of collecting medicinal plants in Madagascar shows to a certain degree signs of sustainability. The results of the first investigations on this matter by trainees from AVERTEM show that the plants are gathered mainly in the outskirts of the village and not in the forest. This African medicinal tree. When used locally. Page 26 May 2012 . Catharanthus roseus. Pending the results of a study which has just started. Aphloia theaeformis and Drosera madagascariensis are among the species sought after for their active ingredients. many small structures practice also this business. http://www. In addition. CNARP) (REPUBLIC OF MADAGASCAR 1995). living in and around protected areas. (Nouvelle Politique Forestière. most Environmental Action Plan was launched (Plan small collectors and roadside sellers do not comply National d’Action Environnemental. threat to the sustainability of the medicinal plant In 1997 Madagascar adopted a new forest policy resources. In line with makers have endeavoured to put policies in place the principle of decentralization. 2006). policy TAGNE & RAMAMONJISOA 2006: 9).. but in opposition to the advice from internaments put forward to justify this failure. mostly illegal logging of high quality timber (e. as part of this the National Agency for Protected The collecting frequency and the amount collected Area Management (Agence nationale de gestion reach.the sole manager throughout the country. In 1991 a National ests (Ministère des Eaux et Forêts). africana mentioned above is not unique. In 2003 trol of the amount of material collected and export. Up to that time. is another important hectares are under some sort of protection status. Our recent enquiries with Malagasy academics have confirmed that this practice of collecting in the wild is still largely widespread. decree No. In fact. This is known today as Madagascar National Parks. the harvest of more than (Law No.the President of the Republic of Madagascar comed could partly solve the overexploitation problem.recognize the links between environmental proentific or other purposes.of charcoal for domestic purposes and wood for building material.areas in his country. Mining and cyclones reaching the east coast of the island are The use of medicinal plants is regulated by a 1987 other causes of forest destruction. The lack of human and financial reof wild environmental resources to people’s livelisources mobilized for the sector is one of the arguhoods. In principle. PNAE. This shift The causes of deforestation and overexploitation from coercive conservation policies based on bans of natural resources are mainly anthropogenic. whether for commercial.g. 150 years later the ment. In 1995. out of the 223 most exported species only 29 were cultivated and 43 were grown at the National Centre for the implementation of pharmaceutical research (Centre national d’application des recherches pharmaceutiques. Page 27 May 2012 . ANGAP) was created. Stephanostegia capuronii and Faucherea glutinosa). and the introduction of cash crops and industrial crops leading to the destruction of woodlands. or has even gional Offices. Article 3 states that the col. Estimates tional conservation NGOs.and limitations of rights to community based conamples are the slash and burn cultivation.. Ex. mitted to triple over five years the size of protected The habitat destruction. regions can have to conserve Malagasy forests (MONTAGNE & RAMstructures responsible for environmental manageAMONJISOA. which the State has entrusted the management of The widespread cultivation of medicinal plants as most protected areas. at times. The case des aires protégées. levels of overexploitation. the State was well as the setting up of quotas and a stricter con. However. 90-033 of 21 October 1990) that “clearly two individual plants.& RAMAMONJISOA 2006:15). in particular in the for. currently 5 million biodiversity in Madagascar. for example Environment and Forest Reforest degradation is still taking place.ien species harmful to the fragile island ecosystems lecting of wild plants for commercial purposes are of concern. for example in the case of Sisal (Agave sisalana). and with this legislation. In recognition of the contribution worsened. a conservation program for the assessment of current forest cover vary but has been established in consultation with people range generally between 8 and 10 million hectares. and invasive alinterministerial order. a fiber crop grown in the south of the country. to of P. NPF. sci. The objective of 6 million hecest environment that undeniably hosts most of the tares has not yet been reached. and in particular wild. in some areas. Dalbergia spp. the use on Biological Diversity (CBD). 97-1200 of 2 October 1997) considered “a real Conservation policies in Madagascar modernization of the environmental sector” (MONSince the second half of the 19th century. an Environmental Charter was enacted document”. requires the issue of an tection and economic development” (MONTAGNE authorization from the Ministry of Water and For. or tavy. servation is considered in line with the Convention used to produce food crops. requires the granting of an “operating regulation In 1990. eu). This collaboration has made it possible to sustainably manage the resource while at the same time enhance the economic value of R.) and essential oils. In Madagascar.cogesformada. (For more information see www. are expected to accurately identify the adjustments needed to improve management transfer and multiply successes. Meanwhile. Being then a strong element of identity. research on rural development could be further developed to improve the socio-economic measures to fight against poverty. Political and economic problems are causing concern and in this context environmental problems and the challenges they represent are not seen as priorities. Conclusion In Madagascar. More financial and human resources could be released to complete the floristic inventory of Madagascar and the in-situ and ex-situ conservation of threatened species deserves to be continued and accelerated. respectively NPF (Nouvelle Politique Forestière) and Gelose Act of 1997 (Secure Local Management – Gestion locale sécurisée) outside protected areas. was established. They suggest to dwell on “the relevance of a more patrimonial vision in which preservation is seen as the need to protect a legacy bequeathed by past generations to transmit to the future ones as part of their well-being and identity“ (MÉRAL & DESJARDINS 2006). Specifically. a series of technical trainings were provided: teaching of climbing techniques to prevent cutting down trees to collect material. the conservation programs take place as contract-management under the laws 96-025 and 97-017. communities must establish a sustainable management plan and according to the law Gelose they are “entitled to certain benefits in the marketing and promotion of renewable resources and their by-products”. However.its Article 8j recognizing the efficient role of local practices and knowledge in biodiversity conservation. the local coordinator of AVERTEM in Madagascar has very recently observed interesting and encouraging initiatives. including of medicinal plants. It is regrettable that public policies. Awareness of the depletion of natural resources is beginning to emerge and people are starting plantations. The first contracts to the benefit of grassroots communities were signed in 2000. aromatica. Raffia palm (Raphia spp. the idea of endless and abundant natural resources is quite widespread. To implement the law Gelose. it is important to remember that Madagascar is currently undergoing a deep crisis. In this regard. But that being said. particularly in the environmental field. Page 28 May 2012 .org and www. environmental and economic. Continued assessments such as that conducted by RESOLVE (2005). projects have been set up by CIRAD (Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement) and its partners to support local communities’ value-addition to timber and non-timber forest products: construction wood. the approach developed by MÉRAL & REQUIER-DESJARDINS (2006) represent a possible solution. In addition. A simplified management and working plan was developed to put in place a judicious exploitation of R. the aromatic tree mentioned above. gesforcom. especially among coastal communities in the east. are not always fully implemented and are at times slow to materialize. and better control of the distillation process of the essential oil contained in leaves. aromatica. In the rural district of Didy (Alaotra mangoro Region) production and marketing of the essential oil from R. Assisted by environmental mediators. aromatica by producing good quality oil. The positive results cannot be generalized to all management transfers but Montagne and Ramamonjisoa note that “contracts contribute significantly to improve the environment” (MONTAGNE & RAMAMONJISOA 2006: 21). charcoal. This way of thinking implies that a resource taken from the wild does not need to be replaced. conservation of resources could be perceived as essential. Further value-added may be possible through certification. an interesting point came out of an interview with the director of a school of natural resource management from a village in the region of Analanjirofo. To finish. It is a form of regulation combining institutional and customary laws. the conservation of medicinal plants is important for at least three spheres: health. A public policy can only be respected if it is meaningful to the people. prior identification of chemotypes to ensure the quality of the oil produced. The Malagasy proverb “Tsy mety lany raha ramboarinjagnahary “ meaning “What God has created is never depleted” illustrates this perception. J. whereas the floras of the Seychelles and the Mascarenes (Mauritius.References BENOIST. – IUCN SSC Madagascar Plant Specialist Group. More than 80% of the world’s population in the world still depend on traditional medicine for their primary health care (WHO 1992). entre ses usages et ses témoins. MERAL. All the 119 plant-derived drugs used worldwide come from fewer than 90 out of the 250. M. – Journal officiel de la République de Madagascar. (2006) : La gestion durable de l’environnement à Madagascar : enjeux.000 plant species that have been identified (DE SMET 1997) The potential for discovering more new chemical entities is there.org/ index894. p.org/index891. (1995): Madagascar: rapport de pays pour la conférence technique internationale de la FAO sur les ressources phytogénétiques (Leipzig.revues. – Antananarivo. D. Other drugs are derived from animals and microorganisms. Reunion and Rodrigues) are highly specialised and rich in endemics. 23242348. p. REPUBLIQUE DE MADAGASCAR. (2010): National Policy for an Integrated Health System and Local Implementation: the Case of Papua New Guinea and the Nasioi. Therefore the possibilities for developing new drugs from forest resources should feature in any calculation of their true worth. MACFARLANE. pharmaceutiques et biologiques. Natural products and their derivatives represent more than 50% of all drugs in clinical use in the world (CRAGG & NEWMAN 2000). opportunités et contraintes. This paper presents the general situation of the medicinal plant resources and their regulation in the Small Islands States of the South-West Indian Julie Le Bigot • AVERTEM. REPUBLIQUE DE MADAGASCAR. Faculté des sciences Ocean with particular emphasis on Mauritius. (2006) : Politiques forestières à Madagascar entre répression et autonomie des acteurs. MINISTERE DES EAUX ET FORETS. – Ecologie humaine VIII(2) : 53-61. 59000 Flora of the Small Island States of the Indian Ocean Lille. (2011): Liste rouge des plantes vasculaires endémiques de Madagascar. rue du professeur Laguesse.fr The flora of the Comoros Islands. To this date only two internationally recognised medicinal plants have emerged from this part of the world – the Madagascan Catharanthus roseus and Centella asiatica. – Human Organization 69(4): 387-398. The flora of the South West Indian Ocean belongs to one of the global hotspots. (2005): Evaluation et perspectives des transferts de gestion des ressources naturelles dans le cadre du Programme Environnemental 3. (1987): Arrêté Interministériel n°2915/87 portant conduite de l’exploitation des produits accessoires des forêts du 7 septembre 1987. 2092-2098.revues.html RESOLVE.html. Higher plants contribute no less than 25% of the total. Département de botanique • 3. & REQUIER-DESJARDINS. Medicinal Plants utilisation and conservation in the Small Island States of the SW Indian Ocean with particular emphasis on Mauritius Ameenah Gurib-Fakim Introduction Plants are known to be primary sources of all medicines in the world and continue to provide mankind with new remedies. which are geographically close to the African continent. (1995): La plante-médicament.bigot@hotmail. Yet the potential for the discovery of new entities as well as standardised extracts is enormous. P. Page 29 May 2012 . – Antananarivo. (1997): Décret n° 97-2000 portant adoption de la Politique forestière Malagasy du 2 octobre 1997.1996).le. Rapport final de synthèse. Journal officiel de la République de Madagascar. – Économie rurale 294-295: 9-26. 55p. & ALPERS. REPUBLIQUE DE MADAGASCAR. & RAMAMONJISOA. P. France • email: julie. Available at: http://economierurale. – Économie rurale 294-295: 4-8. B. MONTAGNE. tends to show greater affinity to that of the continent. (1996): Loi n°96-025 relative à la gestion locale des ressources naturelles renouvelables du 30 septembre 1996. J. GSPM. Available at : http://economierurale. Among the species. Foetidia mauritiana. Peperomia hirta. With respect to the endemic species. Phyllanthus comoriensis. the Mascarenes can be considered an Page 30 May 2012 . Dombeya acutangula. and Weinmannia bojeriana. This recent estimate shows that at least 95 of the 141 Critically Endangered species have less than 50 known adults in the wild (FLORENS 2007). There are about 200 species. Stadmania oppositifolia. Gouania leguatii. Among them are Zanthoxylum paniculatum. Flora of the Mascarenes [Mauritius. Taxa from the Comoros illustrating the affinity to the African flora are for example Alangium salviifolium ssp.. and considered to be more or less extinct are: Abrotanella rhynhocarpa. Mauritius has around 300 or 60-65% of the indigenous flora. trade and cyclonic winds. Figure 1 shows the historical development in forest cover on Mauritius. out of which 2 were endemic to the Comoros: Tambourissa leptophylla and Helichrysum sp. Piper sp. The elements making up the indigenous flora have been introduced to the islands via marine currents. 55 are Endangered. Euphorbia daphnoides. Tabernaemontana coffeoides. the island has 36-38 taxa of endemic flowering plants but many of the indigenous species have now become extremely rare and are on the verge of extinction.. Cycas comoriensis. jet streams and marine and terrestrial birds during emigration. which have never been connected to the continental mainland. entity (ADJANOHOUN ET AL. Saba comoriensis. Cassine orientale. There are 671 species of indigenous flowering plants recorded in Mauritius of which 311 are endemic (Mauritius has 8 endemic plant genera) and 150 are endemic to the Mascarene Archipelago. According to STRAHM (1989).000 species and a close examination reveals a high degree of endemism. 1983a. and 98 are Vulnerable. Recent classifications have revealed the following: 141 species are Critically endangered. Rodrigues (Mru) and Reunion (Fr. which have been surveyed recently.) is the youngest of the is- FIGURE 1. CADET (1977) presented the phytogeographical analysis of the Mascarene Islands and reported that 70% of the phanerogams come from Madagascar and the African continent.. Rodrigues (Mru. Syzygium balfourii amongst others. Norhonia sp.Flora of the Comoros The entire flora of the Comoros archipelago is estimated to contain some 2.. (1982) identified 120 medicinal plants. while Rodrigues has around 50 or 55% of its flora. Peperomia sp. Protium obtusifolium. 8% are of oriental origin. Terminalia bentzoe. Reunion Island (Fr. while Reunion Island has 5 and Rodrigues has 3. Mauritius has 7 phanerogames. GUEHO 1988). Tambourissa sp. Mimusops comoriensis. salviifolium. Scutia myrtina amongst others.)] The Mascarene Islands are made up of three islands. which are endemic. while the remaining 10% are endemics.) indigenous flora is also characterised by a high degree of endemism. Among the interesting indigenous species in Mauritius we find the following: Diospyros tesselaria. Hibiscus liliiflorus and Antirhea bifurcata. Seventy-seven of these indigenous species are classified as extinct. Eugenia fasciculate. ADJANOHOUN ET AL. Recent studies of lower plants have shown there to be about 207 taxa consisting of 89 genera of mosses and 59 genera of hepatics (TIXIER and GUEHO 1997). Erythroxylum sideroxyloides. Combretum coccineum. Native forest loss in Mauritius (1773-1997). subspecies and varieties of pteridophytes of which 13 species are endemic and 40 are extinct. 12% are of indopacific origin or cosmopolitan. which have all been reduced to only a few individuals. Nuxia congesta. Of the extant flowering plants about 35% are classified as threatened as per the IUCN criteria (BACHRAZ & TEZOO 1997). Phytogeographically. 000 years old. Others have been introduced inresentative of the Medusagynaceae family. There is always the underlying itself takes 25 years to reach the adult stage and fear that several species may become critically ento produce flowers and seeds. they have displaced the lands of the Mascarenes. The insularity of brought along with them their medicinal plants the surroundings is ancient and the flora and primi. formis ssp. Several of the inStatus of medicinal plants utilisation in the Mas. In the course of their survey AD. Page 31 May 2012 . It is the largest seed in the plant kingdom towards their safeguard. The island is well placed to receive wind-borne seeds and has been colonised partly by exotic plant materials.flexuosa.It is interesting to note that whilst the Mauritian ders making up these islands are among the oldest population is made up of immigrants who have on this planet (650 millions years). The latter was introwhich 7 are indigenous/endemic to the Seychelles. lensis. LigusJANOHOUN ET AL. Nonetheless. The island is entirely volcanic and still has an active volcano claimed to be 500. suggesting a gradual erosion of the traditional knowledge. The rocks and boul. Antirhea borbonica.parts of the world. madagascariensis. Cossigna pinnata.when they landed in Mauritius almost 200 years tive vegetation have evolved in an isolated manner ago. During a survey carried out between 1990-1994 (GURIB-FAKIM ET AL.tals. which advertently to the country and have become weeds. forest species and as medicines from many riosity is Medusagyne oppositifolia – the only rep. Campnosperma seychellarum. for example Lodoicea maldivica which difficult for the authorities to control the collection is a unique endemic palm tree with a unique and of plants. Gynura With human settlements. The level of en. Over the years. only to become pests themselves. Mimusops seychellarum. The more im. encompass some forty islands and granitic It is also worth pointing out that local inhabitants islets. The tree too little too late. quite a few endemic plants also form part of over hundreds of millions of years. Cassine orientale amongst others. It has a few taxonomic tify them. such as Chinese Guava carenes (Psidium cattleianum) and Poivre marron (Schinus The use of Medicinal plants is still relatively com. Psiadia arguta. In 1983. Another floristic cu. tive forests.g. e.Crinum mauritianum amongst others.the local pharmacopoeia. (1983b) identified 76 plants out of trum robustum var walkerii. Begonia seychel. Erythroxylum sechellarum. Whilst forest collection is not legal. 1983b). ornamensechellensis amongst others. Chasand diversity in the flora and fauna. The flora is a model in itself because of its collect most of the medicinal plants from the forhigh degree of specialisation and its rich diversity ests and that they often are unable to correctly idenof highly endemic species. the island is still blessed with some interesting indigenous species like Foetidia mauritiana. ADJANOHOUN ET AL.troduced exotic plants. had previously been reported extinct (ADJANOHOUN Some had been introduced to control imported ET AL. More than 12% of the plants for which use Flora of the Seychelles was documented are endemic to the South West InThe Seychelles archipelago located to the North dian Ocean. many plants have been sechellensis. Many of the used plants are becoming unusual shape growing in the Valley of May and extremely rare and whilst efforts are being made Praslin. Tarenna introduced intentionally as food crops. Among these are: Termidemism has been brought to the fore by the variety nalia bentzoe ssp.salia coriacea. The granitic island dangered due to over-collection. Faujasiopsis portant endemic plant species include Aphloia thei. duced to outcompete the Thorny Bramble (Rubus alceifolius) in forest plantation. it is curiosities. it was found that reliable information is obtained mostly from persons aged 55 to 70 years. Curculigo seychellensis.terebinthifolius) have become naturalised in the namon and growing. Securinega durissima. bentzoe. Diospyros Threats to the propagation of local biodiversity seychellarum. Canthium seychellarum. Carissa xylopicron.pests. Nonetheless. Cassine orientale. 1995-1997). presents a real floristic refuge. East of Madagascar and discovered in the 17th century. for some plants it may be and takes 7 years to ripen and germinate.(1983a) identified 102 plants out of which 8 were indigenous to the Mascarene region (MAURITIUS & RODRIGUES). over 600 plants used medicinally were collected and documented in the course of the study. VU . trade2 1 1 2 5 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 LC . EW(R) EN EN(R) CR(M) EN(R) CR(M) CR(R) EN VU CR CR EN(M). Among the other potential invasives and Rodriguan forests are: Ardisia crenata. Lantana Casuarina equisetifolia. EW(R) VU VU(R) EN Use. Sola- Page 32 May 2012 . 2: Collected. Hiptage benghalensis. namomum verum. Botanical names Carissa xylopicron Ochrosia borbonica Acanthophoenix Rubra Sarcostemma viminale Tylophora coriaceae Psiadia arguta Senecio lamarkianus Ehretia petiolaris Canarium paniculatum Protium obtusifolium Cassine orientale Grangeria borbonica Harungana madagascariensis Terminalia bentzoe Ipomoea pescaprae Agauria salicifolia Erythroxylum laurifolium Antidesma madagascariensis Phyllanthus lanceolata Phyllanthus phyllyreifolius Aphloia theiformis Foetidia rodriguesensis Lomatophyllum lomatophylloides Bakerella hoyifolia Badula balfouriana Jumellea fragrans Gouania leguatii Antirhea bifurcata Mussaenda arcuata Ramosmania heterophylla Zanthoxylum paniculatum Zanthoxylum heterophyllum Allophyllus cobbe Clerodendrum laciniatum Clerodendrum heterophyllum 1 2 Family name Apocynaceae Apocynaceae Arecaceae Asclepiadaceae “ Asteraceae “ Boraginaceae Burseraceae “ Celastraceae Chrysobala-naceae Clusiaceae Combretaceae Comvolvulaceae Ericaceae Erythroxylaceae Euphorbiaceae “ “ Flacourtiaceae Lecythidaceae Liliaceae Loranthaceae Myrsinaceae Orchidaceae Rhamnaceae Rubiaceae “ “ Rutaceae Rutaceae Sapindaceae Verbenaceae Verbenaceae Common name Bois de ronde Bois de lait Palmiste piquant Liane calé Ipeca du pays Baume du l’Ile Plate Bois chevre Bois de pipe Bois colophane Bois colophane batard Bois d’olive Bois buis Bois harangue Bois benjoin Liane batatran Bois cabri Bois ronde Bois queue de rate Bois dilo Bois dilo Bois fandamane Bois puant Ananas marron Bois fier Bois papaye Faham Bois goudron Liane cacapoule Café marron Patte poule piquant Bois catafaille Bois de reinnette Bois cabri Bois cabri Cons.Least concern. SyzyAmong the other serious offenders in the Mauritian gium jambos. status1 EN EN EN EN EN EN EN VU VU EN VU VU LC EN LC VU EN VU VU VU EN. Cin. Schinus terebinthifolius. Status of medicinal plant utilisation in Mauritius. Licompetition.Critically endangered 1: Sold at local market. Litsea glutonosa. Rubus alceifolia. EN .Vulnerable. CR .are Cinnamomum verum.Endangered. 3: Bark sold. 4: Entire plant sold native plants from their habitat through intense camara. gustrum robustum. Psidium cattleianum. Spathodea campanulata.Table 1. Ulex europaeus (KUEFFER ET AL.recently to the Plant Protection Bill. operators now have to resort to getting their EIA certificates prior to property development. To this date only rare endemic orchids figure in the list. where similar CMAs have been established. have been re-introduced after propagation by in vitro technique at the Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew (UK). rare endemic plants. such as Termigenetic resources through the creation of a number nalia bentzoe and Zanthoxylum sp.num mauritianum. serve. A Black List of ed for the purpose of maintaining vegetation cover the worst invasive weeds to be prevented entry into and the provision of ecosystem services. endemic plants. It means that while one endemic medicinal orchid is listed – Jumellea sp. The National Parks and Reserves Regulations made in 1996 lay down the rules regarding activities on reserved land. In addition. The opportunity is also being taken to increase the legal protection of native biodiversity at the national level.where needed..Nonetheless. The regeneration of native species is compromised of state land but is inadequate to safeguard against by exotic seed predators such as rats and monkeys loss of privately owned areas with rich biodiveretc. other rare endemic The Forest and Reserves Act (1983 amended in plants can be exported without problems. nature re. The Act covers all aspects relating to EIA procedures. five ministries are assigned the role of enforcement for implementation of environmental policies. result is that many species are threatened with ex. the Forest and Reserves Act has been instrumental in the setting up of the Conservation tinction. mountain reserves. Under the EPA.sity. Two of Mauritius has been proposed to help protect native these nature reserves now form part of the National biodiversity. These factors impoverish the indigenous veg. The Forest and Reserves Act provides protection for designated areas 2004). A revi2003): This is the principal legislation governing sion of the plant list is planned.. The Wildlife and National Parks Act (1993): This is the principal legislation for the protection of flora and fauna.ers. This has resulted in some biodiversity-rich areas being protected through the non-award of development permits. Existing legislation and framework Mauritius is signatory to 18 international treaties and conventions on the environment and was the first signatory country of the 1992 Rio Convention on Biodiversity. there are some short-comings for the plants listed. Import of plant species. river reserves and road The Plant Act (1976): This Act has been revised reserves. This has prompted the Mauritian Government to Management Areas (CMAs). Services. amongst othof protected areas. where other plants the management of forests resources. Park and 4 are in Rodrigues. as penalties are too weak to be an adequate etation both genetically and in numbers and the net deterrent. Through the implementation and enforcement of the EPA. there are four national laws of relevance to terrestrial biodiversity conservation: The Environment Protection Act (EPA) (1999 and 2002): This Act established the Ministry of Environment as the body responsible for overall coordination of environmental management. especially Page 33 May 2012 . with the Wildlife Regulations of 1998 giving effect to the CITES Convention in Mauritian law. such as Ramosmania rodriguesensis (Rubiaceae). The CMAs are regularly weeded of invasive ment Investment Programme.. Collection is in Mauritius along with the setting up of institu. The CMAs provide a take measures towards the protection of its native safe haven for rare. Sixteen nature reserves have been select. In Rodrigues Island.now regulated and this action has led to the safetions like the National Parks and Conservation guard of many of the threatened medicinal plants on the brink of extinction. With funds from the Environ. Whilst the Act makes provision for flora and fauna. it established will be added so as to limit collection and export the power to declare national forests. The Act and its regulations are currently being revised to make them fully compliant with the provisions of CITES. the World Bank plants and this makes the environment particularly funded the establishment of the first National Park suitable for slow growing endemics. & DULLOO.N. – Edition de l’Ocean Indien.N. pp. M. IP. Peregrine Fund (USA). – National Parks and Conservation Services. has been scrutinised so as to that invasive plants present.. FLORENS..S.Encourage cooperation with international bodies in the furtherance of biosphere reserves. France. ADJANOHOUN. J. put in place so as to safeguard this genetic resource. GUEHO.. J. GUINKO. (2007): Indian Ocean Island Plant Specialist Group.J. V. D. – Expert Opinion on the Investigation of Drugs 9: 2783-2797.L.. This unique flora remains highly vulnerable not only to habitat destruction but also to the threat J. G. SEWRAJ. EYME J.Maintain the existing nature reserves and create new ones . GUEHO. 3). flourishes and retains its genetic diversity and potential for evolutionary development’. E. A..N. 54: 801-840. AKE ASSI J. A. (1995-97): Plantes Medicinales de Maurice (Tomes 1. J.. S. KEITA. A. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). E. & SOOPRAMANIEN. CHETTY. ALI AHMED.A. The NEAP contains a programme on terrestrial biodiversity with a strategic goal to ‘ensure that native Mauritian biodiversity survives. F. BACHRAZ.. DE SMET.J. 12-19. FRIEDMANN. KOUDOGBO. & NEWMAN.. CADET. M.K. – Edition de l’Ocean Indien..K.. (1983a): Médecine traditionelle et pharmacopée. E.D. D... (1983b): Contributions aux etudes ethnobotaniques et floristiques aux Seychelles. Page 34 May 2012 . E. 2. The respective governavoid the inadvertent introduction of new invasive ments have been alerted to the conservation actions along with the appropriate policies that need to be plant species. (1997): A review of exsitu conservation activities in Mauritius. and Kew Gardens.). P. KOUDOGBO. – Agence de Cooperation Culturelle et Techniques. • In the field of genetic diversity. Contribution aux études ethnobotaniques et floristiques à Maurice (Iles Maurice et Rodrigues). A. D. A.... B. G. A. Mauritius 57pp...Preserve as wide a genetic diversity as possible of many varieties of plants and animals .. EYME. G... A. M. (2000): Antineoplastic agents from Natural sources: achievements and future directions. CRAGG. LANDREAU. GUEHO. EYME conservation of terrestrial biodiversity: • The White Paper for a National Conservation Strategy (NCS) (1985).. GASSITA. E. M. AKE ASSI J. KALACHAND.D.horticultural species... LAI SAM.. Many unique specimens of plants are found within and will benefit Science and Medicine as they can potentially provide important leads for the development of new medicine or standardised extracts. – Université Aix Marseille III. Drugs. GURIB-FAKIM. France. KEITA. L. A. T. F.S. GOUDOT.. V. & TEZOO.M. OWADALLY. the flora of the South West Indian Ocean constitutes one of the planet’s hotspot.Preserve as many habitats as possible . ADJANOHOUN. AKE ASSI J. Paris. A. GASSITA.W. 214pp. GOVINDEN. Mauritius 580pp. ABEL. B. D. J.E.J. Proceedings of the workshop on restoration of highly degraded and threatened native forests in Mauritius. CHONG-SENG. & BISSOONDOYAL.. P. – Edition de l’Ocean Indien. L.. & SOOPRAMANIEN. (1982): Contributions aux etudes ethnobotaniques et floristiques aux Comores.. Mauritius. (1994): Plantes medicinales de l’ile Rodrigues. Among these international organisations are: Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust (UK). priorities have been given to: . K.. J. A. J. Conclusion Small Islands States like those of the South West Indian Ocean are blessed with unique vegetation. GURIB-FAKIM. LIONNET. J. The NCS defines the major objectives for the conservation of natural resources but has been outdated and superseded by Mauritius’ commitments under the CBD and the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP).Avoid extinction of endangered and threatened species of flora and fauna by providing sound planning for on-site preservation in protected areas as well as off-site protection such as in botanical gardens. In: MUNGROO & BACHRAZ (eds. (1988): La végétation de l’île Maurice. – ACCT. Conservation and protection measures Various documents lay down the policy regarding References ADJANOHOUN. D.... GOUDOTE. BROWN.. (1997): The role of plant-derived drugs and herbal medicine in health care.. GUEHO. – ACCT. (1977): La végétation de l’Ile dela Réunion: Etude phyto-écologique et phytosociologique: Thèse de Doctorat-ès-Sciences. JACKARIA. V.M. & LEBRAS.G. J. ...J. At the global scale. KEITA. KAYONGA. LANDEAU. Species 47: 16-17. Paris. URT 1998). (2004): FAO Report – Forestry Department. J. including limited access to information.sure on these (PADOCH & VAYDA 1983).. – World Health Organisation.Threats to Tanzanian medicinal plants man use of individually targeted species (HAMIL. C. Tanzanian cies (MAHUNNAH 2002). use of medicinal plants is found in both rural and urban areas (GESSLER ET AL. of which is plant-based (MAHUNNAH ET AL. with the potential to be a universal symbol for nature conservation. traditional medicine in primary health care. enplant species. for the integrity and functions of ecosystems. Ameenah Gurib-Fakim • Centre for Phytotherapy Research. The total number of plants (CUNNINGHAM 1997) and selective intensive use of used worldwide may be around 40. Reduit. & GUEHO.667 spe. – FAO. LAVERGNE. has a high utility of example. An estimated 80% of the population in Tanzania depend on traditional. (1997): Introduction to Mauritian Bryology a check list of mosses and liverworts. Mauritius • email: afakim@cephyr-recherche. J.com Medicinal plants can be symbolically significant. For like most African countries. Otieno tial problem of actively promoting integration of & J. W. Tanzania. This represents by far the biggest hu. and also preferred for. S.The majority of Tanzanians still depend on biologiTON 2005). possibly due to the belief that plant remedies are free from undesirable side effects. (1992): Analysis of questionnaires on traditional medicine. most Ambilikile Mwasapila of Samunge in Loliondo in Conservation assessment and management planning of medicinal plants in Tanzania Page 35 May 2012 . P. Dependence is often found linked with economic and cultural factors so that traditional medicine is mostly used for. holistic treatments (GESSLER ET AL. out of the total flora of 12. AUGUSTINO & GILLAH 2005).000. technology and capital. Cybertower 2. compromise the ability of the people to derive maximum benefits from these resources. Mauritius. STRAHM. 2003). species for health treatment. WWF/ IUCN.N. with consequences Africa and Eastern Africa in particular. However. Augustino. medicine for health care (WHO 2002). Mahunnah. vital for ensuring primary health their disappearance may go unnoticed in otherwise care and livelihoods of the poor in Sub-Saharan relatively intact natural habitats. with over 35. 1995b. 1995a. recent claims on plant properties by Rev. 7th Floor.000-50. Elia traditional and modern health care in Tanzania is that the medicinal plant resource is feared threatBackground ened in the wild (WHO 2001).A. The use of plants for medicine leads to seMedicinal and aromatic plants are key components lective consumption of specific plant species and of biodiversity. Working Paper FBS/41E. West Germany. MAHUNNAH & MSHIU 1991. WHO. in the East Africa region. – Koeltz Scientific Books. pastoralist migration. Rome Italy. Ebene. (1989): Plant Red Data Book for Rodrigues.L. P. are used in traditional medicines (MAHUN. knowledge.200 and population increase.. Geneva. 1998). C. representing roughly one-in-six to one-in-ten of all plant species. being held in high cultural esteem.their overuse and destruction of their habitat (URT NAH 1991. J. various factors. & MAUREMOOTOO. this trend is increasing (GOOD & KIMANI 1980). In Tanzania.ergy requirements and policy neglect are leading to cies. Case studies on the status of invasive woody plant species in the Western Indian Ocean. often plant based. Forest & Biosecurity Working Papers. The concept of the ‘medicinal plant’ carries charismatic resonance across many societies.KUEFFER. cal resources and the limited opportunities for soAfrica is endowed with a rich biodiversity and the cio-economic development continuously put presAfrican flora is estimated to have 40. Switzerland.000 species medicinal plants are mainly derived from the wild. Attention on medicinal plant dependence is increasing in urban Tanzania (URT 2005) and the need is likely to increase (FOSU 1989). VOS. – Mauritius Sugar Industry Research Institute. about 1.000 plant spe. TIXIER. Causes are argued Plants are the major ingredients of medicines in to be commercial collection for livelihood security most medical traditions. A potenR. OBERLÄNDER & ELVERDAN 2000). Africa regional project at Muhimbili University of ing. According to information provided by local communities a similar Adansonia digitata. volkensii..Tanzania created an increased demand for Carissa BOX 1. A. A major activity in the process was to conduct a Conservation Astree cutting for charcoal production.Steganotoenia araliacea.200 to 4. international markets is on the rise (BOX 1). Myrsine africana. sessment and Management Planning (CAMP) The demand for medicinal plants both for local and workshop in each country. Prunus Africana (used by pharmaceutical The national CAMP workshop was organized in companies to manufacture a drug for treating pros. based on priorities but information on amounts traded and income derived from traditional knowledge. Dalbergia melanoxylon. Osyris lanceolata. Afzelia quanzensis.mid July 2010 with the support of BGCI/JRS East tate cancer) is threatened all over Africa by debark. mentation of the GSPC in the East African Region. and achievement of environmentalMedicinal Plants Conservation Assessment and ly-friendly cultivation of medicinal plants. Medicinal plant species increasingly marketed spinarum (Mugaringa). framework to halt the current and continuing loss Medicinal plants are also harvested for other non of plant diversity. The purpose generated by the local population is very limit. Stulhmanii. Nine medicinal plant species are reported to be of The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) Global general conservation concern in Tanzania (MAR. urban areas in addition to the rural consumption. The aim of the workshop was to determine the to Europe and USA (CITES 1997). Species such as Bombax rhodog. biodiversity informatics as key to biodiversity confurniture and production of coffins in town centres. (2008) noted that while addressed natural resource status assessments for many ethnobotanical studies are available. dicinal plants.Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) provides a SHALL 1998). cordifolia. Warburgia salutaris and W. management planning initiatives The extensive national.on the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation” was naphalon.900 tons of its Health and Allied Sciences with representatives bark are exported annually from African countries from 12 institutions in Tanzania and 2 from Kenya. few priority actions as one of the strategies to solve have focused on harvesting regimes. rotundifolius are heavily harvested by establishing a baseline for further investment in for timber. Mondia whitei. P. implemented in East Africa to advance the impleOcotea usambarensis. Aloe lateritia. servation and sustainable development in Kenya. A. regional and international trade in traditional medicinal plants emphasizes the global need for the conservation of medicinal plants and the revitalization of the native health traditions of local communities (GELDENHYUS 2005). An East Africa Regional Project medicinal uses. Balanites aelum manii in the Lake Victoria basin. Prioritization of medicinal plants for conservation In realization of the threats facing medicinal plants in Tanzania. STANGELAND ET AL. trade and pharmacological studies. Additional pressure is the result of indiscriminate Uganda and Tanzania (NMK 2007). A total of between 3. Piper capensis. conservation ment of sustainable harvest systems for wild mehas to be kept as a central research focus. conservation status of medicinal plants used in traLocal trade of medicinal plants is known to occur ditional medicine in Tanzania. Prunus africana. trend can be observed for species such as Rubia secundiflora. that subsequently became locally in Tanzania and internationally threatened by overexploitation.was to develop appropriate conservation strategies ed. Ethno- Page 36 May 2012 . Artemisia affra. P. For example. Zanthoxylum chalybeum. the general protocol for CAMP was used for prioritising species for ex-situ conservation. developsible utilization of medicinal plants.plant species and their genetic diversity. Pavetta crassipes and Crassocepha. Rauvolfia vometoria. Milicia excelsa. tinctorius. Zanha to plants is increased when plants are marketed in africana. The threat gyptiaca. include: approaches for conservation of medicinal Therefore. sustainability the medicinal plants conservation challenges that of harvesting. The workshop 1998). first using ethnobotanical parameters. Pterocarpus angolensis. while data on export do not exist (MARSHALL and guidelines for sustainable use. most of which is used for construction. in order for Tanzania to sustain the sen. There has (iv) incorporation of local and traditional knowlbeen poor reinforcement of the existing policy and edge into propagation. There is a strong need to harmonize varition of specific medicinal plants. with additional value in terms of biodiversity and conservation purposes. Research Research and training activities for the conservation of medicinal plants have not received adequate support and attention in Tanzania. have also been poor. The list of species and the proposed conservation strategies are presented in Table 1. E. FurMedicinal Plants Conservation Challenges thermore.g. servation of medicinal plant resources. Policy and legal frameworks The Tanzania government’s political commitment including: (i) the documentation of all major medicinal to promoting traditional medicine is clearly spelled out in the Tanzanian Health Policy of 1996 and the plants. The analysis resulted in only 74 priority medicinal plants for possible commercialization. have reported rare successful experiences and approaches on conservation of African medicinal plants. erly taken into consideration while planning for However. both in-situ and ex-situ. There is a lack of protection of medicinal plant and traditional medical knowledge. Various researchers. A high index value indicates the need to protect a species.botanical practices were scored as 1 or 0 according to whether extraction was considered to have a severe effect on plant diversity or not. Support and emphasis on promoting cultivation of (v) identification of cultural practices and beliefs potential identified medicinal plants in the counthat are supportive of the conservation and sustry. nize the role of traditional health practices in the (iii) knowledge on how gender issues are propcountry’s health care system (URT 2000. Institutions Page 37 May 2012 . sustainable use and conlegal frameworks to conserve and ensure the future servation of medicinal plants. To some. in relation to medicinal plant conserva tion in Tanzania several aspects are still unknown. This is still a challenge in Tanzania since there is no regulation and monitoring for medicinal plants and products sold in the local markets. planting of wild varieties is not a priority even if knowledge on propagation exists. attitudes and awareness that domestication stoops the medicinal potency compared to wild plants. Traditional and Alternative Medicine Policy and (ii) documentation for the medicinal plants that Act of 2000 and 2002. keystone species. both recoghave been lost and those that remain in the wild. The Value-index includes the sum of all the scores associated with Red List status. sustainable use of the potential medicinal plants. A high rating for one criterion. 2002). was considered sufficient to list a species for protection under the National Forests Act. Further. and The national forest policy has for a long time been (vi) knowledge on effective agro-ecological biased towards safeguarding tradable timber plant methods for enhancing propagation and cultivaspecies. The Legislation-index allows the researcher to evaluate the importance of the species in relation to whether it is adequately protected under the legal provisions (BOX 2). respectively. including RUKANGIRA (2001). tainable use of medicinal plants. a low index value may be used to rank the species low for conservation but does not necessarily disqualify recommending a species for conservation measures. such as the Red List status or Sustainability of use. The total score for each species was added to the value – index (importance of species based on Red List status) and the legislation-index (adequacy of legislation provisions). ous sectorial policies and legal frameworks that influence the utilization and conservation of medici.. commercialization of medicinal plants has been projected as a sustainable means of poverty alleviation. Especially in relation to supply sources and harvesting methods to ensure sustainable use of the resources. little effort has been done to address conconserving the resources.The latter two as proposed by CUNNINGHAM (1997) to ensure sustainable primary health care services nal biodiversity in Tanzania in Africa. in Tanzania cultivation and/or domestication of medicinal wild varieties is constrained by the perception embedded in culture. sustainability of use and cultural/ spiritual value. & ex-situ conservation Use biotechnology in propagation Sensitization: plant in home gardens Ex-situ conservation Emphasis on on farm planting Domestication Try planting in other ecological regions Effort to collect more data Emphasize ex-situ conservation Enforce policy Page 38 May 2012 . habitat Cordia ovalis specificity No Narrow distribution Crinum papillosum No Limited distribution Crinum kirkii No Multiple uses Croton dichogamus Multiple uses Cucumis profetarum 1 Yes Milicia excelsa Overexploited Yes High demand Dalbergia melanoxylon No Harvest: uprooting Deinbollia borbonica No Increasingly scarce Entada abyssinica No High demand Entada stuhlmannii No High demand. Millettia puguensis habitat loss No High demand Monanthotaxis trichocarpa Yes High demand Mondia whitei Locally High demand Myrsine africana Yes High demand1 Ocotea usambarensis Species Acacia xanthophloea Adansonia digitata Recommendations Use in agro. in.& ex-situ conservation Use in agroforestry Legislation. sustainable harvesting Domestication Domestication Domestication.& ex-situ conservation Large commercial plantations Emphasize planting in home gardens Consider as bio-indicator of climate change in forests In-situ conservation In-situ conservation National legislation National legislation required National legislation required Promote ex-situ cultivation Legislation.TABLE 1. growth slow No Ecosystem fragile Aerangis flabellifolia Yes Overexploited Afzelia quanzensis No Potential demand Albizia anthelmintica Locally Overexploitation Aloe lateritia Locally Overexploitation Aloe secundiflora Locally Overexploitation Aloe volkensii Locally Overexploitation. harvest: Erythrina abbyssinica uprooting Possibly host specific Hydnora abbyssinica (Acacia xanthophloea) No Host specific Hydnora africana No Harvest: debarking Kigelia africana No Limited distribution. in. stricter in-situ conservation Legislation. limited Begonia oxyloba need) ecological range No Habitat specificity Berberis holstii Yes1 Bombax rhodognaphalon Overexploited No Overexploited Brachylaena huillensis (hutchinsii) No Habitat specificity Breonadia salicina No Rare Brucea antidysenterica No Diverse uses Cassia abbreviata Yes Overexploited Catha edulis Habitat specificity Clausena anisata Disjunct distribution Commiphora swynnertonii Multiple uses. amenity Include in dryland plantations In-situ conservation of supporting trees Legislation. legislation enforcement In.forestry systems. Tanzania priority medicinal plants matrix for immediate conservation. limited Artemisia affra ecological range Yes Overexploitation Balanites aegyptiaca No (no Horticultural use. in-situ conservation Estimate market value In-situ conservation Domestication. Traded Justification No Narrow distribution Locally Regeneration poor.& ex-situ conservation Education of farmers Legislation. in. Access and Benefit Sharing issues. uses Rhamnus prinoides No Available in low densities Rhamnus staddo No Available in low densities Ritchiea capparoides No Climber dependent on Rubia cordifolia high canopy vegetation No Endemic to coastal areas Sansevieria bagamoyensis No High demand. multiple uses No Multiple treatments. and this constrains the free sharing of biological information required for de- May 2012 . multiple uses Less distribution High demand High demand Multiple uses Available in low densities Recommendations Commercial plantations. Tanzania priority medicinal plants matrix for immediate conservation Traded Yes No Locally No Yes (bark) No Pseudospondias microcarpa Yes1 Pterocarpus angolensis Yes1 Pterocarpus tinctorius Yes1 Pterocarpus rotundifolius No Myrsine melanophloes (Rapanea melanophloeos) Yes Rauvolfia vometoria Species Osyris lanceolata Pericopsis angolensis Piper capensis Polyalthia stuhlmanii Prunus africana Justification High demand High demand High demand Multiple treatments High demand. mode of Shirakiopsis ellipticum harvesting (Syn:Sapium ellipticum) Yes Multiple uses (wine sold) Sclerocarya birrea ssp. caffra No Available in low densities Scutia myrtina Locally Rare Steganotoenia araliacea No Endemic to coastal areas Stephanostema sternocarpum Yes Multiple uses (fruits) Tamarindus indica No Restricted distribution Tarenna littoralis No Demand: pesticidal effect Tephrosia vogelii No Limited distribution Toddaliopsis sansibarensis Yes Multiple uses (seeds sold) Trichilia emetica Yes Multiple uses (fruits sold) Vangueria infausta Vepris glomerata Warburgia stulhmanii Warburgia salutaris Ximenia caffra Xylopia arenaria Zanha golungensis Zanha africana Zanthoxylum chalybeum Root used in medicine Yes Restricted distribution Yes Restricted distribution Yes Multiple uses No Coastal endemic No Key stone species.TABLE 1. harvest ban Sensitize. Continued. enforce policy In-situ and ex-situ conservation In. ex-situ conservation In-situ conservation On farm & in-situ conservation. oil for soap and cosmetics Ex-situ may solve competition with wild fructivorous Education on sustainable harvesting Domestication. over-exploited in locality On-farm. law enforcement In-situ and ex-situ conservation High demand.& ex-situ conservation. in-situ conservation. law enforcement In. national legislation and policy Cultivation Discourage the use for fuel Trial in different ecological regions Domestication Community involvement/IK holders There is little involvement of community/indigenous knowledge holders in collaboration with research institutions and other stakeholders to con- Page 39 serve the potential identified medicinal plants in Tanzania. multiple uses Locally Multiple uses Locally High demand. There are no guidelines that take into account the Intellectual Property Rights. policy enforcement Domestication On farm planting Domestication Large scale domestication Domestication Need national legislation On-farm conservation To be prioritized for diversity assessment Incorporated in agroforestry schemes Potential: medicines.& ex-situ conservation. MOSHI. J. – Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 30: 398-411. Z.L. Another challenge care. require conservation measures traditional medical practitioners in conservation to ensure their future sustainability.553. vocacy on sustainable use of medicinal plants to CITES. M.C. Kenya.A. MAHUNNAH. these include policy.B. Italy. G.. ET AL. Peramiho Printing Press. & TANNER. & TANNER. Nairobi.E. A. M. – In: MITAWA G. The medicinal plants conservation challenges are discussed.H..K. initiatives. while Part XI provides details on offences and penalties. F. BHAT.C.. A. K.. C. HAMILTON. Paper presented at the Methodology workshop on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine. R. researchers. Nairobi. conservation and health and other educational materials. various studies (MILLEDGE & KAALE 2004) have pointed out that the majority of local communities and even government employees involved in trade of flora from coastal forests are not aware of the exising legal instruments.C.. 13 of 1997 provides the basis for regulation of plants and plant protection substances and the protection of the natural environment against plant protection substances. KAPINGU. the Forest Act No. HEINRICH.R. (2006): The wealth of medicinal plants of eastern Tanzania. P. Plant genetic resources and biotechnology in Tanzania.C. legal and institutional frameworks.J. Conclusion The present article presents the medicinal plant conservation assessment and management planning initiatives in Tanzania.veloping sustainable use of medicinal plants. NKUNYA. Rome. M. M. GOOD. For example. D. 116-129. traditional port from the plants committee. 5-7 December 2005. with a special focus on medicinal plants.. (1989): Access to health care in urban areas of developing societies. BURLEY. (1980): Urban traditional medicine: A Nairobi case study. pp 543 . M. As for national strategies and policies. (2005): Sustainable harvesting methods for medicinal plants: a research and development framework. A. (Eds. HAMILTON. Concerted efforts are therefore required to raise community awareness on legal instruments related to sustainable forest management and trade in flora. The Plant Protection Act No.A. & KIMANI. Non-Wood Forest Products to find a way to complement rather then compete 11. P. little effort seems to have been disustainable use. – In: BODEKER. – East African Medical Journal 57: 301-316. S. A. MSUYA. D. NKUNYA. (2004): Medicinal plants. (1995b): Traditional healers in Tanzania: the treatment of malaria with plant remedies. R. 14 of 2002 provides regulations on the trade of flora and fauna: Part VI provides details on permits and licenses.M. (2005): The Ecohealth approach.H.S. pp. (2002): Ethnobotany and conservation of medicinal plants in Africa: the way forward Page 40 May 2012 . (1997): An Africa-wide overview of media. SCHAR.C. including the medicinal plants. G. UISO. tailored radio/television programmes. MBWAMBO. – Biodiversity and Conservation 13: 1477-1517. – International Forestry Review 7: rected towards increasing the awareness and ad44-58. GESSLER. GELDENHUYS. – Paper for Methodology Workshop on Medicinal plants and Traditional medicine. N. conservation and utilization. (1997): Newsletter for the African region.. Part II: Policy. & GILLAH. – Journal of Ethnopharmacology 48: 131-144.E. especially those which are alof bio-piracy especially limits the involvement of ready under threat.H. flyers medicinal plant harvesting. C. and educational and awareness gaps with regard to conservation strategies and sustainable use of medicinal plants in Tanzania.. HEINRICH. policy-makers. Rethe public.B. health practitioners and end users through mass CUNNINGHAM. & VANTOMME. climate change.H. 5-7 December. 2005.): Medicinal plants for forest conhas been for the two national health care systems servation and heath care. M. MAHUNNAH. MSUYA. for poverty eradication and improvement of community livelihoods. fears species of Tanzania. Kenya. IDRC/ESARO. Article 9.. References AUGUSTINO. M. FAO.C.J. M. V. with each other. Seventy-two priority medicinal plants for possible commercialization and the conservation strategies are identified. capacity building. (2005): Medicinal plants Advocacy and awareness in urban districts of Tanzania: plants... SCHAR. Part VII provides details on trade in forest products... GESSLER.. IDRC/ ESARO. M. gender roles and In Tanzania. community involvement. conservation and livelihoods. (Eds.H. The prioritized medicinal plant FOSU.M. A. research.L. M. (1995a): Traditional healers in Tanzania: the perception of malaria and its causes – Journal of Ethnopharmacology 48:119-130.). A. R. WHO (2001): Legal status of traditional medicine and complementary/alternative medicine: a worldwide review. OAU/STRC.N. Dar es Salaam. – Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78: 1352–1357.. (ed. K. R.M. Orissa state. (2008): The influence of light and temperature on the germination of two Ugandan medicinal trees. Tanzania. it is located in Jeypore city of Koraput district. & VAYDA. C.F. URT (2002) The traditional and alternative medicines Act. 70-80.H. Gond. B.H. Otieno • Muhimbili Univesity College of Health and Allied Sciences. (2000): Malaria in the United Republic of Tanzania: cultural considerations and health-seeking behaviour. (1991): Ethnobotany and conservation of medicinal plants. (1983): Patterns of resource use and human settlement in tropical forests. URT (1998): Tanzania country study on biological biodiversity. & KAALE. (1991): Utilization and conservation status of medicinal plants in Tanzania. Tanzania S. E. Gadaba. Institute of Traditional Medicine • P. Bhumia. WHO traditional medicine strategy 2002– 2005. 280-289. Page 41 May 2012 . F. pp 179-184.Box 3014. World Health Organisation.A. Proceedings of an international conference of experts from developing countries on traditional medicinal plants.L. Geneva. WHO (2005). Dar es Salaam.S. (Eds.orchids. & ELVERDAN. Lagos. S. Paroja and Saora. MINJAS.com J. MAHUNNAH. K.E. 2002.O.P. World Health Organisation. Morogoro. PADOCH. Tanzania. Tanzania. E. 2001 2010: OAU decade For African traditional medicine.L.S. MILLEDGE. Erboristeria. Global atlas of traditional. MAHUNNAH. & MSHIU. OBERLÄNDER. WHO (2002). The garden serves as a repository of genetic stock of the undivided Koraput district and as a living gene bank for the tribal people. Tropical Pesticides Research Institute • P. MAGINGO. Text volume. E.A.). Geneva. FUPI. – The Government Printer. & MSHIU. UK. – TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa. Benedict Publications Ndanda.. MAHUNNAH. MARSHALL. RUKANGIRA.O. Tanzania. Department of Wood Utilization • P. – African Journal of Ecology. Dar es Salaam. T. Tanzania. R. pp.N. – In: SHAO. India. 1990. Augustino • Sokoine University of Agriculture.N. N. A. – TRAFFIC-International. Arusha.A.). Cambridge. R. India.in the next decade. BITANYI. Box 3024.O. Proceedings of the workshop on plant genetic resources and biotechnology held at Arusha. & MAHUNNAH. pp.A. maintained and managed by the traditional healthcare practitioners and traditional birth attendants of the respective tribal communities. Tanzania.R. ferns etc). L. Saujanendra Swain & Nihar Parida An ex-situ ethno-medicinal garden named Biju Patnaik Medicinal Plants Garden and Research Centre is established in 5 ha land donated by the government of Orissa. 102 herbs and 6 others .). NMK (2007): The East African project on the global strategy for plant conservation funded by the JRS Biodiversity Foundation. Each tribal garden is being planted.K. & LYE. Dar es Salaam University Press. UNEP. Domani. Peramiho. – Ministry of Health.. J. 46: 565-571. pp. Dar es Salaam. Bonda. M. TABUTI. (2004): Bridging the gap: linking timber trade with infrastructure development and poverty eradication efforts in southern Tanzania. STANGELAND.. (Eds. 83-86. Chuo Kikuu. (2001): The African herbal industry: constraints and challenges. H. Tanzania Community based conservation of ethno-medicinal plants by tribal people of Orissa state. Koya. – Tropical rain forest ecosystems. F. B. Tanzania • email: sanhemati@yahoo. Tanzania.O. NKUNYA.A.L.S. K.T. URT (2000) The national traditional and birth attendants implementation policy guidelines. grasses. Kobe. – WHO.H. – In: Proceedings of the natural products and cosmeceutcals 2001 conference. – In: MSHIGENI.L. 91 shrubs. Dar es Salaam.Box 65001.. V. structure and functions 1: 301-313. complementary and alternative medicine. Elia • National Herbarium of Tanzania. January 16-20.. R.N. A total of 347 medicinal plants used in the traditional healthcare systems of the nine tribes of the region are conserved in this garden (109 trees. A..L. Centre for Health Development. Kandha. Faculty of Forestry and Nature Conservation. This Garden consists of nine tribal gardens devoted to nine major tribal groups of the region: Bhatra. Japan. – In: ADENIJI. Mahunnah & J. it has immense utility for the present and future generations. 39 climbers. (1998): Searching for a cure: conservation of medicinal wildlife resources in East and Southern Africa.A. in the practice of preserving a rich heritage of information on medicinal plants and their manageIntroduction In every ethnic group a culturally patterned tradi. India. Gradual depletion of the forest cover in the area is slowly eroding the indigenous/traditional knowledge associated with the medicinal plants (CHAUDHURI ET AL. Gastrointestinal disorder Aegle marmelos (L. etc. f. sustainable use and benefit sharing.Very little research has been done so far on the vast tation and conservation both in-situ & ex-situ of medicinal plant resources in the Koraput region.for preparing the medicine and its application. Tribal communities living in this region have been conserving and utilizing these resources. They have been tract of Orissa.poor but their endowment of bioresources is rich. In this context the undivided Koraput district of Orissa state merits special mention as it is known for its richness of medicinal flora and as it is a treasure of useful plant resources. malarial fever. rheumatoid arthritis. Medicinal plants commonly used among tribal people in Orissa.tional medicinal system. But certain plant species with specific traits are used for setting fractured bones. Paederia foetida L. This nities health care is the first and foremost line of local healing system is a part of the Indian tradidefense and the WHO has recognized the contribu. etc. Jatropha gossypifolia L. In rural commu. Distribution of dominant tribes in Jeypore cies used for traditional healing. The tribal populations are tion of traditional health care in tribal communi. friendly system (AMBASTA 1986).) Corr. anti-inflammatory and anti-fertility properties for curing several diseases (BOX 1). The tribal populations residing in the region have their own local physicians/healers who have outstanding knowledge on the plant speFIGURE 1. jaundice. cold. pyorrhea. They have both the know-how and do-how tional health care system exists. Fever Cold Pyorrhoea Tinospora cordifolia (Willd. ties.ment. medicinal plants and to know their potential for the particularly in the areas of conservation.200 medicinal plant species are available in the forests of this area. and Thoms Ocimum sanctum L.) Hook.1. skin diseases. Fractured bones Asthma Jaundice Rheumatoid arthritis Cissus quandraangula L Justicia adhatoda L. gastrointestinal disorders. And many specific plant species have anti-helminthes. sustainimprovement of health and hygiene through an eco ability. Lawsonia inermis L. Juss Malaria fever Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. including medicinal plants. Several important species are in danger of extinction due to growing trade demands for new plant-based therapeutic products and biopharmaceuticals. Such concerns have stimulated action in chronicling and conserving medicinal plants and sharing of benefits with the indigenous tribes as a token of acknowledgment for their contribution to the final product (JAIN 1971). 1985). It is estimated that more than BOX 1. India. their future is being threatened in relation to their conservation. It is very essential to have a proper documen. Skin diseases Azadirachta indica A. Page 42 May 2012 . curing asthma. Despite the increasing use of medicinal plants in primary health care in addition to allopathic drugs. Some of the endemic medicinal plant species available are used for curing common diseases like fever. value addition and equitable sharing of benefits from the medicinal plant heritage. 643 Koraput & 124 cifically to the nine predominant tribes who have Kandha Rayagada been custodians of the plant genetic resources since Koya 122. the hill slopes are highly dicinal plants were found to be endangered as they eroded and of low fertility.845 Nawarangpur 81 tensive and integrated studies on medicinal and Bhumia 103. residing in the area. dation. Each and every commonitoring of the medicinal plant biodiversity. edge for potential future benefit sharing.104 Koraput 83 The center has been dedicated to the various tribal Gadaba Gond 72. their population and the Realizing this M. are presented in Table 1. Genesis of the ethno-medicinal Garden During the year 2006.233 Rayagada 59 the region to document their traditional knowledge 3. and equitable sharing of benefits.558 4 districts 660 on medicinal and other useful plants since 1997. and represent the symbol of poverty. Twenty. Details of the nine tribes and the number of medicinal plants used by them of the total population of the district. A major portion of the tribal habi.be used are not found in the wild or they are on munities: approximately 29 tribes forming 54. longitudes (FIGURE 1). a study was carried out by Just after the formation of association. During the survey 87 ethno-metat is hilly and forested. out of the total 62 in Orissa state. The different areas in this nearly 50% of the plants are common to all nine zone are situated at altitudes of 150-1. The district Nearly 10% of the medicinal species reported to is home to a large number of different tribal com. Malkangiri. conservation and use of medicinal plant.982 Nawarangpur 67 communities. The centre has been working Paroja 317.different diseases. The total geographical area of the dis. and 81027’ and 840 1’ east The THPs and TBAs of the tribes were contacted.The ethno-medicinal garden TABLE 1. Information on 660 ethno-medicinal Rayagada. S. Women work as trawise traditional healers association to address the ditional birth attendants (TBAs) called Gurumayi. The nine tribes. 200 3’north latitude. India established a Research and Population District No. TABLE 2 presents the 12 The traditional health care practitioners most commonly used medicinal plants. and and related herbal medicines.84 million ha. Their population Area and people varies from 10.plants that need immediate attention for ex situ Page 43 May 2012 .29 tribes 9 tribes were selected for further detailed gion of Orissa and is located between 170 50’and study on their plant used for primary healthcare. to date associations were established for the nine tribes by involving around 764 THPs and TBAs. 782. their conservation.plant species was documented. Most of the tribal villages have their own traditionAfter analyzing the facts and figures from the al health care practitioners (THPs) who are known above survey. issues onorganized traditional healthcare pracThey have specialized knowledge on childbirth tice.number of medicinal plants used by them. Administratively.S. and more spe1. Swaminathan Research Foundation to map was carried out to prioritize the ethno-medicinal the distribution of tribes in the Koraput. primarily to undertake inBhatra 375. sustainable and Bonda 9.301 Koraput 74 with the different tribal communities residing in Saora 473. it was decided to establish a tribeas Disari in the local language.4 million.000 meters tribes.9 tribes 98.30% the verge of extinction. Swaminathan Research Foun. Out of the total Koraput district is situated in the South-eastern re. the old and their traditional knowledge on use of medicinal Koraput district is now divided into 4 districts plants for primary healthcare was systematically namely Koraput. Chennai. Nabarangpur and documented. but that the same plant may be used to treat above sea level.535 Malkangiri 48 time immemorial. Till munity/tribe has their own Desari and Gurumayi. It was observed that trict is 0. they are over-grazed are harvested from the wild in unsustainable ways. a process M.378 Malkangiri 55 value-added use. of mediciDevelopment Centre in Jeypore city of Koraput Tribe (2001 census) nal plants used district in Orissa state.652. to protect and safeguard the traditional knowlnine different tribal groups were found in the area.000 to 0.395.537 Koraput 69 aromatic plants. One Spice garden was established to conserve the wild and cultivated spices of the region. representing herbs. One acre of land was allocated to each of the tribes for conservation and cultivation of plants they use for their primary health care needs (FIGURE 2). has been developed inside the garden. Local name BhuinNimba Brudhadaraka Brahmi Thalakudi Botanical Name Andrographis paniculata (Burm. habit. family. threatened) ethno-medicinal plant garden having 24 RET ethno-medicinal plant species of the region. including wild edible tubers. endangered. Additionally. Family Acanthaceae Convolvulaceae Scrophulariaceae Apiaceae Lamiaceae Acanthaceae Crassulaceae Labiatae Lamiaceae Rubiaceae Piperaceae Menispermaceae Rukuna – Hatapocha Basanga Justicia adhatoda L.ex.f.) wall.Nees Argyreia nervosa (Burn. Pasaruni Peaderia foetida L. Each garden has a big signboard with a photo of the tribe and demographic and cultural information a=bout the tribe. Each of the nine tribal ethno-medicinal plant gardens is being maintained by the THPs and TBAs of the respective community. Every month the nominated members from the traditional healers association (from each of the nine tribal communities) monitor the health of garden and add new plants to the garden. the garden also has one RET (rare. This caters to the needs of tribal people for ethno-medicinal plants. Continuous training and Page 44 May 2012 . the ex-situ conservation garden was established at Jeypore city of Koraput district in April 2007. Centella asiatica (L. The garden was named after the former Chief Minister of Orissa. shrubs. where plants used by the tribes for religious purposes were planted and conserved. India. the botanical name. creepers/climbers and trees used in the primary healthcare practice of the tribe.f. Tulasi Occimum sanctum L. The THPs and TBAs from each of the tribes collected ethno-medicinal plants from their respective areas and planted them in their garden. Demonstrations on cultivation of 24 commercially exploited medicinal plants were laid down inside the garden.f. parts used. The entire garden has nine circles for nine tribes.& Toms dens. Ethno-medicinal plant diversity Apart from the above 9 ethno-medicinal plant gar TABLE 2.) penn. The garden was established for ex-situ genetic conservation of ethno-medicinal plants used by major tribes of this region under a project mode with the financial support from Department of Biotechnology.) Urban Coleus ambonicus Lour. The gardens are rounded in shape and the plants are planted without any order so it looks like a forest. The management of the garden was carried out by female and male healthcare practitioners democratically selected from the communities.conservation in consultation with the members of the association. Each garden has more than 50-60 plant species.)Boj Bacopa monnieri (L. a model of a Home Herbal Garden and a Women’s Medicinal Plant Garden representing the plant species used in the traditional system of women healthcare were established inside the garden. and diseases for which the plant is used.) Pers Podina Mentha spicata L. Government of India. Patragaja Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam. Nine tribal ethno-medicinal conservation gardens With the generous support of 5 ha of land from the Government of Orissa. One Introduced Plants Garden of the region was developed to demonstrate the plants that have been introduced in the region. A few portions of the garden are devoted to propagation of ethno-medicinal plants in great demand through establishment of two large shade-net houses and three ultraviolet stabilized poly houses. Pipali Piper longum Guluchi Tinospora cordifolia (Wild) Hook. At the centre of these nine gardens there is a traditional tribal hut with thatched roof that serves as a meeting place for the THPs and TBAs. Each plant species has a label depicting the local name of the plant. One Forest Food Garden with plants yielding food for the tribal people. Tvelwe medicinal plants commonly used by tribal people in Orissa state. One artificial sacred groove was established. The Garden was devoted to the above mentioned nine major tribal groups of the region and the actual garden is located in nine acres (1 acre is 4047 m2) of land. (1971): Some magico-religious beliefs about plants among Adibasis of Orissa.U. CSIR.C. Director of on ethno-medicinal plants between different tribal MSSRF for his periodic motivation & guidance. – Bot. M. (1990): Ethnobotany of Gandhamardan hills – some noteworthy folk-medicinal uses. – Oxford and IBH publishing Co. R. pp. P.K.O. Photo: S. Swain. DAS. The garden facilitates information sharing Director & Dr. trade and legal literacy. & DUTTA. S. The center has the mandate of helping the nine tribal communities to protect their intellectual property rights under the provisions of the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act and the Biodiversity Act (2002). Ajay Parida. S. PAL. Conclusion Broadly Biju Patnaik Medicinal Plants Garden and Research Centre is a conservation centre which provides a living gene bank for the tribal families and gives them a sense of ownership. DAS. K . (1998): Ethnobotanical studies of the tribal belt of Koraput (Orissa). The authors are thankful to the Departthe tribal youths.K.P. – Publications and information. New Delhi. TBAs and volunteers. We pay out deep administration of herbal formulation to the tribal sense of gratitude to Dr. Res. medicoethno. groups through periodic exchange visits. – CSIR.).people. H. BRAHMAM.. 12:39-40. Glimpses of Indian ethnobotany. New Delhi. C. Raw Materials 11. meetings References and informal discussions. Rai. 9(3&4):123-128. In: JAIN. Bot. Directorate. and to overcome the prevailing dichotomy of the poverty of the people and the prosperity of Nature thereby leading to an era of biohappiness. ment of Biotechnology (Government of India) for Three booklets and two posters were developed. Additional literature ANONYMOUS (1948-76): Wealth of India.K. (1987): Some medicinal plants used by the tribal of Deomali and adjacent ar- Page 45 May 2012 . to create aware. Surv. The tribal ethno-medicinal gardens. (ed. Thanks to the Government of Orissa state ness on conservation of ethno-medicinal plants. Bull. India 17: 132-136. – Adibasi.N. CHAUDHURI. It is envisioned that this initiative will help to convert plant resources into economic wealth on an ecologically sustainable basis. THPs. – Ethnobotany 2: 71-79. P.R. for their concern towards conservation of the wonThe garden also organizes campaigns on herbal derful tribal treasures of medicinal plants and asremedies against malaria through preparation and sociated traditional knowledge. JAIN. Executive people. (1985): Less known uses of some plants from the tribal areas of Orissa. M.K. P. New Delhi. & MISHRA. ditional healthcare knowledge & conservation of capacity building programs on conservation and the rare genetic base of ethno-medicinal plants for use of ethno-medicinal plants were conducted for centuries. K.K. 232-244. & KANT. D. M. (1986): The useful plants of India. A participatory knowledge management system is slowly evolving which fosters genetic. BRAHMAM.K. H. S. & TARAFDAR. Nampoothiri. Acknowledgement The paper is being dedicated to the tribal people of Koraput district for their selfless sharing of tra- AMBASTA. supporting the conservation activities of the tribal both in English and local language. –Bull. (1981): Ethnobotanical studies in Orissa. & SAXENA.FIGURE 2. paisaje o continente. and DUTTA. que se elaboró el tratado internacional o convención denominado CITES en 1973. UICN. – Bull. Econ. 10: 241249.inales”. el origen de los recursos naturales posee un peso eas of Koraput District. Sonia Lagos. Hay un interés particular del ser humano troamérica y el Caribe también han firmado esta de llevar consigo los recursos naturales (tomar una convención. UICN. Orissa. (1975). el cual En el caso de la conservación de las plantas meinvolucra aproximadamente 132 países del mundo dicinales existe un elemento muy importante. Addl. Umuri P.C. En este sentido pecíficos a nivel global y abarcando distintas áreas. SAXENA. Bot. de una dinámica cultural compleja por la relación Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña existente entre las plantas medicinales y el ser humano. Koraput District. para ser Antecedentes más consecuente con la realidad y para entender la Ante la responsabilidad que representa la extinción dinámica en que están inmersas las plantas mediciy uso sostenible de los recursos naturales. Tax. 10(4): 301-303. que que están dispuestos a asumir el compromiso de está vinculado con la “cultura de las plantas medicregular un uso inadecuado. área. R. poseen una distribución muy amconvenio.K. GIRACH.D. H. y que han formulado e impulsado distintas estrategias y acciones conjuntas para determinar cuál es el estado de estas plantas. muchas nales. de una región. Orissa. este sentido. Phulbad. v. H. Orissa. es a partir de 1985 que diversas organizaciones (OMS. establecido para alcanzar objetivos es. Odisha state. K. Esta sitEs precisamente bajo el amparo de la Unión Mun. WWF 1993).B.uación es razonable. Ser. se ha especulado mucho con respecto a las plantas medicinales y con Estado de la conservación de las ya que su utilización es antigua y es parte plantas TRAMIL incluidas en la razón. Swadel proceso de conservación y desarrollo de las minathan Resaerch Foundation • Regional Centre: plantas medicinales en el mundo. M. S. razón plantas de origen africano como la MomorSe han creado varios instrumentos de apoyo a este dica charantia. – J.O.cursos naturales silvestres son objeto de comercio izaciones que mayores esfuerzos ha realizado en indiscriminado están en peligro de extinción. personas y organizaciones han integrado sus esfuerzos a nivel mundial en la promulgación de políti. en tanto que. Por esta compromiso y cumplirlo. cuando los redial para la Naturaleza (UICN). Los países de Cen. no Ocampo Sánchez solo debe abordarse desde la óptica biológica sino que debe incorporarse el enfoque cultural. Esta ha sido una iniciativa de la UICN. P. apoyada por investigadores vinculados con distintas etapas Saujanendra Swain & Nihar Parida • M.plia en el Caribe y Centroamérica. Bot.For. SATAPATHY. Uno de los resultados concretos es la recientemente creada Comisión para la Conservación de las Plantas Medicinales (1994). India. (1996): The flora of Orissa (4 Vols. Jeypore -764 002. ET AL. India • e-mail: saujanen.En el caso de la conservación de las plantas medicinales. Studies on the ethnobotany of Orissa. Phar. WWF) se están refiriendo al tema. Biology 36(1):20. dirigidas hacia la conservación de de la conservación de los recursos naturales se han dirigido especialmente hacia los recursos nativos la fauna y la flora.). – India. una de las organ. (1992): Medicinal uses of some plants among the tribals of Sundargarh Disrict. & BRAHMAM. SAXENA.O.O. – Indian J. Estos lineamientos están plasmados en el documento “Directrices sobre conservación de plantas medicinales” (OMS.com integrado A pesar del gran interés demostrado a nivel internacional e interinstitucional.La conservación desde la óptica de un análisis dra@rediffmail. & PANDA. Xinia Robles & Rafael Ángel El análisis sobre el estado de la conservación. P. demostrando su interés por asumir el parte de la planta y luego establecerla en un nuevo ambiente) de importancia para su salud. Page 46 May 2012 . (1998): Medico ethnobotany of Sundargarh.Los esfuerzos técnicos para determinar el estado cas y directrices. 17(1-4): 124-131. Por ejemplo. Precisamente. Para elaborar este documento partimos con el objetivo de analizar el estado actual de conservación de las plantas medicinales que están en la Farmacopea Caribeña. las plantas medicinales que se encuentran en la Farmacopea Caribeña (GERMOSENROBINEAU 1996) son una excelente representación de esta situación. debe involucrar criterios diferentes de los ya definidos para los recursos en su estado natural. Hierbas como el zacate de limón (Cymbopogon citratus) o el árbol de limón (Citrus aurantifolia) son recursos exóticos de amplia distribución y uso en la región. Es por este vestres (CITES). (al involucrar diversos grupos humanos). con el propósito de esclarecer con una base objetiva el cambio. En la práctica el problema sigue siendo la capacidad técnica establecida en los países. así como de la categoría a la que se debe asignar y los criterios por los cuales se asignó.CITES y las acciones que promueven las organizaciones interesadas en esta problemática. están en la obligación de tener la información técnica adecuada que respalde la toma de decisiones en cuanto al uso sostenible y comercial de la especie. cuáles son los criterios que deben aplicarse para saber si un recurso entra o no en determinada categoría. En este caso es evidente que si los países cuentan con el recurso silvestre. caso contrario sucede con las orquídeas tas en sus Apéndices y permite el comercio sola(Orchidaceae) que generalmente son nativas y por mente cuando una autoridad gubernamental comlo tanto las acciones de conservación deben ajus. en algunos casos. constituye no solo un sincretismo cultural tionamiento planteado. es una iniciativa que funciona con motivo que en América existen diversas plantas base en sus cuatro apéndices. auratus). para determinar el estado de la conservación de sus plantas. CITES es una herramienta clara en cuanto a las categorías definidas. El acercamiento a la Farmacopea Caribeña. Esta es la palma de mayor comercio en el mundo y por ende su distribución geográfica se ha ampliado. la palma areca o múltiple (Chrysalidocarpus lutescens) es una palma ornamental originaria de la Isla de Madagascar. sino que El Convenio sobre el Comercio Internacional de ha promovido el intercambio de recursos naturales Especies Amenazadas de la Fauna y la Flora Silútiles entre las regiones del mundo.petente emite una autorización conforme al modelo de permiso del Apéndice IV. deben ampliarse con el propósito de lograr establecer una realidad más consecuente con la dinámica del aprovechamiento y uso de las plantas medicinales. El problema con esta especie radica en que las autoridades de CITES de Costa Rica. lo es en su país de origen donde la especie silvestre está en peligro de extinción y el comercio debe regularse. y sin embargo no se restringe su exportación. Esperamos que este análisis conlleve a definir nuevas estrategias que contribuyan a la permanencia y uso sostenible de estas especies en beneficio de la salud popular de la comunidad Caribeña. en la abundancia de las plantas medicinales. tarse a esta condición. no tan evidente en algunos casos. fundamental para la definición del estado de la conservación. Otro ejemplo lo constituye la rana venenosa (Dendrobates pumila y D. aparece la disyuntiva sobre el papel que juega Estos ejemplos nos indican que existe un dilema Page 47 May 2012 . para discernir cuáles recursos son objeto de comercio y. en particular. Ante la disyuntiva de la conservación Cuando se toca el tema de la conservación de los recursos naturales y la preocupación por su estado.en detalle algunos elementos que inducen al cuesnales. tiene un mandato internacional y enfatiza en las plantas silvestres que son objeto de comercio. La presencia de plantas medicinales en Centroamérica y el Caribe es la conjugación de diversos orígenes geográficos del mundo. Veamos El uso y aprovechamiento de las plantas medici. Establece diferentes medicinales de uso popular que tienen diferentes restricciones de comercio para las especies inscriorígenes. Este trámite no es necesario en estas condiciones. y del mundo en general. Para definir la vulnerabilidad se requirió aplicar una serie de criterios tanto biológicos como culturales. de la cual no se tienen estudios detallados sobre su comportamiento en algunos de los países centroamericanos (ambas investigadas actualmente por su actividad farmacológica). solicitan un trámite para la exportación de esta palma que ha sido introducida y cultivada en el país. relacionado con el estado de las especies que son exóticas de una región y la aplicación de los Apéndices de CITES, así como ausencia de conocimiento científico sobre la dinámica de poblaciones que son objeto de comercio y que su extracción continua podría conducir a la desaparición dentro su ambiente natural. Criterios científicos como garantía de objetividad Hasta ahora, distintos criterios se han utilizado para definir cuándo una especie (independientemente del aprovechamiento o interés comercial) está o no en peligro de extinción. Probablemente, la UICN ha sido la organización que por más tiempo ha estado vinculada con el tema, y por esto su madurez al plantear la necesidad de ser objetivos en el proceso de clasificación. Recientemente esta organización acaba de establecer una serie de categorías, que constituyen el método más acertado para brindar insumos para la toma de decisiones en cuanto a los recursos naturales se refiere. Estas categorías representan el marco teórico global de una situación hipotética, que aunque importante desde la óptica científica debe analizarse considerando la capacidad real de la región biogeográfica del Caribe y Centroamérica. Las categorías de CITES representan un marco teórico global de una situación hipotética, que aunque importante desde la óptica científica, deben analizarse tomando en consideración la base existente, la capacidad real y las características biogeográficas y culturales a las que corresponde el sitio. Además es importante señalar que por la misma riqueza en biodiversidad, de las regiones tropicales, se hace casi imposible documentarla totalmente. Solo en Centroamérica (sin incluir el Caribe), se han reportado aproximadamente mil especies medicinales. Esta situación es muy diferente en regiones templadas, no solo con respecto a la biodiversidad sino también en cuanto a las condiciones socioeconómicas, de capacidad técnica y tecnológica. gional del Caribe y Centroamérica. La aplicación de estos criterios retroalimenta los apéndices de CITES y conlleva a establecer las listas rojas no por país (límites políticos) sino por regiones biogeográficas, respetando situaciones de endemismo propias de áreas específicas. A la luz de esta realidad, diversos organismos internacionales están promoviendo acciones de domesticación de plantas medicinales, como un esfuerzo orientado hacia la conservación y aprovechamiento de las especies. Por esta razón es de suma importancia ser consecuentes con la realidad y la necesidad de conservar nuestros recursos naturales, así como contar con criterios aplicables y adaptados a nuestras condiciones. Para evaluar el estado de la conservación de las plantas medicinales de la Farmacopea Caribeña se establecieron criterios para realizar un análisis objetivo, consecuente con la realidad y, finalmente, poder clasificar las plantas medicinales en las categorías adecuadas. Criterios para su determinación Existe en la actualidad una gran preocupación por la conservación y aprovechamiento de las plantas medicinales. Esta situación no solamente se refleja en el ámbito propiamente ambientalista (en época reciente se circunscribía exclusivamente a este ámbito) sino que ha alcanzado a personas de otras disciplinas que anteriormente no se sentían involucradas de alguna manera con el desarrollo de los recursos naturales; se ha reconocido que la conservación de la biodiversidad es de interés común de toda la humanidad. Es precisamente el CITES que dio la voz de alerta, al regular el comercio ilegal de las especies amenazadas en diferentes grados. A partir de este momento, y cada vez con mayor vehemencia, se escuchan más intervenciones sobre la necesidad de determinar el estado de la conservación de los recursos naturales. Hay que recordar que CITES nace como una respuesta, con enfoque conservacionista, hacia un problema de uso inadecuado como lo es el comEs precisamente con criterios uniformes y cientí- ercio ilegal de recursos naturales (principalmente ficamente fundamentados, que se pueden agilizar fauna), producto de las acciones de extractivismo. acciones de conservación y desarrollo con aquellas Conforme a transcurrido el tiempo se han incorespecies de interés sociocultural en el ámbito re- porado grandes grupos taxonómicos vegetales, por Page 48 May 2012 ejemplo Cycadales y Orchidaceae, y recientemente la categoría de plantas medicinales. Esta última, no responde a un grupo biológico-taxonómico, sino a una categoría de uso que representa una cantidad apreciable de especies, familias, estructuras, ambientes, orígenes e intereses (conservacionistas, productivos y políticos). Los grupos de presión también han aumentado, no solamente en cantidad sino en diversidad cultural y de enfoques, y van desde investigadores, científicos, profesionales, empresarios hasta el público en general. Estas circunstancias nos brindan elementos importantes para tener un enfoque holístico que conlleve a la identificación de soluciones, acordes con el equilibrio deseado entre la conservación de los recursos naturales y su explotación racional en beneficio de los países productores, que son los dueños de los recursos con actividad terapéutica. La definición sobre el estado de la conservación es más compleja que una simple consulta a un profesional experto en un tema específico. Este análisis debe abordarse desde la perspectiva interdisciplinaria. Por esta razón, y con el propósito de analizar cuál es el estado de la conservación de las plantas de la “Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña”, se determinaron algunos criterios que responden la realidad actual en materia de conservación y desarrollo de las plantas medicinales (Box 1). El orden de los criterios no corresponde a ningún nivel de priorización, cada uno cumple una función y el resultado de la suma de criterios es el indicador del estado de la conservación. Criterios para evaluar el estado de la conservación de las plantas medicinales incluidas en la Farmacopea Vegetal Caribeña. 1. Identificación taxonómica BOX 1. Estado de conservación de las especies de la Farmacopea Caribeña 1. Estructura morfológica – biológica ESTRUCTURA Hierbas Arbol Arbustos Liana Palmas PORCENTAJE 46 28 18 7 1 2. Origen De las plantas que están en la Farmacopea Caribeña 60% son especies nativas de América, el 40% restante son plantas introducidas al Caribe desde otros continentes del mundo. 3. Otras categorías de uso Aunque el total de plantas es utilizado como recurso terapeútico, es importante señalar que 77% de las plantas tienen otros usos. 4. Estado del recurso Se ha mencionado que cuando se hace referencia al estado de la conservación de los recursos naturales se hace referencia a plantas silvestres. Por esta razón al analizar el estado del recurso se observa que 50% son plantas que se cultivan con diferentes niveles e intensidades. Sólo 37% son plantas silvestres, que de acuerdo con el órgano cosechado y la intensidad de uso, así como el estado biológico de la planta, podría presentar indicios de vulnerabilidad. El 13% de las plantas es una mezcla de un estado incipiente de cultivo con poblaciones silvestres. 5. Grado de amenaza Al hacer el análisis final para determinar el grado de amenaza que tienen estas plantas se encontró que 84% no tienen amenazas, 13% son vulnerables y 3% no cuenta con datos suficientes para ubicarlas en una determinada categoría. Los datos detallados de cada una de las especies que se consideraron para el análisis se puede obtener de los autores. que se encuentran en los bosques se están comercializando a nivel local e internacional y el pro Este criterio de identificación taxonómica debe ser ducto que se cosecha es la raíz. Este conjunto de prioritario, por que para clasificar el recurso y darle criterios hacen que la planta se considere como el seguimiento adecuado debe tenerse definido cuál vulnerable y se ubique en la categoría II de CITES; es el nombre científico y las sinonimias que le corsin embargo el problema es definir cuál o cuáles responden. A pesar de su importancia, la situación son las especies vulnerables. al respecto aún debe mejorarse en la región. Muchas plantas carecen de información taxonómi- 2. Categorías de uso y germoplasma ca fidedigna, tal es el caso de las especies del gén- Cuando se hace referencia a la biodiversidad vegero Smilax cuya información es hasta el momento etal útil, es claro que muchas especies poseen bastante confusa e incierta. Las especies silvestres diferentes usos para los humanos. Las plantas se Page 49 May 2012 han categorizado de acuerdo con estos usos. La inclusión de alguna especie dentro de una categoría de especial importancia para la sociedad, le brinda a la planta mayor seguridad en su conservación. Por ejemplo, la okra (Abelmonchus esculentus) además de ser medicinal es alimenticia (hortaliza). Esta situación ha inducido a los especialistas en mejoramiento genético a crear bancos de germoplasma a partir de colectas de material silvestre y a impulsar acciones para su conservación. fica de un recurso natural se amplíe, en principio se disminuye el riesgo de entrar en las diversas categorías de amenaza o conservación. El endemismo se considera como sinónimo de autóctono, indígena (FONT 1977) y nativo. Como antónimos se mencionan exótico e introducido. Por ejemplo, el árbol Peltogyne purpurea Pittier (nazareno), utilizado para aserrío, es nativo de Costa Rica y Panamá. En Costa Rica se distribuye únicamente en la vertiente Pacífica. Por su limitaEn general la existencia de bancos de germoplasma da distribución, lo valioso de la madera y su conserepresenta un mecanismo para la conservación ex cuente sobreexplotación es una especie amnazada. situ de la especie. Es importante señalar que las plantas medicinales son para los investigadores en Contrariamente tenemos el ejemplo del árbol Simejoramiento genético, especies no convencion- marouba glauca (aceituno), de uso medicinal y ales (o sea especies que no han entrado a la cadena para aserrío. Posee una distribución amplia en de comercialización “oficial” de mejoramiento, América Tropical y subtropical. Todavía no está producción y comercialización). Bajo la categoría amenazada. de no convencionales también se incluyen las plan- Es evidente que el origen y la distribución de una tas nativas de los trópicos y subtrópicos, por esta especie están vinculados estrechamente con su razón una planta que es nativa es, en consecuencia, conservación. A mayor distribución biogeográfica vulnerable. menor vulnerabilidad. Recientemente, se ha empezado a considerar la con- 4. Estructura morfológica - biológica servación in situ como una alternativa viable para Son las formas biológicas, denominadas en térmiconservar los recursos naturales en su medio amnos vulgares como árbol, arbusto, hierba, liana y biente. El CATIE está realizando investigaciones palma. De estas formas de vida se utilizan y comercon dos importantes especies medicinales, Quasia cializan diversos órganos (hojas, flores, raíz, corteamara y Smilax chiriquensis en Tamalanca, Costa za, etc.) que conducen en mayor o menor grado a Rica. Bougainvillea SA (empresa costarricense, la vulnerabilidad de una especie. Por ejemplo, el véase el artículo sobre Quassia amara en este volúaprovechamiento de tubérculos de poblaciones silmen) está realizando actividades de conservación vestres de Dracontium pone en mayor peligro la y desarrollo con Dracontium gigas y Arrabaidea especie que el aprovechamiento de sus hojas. chica, en ambos casos se está promoviendo la conEn general la tendencia que se manifiesta con reservación in situ (bancos de germoplasma). specto al concepto de especies medicinales es que 3. Origen y distribución geográfica son principalmente plantas arvenses. Igualmente, El origen es una condición propia de cada especie, diversas publicaciones se refieren a la categoría de género o familia. Responde a características am- plantas medicinales como “hierbas medicinales”. bientales generales o específicas. Una nueva espeEs evidente que la mayoría de las plantas introducicie puede sobrevivir si compite en un plano igual das a América son hierbas de porte pequeño. Cuano de ventaja con las poblaciones con que convive, do se realizan investigaciones etnofarmacológicas o bien por encontrarse en un ambiente favorable o con grupos nativos en América, nos damos cuenta aislado (este aislamiento puede ser ecológico, geque se amplía la gama de recursos y también de ográfico o genético) o porque tiene la protección estructuras. Así, se puede encontrar árboles, arbusdel ser humano. tos, lianas y palmas, además de hierbas. En este contexto, el endemismo constituye el facEl tipo de estructura morfológica – biológica posee tor limitante para la conservación de una especie un peso importante en la determinación del estado o género en su ambiente natural dentro de un país, de la conservación, relacionado con los aspectos región o isla. Conforme la distribución biogeográ- Page 50 May 2012 existe claridad sobre su estado. y en Centroamérica y el dines se han propagado con métodos empíricos y Caribe se cultiven en jardines con propósitos orque son acciones anteriores al desarrollo de inves. que conducen al manejo de poblaciones de plantas: a. L. Como ejemplo se puede citar la ipecacuana (Psyco.). (ed. – TRAMIL. Recientemente el CATIE inició investigaciones sobre recursos de la biodiversidad vegetal útil. Barcelona. esta situación se debe a que del estado silvestre al cultivado (proceso de domes. Agricultura avanzada: caracterizada por tecnologías que impulsan su desarrollo y modernización.teriales silvestres.Literatura citada tria ipecacuanha).De igual forma ocurre con especies nativas. Universidad Nacional Según LEÓN (1968). BOX 2. (orillas de caminos) como sucede con Plantago La facilidad de reproducción así como poder utili. es tan fácil determinar este indicador como lo es Los resultados de la aplicación de los criterios con el maíz (Zea mays). (1996): Farmacopea vegetal caribeña. Santo Domingo. representan para la especie una forma de garantizar su conser. http://www.tramil. Con respecto al estado de la Farmacopea Caribeña se encuentran en el Box 1. Gland. a pesar de acciones OMS/UICN/WWF.Autónoma de Honduras • email: [email protected]/ Page 51 May 2012 . 360p. Estas investigaciones están orientadas hacia el manejo de poblaciones silvestres en el sistema bosque. zar diversos métodos de propagación. rectamente con el origen biogeográfico. las plantas medicinales la información es escasa. su presencia silvestre en áreas boscosas. 1993. Estado del recurso este caso lo que existe es “protección a la especie” Este indicador es básico para determinar el grado o sea nos ubicamos en la etapa de selección de made amenaza de una especie y está vinculado di. com ticación) existen tres etapas básicas. etc). que debido al interés se toman del medio natural y se vación. De esta manera es común que especies medicinales En este sentido. es importante señalar que las plan. pero en los pueblos indígenas actuales establecidos en el trópico se desarrolla una actividad importante de selección. Sonia Lagos • PLATS. 5. b.en su región de origen. – Editorial Labor. 55p. TRAMIL TRAMIL es un programa de investigación aplicada a la medicina popular del Caribe. Esta característica da lugar para evaluar y seleccionar el mejor método de propagación. otras se encuentran espontáneas en sitios ruderales tigaciones sobre domesticación. en 6. ciclo de vida. c. Directrices sobre conserdispersas de cultivo en países centroamericanos y a vación de plantas medicinales.biológicos de cada especie (abundancia. establecen en medios disturbados como huertos. y los recursos naturales con actividad terapéutica no constituyen la excepción.de origen exótico sean objeto de cultivo comercial tas medicinales que se establecen en huertos y jar. Sus investigaciones etnofarmacológicas se han extendido hacia prácticamente todos los territorios que tocan el mar Caribe.namentales como sucede con Zingiber purpureum. Selección de materiales silvestres: se inició en el neolítico con la aparición de la agricultura. incluyendo las plantas medicinales. a través de la realización de encuestas utilizando una metodología uniforme. – UICN. Por estas razones la categoría cultivada y silvestre En el caso de los recursos naturales medicinales no en algunos casos no es tan transparente. P. que es posiblemente la especie FONT Q. Propagación El factor de propagación es un elemento básico en la conservación y cultivo de las plantas. Agricultura incipiente: el hombre establece en el campo semillas que recoge del bosque y las mantiene por propagación vegetativa o sexual. medicinal más importante en América Central por su comercio internacional y sin embargo aún no GERMOSEN-ROBINEAU. (1977): Diccionario de botánica. por su trayectoria histórica planteados anteriormente a las plantas incluidas en cultural en América. volumen de semilla. Su misión es validar científicamente los usos tradicionales de plantas medicinales para la atención primaria de salud.major. To date. South Caucasus”. It introduces fair trade Page 52 May 2012 . The economic benefits of collecting wild plant resources are often small. There is a lack of comprehension. processors and exporters. The FairWild Standard provides a management tool to put sustainable collection of plants harvested from the wild into practice. collectors from villages and small towns. that the economic use of biodiversity can pose a threat to nature. high levels of energy and raw material consumption. well known for its diversity in cultures. political and institutional settings.b). IMO is a department of the Bio-Foundation. GIZ is implementing a project on “Sustainable management of the biodiversity. The economic use of wild plant resources has been practiced for centuries. the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) is actively supporting the South Caucasus region with a wide range of activities. Azerbaijan and Georgia is especially high and accelerates the destruction of the economic base of large parts of the rural population. The uncontrolled pressure on the natural resources of Armenia. but destructive harvest practices were historically common. strategy for the protection of biodiversity in the South Caucasus. The wild plant resources are especially threatened by nonsustainable harvesting methods. IMO developed a series of activities in cooperation with collectors of wild plants. IMO is one of the first and most experienced international bodies for the inspection. none of the countries of the Caucasus have managed to realize the socio. Sustainable use of wild plant diversity Through its Caucasus Initiative. as well as the competent authorities of the three participating countries. From March 2010 to May 2011 the Institute for Marketecology (IMO) was assigned by GIZ to implement a project on facilitating value chains from sustainably collected wild plant resources in Georgia. which has developed activities in various sectors such as hunting and forestry. From 2008 until 2016. and also to manThe facilitation of sustainable but economically age the people . often have only little economic alternative but to exploit natural resources above their regeneration capacity. which mostly affect rural populations. poaching and logging as well as the construction of pipelines. by both the private sector and the responsible government institutions. The combination of poverty. and is also called Transcaucasia. as well as parts of Turkey and Iran. the fragile ecosystems of the Caucasus are threatened by over-exploitation of their natural resources. rapid economic growth and a neoliberal economic policy combined with corruption aggravate these negative effects.collectors. Switzerland. The activities also involved consultants and local certification bodies. Switzerland and is based at Weinfelden. partly implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ.FairWild in the South Caucasus Heiko Schindler & Bryony Morgan Introduction The Caucasus is a geopolitical region between Europe and Asia. North Caucasus or Ciscaucasia. and the collection activities are seen as seasonal work for old people. Despite their great wealth.0 (FAIRWILD 2010 a. principles and indicators of the FairWild Standard Version 2. especially in and around protected areas. languages and a high diversity of fauna and flora. workers and others inviable use of plant diversity is one element of a volved in the value chains. Georgia and Azerbaijan. Driving the overexploitation are the prevailing economic. Armenia and Azerbaijan. Today.economic potential of a sustainable use of biodiversity products. but also monitoring of biodiversity and sustainable use of wild plant diversity (GTZ 2011). dams and urbanisation. comprises the Russian Republics north of the Great Caucasus mountain range as well as some regions of Georgia and Azerbaijan. The low esteem and small economic benefits from wild collection activities encourages rapid destructive harvesting practices. certification and quality assurance of sustainably produced products and has been active in the field of organic certification world-wide for more than 20 years. former GTZ). intermediate traders. roads. The South Caucasus comprises Armenia. The main resource users of wild plants. The main threats include over-grazing of the alpine meadows. Based on the criteria. Workshop with collectors in Georgia. ers to the project. resulted in the establishment of several relations Page 53 May 2012 . while respecting the traditions and cultures. of wild collected plants .ond half of 2010 and certification results are now panies were helped to implement FairWild Prin. Altogether 340 collectors who depend on the income from wild collection from 17 collection companies were trained in suswere targeted.the collection companies. good management and quality awareness. such as consultants and inspectors. Knowledge transfer was established through a series of trainings. with the requirements of FairWild. as well as the first or second buyers tainable wild collection. and facilitating existing and new value chains for these products. the complexity of each value chain.Thirty-four companies dealing with wild collection vant stakeholders in the wild collection sector of in the Caucasus were trained in at least one of the the three countries. guidance manuals to the different target groups taking into account the commitment of stakehold(FIGURE 1. 2006). the fair trade system. quality Photo: H. In parallel. and the FairWild Standards Version 1 (MEINSHAUSEN ET AL. the project identified the rele. and 16 different for improvement.available for all companies. 12 out of 13 ciples. process of finding buyers for the selected value The support and development of value chains has chains. Project implementation In its initial phase. All participating collectors and companies received training in various issues such as sustainFIGURE 1. During the whole project the concept of “training of trainers” was pursued by establishing a network of national experts. and the FairWild certification system. 2). and to liaise with participating governments. Project results The work with various stakeholders in the wild collection sector has shown that. Another approach was to upgrade the processes of collection and manufacturing through the improvement of harvesting and processing practices.principles for products marketed with the FairWild brand and logo. in particular collectors and workers” (FAIRWILD 2010a). The purpose of the FairWild Standard is to “ensure the continued use and long-term survival of wild species and populations in their habitats. It unifies the International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) Version 1. the accessibility of the collection region and market demand. although challenging. Members of rural communities afore mentioned aspects. able wild collection. The IMO activities were targeted towards improving the quality and sustainability of harvested wild plant products. IMO facilitated the wild collected plants species could be certified. its transparency.0 (IUCN & MPSG 2007). Selected companies were inspected during the secIn its second phase. The strategy of upgrading value chains through implementation of the FairWild Standard was determined by simultaneously implemented approaches. Value chains of plants listed in TABLE 1 were selected for certification. and supporting the livelihoods of all stakeholders. criteria for wild collected raw and processed plant material. implementation of the FairWild Standard in the South Caucasus was possible and also welcomed. One approach was to enhance the desirability of the final products through labelling certified ingredients with the FairWild logo. As result. collectors and collection com. The quality and traceability systems of the inspected companies could receive the FairWild production and processing steps were scrutinized Certificate for their harvest 2010. IMO was also assigned to facilitate the development of national standards for wild collected plant products. workshops and seminars and through providing Plants and value chains were carefully selected. Schindler. Destructive harvest Turkey). fruit agg. thus the likeliness of over-harvesting these resources is low. On the other hand. fruit taphylos between interested producers and importers from FIGURE 2. the risk of unsustainable collec- Page 54 May 2012 . Hawthorn. As a result of this perception. Castanea sativa Marroni Humulus lupulus Hop. strobile Hypericum perfo. tree cones Scotch pine cones. such as ripping out perenniRegarding the sustainability of wild collection. herb ratum Mentha longifolia Horse Mint. Children of Bilberry collectors in Georgia.St. Wild Apple and Pear. teas and cosmetics (Thyme. fruit. ing companies were presented to the visitors of Biofach (February 2010 and 2011 in Nuremberg. Plants from the MAP group have a much wider Germany) and to Ecology Fair (May 2011. Hazelnut etc) species or their close relatives are listed on Nation• Medicinal / aromatic plants (MAP) for medi. al herbs and shrubs with their roots if only leaves or experiences have shown that wild collected plants flowers are needed. the quality of harvested goods. Pinus kochiana Rosa canina Cornus mas Azerbaijan Georgia Crataegus pentagyna Prunus cerasifera Cherry plum. and care during the harvest is not a priority. buds and needles Rose. Walnut. roots or even the whole plant). Regeneration periods and maxfrom the South Caucasus can be grouped into four imum harvestable quantities need to be well dedifferent groups: fined and the collection instructions need to be • Wild fruits/ nuts for human consumption (Core. scope of harvested plant parts (leaves. berries cine. Asparagus officinalis and other wild vegetables. The collector trainings focused on correct harvesting techniques. seed. collectors do not value the resources very highly because of low prices paid per kg. John’s Wort. Urtica dioica leaf Normann fir. Stinging nettle. Mint. leaf Oregano.Caucasian bilberry. Origin and parts used of plants selected for certification. fruit Hawthorn. Snowdrop bulbs etc) Wild fruits and nuts from the first group are produced annually and in large quantities. Abies nordmanseeds niana Sweet Chestnut. Wild Plum. hip Cornelian cherry. tentially many more mistakes can be made by collectors than in the fruit/nut group. mushrooms etc.TABLE 1. drying and cutting. since polian Cherry. Thus. Izmir.al Red Lists. the damage to a single plant does not seem to matter since there are so many harvestable plants left. young fruit with pericarp Oriental spruce. Various MAP Bilberries. Schindler. Europe. personal hygiene and appropriate processing activities such as correct cleaning. fruit Rubus fruticosus Blackberry. methods are common. Hypericum etc) • Wild vegetables (Staphylea pinnata. The programme as well as the participat. Country of origin Armenia Plant scientific name Juglans regia Picea orientalis Pinus sylvestris Common name & plant part Walnut. Collectors also perceive wild fruits and nuts as ubiquitous.) • Wild plants for horticulture (Normann Fir seeds.Photo: H.thoroughly implemented by collectors. leaf and Origanum vulflower gare Vaccinium arctos. buds and needles Pine cones. the mixing of wild collected of high quality wild collected raw materials.Wild Standard indicated that most of the particition through animal faeces and dust is comparably pants were confronted with the fair trade concept higher than in wild resources. Participants recommended a step-wise approach to cleaning and contamination (Box 1). was not properly cleaned after processing other Understanding and implementation of the social and fair trade aspects of the FairWild Standard raw materials. The main barriers from the sellers’ side are ignorance of how international markets work. Potential buyer companies of importing countries said that prices for the raw materials have to match quality requirements. quality problems can occur through cross. this is often a problem. no trainings were developed specifically for this group. Also. During processing and storage. The training reached not only the active collectors but also a young generation of potential future collectors. Snowdrops are regulated through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The training activities focused on the correct botanical identification of targeted plants as well as defining concrete criteria for sustainable wild collection. herbicides and other Feedback on the fair trade component of the Fairagro-chemical substances as well as contamina.tion is much higher than for the wild fruit and nut group. cultivated. Wild plants for horticultural use have a potentially very high risk of non-sustainable collection practices because of the large extent of collection due to high prices and market demands. It Quality criteria and risks in collection and is important to maintain active groups of collectors processing and to recruit new collectors to maintain a supply On the collector level. potential buyers were reluctant to get involved in new business activities in the Caucasus because they could not fully judge the reliability of potential suppliers in terms of constant quantities at the same quality level. They are mainly harvested for home consumption and for national markets. thus there are few or no written quality standards available. Implants with the same species harvested from gar. mentation of a fair trade certification system. and collectors have long experience with their collection. However. the same conclusions as for the MAP group can be drawn. In terms of risk of unsustainable wild collection. Producer companies often do not have the capacity or have not seen the possibility in the past to contact potential international buyer companies. plus correct processing activities. Many collectors were surprised but also pleased that somebody from “outside” was interested in their activities and economic situation. this pushes up the prices for traded commodities. Since none of the selected value chains focused on wild vegetables for home consumption or national markets.Caucasus. In the food introducing the FairWild Standard in the South industry. understand the general concept of fair trade. the most common mistakes are insufficient and incorrect drying. Wild vegetables are very traditional products of the South Caucasus. Page 55 May 2012 . Also a big risk at the for the first time. Close casus region is not yet fully prepared for the implerelatives of the targeted plant. Feedback from participants Participating wild collection companies have stressed that the focus of activities needs to concentrate more strongly on linkages to international markets. relevant issues were covered within the generic training material delivered. and lack of knowledge or inflexibility in relation to quality requirements of the herbal industry.g. The collection and trade of some economically important geophytes are regulated through international agreements. Collectors’ feedback was positive throughout. e. Problematic or even adverse export conditions potentially also impede the development of new business links. It can be concluded that most participants did not fully can accidentally be harvested. fields or plantations has shown to be of high al incentives for collectors if they are guaranteed risk.plementing the FairWild principles gives additiondens. with the principal focus initially on the contamination due to processing equipment which sustainable management of wild collected plants. or even toxic plants. especially for fruits and nuts which are often good social and economic conditions. The risk of contamination of cultivated species through pesticides. Their opinion was that the Caucollector level is harvesting the wrong plant. and The initial experiences of implementing the Fairmore time is needed to implement changes. Germany and Anaheim Natural Products Expo West in the US. Contamination Through pests such as mice and insects. National experts are needed for the correct identification of the targeted plants. the experience of the first 15 months of implementation.. Feedback from national experts has shown that a lot of knowledge can be provided by specialists from the Caucasus itself. mould etc) increases. such as the food. Companies should also be supported to gain organic certification. with activities in the following fields: • A marketing study is needed to investigate the potential of wild collected products for different markets and industries. National experts can also effectively contribute to improving the quality of raw and processed materials through giving input on processing efficiency. • The responsible quality managers and decision makers of Caucasian companies should be invited to visit the processing sites of potential buyers. Incorrect cleaning Processed products contain foreign bodies such as stones or other plants and plant parts. in order to open up the organic market segment for them in addition to the access to the fair trade market segment provided by FairWild certification. GIZ continues to work at the policy level in order to facilitate the introduction of regulatory guidance for sustainable use of natural resources. either already during collection or during processing and storage. Considerable time is needed to change the understanding of quality and sustaina. especially regarding the management of wild plants. • In order to achieve results in the long term. • Lead companies should be invited to participate in international trade fairs such as Biofach in Nurnberg.BOX 1. potential buyers should be invited to visit the collection and processing sites of Caucasian companies. continuous FairWild certification needs to be facilitated by supporting lead companies with certification costs. The danger of microbiological contamination (aflatoxins. could then be built more gradually.g. Further activities need to put a much stronger focus on the marketing aspects for certified products. The uptake of the FairWild Standard in national processes other than certification was targeted. • Meetings should be organised where producers and processors from the countries of origin can meet their potential buyers from food. Turkey can be of major importance.Future Perspectives bility both at the collector and processor levels. in order to understand the required traceability and quality criteria. Too quick drying with artificial heat can adversively affect the product quality. Vice versa. e. cosmetics and pharmaceutical companies. Incorrect drying Sun-drying or too slow drying alters the colour and quality of. The meetings should take place both in the countries of origin and the countries of import of wild collected plant products. Storage Crushing of stored materials due to inadequate packing or stacking. but co-operation with the competent authorities of participating countries was difficult as interest and understanding of the importance of the topic is low. Under the “Sustainable management of biodiversity in the South Caucasus” project. After Wild Standard in the Caucasus demonstrated the Page 56 May 2012 . cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. Also fairs with a more regional character such as the Ecologj fair in Izmir. as well as confirmation of sustainable harvest limits and monitoring activities. Processing and storage challenges Insufficient drying Moisture content too high. Recommendations It is not an easy endeavour to raise low income economic activities using simple technologies to an advanced level. leaves or flowers. IMO strongly recommends continuing to work with the collectors and processing/exporting companies. Germany. The consultation was organized by the WHO programme on Traditional Medicine. IUCN. with background notes provided by WHO positive impact that such standards. Weinfelden. Cambridge CB3 0DL • email: bryony. BÄCHI. BfNSkripten 195.0.0.org FIGURE 3.. FairWild Foundation. Photo: H.. STAUBLI. and implementation pathways including certification. Performance Indicators. Bonn. can only be realized if external funding is provided. volume 13. has taken a significant step towards completion with an expert consultation held in Toyama. Japan. CH . Switzerland • email: hs@imo. FAIRWILD. (2010a): FairWild Standard: Version 2. Schindler. Heiko Schindler • Institute for Marketecology (IMO) • Weststr. since at present most of the participating companies do not have the necessary financial capacities to substantially invest into sustainable management practices on their own. 36pp. 51. However.8570 Weinfelden. first published by WHO. and is aiming at continuation of the activities in the Caucasus. K. accessed on 11. S. (2010b): FairWild Standard Version 2. Department for Health System Governance and Service Delivery and the Institute of Natural Medicine. Switzerland. vised text. however. (2006): FairWild Standards. Revised text was endorsed by IUCN. 2011. can have. F. Update World Health Organization Consultation on Conservation Guidelines for Medicinal Plants Danna J. Version 1 (11/2006). WINKLER. University of Toyama. FairWild Foundation.ch • Bryony Morgan • FairWild Foundation Secretariat c/o TRAFFIC International • 219a Huntingdon Road. Most participating companies stressed that they are willing to improve the current management system if they could sell their produce to new markets and buyers. Leaman. 15-18 October. URL http://www. MEINSHAUSEN. and was hosted and financed by the Toyama Prefectural Government. and WWF in 1993. & DÜRBECK. However. R. the importance of continued support and of linking activities such as certification into the broader context of sustainable development cannot be underestimated. a formal expert consultation was FAIRWILD. 1 December 2007. GTZ homepage. and TRAFFIC in References 2008. IMO will continue to support FairWild certified companies by linking interested parties with producer companies.ch • Switzerland www.morgan@traffic. WWF.. Bilberry collection areas.0. Switzerland. F.plants (ISSC-MAP).de/en/ weltweit/europa-kaukasus-zentralasien/2829.2011.htm IUCN & MPSG (2007): International standard for sustainable wild collection of medicinal and aromatic The Guidelines revision process was last updated in this newsletter in the “Chair’s Note”.. Version 1. Weinfelden. International actions to address concerns regarding unsustainable harvest of medicinal plants were initiated by WHO. and if they would receive a price premium. and WWF in 1988 with Page 57 May 2012 . – required for WHO’s endorsement of the final reFairWild Foundation. Bundesamt für Naturschutz. Projects of similar scope.gtz. IUCN. A years-long process to revise Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants. Switzerland.08. imo. GTZ (2011): BMZ Caucasus Initiative. The updated Guidelines will take into account conservation commitments such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and support health initiatives such as WHO’s Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002-2005 and Medicines Strategy 2008-2013. Since their original publication. Japan. and the publication of the first edition of the Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants in 1993. FIGURE 2. to conserve their genetic diversity in botanic gardens and gene banks. More than 60 experts made intensive discussions in Toyama. the proceedings of the meeting published in 1991. TRAFFIC – met in Oxford. in the United Kingdom. Page 58 May 2012 . and intellectual property (WHA. pharmacognosy. the latter including access to and rational use of medicinal plants as two of its central objectives. The Guidelines will now undergo further revisions based on the Toyama consultation. WWF. Kanari. Thailand. the Guidelines have provided an agenda for national level policy and action to increase knowledge and conservation of medicinal plants. innovation. centres of research on traditional and complementary medicine. and to bring commercially important and threatened species into cultivation. Many of the participating experts are members of WHO’s Advisory Panel on Traditional Medicine and WHO Collaborating Centres for Traditional Medicine. Kanari. and reached the conclusion. The revised Guidelines will support the efforts of WHO member countries and partners to conserve medicinal plants as an important resource for human health.FIGURE 1. and TRAFFIC. calling for action to “save the plants that save lives”. In May 2008. representatives of the original three partner institutions – WHO. Traditional medicine is identified as a “quick-start” programme to implement this resolution within WHO’s Global Strategy and Plan of Action . drawn from a broad range of institutions and agencies involved in various research and policy activities concerning medicinal plants. More than 60 invited experts participated in the consultation.21). Outcomes of this consultation included the “Chiang Mai Declaration”. the World Health Assembly adopted a resolution on public health. including through actions to protect these resources in their natural habitats. and agreed to update these Guidelines to incorporate more recent policies and approaches relevant to conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants. aiming to support research and development and to promote standard-setting for traditional medicine in developing countries. government ministries of health and agriculture. Photo: K. and the co-author organizations IUCN. In May 2003. and materia medica. Andrew Rodrigues introduced the contributions of IUCN to the Guidelines in the expert consultation in Tokoyama. other intergovernmental agencies (FAO). IUCN and WWF – with the addition of a fourth partner. the convening of the International Consultation on Conservation of Medicinal Plants in Chiang Mai. and traditional medicine. Japan. including: university faculties of pharmacy. Photo: K. and will be released following endorsement of the four co-author organizations. The revised edition has been prepared with broad global consultation and responds to significant changes and advances that have occurred in conservation thinking over the past two decades.61. botany. Dr. HETTIARACHCHI. & Jamnadass. S. Page 59 May 2012 . J. – http://www. (2011): Mondia whitei (Apocynaceae): A review of its biological activities. BHUTYA.. M. MORGANTI. CORDELL. M. S. & PREMAKUMARA. ENGELS. MEKURIA. 298p.5862. (2011): Bacopa. PDF.. G... Eloff.C. Ghorbani.O. 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CASTELLANOS.and underused plant families with the Bayesian approach. & Li. along a precipitation gradient in China.ku. J. China. M.E.T. (2011): Diversity of communities dominated by Glycyrrhiza uralensis. Zhang. please refer to format requirements on the Medicinal Plant Specialist Group homepage http://www. B. an endangered medicinal plant species. B. (2010): Genetic diversity of populations of an endangered medicinal plant species (Glycyrrhiza uralensis) in different environments of North China.. XU..org/about/work/programmes/species/about_ssc/specialist_groups/directory_ specialist_groups/directory_sg_plants/ssc_medicinalplant_home/ssc_medicinalplant_newsletter/ Medicinal Plant Conservation Medicinal Plant Conservation is edited by Helle O. CABRAS. trade. Xu. & Tani. 8: 75-86. WECKERLE. M. (2011): Quantitative methods in ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology: considering the overall flora-hypothesis testing for over. – Journal of Traditional Medicines 23: 27-35. Y..on use.iucn. The Medicinal Plant Specialist Group is chaired by Danna J. S. Leamann • 98 Russel Avenue • Ottawa. Larsen • University of Copenhagen • Rolighedsvej 23 • 1958 Frederiksberg C • Denmark • email: [email protected]. – Botanical Studies 52 (4): 493-501. LI.Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 4 (9): 830-836. . Ontario K1N 7X1 • Canada • Tel. – Journal of Mountain Science. – Journal of Ethnopharmacology 137 (1): 837-843.. M.dk Page 63 May 2012 . Yamamoto. J. C.