Translation of Chinese Medical Terms: A Source-Oriented ApproachN.A.R. Wiseman Doctoral Thesis in Complementary Health Studies Year 2000 Volume I Translation of Chinese medical terms: A source-oriented approach Volumes I & II Volume I Submitted by Nigel Arthur Richard Wiseman to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Complementary Health Studies, May 2000. This thesis is available for library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation for the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. “I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material is included for which a degree has previously been conferred on me. Nigel Arthur Richard Wiseman” Translation of Chinese medical terms: A source-oriented approach Volumes I & II Volume II Submitted by Nigel Arthur Richard Wiseman to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Complementary Health Studies, May 2000. This thesis is available for library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation for the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. “I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material is included for which a degree has previously been conferred on me. Nigel Arthur Richard Wiseman” ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I extend my thanks to my supervisor and mentor, Roger Hill, MA MBAcC, of the Centre for Complementary Health Studies of the University of Exeter of course for his direction, pastoral care, and gentle prodding, but much more importantly for his singular wisdom, foresight, energy, and determination through which the Centre was created, providing an academic framework devoted to the development, improvement, and objective scrutiny of complementary health-care. Without this, I would never have had the opportunity to engage in the present study. I also extend my thanks to Reinhard R.K. Hartmann, Bsc, DComm, MA, Transl Dip, FIL, of the School of English, for kindly offering to act as co-supervisor after my enrollment, for his highly efficient supervision in the planning and execution of my study, and in particular for his enabling me to understand the importance of historical lingustics and lexicography in translation. I further thank my examiners, Dr. Christopher Cullen of the School of Oriental and African Studies and Dr. Simon Mills of the Centre for Complementary Health for assuming the task of reviewing my study. I owe an immense debt to Prof. Paul U. Unschuld on many accounts, not least for untiringly sharing his sound approach to philological translation and extensive knowledge of Chinese medical history. Above all, his unique understanding of reception of Chinese medicine in the modern China and in the West has helped me to make sense of my own own experience in China. I am indebted to Stephen Birch and Robert Felt for conducting studies that have saved me a considerable amount of labour, and for the encouragement that they have given me in this thesis, and to F´ ng Y` ( e e ) for his continual questioning of and stimulus to my understanding of Chinese medicine. My special thanks go to Gu¯ Ni´ n-F¯ ng ( o a e ) for writing the the term analysis ) for his software used in the study presented in Chapter 8, to Dr. Hongchien Ha ( advice concerning issues relating to Chinese and Japanese anatomical terminology, and his support and that of Dr. Hen-Hong Chang ( ) for the development of Chinese ) of Sh` nzh¯ n University e e medical terminology. I also thank Professor T´ n Z` i-Xˇ ( a a ı for sharing with me the findings of his comparative research in the Western and Chinese history of translation, Professor Yi-Tsau Huang ( ) of the Yangming National University, for his advice on pharmacological questions, Frances Turner for helping to locate sources, Thomas Dey and Henry Wessells for the comments on the manuscript, and Lilly Chang ( ) for checking the arithmetic calculations. I am thankful to China Medical College ( ) and to Chang Gung ), Taiwan, for providing a congenial atmosphere in which to work Univserity ( Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Last, but not least, I thank my late mother, Olive Wiseman, for her support in this, as in all my endeavours. ABSTRACT Despite the growth in popularity of Chinese medicine over recent decades, the westward transmission of Chinese medical knowledge continues to be hampered by a number of problems, including a low level of linguistic access to primary Chinese sources, a low level of translation, and a lack of a standardised English terminology. Focussing on the terminological problem, the present study shows that terminolological variation is not the product of chance, but reflects fundamentally different aims regarding the development of Chinese medicine in the West. On the one hand, there are those who desire to present Chinese medicine true to its own concepts and its own frame of historical reference, and on the other, those attempting to adapt Chinese medicine either to the framework of modern medicine or to that of complementary-health values. As far as translation is concerned, writers wishing to present Chinese medicine as it is and has been in China adopt a source-oriented (i.e., fairly literal) approach, while those favoring adaptation tend to adopt target-oriented (i.e., free) approaches or, being less interested in accessing the medical heritage contained in primary texts, work from secondary texts only. On the assumption that an authentic version of Chinese medical knowledge should be made available to Westerners as a prerequisite for any adaptation, the present study presents a case for source-oriented approach that uses mostly literal equivalents. It shows that such an orientation in the translation of terms is widely recognised by translation theorists, philologists, historical linguists, and terminologists, and that it is applied for practical reasons in highly successful instances of cross-cultural transmission of knowledge. In Chinese medicine, a source-oriented approach is especially desirable, even necessary, for dealing with the fuzziness of Chinese medical concepts, and furthermore it is perfectly feasible. The proposed methodology is formulated in a minimum set of principles and expounded in detail. Keywords: Chinese medicine; translation theory; source-oriented translation; literal translation; philological translation; term standardisation; terminology. Contents Acknowledgements Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i iii 1 1 6 1.3 Significance and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.4 Note to Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2 Translation and Terminological Theory 16 2.1 Translation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.1.1 Historical Importance of Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.1.2 History of Translation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.1.3 Recent Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.1.3.1 Toward a Linguistic Description of Translation . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.1.3.2 Text Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, and Pragmatics . . . . . . . . 27 2.1.3.3 Skopos Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.1.3.4 Literary Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.1.3.5 Philology and Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.1.3.6 Lexical Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.2 Contact Between Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.2.1 Lexical Borrowing Among Germanic Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.2.2 Western Influence on the Chinese Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.2.3 Borrowing of Other Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 2.2.4 Interlingual Influence and Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.3 LSP and Terminological Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.3.1 The Notion of Language for Special Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.3.2 The Nature of LSP Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2.3.3 Term Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2.3.4 Terminological Rigour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 2.3.5 Terminological Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3 Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation 61 3.1 German and English Translation of Latin Medical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.1.1 Formation of Latin Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.1.2 Methods of Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.1.3 LGP Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.1.4 Loans and Loan-Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.1.5 Source-Independent Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.1.6 Relationships Between Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.1.7 Factors Influencing Choice of Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.2 Chinese Translation of Western Medical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.2.1 Aims and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.2.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.2.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.2.3.1 Synonymy and Polyequivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.2.3.2 Relative Frequency of the Use of Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.2.3.3 Principles of Categorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.2.3.4 Categorisation Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.2.3.5 Factors Influencing Choice of Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 3.2.3.6 Comparison of Methods Applied in Chinese, English, and German . 94 3.2.3.7 Extralinguistic Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3.3 Implications for the English Translation of Chinese Medical Terminology . . . . . . 97 4 Outline of Chinese Medicine 99 . . . .2 Formation of Terms . . . . .2. . . .2 Acupuncture and Medicinal Therapy . . . . . 162 5.2. . . . . . . . . . 168 5. . . . . .2.2 Unity of Term and Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Morphological Change . . . . 99 4. . . . . . .2. . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. 117 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . .4 Abbreviation/Expansion .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 179 . . . . . . . 108 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . .1. . . . . . .1 Semantic Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5. . . . . . . 176 6 The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Limited Interests . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . 179 6. . 126 5. .3 Definition . . . . . . . . 166 5. . . .3 Complementary Health Care as the Matrix of Adoption . .Abstract 4. . . .3 Derivation . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . .2. . . .3. . . . . . . 112 5 The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 117 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Combination .3 Grammatical Change . . . . . . . .2 Influence of Western Medical and Scientific Thought . . . . . . . . 179 6. .3 Semantic Extension—Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5. . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5. . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 5. . . . .2. . . . 181 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . 161 5. . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Features of the Chinese Language . .1. . . . . 181 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.1 The Western Reception of Chinese Medicine and the Sociocultural Factors Influencing It . .3 Later Developments . . . . . . . .1 Zero Referential Change/Connotative Enlargement . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 History of Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . .1 Term Motivation . .2 Specialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5. . . . 151 5. . . . . . 123 5. . . . . .1 The Beginnings of Deterministic Medicine . . . . 170 5. . .1 Borrowing . . . . . .3 Terminological Rigour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Concluding Remarks . . . . 163 5.4 Chinese Medicine in the Modern Era . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Maciocia’s Terminology (1989/1994) . . . . . . .1. . 234 ı ı 7. . . . . 218 6. 252 7. . . . . . . 241 7. . . .2. . . .6 Lˇ Zh` o-Gu´ ’s Terminology (1993/1997) . . . .3 Xi` Zh´ -F´ n’s Terminology (1984) . . . . . . . . . . .2 Verbs (stative and active) . .3 Practice . . . . 238 7. . .2. . .7 Bilingual Lexicography Lagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 7. . . .3. .1 Mann’s Terminology (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 Western Medical Equivalents . . . . . . 226 7 Proposed Methodology of Term Translation 234 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . 224 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . .1 Translating Words Used in LGP Sense . . . . . . . 195 6. . . . .1. . . . .10 Further Problems . . . . . . . .2. . . .2. .3. . . . . . .9 General Trends . . . .3 Preserving LGP Equivalence .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 6. . . . . . . . . .3 Translating Words Used in Extended Senses . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . .1 Loans (P¯ny¯n Transcription) Versus Loan-Translations . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 7. . . . . . . .2 Anisomorphic LGP Equivalents . . . . . . . .1. . . . . .1. . .1 Nouns . . . . . . . . . . 224 6. . .2 Approaches to Chinese Medical Term Translation . . . 258 7. . . . . 208 6. . . . . . . . . .4 CEMD Terminology (1987) . . .8 Wiseman’s Terminology (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 7. . . 237 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 6. .3. . . . . . .7 Unschuld’s Terminology (1995) .2. . . .2. .2 Unit of Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 e u a 6. . . . . . . . 253 7. . 204 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 6. .2. .8 Adaptation . .2. . . . . . . . . . . 212 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. .3. . . . . . . .5 Failure to Perceive Language as the Key to Acquisition of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Translation Lacking . . . . . .2. . . .2 Principles . .2 Porkert’s Terminology (1978) . . . . . . .2. . 223 6. . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Motivating Sense and Semantic Translation .2. . . . 221 ı a o 6. . . . . . . .4 Polyequivalence and Preservation of Conceptual Unity . 252 7. . . . . . . . . . . 279 8. . . . . . 277 8 The Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology 279 8. .2 LGP/WM equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 8. .3. . . . . .3 Discussion . . . . . . . . .1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Degree of Source-Oriented Translation in Full Terms . . . . . . . .1 Absence of Exact LGP Equivalents . . . . . 286 8. . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . .2 Comparative componential analysis . . . . .7 Minimising Polyequivalence . . . 279 8. 272 7. . . . 268 7. .3. . . . . . . .Abstract 7. .7 Comparison with Chinese Translation of Western Medical Terms . . . . . . . . .5.2. .1 Determining the motivating sense . . . . . .5. . . . . . 290 8. . .3 Discussion . . 287 8. . . . . . . .3.3. . .2 Results .2 Degree of Source-Oriented Translation in Component Characters . . . . .6. . . . . . . 280 8. . . . . . . .3. . . . . .6 Categorisation Difficulties . . . .1.2. . . . . .2 Results . 282 8. . . . 287 8. . . . . . . . . . . .1 Relative Frequency of the Use of Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 9 Conclusion Bibliography Indexes 296 302 319 . .3. . . . . . . .3 Loans . . . . .3. . . . . .1 Distribution of Translation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 8. . . . . . . 291 8. . . . . . . . . 284 8. . . . . 286 8. 287 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Aims and Methods . . . .3. . .1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Narrowing the Choice of TL Term .3.3. . . . 272 7. . . . .1. .2. . . .6 Deviation from Semantic Translation . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . .2 Source-Independent Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Comparison of Character Frequency in LSP and LGP .1. . . . . . . 291 8. .3. . . . . . . .3. . . . .5 Source-Independent Formations . . . .1 Aims and Methods . . . .1. . . . . .1.4 Loan-Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 7. 268 7. .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4. . . . . . . . . . . 365 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . Source-Orientation of the Proposed English Equivalents of Chinese Medical Terms . . Selected Terminologies of Chinese Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . 231 12. . . . . . . . . . . . Y¯n-Y´ ng in the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 9. . . Comparative Componential Analysis for the Translation of ! sh¯ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . German Loan-Translations and English Loans in Western Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Degree of Source-Orientation of the Chinese Terminology of Western Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 2. . . . . . . . . . 386 III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loans in Both German and English . . . . . . 270 e 14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 ı . . . Comparison of Renderings of Affect Terms . . . . . . . . . . . Renderings of Pulse Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 ı ı English Index of Chinese Medical Terms .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms P¯ny¯n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms . . . Five Phases in Nature . 103 8. . . . . . . . . . . 369 Appendices 374 I. . . 102 ı a 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Term Types and Translation Modes . . . . . . . . 65 3. . . . . . . . . . . Comparative Componential Analysis for the Translation of w` i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Translation of Metaphor . . Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters of the Proposed Terminology . . . . 342 Name Index . . 260 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LGP equivalents in German and English Western Medical Terms . . . 416 Glossary of Terms 436 Tables 1. . . . . . . . 101 ı a 6. . . . Y¯n-Y´ ng in General Phenomena . . Five Phases in Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 5. . . . . . . . . . . 401 IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a good deal of what counts as normal translation is. loan-translation. often highlighting different aspects. . It also aims to show that such an approach typifies comprehensive and accurate transmission of knowledge from one culture to another. However. The present study aims to demonstrate that a source-oriented approach to translation using largely literal equivalents that are closely pegged to the source-language terms is not only generally feasible. and its slowness to develop in Chinese medicine is attributable to extralinguistic conditions surrounding . John Lyons 1981: 310 1. Chinese medicine is presented in different ways. but also desirable.1 PROPOSITION Acupuncture and other forms of Chinese medicine (and the Korean and Japanese variants with which it is sometimes referred to as Oriental Medicine) have gained greatly in popularity in the West over recent decades as complements (or alternatives) to Western medicine. The available literature as a whole. of necessity. Failure to realise that this is so has encouraged the view that a higher degree of intranslatability holds among languages than is in fact the case. Translation work is limited and a considerable proportion of the literature currently available in English does not derive from primary Chinese sources (Birch & Tsutani 1996). . even necessary. if the original Chinese concepts are to be faithfully preserved in translation. certain signs exist that the huge wealth of knowledge available to students in the Far East is not being transmitted to the West satisfactorily (Birch & Tsutani 1996). whether translated or not.CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION . is marred by considerable variation in terminology (Wiseman 1995a: 37). The only possible answer to the latter question is that either translators are unaware of any need for standardisation or their insistence on different terms reflects differences in understanding either of the concept itself or of the means by which the concept can be best understood or interpreted by the target-language recipients. I will provide evidence in this study that both these reasons apply. if one term is better than another. we find a number of target-oriented tendencies that in one way or another allow the patterns of ex- . The use of the Western medical terms is convenient. Variable terminology may well in many cases be due to chance differences in choices of expression by different writers. When we probe deeper into the differences in translation approaches. Logically. the term reflects a different understanding of the disease from that reflected in the Chinese terms (inflammation affecting the conjunctiva. Since n the field of Chinese medicine many writers do not peg the terms they use to the Chinese terms by reference to any published bilingual list of terms. In other words. which is regarded as a test of good translation. As is readily discernible from the scholarly discussion of translation problems in journals and other publications and from the various terminologies that have appeared in lexicographical and general Chinese medical literature. Different terminologies have been proposed in bilingual lists. it sometimes is impossible to perform the back-translation test. Furthermore. When different writers refer to concepts by different terms (or refer to different concepts by the same term). although acute conjunctivitis might denote the same disease. it is reasonable to ask whether one of these terms might be superior to any other. In the present study. but none has so far been sanctioned by unanimous agreement of the English-speaking community of Chinese medicine.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms The technical terms of any discipline represent technical concepts. wind and fire affecting the eye). by what criteria the best equivalent is chosen. and. translators are largely divided over whether or not Western medical terms should be used to represent traditional Chinese medical concepts. those familiar with Chinese medicine through the medium of Chinese cannot always tell what concept a term refers to. or by any official body. students reading the works of different writers are easily confused. if so. 1998a:viii). though. A classic example of this is whether " # $ f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n should e o a be rendered unliterally as acute conjunctivitis (as in CEMD 1987) or literally as wind-fire eye (as in Wiseman 1995a: 56. The use of a literal translation stresses that. the question also arises as to why translators have not engaged in a common effort to devise the most satisfactory terminology and encourage its general use. because the term is known or accessible. when a given concept is referred to by two or more different terms. I name these two opposing trends source-oriented and target-oriented approaches to translation. one concludes that they were compiled from English-language . Among those writing on Chinese medicine are not only translators but Westerners who apparently have no access to Chinese texts or other primary Oriental sources (Japanese. successive bilingual dictionaries will tend to converge as regards their contents and thereby become descriptive as well as prescriptive. e. Source-orientation means being faithful to the concepts of the lending culture. p. - f¯ ng q` n` i d` ng or hepatosplenoatacia for . another manifestation of target-orientation lies in devising equivalents of Chinese medical terms by Graeco-Latin derivations (Lˇ Z-G 1993: 9–10. bilingual dictionaries help to establish a firm relationship between SL and TL terms and promote standardisation. Here. and their bibliographies suggest that no primary texts were consulted. the values of the medicine of the target culture—to take precedence over those of the sourcelanguage (SL) and SL culture. Given Westerners’ general unfamiliarity with Chinese. though physically identical with those known by the ordinary names in Western medicine.g. It has been suggested. Another manifestation of target-oriented translation is a somewhat paradoxical tendency of avoid- ing terms used in Western medicine. As the community gradually agrees on the most appropriate targetlanguage equivalents. Korean). Introduction pression in the target-language (TL) and the values of the TL culture—in particular. that the kidney be called Shen on the grounds that Western medicine does not accord this organ the function of reproduction traditionally ascribed to it in Chinese medicine. e ı e o / 0 1 g¯ n p´ b` h´ . is being transmitted from one language community to another. or knowledge corpus. 239–252). using P¯ny¯n transcription or English equivalents ı ı in uppercase initials for the internal organs. if any. Furthermore. which.1. Besides the use of modern medical terms. such as endoanemobatia for " ı + . An important feature of the concepts of source-orientation and target-orientation is that they are not purely translational or linguistic categories. it is the a ı u e form of Western medical terms that is imposed on Chinese medical terminology. numerous bilingual lists have been published (see Bibliography. Quite a large proportion of English-language works contain no explicit statement as to the sources used in creating the text. When a body of knowledge. target-orientation means being faithful the native concepts of the receiving culture. In Chinese medicine. for example. 318). are considered to have functions other than those ascribed to them in Western medicine. but to this day they reflect the same dichotomy in translation trends (though in changing proportions). proposed terminology is applied. A natural part of the process of developing a standard terminology in a second language is proposing terms in bilingual lists or dictionaries to help the discussion of term translation.. they offer no explicit statement as to which specific. This is in some respects not surprising since Chinese medicine is a knowledge corpus of considerable vintage. Terms used in works by authors with no access to primary sources tend to be highly target-oriented and inadequately pegged to the Chinese. Beinfield & Korngold 1991 133–136). In the linguistic aspects of transmission. could dispense entirely with the traditional theories underlying its practice in the Orient (e. .g.. such tend to offer adaptation rather than primary-source information. no informed discussion of what form it should take can occur until a complete and accurate picture of Chinese medicine is made available in English that is distinguishable from any adaptations that have been introduced as ‘traditional Chinese medicine’.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms sources or from personal knowledge and experience. we therefore observe not only a tendency toward target-oriented translation.000 years requires a terminology that expresses traditional Chinese concepts in a way that reflects their original and their traditional conception. however valid the case for adaptation is. Given the limited availability of classical Chinese medical literature in English. This having been said. The abandonment of traditional explanations and procedures based on them has an early precedent in Japanese acupuncture (Birch & Felt 1999: 38–39). In other words. for instance. Chinese medicine in China has undergone immense changes through the selection of rational and holistic elements (Unschuld 1985: 249–260). Even if one of a number of different styles of adaptation were to become mainstream in the West. Mann 1992 vii–viii. Others feel it should be adapted to modern spiritual needs of Westerners (Seem & Kaplan 1989: 12. it is fair to say that this stage has not yet been reached. Such works often differ in content from Chinese-language books on the subject. and through efforts to integrate Chinese medicine as a whole with Western medicine. through efforts to tie acupuncture with the theory and practice of medicinal therapy (Flaws 1991). the value of Chinese medicine and its role in the modern world have been a focus of discussion in both East and West. but also a neglect of language as the bridge in communication. more than a minority feels the practice of acupuncture. These linguistic facts reflect an absence of determination to present the contents of Chinese medicine and a drift toward adaptation. which many who espouse the values of modern science believe to be in need of renovation. it is unlikely that it could dispense entirely with Chinese medicine’s historical roots in China. reflecting a tendency to be influenced by considerations not deriving from Chinese literature. In the West. Since the founding of the People’s Republic. Any form of Chinese medicine that cherishes a connection with its roots in a tradition that in China spans over 2. Indeed. Filshie & White 1998). ‘conduits and network vessels’. ı e which are a recognised part of human existence in all cultures. and lung. ‘depots and palaces’.g. environmental symbolism built into explanatory models of health and illness is an important precondition for the acceptance of such models as “truth”. translated < y¯n and = y´ ng as humidus. that is. heart. explanatory models of health and disease are plausible. The sourceoriented approach has been described most succinctly by the medical historian Paul U. and calor. should be translated in such a way as to reflect why the original o e terms were chosen in Chinese. published in 1682. Reiterating a previous example. addition. brain. only source-orientation can provide an English terminology capable of conveying traditional medical knowledge from China (or other Far Eastern countries) intact. Studying Cleyer’s work in an age where damp and heat are no longer part of the conceptual framework of our indigenous medicine. Unschuld says. of course. and anthropologists. because of their close correspondence to cognitive impressions man gains from daily experiences in. we have restricted the validity of the translation to those who understand Western medicine and consider Western medicine to be the greater authority in the definition of disease. bone. because for physicians of his time those two terms corresponded meaningfully to the Chinese notions (though inexactly). historians.. u 5 m` . without conceptual loss. . e 3 nˇ o. and 7 f` i. Andreas Cleyer in his De pulsibus libri quattuor e sinico translati. ‘damp’.1. “valid for any user” (Schafer 1954). While the literal translation of the term tells the reader how the disease was traditionally understood in China. eye. means “any user of any time.” As has been pointed out (Unschuld 1989a:x). Unschuld says that generic terms such as 2 xu` . a 4 gˇ . Introduction Of the two trends in translation. but also sinologists. . Unschuld 1989a: 102 An important advantage of source-orientation is that it ensures that concepts are labelled in a way that is.” as Schafer puts it. ı a ‘heat’. and observations of. : a u j¯ng lu` . his natural and social environment. the use of the Western medical equivalent hides this from us. in US sinologist Edward Schafer’s words. ‘hit by wind’. “Any user. Unschuld in Approaches to Traditional Chinese Medical Literature (1989: 100–101). whereas terms reflecting culture-bound observations and concepts that are based on speculation. In the context of Chinese medicine. 8 9 z` ng fˇ . first of all. u 6 x¯n. if we call " # $ f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n e o a ‘acute conjunctivitis’. who may be more interested in the cultural background of Chinese medicine than in its practice. . we must bear in mind that potential users of Chinese medical texts include not only practitioners of (various forms of) Chinese medicine. . or distortion. and ı o " zh` ng f¯ ng. should be rendered by their everyday English equivalents blood. e. translation theory has not been a single unified field. in particular. but several fields concerned with different aspects and different types of translation. Since such a terminology has not asserted itself as the only or at least as the single most dominant approach in translation.2 METHOD A first step in the present enquiry is to survey the current body of knowledge concerning translation in search of theoretical guidance. I devote considerable space to explaining this anomaly in detail. would potentially be of great value in the elaboration of a reasoned approach to the translation of Chinese medical terms. been a major disadvantage for the transmission of Chinese medicine. In the present study. I aim to show that source-oriented translation approaches are not only widely recognised in various branches of linguistics. the philological translation approach. the historical linguistic theory of borrowing. since any expert consensus in translation theory would almost certainly have provided greater direction in term translation at a critical time in the westward transmission of Chinese medicine. though. The present study describes a source-oriented approach in precise terms and shows how it is applied in an existing terminology. the translation of " # $ f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n as acute conjunctivitis would instantly lose its e o a motivation just as humidus and calor as equivalents of y¯n and y´ ng did when humoral ı a pathology was abandoned in Europe. I survey the various aspects of linguistics that are concerned with term translation. how terms are or should be translated. In Chapter 2. while offering immediate intelligibility through the apparent familiarity of their terminology and by concealing contradictions between Chinese and Western medical theory. a first problem is encountered because a cohesive body of thought on the questions of translation has only very recently started to emerge. pay heavily for this by sacrificing the integrity of the original concepts of Chinese medicine. but have also been applied in highly successful knowledge transmission processes. I suggest. Any consensus concerning how translation is or should be performed and. and that target-oriented approaches. in particular the translation of technical terms. the concept of inflammation. The lack of clear guidance on matters of term translation has. say. therefore. Here. .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms If we were to imagine Western medicine abandoning. that only a source-oriented approach can faithfully reflect the concepts of Chinese medicine. 1. including linguistic theory of translation. and terminological theory. In fact. some of which have neglected issues beyond their purview. anything but a source-oriented approach can potentially distort our understanding of the concepts of Chinese medicine in their all-important historical context. The fact that sinologists who have contributed to the westward transmission of Chinese medicine have not all fully realized this suggests that philological translation lacks a set of stringent and explicit rules that have been tested in practice.000 years later. Newmark. his translation of terms. its attention is focussed on observable facts in the development of language. Being the study of ancient languages. Although Chinese medicine has a history over two millennia and has continually evolved. such as highly idiosyncratic creative or ancient literature we cannot be sure of the intended effect on the reader. as distinct from that of text. Philology is the study of inscriptions and texts to understand the cultural features of ancient civilisations. and many of its concepts are speculative. points out that when translating certain texts. Under such circumstances. and has tended to overlook the importance of term translation. The origins of Chinese medicine are still partly a matter of conjecture. Although he recommends what he calls dynamic equivalence in preference to a source-oriented formal equivalence. and has tended to deal only with lexical translation in a wider sense. Historical linguistics is completely unconcerned with the question of translation theory per se. is very much source-oriented. Historical linguists tell us that borrowing occurs most intensively when bilingualism and translation assume impor- . and that in such cases. These classical texts can be fully understood in translation only if they are translated in such a way as to reflect the thinking of their authors rather than superimposing upon them the conceptual framework of an alien medical system that arose 2. the translation must be literal (1995: 11). the philologist’s approach to translation is highly source-oriented. Nevertheless.1. its observations are pertinent to translation theory. Introduction to translate ‘technical terms’. This concern for the effect on the TL reader has permeated several currents in translation theory that consider text to be the prime unit of translation. The principle of dynamic equivalence rests on the notion of creating the same effect on the TL reader as the SL reader. Eugene Nida has discussed the translation of biblical terms into a variety of languages. Because the aim is to understand culture through text (unlike the translation theorist’s usual concern of understanding texts in a well-understood culture). The translation of Chinese medical terms falls within the scope of philological translation because of its historical nature. Mary Snell-Hornby’s integrated approach to translation barely gives terminology more than a mention (Snell-Hornby 1988/1995: 107). it nevertheless has its roots in its formative period and the early classics of this period are still held to be authoritative to this day. who favours a more source-oriented approach. it naturally involves translation. g. Lexical borrowing often serves the purpose of naming hitherto unfamiliar objects or concepts from a distant community (e. Historical linguistics provides us with a large amount of evidence for source-oriented translation. banana. their knowledge can be usefully applied to the analysis of an ancient form of medicine such as Chinese medicine. technical language. Nevertheless.. and when members of the receiving community are learning and using the language of the lending culture and performing translation. Terminology includes no guidelines for the formation of terms in a language in which new terminology is being created. and bilingualism. and loan-translations (also called calque). igloo. loans. which are foreign words simply adopted into the language. knowledge transfer. From the point of view of translation theory. loan and loan-translation are recognised as commonly used methods of term translation. their main practical aim is to ensure that terms represent concepts effectively. loosely speaking.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms tance in language communities in close contact (Lass 1997: 190.. when knowledge and various facets of culture are being adopted by one community from the other. LSP stands in contrast to language for general purposes (LGP). which is the language of everyday communication and written texts that are accessible to all. The study of terminology can be seen as belonging to the wider field of the study of language for special purposes (LSP). which are terms literally translated. both loans and loan-translations are source-oriented equivalents. in which terminological rigour is lacking. element by element. philological translation. In other words. and the processes by which terms are formed. the term-formation methods recognised by terminologists provide a framework for classifying TL equivalents in relation to the SL terms. Although LSP and terminology theorists are concerned with modern LSPs in which terminological rigour is applied. borrowing is associated with prestige accorded to the lending language and culture. I develop the notion recognised in historical linguistics that lexical borrowing (i. In this study. though. without special knowledge. when it takes place between communities in relatively close contact. catamaran). sourceoriented translation) is to some extent positively correlated with prestige of the lending culture. Furthermore. These issues have not been fully addressed by translation theorists. These various fields—linguistic theory of translation. McMahon 1994: 200). especially in languages where a whole terminology is being built from scratch.e. Terminologists study the relationship between term and concept. Borrowing is most intense. historical linguistic theory of borrowing. The historical linguistic ob- . Lexical borrowing mainly takes two forms. and terminological theory—together provide the main elements of theoretical support for the present study. Introduction servations concerning borrowing between languages are the main prompt for a departure from theory into an investigation of translation practice. As regards terminology. My approach is to analyse the methods by which terms are translated and determine the relative frequency with which each method is used in the creation of each target-language terminology. nuclear medicine) are practised as they are in the West (as far as economic conditions permit). I undertake such a comparison in Chapter 3. . say. lies in whether the knowledge corpus arrives at its destination intact and can be applied in its new linguistic and cultural environment just as in its source environment..000 terms) of Chinese equivalents of Western medical terms. open-heart surgery. where the most sophisticated elements of Western medical therapy (e. I first perform this analysis on a small sample of early German and English equivalents of Latin medical (mostly anatomical) terminology. Since words are often borrowed with the concepts they represent. I choose Western medicine as the basis of comparison because it shares with Chinese medicine the same object of concern (human health and sickness) and because it has made the same cross-cultural journey as the one Chinese medicine is now attempting. in text translation or term translation. plastic surgery. One is that Western medicine is an unsuitable basis of comparison because it differs considerably in nature from Chinese medicine. Two possible objections to this approach exist. the translators. Nevertheless. albeit in the reverse direction. however. there are in fact many similarities between Western and Chinese medicine (as will become apparent in Chapter 5. the test of translation quality. Historical linguists here offer no useful evidence because they are interested principally in language rather than in the cross-cultural transmission of bodies of knowledge. I then perform a similar analysis on a larger selection (nearly 1. to a literary work) is being transmitted from one language community to another.g.1. there can little doubt about the quality of the services provided by bilingual mediators. when a knowledge corpus (as opposed. important similarities and contrasts can be brought to light. In the case of the transmission of Western medical knowledge to China and Japan. that is. Nevertheless. Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology). In the process of comparing. such a comparison has the potential to shed considerable light on the problems of term translation in Chinese medicine. it is worthwhile investigating how much terminology is borrowed—and how much is not borrowed—in individual fields of learning that have been transmitted from one language community to another. Another possible objection is that an approach to translation that is practised not necessarily the best approach to translation. German Schlagader. terms in the target language whose literal meaning bears no relation to that of the source language term—are a phenomenon that occurs when loan-translation fails to produce a well-motivated term in a language in which it is the preferred method of translation. There are several reasons why term translation should be source-oriented.. lit.g. Investigation of the extralinguistic background of the translation process in Western medicine shows quite clearly the suggested correlation between prestige of the lending culture. foot for the Latin pes). ample evidence for the validity of a source-orientation in the field of Western medicine. for arteria).Translation of Chinese Medical Terms A primary distinction is made by terminologists between LGP terms (everyday words such as head. it does provide a basis to predict the feasibility and desirability of a source-orientation in the translation of terminology.g. as the fundamental link between source and target in the transmission process. transfer of knowledge. I believe. and source-oriented translation. terms are far from being completely arbitrary and often reflect the relationships of a concept in a field of concepts. From the point view of LSP concepts. provided the factors encouraging source-orientation in Western medical . Secondly.g. kidney) on the one hand. and allows the inference that source-independent formations—that is. Categories of translation are a) LGP equivalents (e. b) loans (e. and LSP-bound terms (technical terms such as stapes. chest. English ulna from Latin). it seeks access to the other’s language. Although this does not necessarily mean that such an orientation is feasible or desirable for all knowledge corpora or for all languages.. c) loan-translations (e. This evidence is a valuable practical complement to the theoretical discussion of term translation among linguists because it demonstrates the feasibility and desirability of a clearly delineated principle in the practice of translation. ‘beating vessel’. It shows marked differences between the languages in the choice between loans and loan-translations. First of all. The analysis reveals the use of LGP equivalents for LGP terms and a preponderance of borrowing (loans and loan-translations) for LSP-bound terms in all three cases. need to be able to relate the terms of the target language to the equivalents in the source language. so that a source-oriented approach is desirable if not inevitable. loans and loan-translations are convenient for the bilingual individuals who. and d) source-independent formations (e. renal pelvis) on the other. and adopts a source-oriented approach to translation. loan-translation is usually feasible where loan is not. bilingualism.. Demonstration of a strong source-orientation in the translation of Western medical terms into three different target languages provides.g. German Nierenbecken for Latin pelvis renalis). Where one language community is keen to obtain a body knowledge from another. term formation methods in Chinese medicine are highly comparable to those of modern scientific and technical terminologies (LGP terms. and its internal contents and structure can be fully understood only through its relationship to this wider frame. Thus. The nature of terms in a source language has a direct bearing on how they are translated (Latin LGP and LSP terms were translated into English by different methods). I begin with a brief description of the nature of the Chinese language with regard to lexical constructions. These features speaks strongly in favour of a philological approach to translation. as well as combinations of these). applying a model of analysis developed in modern terminology. and specifically largely literal. medical or other. Introduction term translation are also found to exist in the context of the English translation of Chinese medical terms. Some distinct features are nevertheless apparent. In the orthodox tradition of literate physicians. since I wish to show not only that a source-oriented approach should be feasible. In order to gain a full grasp of the terminological issue. In Chapter 4 (Outline of Chinese Medicine). Nevertheless. This is the subject of Chapter 5 (Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology). Nevertheless. I leave this analysis until the end of the study. I offer a new categorisation that takes account of vocabulary-forming patterns of Chinese language (but that is no less applicable to Western languages than others that have been proposed). compounding.1. Within the medical practices of China we can identify deterministic theory as well as purely empirical elements. I briefly describe the essential features of Chinese medicine in the historical context of their development. terminologisation. and hence no fully integrated system of knowledge ever developed. I then turn to methods of formation of Chinese medical terms. By and large. it is necessary to gain an understanding of how Chinese medical concepts are represented in Chinese. but why it is feasible. and no rigorous logic ever united the speculative and the empirical. these two elements are blended in a unique way. and begin the treatment of the translation of Chinese medical terms from a more general perspective. Different term-formation categorisations have been offered in Western literature. the same analysis needs to be performed on an existing terminology. and loans. LGP terms are numerous and many of them are used in specialised . in order to be able to discuss term translation issues proper. it is important to understand the nature of Chinese medicine and the nature of its concepts. is a part of the wider understanding of reality within the community it serves. approach to translation is valid. theorisation in Chinese medicine is essentially speculative. but these differ only slightly. To show that a source-oriented. Any knowledge corpus. In the second part of Chapter 6 (6. but is also used to name and describe objects by their functions and relationships. and argue that although P¯ny¯n is a good last resort in translation and a useful ı ı cross reference. and various tendencies toward target-oriented translation.2. we find instead a low level of bilingualism. the same conditions might be expected to prevail if the westward transmission of Chinese medicine were successful. it cannot be used on any large scale because it is essentially opaque. and projects onto it notions that are not central to its theory or practice.3. In Chapter 7 (Proposed Methodology of Term Translation). to what degree the terminological ideal of one-term-for-one-concept is achieved. In Chapter 6 (Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine). and dubious synonymy.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms only used to name and describe entities by their formal qualities (as is notably the chief use of metaphor in Western medicine). I turn to the question of how well Chinese medical terms serve their purpose of representing concepts. Under such conditions of low contact and interaction between the source and target community. I present the methodology for source-oriented translation of Chinese medical terms. a tendency toward adaptation. either in the form of loans or loan-translations. All of the special features of Chinese medical terminology have a bearing on translation. poor definition. showing a number of different trends in the use of P¯ny¯n transcriptions. ı ı Latin equivalents. we would not expect much borrowing to take place. and loan-equivalents that support the notion that Chinese medical term translation is excessively target-oriented. I show that the reception of Chinese medicine in the West is closely related to its being perceived as a complementary health practice. and that this perception limits the scope of interest in its contents and its cultural background. I describe the cultural and linguistic aspects of the transmission and reception of Chinese medicine as a cultural phenomenon and how this is reflected term translation trends. Approaches to Chinese Medical Term Translation). Instead of cultural prestige that fosters bilingualism and transmission of knowledge from the source. but suffer from a high degree of polysemy. and source-oriented term translation. a low level of translation activity. I . and how explicit the definitions of terms are. Terminological Rigour). Since successful transmissions are characterised by cultural prestige of the source culture. The findings here are that Chinese medical terms are well motivated. investigating in particular to what extent terms are self-explanatory. recognition of the source language as the key to transmission. I compare eight writers’ proposed equivalents for 65 basic terms. In the latter part of Chapter 5 (5. loan (in the form of transcription) and loantranslation. I begin by evaluating the two options in source-oriented translation. and preservation of conceptual unity. semantic translation. In Chapter 8 (Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology). using the same procedure as applied to Western medical terminology in Chapter 3. The reason for this is a greater desirability of source-oriented translation prompted by the poor division between word and concept in Chinese medicine. such as comparative componential analysis. This database has been used to produce three lexicographical works (Wiseman & Boss 1990. Indeed. I then go on to explain the practical application of the principles for the translation of LGP terms. e by myself and by a growing number of independent authors. Introduction then outline principles of translation designed to produce a maximally source-oriented terminology that is based on LGP equivalents and loan-translations and conforms to rules of English grammar. the need to preserve LGP equivalence. . if such a terminology were purely experimental. The terminology in question is taken from a Chinese-English database of Chinese medical terms that I began nearly 20 years ago. The aim of this analysis is not to judge the acceptance or acceptability of the proposed terminology. It has been adopted as the preferred terminology of Paradigm Publications and of Blue Poppy Publications. loans. and loan-translation. No English terminology has been professionally or officially sanctioned. and the one presented here represents an increasingly important trend competing in the chaos of nonstandardisation (see p. such an analysis might have little value. Wiseman 1995a. and has been used in the translation of modern texts and classical texts. I pay specific attention to determining what Western medical terms can be applied in Chinese medicine without undermining the conceptual fabric of the latter. I address the need to keep the number of equivalents for each term or each term element to a minimum. which has not only been continually expanded. Of course. account for the vast majority of terms. The analysis of the proposed terminology reveals that LGP equivalents. Finally. the unit of translation. the percentage is considerably higher than in Western medicine. I determine the extent to which source-oriented translation is achieved in a terminology created in accordance with the stated principles. I discuss basic notions of the methodology such as motivating sense. but also revised to increase the overall degree of source-orientation as far as possible.1. I offer procedures for narrowing down the choice of TL terms. 199). and terms used in extended (mostly metaphorical) senses. and describe the conditions under which semantic translation can be dispensed with. but to demonstrate only that source-orientation is feasible. and Wiseman & F´ ng 1998a). it provides guidelines for the westward transmission of Chinese medicine. It merely attempts to tie existing ideas together to explain translation issues in the context of the cross-cultural transmission of knowledge. the present study demonstrates the validity of source-oriented term translation. Any of the possible future outcomes should be intelligible in terms of the laws of linguistic and cultural interaction. it provides an example of a methodology for source-oriented translation catering to the specific needs of the subject matter. and at those in the West involved in the development and practice of Chinese medicine. I suggest. it proposes equivalents but does not claim them to be the only possible accurate choices. but underscores the importance of language as the vehicle of knowledge. It not only offers a rational method of terminological translation. Firstly. A feature of target- . The significance of the present study is twofold. This. it offers arguments for the recently neglected role of source-oriented translation in an area of overlap between the philological realm and the LSP realm. and historical linguistics. Secondly. The fate of the westward transmission of Chinese medicine is dependent upon many extralinguistic factors. it would be valuable to rate acceptability of the proposed terminology among students. ties in with extralinguistic factors influencing translation. would be a hard task because it is not easy to isolate terminology from other problems of transmission. since terms can only become standard when they are accepted by users. importantly. it is essentially directed at the people in both the East and the West who are concerned with the westward transmission of Chinese medicine in both East and West. and. however. the advantage for Westerners in learning Chinese. Firstly. It is this latter group that apparently has. It offers nothing significantly new in the understanding of any of these fields. Secondly. Certain limitations are inevitable.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 1. it shows how extralinguistic factors influence transmission. the least grasp of the linguistic and cultural issues surrounding the transmission of knowledge.3 SIGNIFICANCE AND LIMITATIONS The present thesis is an interdisciplinary study spanning medicine. Furthermore. as regards translation theory. In the context of efforts to establish a comprehensive theory of translation based on the notion of varying approaches for different text typologies. It also highlights the dangers of conceptual distortion arising from target-oriented translation. translation the- ory. and the need to peg equivalents to the original terms. While it may provide some insights for translation theorists and historical linguists. . Chineseı ı English Medical Dictionary.4 NOTE TO USERS The back matter includes a complete bibliography of cited works.1. four indexes (a P¯ny¯n index of Chinese medical terms. 1995 ZD. Zh¯ ngy¯ D` c´diˇ n). an English index of Chinese medical terms. would. in addition to four appendices containing the raw data of studies and a glossary of linguistic terms used in the present study.g. 1987 CEMD. a ı ı subject index. In the bibliography (p. 1. 302). Examples given between paragraphs are numbered consecutively. Introduction oriented translation is that it conflates concepts and destroys terminological nuances. Copious examples are provided throughout the text. be to ask whether they liked terms for concepts with which they were unfamiliar. so that to ask students if terms produced by a source-oriented approach were acceptable to them. and a names index). in many cases. Unattested or unacceptable forms are marked with an asterisk (*) before them.. References to dictionaries cited in the text are expressed in abbreviations of English or P¯ny¯n title followed by the date of publication (e. o ı a ı a Chinese medical dictionaries are listed in order of date of publication. A study attempting to compare how much and how fast students learn from texts applying different terminologies would be a major task that cannot be accomplished in the framework of the present study. 1 Historical Importance of Translation The earliest traces of translation we know of date from 3000 b.1. but also including philosophy. inscriptions in two languages of Egypt. the first records of translation are associated with the transmission of Greek culture to Rome.c. In order to understand the issues surrounding the translation of Chinese medical terms. and the clay tablets inscribed with Sumerian and Akkadian word-lists. we must understand something of the trends in translation theory. 2. in linguistic. A large body of literature has accumulated on these subject of translation. and point out various trends in translation theory that have developed over recent decades. In Europe. the theory of borrowing. and terminological theory. . a first step is to review current linguistic theories concerning the translation of terms. literary. but a comprehensive theory of translation is only beginning to emerge.1 TRANSLATION THEORY The present section begins with a sketch of translation in the Western and Chinese worlds in order to show to what purposes translation has been put to and the importance of translation in cultural interaction. 2. I then describe thought on translation in these two cultural areas. The first known translation is Livius Andronicus’s translation of Homer’s Odyssey into Latin. medical and pharmacological translation (Kelly 1998: 496). The issues raised by translation bring to light certain discontinuities among the branches of linguistics.CHAPTER 2 TRANSLATION AND TERMINOLOGICAL THEORY When trying to establish a methodology for the translation of LSP terms. which began a long tradition in Greek-Latin translation centering around literary works. and philological or anthropological approaches to translation. 2.. translation of the Holy Scriptures came to dominate translation activity in Europe. translation from Greek and Latin into the vernaculars began to dominate over translation into Latin. medicine. a. The Arabic tradition is characterised by translation from a wide variety of languages into Arabic. Linguistically. The Old Testament was translated from Hebrew into Greek by Aquila in 384 to form the Vulgate. In the 16th century. Translation has been of great importance not only in the transmission of Christianity. being largely logographic. inimitable Word and discouraged a its translation (Mustapha 1998: 201).d.d. but also in its development. Islam has always considered the Qur’¯ n to be God’s immutable. and Greek. 200 and the Old and New Testaments were translated from Greek into Latin by St. practically the whole of Greek science and medicine had been translated into Latin. Translation and Terminological Theory With the rise of Christianity. the Bible was first translated into German by Luther in 1522 and into English by Tyndale in 1525–6. logic. the written language has always been highly unified. the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek to form the Septuagint. furthermore. and in the 12th century many Syrian and Arabic versions of Greek texts were translated into Latin in Toledo (Pym 1995:553). the Arabic tradition forms an important leaf in the history of translation and of the transmission of knowledge in the West. the Arabs were nevertheless keen to absorb all nonreligious learning from those they subjugated and on whom they imposed their language. translation between Latin and the vernaculars had also started. translation has never played such an important role as in the West. In the 15th century. since the textus receptus of the Bible is composed of texts in Hebrew. large numbers of Greek works were translated directly from Greek into Latin. astronomy. which often alluded to religious concepts) (Baker 1998: 316–324). In their fervour to spread Islam. numerous Greek texts were translated into Arabic (Pym 1998: 552–553). chemistry. In the third and second centuries b. Within the H` n world. . and politics (excluding not only religious texts. Aramaic. and although the Chinese language and its dialects have continually evolved in time. but also literary texts. Armenian texts were translated into Hebrew to form part of the Bible. the need for written translation has never been great. Jerome in a. In the 4th century b. The Arabic tradition is an important chapter in the history of translation. In the meantime. Nevertheless. Moreover. on a wide variety of subjects including mathematics.c.c. China a is divided geographically into dialects and can be divided diachronically into different stages. Translation of Greek texts from Arabic stimulated direct translation from Greek into Latin. In China. although some of the dialects are not mutually intelligible in speech.. In the 9th and 10th centuries. With the eventual decline of Latin after the mid-18th century. and by 1600. In the 10th century. and others made the first translations between Latin and Chinese. In the West. and linguistics were also translated. that of the reception of Buddhism principally from the 2nd to the 10th century. In the 19th century. music. translation had taken place in classical antiquity. and mining. Ricci also translated the S` Sh¯ (j ı u k . like that of China. In the Spring and Autumn and the Warring Kingdoms Periods (8th–3rd century L` ng G¯ (F a e ). physics. “The Four Books”) into Latin. has preserved linguistic access to the literature of antiquity because it has evolved more slowly than other languages (Connolly & Bacopoulou-Halls 1998: 428). is partially comparable with China. covering a geographical area only slightly larger than China. over 30 Buddhist a a ı ı ı ¯ texts were translated by An Sh`-G¯ o (U V W ) at Lu` Y´ ng (X = ). Greece. Matteo Ricci (L` Mˇ ı ı a D` u o a b c . has numerous mutually unintelligible languages belonging to different families and their branches. philosophy. Under the Eastern H` n emperors Hu´ n D` (O P ) and L´ng D` (Q P ). the growing Western economic influence in China gave rise . medicine. As T´ n Zˇ i-Xˇ points out (1999). The world of ancient Greece. Europe. mathematics. By comparison. at the beginning of the Q¯ng Dynasty. translation has been of consistent importance in cultural development ever since antiquity (T´ n Z-X 1999). Lˇ Zh¯-Z` o (g ı ı a h i ). the Chinese (though to a lesser extent). The Zh¯ u Lˇ (H o ı b. From the 7th to the 11th centuries. Translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese began in the 2nd century. texts on astronomy. a a ı while translation in the West involved translation between numerous different languages. though. at least two texts are D E known to have been translated from other languages. that translation provided a vehicle for the mass importation of a foreign cultural product. painting. In China. mediating between various cultural centers. had one language as its universal koine. the Yu` R´ n G¯ (C e e e G E I ) and C¯ ng a ) of the Warring States Period mentions officials J K conversant with foreign languages called xi` ng x¯ . calendrical science. calendrical science. architecture.c. 1552–1610). nevertheless. geography. In the 17th century. translation in China was always centered around Chinese. X´ Gu¯ ng-Qˇ (d u a ı e f ). Translation of Budı a o a dhist texts continued in the 3rd and 4th centuries. It was not until the advent of a u Buddhism. The problems of interlingual communication in China cannot be compared with those of the linguistically much more complex European area. numerous Tibetan Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese. medicine.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms it allows readers access to texts much older than do phonetic scripts such as the Roman. translation has been largely concentrated in two periods of cultural contact. a In China.). and that of the reception of Western culture principally over the last one and half centuries. and the Greek language like. They translated into Chinese the Bible as well as books on astronomy. g.. quoted in Newmark 1995). ). the profession of translator being coextensive with the rise of technology (Newmark 1988: 151). which in the same year produced only 6. and culture. Wˇ J¯ng (l u ı : .1. philosophy. and many others. Zhu¯ ng Zˇ (o a ı ). Through the work of Richard Wilhelm. but immensely revolutionary technologies. which in 1991 produced 67. Translation is of vital importance in the transmission of technical knowledge. Even where translation is required in communication. the economic value of translation in the technical realm is now clearly understood (Fluck 1985: 135).487 books.2 History of Translation Theory Communication between speech-communities is not always the result of any pro- cess of translation. and other texts. Translation and Terminological Theory to intense translation geared to gaining access to all realms of Western knowledge and thought. Contact Between Languages).430 books. France (39.896 books. and technical translation is the main fare of professional translators (SnellHornby 1988/1995: 33). In the 19th century. the stirrup. Furthermore. English is overwhelmingly the principal source of translation. “The Five Classics”). Arthur Waley. Although literary translation is poorly paid. 26% translated). the percentage of translated books is much lower than in countries with low book production. were probably acquired by new communities merely through observation. 24% translated). of which 44% were translated. Marcel Granet.2. China has not only gained access to large proportions of Western literature. “The Four Books”). it is usually not the only mode of communication. even writing or printing. 2. The general trend is that countries with high book production. China’s traditional scientific and technological achievements have been opened up as an international field of investigation. of which only 3% were translated. e. 18% translated). translation of text is only part of a wider process of interaction based on bilingualism (see 2. such as firemaking. and Italy (40. Hale (1998: 190) compares the UK. In the transmission of knowledge systems from one language community to another. but has also successfully adopted the vast bulk of the West’s scientific and technological knowledge. The publishing figures show remarkable differences between countries (Hale 1998). the West has gained an understanding of Chinese literature. Other countries fall between these two poles. with Portugal. the wheel. At the same time. there has been modest traffic in the opposite direction.628 books.525 books. Simple. . James Legge produced the first major English translations of the S` Sh¯ (j ı u Lˇ o Zˇ (m a ı n k n .2. Through translation. The twentieth century has been characterised as the ‘age of translation’ (Jumpelt 1961. Spain (43. through the pioneering work of Joseph Needham. For the most part. to a greater or lesser degree. In the West. sed sensum exprimere de sensu was taken up by Horace after him. the ability to make what they hear or read in one language intelligible in another. Schleiermacher (1813). support for a similarly literal approach to translation found a voice in Walter Benjamin (1923). and the interpretation of them may even be the preserve of authoritative experts.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms theory. knowledge about how to do something that individuals may be able to demonstrate but are usually hard pressed to explain verbally (Bell 1991: 284) The absence of translation theory does not necessarily mean bad translation. Jos´ e Ortega y Gasset (1937). . This is hardly surprising because such texts are not always easily understood by the native reader.. comparatively little has been written on the subject of translation (Newmark 1995: 4). left no record of any principles that may have guided them. those performing it have. There is therefore reason to believe that the ability to translate is a kind of procedural knowledge (as opposed to factual knowledge). and Vladimir Nabokov (1955: 127–143). Humboldt (1816). Friedrich Schleiermacher notably stated the view that by choosing a free or literal approach. and has been repeated by translators generation after generation. Jerome (400) and Luther (1530) favoured colloquial and natural renderings. Theorising about translation has. the translator could achieve different results: “Either the translator leaves the author in peace and moves the reader towards him. Bible translators such as St. and hence an ability to relate one language-culture to another (Lyons 1981: 322–329). the ability to speak (and write) more than one language implies acquaintance with the culture of each.e. they have been in favour of translating the sense. and by this token have.” Schleiermacher favoured the former approach. Those who speak more than one language naturally have access to more than one culture (Pennycook 1994: 25). translation has varied considerably between the free and literal. or he leaves the reader in peace and adapts the author. since its known beginnings. as far as I know. Although scientific translation accounted for a sizeable proportion of translation before the modern era. Although each language maps the unique perception of reality of the community that speaks it. and in the twentieth century. Goethe (1826). most translators commenting on their activity have spoken in terms of the dichotomy of expressing the literal meaning of the SL words or the sense they convey. i. and Nietzsche (1882) all articulated the case for a more literal approach to translation. been for the most part concerned with the problems of translating religious and literary texts. Despite its overwhelming importance in the communication of human thought. ever since antiquity. Cicero’s non verbum de verbo. In actual practice. In the 19th century. though. infused the vernaculars with the influence of Latin and Greek. Intensive translation from Greek and Latin into the vernacular unleashed by renewed interest in the artistic. In this way.2. They felt that translation could enhance their own language and literature. It was only as the second millennium progressed that translation more frequently came to stand in the stead of the original. as the vernaculars matured. and academic expression. Translation and Terminological Theory The earliest surviving translations from Greek into Latin were literal (Robinson 1998). notably by Friedrich Schleiermacher. Here. As the vernaculars took over from Latin. the invention of printing brought education to growing sectors of the population who did not have a strong command of Latin. The free translations of the latter period are often called les belles infid` les. reflecting the precedence of French aesthetic values e over the form and content of the original (Salama-Carr 1998). scientific. translators before the modern era were mainly concerned with the transmission of Buddhist literature. the notion was that the target language could be enriched by attempting to reproduce the form and content of the original more closely. so they also tended to resist influence. allowing translation to be guided by aesthetic criteria rather than notions of fidelity. Cicero and Horace were the first to speak in favour of translating sense for sense rather than word for word. there was a notable swing from source-orientation in the 16th century to target-orientation in the 17th and 18th centuries. In the year 224. target-oriented approaches increased in force in the second half of the 19th century (Ellis & Oakley-Brown 1998). they had to be refined into vehicles appropriate for literary. This swing is certainly not typical of all translation traditions. In China. many readers had access to the original text. Later monks studying the Latin Bible took a far more literal approach when they developed the practice of interlinear translation in their mother tongue beneath each line of the Latin text (Bassnett 1991: 50). With this. and philosophical heritage of Greece and Rome. translation came to be virtually the sole vehicle for the original message. In Britain. Nevertheless. A belief that SL texts could be accommodated in the TL by deviating from established norms was powerfully asserted in Germany in 19th century. target-orientation is a tendency that is inherent in the maturation of a language and its literary acquis. In France. Nevertheless. a need was perceived for vernacular translations of the Bible that would allow a wider readership access to the Holy Word. Though Latin remained the language of the Church scholarship and diplomacy. Edward Fitzgerald and Robert Graves are notable examples (Venuti 1995: 188–189. scientific. However. in the Middle Ages as in Rome. 30– 38). the Parthian monk Parthamasiris (Zh¯ Li´ n ı a . possibly out of some naive notion of equivalence between languages. so the translation served merely as a parallel. 604–664). and ‘future’. In this early period.d.d. 2. as the examples given below show. His translation apparently triggered a debate on literary style (w l`) and plain style (y ı z x w´ n e zh` p´ ) in translation (T´ n Z-X 1998). Xu´ n Zhu¯ ng ( a a (l a. 4. Tibetan translators translating Sanskrit texts u into Tibetan were instructed to translate terms consistently. and a Chinese monk who recorded the result in writing. He prescribed five situations in which transcription should be used 0 wˇ b` f¯ n): secret terms. explaining the text. some terms devised in the reception of Buddhism that gained a wider currency: notably xi` n z` i. as translation became the work of smaller groups of scholars who were now better versed in the language and thought of the original texts. 344–413). ch´ n. Amitabha ¯ ı o o ni` p´ n. In the introduction. which stressed moral virtue and coma e mitment to Buddhism over translational skill. rendered over 1. and a a Loans 1. Buddha o p´ s` . Y` n Z¯ ng ( ı a o eight requirements ( | } ~ Ji¯ M´ Lu´ u o o Sh´ a.300 volumes of sutras in Chinese. and to reserve transcription for polysemous terms that could not be represented in Tibetan by a single term in all contexts and for the names of places. the translation forums were drastically reduced in size. polysemous terms. Sanskrit dhy¯ na a a a m´ tu´ f´ . Nirvana e a . In the Su´ Period. The result was usually a highly literal translation preserving much of the original syntax. to keep to the Sanskrit word order unless this obscured meaning. f´ . ‘present’. one or more interpreters who knew both languages. who usually knew little or no Chinese. benefiu u a cence (H´ G-Z 1994: 42). One of the most productive translators of time was Kuramajiva ({ intelligible translation.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms u v ) completed the first Chinese translation of a Buddhist Sutra. who pioneered a new approach that produced a much freer and more ı a. he explains that his command of Chinese was too poor to permit him to write elegantly. 5. and plants (which nevertheless should be marked as such) (H´ G-Z u 1994: 42–43). Buddhist translation gave rise to a Chinese terminology that included by both loans and literal translations. e a 3. convention.d. lack of a word. A major translator of the time. but that the message Buddhism was best presented without literary adornment anyway (H´ u G-Z 1994: 39). In a third phase. Large audiences also assisted with the finalisation of the text. o u w` i l´ i. animals. In the 8th century. Zen. 557–610) established b¯ b` i) for a translator. that was difficult to understand (Hung & Pollard 1998). A second phase in Buddhist translation was characterised by prominent foreign monks who had learned Chinese officiating over translation teams that were much larger than before. transı u a lation was performed by teamwork with a foreign monk. ‘past’. Boddhisatva u a gu` q` . However. karma ı o f´ fˇ . when for the first time translators had access to Western thoughts on translation as well as their own. Toward the middle of the 19th century. If no equivalent was to be found. Interestingly. 7. political. These views ı ı fail to capture the reality of development of translation in practice. by coining a descriptive term. either by designing a new character or borrowing a disused one. Translation and Terminological Theory Translations 6. A translator at the Ji¯ ngn´ n Arsenal tells how checks would be made a a to see if a term was to be found in existing literature or trade circles. many translators commented on the art of translation. Mahayana a e s¯ n bˇ o. curiosity for foreign knowledge changed into necessity as China found itself to be barely any match for the European powers which were increasingly dominating trade in the country. communicability. A similar trend is noted in Japan (Kondo & Wakabayashi 1998). In the 19th and 20th centuries. and elegance ( sh` n). Y´ n F` ( a u for fidelity. l´ n hu´. a College of Languages ( w t¯ ng w´ n guˇ n) was established in Peking offering an eight-year o e a course in English and other Western languages and the natural and social sciences. Triratna (Three Jewels) a a As stated in 2. however. the Chinese attitude was one of curiosity. Both institutions employed foreign experts with a knowledge of Chinese. . o a d´ m´ a o 8. and scientific literature. At that time. 9. In 1865. in the first phase of massive European impact. or by transcribing the SL into Chinese (Hung & Pollard 1998). The aim was to train people for the diplomatic service and for the translation of legal. China attempted to assimilate literature to its own classical forms before later developing a new vernacular-based written language that naturally was more receptive to foreign influence (Hung & Pollard 1998). in this period we find indications of term-selection procedures in LSP translation. the Ji¯ ngn´ n Arsenal established a translation bureau a a in Shanghai that was to complement and rival the Peking College of Languages. while F` L´ i ( u u e ( 1853–1921) spoke of the triple need x`n d´ ı a 0 y´ ). and that in order to hold their own they would have to master the foreigners’ arts. In 1862.1.2. In the period of the reception of Western knowledge. y¯n guˇ . one was devised.1 (Historical Importance of Translation). samsara u ı d` sh` ng. 10. contacts between China and the West began to intensify in the 17th century. dharma. Lˇ X` n ( a u u ) stated a Nabokovian preference for fidelity over fluency ( sh´ n s`) rather than in form ( e ı n´ng x`n er b` ı ı ´ u ) felt that the translation should resemble the original in spirit x´ng s`) (Hung & Pollard 1998). 1. The Western tradition presents a more motley picture because translation in the West has largely taken place between related languages and related cultures whose relative influence has constantly been shifting. The language of an old culture facing e a more vigorous stronger culture tends to move from target-oriented to source-oriented translation as the foreign culture is gradually appropriated (e. Chinese characters). of marking a Chi- nese text so that it could be read in Japanese word order and with Japanese inflections. find their legs.3 Recent Trends The task of developing a comprehensive integrated theory of translation is im- mense. Translation is effectively coextensive with the use of language. as it were. Even when indigenous scripts came to be used. can be highly literal. In the initial stages of contact. as translators. known as the kambun kundoku ( w ). under any conditions. The Japanese soon developed a method. specific terms continued to be represented in kanji ( . Languages with a strong tradition evince a stronger tendency toward targetoriented translation (typically.g. Chinese and Japanese translation from European languages). Western learning) have played a salient role in them. it may be possible to discern a general trend in the East as in the West. The Chinese and Japanese traditions are instructive because the appropriation of the products of distant cultures and totally unrelated languages (Buddhist thought. Since translation is the recreation of SL utterances in the TL. Although this kind of translation was traditionally unknown in Europe because of the phonetic scripts used by its languages. the approach to translation varies in accordance with the relative power of expression and the relative strength of the literary traditions of the SL and TL. 2. It was by this method that from the T´ ng Dynasty onward the Japanese absorbed the a learning of China (Kondo & Wakabayashi 1998). This is particularly so where the receiving community has no script and borrows it from the other community (as in kambun kundoku and interlinear Bible translation). Languages that have weak traditions tend to adopt a sourceoriented approach.. the theoretical explanation of the processes involved in translation has close affinities to the theoretical explanation of language as a whole. les belles infid` les). Generally. Nevertheless. And we are still quite a distance from a comprehen- . though. it nevertheless compares very strongly with interlinear Bible translation. translation. Every kind of act of speech and writing at some time has to be translated into a foreign language for one reason or another.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms tail. it seems fitting in the history of approaches to translation to mention the ‘half translation’ that was made possible in Japan by the adoption of Chinese writing. one cannot always approximate all the dimensions of the original at the same time. journalism. such criteria being in turn conditioned by the ends to which translations are prepared. Baker 1998: 280). Just how important these features are involves decisions that often tax the skill and experience of a translator.2.” A spirit of optimism about a comprehensive thea ory is elsewhere present notably in Bell (1991: xv–xx). technical. have concluded that it would be difficult. legal texts. Thought concerning translation from the middle of this century onward has been typified by the application of knowledge from linguistics and other fields and by extension of interest beyond the traditional realms of religious and literary translation to virtually all applications of human language. Literary translation continues to hold a major role. general writing.e. and what is changed when different approaches to translation are applied. i. or. if not impossible to establish any scientific theory of translation. etc. and Peter Newmark (1995: 100). directives. George Steiner (1975: 248–311). Translation theory has been increasingly informed by spoken discourse. reports. Nevertheless. what is gained. As Jumpelt put it: It is axiomatic that some feature of a given text in a given language cannot be reproduced in another language. An increasingly clear understanding of the various aspects of meaning of a text has enabled translation theorists to understand what is lost. Each decision involves a distinction between alternatives. and Baker (1992). to adopt Ortega y Gasset’s formula. Snell-Hornby (1995:). it would also seem that those concerned with the theory of translation hail from distinct disciplines and often recognise only the limited requirements of their own field (Snell-Hornby 1998/1995: 14. and in order to distinguish objectively criteria are needed. The principle has gained acceptance that each mode of translation (literary.) is governed by a set of (specific) criteria which depend on the type of text.. scientific writing. As Paz put it (Paz 1971: 157). Translation and Terminological Theory including Ortega y Gasset (1937). “L’intraducibilit` is the life of speech. and advertising. some must be considered relatively more important than others. It follows that some features of the original must take precedence over other. The rise of modern linguistics has brought new insights into the question of how to translate that have largely dispelled the stalemate in the literal-versus-free debate.” George Steiner put it (Steiner 1975: 256). (Jumpelt 1963: 268–269) . “There is no such thing—nor can there be—as a science of translation although translation can a should be studied scientifically. Octavio Paz (1971). public notices. Bible translation has provided huge impetus to translation theory notably through the figure of Eugene Nida. in addition to an impressive array of illustrative examples from experience in translating the Bible into a large number of languages. brings a wealth of contemporary linguistic theory to bear on the subject. Nida makes a distinction between what he calls formal equivalence. His linguistic and communicative approach has been successfully developed by numerous scholars since. The early pioneers were Fedorov (1953). and Catford (1965). He describes how the hierarchical structure of vocabulary differs from one language to another and how words occur in different collocations. and what he calls dynamic equivalence. In the English-speaking world. As Newmark has commented (1995: 9).Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Jumpelt’s formulation typifies the directions taken in linguistic theories of translation since that time. Nida (1964). including transformational grammar. This view of the translation problem is probably acceptable to all modern theorists. and discourse analysis. In Toward a Science of Translating. attempts been made to describe the problems and processes of translation in linguistic theory. componential analysis. nonequivalence between languages in terms of the different way in which languages map reality. rather than aiming for a perfect translation. the most influential figure in this endeavour has been Eugene Nida. so that the translator. He also discusses words used in idiomatic or what he calls exocentric senses.3. and on the other because his concept of equivalence is based on the considerably older notion that the translator should produce the same effect on his own readers as the SL author produced on the original readers (even though such a notion is empirically hard to prove). Nida has discussed almost every translation problem and incorporates a vast amount of linguistic theory in his scheme. formulated in Toward a Science of Translating (1964). 2.1. Nida’s view gained acceptance on the one hand because he incorporated Chomskyan notions of a universal grammar. Different kinds of texts and different purposes of translation call for different methods of translation. and how words convey different emotive meanings. who began publishing his thought on translation in the 1940s.1 Toward a Linguistic Description of Translation Since World War II. One of the early trends in translation in the modern period has been to try to redefine equivalence. which aims at . His statement implies that something is always lost or changed in the translation process. must establish his priorities concerning which aspect of the text must come out clearly in translation. Nida’s approach to translation. which aims at the closest possible match of form and content between the SL text and TL text. Nida explains in great detail the nature of the basic problem of translation. He draws his examples from a wide variety of different languages and cultures. such factors including the culture of the intended readers of the TL and the client commissioning it. instructions for use. discoursal features).3 Skopos Theory Skopos theory. 2. As Fawcett (1998) has pointed out. It assumes that analysis of the whole text is necessary for all aspects of the message of the text to be conveyed in translation. which developed in Germany in the late 1970s (Vermeer 1978). so that the translation process should not be determined by the source text or its effects on the . mode.3. and sentences. which draws inspiration from text linguistics. Human action is determined by its purpose. etc.3. Text linguistics draws on pragmatics. which focuses on the expression in the context of communicative dialogue. and breaks away from the traditional linguistic concern with lexis. it is now broadly agreed that any comprehensive understanding of translation processes requires the text linguistic register analysis (tenor. Gricean principles). where the contextual factors surrounding the translation could not be ignored. as is to be seen in the work of Hatim & Mason (1990: 36–54). whereby similar texts in different languages are contrasted in order to evaluate differences in the many different aspects of texts (register. but concludes that dynamic-equivalence translation is overwhelmingly more appropriate as a general approach since it allows for adaptation to the TL language and culture that ensure clearer transmission of the essential meaning of the SL text. and focuses on larger units of expression (a book or notice). a arose as translation theorists began to focus increasingly on nonliterary text types such as academic papers. and pragmatic analysis (speech acts. clauses.2 Text Linguistics.. Discourse Analysis. 119–260). and discourse analysis. 2. The application of text linguistics to translation problems makes use of contrastive textology. tourist guides. Pragmatics and discourse analysis emphasise the importance of the communicative situation and the cultural background of a given text.1. reflects a new development in the general shift from predominantly linguistic and formal translation theories to a more functionally and socioculturally oriented concept of translation (Sch¨ ffner 1998). Bell (1991: 161–197). which studies the factors that govern the speaker’s choice of language in social interaction. The text is understood as a complex multidimensional structure that is more than the sum of its parts. Translation and Terminological Theory valid for specific purposes. Skopos theory. domain/field).1. and Baker (1992: 16. Skopos refers to the purpose or function of the text. and Pragmatics Text linguistics reflects a growing interest in the text as a whole.2. contracts. 1. It is on this account that skopos theory has been mainly criticised since it sets no clear limit on what may legitimately be called translation as opposed to. Documentary translation sometimes involves exoticisation. for example. Where footnotes and glossaries are added to give the target reader access to the source world. a By according the target text its own function distinct from that of the source text. it may be necessary for it to perform a different function. it continues to be an important element of comparative literature.” It tends to be literal. Nord proposes the concept of loyalty by which the translator commits him or herself bilaterally to the source and the target side. reproducing the text for the target reader. i. One of the characteristics of creative literature is that form cannot be separated from the content.4 Literary Translation Creative literature was the dominant field of translation from the Renaissance up to the modern era. Central to the polysystem theory pioneered by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar in the early 1970s and further developed by Gideon Toury is that translation into languages with strong and mature literatures .g.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms source text recipient or the function assigned to it by the author.. Given that it has different receivers than the SL text. informing the target reader about certain aspects of the original text and its communicative situation.. but rather by the prospective function or skopos that the text is supposed to have in the target language. the introduction in the TL text of expressions that have an exotic ring for (hence a special effect on) the TL reader that the original expressions do not have for the SL reader. Documentary translation usually “has a metatextual function. the ideal of literary translation is to reflect both form and content in the TL—an ideal that can only ever be partially achieved—and that the search for prescriptive rules for translation is futile. While a documentary translation advertises itself as a reproduction of a certain original text. a The bias toward the target text seen in the work of Reiss. 1997).e. or it may differ (Funktions¨ nderung). the target text is raised to equal status with the source text. Consequently. this is called a philological or learned translation. Instead of fidelity to the texts and their surface structures. an instrumental translation functions as an original text in the target language. and others has to some extent been corrected by Christiane Nord (e. The skopos of the target text may be the same as that of the source text (Funktionskonstanz). Although investigation of translation issues has now been appropriated by applied linguistics. who emphasises the importance of a dual functional typology of translation—documentary and instrumental.3. 2. Vermeer. adaptation (Sch¨ ffner 1998). who is unwilling to accept the tendency of the stronger cultures to impose their values in translation. while term translation is exclusively concerned with content. This naturally carries the implication that tendencies in translation approaches vary in accordance with extralinguistic factors. Translation and Terminological Theory (English. where Western medicine on the one hand and alternative health-care notions on the other dominate over the understanding of Chinese medicine. we have a way to conceive of the poor transmission of Chinese medicine to the West.2. The acceptance of target-orientation in literary translation is related to the features of creative literature. such as in the cross-cultural transmission of knowledge corpora. the translator is not simply an intermediary but a co-author of the TL text. He cogently argues how the Anglo-Saxon world not only applies a highly target-oriented (what he calls domesticating) approach to translation. but also how it is unreceptive to literature in translation: In English-speaking countries translated works amount to a far lower percentage of total publications than in the continental countries of Europe (Venuti 1992: 12–15. primarily because literary translation theory is largely concerned with form. and thereby promote a tendency toward target-orientation and to adaptation. If we accept the polysystem view of relative strength of literary tradition and replace ‘literary tradition’ with ‘understanding of health and sickness’. On the surface. In keeping with this. . nations in crisis). French. the failure to apply a source-oriented approach can be understood in terms of the cultural superiority that Venuti so poignantly pinpoints in the literary realm. namely the difficulties of transfer posed by the inseparability of form and content on the one hand and the creative urge on the other. and should therefore not be judged by prescriptive principles (Shuttleworth 1998). A notable critic of this current mainstream is Lawrence Venuti. Nevertheless. In such areas. 1995: 5). It is in the same vein as Even-Zohar that literary translation theorists in Europe similarly recognise the impossibility of achieving any exact equivalence in translation. Russian) is more target-oriented than translation into languages with emerging or weak literatures (developing nations. and accept the fact that texts are inevitably manipulated for the target language text to achieve specific purposes among TL readership (Snell-Hornby 1988/1995: 22). the same tensions as literary translation theorists describe are clearly in evidence. These difficulties are less evident in other areas of translation. in the transmission and translation of Chinese medical knowledge. the literary theorists appear to have little to contribute to the discussion of term translation. e. cherubim. this method in reality is little more source-oriented than Nida’s dynamic equivalence approach. borrowing the term from the source language and adding a classifier (e. the cloth linen for speech communities that do not have the concept of linen)..g. book (a bound collection of pages. clarification is provided through annotation. and the first requirement of translation is to present what the text says. the translation of texts from cultures remote in space and time. a descriptive paraphrase. Hatim & Mason 1990: 7.. .. institution of a function equivalent (with or without note). Gentzler 1993: 52–60).. Philological translation is one form of what Nord calls documentary translation. he says.1.e. In George Steiner’s words (1975: 372). which has been is judged by many to be freer than necessary (e. i. Wherever the text is unclear to the TL reader. but different approaches are used for different purposes (Duranti 1997: 154–160). it appears to be recognised that meaning and reference are deduced from text (whether written or spoken). The approach is generally literal. “The paleographer or anthropological linguist decodes out of silence.3.g. b) terms which identify culturally different objects. The terminological aspect of the philological approach to translation is Paul Unschuld’s suggested approach for Chinese medical terminology that was described briefly in the Introduction (Chapter 1). In Toward a Science of Translating (1964: 167). the translation should allow the same latitude of interpretation as the original. river. The second class of terms involves choosing between a term that represents the form of the referent though not equivalent function and one that identifies the equivalent function at the expense of formal identity. and c) terms which identify cultural specialties. For such cases. e. As to the third class of terms. it is impossible to guess the range of fields of inquiry in which it might be significant. He says that the first class of terms usually involves no problem. tree. Nida makes distinguishes a) terms for which there are readily available parallels. their approach to translation is source-oriented. synagogue..g. the cultural specialties. a papyrus scroll). Until the full meaning is known.g. Nida offers four possible solutions: a formal equivalent with a footnote (as in his practice of formal-equivalence translation).. As far as term translation goes. stone.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 2.5 Philology and Anthropology In philological translation. and jubilee.” Because the aim of the philologist or anthropologist is to learn about the culture out of which the text was produced. but with somewhat similar functions. knife.g. e. Before the full meaning of a text is understood. No sacrifices in this regard are made for the target reader as regards content or form. the good stay still. places. The wise are happy. Thus. and Lamb of God. the good endure. He gives the example of the Miskito Indians who “speak of the eclipse of the moon as ‘the moon has caught hold of his mother-in-law’. and illustrations because suggestiveness. but he suggests that his views apply to all aspects of culture. it would be impossible to rephrase the following statement contained in the Analects ( l´ n yˇ ) in a customary u u Western way: “The wise man delights in water. adulterous generation. An implication of this for translation is that because form and content are inextricable. As an example of functional equivalents he gives the rendering of t` i shˇ u as Prefect. Schafer’s special interest at the time was in the names of titles and institutions. persons. in Bible translating it is quite impossible to remove such foreign ‘objects’ as Pharisees. allusion. In 1954. the good man delights in mountains. The wise move. (Nida.” ( - VI. Concurring with Nida in the need for what they call historical fidelity.). for these expressions are deeply imbedded in the very thought structure of the message. Translation and Terminological Theory traces of the foreign setting. For example. 1964: 167) On the subject of target-oriented translation. he says that in the biblical context it would be wrong to speak of ‘iron oxide’ instead of ‘rust’. Nida’s approach to Bible translation has been criticised by Edwin Gentlzer (1993: 45) on the grounds that it sacrifices too much to the proselytising cause. Within sinology.” Speaking of anachronisms (Nida 1964: 169). arguing that a o . Fung Yu-Lan (1948: 11–15) has argued that the Chinese philosophers expressed themselves in aphorism. Nida says (1964: 220–221) that shifts from nonmetaphor to metaphor are inappropriate when they introduce references to indigenous mythology thought to be out of keeping with the SL message. cities of refuge. Edward Schafer complained of the overuse of functional equivalents that deprive us of knowledge of the world view of Imperial China. or such Biblical themes as anointing.2. criticism has been directed at excessively domesticating translation. Philological translation is by no means free of contention. 21. living sacrifice. Solomon’s temple. customs. the expression cannot be altered for the foreign reader. rather than the kind of articulateness that characterises Western philosophy. animals. Beekman & Callow state: “Objects.” (Beekman & Callow 1974: 35) In sinology. or activities which are part of a historical statement must be translated in such a way that the same information is communicated by the translation as by the original statements. is the ideal of Chinese art. Sadducees. the results of the philological style of translation are much in evidence. beliefs. In her coursebook . like Venuti. 2. that the names given by the Chinese to their institutions and officials have little or no interest or significance for a foreigner.1. and indeed. Philological translation has attracted surprisingly little attention among translation theorists. and Nord (1997). they have occupied a low profile in translation theory. literal translation of terms. makes a text valid for any reader. Set against Unschuld’s translation of blood for 2 xu` . is acutely aware of the evaluation of the source culture implicit in functional translation: The supporters of this doctrine (who would certainly not describe their beliefs in this language) imply. Schafer claims that adherence to ‘functional equivalence’ slants a translation for the benefit of a particular reader. For Schafer. At the same time. sinologists have not faced squarely u the challenged raised by Schafer in the 1950s. which serves the proselytising goals of Bible translators. which serves a philological need. and have therefore failed to provide the scholarly guidance they could have provided. with a note explaining their significance in Chinese culture if necessary. In the realm of Chinese medical translation. Overall. it has added to the complexity.3. rather than his notions of formal equivalence and gloss translation. we find Porkert’s e hs¨ eh and individually specific structive energy. Consequently. Schafer 1954 The purpose of philological translation is first and foremost to inform the target text reader about the culture in question. in short.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms that this office was similar to that of a French departmental prefect. Newmark (1995: 11. Philological translation is probably unique among the various translation practices in that it is inherently source-oriented. Problems of philological translation and related types of translation have notably been mentioned by Baker (1992). Thus. they give the stamp of eternity and universality to concepts familiar in Western Europe and America—places which notoriously provide all the touchstones of politico-linguistic intelligibility.6 Lexical Equivalence The shift of emphasis in translation theory away from the level of word and phrase to the higher level of text and social context has not made the problems of translating words any less important. sinologists have not fully agreed on a methodology (still less on a definite terminology) for the transmission of China’s ancient healing arts. It is most noteworthy that Nida has usually been noted for his notion of dynamic equivalence. though. Schafer. 69). philologists have been at pains to escape the temptation to allow their own evaluations to influence their translation. 2 CONTACT BETWEEN LANGUAGES The contact between different speech-communities and the linguistic influence they exert upon each other offer potential insights into the question of translation and translatability that translation theorists have neglected owing to that fact that until recently their interest was largely limited to text types and languages where lexical gaps are salient. If we accept Bell’s claim (1991: xv) that translation theory has tended to be prescriptive rather than descriptive. and Sager (1998a). and agree that it is widely underestimated. Lyons argues that loan-translation performs the same function as a direct borrowing. “In most languages. there are processes whereby languages in contact tend to align themselves semantically in certain respects. Hartmann stresses the importance of bilingualism in borrowing. as determined by all these four criteria (and the subcriteria). Vinay & Darbelnet (1958/1995) point out that borrowings often enter a language after being introduced in a translation. David Crystal (1987: 330) says. who bases himself on Wilss (1982). Borrowing is one of the translation procedures described by Newmark (1988: 91–92). that are found at word level as well as utterance level: propositional meaning. is possibly even lower than for two words of the same language. the vast majority of new words are in fact borrowings from other languages.” This is not surprising since it is estimated that over half the world’s population is bilingual or multilingual (Trask 1996: 308). These processes. . the possibility of any exact match between words of two languages. He notes that borrowing is one piece of evidence showing that translation is possible. Translation and Terminological Theory from Cruse (1986) and Halliday (1978) (but actually embryonic in Nida). Clearly. 214). It is given scant attention by Nida (1964: 3. . are the concern of the next section. presupposed meaning (reflecting selectional and collocational restrictions). although many of his examples attest to the scope of borrowing. expressive meaning. John Lyons (1981: 325–328) and Reinhard Hartmann (1980: 25) have both noted the importance of loans and loan-translation as a bridge between cultures in contact. 2. Bell (1991: 70). which have possibly attracted less attention from translation theorists than they should have done. In historical linguistics. the utility of a survey of the processes of borrowing that occur when languages are in contact in understanding more clearly certain aspects of the practical reality of translation becomes immediately apparent. and evoked meaning (reflecting dialect and register).. 194. Despite the impossibility of exact equivalence between languages.2. and is a practice generally used by those translating between two languages outside the area of cultural overlap. borrowing is discussed at length . but numerous examples of single-root terms rendered in other languages by loan-translation exist (see 3. Lexical and to a greater extent grammatical borrowing are associated with bilingualism and with translation. all presenting a similar picture. there is also considerable evidence to show that English is still a major borrower—a fact that is probably explained by a tendency to borrowing established by the past influence of Latin and Norman French. especially intensive borrowing from a single source. and specialisations— the first two being the most important. When we look closer. Lexical borrowing takes three forms—loans. but Finnish and Malay that of far fewer. Western culture and Western languages are currently especially prestigious in both China and Japan.1.1. Pyles & Algeo (1993: 286– 311). . The prestige and habit factors are sometimes in conflict. One language may be influenced by another in its phonology. and lexis. the preliminary comments that follow largely apply to borrowing in general. Loans and Loan-Translations).4. The underlying condition for borrowing is contact between language communities. A condition for loan-translation is that it must be semantically transparent and transferable. grammar. While there is great evidence of English as a supplier to a large number of languages. and Lass (1997: 184– 190). borrowing is perceived as fulfilling a perceived need of expression. Historical Importance of Translation) suggests that English is likely to borrow fewer words than it supplies to other languages. however.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms by Bynon (1977/1986: 217–239). Lehmann (1992: 254–277). and France in the history of the English-speaking peoples.1. On the surface. Nevertheless. Greece. but borrowing is much more frequent in Japanese than Chinese. This reflects the cultural prestige of Rome. The prestige factor visible in publishing figures (see 2. the primary concern is with lexis. These two classes. from the point of view of translation theory. are of course source-oriented. we find that two major factors are at work: prestige of the lending language and culture (bilingualism and translation) and a tendency of the language to borrow (McMahon 1994: 200-205). Japan has a tradition of borrowing that developed in its earlier contact with China. Basic vocabulary is borrowed with less ease than terms for specific items from the physical environment and culture of another language community. loan-translations. while China has had less experience in borrowing. Greek. 308–315). Latin. and French have been the source of many English borrowings. This may take the form of geographical proximity of language communities (language communities occupying the same geographical area or contiguous areas) or remote contact through foreign travel and trade. Bynon (1977/1986: 232) has given morphological complexity (more than one morpheme) as a condition. McMahon (1994: 200–209). Trask (1996: 17–30. Given the present study’s focus on terminology. the influence of Christianity and classical literature. Linguistic influence more readily occurs when one culture is more dominant or prestigious than another. the introduction into Latin of multiples of twenty in the numbering system from Celtic. adverbs. and superstratum (Malmkjær 1991: 208). and often involves the borrowing of nouns in particular. or lexical). with the exception of place names (such as Thames. etc. kitchen. Chinese yen. In view of the importance of borrowing practices in LSP translation. Languages may be influenced through any of these levels. Words of different word-classes are borrowed with different frequency. and the scientific revolution (McMahon 1994: 201).2. 2. Superstratum in- fluence is absorption by a vernacular language of elements of a superimposed language in recession (e. Persian lilac. Substratum and superstratum borrowing occurs in situations of direct interaction between speech communities. London). McMahon 1994: 208). We now turn to borrowings in Germanic languages and in Chinese. Translation and Terminological Theory including terms belonging to specialised forms of discourse (Lass 1997: 186).g. adstratum. butter. The social contexts in which linguistic borrowing occurs are often referred to as substratum. this examination is somewhat detailed. grammatical. cheap.g. Hindi veranda. none of which have survived in the standard modern language). Different spates of English borrowing from Latin reflect different influences: the acquisition of basic commodities. nouns being more frequently borrowed than adjectives... and prepositions in descending order of frequency (Lass 1997: 190.g. Even though the British Celts were subjugated by the AngloSaxon invaders and were later to survive only as contiguous communities. . Nahuatl tomato.). the contact between the two peoples led to the adoption of only a dozen or so Celtic words prior to the Norman Conquest (e. and involve any type of borrowing (phonological.g. About 175 Latin words adopted by the continental German tribes before they crossed the North Sea (e. which is observed in modern French). bratt. cumb.2. Substratum influence is a phenomenon observed when a community learns a language superimposed on it. the adoption in English of words from Norman French). Adstratum borrowing tends to be lexical. but introduces traces of their native language (e... Dover. mile. Adstratum influence refers to borrowing across cultural and linguistic boundaries (as borrowing in English of Turkish kiosk. followed by verbs. torr.1 Lexical Borrowing Among Germanic Languages Borrowing or loan-translation is sometimes a chance event at a point of contact between two communities. kettle. cheese. fantasy. many of these borrowings ousted existing vocabulary (army replaced Old English dright and here. faith. painting. series. Despite this. spirit replaced g¯ st). it continued to exert its influence on European languages. crime Military: army. prayer. sentence. medium. dinner English did not by any means only borrow from Norman French to fill gaps in its own lexis. Borrowing surplus to requirement is an unequivocal sign that great prestige is accorded to the source community. boil. Latin in its classical form had ceased to be anyone’s mother tongue. By the beginning of the second millennium. Borrowings in Modern English times include abdomen. It was kept alive by the Church and scholars. data. Imports from Norman French reflect the Normans’ sphere of influence: Government: government. English being a particularly welcoming recipient in view of the trend in borrowing set by loans from Norman French. delirium. tile. lapse. character. orbit. sack. lieutenant Religion: religion. corporal. In Old English there were a number of ecclesiastical terms that entered the language from Greek via Latin: abbot (actually from Aramaic ’abb¯ ). choir. pound. service. democracy. venison. chancellor. and church. It continued to supply European languages with fresh vocabulary. captain. The continuing cultural influence of France explains why French continues to be the main supplier of vocabulary to the English language (Pyles & Algeo 1993: 310). wall. chronicle. Norman French became the language of government. monument. bishop. music. decorum. while the populace continued to speak English. salad. supper. English lost at least 60% of its Old English a vocabulary in favour of loans from French and Latin mostly in the 200 years following the Conquest (Trask 1996: 309). editor. attorney. prison. grammar Food: beef. urban. pork. Greek has also exerted its influence. After the Norman conquest. wine) remain in common use today (Pyles & Algeo 1993: 286–287). divine spirit Arts: art. poet. cathedral. All of them reflect the greater technological and cultural sophistication of the Romans. veal. In an environment in which bilingualism was widespread among certain sectors of society. country.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms mint. sermon. Christ. . Middle English acquired a via French the words centre. mutton. court. and vindicate. These old borrowings have been so assimilated to native vocabulary as to be indistinguishable from it. street. castle. and the prestige they commanded in the Germanic population. borrowing into English became intensive. administer Law: justice. partly through Latin. dhow. magazine. sari. fiesta. andante. pathos. chopsuey . paprika Finnish: sauna Arabic: alchemy. jujitsu . incognito. . pyjamas. guitar (guitarra. quartz. algorithm. electric. pekoe (via Malay). Translation and Terminological Theory the words allegory. hussar. oolong yin Japanese: ginkgo . amber. noodle (Nudel). macho. kudos. torso. -fest. lager. history. mango. kamikaze . pumpernickel. eidelweiss. rucksack. delicatessen. paradise. patio. rhythm. tea . These vary in their vintage from Middle English times to the present. sonata. taco. sampan % . alkali. tagliatelle. karma. loggia. chintz. ginseng . bungalow. English loans from other languages are numerous.2. veranda Chinese: chow mein ketchup . kaolin . admiral. al dente. cantata. hamster. bangle. and phone. tong . deck. lilac. litchi . scarlet. azimuth. aardvark German: blitz. henna. hashish. duffel. and theory. partly via French. flamenco (orig. chaos. opera. carat. alcohol. diminuendo. etch. Gorgonzola. fettuccine. plunder. tequila Russian: mammoth. curry. saffron. orange. vendetta. zucchini Spanish: burrito. tiger Turkish: fez. samovar. catamaran. pizza. yogurt Indian languages: ayurveda. from Greek kithara). pi˜ a n colada. dinghy. sauerkraut. inferno. gin. mozzarella. barbarous. orig. mung bean. leitmotiv. boss. camphor. booze. gherkin. . bezoar (via Arabic and French). shampoo. al fresco. broccoli. citron. fiasco. easel. tandoori. Dutch: beleaguer. elixir. bazaar (via Turkish). from Middle Dutch Vlaminc). yen T . vodka Hungarian: goulash. zero Persian: azure. hara-kiri . haiku . idiosyncrasy. largo. fengshui . zeitgeist Italian: adagio. hinterland. Today Greek and Latin provide most of our internationalisms. qi . gazpacho. loquat . we borrowed Greek the words agnostic. cobalt. steppe. garble. brandy. carouse (gar aus). yodel. pretzel. jerboa. piano. giraffe. syrup. tariff. caliber. sugar. caravan. metaphor. crescendo. pharynx. umbrella. pesto. musk. coffee (via Turkish). suttee. cha-cha. kow-tow . qigong . grotto. kumquat . yacht Afrikaans: apartheid. risotto. cotton. kiosk. gazette (via French). pepperoni. jungle. sutra. ravioli. artichoke. thug. pasta. buoy. artichoke. phenomenon. regatta. waltz. juggernaut. spaghetti. ghetto. ricotta. dorito. mattress. parmesan. aria. dhal. candy. rumba. judo . chutney. shish kebab. tango. paella. assassin. caraway. More recently. yang . tundra. algebra. alcove. lute. cipher. zenith. fresco. schnitzel. poodle. poppadom. sutra. a term which this study uses in a different sense in Chapter 5). potato. toboggan. Gott. Lexical borrowing notably also takes the form of loan-translations and specialisations. kimono . tofu . suttee. ketchup. koala Amerindian languages: anorak. igloo. the loan-translations. Heaven. Interesting also is the fact that the Italian loans are concentrated in specialised domains of music and cookery. allm¨ chtig. kiwi. karate . Tea. humanitas → menniscnesse. kamikaze. launch. kangaroo. German manifests identical processes as English. boomerang. wigwam. dhow. orange. have corresponding loan-translations (Himmelfahrt. by which existing Germanic words were redefined in their Christian sense. Barmherzigkeit. tatoo. tomato. the transfer from the source language of totally unfamiliar abstract concepts together with the linguistic forms they represented evidently appeared a less attractive solution than loantranslation. cotton. taboo. have not been o . unlike their English counterparts. Here.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms % . hara-kiri. ukulele Australian and New Zealand languages: budgerigar. gingham. pecan. Menschlichkeit. omnipotens → ealmihtig. sashimi . totem. karaoke . paganismus → he end¯ m. Among loan-translation in Old English are ascensio → up¯ st¯gens. many of the loan-translations were replaced in Middle English by Norman French descendants of the Latin terms. and samovar remain essentially foreign realia. soy . kayak. satori . Heidentum. potato. coffee. banjo. voodoo. evangelium → g¯ dspell. All of the terms represent substances or realia originally of foreign origin. are highly familiar concepts. tycoon . but a distinction can be made between adopted realia and unadopted realia. a ¨ H¨ lle. So far only direct loans have been mentioned. In the introduction of Christianity to speakers of Germanic tongues. sake . with the exception of evangelium. miserio ¯ a ı cordia → mildheortnis. The examples in the previous paragraph all. mangrove. moccasin. zombi Pacific languages: bamboo. lemon. It was by this process that the precursors of God. tomato. kanji . which all denote realia. Himmel. These terms o all denote abstract concepts and stand in contrast to the Latin loans in Old English. moxa . wasabi African languages: banana. Ubel). While the specialisations remained. Hell and evil were made to accommodate the Christian concepts associated with them. and zero. sari. Yet another solution for the abstract notions was specialisation (Bynon calls the latter semantic extension. whereas apartheid. wigwam It is interesting to view these loans in terms of the nature and intensity of cultural contact they represent. haiku. yam. jungle. skunk. kimono. Gemeinde. Ausdruck. Einfluß. and Danish jernbane (as well as Greek siderodromos and Chinese tiˇ l` ). discovery 18. which can be traced back through various steps to the Hebrew: ← Latin caper emissarius ← Greek tragos aperchomenos ← Heb. beer garden. together with Danish equivalents. German has provided English with masterpiece.2. fremskridt. the speakers of these languages lived under the cultural hegemony of southern Europe. this influence was never so invasive. opklaring. the translation of the Bible into the vernaculars became an increasing imperative. enlightenment a 12. Andrei Danchev (1993) has noted that many non-Biblical phrases have passed from one European language to another (he gives examples such as ‘storm in a teacup’. Translation and Terminological Theory Loan-translation has operated throughout European languages. French oxyg` ne and hydrog` ne provided the model for e u e e German Sauerstoff and Wasserstoff. ‘to wash one’s hands of something’. Entwicklung. The list below shows German words based on Latin or French models (here substituted with English). Loan-translation has continued into the modern age. The French chemin de fer has provided the model for German Eisenbahn. more and more Anglicisms are being adopted in East European languages. Dutch. With the gradual decline of Latin. when there was a deliberate movement to replace foreign words by native creations. loan-word. opdagelse. außerordentlich. development 17. undtagelse. ‘Pearls before swine’. Nowhere among the European languages. sair laazalel. expression 13. reason of state. worldview. Aufl¨ rung. For centuries. udvikle. and ‘Judas’ (denoting any betrayer) are not unique to English. menighed. Entdeckung. exception 14. ‘the Lamb of God’. ‘rock the boat’. false friends. it was applied with particular vigour in the 18th century. and neogrammarian in the same way. loan-translation has played an important role in developing indigenous lexical resources. As a result. and Scandinavian languages. is loan-translation more in evidence than in German. French has notably provided English with the model for phrases like that goes without saying. European languages generally have equivalents of our scapegoat. but unlike Britain under Norman rule. community . Fortschritt. sky-scraper and summit conference have similarly provided models in numerous languages. marriage of convenience. Ausnahme. overordentlig. In German. The English football. influence 16. 11. and that with the increasing importance of English. ‘be on thin ice’). progress 19. extraordinary 15. indflydelse. Dutch and Scandinavian show striking similarities with the German. udtryk. however. but it is not always clear whether their loan-translations came directly from a common model or were based on the German (Bynon 1977/1986: 236). The phenomenon of independent forma- tion has not been described by historical linguists. ‘little spindles’). circumstance 25.. foretage. twists for spirali). ligevægt. enterprise 26. prejudice Finally. ‘furrowed ones’). the other is the formation of new term independently of the meaning of the Italian term. unterwerfen. and Russian vokzal (from English Vauxhall Station) for railway station. especially when the terms are presented en masse. subject 27. Numerous items are referred to not by loans but new English coinages or loan-translations. The processes for choosing the English names appear to be twofold.g. Rechtschreibung. pasta ears for orecchiette. pasta tubes for rigatoni (lit. Japanese otobai (English *autobike) for motorcycle. oberfl¨ chlich. Examples of this include French planking for surfing (Cassell’s French Dictionary 1963). Of the terms considered. Although it falls outside the limits of borrowing. Umstand. samvittighed.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 20. the author assumes that the Italian names would be obscure for most English speakers and that descriptive English names would be easier to remember. German Handy for cellular phone. One way or another. Gleichgewicht. for example. only a couple are translated by loan-translation (e. Gewissen. orthography 24.” Historical linguists have not been concerned to analyse in detail the processes of term formation in any particular domain of knowledge being transmitted from one language community to another. One is loantranslation. equilibrium 22. Unternehmen. responsibility 28. Chesterman (1998) notes. but we have little idea of how Italian culinary terminology has been dealt with as a whole in translation. pasta spirals for fusilli (lit. overfladisk. omstændighed. for example. retskrivning. we might mention the rather unusual phenomenon of what might be called pseudo-borrowing. that with the growth in popularity of Italian food in English-speaking countries. borrowing—in the form of direct loans and through Biblical and secular loan-translation—has given a cohesion to European languages that has little to do with etymological lineage. English nom de plume for pen name. Verantwortung. ‘little tongues’). Vorurteil. fordom. seven out of eighteen kinds of pasta are listed with Italian names only. superficial a 23. and ten English names are followed by parenthesised Italian. In an English-language pasta cookbook (Martin 1994: 6). Most are apparently created from scratch: thin noodles for linguine (lit. We know. it is nevertheless obvious that since the tendency to create a new term stands in . where the target language appears to adopt a source language term of its own invention. English has borrowed numerous culinary terms from Italian. how the immense influence of Swedish on Finnish has made the languages “semantically close. ansvar. underkaste. Evidently. conscience 21. it has a tradition of borrowing (from Chinese). and as a consequence has imported thousands of words from English. and was more powerful than the external influence had ever been in the two foreign Dynasties (Yu´ n and Q¯ng). Western European languages. /tanku/ tank. are reasonably salient. Most notable is the resistance of Chinese to direct loans. /sanm¯ s¯ ruto/ summersault. Although its phonetic peculiarities tend to prevent direct importation of terms. especially English. This factor also led to the use of English for technical purposes in areas that had not been subject to colonial rule (e. a a The effect of Western cultural impact on indigenous languages in the Orient has been enormous. but also because they were vehicles of the scientific and technical knowledge that promised economic development. /dˇ ibu/ jib. u s s a o /seku-hara/ sexual harassment).2. the use of loan-translation is wide-spread. /baiorin/ violin. The Chinese language has been affected less deeply and less overtly. z /s¯ pu/ soup.2. Japanese shows Western influence more conspicuously than Chinese because.g.g. India and the Philippines). It will be instructive to describe the situation with regard to lexical borrowing in Chinese..2 Western Influence on the Chinese Language In the colonial era. The replacement of Classical Chinese with a written language based on the modern vernacular that would make education more accessible and more effective was a direct consequence of contact with the West. Trade links between China and the West have existed since antiquity. which we now turn to in the following subsection. English in T´ iw¯ n). and other European languages over recent decades (e. 2. The tension between avoiding the problem of translation by borrowing a term and the desire for self-explanatory terms is seen more clearly in the Chinese language. German. /tzuringu/ touring. became official languages over vast areas of the globe.. The consequences a ı of this cultural encounter on the Chinese language.. each composed of a maximum of three phonemes (consonant + vowel + consonant) and a min- . /ˇinema/ cinema. but it was not until the imperial expansion of the West that the two cultures came face to face in a big way. /torakuta/ tractor. Translation and Terminological Theory it contributes to defining the scope of borrowing. French. loan-translations. and Spanish. /tˇimu/ team. like English. genealogically unrelated to European languages. The sounds of the Chinese language are fixed syllables.g. These were often retained after independence not only because they provided a lingua franca for a highly fragmented geography of language (e. Lexical borrowing in Chinese takes the form of the three categories previously mentioned: loans. and specialisations. The full force of the Western impact on Chinese culture came suddenly and forcefully in the latter half of the 19th century. gallon a u Food and Drink w¯ i sh` j`. egg tart a a nˇ i x´. Pentagon).g. Near East. Combinations of vowels and consonants within a single syllable are limited (for example.. they tend to be abbreviated e ı u ı o < (e. gram u 33. barium → 0 b` i). G a o F m¯ o w´ ng. entailing a longer and clumsier expression in Chinese (e. but many are universal in the Mandarin-speaking world. ^ 43. a. original vowel sounds have to change to conform to Chinese vowel-consonant patterns (e. % % & ' ) * + . Some of these are limited only to T´ iw¯ n. bacon e e qˇ sh`. M k` . L mˇ. salad a a p´ i g¯ n. a 45. reads literally as ‘clever-overcome-strength’). ‘Au-Continent’). O kˇ . In some cases. calorie 35. l a o wˇ jiˇ o d` xi` . Innsbruck → $ * . In some cases. (coca) cola e e sh¯ sh`. pound ı 31. loans are made possible by using characters for their phonetic value. u Most languages other than Chinese do not follow the Chinese pattern. palladium → / bˇ . a Australia → = > ao zh¯ u. bˇ d´ lu´ b¯ f¯ lu´ f¯ s¯ j¯). X U W Y qiˇ o k` l`. Foreign proper a e ı ' % nouns are usually transcribed (e. Vatican. The cultural impact of a a j`n d¯ ng. f 49. a ı a k` lˇ mˇ l´n g¯ ng. R S q` y` guˇ . 4 a e ı 5 6 f` n d` g¯ ng. a ı C D ? @ A casionally literally translated ( Golden Gate Bridge. V 39. Z 50. Asia. kiwi → ! " # q´ y` guˇ ) and consonant clusters (so common in European languages) have to be ı ı o y¯n s¯ b´ l` k` . ] _ ` dine 48. whisky e ı ı . ı o the West is sharply reflected in the Chinese adoption of Eurocentric geographical names: < = H yuˇ n d¯ ng. hamburger a a e sh¯ d¯ng y´ . Long Beach. chocoa e ı d` n tˇ . sarsaparilla a ı p´ jiˇ .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms imum of one. ı e a a b´ i g¯ ng. milk shake a ı b` d¯ng. T 38. card. actinium→ . Kremlin).. Z 41. K b` ng. and so their vocabulary cannot always be easily assimilated to it. Far East. sara ı u caramel (pudding) 40. 47. b M p¯ s` . toasting bread u ı kˇ l` . Petropavlovsk → ( ı ı o u e broken down by the insertion of vowels. [k] cannot be followed by [i]).g. a a Weights and Measures a 29. u a a a Personal names are usually transcribed. h 51. White House. pizza ı a c fruit 37. ‘the Cat King’).. ton a 34. [¨ ] can be preceded by [q] but not by [ch]. Z d Y h` n bˇ o. Marx. dozen a 30. a e ¯ Although the Chinese script is only partly phonetic.g. u ı cr` me e late 46. Meaningful names are oco ` ch´ ng t´. Phonetic character combinations usually advertise themselves by making no sense on the basis of the literal meaning of the components (1 ' 2 qiˇ o k` l`. P Q 36. B : j¯n m´ n d` qi´ o.. 3 ' 7 8 9 : mˇ k` s¯. chocolate. but are occasionally replaced by epithets (Elvis Presley is usually referred to as E y` zh¯ u.g. \ 42. kiwi ı ı o 44. beer ı u j ji¯ l´ n. In the assimilation process. i _ g _ sh¯ l¯ . N d` n.. a monosyllable is chosen to represent ı e o a u o u ı ı a polysyllabic word (e. J d´ . meter e 32. I a o H Examples of direct borrowings other than proper nouns are given below.g. cheese ı ı tˇ s¯. ‘percentage’ a b´ (Cantonese paak) park (a car). as¯ ı ı ı pirin 61. vitamin. 65. shock (mediu e sic period Miscellaneous cal sense) 57. g l` ng m` n. a u a o tank 63. carat. lit. lit. j` l` b` . laser. u e a u 66. utopia 72. x` li` . chiffon. 100. waltz 91. engine ı ı m´ tu¯ ch¯ . 76. 93. (computer network) ı u ı server. rum a u u f´ t` ji¯ jiˇ . X ai z¯ b`ng. Translation and Terminological Theory 52. 85. M Labrador 92. copy a e b¯ i b¯ i. model. 88. 103. OK yˇ p´. ‘exemplar speo e cial’ 98. Z chair) sh¯ f¯ . 73. 90. series. Bolshevik e e 78. mˇ d´ . x 60. club u e u 89. ı 70. mana o ı heroin 58. ı a u b´ i l´ n d`. ‘love-propagated disease’ 106. dumb-bell a ı m´ nˇ. bye-bye a a j´ pˇ ch¯ . dolin w¯ tu¯ b¯ ng. l¯ b` l¯ du¯ . mia e e crophone A number of loans are written with characters that are suggestive of the meaning: 96. lit. opium a a mˇ f¯ i. radar. chine’ 104. guitar ı a | xi¯ k` . m l n P l´ n mˇ jiˇ . tain his life’ w´ i t¯ m`ng. Jurasu o ı 83. caesar a a sh¯ hu´ ng. lit. bar u a p¯ng p¯ ng qi´ . nation k¯ ng nˇ i x¯n. AIDS ` ı ı l´ n b¯ . lit. neon ı o tˇ n k` . 64. a a ` ı ı AIDS. tric) 67. o p yˇn q´n. jeep ı u e l´ n t¯ i. romantic a a xi` . 94. ‘thunder-reach’ e a tu¯ l¯ j¯. 56. lit. 99. k 53. brandy a a ı 68. lit. silk-fabric’ 107. show u d¯ d` ng. motor (eleca a 80. ‘pulling mao a ı bright order’ 97. a ˇ ı u n´ h´ ng. tango a e u j´ t¯ . jiˇ b¯ . s q M r pingpong zh¯ lu´ j`. 79. 75. } 62. s¯ n m´ng zh`. cigar e a ~ M hu´ er z¯ wˇ . 84. lit. o 105. sofa (or easy a a vodka 54. sandwich. detente ı a q a s¯ pˇ l´n. 95. lit. ~ M y¯ u m` . czar a a m` i k` f¯ ng. (military) a e 74. l´ i sh` . | tor cycle 69. morphine a e { | 71. ‘thunder-shoot’ e e r ai z¯ b`ng (T´ iw¯ n version). rumba u a t` n g¯ wˇ . u o a 87. } Scientific and Technological 55. humour o o yˇ l´ng.2. lit. cara a ı m` n tu´ l´n. ‘maine a ı xuˇ fˇ ng ch´ u. n m´ t` r. mini ı ı xuˇ ji¯ . ‘serving machine’ The impact of Western civilisation in China has given rise to the phenomenon of . Z kˇ i s¯ . t u hˇ i a lu` o y¯n. tyre u a % 77. ‘tie line’ ı e k¯ i. yuppy a ı kˇ o b` i. X b` er sh´ u ˇ ı w´ i k` . q l´ i d´ . ‘three a ı ı 102. ‘snow e a o ‘moor (a boat)’ 101. tractor. 82. 86. lit. moo o e 81. w y z y¯ pi` n. v 59. s` f´ q`. lit. hot dog e o ˇ n¨ p´ ng yˇ u. 131. a e additional morphemes such as which captures the idea of ‘exact replica’ not fully present in the etymological meaning of the English term. bank a e b¯ l` m´ n. environment a ı O ti´ n x¯n. 112. 125. and in some cases gained currency for a time. ‘transmit true’. supernatural a ı a lˇ ng zh` n. credit card ı o a x`n y` ng zhu` ng. horse power a ı niˇ l`. * c c r` gˇ u. internal come a a ı bustion engine 133. a The exactness of the morphological replication ranges from exact matches such as r` gˇ u. cold war. 113. automatic ı o z` ju´ . 137. values (as in cultural a ı a . & 127. telephone e ı e ` d´ l¨ f¯ ng. air-conditioning o a y`n xi` ng. 136. Chinatown o o e y` u zh` yu´ n. kindergarten o ı a ch¯ o j´ sh` chˇ ng. values) q di` n zˇ y´ u ji` n. e a sanitary 132. 114. 140. these are often difficult to attest with certainty. 148. sympathy o ı tiˇ l` . impression ı a z` d` ng. cold war e a x`n y` ng kˇ . but because Chinese dictionaries do not always note foreign origin or the time of the first appearance of compounds and sense of entries. internet a u t´ ng q´ng. generator a a ı ji` zh´ gu¯ n. gasoline (petrol) ı o w` i e sh¯ ng mi´ n. 147. giraffe ı ı u 111. and e o lˇ ng zh` n. response. petroleum ı o q` y´ u. girlfriend u e o z´ qi´ . telephone e u e p Y y¯ u n´ w´ i sh´ d`. 146. letter of credit ı o a f¯ di` n j¯. were later abandoned. email a ı o a wˇ ng l` . 144. torque u ı huˇ x¯ng s¯ i. Y % % d´ l` f¯ ng. loan-translations are not necessarily regarded as being borrowings by Chinese scholars (Zh` o J-Z 1998: 401). A number of loans that were suggested. football u u sh´ y´ u. suspension bridge a a mˇ l`. 118. 126. 110. 109. Examples are given below: 108. 117. 128. 142. to forms containing sense-completing e a chu´ n zh¯ n. railway (chemin de fer) e u m´ ti¯ n d` l´ u. 145. 139. sweetheart a ı q¯n ai de. 129. 121. fax (composed of ‘true’. hot dog. 122. 130. supermarket a ı ı a ch¯ o z` r´ n. with the addition of ‘transmission’). 116. dear ı ` l´ n qi´ . reaction a ı fˇ n d` ng de. towel/napkin 120. 123. 115. | 138. 124. spark plug o ı a zh¯ ng gu´ ch´ ng. basketball a u di` o qi´ o. parliament a ı e zh¯ l` h´ .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms competing equivalents for foreign terms. s M c bˇ n k` . 141. 134. Indeed. 119. university o ı e ı ı Loan-translations in the LGP are numerous. 143. n` i r´ n sh¯ o j¯. 135. self-determination ı e hu´ n j`ng. sky-scraper o a a o fˇ n y`ng. reactionary a o k¯ ng ti´ o. vicious circle u a ` ı 156. Natural selection as used in evolution theory appears as . ‘creatures vie and heaven selects’. : * 8 9 6 generic in creating terms that are arguably better motivated in Chinese than their English hu` sh´. 7 160. 152. Transe o e parency. It is interesting to note that the magnitude of Chinese loan-translations of English words contrasts sharply with the almost total absence of English loan-translations of Chinese words (thundergod vine for 4 5 l´ i g¯ ng t´ ng might be a rare exception). elevator a ı = f´ shˇ u di` n t¯. & # $ " % # ji¯ t´ng j` hu` . 159. 167. ‘electric stairs’.2. natural selecu ı a e 154. M 161. Many Chinese terms for realia or concepts of foreign origin have names that appear not to have been borrowed from Western languages or modelled on them. * ( ) xiˇ n w¯ i j`ng. 6 di` n. w` j`ng u ı ti¯ n z´ . The latter example is an example of marked a e Sinicisation by the use of 0 ti¯ n to represent nature (now more commonly expressed as a ( ) 2 3 z` r´ n) and by a paratactic phrase that can be read in a predicate or as a noun ı a phrase. a ı a 0 1 ‘value-view’. 162. Translation and Terminological Theory 149. depends on linguistic knowledge. counterparts. The Chinese word for electricity. These are here referred to as source-independent formations. ‘electric pool’. ' 157. fossil a ı d` gu´ . fax a e su¯ n p´ t´ o. Loan-translations are frequent in Chinese because of widespread knowledge of English in China. 166. " 155. battery a ı di` n t¯. table tennis o u A marked tendency in Chinese is to add to the loan-translation. globe ı u zhu¯ qi´ . family planning a ı ı a h´ x¯n ji¯ t´ng. / ji` zh´ gu¯ n. television a ı 165. means lightening (actually a Japanese coinage. ‘electric vision’. > < = di` n nˇ o. computer a a di` n ch´. chemistry a e k¯ ng q`. ‘electric brain’. 151. empire ı o z` l´ i shuˇ. tion 150. lift. The word values in the sense of social principles or standards appears in Chinese as + . microscope a e ı d` qi´ . because it appears in the Chinese names of major electrical appliances in whose English names the word electricity does not appear. ‘support-hand u o a ı electric stairs’. air o ı di` n sh`. which was previously noted as being a condition for loan-translation. see below). ! w` j`ng ti¯ n z´ . and virtually non-existent in English because of the lack of familiarity with the Chinese language among English speakers. scapegoat ı ı a e x´ng x´ n hu´ n. sour grapes a u a t` zu` y´ ng. It appears to be a a di` n serves as a a highly favoured word. 168. p 158. running water ı a ı hu` xu´ . 153. escalator . 7 163. nuclear family e ı a ı chu´ n zh¯ n. 164. originally a a borrowing from Mongolian jam. underground. e O d di` n d¯ ng p` o. In medicine. u e o machine’. car ı e E X Z \ q` e. which has nothing more in common with the Chinese olive than being a fruit of similar shape. ‘ice chest’. ‘fly-back stick’. braille a e wˇ ng qi´ . m n hu` lu` n and o a " zh` ng f¯ ng have been o e . ‘dust-sucking maı e ı chine’. ^ _ ` b¯ng xi¯ ng. ‘net ball’. @ chine’. M ] L y´ng gu¯ ng bˇ. 196. penguin ı´ d` i shˇ . mammoth j¯ ch¯ . P Q R shˇ u biˇ o. 195. G H ball’. tennis a u mˇ qi´ . ‘hand device’. N O sh¯ u y¯n j¯. ‘electric shadow’. a military station. light bulb 180. S T U w´ wˇ i xi´ ng. ‘pitch setting drum’. ‘tail-less bear’. motorcyı e 187. ‘machine vehicle’.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 169. ‘reflect likeness a a ı 185. sh¯ ng t` i xu´ . ‘life state study’. ‘long-haired elea a a bicycle 174. Canarium album. came to mean a railway station (Masini 1997: 265). 176. ‘hand indicator’. kangaroo a u ] 189. ‘(Chinese) olive a a u transforming device’. camera 173. refrigerator ı a 9 di` n yˇng. polo a u f bubble’. cle 175. I J x¯ ch´ n j¯. B koala 186. The Chinese g h x¯n w´ n is first ı e known to have been used in the sense of a ‘recently heard report’ in the T´ ng Dynasty. It a was coined in the 19th century to mean news in the sense of information transmitted by the public information media (Masini 1997: 256). etc. giraffe 190. C dom 177. telea o 182. ‘glowworm light ı a ı phone 170. ‘petrol vehicle’. ı ‘[petr]ol- ecology 192. a b gˇ n lˇ n qi´ . ‘long-necked a ı u bˇ o xiˇ n t` o. The Chinese j k gˇ n lˇ n originally referred a a to the ‘Chinese olive’. balla ı kettledrum point pen There are also a number of specialisations. ‘pouch rodent’. 7 hu` a y´ u o q`. F D phant’. ‘horse ball’. ‘electric lamp a e a m´ ng w´ n. radio 184. rugby 193. cell(ular) o ı pen’. ı ı u yu´ n zi bˇ. ch´ ng jˇng l` . ı e a watch 172. fluorescent marker 183. c 194. e a e picture (film. ‘atomic pen’. carburettor 179. Y q` ch¯ . and later bus. ‘safety cover’. l y¯ ng has been redefined to represent the o Western medical concept of carbuncle. wrist o a hu´ f¯ i b` ng. ‘standing goose’. ‘electric speech’. ı ı e d` m´ o xi` ng. shˇ u j¯. ) A boomerang zh` o xi` ng j¯. motion a ı 191. vacuum cleaner 181. K q L d`ng y¯n gˇ . movie) 178. but is now also used to refer to the Mediterranean olive (Olea europaea). ‘self-move vehicle’. ‘sound-receiving mao ı ı (tele)phone 171. i zh` n. ? di` n hu` . ‘blind script’. W 188. and web station. V z` x´ng ch¯ . cona a a dear’. and is known to have been used later in China. 214. world ı e kakumei → g´ m`ng. science e e keizai → j¯ng j`. and source-independent formations. society e ı 9 r 217. administrao ı e kannen → gu¯ n ni` n. 212. method o o a a ophy) Having discussed loans. revolution e ı bunmei → w´ n m´ng. B tion 207. hygiene e e gasu → wˇ s¯. university a e hakushi → b´ sh`. t 204. or Chinese characters. system o ı o 205. economy ı ı keit¯ → x` tˇ ng.2. At the end of the 19th century. y 209. anatomy o e o ky¯ iku → ji` o y` . For example. improve o a a k¯ gy¯ → g¯ ng y` . many kanji terms were adopted and pronounced in Chinese (Hung & Pollard 1989). but in the past they tended to create terms using kanji. system o ı o kaib¯ → jiˇ p¯ u. the Japanese used expressions that had already appeared in Chinese texts. xu´ xi` o first ape a xu´ e peared in M` ng Zˇ in the sense of ‘school’. The examples of kanji loans from Japanese come from Masini 1997. u a sekai → sh` ji` . | 211. The Japanese now tend to borrow foreign words outright. 218. ~ B w gink¯ → y´n h´ ng. 216. science e e keit¯ → x` tˇ ng. 197. representative o a a den → di` n. 201. d 215. doctor (of philoso ı shakai → sh` hu`. communications o u a o tetsugaku → zh´ xu´ . At the beginning of this section. 206. Loans of this type are called return loans. specialisations. kagaku → k¯ xu´ . S 213. philosophy e e x z { } @ u 9 Very often. As a consequence. Translation and Terminological Theory Finally. 208. industry o o o e daihy¯ → d` i biˇ o. This kind of coinage in Japanese from the Chinese word stock is analogous to the way in which modern European languages create terms from Greek and Latin morphemes. we should stop to consider what conditions influence the choice of these three methods of term formation. 200. gas a ı k¯ ts¯ → ji¯ o t¯ ng. it was noted that a . o 198. 221. v z 9 q r kagaku → k¯ xu´ . improve a ı kairy¯ → gˇ i li´ ng. o 219. 9 _ sh¯ yu` n in the late 19th century. p 199. instead of inventing kanji terms ex nihilo. 202. idea a a kaishin → gˇ i j`n. civilisation e ı daihaku → d` xu´ . education o a u h¯ h¯ → f¯ ng fˇ . bank o ı a gy¯ sei → x´ng zh` ng. y 210. e ı But it was under the influence of the Japanese language that it came to displace t´ ng and k a Other examples them are given below. electricity a eisei → w` i sh¯ ng. I should mention that a number of terms denoting Western concepts were first coined in Japanese and then adopted in China (Norman 1988: 20–21). 222. Japanese became the main language of access to Western thought in China because it was more easily learned than Western languages. s 203. loan-translations. 220. but in Chinese. brandy. The kettledrum. coca cola. In short. It is quite noteworthy that in the lists of loans and sourceindependent formations above the SL terms are semantically obscure. Typical examples of SL terms dealt with by loans and source-independent formation are words that are themselves loans from other languages languages. which for most English speakers is semantically obscure.1. Loans and source-independent translations arise when the SL term is opaque and loan-translation is not possible. 2. was apparently felt by the Chinese to be better named by its functional characteristic of a variable pitch achieved by tightening or loosening the drum’s skin. Suffice it to make some brief statements merely to give some idea of the extent to which languages can influence each other. was replaced by ‘lightening’ in Chinese (which is also the source of our zigzag arrow representing high voltage). while a salient. The same applies to terms deriving from proper names such as rugby and braille. if transparency of the SL term is the condition for loan-translation. The absence of transparency in SL terms encourages loans and source-independent formations.3 Borrowing of Other Features Borrowing other than lexical is not central to the present thesis. ‘Chocolate’ might have been named by creating a compound of the name of its major ingredient. microphone. kangaroo. . German and English Translation of Latin Medical Terms) loan-translation is applied to expressions comprising more than one word or morpheme. and neon could perhaps have been dealt with by loan-translation.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms (although not always. The e e word electricity. motorcycle. but given the prestige value of English at the present time. chocolate. cocao. boomerang. Among the loans. for example. tango. such as (among the loans) pizza. even kˇ kˇ is a loan. the adoption of English words surplus to requirement is only to be expected. But what determines the choice between loans and sourceindependent formations? Source-independent formations are descriptive. so named in English by its shape. motor. easily named feature is the condition of source-independent formation. in the list of source-independent formations we find SL terms that are semantically opaque. rumba. as will be explained in 3.2. the prestige and pronounceability are the conditions that promote loans. mandolin (including opaque derivations from Greek such as ecology) and (among the source-independent formations) carburettor. A direct borrowing of the English word would have been unlikely owing its length. The grammar of a language is usually considered to be more stable than the lexis. But the others terms provide little clue as to their meaning. and are easily devised when the object or concept in question has an outstanding feature. The degree of tolerance of foreign structures seems to be proportional to the relative prestige of the language. As a result of contact with the West. grey. and if so in what re- . naı ing to lose its detrimental marking (Ramsey 1987: 83). tenses involving auxiliaries (perfect and future). the reverse is not the case. The Chinese expression in its traditional use marks detriment to the receiver of the action. namely the definite article.4 Interlingual Influence and Translation Having emphasised the degree to which languages have been influenced by other languages. ı su¯ r´ n) after ı a Not yet established is the practice among a minority of translators to follow the English placement of a subordinate clause introduced by although (Chinese the main clause. Bora x`ng. . One of the most striking examples is the increasing use of b` i to represent the passive of English that is so prevalent in e scientific writing. distinction in writing in third-person pronouns ( b` i appears to be starte all pronounced as t¯ ). Hatim & Mason have pointed out that a prestigious language can influence another language in its discourse patterns. whereas textual patterns and conventions are constantly modified when text in less dominant languages are translated into English. .2. It seems that many of the world’s languages are finding English 3 rhetorical patterns creeping in as new norms. and the formation of adjectives with ture(d). in an isogloss of more limited extension (including only French among the Romance languages). the obligatory use of pronouns when the subject position is not occupied by a noun (Bynon 1997/1986: 249). the replacement of simple case forms by prepositional phrases (Latin portae → French de la porte). Another example is the gender rowed features also include the use of multiple adjectives in attributive position (after the pattern a small. (Hatim & Mason 1993: 191) 2. ugly duckling). Nevertheless. the question that arises in translation theory is whether. in emulation of classical adjectival suffixes such as -ous and -ic. and x´ng type. the Chinese language has borrowed certain features from English and other European languages.2. Borrowing has been posited as one possible factor in the development of shared features in European languages. and. . in contradistinction to an unmarked passive achieved by simply placing the object of a verb in topic position. Discourse features may be more readily adopted than grammatical features. Translation and Terminological Theory contact and notably in the development of pidgins and creoles. but that despite these objections such renderings are sometimes adopted into the language and gain respectability. and translationese. and increasingly German welcome it. where direct borrowing is shunned on the grounds that it adulterates the language (e. If in adopting a literal translation the translator is conforming with a general tendency in the language toward loan-translation. In such a view. are concerned with prescribing rather than describing the translation process.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms grated translation methodology. this question raises once again the old issue of literal versus free in the theoretical discussion translation. Generally speaking. German in the past). Staunch purism that rejects loans and badly formed loan- . what is decried as an unnecessary loan-translation today might be so widely used tomorrow that speakers may not even recognise the foreign origin. Such a view may rest simply on the pragmatic consideration that the reader will more easily understand ideas presented in familiar terms than those presented in unfamiliar terms. such as the French and Icelandic. It may spring from assertion of the receiving culture in the face of blind deference to the lending culture.. adding to the resources by borrowing from the SL is tantamount to unskilled use of the resources available. but ultimately the speakers of any language have the right to keep their language free of influence.2. In practice. as has been suggested (Bell 1991: 10– 12). tend to resist it in the interests of preserving the purity of the language. Lexical Borrowing).g. lexical borrowing varies considerably from one language community to another. the German examples given in 2. Still others. Dutch. then the translation theorist opposed to literalism is effectively resisting a natural process in the language. In other words. Borrowing happens all the time. It may even rest on the belief that the purity of the language should be preserved for its own sake. Others. such as Chinese. Some languages such as English. Of course. Japanese. loan-translations that conform to native rules of word-formation with no properties that distinguish them from genuine native words are viewed as quite acceptable (e. It may be that translation theorists and translators.. Borrowing is a phenomenon observed in retrospect. find direct borrowing difficult for phonetic reasons. Illustrative of this dichotomy is Danchev’s observation (1993) that literal renderings of foreign sayings in Bulgarian are often considered as translation blunders insofar as the language has ways of expressing the idea.g. after it has taken place.1. poor command of the target language. and to Schleiermacher’s dichotomy of taking the reader into the author’s world versus bringing the author into the reader’s world. and that they are resistant to borrowing because the task of translation is to render SL texts with existing TL resources. as a wedding or funeral for most speakers of English. For example. Wherever a definable concept presents itself. he can bring within the denotation of ‘cap’. Furthermore. but it is not entirely beyond conscious control. It may be because of this difference that English. not only canoes. where equivalence between SL and TL expressions is usually only partial and varies according to context. ‘hat’. between loan-translation of this more or less deliberate kind and the use that a native speaker makes of his language as he extends the meaning of words beyond their prototypcial sense in new situations. Lyons 1981: 328 There is no definitive answer to Danchev’s dichotomy. Translation and Terminological Theory translations has to find a solution independent of the morphology of the SL term. which borrows so freely at the lexical level. John Lyons stresses the importance of the similarity between loan-translation and specialised extension and the natural processes of semantic change that occur in any language independently. but not his own. In LSP terminology. prototypically. Danchev is concerned with general translation. if necessary. Translators can only gauge acceptability of loan-translations (and loans for that matter) on prevailing conditions with regard to the prestige of the source language and pride in and resourcefulness of the target language. and lexical incongruences between the SL and TL. where what is being transmitted is less tangible and easily lost owing to the phonological. might still be jealously protected by its speakers from the foreignising influence of foreign literature (Venuti 1995: 1–7). by contrast. when he first encounters them. This is entirely different to the problems arising in literary translation. a way of representing it in the target language must and can always be found. Borrowing is certainly not the last resort. particularly those of dominant cultures.2. or ‘bonnet’ various kinds of headgear that might be characteristic of other cultures. That languages e may be influenced by others. created and designated as a translation equivalent . but also catamarans (whether he also borrows the local words or not). grammatical. he can apply the word ‘wedding’ or ‘funeral’ to a wide range of practices which bear little resemblance to anything that would count. It has been for this reason that the Acad´ mie francaise has attempted to promote well-formed e ¸ neologisms such as v´ liplanchisme (‘sail-board-ism’) for wind-surfing. Lexical borrowing responds to the need express in the target language a concept possessing a label in the source language. as in the realm technical terminology. he can bring within the denotation of ‘boat’. is a fact of life. there is no difference. the existence of a term in the SL poses the need for a term in the TL to be sought or. ultimately. Conversely. dynamic. involuntary in Western medicine. which is the basic form of the language that facilitates communication between all members of the community. or terms that are superfluous or obscure.1 The Notion of Language for Special Purposes The division of labor in the human economy naturally gives rise to certain lin- guistic divisions within a single language community. Many attempts have been made to name criteria for distinguishing LSP from LGP (M¨ hn & Pelka 1984: 5–29. 137. even though it possesses a distinct terminology and may favour certain constructions. e. it is an integral part of it. This happens when the language community at large becomes acquainted with certain aspects of the speciality (gross national product. LSP is not separate from LGP. e.g.. energy. and normochromia (examples from Dirckx 1983: 131. Furthermore. and builders from the earliest times developed certain language conventions not current among people uninvolved in the same activities since they employed certain formulas (e. ship ahoy!) and specific vocabulary (oarlocks. The basic definition o . for example. diskdrive.. voltage. Jargon is a slightly derogatory term for LSP connoting opaqueness to noninitiates. Slang. groundspeed. forecastle) not employed. Eternal Care Unit. camshaft.) and applies technical words in nontechnical senses (e.3. ethanolism.g. It also denotes informal usage within LSP. interface). Farmers. sailors.g. I explain the basic notions of language for special purposes (LSP) and terminology. there are powerful arguments in favour of them.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms terminology. by people involved in other activities. is a sociolect. LSP is distinct from other kinds of special use of language. 2. etc. microscopic.. 159). it is not limited to people sharing the same activity. Picht & Draskau 1985: 1–12). cold front. This was the birth of what is often loosely called technical language. it can also feed the LGP with new words and expressions.3 LSP AND TERMINOLOGICAL THEORY In this section. pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism. 159. as will be shown in the next section. and explain the LSP view of term translation. fishermen. The boundary between LGP and LSP is not clearly drawn. 2. paranoid. It draws on the grammar and lexicon of the LGP. or what linguists call language for special purposes (LSP) as distinct from language for general purposes (LGP). often not understood.. 139.g. hammer. such as rip someone to shreds (which involves neither ripping nor the production of shreds). or name a part metaphorically. LSP terms are words or phrases that are either not used outside the domain in . the LSP domain in question. oval window. Thus. LSP texts are characterised by the relative frequency of certain functions. expressive. and isolating). 2. As regards syntax. Translation and Terminological Theory for communication related to that activity. Beyond this. e. or whose usage is unique to.. It is notably on the basis of these two criteria that the language of Chinese medicine is unequivocally characterised as an LSP. those most salient in LSP tests are the descriptive. may describe a structure metaphorically as granular or reticular. directive. The expressive and phatic functions are generally absent.3. instructive. LSP shares with LGP the tendency to describe and name things by metaphor. as well as a tendency toward nominal forms serving the aims of syntactical compression and of conceptual consolidation (M¨ hn & Pelka’s begriffliche o Verfestigung). phrases. In general. expressive devices such as exclamations or interjections are not seen. these syntactical features are not of central interest to this study since they relate largely to European languages. for example. nor are phatic devices such as indirect utterances (such as I think you are standing on my foot for Get off my foot!). M¨ hn & Pelka o observe that of seven basic functions of language (descriptive. but it has no phrases in which constituent words have no actual referents in the context.2 The Nature of LSP Terminology The lexical feature of LSP is the primary linguistic feature of LSPs. anvil. The specific features of Chinese medical terminology will be discussed in Chapter 5. or idiomatic. Thus. directive. b) its having a specific terminology relating the objects and concepts of the activity in question. in written LSP texts (and in the LSP content of spoken communication).2. but it differs by its relative lack of exocentric. From this are derived two fundamental criteria for distinguishing LSP: a) its use is restricted to a social group involved with specific activities. Another major difference between LGP and LSP lies in figurative expression. modern medicine. phatic. As regards language function. terminologists have observed a high frequency of impersonal constructions such as verbs with inanimate subjects. there are no conclusive criteria. that is. LSPs are each characterised by a special vocabulary or terminology. by a set of lexical items that are unique to. metalingual. but a number of tendencies have been identified in modern LSPs of European languages.g. passives (or their correlates such as the reflexive verbs). and is central to this study. and to a lesser extent the metalingual functions. instructive. Terminologisation refers to the use of an existing word in the same sense in the LSP as in the LGP (e.A. Terminologists observe a threefold relationship between term. Nevertheless. that is. the verb to earth in electrical engineering). in reality. 2. and new terms are mostly formed in any language by giving old words new definitions (and in some cases new grammatical functions). by combining existing words or morphemes. Terminologisation 2. i. Conversion 5. or by borrowing a term from a foreign language. a more specific or specialised sense (e. electricity generator). Compounds 3.3 Term Formation Terms are formed in much the same way in the LSP as they are in the LGP. if it is sufficiently self-explanatory. it includes or alludes to one or more of the features of the concept. LSP users make up new expressions or redefine existing ones to meet their special vocabulary needs. bone in medicine). The categorisation of term-formation methods offered by Picht & Draskau (1985: 106) is as follows: 1. Derivation 4. A well-motivated term is one that represents the concept clearly.g. In other words. root as part of a tooth.. self-explanatoriness is not always easy to achieve. are questions of little consequence. Shift of wordclass is a change in part of speech in the creation of a new term (e. at least in fields where a term always represents a clearly defined concept. The term represents the concept.. and object known as the semantic triangle (originally proposed by C.. or that are used in different senses than in other domains. The concept is made explicit through definition. which is the term’s extralinguistic referent. Abbreviations These methods should be fairly self-explanatory..g. earth in the electrical engineering sense) or to a metaphorical sense (e.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms question.3.e.. concept.. which is a mental representation of the object. While some terms achieve this to a high degree (e. It would be difficult to find a self-explanatory term for molecule (the literal meaning of .K. Richards in the 1920s).g.g. Any given language has a limited stock of words and morphemes available. A term is considered acceptable if it is well-motivated. Ogden and I. that may or may not figure in the definition. tooth of a cog wheel). Loan-words 6.g. Which method of term formation is used and what feature of the concept is alluded to in the term. many concepts are not easily labelled with self-explanatory terms. g. French and Spanish have no adjective-participle construction paralleling the English slow-running. tocadiscos). a l´ ng t´ u. is now splittable does not mean that it has to be renamed. the methods by which words are combined vary. a very self-explanatory compound. The word truckle and truck entered the English language in the Late Middle English period. ‘a little lump or mass’. they soon came to be given a variety of extensions that prepared the way for truck to denote a goods vehicle. is not helpful even to the few that can recognise it). and few people are aware of the literal meaning anyway. the English truck. Jamaica vervain). There are some obvious culture-bound preferences. gentian. u o u u y` l´ ng bi¯ n. Sometimes terms chosen in different languages u o a . Terms arising in different languages for one and the same concept in different languages may describe or allude to different features of the concept. Noun + noun combinations are much less common in the Romance languages than in the Germanic. The French ‘noun + a + noun’ construction (e. The German equivalent is Lastkraftwagen. while the corresponding Spanish term llave was selected by a functional similarity to a door key is irrelevant.g. which descended originally from Latin trochlea ← Greek trokhilia. the formation of nouns by combining a verb with a noun is no longer productive in English (nouns like scarecrow and pickpocket are no longer constructed) as it is in French and Spanish (e.2. rompeolas. Translation and Terminological Theory the current name. so named because it was unsplittable (Greek a. tom. Term-formation varies between languages to some degree because of grammatical differences and preference for certain methods. split). and hence did not figure among the options. Although such differences may in some cases be fortuitous. the word for the culturally significant concept of the dragon appears in the term for water tap l´ ng t´ u and handle-bars o o yˇ n. is a derived term by back-formation of truckle. The fact that the atom. The word trochlea never entered the German language. in the sense of a goods vehicle. o a a jiˇ l´ ng t` zh¯ . umbrella sedge. machine a ecrire) has no morphological equivalent in ` `´ English or German. it is just as acceptable provided it is generally accepted. Lack of self-explanatoriness matters little since in all modern disciplines a concept (especially an abstract one) is always well-defined. cut.. Again. ‘powered vehicle of burden’. not. ‘to wheel’. the semantic properties of words available in other cases may exert an influence on choice. In Chinese. as well as in numerous plant names ( o o $ shuˇ ı l´ ng o l´ ng dˇ n cˇ o. Even if a term is not self-explanatory. since the term is firmly established.. longan. brise-vent. The fact that the English plumbing term cock was chosen on the grounds of a formal similarity of the object to a foul. portaaviones. casse-mottes. While compounding seems to be common to all languages. Eczema. but choose entirely different ways of doing so. where terms do not have any connotation or any stylistic usage (a point that I shall take up again shortly). which. Unity of term and concept is the ideal that each term should represent one concept only. and that each concept should be represented by one term only. The English words big and large. Ideally. a term should be well motivated. When the incandescent lamp was invented. is a poorly motivated term because its literal meaning is ‘boiling over’ (from Greek ekzein). this overlapping is usually seen to serve a purpose (in the examples given. In German. does not reflect the modern etiology. are synonymous in some cases. answer and respond. and besides the literal meaning is obscure to most of its modern users. neither Zwiebel nor Knolle had gained any extensions similar to those of bulb.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms highlight the same feature. it should reflect the concept clearly and be self-explanatory as far as possible. In modern LSPs. 2. Electricity generator is a well motivated term because it tells us the chief functional characteristic of the object.3. and definition of terms. although it originally meant an onion. upper and superior. which German scientists have consistently preferred u in denoting artificial light sources (Licht tends to refer to light as a general phenomenon). polysemy (multiple meanings of a single term) and synonymy (multiple terms representing a single concept) should be eliminated as far as possible.4 Terminological Rigour Terminologists are concerned with ensuring the effectiveness of terms in repre- senting concepts. unity of term and concept is considered to enhance unequivocal communication. As Sager points . it had since come to be used to denote any spheroidal dilatation of the end of an organ. hence were unlikely candidates. and hence terminological standardisation is usually considered desirable and necessary. In the LGP. the preferred image was that of the pear. that is. This was combined with the word Gl¨ h. etc. and later the dilated end of a glass tube (as in the bulb of a thermometer—and of course the light bulb is produced in a similar way to this). though semantically poorly motivated. Birne. they are concerned with motivation of terms. however.. In other words. Both elements of the term would have been obvious choices: light was chosen because the device in question emits light. the unity of term and concept. and bulb was probably chosen because. English speakers quickly began calling it a light bulb. glow. words naturally overlap in their meaning. on the other hand. the Germanic words and the Latinate counterparts can mark a difference in style). In particular. we could say that eczema. Nevertheless. In the LGP. although it may have been meaningful to physicians of ancient times. is socially positively motivated since everyone accepts the term. sourcelanguage terms are regularly borrowed or provide the model for the creation of terms in a target language. os sphenoideum. the most important thing is that the term in any language should represent the concept clearly and gain general acceptance. leg. for example. for example. are just as much LSP terms as platysma. and this in turn requires that each one be clearly defined. if ever. Secondly. uses thousands of technical terms to describe the body in the finest detail. Similarly.. often with national government assistance (Sager 1998b). Indeed. Deviation from the ideal can at times be acute (see. Terms are not translated. Thus. Translation and Terminological Theory designations (Sager 1998b). equivalents have to be found in the TL for the SL terms. hilum. terminologists are aware that when a knowledge corpus is in cross-cultural transmission the existence of the term in the language of the community from which the knowledge is being transferred constitutes an influential precedent that the originators of the concept did not have (Sager 1998a). Consequently. or how they should be formed in. etc. how terms should be translated into. and the unity of term and concept is an ideal that is rarely. The anatomist. I would suggest that such a precedent is all the more influential when the lending community is accorded prestige by the receiving community. Nevertheless. the target language is of no concern in the field of terminology. foot. namely. terminology theory provides no answers to questions central to the present study. and stem are just as much LSP terms as cotyledon. the question of translation is circumvented altogether.2. the botanist’s leaf. Pilegaard 1997: 162).5 Terminological Translation When bodies of knowledge are transmitted from one language community to an- other.3. unlike . one fundamental observation of terminologists is that many LSP terms are ordinary LGP terms used in their LGP sense. hand. There are several reasons for this. Nevertheless. However. In technological fields. Although LGP. ear. The criteria for judging the acceptability of a term in any target language are the same as for any language. rather. parallel terms are created in the target language. this is only theory. In practice. Terminology theory offers no specific guidelines for the initial translation of terms from one language into another. the words for major body parts such as head. 2. Firstly. The resources that have to be mobilised reflect the importance accorded to the task. the task of standardisation is difficult. and rhizome. or choroid. nose. the work of standardisation is carried out by industry-supported standardisation committees that are organised into national standards institutes. as is often the case. fully achieved. the formation of terms in a target language is considered to be an act of secondary term formation rather than translation. root. 1. A third reason for close translation of SL terms lies in a major semantic characteristic of terms that relates to the functions of language and kinds of meaning. Lexical Translation). though often applied. talk about the cakehole. in German. unnecessary opacity is introduced in the TL. Affective and emotive connotation generally plays no role within the LSP domain itself (Fluck 1985: 34). presupposed. which although widely used in terminology. and toes. As we shall see. or the tootsies. or in specific LSP extended senses. Just as LSPs are generally characterised by the absence of the expressive and phatic functions of language. for example.2. In LSPs. this is just as much the case in an ancient knowledge corpus such as Chinese .3. it is not used for the expressive purposes that it has in the LGP and particularly in creative literature. rather they use the standard words mouth. Physicians do not. In Baker’s fourfold division of propositional.6.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Terms of this kind tend to have LGP equivalents in different languages. 1990: 141–142. LGP items are usually translated with the equivalent LGP terms. existing collocational restrictions. This is not merely a question of convenience. various aspects of register may be largely borrowed from other fields. in term formation (primary or secondary). Terms may gain connotations when used outside the domain (see. 161–162). propositional meaning is of paramount importance while expressive meaning plays virtually no role at all. and evoked meaning (see 2. but a matter of preserving in the TL the consensus reality of the layman. in anatomy. Hatim & Mason’s discussion of racist use of sociological terminology. avoidance of LGP equivalents in the TL of LGP terms in the SL has been a major problem in Chinese medicine (see 6. If LGP terms are not translated with LGP equivalents. Thus. the equivalents of the English head are predictably tˆ te in French. but in general they do not assume any expressive function in the LSP domain itself. is used exclusively for descriptive purposes. words (and morphemes) are usually used in specific primary LGP senses. The complexity of meaning that creates difficulties for translator in LGP texts is virtually non-existent for the term translation. and e Kopf. expressive. Terms are chosen that perform this function of representation without specific affective or expressive connotations. Porkert’s Terminology). the tummy.2. the mawlers. By the same token. but they can also be created. A fourth reason concern metaphor. in their specialist communications. may also be ignored since an unusual usage highlights a term as special. Furthermore. so terminology is characterised by a simple relationship between sign (the term) and concept or referent that it signifies. stomach. and t´ u in Chinese. cabeza in Spanish. hands. When a whole terminology is translated from one o language into another. All aspects of meaning evolve with the development of terminology. As will become apparent further ahead. Unfortunately. Nevertheless. the transmission of Chinese medicine is subject to the same conditions in non-English-speaking parts of the West as in English-speaking countries. Both Japanese and Korean adopted Chinese medicine as part of a large cultural package. The problem of translating the Chinese terms was avoided altogether. Though both Japanese and Korean in time developed their own scripts that have partly (in the case of Korean almost fully) displaced Chinese characters. the Chinese terminology . it is much less prevalent in the realm of LSP terms. We do know that Chinese medical knowledge has been successfully transmitted from its homeland to Japan and Korea. and in so doing. Interlingual Influence and Translation). and that loan-translation is usually possible. for example. this experience is of no help to us since in neither case were terms translated. In the absence of crisply delineated concepts. so we have nothing to learn from them.4.2. Nevertheless. which included a writing system.2. Translation and Terminological Theory medicine as it is in modern disciplines such as Western medicine. In the field of Chinese medicine. it differs from scientifically based modern LSPs as regards terminological rigor. The need for unequivocal denotation predisposes LSP users to the acceptance of neologisms (either new terms or old terms used in new senses). they have never entirely discarded them. Japanese. all the technical terms of Chinese origin appear in Chinese script (although they are of course pronounced differently). In over two thousand years no concern has evolved to achieve unity of concept and unequivocal definition as is seen in modern LSPs. defuses conservative antipathy toward ‘foreign expressions’. Many insights into term translation are potentially to be gained from investigating comparable instances of successful terminological translation. there is one further and very important reason why the source-language term rather than the concept should form the basis for choosing the target-language equivalent. Whatever resistance there is to borrowing in literary or other forms of LGP translation. A fifth and final reason is related to the question of the acceptability of introducing neologisms (loans or loan-translations) in translation (discussed under 2. whether these be of foreign origin or have a foreign model. and its native kana for grammatical particles. In both Japanese and Korean texts of Chinese medicine. uses Chinese characters to mark the stems of many nouns and verbs. Although the language of Chinese medicine is classed LSP according to the basic social and linguistic criteria. The significance of this in the realm of translation is that LGP equivalents of LGP terms are often easy to find. in Japanese. the aim of source-orientation in translation the creation of a TL terminology that in its formal characteristics closely resembles the SL terminology. Within the field of Chinese medicine.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms was adopted at expense of clarity since phrasal terms reflecting the typical subject-verbobject order of Chinese. An investigation of the translation of Western medical terminology provides the subject of the next chapter. such as q¯ng r` jiˇ d´ . Western medicine has the merit of being a subject area dealing with the same subject and of having been transmitted successfully across culturolinguistic frontiers. clear heat and resolve toxin. . We therefore have to look to other fields. no precedent for the successful translation of terms exists. therefore. do ı e e u not comply with the subject-object-verb word-order of Japanese. In its earlier stages. the success of the transmission constitutes an objective measure of the translation method chosen. For most of its long history. Latin was the language of scholarly discourse among physicians throughout Europe. By analysing the tendencies and the factors influencing them. I begin this chapter by describing term-formation methods in Western medicine as applied in terminological translation from Latin into German and English. Although we can barely speak of a transmission process in a geographical sense (the TL-community was after all only part of a wider European SL-community using Latin as a lingua franca). but marked differences in the actual form it takes. where of course we can speak of transmission in the geographical sense. To show that a translation approach is applied in practice does not in itself permit any evaluation of the approach. Medicine is one of the older sciences of the West. and only later were vernacular equivalents formed. and loan-translations) in all three cases. The analyses show a source-orientation (LGP equivalents. Nevertheless. there was nevertheless a transmission process in a temporal sense. it will be possible to envisage what trans- . I move on to determine the term formation processes in the translation of terms from European languages into Chinese. After analysing English and German terms.CHAPTER 3 WESTERN MEDICINE: A PRACTICAL MODEL OF SOURCE-ORIENTED TRANSLATION The suggestion that a particular kind of term-formation might be most appropriate in the TL of a given discipline is convincing when it can be demonstrated that that kind of termformation has been successfully used in practice in some comparable realm. loans. Western medicine provides a good model for investigating translation processes because it has been transmitted successfully through the medium of translation. where the goal of translation is the transmission of a knowledge corpus. terms were devised in Latin. as physicians began to observe more detail in the human body. etc. They also used words in a specialised. Metaphors are drawn largely from the realm of nature..g. renes. They did this in a number of ways. Sometimes. using the word pelvis. were the ordinary everyday Latin words for ‘head’. mons. They also derived new words by combining morphemes. ‘eye’. and mastoid process of the temporal bone). which both originally meant simply ‘skin’ in Latin and Greek. were formed by a variety of different methods. but more commonly from man-made structures and artifacts.. ‘basin’. os nasale.. ‘neck’ 224. e. oculus. ‘mountain’ . ‘skin’. ‘nasal bone’. The body itself 223. pericardium. respectively. lit. 3. ‘blood’. to name the basin-shaped cavity formed by the ilium. originally meaning brain. physicians naturally used the vocabulary of LGP Latin so far as it went. to represent a specific part of this organ. but also made extensive use of Greek words and morphemes (all four content morphemes of sterno|cleido|mast|oid|eus are of Greek origin). and pubis. cutis.1 GERMAN AND ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF LATIN MEDICAL TERMS 3. capitulum (fibulae). Nonetheless. They met the need for additional vocabulary by devising new terms out of existing Latin lexis or borrowing from Greek.. ‘lip (of the pudendum)’ Nature 227. cervix (uteri). They used words in a metaphorical sense.g. In more complex terms. The Latin terminology of medicine drew not only on Latin lexis. like terms in almost any LSP.1 Formation of Latin Terms Latin medical terms. for example. combinations of these methods were used.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms lation approach would be used to translate Chinese medical terms into English in a healthy transmission process.g. the sternocleidmastoid muscle (the muscle connecting the sternum.1. or narrow. or atrium. ‘little belly’ 225. but which were used to denote a particular layer of the skin in anatomy. The words caput.g. e. lit. such as corium and dermis. clavicle. e. to name the upper chambers of the heart. ‘entrance hall’. ‘heart’. When naming parts of the body. e. they used adjectives to qualify generic nouns. ischium. they selected cerebrum. musculus sternocleidomastoideus. cor. ‘kidneys’. labium (pudendi). sanguis. similarly. they faced the difficulty that they had more concepts than everyday Latin had words for. ‘little head’ 226. and these served medical purposes adequately.. ventriclus (cordis). sense. glans. ‘quiver’ (arrow pouch) 249. ‘little mouse’ 232. and terms formed independently of the SL term. ‘bottle’ 248. Nevertheless. clavicula. ‘horse tail’ Plants 234. and basic substances. ‘little key’ 3. ‘cock’s crest’ 231. ‘snail’ 230. malleus.3. atrium). ‘cake’ 251. ‘jug’ 250. ‘acorn’ 236. since the layman does not distinguish the great anatomical and physiological detail that physicians observe and consequently have to name. ‘little grape’ 235. scrotum. ‘gate’ 243. ‘wormlike’ (muscles) 233. four different ap- proaches are reflected in different types of equivalent: LGP equivalents. terms of this category are mostly names of gross body parts. porta. ‘vinegar pot’ 247. English septum. Loan-translations are terms that are formed in the same way in the TL as in the SL. cochlea. placenta. lymph. Loans are the words directly borrowed from the SL. many of these LGP terms are commonly used in medicine. loans. ‘pulley’ 256. ‘stirrup’ 252. thalamus.. Fuß and foot are the German and English equivalents of the Latin pes. fossa. vomer.g.1. ‘dish’ 246. acetabulum. for which equivalents exist in most languages.2 Methods of Translation In the translation of Latin terms into vernacular languages. sulcus. ‘furrow’ 242. LGP equivalents are equivalents in the TL of words used in the SL in the same sense in medical terminology as they are in the everyday language. and its use by physicians to represent a part . atrium. muscle ← Latin musculus). ‘bark’ 238. lumbricales. trochlea. ‘living room’ 245. ‘entrance hall’ 244. vas. muscle ← Fr.g. ‘anvil’ 254. ‘lentil’ Man-made structures and artifacts 239. incus. organs. They are relatively few. ‘ditch’ 240. ampulla. ‘water’ 229. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation 228. musculus.. crista galli. ‘hammer’ 253. cauda equina. loantranslations. ‘branch’ 237. ‘ploughshare’ 255. cortex. but many undergo change during or after the borrowing process (e. lens. ‘column’ 241. ramus. patella. stapes. The Latin iris comes from the Greek for ‘rainbow’. Borrowed words may retain their original form in the TL (e. uvula. columna. In Western medicine. The number of body parts labelled in the LGP form of each language may vary. Sourceindependent formations are target-oriented. The table below shows the English and German equivalents of Latin medical terms used in their LGP meanings. Loans and loan-translations are source-oriented approaches to translation.3 LGP Equivalents All languages have words for parts of the body. etc.). Let us now examine how the German and English equivalents of basic Latin medical terms fit into these four categories. Nevertheless. this area of Latin vocabulary was easily translated into the vernacular languages of Europe without any difficulty. 3. As has been noted. French none for shin. The German Regenbogen is simply a reproduction of the metaphor. Source-independent formations are terms created in the TL without consideration of the form and content of the SL term. ‘eye’. ‘beating vessel’) as an independent formation for arteria (which originally referred to the windpipe). and loan-translations.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms of the eye was a metaphorical usage. French and German have no terms for knuckle. and in Russian there is no distinction between hand and arm (Pilegaard 1997: 162). there are also hybrid varieties such as English sphenoid bone for the Latin os sphenoideum. where ‘sphenoid’ is borrowed and os is translated. An example in German is Schlagader (lit. ‘nose’. Table 1. ‘elbow’. and have equivalents in most languages (‘head’. ‘neck’. LGP equivalents are relatively neutral with regard to orientation. and the body parts covered by the vocabulary may vary from one language to another. many body parts are clearly circumscribed. loans. LGP equivalents in German and English Western Medical Terms German Kopf Auge Mund Knochen Haut Blut Hand ← LGP ← Latin caput oculus os os cutis sanguis manus → LGP→ English head eye mouth bone skin blood hand . Not surprisingly.1. Apart from LGP equivalents. Table 2. while English has consistently tended to simply adopt the Latin terms. German Loan-Translations and English Loans in Western Medicine German Darmbein Schl¨ sselbein u Wirbels¨ ule a Speiche Herzvorhalle Zw¨ lffingerdarm o Blinddarm Becken Nierenbecken Pf¨ rtner o Vorsteherdr¨ se u Eistock Regenbogen Bindehaut Netzhaut Hornhaut Schleimhaut Scheide Keilbein ← loan-transl. loan-translation.1. the other terms that physicians had invented in Latin were dealt with in different ways: loan.4 Loans and Loan-Translations While the LGP terms could be translated from Latin into other languages on the basis of LGP equivalence. hepar lien. German tended to use loan-translation (at least in earlier stages). Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation Knie Nagel Leber Milz Herz genu unguis jecur. splen cor knee nail liver spleen heart 3.3. as the following table shows. ← Latin ilium clavicula columna vertebralis radius atrium (intestinum) duodenum (intestinum) cecum pelvis pelvis renalis pylorus (glandula) prostata ovarium iris (tunica?) conjunctiva (tunica?) retina cornea (tela) membrana mucosa vagina os sphenoideum → loan → English ilium clavicle vertebral column radius atrium duodenum cecum pelvis renal pelvis pylorus prostate (gland) ovary iris conjunctiva retina cornea mucous membrane vagina sphenoid bone . or source-independent formation. In keeping iwth tendencies already explained in the previous chapter. These options were used to different degrees in different languages. .g.: iris → Regenbogen.. Some medical loans entered English via French (muscle.2. ‘rainbow’. Because Steigb¨ gel is. but assimilated to sta(re).g. cutis/skin). to stand + pes. the German Steigb¨ gel (steig. radius → Speiche. b¨ gel. foot). I use literal equivalent/translation in a generic sense sense of strictly literal and semantic equivalent/translation. but it is the concept of the ‘stirrup’ that motivates the choice of Steigb¨ gel in German. but not a literal match of the Latin stapes (believed to have a Germanic origin akin to our English step. it is inaccurate to describe all loan-translations as ‘literal’ or ‘word-for-word’. This will be discussed further in 7. word-for-word (or morpheme-formorpheme) translation in any precise sense is that the translation sometimes contains an additional element. Suffice it to say at this point that the choice of Steigb¨ gel does not rest on the individual u components of the German term.g. renal). e.. Tympanum → Trommelfell. mount. A further reason why we cannot speak of literal. Although some of the single-root Latin metaphors were simply translated into German (e. ‘halo’. others were expressed with a semantic translation in addition to a generic element. iris → Regenbogen. in an important sense. I call it a semantic translation. for example. Many have undergone change.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Amboß Steigb¨ gel u Pflugscharbein incus stapes vomer incus stapes vomer The extent of borrowing in English is extensive. In a number of terms. Similarly.1 (Motivating Sense and Semantic Translation). ‘drum skin’ (we might note that a similar thing was done with the En- . The linguistic realisation of this concept is different in German than in Latin. not a literal transu u lation of stapes. vagina → Scheide). the loss of adjectival endings (sphenoideus → sphenoid) and certain contractions (auricala → auricle). e. but while the Latin (originally Greek) word is primary. the German supplements loan-translation to one degree or another. the German is a compound (as our English rainbow). lit. is recreated in German in the form of Regenbogen. Latin words have in some cases replaced ordinary English expressions (as abdomen has replaced belly) or have come to stand by them as optional equivalents (e. As can be seen from the examples in German. shaped piece of metal) is a refu u erential match (‘stirrup’). strictly speaking. German has a greater tendency than Latin to form new vocabulary by compounding. e. Nevertheless.. The Latin iris. vagina → Scheide. incus → Amboß. Note that.g.g. but the fact that the term conventionally refers to the same concept (‘stirrup’) as stapes. loan-translation is typically a literal word-for-word (or word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme). in deference to convention. and kidney. pylorus. unguis. Nevertheless. Bindehaut. the opening from the stomach into the duodenum. while vagina. The diminutive forms of Latin. unguis. and ren (indeed. German borrowing from Latin was comparatively rare. and like the Latin words are used in their primary sense. The German terminology invites us to consider whether a distinction between LGP terms such as Fuß. The distinction between the LGP and LSP categories is much more apparent in English. and o Speiche is valid. the first two pairs are cognates). were adopted in the LSP to represent a female reproductive organ. certain noun endings in Latin that came to have o specific meanings in medicine could only be reproduced by full lexicalisation: ovarium becomes Eierstock. and radius are borrowed. Furthermore. and ren translated as foot. A few examples are listed below: Table 3. were often disregarded by German translators (with notable exceptions such as cerebellum. and a bone of the arm. which contrast with cerebrum.. Despite these differences. nail. In loan-translations. In the early stages. Loans in Both German and English German Nerve Muskel Zelle Bizeps Phalanges ← loan ← Latin nervus musculus cella biceps phalanges → loan → English nerve muscle cell biceps phalanges . as Pf¨ rtner. some of the elements are not translated exactly. Pf¨ rtner. All these words are of pure Germanic stock. Fuß. whereas the last three words meaning ‘sheath’. by reproducing the Latin metaphors in the native lexis. loan-translation u does not necessarily involve replication of word-classes. Nagel. Vorsteo herdr¨ se. the TL equivalents are nevertheless clearly modelled on the SL terms. German very often realises with noun compounds what Latin achieves with a noun qualified by an adjective (e. Nierenbecken for pelvis renalis). Großgehirn). and ‘spoke’. Kleingehirn.3. Niere were LGP German words that matched the Latin LGP pes. hepatitis becomes Leberentz¨ ndung. In particular. The final element of pylorus means ‘guard’ or ‘keeper’. where we find pes. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation that were dropped in Latin could not be dropped in German: Zw¨ lffingerdarm. ‘gatekeeper’. Nagel. which are often virtually meaningu less (compare the large malleolus of the ankle with the tiny malleus of the ear).g. and Niere and loan-translations such as Scheide. respectively. which is simply rendered into the German with the agentive -er. corpus fibulae) 263. Hammer. Odem (E.1. cardiotrauma) 265. Fibroma nonosteogenes (E. gastrectomy) Loan-translation is not normally used in English.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms It is important to realise that the German preference for loan-translation over classical internationalisms has changed radically over the last hundred years or more. 257. nichtossifizierendes Fribrom. myringitis) u 262. few compounds now do not contain classical words and morphemes. ‘beating vessel’) scrotum → Hodensack (lit. In the following examples. and stapes. Lungenalveolen (E. Herztrauma. anvil. tumor) ¨ 260. Trommelfellentz¨ ndung. Ear drum is a loan-translation of tympanum that is used in the LGP more than in medical LSP.5 Source-Independent Formations Source-independent formation is the creation of an entirely new term whose literal meaning is entirely different from the TL. incus. ‘a swelling’) u It should be noted that the borderline between source-independent formations and loan-translation is not always clear-cut. ‘testicle sack’) ascites → Bauchwassersucht (lit. It is seen in German. (Wurm)fortsatz. since Fortsatz means ‘continuation’. Lungennaht (E.1. . ‘belly water sickness’) glandula → Dr¨ se (lit. German synonyms are followed by their English equivalents in parenthesis. 3. oedema) 261. shaft of fibula. a diminutive form of the latter). Tumor (E. Fibulaschaft. Lungenbl¨ schen. Pneumorrhaphie. Gastrektomie (E. pneumorrhaphy) 259. A few examples are given below: arteria → Schlagader (lit. Myringitis (E.6 (Relationship Between Methods). Hertzverletzung (E. pulmonary alveoli) a 258. Geschwulst. does not correspond exactly. The German equivalent of appendix (vermicularis). and stirrup are sometimes given as explanatory synonyms for the Latin malleus. Corpus fibulae (E. Although there is still a strong tendency to make use of words of Germanic stock. but not in English. There are a few exceptions: blood vessel is a loan-translation of vas sanguineum (vessel being counted as a different word than vas even though it is actually derived from vascellum. Wassersucht. Magenresektion. nonossifying fibroma) 264. These exceptions will be taken up shortly in 3. the scope of translation by LGP equivalents is co- extensive in English and German.7 Factors Influencing Choice of Method In the examples given above. Only source-independent formations such as Schlagader and Herzkammer constitute deviation from source-oriented translation.1. and heart). and Niere and the English foot. German on the other hand has remained. and liver). pylorus. ‘small brain’. Thus the German LGP terms Fuß. . hand. The variation in the degree to which loan. loan-translation. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation triculus cordis. and source-independent formation are used in English and German is a matter of language-specific convention. but not on the specific element (ventriculus means ‘little belly’). and Niere on the one hand and loan-translation equivalents such as Scheide. and o Speiche and the English loans vagina. but as we saw. and it not surprising that equivalents exist between three related European languages in this domain. Most languages would appear to have words for these salient body parts. Herzkammer (‘heart chamber’). In English. 5 of the 13 terms in Table 1 are cognates in all three languages (the words for eye. This can be expressed schematically as follows: Loan Semantic translation Source-oriented translation LGP Loan-translation Source-independent formation 3. In fact. the German loan-translations Scheide.3.1. though decreasingly of late. and kidney. Nagel.6 Relationships Between Methods Despite the difference between LGP equivalents such as Fuß. Pf¨ rtner. foot. The German Großgehirn. and Speiche o on the other. Pf¨ rtner. nail. 3. for the Latin diminutive cerebellum). incus. nail. blood. Semantic translations and loans together constitute source-oriented translation. more conservative in its lexical preferences. direct borrowing is the general rule. malleus. ‘large brain’. while 9 of the 13 are cognates between English and German (the above plus the words for mouth. knee. The influence of the languages of Scandinavian and Norman invaders on Old English set a trend for borrowing. supplies ‘large’ missing in the Latin cerebrum (compare Kleingehirn. and radius all fall within the category of source-oriented translation. they are all semantic equivalents. matches the Latin on the generic element (heart). Nagel. German neatly unmixed the metaphors. but anyway by the advent of cellular biology. since the malleus beats against the incus just as the blacksmith’s hammer beats against the anvil. Latin arteria was translated as Schlagader (lit. ‘mouse’. Muskel. the source-independent formation.). Zelle may have been adopted in the anatomical cona text because the word had already entered the language through Church Latin. ‘entrance hall’. a u swelling. Why glandula. just as it was rendered in Dutch as zeenuw. Here. One might wonder why German ended up with the Latin-derived terms Nerve. which is translated semantically into German as Vorhalle.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms these cases. Zelle. but as Herzkammer (lit. rather than literally as Eichel or Ecker is not entirely clear. which originally meant sinew. and Bizeps for such basic concepts. In the case of malleus and incus. which in most cases appear to have arisen where loan-translation was problematic either because corresponding words or morphemes were lacking in German or because the resulting term was poorly motivated (often because the Latin term itself was poorly motivated). probably because any attempt at loan-translation would have floundered on the obscure etymology (it originally meant ‘windpipe’ in Greek). One reason may be that Eichel was chosen to serve as a loan-translation for glans penis. the inspiration probably coming from atrium. is a . The reason may be that Sehne was designated as the equivalent of tendo (while in Dutch. The metaphors involved in atrium and ventricle are purely formal and are justified only by the want of a name. ‘beating vessel’). The loan-word Arterie has nevertheless firmly asserted itself. The ventriculus cordis was translated not semantically. I would suggest loan-translation is related to the nature of the metaphor. German opted against loan-translation (Weinschlauch) in favour of a new term Bauchwassersucht. ‘a little acorn’. the name of the contiguous chamber. was not translated into its cognate M¨ uschen. might have been rendered in German by Sehne. lit. there is a functional relationship. The loan-translation in this case is meaningful since it is not simply denominative but also explanatory. The Latin nervus (and the Greek neur-). pes was designated as the equivalent of tendon. was translated as Dr¨ se. ‘belly water sickness’. by contrast. classical neologisms were becoming more common in German in a general European trend toward ‘internationalisms’. Ascites is a Latin loan from Greek derived from askos meaning ‘leather bag’ or ‘wineskin’. ‘heart chamber’). Most metaphorical terms for names of parts involve a comparison of accidental formal characteristics that have no medical significance. etymologically the diminutive of mus. German provides several examples of source-independent formations. I point out this anomaly because functional metaphor is more prevalent in Chinese medicine. Less clear is why the Latin musculus. The most likely reason for this is that ascites is not self-explanatory even for someone who knows Greek. In most cases. This suggests that it is a second attempt to express an idea and native lexis.g. many terms are formed by metaphor (e. the tendency to simply borrow the Latin term effectively forecloses the need for source-independent formation. The Latin terms are formed by nouns representing body parts. and had already established methods for minimal Anglicisation of Italic vocabulary. lit. In German. vagina.. the Latin metaphors seem to make use of words commonly used in the LGP that have a high degree of universality. etc. c) and the nature (water accumulation). descriptive adjectives. b) tells us the location (abdomen). Table 4. atrium. and source domains of metaphor) to allow basic medical terminology to be constructed on a Latin model. Why. . into K¨ cher was apparently not deemed o as self-explanatory as Hodensack. intestinum duodenum). it is used. German lexis evidently shares with Latin sufficient correspondences in each realm (body parts. iris). In particular. for similar reasons. if not more.1 (German and English Translation of Latin Medical Terms). then. which literally meant ‘arrow pouch’ or ‘quiver’. should translation have been source-oriented? One reason is that source-oriented translation was a feasible option.3. Term Types and Translation Modes LGP Terms First Choice LGP equivalent Loan Loan-translation LSP Terms Second Choice — Source-independent formation When terms are independently chosen in each language without reference to the terms of another language. A semantic translation of scrotum. Source-independent formation in practice appears to be related to loan-translation.. English had a tradition of borrowing from French and Latin.g. I gave examples of this in 3. but far less than loan-translation. In German.. organs. loan-translation was preferred. combined with nouns or adjectives describing key physical or functional features (e. mebrana mucosa. one would naturally expect them to differ in method of formation and literal meaning from one language to another. in the early translation of medical terminology from Latin. ‘testicle bag’. In English. made only when loan-translation fails to produce a well-motivated term. German terms just as. as many examples have shown. The Latin metaphors carried over into German come from domains common to both Latin and German speakers. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation much better motivated term since it a) provides a generic (sickness). intelligible than the originals could be fashioned out of German words on a Latin pattern. ‘anvil’ stapes → Steigb¨ gel. (from Greek pyl¯ + ouros) → Pf¨ rtner. ‘acorn’ Artifacts and Architecture clavicula (diminutive of clave) → Schl¨ ssel.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Nature iris → Regenbogen. ‘basin’ retina. ‘spoke’ pelvis → Becken. but all the artifacts in question are shared by the Latin and German language communities. English merely succumbed to a preexisting habit of borrowingm in which form is more important than meaning. ‘rainbow’ ovum → Ei. ‘sacred bone’. ‘sheath’ sphenoideus. The Latin os sacrum. ‘hammer’ incus → Amboß. ‘one standing before’ e pylorus. ‘from rete’ → Netz. The largest category is that of artifacts (whether it would remain the largest category in a larger selection of terms is another matter). ‘wedge’ malleus → Hammer. ‘key’ u radius → Speiche. It might be noted parenthetically that in a couple of instances one suspects inexact loan-translations. ‘entrance hall’ Social Realm prostata. ‘from Greek sphen’ → Keil. all of the metaphors could theoretically have been rendered in ordinary English vocabulary. (from Greek prostat¯ s) → Vorsteher. ‘net’ vagina → Scheide. ‘stirrup’ u vomer → Pflugscharbein. ‘horn’ glans → Eichel. half of these are cognates of the German words). as the accompanying English words show (and not surprisingly. ‘egg’ cornea (from cornu) → Horn. ‘ploughshare bone’ atrium → Vorhalle. is so called because of an ancient . ‘gate-keeper’ e o Semantic equivalents in German were obviously at hand in German. Noteworthy here is that even though English borrows all of the Latin terms in question. not cruciform) and replaces the pagan symbol with a Christian one. even though in practice its good motivation is partly lost for those for whom the terms are opaque. in theory at least. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation Osiris. The vernacular languages were thus in a state of source- dependency. equally well-motivated when borrowed by the TL language for those who understand the source language. the source language. Loan occurs despite the high price that often has to be paid for it as regards intelligibility. The extended senses appeared to strengthen the motivation of the anatomical usage. the problem of opaque terms is so acute for medical students that it has to be solved by special courses in medical terminology (Fluck 1985: 91). and in German even more so. Latin constitutes the official international standard of anatomy). Where the term-formation conventions of a language tend to avoid direct loans. In such a situation. For the increas- . those responsible for coining terms would appear to have first looked to the SL term with an eye to borrowing or to gaining inspiration in the formation of a TL term. A disease involving inflammation is named as such. In medicine.3. For instance. A second reason for source-orientation was that Latin was the original language of medicine. ‘cross bone’. uses a metaphor that barely captures the shape (it is described as cuneiform. Latin and Greek loans in English are opaque. the TL terminology has no option but to use loan-translation in order to preserve the systematicity in naming. Western medical pathology regards inflammation as an important category of disease. the choices of term-formation are often confined to narrow limits. Preserving formal similarity between SL and TL terms is important for people working in specialised fields in languages that are source-dependent. The term iris in the LGP meant ‘halo’ and ‘iridescent crystal’ in addition to the primary meaning of rainbow. It is even more likely to be applied in the translation of compound terms whose component parts in themselves constitute LSP terms and which form part of a system of terms. A third reason was that source-orientation was probably desirable for practical reasons. In this case. god of resurrection and regeneration. Loan and loan-translation are considered before building terms directly from the concept. The translation of Kreuzbein. and Latin terminology was the standard that stood above all vernacular terminology (and indeed to this day. Loan-translation is a first choice when the SL term is well motivated and the TL has the resources to replicate it. Loans and to a lesser extent loan-translations help to preserve the lexical relationship of the TL term to the SL term. An SL term that is well motivated is. usually in combination with a body part. a semantic translation is often the easiest or even the only practical method of term-formation. and their absence in the meaning of the German Regenbogen weakens the motivation of the loan-translation. In practice. 2 CHINESE TRANSLATION OF WESTERN MEDICAL TERMS In this section. In short. clavicle. words directly borrowed from source language or words having the same semantic meaning as those of the source language mainly serve the function of keeping the terminology of the TL firmly pegged to that of the SL. loan-translation is preferred to source-independent formation of terms. and atrium are dead. so that the anatomical referents of these terms are the primary ones. in order to determine the extent to which the formation of the Chinese terminology of Western medicine is source-oriented. is theoretically dispensable would seem to be explained by the importance accorded to the source language and the ease of memorisation.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms ing numbers of English speakers who have not studied Latin and Greek.3. Many of the descriptive adjectives that form the specific component of many terms. That the overall tendency toward borrowing (loans and loan-translation). LSP and Terminological Theory. English is taken as the representative source language. like many other disciplines and fields. are similarly quite opaque. Latin has retained its place as the terminological standard in anatomy. and also provides the only nomenclature for microorganisms. has been reluctant to place its linguistic standard in one particular language. unless physicians have preserved large amounts of Latin in their terminology merely to evade scrutiny from outside their profession. when direct borrowing of Latin medical terms is rejected. the Chinese equivalents of Western medical terms are subjected to the same analysis as was applied to the English and German translation of Latin terms. not so much because English is now most widely used in international communication as because its terminol- . This time. For the purposes of the present study. In the transmission of Western medicine to the Orient. a broader selection of terms is taken to provide a clearer picture of the processes occurring in translation. and English-Latin hybrids such as teres major muscle. Since the decline of Latin as the lingua franca of Europe and the language of academia. rectus femoris muscle. and spina bifida. and vastus medialis muscle. It is also actively and widely used in the creation of disease names. myasthenia gravis. the extent to which terms are borrowed from or modelled on the terms of the source language. soleus muscle. translation between German and Japanese. the metaphors of pelvis. however. ethmoid bone. medicine. Japanese and Chinese. that is. such as otitis media. In the transmission of Western medicine to China. 3. When we view against this background the many pure Latin terms that have no anglicised form. as explained in 2. as well as English and Chinese have played a role. and mastoid process. as in sphenoid bone. we cannot speak of a single source language. vagina. we realise that. parietal bone. g. e. Combining forms that share the same root as a simple term. The Chinese terms were each assigned to one of the four categories of termformation in relation to the SL terms that were previously used to analyse the German and English terminology of Western medicine: LGP or Chinese medical equivalents (e.g. combining forms. including those of peripheral fields. and source-independent formations (e. however.2. Variant forms such as derm.g. ı a n´ ng o xi¯ ng for pyothorax). u ı Equivalents formed by loan or loan-translation show the most positive influence of the SL term in the formation of the TL term. According to Fluck (1985: 91).. we shall need to speak of the German and Japanese links in the translation process in order to give a clear account of the translation processes.and cutis were also counted as being the same. physiological.. cut(an). Hence the term selection in the present study may be considered sufficiently representative.. The English terms were were divided into simple terms.and dermat.000. As will become apparent. 3. the number of existing terms (in German). clavi- . The English/Latin terms are listed in Appendix I.000–8. but medical students get by with an active command of 6. Cognates. and therapeutic e concepts spanning all the major systems of the organism. each followed by their Chinese equivalent. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation ogy is lexically classical in nature and stands in direct lineage with the Latin terminology of the past.g. Each entry is headed by a ringed letter indicating the category to which the term is ascribed. t´ u for head).3. o f` shuˇ for ascites).000. such as English heart. were considered as being different. Source-independent formations constitute the source-independent category. o + l´n b¯ for lymph). and complex terms.g. pathological. has been estimated at 500.. Latin cord-. The terms denote anatomical. where they are arranged in thematic order.considered the same. loans (e.1 Aims and Methods The analysis covers nearly a thousand terms (including commonly used combining forms) drawn from a terminology textbook for first-year medical students (Wiseman & F´ ng 1998b). g l LGP/CM equivalents (g = general) Loans lt i Loan-translations Source-independent formations Elements added in loan-translations are marked by double underlining (e. and Greek cardi-.. loan-translations (e.g. . .... . .. ..... .. .33% reduction) 1 (20%) 0 (0%) 4 (80%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) . 185 . . . .. lt corium)..... lt Loan-translations . . ... ..... . . . .. .. . ... . 710 . .. . . .. . .. ..... ........ . . lt Loan-translations .. ..g. 37 (20% reduction) i Source-Independent formations Unclassified equivalents English Combining Forms Chinese equivalents LGP/CM equivalents Loans l ? . ... . ... . ... .. . . . . ..... .. .. . .. . 110 (59. . . . ... 32 (17.. . .. ..... ..... .. .... . . ... . . .46%) 3 (1... Elements changed in loan-translation (not include LGP equivalents of different 4 literal meaning) are marked by by single underlining (e.. . ... 565 (78. .. .. ... .. . .. . ...g.....54%) g Simple English Terms Chinese equivalents LGP/CM equivalents Loans l .... .. . ... . . ... . . . 60 .. .. ..14%) .. ... from (Ger. . . . .. . . ... ......... . lt Loan-translations .3%) 3 (1. . .. A dagger (†) following a Chinese term indicates that the Chinese term is a loantranslation that follows a model not represented in the English (e. cutis vera. 184 (0.. ... . .. . . .. . ..2.. .. .. . ... . .. . . . .. . . .... . ....g. . . .. .. ....... .. . .. .2 Results .....80%) ... .... . . ... .. . An asterisk following a Chinese term indicates that the Chinese term is the equivalent of two or more SL terms of which it is the loan-translation of one (e. ...... ... . . ... . . .. 98 (13..62%) ... . . . . . .... .... .. . . . ... ... 717 (101%) g . . .. .. †.67%) 1 (0..... ..... Schambein)). ... 3... g 5 (8. ). .. . . . pubic bone. . .... .. . .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms cle 4 ).. lt lt * dermis..... . . i Source-Independent formations Unclassified equivalents Complex English Terms Chinese equivalents LGP/CM equivalents Loans l ? .62%) ... ... .... .. .. . . . . . ... ... ...... .. . . e. .. . . . . . .. . .g..25%) lt Of which from non-English sources Added elements in loan-translations Deleted elements in loan-translations Changed elements in loan-translations Total 15 . .. derm(at)-). .. . ... skin. . . 25 .. . 25 (2. . . . . .. . 10 (1. . . ...32%) i Source-independent formations Unclassified equivalents ? . .13% reduction) Combined total of Chinese equivalents Polyequivalence Deleted synonymy LGP/CM terms Loans l g . . . . . .. . 256 (26. . ....3 Discussion One remarkable element of the results is the fact that a total of 955 English terms 3. . . .. ..1 Synonymy and Polyequivalence is rendered by 906 Chinese equivalents. . . . .. . . 81 (8.. .. .... ... . and Greek origin (e. . Only about 2. . . .. ... ... .. . the high level of synonymy is due to the fact that many basic concepts are represented by words or word-roots of Germanic. . . .. . .. . .... . . . . which have to be rendered differently in Chinese.. . .. . .62%) . . . . . .80%) 4 (0. . .98%) . . .3. . . . . . . 7 (0. there is more than one equivalent for an SL term. meaning either a condition of excessive urination or the number of times a person urinates. . .. . .. . . . 442 . . . . Latin. however. . . 604 (63. . . . . .. . .. . . ..75%) . . Of course. .. . . . 955 . lt Loan-translations . . . . . . ... ..2. More often. The additional equivalents are occasionally due to polysemy of the English term. .75% in the translation process. 151 . amenorrhea ).05%) 3.g. ... . .g.. reducing synonymy by nearly 7. .. . .. . . . ... Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation Unclassified equivalents Combined English Total ? . . . . . .3.. . . . 906 (5. . . . 74 (7. . . 618 (102. . . it appears to be attributable to inability of speakers to make a firm choice between two synonymous equivalents (e. ... . . . . . . . .2.6% of English terms have two Chinese equivalents. . .. . . Much less frequently. . . ... . . . .42%) .48%) . . . . . cutis/cut(an)-. . . . . . urinary frequency. .. therefore. On average. Loan-translation in complex terms presents the problem that not all of the elements are semantically translated. we find that loan-translation accounts for about 63%. There are 618 of these. every loan-translation has a little more than one element that is not semantically translated. These will be discussed below. since there are often additions. more than the total number of loan-translations (604). and nearly nine in ten complex terms equivalent have such an element too. and loan-translations are source-oriented. LGP terms in the SL (and their classical substitutes) are represented by LGP/CM terms. The distribution of methods applied in translating simple terms and combining forms is. loans. Overall. Clear patterns in the choice of termformation method can nevertheless be discerned. LGP/CM for nearly 27%. the percentage of loan-translations accounts for nearly 80%.2. LSP-bound terms in the SL are overwhelmingly rendered by loan-translation rather than loan. Loans are minimal. more or less the same. The Chinese equivalents of the LGP serve for the combining forms.3. and changes.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms The above observations are of minor relevance to the present discussion of how terms are chosen. Amongst complex terms. assuming that LGP/CM equivalents. LGP/CM equivalents account for nearly 60%. and independent formations for most of the rest. therefore. The extent to which this kind of deviation affects the source/target-oriented status of translation is difficult to evaluate as will become apparent from the discussion below. The sixty English classical combining forms included in the list mostly correspond to LGP terms. and hence they are not counted as equivalents. the Chinese translation of Western medical terms are roughly 90% source-oriented. When the three groups (simple terms. loan-translations and independent formations accounting for most of the rest. and complex terms) are added together. LGP/CM and source-independent formations accounting for most of the rest. deletions. .2 Relative Frequency of the Use of Methods There are certain difficulties in classifying TL term-formation methods in relation to the SL terms. combining forms. as to be expected. 3. Loans are minimal. do differ in their literal meaning. bone 274. penis 282. to exhale. but are conspicuously difu ı ferent as regards both structure and meaning. tongue 271. which combine to describe the biphasal process of breathing. 266. breath). ‘scar mark’ a e sh¯ o sh¯ ng. The English term is composed of one word. having no literal meaning (or so far as we know. burn 281. forehead 268. forehead nese I h¯ x¯. both the English terms and the Chinese terms are used in their primary sense. The English and Chinese terms h¯ x¯ and respiration share exactly the same reference.3. with a stem (Latin spir. ear 275. The detail concerning ascription of terms to each is given below: 3. ‘hemp rash’ a e b¯ n h´ n.2. ‘y¯n stem’ ı ı ı zˇ g¯ ng. ‘pupil hole’ o o forehead. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation 3. skin 269. wart l` e gˇ u e ˇr w` n a x¯ ı y´ u o 267. however. The English and the Chinese terms are semantically equivalent but not literally so. it encountered an existing . measles 279. is composed of two characters.3. wrist 276. shoulder In the examples above. knee 277.3. ‘infant’s palace’ ı o 283. brain nˇ o a e ´ p´ f¯ ı u x¯n ı sh´ e ji¯ n a 272.1 LGP/CM equivalents LGP/CM equivalents include TL terms that are everyday words used in their everyday sense (LGP) and terms of Chinese medical origin (CM). on the other hand. primary in Chi- When Western medicine was introduced into China. ‘burn injury’ a a y¯n j¯ng. The inclusion of terms of two origins in one category will be discussed further ahead.2.3 Principles of Categorisation The four classes of equivalents are broad classes of translation equivalents. . The Chinese. uterus q m´ zhˇ n. Some LGP equivalents. scar 280. the prefix (re-) implying repetition. respiration 284. More examples revealing differences in literal meaning between LGP terms that are referentially equivalent are given below: 278. rib 273. no etymological meaning that speakers might be aware of) other than this primary sense.3. and . pupil 285. ‘inhale-exhale’ u ı t´ ng kˇ ng. to inhale. heart 270. and a complex suffix (-ation) serving to mark nominalisation. For the purpose of this study. reflected a Chinese conception of it.1). LGP equivalent means LGP equivalent in the TL of any term in the SL. Instead. but in a less familiar sense of ‘a part that sticks out’. translate ‘acute conjunctivitis’ as " # $ f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n. pruritus 293. terms of Chinese medical origin cannot easily be separated from regular LGP equivalents. No doubt. which is here not used in its u LGP sense (a series of events or actions). It might be reasonı ı e o a literal meaning of the English term ( able to suppose that the above terms were commonly used enough in the LGP for their Chinese medical components to have no significance (‘wind stroke’. for example. ‘lichen-disease’ a A few of the above examples reflect characteristically Chinese medical concepts. ‘wind stroke’ 287. ‘leg q`’ a ı ı xiˇ n. apoplexy. They did not. wheal % 290. Nevertheless. kˇ u a o kˇ ng o t´ u In compound terms. those which. Many Chinese LGP terms are the equivalents of classical terms that have been adopted in English medical terminology and that to some extent are LSP-specific. o e 289. . yˇ ng is an LGP a used as the equivalent of pruritis. 286. such as ‘wind’ as the cause of disease. meatus 296. for example. given the constant interaction between LGP and LSP. beriberi jiˇ o q`. The Chinese t´ is an LGP word equivalent to the English ‘process’. stroke. Hence. foramen 297. ‘wind lump’ e a ni´ p´ xiˇ n. they devised a term that reflects the e o a j´ x`ng ji´ m´ y´ n). tinea y´ ng wˇ i. which in English is an LSP-bound term. lit. As was explained in the last chapter (2. being considered as a dead metaphor. whether or not the SL term is an LGP word or not. many LSP-specific adjectives borrowed from Greek and Latin are translated with LGP terms. it is often difficult to say whether a term was chosen because it was widely used by the general population. impotence 288.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms way into the terminology of Western medicine. Other examples are listed below: 292. it is not possible to draw a clear line between LGP and LSP-bound terms. For example. ‘y´ ng wilt’ a e a % zh` ng f¯ ng. pharynx 294. psoriasis f¯ ng ku` i. as far as possible. though possibly sharing the same objective referent.3. ‘ox-hide u ı a lichen-disease’ 291. at least for those not acquainted with Chinese medicine). gingiva yˇ ng a y¯ n a chˇ y´n ı ı 295. Chinese scholars translating the terminology of Western medicine into Chinese were much aware of the need to translate terms in such a way as to reflect the concept in its Western medical conceptual system and avoided. process d` o. the diaphragm was e e g´ . ‘essence/semen + liquid’ ı e dˇ n n´ ng. ‘transe h´ ng g´ shares charactere e dˇ n. ocular ' 302. ‘ear’ chˇ. semen 314. lit. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation 298. carpal g¯ n (de) a p´ ng gu¯ ng (de) a a w` n (de) a 301. lit. was redefined to denote ‘tinea’ (ringworm). and traditionally used in several distinct senses. ‘gum’ ı ı e ˇ r. a a was adopted as the equivalent of typhoid. The Chinese medical a sh¯ ng h´ n. pur-. hepatic 299. aur-. ‘kidney’ e p´ ng gu¯ ng. 313. ‘bladder’ a a y¯n d` o. 304. an LGP/CM term undergoes modification. in Western medicine. ‘gallbladder + bladder’ a a xi¯ n ti¯ n x`ng de. pedal z´ (de) u yˇ n (de) a dˇ n n´ ng (de) a a Many Greek and Latin combining forms are also rendered by LGP equivalents. This particular addition is redundant since in Latin. and a a gallbladder. ren-. earlier heaven + nature(d) a a ı m` n x`ng de. ‘tooth’ ı 311. vesic-. colpo307. odont312. ‘cold damage’. ‘mouth’ o 309. ‘moss’ or ‘lichen’. The Chinese medical term term xiˇ n. whereas in Chinese the secretion is named after the organ ( dˇ n zh¯. In Chinese medicine. congenital 316. gallbladder 315. Greek. Similarly. In some cases. vesical 300. otchˇ y´n. was added. cyst306. and English the organ is named after its secretion. ‘urgent’. ‘pus’ o LGP/CM equivalents have sometimes undergone a degree of redefinition or spe- cialisation. slow + nature(d) a ı ‘acute-natured’. derived from a includes the notion of edible meat). ul310. probably by the influence of dia-. the Chinese dˇ n n´ ng. in a general trend in modern LSP Chinese (gradually being generalised . Thus was expanded to istics of both LGP/CM and loan-translation. ı ı on assuming equivalence for ‘acute’ in medical terminology became to LGP) to mark certain adjectives. the word diaphragm appears in Chinese as traditionally referred to simply as h´ ng g´ . ‘brain’ a kˇ u. nephr305. For example. dent-. encephal308. the word e h´ ng. ‘vagina’ ı a nˇ o. since it o xiˇ n. cholecyst. ‘acute’. cholecystic 303. which ı j´ x`ng. gingiv-. Another example is a ı j´.3. chronic j¯ng y` . gallbladder. For instance. stomatsh` n. ‘gallbladder juice’). py- n´ ng. evidently by emulation of vesica fellea. a verse’. originally synonymous with j¯ was chosen as the equivalent of muscle. although it was ı r` u ‘flesh’ ( o r` u is actually wider in meaning. e a ı we were to include substance and drug names. electrocardiogram x¯n di` n t´ ı a u xu` zhˇ ng e o 322. In the realm of general medical terminology.3. single-word metaphors are often supplemented with added elements (discussed below). being supplied in the Chinese equivalent of musculoskeletal were ignored. a e 3. elements of TL that deviated from the SL terms were isolated. ı a a s¯ pˇ l´n. However.3 Loan-translation Loan-translation. or changed elements that were isolated are as follows: ı u u ı . Elements have sometimes to be added. u as were elements that corresponded semantically but not literally. we would find a substantially larger num9 9 a d´ l´n. ¯ a ı $ mˇ f¯ i. g¯ ng. adalin. ‘catarrh’. grammatical changes such the adjectival morpheme -ous of mucous disappearing in translation and the yˇ . which is mostly used to translate terms composed of multiple words. a Loan-translation is also used to deal with the many single-word classical compounds: 317. a a ' xi¯ k` . ¯ ı ı ı kˇ t¯ . lobectomy y` qi¯ ch´ sh` e e u u Loan-translation seeks principally to render the major content words and morphemes. In translation. soleus muscle and 5 bˇ m` y´ j¯. they include: ber of loans ( cocaine. but may also be applied to terms consisting of a single element that are not used in their ordinary LGP sense. In the present study. deleted. or changed in translation to accommodate the grammatical and word-building patterns of the TL or its lexical resources. hematoma 323. pyuria r p´ ng gu¯ ng sh´ a a ı 320. ‘shock’. As can easily be seen in Appendix I. cystolithiasis b`ng ı 321. arch (various structures). ‘lymph’. o sˇ n.2. If u e kˇ kˇ y¯n.2. word-for-word relation. the use of loan-translation is apparent in all aspects of Western medical terminology.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 3. The relationship is not always an exact literal. and phonetically represented in Chinese with like-sounding characters. + l´n b¯ . Loan-translation is most commonly applied to terms consisting of more than one element.2 Loans Loans are terms that are borrowed directly from the source. Added. hydrocephalus 318. accounts for a large number of terms. morphine). deleted. hypoglycemia xu` t´ ng gu` e a o shˇ o a n´ ng ni` o o a 319. ‘and’.3. only in a couple of cases do they appear as single characters: fimbriae (the ‘fringes’ of the fallopian tubes).3. but in an extended sense. aspirin.3. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation tion of supplementary elements based on the concept. iris. Phthiriasis can mean any louse infestation. that is. a ı suˇ gˇ . ‘vasectomy’ (in u ı a e u u biˇ o p´. or terms of LGP/CM origin of different literal meaning. ‘lock bone’) all disapo u pear in translation. ‘chest great muscle’) and musculus gluteus maximus ( o a ı f` i ji´ h´ . or in actual realisation ‘y¯n’. This addition provides a way of reflecting the distinction ı ı ı between pediculosis and phthiriasis. ‘(membrana) mucosa’ (parallel with a o sh¯ j¯ng guˇ n qi¯ ch´ sh` . The Chinese supplies the notion of ‘genitals’. ‘bone’ added ı u ji´ ch´ ng p´ q¯ . female principle) added u l´ gˇ . and clavicle ( a a 4 m´ in o ni´ n m´ . such as the German Schleimhaut) and which vas stands for ‘vas deferens’). the dark. from the Greek meaning ‘rainbow’ or ‘halo’. For instance. Less predictably. In the examples that follow. the added element is double-underlined. labium 327. For example. ‘ear’ added h´ ng m´ . ‘colon’ added e a ı u 7 328. but that contain an individual element or elements that are not semantic equivalents. ‘membrane’ added o o yin ch´ n. or a phonetic transcription. is translated into Chinese as h´ ng m´ . ‘buttock great muscle’). the -osis of tuberculosis disappears u a ı ! Changed elements: One deviation from exact replication is seen in TL terms that in their overall composition trace the SL terms. ‘ovum-transporting’ added u a a e u u xi¯ n w´ i zh` n d` ng ‘vibration’ added a e a o ji´ m´ . the diminutive elements of cuticle ( hair follicle ( major ( in 7 m´ o n´ ng ‘hair sac’). ‘intestine’ added e o k¯ ng ch´ ng. splenic flexure 329. cochlea 325. ‘surface skin’). by loan-translation with an additional element. conjunctiva 333. Deleted elements: Certain elements are often dropped or otherwise dealt with in Chinese.3. ‘rainbow memo o brane’. jejunum t` n shuˇ hu` h´ w` . iris ~ 326. fibrillation 332. e e e t´ n d` j¯. vomer e o ˇ r w¯ . ‘intestine’ added o a Sometimes added elements are simply elements once present but subsequently lost in the SL term. ‘mixed substance’ added a ı a e u sh¯ luˇ n guˇ n qi¯ ch´ sh` . but usually specifically denotes infestation of the genitals with Phthirus pubis. carbohydrates 330. 324. ‘pudendal’ (actually ‘yin’. as do the comparative and superlative suffixes of musculus pectoralis xi¯ ng d` j¯. salpingectomy 331. elements that are source-independent formations. the dark ı principle (< y¯n sh¯ b`ng). . For example. Auditory tube is rendered in Chinese as % & t¯ng d` o. ‘louse disease’ ı ı xi´ n sh´ b`ng. -y. despite the existence of a closer equivalent of tube. -oma. qi´ n li` xi` n y´ n. synovial membrane 4 341. the gastrocnemius muscle (from Greek gastr-. -or. belly.f´ i ch´ ng j¯. ‘sand eye’ a a sh¯ luˇ n guˇ n qi¯ ch´ sh` . calf intestine muscle’. shank) is rendered as " f´ i ch´ ng j¯. ‘ovum-transporting tubes exciu a a e u u 350. flexor) u is rendered as j¯ in Chinese. -in. which was originally a feminine adjective ending in Greek (qualifying the deleted nossos. -ism. -ismus. cryptorchidism > 349. calf intestine muscle e a ı h´ r´ n. pediculosis < 347. salpingectomy sion operation’ . r 337. Other suffixes translated more explicitly include: -osis. ‘sweat spring/source (in the body)’ a a 2 3 l´n b¯ x` b¯ o. integumentary system 338. ‘hidden testes pathological condition’ ı a e sh¯ yˇ n. ‘egg-white urine’ since the word for protein is modelled independently of the intera nationalism protein(-) (c. -or (as in adductor. ‘saliva stone disease’ a ı ı ? @ 348.f. lymphocyte 1 0 tˇ b` i x` tˇ ng. ı -iasis. ‘body cover tied union’ ı e ı o h` n xi` n. and hence is rendered as such ( y´ n). lit. -ia. ‘stand hair muscle inflammation’ ı a ı .means rough. hu` n q` gu` d` . Other examples follow: 334. nucleolus & . trachoma Z ' yˇn g¯ o zh` ng. Thus hepatitis is translated as . ‘exchange q` (air) beyond measure’ a ı o u ı . lit. In trachoma the root trach. ı a guˇ n. ‘nail groove inflammation’ a o a . lit. arrector pili 8 343. ‘pit kernel’ e e . ) ( * r j¯ yˇ gˇ g´ x` tˇ ng ı u u e ı o . kneme. ' sh¯ a a means ‘sand’. xu` guˇ n. lit. transcription little (body-)sac” ı a ı a . l` m´ o j¯. proteinuria is # e a ı B $ d` n b´ i a a ni` o. musculoskeletal system ( 335. prostatitis 9 6 V 7 ( 7 . ‘disease’). In Chinese. blood vessel Some classical suffixes used in specific technical senses become more explicit in the TL term. In the names of functional types of muscles. German Eiweiß). sweat gland / 339.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms There are numerous examples where loan-translations are not very exact. ‘slippery fluid membrane’ 340. paronychia 5 342. while the Chinese translation. -itis. -ismus. gastrocnemius muscle + 336. sialithiasis = r r sh¯ b`ng. -ise. ‘frontline gland inflammation’ a e a a . in medical terminology represents ‘inflammation’. hyperventilation : 345. Note that this follows a pattern also observed in the formation of the German a a Leberentz¨ ndung. ‘hearing pathway/tract’. jiˇ g¯ u y´ n. 346. For example. ‘blood tube’ e a 0 344. a g¯ n y´ n. which is a source-independent formation ı o J K borrowed from Japanese. cardiac catheterisation 356. x` tˇ ng appears as the translation of system ı o consistently throughout the terminology of Western medicine. and is so common an expression that it can now be considered as LGP equivalent. For this reason. ‘external ear inflammation’ a ˇ a a o ı y´ zh¯ u b`ng. the sole of a shoe or. ‘nettle rash’ The significance of these different kinds of changes varies. The difference in literal meaning does not substantially lessen the target-oriented nature of the translation. Although source-independent equivalents of elements of compound terms are not predictable in isolated cases. although the term was originally a source-independent formation. However. a muscle the ı u u ı bˇ m` y´ . ‘tooth-peripheral disease’ . The Chinese term 5 bˇ m` y´ j¯ is modelled on the Latin musculus soleus. the literal/etymological meaning of the Chinese differs because 5 to-each-other eyes fish’. keratoconus L 358. by metaphorical extension. differences in literal meaning of LGP/CM equivalents were not counted as changed elements. pigment C 355. ‘stretching muscle’ e ı s` s` . Differences in literal meaning of elements that are LGP/CM referential equivalents are not significant. (In this particular case. Changed order: The Chinese terminology of Western medicine also provides examples of changes in the order of elements to conform to Chinese grammatical patterns. The word system.3. the significance as regards source/target orientation is difficult to judge. ‘heart catheter insertion’ . ‘tooth substance’ ı ı sh¯ n j¯. dentin A ( D r xu´ yˇ u b`ng. changed elements have little statistical value. Where an element of a loan-translation is source-independently formed. they are predictable when they systematically appear in multiple terms. hemophilia 352. ‘blood friend disease’ e o ı chˇ zh`. extensor B 354. the sole fish. LGP/CM elements are not predictable from their literal meaning but from their referential meaning. (and refers to flounders or flatfish in general). For this reason. otitis externa P 359. 357. for example. ‘cone-shaped cornea’ a ı ı a o w` i er y´ n. However. it has been adopted in the LGP of Chinese. appears in Chinese as J K x` tˇ ng. ‘nextı u u shape of a solea. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation 351.) A major advantage of source-oriented translation is that it makes the TL term predictable from the SL. ‘colour element’ e u E F G H 353. periodontosis Q R M N 7 r O yu´ n zhu¯ x´ng jiˇ o m´ . urticaria I . ‘heavy/severe pathological condition o e ı u ı 3. ‘excessive sensitivity’ o ı T 376. ‘abdominal water’ u ı a 372. ‘spirit path’ e ı ^ gu` mˇn. appendix _ l´ n wˇ i. no single vernacular language has ever constituted the linguistic standard for the entire body of Western medical knowledge. to English may be found to be direct loans from Japanese. lit. cell 2 371. papule 370. electrocardiogram 366. rectus abdominis muscle 365. epithelium ] 374.3. Since the decline in the use of Latin.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 360. say. middle gluteal muscle X 364. the Chinese medical name for the ileocecal junction)’ 377. ascites 3 gˇ m´ . screen. tinea capitis 362. poliomyelitis inflammation’ 361. ‘heart electric picture’ ı a u S c zh` ng zh` ng j¯ w´ l`. To understand how such terms came to assume their present form. it is not always easy to distinguish source-independent formations from LGP equivalents or loan-translations. periosteum 368. ‘buttock middle muscle’ u o ı ( f` zh´ j¯. valve \ b` n. allergy p sh` ng p´. ‘heart great vein’ ı a ı a t´ n zh¯ ng j¯. standing for a e ` @ . myasthenia gravis Z muscle no strength’ @ ( S T U A 7 nˇ o suˇ hu¯ b´ i zh` y´ n. vitiligo a r b´ i b¯ n b`ng. peritoneum 369.2. ‘bone membrane’ u o f` m´ . ‘petal’ 373. white patch disease a a ı Because of complexities in the transmission process. nerve 375.4 Source-independent formation Source-independent formations are equivalents formed by selecting lexical items from the TL that express the concept. ‘small bag[like structure of the body]’ ı a f` shuˇ.3. great cardiac vein 363. ‘body tinea’ ı a V W ( Y x¯n d` j`ng m` i. ‘abdomen straight muscle’ u ı ı x¯n di` n t´ . we must investigate the method by which the concepts they represent were expressed in Japanese. ‘hill rash’ u e x` b¯ o. . ‘screen tail’ (` . ‘upper skin’ a ı sh´ n j¯ng. 367. ‘abdominal membrane’ u o qi¯ zhˇ n. ‘spine marrow grey-white matter a ı ı a ı a tˇ xiˇ n. Certain Chinese medical terms that might be judged to be source-independent formations when compared. but do not match those used in the formation of the SL term. Other examples are given below: 378. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation the early stages. I merely suggest it as a possibility for a mere thirteen terms. the German language was much more influential than the English. ‘belly water sickness’) f` shuˇ: ‘abdomen water’ u ı z W W chˇ gˇ : ‘shame bone’ (German Schamı u d` ng m` i: ‘active vessel’ (German Schlagader. h` n a z`). during the Q¯ng Dynasty. many of the Japanese neologisms were adopted. however. pubic bone: Latin pubes. aorta: Greek aorta. Europe. o a zhˇ d` ng m` i: ‘main active vessel’ u o a .. aorta. ‘windpipe’ / ‘beat vessel’) 380. In the early ı stage of the eastward transmission of Western medical knowledge to Japan. they rejected direct borrowing in favour of loan-translation and sourceindependent formation. Fujita 1947). A number of Western medical terms in Chinese that appear to be source-independently formed when they are compared to English (or Latin) are found to be identical to Japanese terms that may well be loan-translations of the German terms. In Japan. mostly using English as the medium of instruction. Students returning from Japan brought back with them many of the Japanese renderings of medical terms in Chinese script. ‘something suspended’ / (German Hauptschlagader. Two examples of such terms are w d` ng m` i. Japanese medical text books regularly provided German anatomical names alongside the Latin and Japanese until the end of World War II (e. From the beginning of this century. These terms. artery. ‘beating vessel’. could be readily adopted by the Chinese. medical circles considered German as being of equal importance to Latin. and Japan to study.g. in most cases. Western medicine had been taught by missionı ary schools. lit. ‘leather bag’. from the beginning of the Meiji (1867). ‘shame bone’) 379. and Hauptschlagader.3. ‘main beat vessel’) 381. lit. The German origin of loan-translations thus barely affects the general conclusion that Chinese terms are by and large semantically translated from the Western source. ‘main beating vessel’. and in Appendix IV. which may have been inspired by o a the German Schlagader. and expressed the terms in Chinese characters (kanji. ‘wine skin’ / (German Bauchwassersucht. ‘main moving (or active) vessel’. lit. ‘signs of puberty’ / y bein. and x o a - w zhˇ u d` ng m` i. many medical students went to North America. from askos. ascites: Greek askites. To verify whether the Chinese term actually derives from German would be a difficult task. ‘moving (or active) vessel’. When the Chinese government began to standardise Western medical terminology in Chinese in 1927 (NICT 1947). artery: Greek arteria. In China. Eustachian tube was rejected because. ‘cord’ / e S T jˇ suˇ: ‘spine marrow’ (Latin medulla ı ı spinalis. the LGP/CM equivalent of goiter. spinal cord: Greek chord¯ . protein: Greek ‘proteios’. translation of thyromegaly. If this assertion is correct. ‘reddish ones’ (cf. Why yˇng. + from em. and is used for eustachian tube. a a a u 386. lit. like all eponyms. ‘no’. ı e zu` gˇ : ‘sitting bone’ (German Sitzbein. ‘blood’ / { ‘blood poverty’) 383. German Kropf). ischium: Greek ‘hip’ / | p´n xu` : ‘poor blood’ (German Blutarmut. ‘sitting bone’) o u } 384. but also stands for rubella. ‘spinal marrow’. was rejected in ı d` b´ zi. ‘back marrow’) u 388. zhˇ n. it may be because translators were familiar only with the LGP expression n . such Chinese terms are marked with an asterisk). and also stands in place of goiter. e ı e Quite a few medical concepts have more than one name in English. was probably rejected because it was less easily duplicated o than German measles. German R¨ ckenmark. is modelled on German measles. Rubella. It would seem that the e Chinese term in each case was based on the best-motivated term or the one that could be reduplicated in Chinese. ventricle: Latin ‘little stomach’ / chamber’) 385. its relationship to pituitary gland is not counted as an independent formation. zh¯ n p´ is modelled on cutis vera. ‘heart ı ı biˇ n t´ o xi` n: ‘almond gland’ (German Mandel(dr¨ se). t¯ng d` o appears to ı a d´ gu´ m´ e o a be modelled on auditory tube. anemia: Greek an. first. it is less well motivated than a descriptive name. which they may have a o favour of thyromegaly is not clear (cf.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 382. Thus the Chinese chu´ tˇ is modelled on hyı ı pophysis (or rather probably the German Hypophyse). Similarly. ‘big neck’. ‘catgut’. but also stands for e ı jiˇ zhu` ng xi` n zhˇ ng is a loana a a o % & the English synonyms dermis and corium. ‘egg-white’) T A d` n b´ i zh`: ‘egg-white substance’ (German a a ı 387. German R¨ teln). ganglion: Greek ‘swelling’ / ‘nerve knot/node’) p sh´ n j¯ng ji´ : ‘nerve node’ (German Nervedknote. the relationship of the Chinese equivalent to any synonym of the English term on which it is modelled is not considered as one of source-independent formation (in Appendix I. tonsil: Latin ‘shaven head’ / ‘almond gland’) ~ 0 x¯n sh`: ‘heart chamber’ (German Sitzbein. not on pituitary gland which is the commoner term in English. dermis and corium were rejected because their literal meaning is ‘skin’. When the Chinese terminology was being devised. synonymy was deliberately minimised by having a single term for each concept. pituitary gland was rejected because its motivation is obsolete (Latin pituita means ‘phlegm’). In such cases. chief / Eisweiß. very often a loan-translation. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation The apparent practice of resorting to a loan-translation of a German where a loantranslation of a Latin term would be unsatisfactory is evidence of the importance of a linguistic precedent in translators’ decisions. hair follicle. 3. one could also claim that the . e a ji¯ ng m´ . Other terms evince the same characteristic: yu´ n. e e e dˇng gˇ . even though the first element is formed by borrowing and the second by source-independent formation. a o a er c´ hˇ i m` sh` b`ng. d¯ ng g´ r` .2. ı a ı a lymphocyte. thigh. ı u 2 : sh´ n j¯ng e ı . respectively). blood vessel. pelvis. the loan-translation as a whole is less source-oriented. In Appendix I. both are source-independent formations (they mean ‘spirit path’ and ‘tie control (or organisation)’. etc. ı e o a A term is also classed as loan-translation if. This is observed especially in compound terms where different elements belong to different categories. Given that the aim is to determine the degree of source-oriented translation. The same point is also underscored by the fact that translators will quite happily settle for etymologizing translations of dead metaphors (atrium. On the other hand. Alzheimer’s disease. serous membrane. is classed as a loan-translation.4 Categorisation Difficulties Precise classification is sometimes difficult because the term (or part of it) may belong simultaneously to more than one category. Examples include gracilis muscle. in a a xu` guˇ n. and u which the diminutive -icle is dropped. Any complex term is classed as a loan-translation if its overall structure matches the SL term. Although : J K sh´ n j¯ng e ı x` tˇ ng as the rendering of nervous system is considered a loan-translation because the ı o : sh´ n j¯ng and J e ı K x` tˇ ng conı o sistently represent nerve and system throughout the terminology of Western medicine. dengue fever. - w¯ i li` ng yu´ n s` . ` a l´ n wˇ i y´ n. a e a f` m´ y´ n. deleted.3. e a a u w gˇ b´ j¯. Terminological translators do not appear to eager invent new terms themselves on the basis of concepts. even if individual elements are formed by other methods. For example. ¯ ˇ ı a o ı ı have been classed as loan-translations. mitral valve. despite added. in which gˇ . For example. u o a jˇng n` i d` ng m` i. overall structure of the term is the same. parietal bone. + l´n b¯ x` b¯ o. is added. When individual elements are formed in other ways (by source-independent formation).3. It could be argued that the specific element of a complex term is more important than the generic element as regards clarification. or changed elements.). the TL term is modelled on the SL term. u o ı m´ o n´ ng. we might note that the presence of a loan (an equivalent that is more source-oriented than loan-translation) within a loantranslation is a special case of loan-translation that tends toward the source-oriented pole. D` c´diˇ n (ZD a ı a of Chinese Medicine”) of 1921. serous. we might wish to consider the term a source-independent formation because guˇ n. the notion of poor appetite was traditionally expressed in phrases such as 0 0 b` y` yˇn sh´. n` i zh¯ ng is a generic class of e a obstruction’. meaning the dislocation of a bone from its o u w` i represents the influence of loc-. receptacle)—or the German parallel Gef¨ ß. In Chinese medicine. ‘white internal a e a . e . Alzeimer’s). in which the appetite appears as a ı u u e sh´ y` appears to have been inspired by the definition of English apı u b` zh` n is an idiomatic expression. lit. . ` u e @ noun phrase petite. e On the borderline between LGP/CM equivalence and source-independent formation. + comes from Greek trachys. + is difficult to rule out the prior existence of the term + & & traditionally loosely denoted the ‘airways’. The term tu¯ w` i. it is often difficult to tell whether a term existed before the introduction of the Western medical concept. ‘tube’ is not literally the same as a vessel (Latin vascellum. ‘tail’. . b´ i n` i zh¯ ng. but whether it is loan-translation of radius is not clear. is apparently a hybrid. diminutive of vas. seems to be a source-independent formation. ‘unvigorous desire to eat’. a In two cases (dengue. ‘stick/oar bone’. we would classify the terms as loans. appears to have been borrowed from Japanese. lit. trachea (which ı a q` d` o and ı a x¯ d` o ı a premodern Chinese medical literature. ‘rough’. while tu¯ is part of the Chinese medical o tu¯ ji` . ‘not wanting to eat’. position. Since it is not contained in the 1995 ZD. ‘escape [from] mortar’. For instance. ! sh¯ zhˇ n. In the first case. appears to have been borrowed from Japanese. appears to be a a e similar hybrid. Alzheimer’s) should determine the overall classification. describing this organ’s inner surface). ı a There are apparently a few hybrids of LGP/CM equivalents and source-independent formations. ı e ‘damp rash’. but there was no specific term for ‘trachea’. lit.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms specific element in each case (vessel. lit. parietal. combined with The Chinese equivalent of cataract is B . it appears in the Zh¯ ngy¯ o ı “Dictionary of Chinese Medicine”) of 1995. since o e term socket. Chinese dictionaries do not normally state when individual compounds first appeared. ‘screen gate’. eczema. it q` guˇ n. lit. lit. dislocation. ` representing the ` l´ n m´ n. 0 l´ n wˇ i. still in its infancy. the ileocecal junction. traditionally denoting a e wˇ i. o o ı e a ı a r´ o gˇ . appendix. According to the 1995 ZD. Nevertheless. we might judge it not to be a traditional Chinese medical term. does not appear in a u q` guˇ n. but not “Comprehensive Dictionary 4 in Zh¯ nggu´ Y¯xu´ D` c´diˇ n (ZYD. dengue. the modern medical term u u ı ı sh´ y` b` zh` n. and Chinese medical lexicography. has not mapped the full extent of Chinese medical terminology. the metaphor slips from ‘key’ to ‘lock’. do not wear any headgear at all.2. owing to changes in hat fashions. There appears to be a certain tension between familiar LGP/CM equivalents and unfamiliar loan-translations that are better motivated in the medical context. ‘cut foreskin’. Buddhist monks. so it might be more correct to treat it as predominantly (but for the ‘white’ element) an LGP/CM equivalent. lit. There is evidence that term translators e ı g¯ b¯ o p´. ‘door teeth’. This is because the SL terms in this category are largely LGP/CM terms. undoubtedly explicable by the phonetic obstacles to direct loans. tissue. the English-speaking student of medicine is not much better informed by the term than his Chinese counterpart.3 (Semantic Extension) and translation of it in 7. Of course. ‘monk’s hat valve’. the loan-translation qi¯ sh` ‘foreskin circle-cutting operation’ was chosen instead. Instead of recognising as the LGP equivalent of circumcision.3. loan-translation is the most commonly used method.3. in which the use of the prefix circum. Physicians of Western medicine in China clearly decided to reject the term bone’. The term 4 zh` gˇ is likely to have been less familiar to those without u u m´ n chˇ. Enigmatically. Among complex terms.3 (Translating Words Used in Extended Senses). but the question remains as to what it could otherwise have been called. The point here is that such inconsistencies of method can only be explained in terms of familiarity with the terms. e a ı b¯ o p´ hu´ n a ı a much knowledge of medicine than @ have overdone it in some places. e a a s¯ ng. clavicle.is not medically motivated (compare the German loan-translation Beschneidung). in o u so doing. to stand along-side e ı qi¯ y´ . pelvis. in favour of the (Japanese) loan-translation 4 4 zh` gˇ . 3. . lit. they were merely replacing one medically insignificant metaphor with another. I shall say more about metaphor in 5. even though from the Western medical point of view it is e a a poorly motivated metaphor by comparison with the functional description contained in the new term.5 Factors Influencing Choice of Method Among simple terms. Mitral valve is translated as even though s¯ ng m` o b` n. Yet it might be might noted that. the clash could have been avoided by leaving Buddhist monks out of the matter. and because singlemorpheme or one-word metaphorical terms (such as atrium. LGP/CM equivalents are by far the most common. ‘pillar u u suˇ gˇ . even though. Only rarely do attempts at semantic translation fail on account of nontransference of a metaphor. they have allowed the LGP equivalent of incisor the neologism @ m´ n chˇ. iris. On the other hand. radius) are relatively uncommon.3. so that the Chinese e is less well motivated than the English term. even though the English e u term is from the classical Latin circumcisio. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation impediments to vision in traditional Chinese medicine.2.1. where both ‘kidney’ and ‘-lithiasis’ as technical concepts). Frenulum labii superioris (oris) → Frenulum labii maxillaris / ] 391. not compounds composed of elements that in themselves are technical terms. size. -rhaphy. 389. In most cases. The strength of the source-oriented approach is reflected in the adjustment of Chinese anatomical terminology in the wake of amendments in the Latin terminology. shape. Certain domains of terminology reveal less systematic rendering and less systematic naming in English/Latin.g.. Disease terms formed by part/organ/tissue + -itis. wart. -itis. for example. nerve) is complemented by specifics (words denoting body part. -ectomy.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms The systematic use of loan-translation is most clearly observed in domains of the terminology where the naming is most systematic. the Latin. a generic term (muscle. itching. Systematic areas of terminology would appear to encourage systematic loan-translation. A typical example is the domain of skin conditions. swelling. obscure classical terms than other areas (wheal. -osis. e. i. In gross anatomy. In 1947. -ostomy are also closely replicated in Chinese. In translation. the Chinese terms denoting muscles and blood vessels (and nerves. Loan-translations are especially likely when the component words or morphemes represent LSP concepts (e. -iathis or names of surgical procedures part/organ/tissue + -tomy. Each change in the Latin nomenclature gave rise to a corresponding change in the Chinese terminology.e. as the examples below show. the Chinese government published an amended list of Chinese terms in response to the changes made in Jena (NICT 1947). which the English also closely replicates). It is noteworthy that these are single-word terms. Flexura duodeni inferior → Flexura duodeni caudalis / T → →] → 390.. eczema). which are not included in this study) replicate the English (strictly speaking. or function). impetigo.g. Here. vein. which are concretised in . the changes could be reproduced in Chinese too. artery.. -osis. the changes in Latin were merely improvements in a name for a given part of the body (rather than newly isolated parts or redivision of parts). vitiligo. gangrene. where the English terminology reveals a larger presence of Germanic (or highly Anglicised) vocabulary and older. Lymphoglandulae auriculares posteriores → Lymphonodi retroauriculares / 1 1 0 The deviations from pure loan-translation frequently appear to be related to shortcomings in the SL terminology: a) vague suffixes. a simple replication of all the elements was naturally the easiest way to supply Chinese names. Since the Chinese terminology is highly source-oriented. nephrolithiasis. ‘slippery humour’ or ‘lubricating fluid’. it has been noted that in Chinese. requires two morphemes to express in Chinese ( as the nonmetaphorical name ( jiˇ n´ ng. and a clearer one could be formed independently without loss of efficiency. The highly consistent use of a source-oriented approach to the Chinese translation of Western medical terms seen in all aspects of medical terminology is. It might be noted in passing that the greater specification of Chinese terms in such cases and the fact that Chinese uses LGP words rather than alien words as in English make the Chinese terminology of Western medicine more precise and more self-explanatory than the classically-oriented terminology of English. salpinx. For the loantranslation equivalent of pelvis. A source-independent formation might be preferable where loan-translation is difficult or not meaningful. for instance. ‘wine skin’ (a leather bag containing liquid). b) the use of generics for specifics. which originally meant ‘membrane’. lit. It reflects a desire for source-transparency in Chinese which serves the goal of ease of translation in a discipline in which most of the advances come from abroad. lit. We might surmise u ı sh` ng p´. Loan-translation was avoided whenever the formation of the original term was obscure. ‘trumpet’. The choice of source-independent formation would appear to arise when an LGP/CM equivalent or loan-translation is unavailable or unsuitable. many modern technical terms have clearer literal meanings for their readers than the foreign . a e that it was for similar reasons that epithelium (Greek thele means ‘nipple’) and synovia (Greek syn + Latin ovum) ended up as lit. would have been encouraged by the absence u e of a Chinese LGP/CM term for this structure. e. lit. ‘upper skin’ and a ı hu´ y` . snail. for which Chinese supplies the generics ‘brain’ and ‘virgin’. semantic translations of gland (Latin glandula) and the Greek combining form aden-. The Chinese versions of epididymis and hepatitis are explicit to a lay Chinese (just as Nebenhoden and Leberentz¨ ndung are u to a speaker of German). for which Chinese supplies ‘ear’. For example. both meaning ‘acorn’. mininges and hymen.g. would have been discouraged by the unfamiliarity of the oak in the Far East.3. I suggest. ‘condition’. attributable to the source-dependency in the transmission of knowledge. for example. 4 gˇ p´ n. cochlea. ‘belly water’) requires. ascites. for which Chinese wisely supplies the generics ‘ear’ and ‘uterus’.. is encouraged by the absence of an LGP/CM equivalent and the unsuitability or inefficiency of a semantic translation. and the availability of the metaphor ‘basin’. Indeed. ‘tube’. For instance. The use of loantranslation among simple terms. ‘wine bag’). as many u a f` shuˇ. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation Chinese as ‘inflammation’. . to be intelligible in speech as well as writing (as opposed a e and alone). both tend to add elements to loan-translations for clarity’s sake (e. ‘coloured rainbow’. multiple character-words are often reduced to single characters in compounds. Nevertheless.. u . without adding to the syllable total. Furthermore. English medical terminology offers a classical example of a preponderance of loan-translation. While the German Regenbogen and Steigb¨ gel are simple seu mantic translations of the metaphors. The reason for this lies in the problem of phonetic attrition and the consequent reduction of monosyllabic words. and a o mˇ d` ng. LGP equivalents are naturally used in all three for terms used in their LGP sense in the SL. Nevertheless. it has tended to prefer loans. German and Chinese show similar tendencies in loan-translations and sourceindependent equivalents. g¯ n y´ n). displayed a tendency similar to that of Chinese. where virtually all terms other than LGP terms are borrowed. German. Semantic translation of iris and stapes would have to be 3 cˇ i h´ ng. but again. by contrast. 3. and German The translation of Western medicinal terminology into Chinese.6 Comparison of Methods Applied in Chinese. Even in modern Chinese. and its general terminology now is not much less classical than that of English.g.3. Nevertheless. English and German show a clear preference for a source-oriented approach. Chinese. there are differences in the preponderance of loans on the one hand and loan-translations on the other. respectively). The much lower level of synonymy in the Chinese terminology is another of its major merits. both languages tend to choose this method when . Both roughly follow a word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme structure (in Chinese this is a character-for-word/morpheme translation).2. Chinese more than German.g. the compound terms ‘rainbow membrane’ and ‘stirrup to bone’ have the advantage of not only allowing identification in speech as well as writing but also of disambiguating the metaphor. Leberentz¨ ndung. is a classical example of the loan-translation approach. Chinese does so with greater frequency than German. it achieves its goal with little need to resort to loans or source-independent formations. ‘horse stirrup’. e o and both tend to delete Latin diminutives. English. the Chinese h´ ng m´ and o o 4 d` ng gˇ both e u add elements (‘membrane’ and ‘bone’. The translation of LSP-bound terms mainly takes the form of borrowing (loans and loan-translations) in all three cases. Bindehaut and ji´ m´ ). both German and Chinese tend to concretise vague suffixes (e. In more recent times. in the early translation of anatomical terms. As rea a gards source-independent formations. This is of course attributable to the familiarity of German speakers with classical lexis.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms terms they render have for SL readers (Lyovin 1997: 135). It was in the same period that Westerners began to learn of Chinese medicine. ‘fine sinews’.7 Extralinguistic Background The translation of Western medical terms should be understood against its extralinguistic background. and others. the Emperor decided that it was a book of special knowledge not fit for the general public ( k k " h k 0 w - h 0 0 h ) (Lˇ J-W 1998: 261). this is because there is no q`. 3. By this time. the interest was not great. Thus. an appropriately modified literal rendering of the ı ı Latin nervus. Western powers were making incursions into China’s economic life. the Chinese translation explains the matter in terms of the indigenous concept of q`: ı “The nerves ( x` j¯n. Western medicine came to be adopted in China. but when they had completed their work.3. Western knowledge stimulated interest and exerted a minor influence on Chinese medicine (Lˇ J-W 1998: 62). Thomas Bartholin (1616–1680). In the initial phase. The Chinese started to learn about Western medicine about 400 years ago when European nations began trading in the Far East.3. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation the SL term is unclear or poorly motivated or when a literal translation would be poorly motivated. The text describes nerves as being responsible for feeling and movement. which was compiled from the anatomical works of Guichard Joseph da Verney (1648–1703). Chinese interest in Western medicine and other branches of Western learning was a matter of curiosity to learn about a distant and alien culture to which the Chinese accorded no special prestige. not so much on . which originally meant ‘sinew’) are not hollow. Nevertheless. Emperor K¯ ng-X¯ ı a ı ( ) commissioned missionaries to translate anatomical material into Manchurian. as in many other countries throughout the world. differing from Latin. they contain only q`. German and Chinese are similar in that they create vocabulary largely by compounding. and Western civilisation was beginning to exert great influence. The attitude of the recipients can be observed in the transmission process. Johannes Terrenz (1576–1630) with the help of Chinese scholars. and ı no blood. The earliest anatomical translation was performed by the Swiss physician P. Nevertheless.2. Thus when a person who cannot feel or move. ı It was not until the 19th century that Western medicine attracted greater interest. which often prefers to use existing words in extended senses. ı and therefore no strength (“ + 2 0 0 4 $ ” + 2 “ ”) (Lˇ J-W ı 1998: 256). the translation involved a conceptual adaptation of the original content for Chinese readers. these bilingual experts are those responsible for the selection of Chinese terms that the rest of the community uses. but at least by a small number of people capable of translating information for wide dissemination. Western medicine is a highly integrated discipline. Nowadays. reveal the clear recognition that language is the vehicle of knowledge. at least nowadays. The nature of Western medical concepts inevitably plays a role in how terms are named. and that source languages must be learned. The Chinese realized that the economic and political superiority of the West lay in its superior technology. Moreover. and that they had to acquire Western scientific and technological knowledge if they were to restore their country to strength. the source-language term constitutes an influential precedent. students in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) learn modern medicine by the medium of Chinese. Although in China (as in Japan) the number of people who are both fully competent in medical English and make continual use of this skill must be quite small. A good command of English is indispensable for any Chinese (or person of any other nationality) wishing to gain access to the findings of international research and or to gain international credit for his or her own research work—in medicine. and. in a Chinese terminology closely pegged to the terminologies of Western languages. as in virtually every modern field or discipline. however.5 (Terminological Translation). borrowing is closely associated with bilingualism.3.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms evidence of its superior efficacy to any indigenous form of medicine as out of the prestige accorded it by virtue of its being the medicine of the economically most advanced nations (Sivin 1987: 6).2 (Contact Between Languages). and the terms that are chosen to represent them. not necessarily by all students of the subject in question. They also realized that in order to acquire this knowlege they had to to gain full linguistic access to the source culture. As explained in 2. Thus. as I pointed out in 2. plans were put in action to encourage Chinese students adequately trained in foreign languages to go abroad to study (W´ ng F-J 1945: 280). Medical concepts are precisely defined. In both cases. B` C 1996: 328–331). they began establishing schools designed to teach foreign languages so that students could gain access to Western knowledge and translate technical information into Chinese (W´ ng F-J 1945: 277–280. these people are obviously an important link in the transmission of information. These a early moves. greater emphasis is placed on students being able to read English a a texts. which have continued into the present. even though it spans a number of distinct sciences. In Hongkong and T´ iw¯ n. a ı At the same time. whatever freedom exists in term-formation in the target language. the linguistic link is important. in the mid-19th century. are carefully chosen to reflect the essential features . It is not therefore unreasonable to think that it would be desirable and necessary in the translation of Chinese medical terminology into English too. close loan-translation is chosen instead. In LSP realms. and Chinese suggests that even though this method is theoretically dispensable (see 2. The continual advances in medicine made by the international community and in particular the Western community secure the bilingual’s key position in the development of Western medicine in China. loantranslation. Western Medicine: A Practical Model of Source-Oriented Translation of the concept. Furthermore.3. Constant effort is made to eliminate polysemy and synonymy within the term system as a whole. and the structured nature of the SL terminology tend to conjugate in favour of source-orientation.2. and Chinese suggests. For terms that do not have LGP equivalents. and that it will make use of lay terms for body parts. it is not surprising that where loans are difficult. like Western medical knowledge. In an intense process of transmitting Chinese medical knowledge from the SL to the TL by the medium of translation. If we suppose that source-independent formation tends to be used as a supplement to loan-translation. TL term-formation is determined by factors inherent in each language. 3. German. It is natural to suppose that the English equivalents of these LGP terms would serve the purposes. we could expect a source-oriented approach to translation in which TL terms are closely pegged to SL terms. From this point of view. These three factors may explain why source-orientation appears to be more prevalent in the medical field than in the LGP (see 2.3. internal organs. LSP and Terminological Theory). as Western medical term-formation in German. and source-independent formation. the need for pegging TL terms to the SL (difficult in fields with numerous terms). English. the preeminence of the SL term in representing the concept. Western Influence on Chinese). it is practically desirable and even necessary. it is reasonable to expect that our choice lies between borrow- .3 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF CHINESE MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY The general tendency toward source-oriented translation (loans and loan-translation) in the translation of medical terms into English. then it should be furthermore possible to deduce procedures for the translation of Chinese medical terms into English from those general tendencies. if. Highly significant in this context is the fact that Western medicine is constantly evolving. We may well expect that Chinese medical knowledge. The adoption of Western medicine in China was not a single act of transplantation. the choice is between loan. etc.2. will coincide with laymen’s knowledge. but has been an ongoing operation. 2 (Approaches to Chinese Medical Term Translation). I shall address this contention in Chapter 6 (6.6). ı ı there are several reasons why the possibilities of borrowing from Chinese are limited: a) English has no tradition of borrowing from Chinese. we could also say that the consistent application of a particular approach to term translation between different languages and in different fields would make that approach a practical indicator of the success of transmission. Furthermore. Indeed. makes loan-translation supplemented by source-independent formation the more viable option. as I shall show in 6. we must demonstrate that English can borrow freely from Chinese. . but rather to a tendency to assimilate Chinese concepts into a Western frame of reference (Chapter 6. By contrast. Because English is a Germanic language with a thick overlay of classical lexis that is particularly apparent in the English terminology of modern medicine. Translators apparently favouring a semantic approach to translation disagree on the exact modalities of it. some. and given the uncertain nature of the relationship between Chinese terms. source-independent formations in English of Chinese medical terms can distort Chinese concepts considerably. which will become apparent in the next two chapters (4 and 5). it is often the only option.1 (Loans [P¯ny¯n Transcription] Versus Loan-Translation). I argued that the success of a transmission act allows a positive evaluation of the particular translation approach applied. and referents. At the beginning of this chapter. As I shall show in 7. Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine). English correspondences to Chinese lexis in the domain of Chinese medicine. b) the recipients of Chinese medicine generally have no acquaintance with the Chinese language that would give borrowing a chance of development. there must be sufficient isomorphism between English and Chinese. and that these distortions are due. This question I shall address in Chapter 6 (Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine).Translation of Chinese Medical Terms If loan is the more viable option. scholars have said that loan-translation should take the form of classical derivations. notably Chinese. then we would expect source-independent formations. not to any insufficiency in the lexical correspondence of English to Chinese. and c) the tonality of Chinese that is important in distinguishing different words can not be carried over into English. concepts. If loan-translation is the more viable option. If neither borrowing nor loan-translation were possible.2. and in many respects most importantly the Confucianists. and demons. According to the new view. What is required in preparation for the discussion of Chinese medical term translation is to outline the basic cognitive bases and general development trends. According to Confucian thought. spirits. Unschuld 1998.. the health of society as subject to natural laws of the D` o. a new understanding of the body and its afflictions grew up along side the old one.CHAPTER 4 OUTLINE OF CHINESE MEDICINE Chinese medicine as we know it today has a history of over two thousand years.c.c. conformed to natural laws rather. among other things. and partly replaced it. but they have existed down to the present. This revolution did not arrive spontaneously. rather it came in the wake of the flowering of philosophical thought. and mastery of these laws would permit intervention in morbid processes and restore the body to health. social stability could be . and it was prevented and treated by propitiating the ancestors. Sivin 1987: 43–199. These beliefs in the influence of supernatural forces over human health have taken on different forms in time. rather being the result of ancestral or demonic spirits. health and sickness.. the Legalists. In that period of time it has undergone constant change and development. Lu & Needham 1980. and demons. 4. Unschuld 1985. spirits. The body of knowledge that has been received in the present and its historical development have been described in English (Wong 1936: 1–254. Harper 1998.1 THE BEGINNINGS OF DETERMINISTIC MEDICINE Up until the second century b. Birch & Felt 1999:3–183). which viewed. disease was largely attributed to the work of ancestors. In the second and first centuries b. The three major schools a of philosophical thought were the Daoists. since these were observed to have deleterious effects. but the a authors do not provide a comprehensive rationale for their conclusions. Environmental influences such as cold. heat (fire). The ancient Chinese performed rudimentary dissection. The functions of internal organs are described in the Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng ( a ı e ı P . nourished. and a temperate lifestyle.c. Similarly. Nevertheless. each of which had a function in maintaining the health of the body. and not excessively. the functions of the heart. transforms it. of entering the body and lodging in certain places. wind. whose basic tenets strike the modern mind as being perfectly rational. Disease could be prevented by avoiding or ensuring physical protection against such influences. The heart. especially in weak health. involved recognising the body as being composed of parts. and of sexual activity. which were of course seasonal in nature. anatomy never . and observation of the contents of the stool would have prompted the notion of a tract running from the mouth to the anus that conducts food. the first major medical text from the Early H` n or first and second century b. were to be avoided. 1987: 437). liver. and we can only speculate on this from the conclusions themselves. and health could be preserved by adequate food and clothing. but excesses of food and drink. and dampness were also observed to cause illness. and gallbladder are not directly related to outward biological activities. This deterministic approach. Again. We would imagine that instinctive awareness of the need for food to maintain life. the heart as the pump of the circulation was never clearly postulated in China (see Unschuld 1985: 76. and although it was associated with the blood vessels. By contrast. we may assume that the notion that the lung extracts something from the air vital to human life was deduced from respiration. were considered to be capable. and urinating) and a rudimentary knowledge of internal anatomy. The environmental influences. We may safely assume that some of the functions of the internal organs were deduced from external observations of biological activities (eating. Adequate diet was needed to maintain the strength of the body.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms ensured when each individual performed his social duties correctly. was understood to be the seat of the spirit. defecating. for example. and treated by eliminating the offending influences and restoring weakened aspects of bodily functions. : “Yellow Thearch’s Inner Canon”). and extracts from it what is necessary for the maintenance of bodily function.. we may presume that the idea that the bladder stores urine produced by the kidney was deduced in the same way. The Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng dea ı e ı scribes the shape and size of the major internal organs. Sivin. Yet these were less likely to affect a body that was adequately. the order of the universe is disrupted. magical influence ı a . The following quotation reflects a belief that rulers could influence the world through the y¯nı y´ ng system of correspondence. inward Relative stasis Sex Temperature Weight Brightness Motion Male Hot Light Light Upward. his wife controls the movement of the feminine principle [yin]. a The most important concern of the state. Outline of Chinese Medicine ing with the body of an individual based on the notion that it was unfilial toward to the individual’s parents. If the union of the king and queen is not complete. which are often called systems of correspondence by modern scholars. This was complemented by speculations originating outside the body. “The son of the heavens controls the movement of the masculine principle [yang]. 1998: 13). Phenomenon Space Time Season Y¯n-Y´ ng in General Phenomena ı a Y´ng a Heaven Day Spring Summer Y¯ ın Earth Night Autumn Winter Female Cold Heavy Dark Downward. There never developed in China any notion similar to the one that has become predominant in the West that function must be understood purely in terms of material structure. The theories that were applied were those of the y¯n-y´ ng and fiveı a phase doctrines. If one partner oversteps his rights. The internal structure of the body only revealed a limited amount of information concerning physiological functions. upon which hinges the preservation of natural and social order. outward Evident motion As the y¯n-y´ ng doctrine evolved into a deterministic doctrine. eclipses of the sun and moon occur. These systems of correspondence are thought to have their origin in magical notions of ontological connections between like phenomena (Unschuld 1985: 52. is the marriage of the prince.4. quoted in Unschuld 1985: 56 Table 5.” Granet 1976: 51. there were apparently ı a difficulties in applying the five-phase doctrine. the heart. y¯n and y´ ng classification of body parts. fire came to be a identified with this dynasty. In medicine. a more or less definitive set of correspondences was found that remained unchanged to the present. that have been influential ı e e a . The early confusion about the ascription of the organs to the five phases is evidence of the difficulties of imposing order on the obscure realm of the internal workings of the human body by means of the doctrine. Y´ng a Exterior. body hair Q` and defence ı Agitation Strength Y¯n-Y´ ng in the Human Body ı a Y¯ ın Interior. but they furnished a productive basis for understanding relationships between them. there is cold’ (< ı to the present day. and so the heart came to be equated with fire. At first. Yet with the beginning of the Later H` n period. back Bowels (8 z` ng) a Skin. Examples are given in Table 5. after this initial period of changing attributions. One can only imagine that in time theoretical insights gained from the application y´ ng sh` ng z´ r` ) and a e e e y¯n sh` ng z´ h´ n).Translation of Chinese Medical Terms opposites could be classified as either y¯n or y´ ng according to not only their nature. which already a in the Zh¯ u period had been designated as the most important organ. The doctrine of the five phases was a system of correspondences that was based on five positions instead of the two of the y¯n-y´ ng doctrine. sinew Blood and construction Calm Weakness The y¯n-y´ ng doctrine notably fostered the discovery of important pathomechaniı a cal principles. inward and outward movement in the body was combined with the understanding of basic physiological processes inferred from rudimentary anatomical observations. Y¯n and y´ ng did not shed much light on the ı a detailed workings of the internal organs. Yet. there is heat’ (= a ‘when y¯n prevails. internal organs. since the internal organs were differently attributed to the phases by different writers and at different times (Unschuld 1998: 17). and physı a iological substances and their upward and downward. See Table 6. was considered to o belong to the earth phase. Table 6. but ı a also the relationship and interaction between the two. abdomen Viscera (9 fˇ ) u Bone. So long as the H` n Dynasty was associated with the earth phase. such as ‘when y´ ng prevails. and bodily and mental functions. Outline of Chinese Medicine of the five phases were integrated with empirical observations. Wood Liver Gallbladder Eyes Sinew Fire Heart Small intestine Tongue Vessels Mouth Flesh Five Phases in Man Earth Spleen Stomach Metal Lung Large intestine Nose Skin & body hair Anger Nails Joy Complexion Tears Shouting Ethereal soul The five phases in the past were often referred to in English as the five elements because of a supposed similarity with the four elements of ancient Greece. Wood Sour Green-blue Birth Fire Bitter Red Growth Five Phases in Nature Earth Sweet Yellow Transformation Wind Summerheat East Spring South Summer Centre Long summer In medicine. Yet while the Sweat Laughing Spirit Drool Singing Ideation Snivel Wailing Animal soul Spittle Moaning Mind Thought Lips Sorrow Body hair Fear Hair Ears Bone Water Kidney Bladder West Autumn North Winter Dampness Dryness Cold Metal Acrid White Withdrawal Water Salty Black Storage .4. The following table offers examples of correspondences in the realm of nature. Table 7. Table 8. the five phases were not only used to classify the main internal organs. bodily substances. but also other body parts. fire. and triple burner. was identified. The liver’s q` is said to like ‘orderly ı reaching’ like the outward thrust of plant growth. the pericardiac network. which explained not only reproduction of the organism. was considered to be the viscus of water (urine). The five phases apparently facilitated a rather vague guess at the function of the liver. the small intestine. u The y¯n-y´ ng and five-phase doctrines did not determine the Chinese medical ı a model in isolation. and water. which was brought into play only when the application of the y¯n-y´ ng doctrine called for a sixfold organisation of the ı a central organs. was considered the internal [y¯n] counterpart ı of the stomach [y´ ng] apparently on the grounds of its proximity to the stomach. In addition. the Chinese phases represented types of activity. Nowhere is this more in evidence than in the classification of the activity of nature in the seasons. This notion is highlighted by the word early generic name for the five was the l x´ng. large intestine. Five ‘storehouses’ ( ‘mansions’ ( z` ng). spleen. but in the philou a sophical and scientific application of the system. though belied by the symbols wood. the heat of summer. The spleen. stomach. earth. The kidney. form the central functional units of the organism. ‘moveı ment’. the marrow. and the uterus were discussed as organs. metal. and water. An wˇ c´ i. The formative period of Chinese medicine was not only influenced by a newly born determinism in social and health regulation. The brain. earth. The association of the five phases with the seasons is clearly visible in at least two of their connections with the five major internal organs. the fructification in late summer. it was also influenced by ecoh q´ h´ ng zh¯ ı e ı . This understanding was apparently based on the analogy of earth as the source of crops that provide food. that the kidney was also considered to store the ‘essence’ of the body. We might speculate that it was by the association of water with winter. Wood denotes the expansive movement of nature in the springtime. the dormancy of nature in winter. ‘action’.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms varied combinations gave rise to the material variety of the world. fire. a sixth storehouse. the time when most plant life is ‘stored’ in the form of seeds. The a spleen and stomach were considered to assimilate and distribute the ‘essence of grain and water’ (nutrients in foods) around the body. and six a fˇ ). urinary bladu der. associated with the bladder perhaps on anatomical evidence. and kidney. the ‘five materials’. the notion of movement and activity predominated. gallbladder. the sharp curtailment of activity in the fall. heart. metal. liver. they were regarded as extraordinary mansions (! fˇ ). the lung. but also the processes of development and aging. but for numerical reasons. One example is the spleen and stomach. it must be understood. u o there were special channels outside the constant circulation that had a certain function as reservoirs. ı Q` flowed. Probably in the second century b. The notion of interlinking vessels was gradually refined into a complex system of channels (: j¯ng lu` ). a vaporous agent. Fullness was treated by bleeding. Twelve main channels (: j¯ng) were connected with network vessels ı ( lu` ).c.c. that these individual parts grew together producing an organism in which each organ was dependent on the others and contributed in various ways to supplying the needs of the body as a whole. 1998: 20).c. forming a circuit and traversing all major areas of the body. which. as well as the storehouses and mansions. The body came to be viewed as an empire. Yet it was not until the late second or even the first century b. the Chinese came to recognise. and whether the skin covering them was smooth or rough furnished data about the state of the patient. and political events in China in the Q´n (Unschuld 1985: 79–80. Later. Harmonisation of weights. and thereby connected them. a a At that time. The medical texts that were placed in the Mˇ -W´ ng-Du¯ (3 a a ı F ) tombs in Ch´ ng-Sh¯ before they were sealed in 167 b. the eleven sepaa ı e ı rate vessels gave way to the notion of twelve channels connected to each other. and emptiness by the application of heat according to purely physical laws. as we see from the Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng compiled in the first century b. ı The initial unification of the Chinese empire by the first emperor of the Q´n Dyı nasty (reigned 221–206) introduced a completely new state structure such as had never been known before in China. just as individual vessels running through the body had been. Individual organs had been known for a long time. had evidently been a focus of diagnosis and treatment. Outline of Chinese Medicine nomic. social.. in the channels permeating the deeper levels of the limbs ı . to be of vital significance. which ramified further into ‘grandchild vessels’ ( o s¯ n lu` ). In addition. these eleven vessels were understood to be separate and independent. Different parts of the country grew together as they became linked through a system of roads and waterways. visible under the skin. in addition to blood.. most importantly. and writing contributed to the integration of the lives of formerly separate political entities into a monolithic empire. the blood vessels. like the roads and waterways of the unified empire.4.c. discussed eleven vessels within the body. Determining whether the veins were full or empty. For a long time. The system of channels and network vessels complemented an older conception of the blood vessels. measures. q`. peneı o trated the whole body and the limbs. The following passage from the Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng shows clearly the political and a ı e ı economic analogies that underlie the conception of the nature. 398. y´ng. ‘sluice’ u su`. but with fine needles. o ‘thorough- ‘abyss’ 399. qu´ n. ı ‘underground a 393. 402. ‘irrigate’ a zh` . ‘brook’ ı Evidence of influence of the organisation of human life on the understanding of the human organism is by no means confined to transportation. 411. a passage’. t hˇ i. function. ‘lake’ u 400. ‘source’ a yu¯ n. Examples given in the list below are taken from Medicine in China: A History of Ideas (Unschuld 1985: 82) with my own additions. fare’ 414. The resemblance of the channels and network vessels to waterways that formed the mainstay of communications in the empire is reflected in much of the terminology describing it in early medical literature. 405. ‘ditch’. 412. l G . z´ . ‘flow’ u gu` n. ‘pour’. h´ .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms and body. < ch´.. 407. ‘marsh’ e ı 395. and interaction of the internal organs. 403. S 2 h 3 2 h 6 K 7 X _ g o j ` h 0 h E i k l E h p t h L h E a 1 4 5 D h E h 6 7 h M E N G 8 9 F 1 G : H < 7 & = 1 6 2 > h ? E P l @ x E G H H b H / T U \ P F 5 i # $ % & ' E i q c U 7 u ( ) h ] E j O V h h h E E E Z Q W G " Y G H Z H G " . ‘pour’ a g` i. Water Metaphor in the N` iJ¯ng e ı 392. and was supplemented or drained not with the pointed blood-letting stone. P 0 I G G H d m e V n J H H ^ f j G A H R 0 B 1 C . ‘drain’ e 408. The body is considered to be like an empire. ‘ditch’. zh`. sh¯ . 401.. / . ‘deep source’. 410. 409. ‘channel’ u d´ . ‘river’ a chu¯ n. ‘sea’ 394. ‘pool’ 396. 0 j F o ! 0 " x 4 x & 0 v h . controlled by a hierarchy of officials with the emperor in supreme control. 404. The political and social spheres also left their mark. ‘spring’ a yu´ n. ‘transport’ u ch¯ ng. 406. ‘flow’ u xi` . 397. ‘percolate’ e q´ . ‘tunnel’ 413. ‘stream’ a li´ . zh¯ ng. ‘stagnate’ ı sh` n. H & k r q * s v + h . ‘to flow’ u li¯ . The gallbladder holds the office of justice.” Q´ B´ replied: “Most inı o formedly asked! Allow me to answer straight away: The heart hold the office of monarch. . for example. . The spleen and stomach hold the office of the granaries. Be warned! Be warned!” ı a ı a u a ı a Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng S` W` nw L´ngl´ n M`diˇ nl` npi¯ n D`b¯ a ı e ı u e The political analogies made here reflect as social hierarchy conforming to the Concufian-Legalist world view that lay at the foundations of the H` n Dynasty. the pericardiac network) is the emissary. the ruler is not enlightened. The chest centre (i. The large intestine holds the office of conveyance. and defense reflect a human-centered. The triple burner holds the office of the sluices. though the people may hear the cocks crowing and dogs barking in the ı neighbouring country. joy and delight emanates from it. These a stand in stark contrast to Daoist elements. If. The liver holds the office of general. He who rules the empire in this way will endanger his entire clan. He who conducts his life in this way is assured of longevity. he will never be in danger. The lung holds the office of assistant. According to the philosophy of Lˇ o a Zˇ. the spirit light emanates from it. empire-oriented outlook that was different from Lˇ o Zˇ’s naturea ı oriented aversion to any highly structured society.e. Likewise. they ideally should have no contact with the people there (Lˇ o a Zˇ LXXX). . the twelve officials are endangered. storage facilities. such as the reference to men of antiquity being able to live to the age of one hundred in full possession of their physical and mental faculties. and the form[al body] will suffer great harm. Outline of Chinese Medicine The Yellow Thearch asked: “I should like to hear about the relationship between the twelve storehouses and their relative status. It represents a formative period in which medical thought was in a state of flux. The small intestine holds the office of receiving plenitude. He who conducts his life in this way will bring misfortune. The kidney holds office of labor. whence mutation emanates. the five flavours emanate from it. decision emanates from it. all pathways will be blocked. strategies emanate from it. however. This contradictory composition has led the Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng to be characı a ı e ı terised as a “heterogeous compendium of diverse systems of ideas” (Unschuld 1985: 107). The bladder holds the office of the river island (Regional Rectifier). management and regulation emanates from it.4. the metaphors of transportation.. If the ruler is enlightened. He who rules the empire in this way will bring forth great prosperity. the transformation of things emanates from it. the waterways emanate from it. it stores fluids . peace reigns for his subjects. strength and ability emanate from it. it sought a happy existence through the understanding of nature and abidance by its laws. or mineral products are effective for treating certain diseases or conditions. and this could be assisted by manipulating the flow of q` by the insertion of needles at certain points in the body known to be particularly ı responsive. and the N` nj¯ng ina a ı a ı e ı a ı form us of the formative phase of the medicine of systematic correspondence. While the Mˇ -W´ ng-Du¯ manuscripts. the notion of ‘treating disease before it arises’ (I zh` w` i b`ng) was of great importance. animal. The two traditions never completely merged but were not entirely separate. This ı a view is only partly represented in the N` ij¯ng. The great organising principles ı e ı “Classic of Diffiof y¯n-y´ ng and five-phase systems of correspondence tied in with this conception. style Zh` ng Jˇng) shortly after the appearance of the N` nj¯ng. The strength of the right forces was to be maintained. The medicine of systematic correspondence and needle therapy thus responded to the world view of the elite classes of a large empire. or 1st and 2nd centuries. or improve general prosperity. and the first attempt to unite them was made by the Later H` n physician Zh¯ ng J¯ ( a a ı } ~ | . the earliest materia medica literature contains virtually no mention of y¯n-y´ ng and the five phases or any ı a other explanatory theory. It is for this reason that the Daoists were attracted to healing methods utilising the products of nature. for whom the vicissitudes of life were in many ways more closely associated with the forces of nature that determined whether the harvest was lean or fat. restore. It held less sway over the masses. These were kept in check by the forces of ‘right’. the Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng. a treatise appearing in the Later H` n. the individual organism was like the empire in which a well-organised political hierarchy ensured the smooth interaction of all parts. and thus marks its consummation (Unschuld 1986: 2). Not surprisingly. rather in the way that governments make adjustments in one or another part of the economy to maintain. Although the Daoist a great extent shared belief that the individual was responsible for his/her own moral conduct and physical health. ‘Evil’ forces could attack from without or arise within. and is pragmatic: certain plant. pharmaceutical literature from the same period is unfortunately lacking.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 4. but the N` nj¯ng (x e ı a ı : cult Issues”). Because the aim was to achieve maximum effect by minimum intervention. Zh¯ ng J¯ presented ideas o ı a ı a ı concerning the passage of evils through the channel system into an empirically based . consistently a follows a systematic-correspondence approach.2 ACUPUNCTURE AND MEDICINAL THERAPY According to the view of the organism that responded to the Confucian-Legalist world view. With the . The original text did not survive the turbulence of the Three Kingdoms period (220–265) fully intact. This represents a substantial expansion over the N` ij¯ng. His understanding of the pulses came ostensibly from Zh¯ ng J¯. In his own time and for centuries to come. e ı which contained only 295 of the current 670 (Birch & Felt 1999: 22). apparently for the first time. created a synthesis between the medicine of systematic correspondence. 4. he. However. F´ ng. W´ ng B¯ng admitted that he had added it but claimed that it had been handed down from a ı antiquity. S¯ n S¯-Miˇ o ( u ı a . Since Zh¯ ng’s primary form of there a apy was the use of medicinal agents. but he gave no sources.3 LATER DEVELOPMENTS Zh¯ ng J¯ wrote of his understanding of febrile in his Sh¯ ngh´ n Z´ b`ng L` n a ı a a a ı u “Treatise of Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases”). with medicinal therapy. In the 3rd century. 649 of the 670 nowadays accepted by modern Chinese sources. and it was not until the S` ng Dynasty that Zh¯ ng’s synthesis could become part of mainstream trends in o a medicine. acupuncture and medicinal therapy led relatively separate existences. Hu´ nga Fˇ M` offered no fundamental innovations. that is. and no previous record of it is known today. Outline of Chinese Medicine providing for the treatment of these a detailed set of formulas. nor did the next major medical writer after u ı him. which are of a scant and highly theoretical nature. a ı e ı u e e u “On Heat”). & Wiseman 1999: 6–7). In his preface. Zh¯ njiˇ Jiˇ yˇj¯ng ( e u a ıı tion”) by Hu´ ng-Fˇ M` ( a u ı : “The Systematic Canon of Acupuncture and Moxibus) listed 300 acupuncture points on the twelve regular channels and 49 on the two midline channels. Zh¯ ng’s contribution was that he adapted the N` ij¯ng a e ı ideas to form a theoretical framework that could embrace an immense wealth of clinical experience (Mitchell. but his M` ij¯ng (w a ı a ı : the first time detailed definitions of numerous pulse conditions. but was pieced together by W´ ng Sh¯ -H´ (F a u e Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n ( a a u 1 210–285) from remaining fragments to form “On Cold Damage”). W´ ng B¯ng (F a a ı S` W` n ( u e 0 “Elementary Questions”) that notably included a highly complex theory concerning the relationship between climatic changes and human health. who compiled voluminous prescription works. S` W` n (chiefly in the R` L` n. W´ ng Sh¯ -H´ is also known for his contria u e “Pulse Canon”) is noteworthy because it introduced for bution to the art of pulse-taking.4. Acupuncture and moxibustion continued to make advances. ) produced a revision of the In the 7th century (T´ ng Dynasty). which otherwise used needling as its main form of treatment. 581–682?). Zh¯ ng’s understanding of a cold damage diseases is seen to stand in direct lineage to the statements on the subject in the Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng. aue ı o thors integrated flavours and natures into the y¯n-y´ ng and five-phase framework. 39–59) became formalised as the five periods and six q` doctrine (l ı y` n li` q`). these qualities had been discussed as abstractions and in their significance for dietetics. sweet and ı ı neutral were interpreted as weak flavours. bitter. bitter and cool qualities to metal. very different approaches to treatment were established on identical theoretical bases. The Hu´ ngd` a ı N` ij¯ng states. Through the five-phase system. Thus. the qualities of edible substances had been determined by their flavour and nature (meaning degree of hot or cold). cold is treated with heat. Lˇ Gˇ o (( ı a and stomach school (/ T 1110– ). and balanced temı a peratures of a drug were considered strong qualities and hence as y´ ng in y´ ng. and 70 on the pulse had appeared. In a ı a five-phase classification. o whereas 100 books on acupuncture. which regarded the majority of diseases as essentially attributable to damage to the stomach and spleen. which believed that diseases were essentially the result of heat. and acrid and cold qualities to water. fewer than 10 works had followed up Zh¯ ng J¯’s integration of medicinal therapy into a ı the principles of systematic correspondence. acrid. certain affinities were established between drug qualities and the internal organs. wind. cold and a a cool temperatures were considered weak qualities. and therefore characterised as y´ ng in y¯n. the creators of the doctrine of the five phases ı a and six q` sought to rationally explain the occurrence of rain. sweet and balanced qualities to earth. ı a and salty were considered to be strong flavours and rated as y¯n in y¯n. and consequently that treatment 1180–1251) is noted for developing the spleen ). and heat ı in the course of the four seasons and over the years. In theoretical literature. Flavour ı a was defined as a y¯n quality and nature as a y´ ng quality. “Heat is treated with cold. and hence y¯n in y´ ng. Before the S` ng. cold. Since antiquity. u u ı With the development of neo-Confucianism ( lˇ xu´ ) in the S` ng Dynasty ı e o + wˇ u (960–1279). intensive efforts were made to verify the validity of the medicine of systematic correspondence by extending it to practical medicinal therapy. Li´ Wˇ n-S` ( u a u 1200) was the founder of the so-called school of cold and cool medicines ( should center around cooling. It was not until this period that Zh¯ ng J¯’s a ı approach became mainstream. Sour.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms support of the y¯n-y´ ng and the five phase. hot.” In the late S` ng. sour and hot qualities to fire. 50 on physiology. salty and warm qualities were ascribed to wood. This doctrine (described in Unschuld 1998. This period of Chinese medicine was primarily one that saw developments in . dryness. Warm. Other developments came about in the same period. including the ı Zh¯ njiˇ D` qu´ n ( e u a a “The Complete Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxi“The Great Compendium of Acupuncture and “Gathered Blooms of Acupuncture = bustion”). Zh¯ njiˇ D` ch´ ng e u a e roughly summarises the heritage that has been passed down to the present. A major publication was ı the Bˇ ncˇ o G¯ ngm` ( e a a u Sh´-Zh¯ n (g ı e 5 “The Comprehensive Herbal Foundation”) written by Lˇ ı ) and published in 1590. it was natural to combine medicinal therapy with acupuncture in clinical practice. “On Cold Damage.” However.000 illustrations and over 10. The information provided for each medicinal includes explanations of names. and it is not surprising that Georges Souli´ de Morant should have taken its contents as the basis for e his Acuponcture chinoise. The M´ng Dynasty was a high point in medical literature. W´ Yˇ u-X`ng u o ı W¯ ny`l` n ( e ıu in “On Warm Epidemics. obviously because of its consistent and exclusive concern with e ı the principles of systematic correspondence. Zh¯ njiˇ D` ch´ ng ( e u a e Moxibustion”). This development ı appears to have been attributable on the one hand to the opening up of the south of China where febrile diseases tended to be of a different nature than in the north. he posed the etiological notion of a contagious perverse qi ( + . It discusses 1. In e e e ı a ı the M´ng Dynasty. and instructions for processing. warm evil ( w¯ n xi´ ). With the extension of systematic correspondence to medicinal therapy.892 medicinal substances and contains over 1. Outline of Chinese Medicine esteem than the N` ij¯ng. Notably.” published 1642) explained in detail the laws l` q`). and as such is comparable in its comprehensiveness to the Bˇ ncˇ o G¯ ngm` . development and pattern identification of warm epidemics. sums up all the achievements in acupuncture and moxibustion to date. written by Y´ ng J`-Zh¯ u ( a ı o ) and published in 1601. Zh¯ ng J¯’s Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n had cona ı a a u stituted the only theory-based understanding of febrile diseases. Zh¯ ng’s understanding a of these diseases were that they were predominantly caused by wind and cold—hence the title of his book. It comprehensively presents the contemporary pharmaceutical knowledge. A notable example of this practice is the work of Zh¯ ng C´ ng-Zh` ng a o e ( O 1156–1228). had been mentioned in the N` ij¯ng and recognised by Zh¯ ng J¯. and on the other to pestilences arising as a result of wars. another cause of febrile disease. The M´ng saw the publication of a number of acupuncture works. writings on warm diseases became more prolific. This notion repı ı governing the origin. and the Zh¯ njiˇ J` y¯ng ( e u u ı and Moxibustion”). So far in the development of Chinese medicine. It discussed 667 of the e a a u 670 acupoints appearing in modern literature (Birch & Felt 1999: 33). The first of these.000 medicinal formulas.4. information about nature and flavour. In this period. As time went on. As many examples have shown.. Chinese medicine was never an integrated system.g. but rather by the power of Western civilisation based on secular knowledge. It never developed the notion basic to the modern Western sciences (including Western medicine). style J´ -T¯ ng u o “Systematised Identification of Damp-Heat. that Western medicine gained a fast foothold in China. but an accumulated body of knowledge. W´ ng Sh`-Xi´ ng a ı o (F ). ten missionary hospitals had already opened. W´ T´ ng ( u a . in W¯ nr` J¯ngwˇ i ( e e ı e : “Warp and Weft of Warm Heat. In the Q¯ng Dynasty. brought together all the theories of his predecessors in a complete doctrine of warm diseases. construction.” 1798) posed the notion of triple-burner pattern identification in the treatment of warm and damp-heat diseases. and the formative period of Chinese medicine came to be looked upon as a golden age unsurpassed by later generations. by Japan.” 1831) described in detail damp-heat disease ) in W¯ nb`ng Ti´ obi` n ( e ı a a atised Identification of Warm Diseases. China’s faith in its own intellectual traditions was deeply shaken. Chinese medicine never developed a mechanism for separating fact from fiction to everyone’s satisfaction. By 1850. By the end of the century. Finally. the earlier classics gained rather than lost in value. Although new insights continually appeared. ) in Sh¯ R` Ti´ o Bi` n (! ı e a a “Systemand blood) pattern identification system. the wind and cold of the cold damage school). after decades of humiliation by Western powers and. It was not by the power of the missionaries’ religion. though. that any explanation of any phenomenon (or procedure) must be demonstrable by repeatable experiment. This fundamental weakness in the structure of Chinese medical knowledge only became apparent as Western learning began to enter China in the 19th century. in W¯ n R` L` n e a ı e e u ( “On Warm Heat. and made a great contribution to the foundation of the doctrine of warm diseases. and that the simultaneous existence of two different theories concerning a single phenomenon necessarily entails at least one of them being wrong. Y` Ti¯ n-Sh`. finally.” 1852).Translation of Chinese Medical Terms resented a break away from the traditional conception of febrile diseases being caused by climatic influences (e. and the values of modern science were seen by an increasing majority to offer the only possible solutions to the nation’s . and their numbers gradually increased.4 CHINESE MEDICINE IN THE MODERN ERA Modern Western medicine began to enter in China from the middle of the 19th century through the efforts of Christian missionaries. 4. a ı comprehensive doctrine of warm diseases began to emerge. older ones were not discarded. qi.” 1746) introduced the four-aspect (defence. Xu¯ Xu` ( e e patterns. 1995). In the PRC.O. a a Chinese medicine has remained alive out of popular assent. not all traditional Chinese healing practices received communist approval. Although opposition was strong enough to prevent the bill from going through. the Chinese government ordered that Chinese medical schools be excluded from the mainstream education system. In T´ iw¯ n.C. this development inspired the overthrow of imperial rule and the founding of the Republic. where they have been allowed. Outline of Chinese Medicine problems. The other is that traditional Chinese medicine contained a strong pragmatic element and its y¯n-y´ ng ı a and five-phase theories were considered as a kind of primitive materialism (Unschuld 1985: 253). and ten times as many in the early 1990s (R. Chinese medicine gained a reprieve on the mainland in the 1950s after the Communist assumption of power there. In 1932. In the political realm. At the same time. and that there were still many practitioners of Chinese medicine (Sivin 1987: 18). and all but met its demise. Two reasons have been suggested to explain the support of M´ o Z´ -D¯ ng’s government for Chinese medicine. they a a have not been considered by educators to be valid elements of the Chinese medical corpus. but even in T´ iw¯ n. the medical education it provides trains at least twice as many in Western medicine as in Chinese medicine (Birch & Felt 1999: 52).4. a bill was presented by Y´ Y´ n-Xi` u u u ( ) for the ‘abolition of the old medicine’. and over recent years has been incorporated into the island’s national health insurance scheme. Amid these upheavals. Nonetheless. where choice in health-care has been left largely to the individual. No government-run university has a Chinese medical faculty. the grain had still to be separated from the chaff. magical and shamanistic practices have been eradicated. nevertheless. in which. One is that China did not have the a e o resources to provide adequate Western medical health care for the whole population. In 1929. Nevertheless. Only those elements of traditional healing practices that have a rational theoretical basis have been deemed acceptable. support for Chinese medicine is even weaker in T´ iw¯ n than in the PRC: T´ iw¯ n had nearly three a a a a times as many Western medical doctors than Chinese doctors in 1954. Chinese medicine was increasingly viewed as unscientific and primitive. Health Department 1993. The challenge of Western medicine and the scientific world view has brought numerous changes. Chinese medicine was considered as a ‘treasurehouse’ of experience in the treatment of disease. The PRC’s support for Chinese medicine is half-hearted. importance has been accorded to scientific research to establish . the challenge to Chinese medicine remained unabated. which combine a wealth of diagnostic criteria from a wealth of literature. and external causes of disease traditionally recognised have gained no substantiation.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms of various therapeutic mechanisms. However. Diagnosis is still presented in the form of the four examinae ı tions. Policy-makers in both the PRC and T´ iw¯ n have declined to draw the most rada a ical conclusions of the scientific challenge. The fact that study of the classics is giving way to short quotations in textbooks that present modern doctrines of traditional Chinese medicine (Sivin 1987: 27) does not simply reflect a desire for greater educational efficiency. Western research into acupuncture has led to the discovery of endogenous opioids. Texts such a a e “Outline of Chinese Medicine”) of 1985 (a revised version of the work by Z¯ n Zh` o-W` i published in 1958) is a typical u a e example. even though this involves presenting two . the theoretical infrastructure of the system as a whole has not been validated. The shift into the a a u framework of large teaching establishments has lead to the creation of new texts that explain the subject systematically in modern Chinese (B as M` ng & Zh¯ u’s Zh¯ ng Y¯ Xu´ G` i L` n e o o ı e a u w b´ i hu` w´ n). or visceral manifestation theory ( J z` ng xi` ng xu´ shu¯ ) as it has come to be called in China. Notably the channel system. and provided ample evidence of the effectiveness of both acupuncture and medicinal therapy. The authors of the early texts were considered to have such deep knowledge that later generations could only approximate. it almost certainly reflects falling estimations of the value of classical literature. but not entirely unaltered. The teaching of Chinese medicine was traditionally based on the student-master relationship. Inevitably this involves presenting different. In the classical tradition. but the traditional concepts of q` and its pathways that provided the traditional ı explanatory model of the therapy have not been shown to have any objective referents. which would entail discarding all traditional theories of physiology and pathology and recasting traditional therapies in the mould of mechanisms recognised by modern medicine. the channels ı a and networks. The traditional edifice of Chinese medical theory has been left intact. Texts such as the Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng. causes of disease. even conflicting. The study of externally contracted disease is explained in traditional terms. diagnostic ideas such as different theories concerning how various parts of the tongue and the various vertical and horizontal divisions of the pulse corresponded to internal disturbances. and the physiology. certain organ functions. N` nj¯ng. more or less according a a e o to the contents of the N¯ ij¯ng. the earliest knowledge had more importance that the latest. a ı e ı a ı and Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n were often closely studied and even memorised. Education in basic theory still includes y¯n-y´ ng and the five phases. but its Western medical understanding as a cerebrovascular disease has encouraged the use of blood-quickening stasis-transforming medicinals ( 2 Z hu´ xu` h` y¯ y` o). but explicit formulations of it in modern texts. which was traditionally explained largely in terms of damp-heat and the spleen. In promoting traditional Chinese medicine. did not begin to develop until the M´ng and Q¯ng (1368–1919) (Zh` o J-F 1987: 2).) Treatment by identification of patterns is a key element in modern Chinese medicine on the one hand because it is theoretically based. The o e u u a Western cognitive esthetic of integrated knowledge was doubtlessly responsible for the idea of ascribing categories of medicinal actions to acupuncture points in the 1950s. q` and blood pattern identification.4. Outline of Chinese Medicine different schools of thought. for the activity of external evils in the body and other pathological processes. and on the other because it is a holistic complement to Western medicine emphasising the individual’s particular manifestations of disease. that of ‘cold damage’ ( ( w¯ n b`ng). ı ı a (The first dictionary of Chinese medicine (Xi` G 1921) contains far fewer bowel and vise ceral disease pattern terms than the 1995 ZD. but also that it can be integrated with modern medicine to produce an even more effective synthesis. the PRC government has hoped not only that Chinese medicine can be purged of all irrational theories and ineffective remedies. These efforts are still hampered by the ultimate challenge that modern science poses: the theoretical edifice of Chinese medicine largely rests on speculation. rather than a symptomatic approach. But there are some well-known examples. F´ ng. for ı certain organ functions. or for the nature and action of drugs as traditionally described. The ways in which Western medicine has influenced the practice of Chinese medicine have not been systematically studied. and bowel and visceral pattern identificaı tion. such as the eight a o ı principles. Jaundice. None of . Wind-stroke ( e " zh` ng f¯ ng. e ı Central to diagnostic procedures in modern education is the practice of determining treatment on the basis of ‘disease patterns’ identified ( I sh¯ ng h´ n) and ‘warm disease’ a a bi` n zh` ng l` n zh`). a e u ı The notion of the disease pattern can be traced to the N¯ ij¯ng and underwent development e ı by Zh¯ ng Zh` ng-Jˇng. & Wiseman 1999: 21). is now explained in terms of the gallbladder (Wiseman & F´ ng 1998a: 322). apoplexy) o e is still explained in traditional terms of internal wind and various complications. There is no firm evidence for q` and the channel system through which it flows. So e strong is the new understanding of this condition that modern Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n commentaa a u tors have introduced the notion of the gallbladder to explain Zh¯ ng J¯’s approach to treata ı ment (Mitchell. Despite the changes that have visibly occurred in modern education. it is clear that so far the Orient has not been so bold as to discard all speculative concepts. there is also an antagonistic pressure to force Chinese medicine into the mould of a complementary health care. The nature and scope of the changes. the high degree of variation in terminology. . As I shall show in Chapter 6. specifically. since this would lead to a total collapse of the traditional theoretical basis of Chinese medicine. combined with the lack of familiarity with the culture and language of China. Chinese medicine is subject to the same pressure to validate itself in modern medical terms in its westward transmission. It will also become apparent that in addition to this. explain the variety of ways in which Chinese medicine is presented. These pressures.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms abolition would reduce the value of Chinese medicine to an assorted collection of folk remedies. still cannot be perceived. and. Chinese medicine has undergone a degree of reacculturation in China (as it has in Korea and Japan). as well as the pace of change. The future survival of Chinese medicine will undoubtedly entail continuing change under the pressure of modern medical knowledge and the gradual disappearance of the social and cultural motivation of its traditional development. whose values are diametrically opposed to those of Western medicine. According to the social and linguistic criteria. we must be aware of the features of the Chinese language in their diachronic aspect. The adjusted framework will provide an improved basis for decisions concerning the translation of terms into English. the conventional categories of term-formation need to be adjusted if they are to fully accommodate the needs of the Chinese language and reflect the role of nontechnical and semitechnical terms in LSP.000 years. it is a language for special purposes. The terminology established in the H` n Dynasty evinces features of Old Chinese. while that of later centuries bears characteristics of literary Chinese. LSP and terminological theory have grown up around the modern LSPs of the Indo-European languages of Europe and for the scientifically oriented LSPs that have developed in the West. . which are of particular importance in Chinese medical terminology. Modern terminological and linguistic understanding can be fruitfully applied to understand the nature of Chinese medical terminology. which should be discussed before proceeding any further. The language of Chinese medicine is a specialised form of the Chinese language used for the communication of medical ideas. whose a written form is usually referred to as Classical Chinese.CHAPTER 5 THE NATURE OF CHINESE MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY For a full grasp of issues relating to term translation. Since the terminology of Chinese medicine has evolved over more than 2.1 FEATURES OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE Certain characteristics of Chinese medical terminology are attributable to features of the Chinese language in general. 5. it is important to understand the nature of Chinese medical terms. Before they can provide an appropriate framework for the discussion of Chinese medical terms and their translation into English. Nevertheless. *B ı ni´ n n` sh´ t¯ i (‘white sticky slimy [or sticky slimy white] tongue fur’) is not. by the addition of adverbial and sentence-final markers. and their attributive use is limited. and are frequently used attributively in noun phrases.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Chinese as an isolating language: Chinese (especially classical Chinese) is usually considered to be a typical isolating language (or analytical language) (Lyovin 1997: 14–15). 84). the former corresponding to the adjectives of European languages. no doubt to some extent as a result of the . like these. but I retain these terms in deference to tradition. sticky [and] slimy’) is acceptable. because in Classical Chinese (though less so in the modern language) they require no copulative in the predicative position (e. In these languages.. they also have affinities with nouns in that on the one hand (in most European languages) they agree with nouns. On this a ı e a latter point. Relationships between elements of a sentence are expressed in syntax and in a small number of prepositions. Word-Classes: In Classical Chinese. nouns and verbs. an adjective is formed from almost any noun). it is not acceptable in the attributive position. [the] a ı face [is] red) and the syntactical constructions they appear in are indistinguishable from those of intransitive active verbs. The Chinese bipartite division of open classes into nouns and verbs as opposed to the European tripartite division of nouns. The term stative verb is nevertheless somewhat misleading since words of this class denote permanent qualities as well as transient states. The category of verbs can be divided into what are known as stative and active verbs. Stative verbs are not considered strictly to be an independent class (Lyons 1977: 448). adjectives have affinities with verbs in that they can be used predicatively with a copulative. it is of great significance in the general structure of expression and in the terminology of Chinese medicine. whereas B sh´ t¯ i b´ i ni´ n e a a a *b´ i a n` (‘[the] tongue fur [is] white. In Classical Chinese. modern Chinese differs from Classical Chinese in that multiple-verb attributive qualifiers are have become permissible. Grammatical functions are not marked by inflections but by additional words and by syntax (Norman 1998: 10. John Lyons notes that in Indo-European languages the difference is essentially one of form rather than of content (Lyons 1977: 448). While it is acceptable for multiple stative verbs to appear one after the other in the predicative position. adjective. Nevertheless. and verbs is not a mere matter of idle classification.g. and on the other a seemingly large proportion of them are derived from nouns (in Latin. while aspect and tense are expressed. Thus. if at all. mi` n ch`. they are typically used in predicative positions. the basic functions of language on the one hand to name things and on the other to describe qualities/states and actions/processes are reflected in two open word-classes. stative verbs have greater affinity with active verbs because. slight and rapid pulses. in case studies) continued to use the predicative form (w . w m` i k¯ u. where adverbs are derived. and appears to have been an innovation in1 ) in the third century. floating pulse. floating [quality u e e z´ . and this happens without any marking.g. . In so doing. W´ ng lists twenty-four pulse terms with unprecedentedly dea tailed descriptions.w . floating pulse. adverbs are a varied class. . nouns are used as verbs (e. although descriptions of pulses involving multiple qualities (as. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology influence of Western languages. that in the realm of sphygmological discourse. but verbs. This is roughly similar to the situation in European languages. spontaneous. pulse [is] ..g.. with relative freedom. although highly frequent. In both Chinese and European languages. while the attributive form is used rather to indicate a distinct type of the object represented by the head noun. Classical Chinese is renowned for the ability of words to act in any class.. . Much more rarely. spontaneously. happy. *redly). he was introducing the idea of set pulse types labelled by noun phrases and furnished with formal definitions.g. adverbs ( o " f´ w´ i f¯ ng. are by no means unlimited in nature. a a f´ m` i. u a w shu` m` i. .). The semantic significance of this—though I have never ı a found any description of Classical Chinese in which this view is stated—would appear to be that the predicative form is that habitually used to describe the object represented by the subject noun. but often with additional isolated marker in the modern language). .. Verbs may act as a o w` ng x´ng. the use e of the qualifier + noun (e. but not red. but in medical texts word-class changes. especially stative verbs. foot → sufficient. troduced by W´ ng Sh¯ -H´ (F a u e J¯ng (w ı : w f´ m` i. from adjectives (e. move frenetic[ally]).g. rapid pulse) o a is not to be found in the earliest literature. u a h w w¯ i shu` e o zh¯ m` i. . the pulse [is] scallion-stalk[-like]). as has recently been suggested (Wiseman & F´ ng 1999). pulse) headings. . A change in word-class is often seen in a ı . .. Words and phrases may change word-class. happily. are generally used to qualify active verbs (usually without marking in Classical Chinese. sphygmological literature discussed pulses under qualifier + noun (. Verbs (stative and active) regularly nominalise and appear in positions in the sentence normally occupied by nouns (subject or object) (e. u of the pulse] is/means wind). Chinese has a small group of words whose only function is adverbial. white fur. . It is noteworthy. From this time on. So far I have not mentioned adverbs. say. In the first chapter of his M` i a “Pulse Canon”). Classical Chinese shows a strong tendency to allow only short verb phrases to appear in the attributive position and to require the interposition of the subordination/qualification marker man 1988: 104): B h zh¯ with multiple-character phrases (see Norı w b´ i t¯ i.5. but when they are used as stative verbs. The topic has three principal features: (1) It can be an item other than the logical subject (which may be unstated): zh` ng e ji` n f¯ r` .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms subject + predicate phrases. e. the eyes [are] dry → dryness of the u a e t´ u t` ng. heat-clearing fire-draining formula. i. salivatory.. w` h´ n lit. 415. # h # q¯ng r` xi` huˇ . see fever [and] aversion to cold’.g. 418. hence it is often referred to as the topic. The Chinese subject has no such close relationship with the verb as in European languages. head hurts → headache o o jiˇ biˇ o. Chinese has no exact equivalent of the adjectives derived from past participles observed in European languages (e. Many English words (particularly ones of Latin origin) have many different forms in different word-classes.g. subdue y´ ng and extinguish wind → subduing y´ ng and exa a ı e a a tinguishing wind Similarly. m` g¯ n s` . ‘pathoconditions.. depressed. We should note that although the nominalisation process in English can involve a change of word forms or word order.. as to pathoa a e u a . or in a nominal a a sense of ‘liver fire flaming upward’ or ‘upward flaming of liver fire’. follows a subject-verb-object word order. it is rather by a direct switch of word-class from transitive to intransitive (rather as the English sell as in sell books and books sell). phrases of this kind can also form a qualifier to another noun. resolve the exterior → resolving the exterior (or exterior resolution) e a % qi´ n y´ ng x´ f¯ ng. o o Verb + object and subject + predicate phrases are commonly used in both their active senses as well as in a nominalised senses. Thus. 416. Transitive verbs may be used in a passive sense (as will be explained shortly). Formal marking appears to allow a greater scope for word-class change than in Chinese. e. Here again. " # f¯ ng huˇ e o sh` ng y´ n can be used in its active sense of ‘wind-fire flames upward’. ı e e o ı ı the change is performed in Chinese without any change in word order. the eyes [are] dry → dryness of the eyes (or dry eyes) u a e t´ u t` ng.. salivate. clear heat and drain fire. classical and modern. although in this example a qualifier particle h zh¯ is inserted. depleted). Syntax: Chinese. For example. saliva. Notably. salivation. can also be used as a qualifier. ı Indo-European languages differ from Chinese in that word-class changes typically require marking (English undoubtedly being the language in which this requirement is weakest). verbs describing qualities or states in Chinese are essentially active rather than passive. 5 eyes (or dry eyes). dissipated.g.e. 417. for instance. no such change takes place in Chinese. ı e e o q¯ng r` xi` huˇ zh¯ j`. @ m` g¯ n s` . head hurts → headache. lit. zh¯ o sh´ m` t` .e. the subject and predicate are sometimes marked by final particles. one sees fever and aversion to cold. i. Parataxis: Related to the isolating quality of Chinese is parataxis. y¯n [is] damaged’. vomiting in the evening of food a ı u u eaten in the [previous] morning 424. 422. that is. parataxis also involves greater ellipsis than a missing conjunction: 423.e. [aversion to] cold more pronounced than heat [effusion] o a a e y` q` jiˇ biˇ o. One major exception to the subject + verb + object is the nominal sentence. 425. (3) The topic may introduce a predicate which itself is a subject + verb phrase: D : 0 f` r´ n yu` j¯ng b` ti´ o. lit. (2) The topic can be the logical object of a transitive verb. resolve exterior’ boost q` and resolve the exterior ı ı e a ı ı Very often. women u e e ı u a D have irregular menstruation (or more often ‘women with irregular menstruation’). a e u a e ‘[the] liver particle [is the] wood viscus particle’. the arrangement of clauses and phrases each after the other without coordinating connectives. lit. Plentiful examples of parataxis are to be found in the language of Chinese medicine. I saw. . lit. (of the pulse) forceless under heavy o ` u ı pressure 426. % 421.. I came. lit ‘double clothing. heat [is] exuberant. ı e e e ı a ı i. I conquered. 8 g¯ n zhˇ . urinate two’. wind and dampness. @ f¯ ng h´ n. ‘drink one. love my dog. morphemes were almost entirely monosyllabic. in for a penny. % 420. ‘boost q`. the patient (who) has exuberant heat and damaged yin. no strength’. lit. in for a pound. Examples in English are love me. evening vomit’. ‘patient. ı I mention them here because they appear in a number of phrases from the classics which arguably have status as terms.5. inability to o ı u e e get warm despite extra clothing Monosyllabism giving way to polysyllabism: In Old Chinese. Nominal constructions are a matter of general expression more than terminology. menstruation [is] irregular’. which is an equational sentence without a verb. In the nominal sentence. ‘women. The nominal sentence was replaced by verbal sentences using the copulatives o w´ i and later e sh`. Z p ch´ ng y¯ b` d´ w¯ n. and most words were also monomorphemic (Norman 1988: 84). ‘arm cannot lift’. ] < b`ng r´ n r` sh` ng y¯n sh¯ ng lit. the liver is the wood viscus. wind-damp e ı du¯ h´ n shˇ o r` . Z S c yˇn y¯ s¯ u er. passing twice as much fluid as is drunk ı ı o ` zh` ng an w´ l`.. lit.. wind-cold e a f¯ ng sh¯. one cannot lift o u e u one’s arm. cannot obtain warmth’. wind and cold. ‘press hard. ‘morning eat. m` z` ng yˇ . lit. 419. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology conditions. . as in 0 shˇ u b` kˇ jˇ .g. e. a speaker of modern English has to learn the grammar and vocabulary of Old English. Nonetheless. a reduction in the number of distinct syllables in the language. ı ı di¯ n xi´ n. the names of the major internal organs have remained more or less unchanged in 2. ‘free and unfettered’ (as in a a xi¯ o y´ o sˇ n. Furthermore. epilepsy. a ı mi` n s` a e Stability: Languages evolve at different rates. In Chinese. Although many reduplicates were descriptive. Among the languages of Europe. In order to read English texts written a thousand years ago.2. ‘continuous’. however. gave rise to the ever more frequent use of compounding (Norman 1988: 86). and does so with no greater ease than learning modern French or German. A modern Chinese. the written language continued to take Classical Chinese. ‘Free Wanderer a a a l` l` . while in English. red facial complexion and o ı mi` n ch`. the number of bound compounds may not have increased greatly (Norman 1988: 154). As any modern dictionary shows. bladder. In Chinese medicine. Old Chinese was rich in reduplicates and semi-reduplicates (Norman 1988: 83–85).or four-character euphony. and intensifiers such as gu¯ ng. disyllabic and trisyllabic words now abound. toad (as in a a h´ ng sˇ ng. d¯ng n´ng. Compare h´ ng ch`. ‘guru u d e Powder’). which has allowed words to be represented by the same written character despite sound changes. but new literary styles evolved that reflected changes in the spoken language. After the Old Chinese period. as its model. this ease of access has been facilitated by the partly pictographic and ideographic script. earwax.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms used independently. the choice between single-character or double-character noun phrases and verb phrases was often conditioned by two. phonological attrition. e.. To some extent. a a gling’. Despite its monosyllabic nature. mi´ n mi´ n.) a are considered to mark the end of the Old Chinese period. In the spoken language.g. a few are nouns. have changed much more slowly than English has in both grammar and lexis. the written form of Old Chinese. red face. we see examples such as xi¯ o y´ o.000 years. and a a h´ m´ . a tendency that has continued into the present. the greater use of noun and verb combinations. has relatively easy access to texts of up to over two thousand years old. Degree of Source-Orientation Translation in Component Characters). a toad-head scourge). . that is. and a a p´ ng a h´ m´ w¯ n. a a e Changes in the language toward the end of the H` n period (2nd-3rd century a. the turnover in basic vocabulary has not been great by comparison with English. milte has given way to spleen (more about this in 8.d. palate. German and Greek. and in particular. for example. In the literary Chinese of medicine. French. I consider the name of any part. phrase. These criteria appear to be similar to those applied in the 1995 ZD. adjectives. clear heat and ı e e o drain fire). or alphanumeric symbol used by the practitioners of a specialised technical subject to designate a concept (Hartmann & James 1998: 138–139).5. # q` x¯ z´ h´ n. or by borrowing foreign words. 1. e. The task of finding expressions for new concepts—in LGP or LSP—is accomplished by endowing LGP words with desired meaning. Any given language has a limited stock of morphemes available.000 terms. noun phrases. German. Picht & Draskau’s categories are listed with those of the ISO in parentheses. roughly in that order of frequency. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 5. Derivation (morphological procedure) .. In Western medicine. Compounds (combination of words or phrases) 3.g. What elements of LSP are to be considered terms is no easy question. Chinese medical terminology seems also to be characterised by a predominance of noun phrases (as for body parts and disease names). Picht & Draskau have described six basic methods used by European languages for term-formation in modern LSPs. giving examples from Danish. when q` is vacuous. for instance. the name of any disease.g. the name of any disease-causing agency.. ı u e a ı q¯ng r` xi` huˇ . + there is cold) and verb + object phrases (e. which contains nearly 32. Terminologisation (change of meaning) 2. organ or substance of the body or aspect of physiological function. combining LGP lexis in new compounds. which has also proposed categories. The same methods are recognised (but named differently) by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO). In a slightly wider sense. English. Below. a term is a word having a precise meaning (see Glossary of Terms). A simple pragmatic answer is to say that it is a word or expression appearing in an LSP dictionary. and Spanish (Picht & Draskau 1985: 106–113). a short phrase describing any symptom or state of the body or therapeutic action to be a medical term.2 FORMATION OF TERMS A term is a word. etc. terms appear to take the form of nouns. but differs from Western medical terminology in that it includes subject + predicate phrases (1995 ZD gives. and verbs. In general. the pulse is slippery. in others the ‘signified’ becomes almost completely different. Thus. foot is the generic name of a body part. Abbreviations (formation of an abbreviation) Both Picht & Draskau’s and the ISO’s sets of categories are broadly applicable to term-formation in Chinese medicine. Secondly. for three reasons.” A clear distinction can be made between words used more or less in their LGP sense and those used in a transferred sense. the term compounding (used by Picht & Draskau) reflects the preponderance of noun compounds in modern terminology. e. under which he conceptually subsumes all his knowledge of the foot (its bones. A categorisation that would be applicable to Chinese as well as Indo-European languages would include the two as subdivisions of a single category. In the discussion on translation of Western medical terms. whereas cornea. they are unsatisfactory. morphological change. etc.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 5. Furthermore. the words are the same as for the layman.g. Nevertheless. a a # q¯ng r` xi` huˇ . for the physician. the categories can be satisfactorily applied to Chinese as well as to European languages only if they are systematised. nerves.. we saw that the words pes. or verb with an object. hence neither the distinction between morpheme and word that applies in Indo-European languages nor the distinction made by terminologists between derivation and compounding applies. words used more or less in their LGP sense constitute a large proportion of basic terminology. Importation of loan-words (adoption of foreign terms) 6. Picht & Draskau state that “The semantic change may be of varying degree. to clear heat and ı e e o . and ren were translated into both German and English (as well as Chinese) on the basis of LGP equivalence. Of course. ilium. in their present form. LGP terms used in the LSP are understood by lay and physicians alike. to which abbreviations and loans could also be subsumed. In Chinese medicine. in some cases barely perceptible. we can say that the word foot for the physician has con- ceptual connotations that it does not have for the lay person. A first reason why the established scheme of term-formation is unsatisfactory is that the category of terminologisation (Picht & Draskau) or change of meaning (ISO) appears to require subdivision. unguis. and radius were borrowed into English and replicated in German by loantranslation. Chinese medical terminology also includes many phrases consisting of a subject with a verb. blood vessels.). The morphemes constituting Chinese medical terminology are largely free in nature. For the Western physician. insofar as the concept ‘foot’ involves relationships and associations. but the conceptual content that attaches to the words is more detailed. w m` i hu´ . morphological. borrowing does not strictly fit into the single category of morphological change. is matched in Classical Chinese by a tendency not only toward abbreviation. Compounding and derivation as well borrowings other than single-base loan-translation involve semantic change as well as morphological. Nevertheless. Nierenbecken). for example. Only abbreviation involves a purely morphological change. Thirdly. word-roots may be as long as three syllables. and grammatical change would appear more logical. But alongside the tendency to reduce multiple character-words to single character-words. The increasing use of multiple-character expressions for concepts previously expressed in one character has given rise to the tendency to expand single-character words into compounds.g. especially drug names. Discounting affixes and inflections. Nevertheless. The scheme adopted in this chapter for the discussion of term-formation in Chinese medicine is as follows: 1. A well-motivated term of several syllables or several words tends to invite abbreviation. although in substance the categories are the same as those recognised in the literature. and much less importantly. Although Bynon suggests that morphological complexity is a condition for term. Loan-translation introduces a new form (and a new meaning) when it involves multiple words or morphemes (e. abbreviation should be replaced with the notion of abbreviation/expansion. this is not borne out in terminological reality since. we also witness the opposite trend. Scheide and Speiche are loan-translations each of one word. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology drain fire. Semantic Change (a) Zero referential change/connotative enlargement (b) Specialisation . These do not introduce morphological change. for the sake of effective verbal communication. A generic distinction between semantic.5. In Chinese medicine. polysyllabic terms. I have used the term combining (and combination) to include compounds and collocations. only semantic change. some loan-translations are merely one word. but also to expansion. Loans fall in the category of morphological change because they bring a new form into the language. Indo-European languages are essentially (or at least typically) polysyllabic.. are often reduced to one representative character. which is a terminological focus in Western languages. Loan-translation is therefore a hybrid of semantic and sometimes morphological change. the concept of ‘abbreviation’. Hence. Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 2. used to refer to things other than those they refer to in the LGP (e. Nevertheless. leaf in botany). In medicine.. especially when such terms denote concepts of central importance in the LSP. heart. and knee.2. Many of these conceptual connotations are the understood functions of the referent.. Such terms can be divided into three groups: a) those that involve no change in referential meaning (e.1 Zero Referential Change/Connotative Enlargement No firm line can be drawn between LGP terms that are used in the LGP sense and those that are used in an extended sense.. bridge in dentistry as compared with bridge in the LGP as a structure spanning a river or gorge).2. At the borderline between the two are words employed in their LGP sense that have taken on an enlarged set of conceptual connotations.2.1. undergo zero referential change. we can say that words such as head. they tend to be more precisely defined or to have conceptual connotations for the specialist that they do not have for the ordinary speaker.1.1. but the divisions. terminologisation of LGP expressions produces the basic . b) words of a general nature that are used in specific senses (e. i.e. and the word leaf has more associations for the botanist.. 5. The word heart has many more associations for a physician than for the layman. are not always clear-cut. but that may involve enlargement of connotative meaning. 5. and c) words used in extended senses.. when becoming part of a technical nomenclature.g.1 Semantic Change Many technical terms are morphologically indistinct from lexical items of the LGP.1 Nouns In Chinese medicine. conversion in linguistics meaning a change in word-class).g. Grammatical Change 5. We should note that semantic change can be analyzed in different ways. especially the more of them there are.g.g. heart in medicine and bridge in dentistry. e. heart in medicine. Morphological Change (a) Borrowing (loan-translations and loans) (b) Combination (compounds/collocations) (c) Derivation (d) Abbreviation/expansion 3. skin ı 473. bone u nˇ o. X t´ n. rib-side e f` . phlegm 485. toxin Given the age of Chinese medicine. 444. 465. 469. spleen ı f` i. 458. lumbus a xi´ . ni` o. 453. % t´ n. summerheat 490. face a qu´ n. urine a n´ ng. 446. heel e zhˇ. neck 455. 452. 468. wrist a z´ . vessel u 493. w¯ n. membrane o f` . drool 482. 433. 459. anus a zh¯. tooth ı j¯n. 434. " l` i. abdomen u e 479. Nouns Used in LGP Sense Bowels and Viscera 427. chest o b` i. hand o zhˇ u. 461. 428. leg ı x¯. sinew ı 460. 466. 438. 441. 464. back of the knee o hu´ i. as in all examples of Chinese medical terminology from here on. & shˇ . the following 67 terms account for over 16% of Chinese medical terminology. cheek a b´. snivel (nasal muı Other body parts 436. 486. 451. shoulder a xi¯ ng. t´ u. hair a gˇ . warmth e a 447. u 462. T suˇ.5. / h` n. zhuˇ . wind 488. p´. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology ena. h´ n. blada a 448. 474. nape a ji¯ n. toe ı a 449. According to data included in Appendix IV. finger ı zhˇ. knee ı gu´ . 443. foot u tuˇ. 456. sweat a 481. V m´ o. it is difficult to assess whether certain basic . ( d´ . xi` ng. ' z` o. dampness ı a 491. head o mi` n. g¯ n. W m` i. back e y¯ o. dryness 492. ear ˇ m` . 467. mouth o sh´ . [body] hair 450. 445. blood e a a 476. = xi´ n. marrow 478. nail ı 454. 470. ankle a Environmental Entities e 487. pus o t`. 472. 432. 435. 431. tongue e ch´ n. 475. # cus) o 483. m´ . spittle a 484. Most of the physical phenomena on which its understanding of health and disease rests are also perceived by the layman. cold a u 489. kidney e dˇ n. der g¯ n. ! zhˇ o. heart ı p´. % f¯ ng. brain a Substances ı 477. lung e sh` n. elbow o w` n. 457. the English equivalents given are those of the proposed terminology. Note that in the examples below. gallbladder a w` i. 430. stomach e ch´ ng. lip u chˇ. 439. 429. liver a x¯n. 437. tears a 480. $ tu` . eye u kˇ u. 471. 442. 440. sh¯. xu` . limb ı shˇ u. nose ı er. buttocks 463. \ jˇng. g¯ ng. intestines a p´ ng gu¯ ng. 3 yˇ . For instance. ‘dampness’. the environmental entities such " f¯ ng. since the bone is understood to reflect the health of the kidney. Although the terms in question are used in the LSP of Chinese medicine to denote the same referents as they do in the LGP. / q¯ . speak a ı 499. are understood to provoke in the human organism. however.zh¯ . body parts.2. 1 shu`. 5. are seen in Chinese medicine. eat ı yˇn. Similarly. and * gu´ . ) xi´ . back of the knee. In this way. sleep e 500. 495.. 494. u a drinker’s nose). + qi´ .1. speak u 496. 0 y´ n. posture. and other aspects of the body and the relationships that exist between them. bend e 497. stretch Even these everyday words used in their everyday sense have conceptual conno- . B sh¯ n.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms adopted in the LGP. are not e o LGP terms in the modern Chinese (Chinese students of Chinese medicine learn them as technical terms). dream u 501. Although the Chinese words contained in the above list are all ordinary everyday words—as indeed in most cases the English equivalents are too—they are none the less LSP terms (or form elements of LSP terms). the five-phase associations of these entities become connotations of the terms that represent them. 4 gˇ denotes any of the many hard u structures that give the body shape. they have connotations that reflect their place in the Chinese medical system of concepts. and ! sh¯. The y¯n-y´ ng and five-phase doctrines used for classifying a large range of things ı a and phenomena according to their nature and their mutual relationships also provide a framework for understanding the nature of internal organs. ‘wind’. . both active and stative. but with the additional connotations of a host of symptoms that these entities. Many of the LGP terms listed above fall into this framework (see Table 8. For example. 103). In Chinese medicine. sniveling.2 Verbs A wide variety of general verbs. All have conceptual connotations for the expert that they do not have for the lay. rib-side.1.g. Many terms that seem to the modern student to be obscure technical terms may in fact be obsolete LGP expressions (e. drink ı 498. are used in Chinese medicine as e ı in everyday speech. bodily substances. but they may have been LGP terms when they first made their appearance in the LSP of Chinese medicine. as causes of disease. sh´. 2 m` ng. the word has additional connotations that it does not have in the LGP. and make locomotion possible. p. Verbs representing basic human actions abound. white a e 520. ch`. lit. at least in some contexts. Pulse Terms 526. green-blue 517. thick white e a a o tongue fur 508. ? q¯ng. 4 k´ . dispel phlegm u a complexion 506. ‘mouth thirsty’. These words of course also have connotations for Western medical physicians. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology bending and stretching are associated with the liver. vomit u 509. salty 524. f` t` ng. 5 chuˇ n. sweet a ı 522. cool the blood a e yˇ ng y¯n. b´ i. short . nourish y¯n a ı ı w¯ n y´ ng. For instance. D kˇ . : a 504. ‘abdomen painful’. cough e 503. lit. the internal organ which. like the colour black. 7 sh´ h´ ng. yellow 519. may well indicate disease of the kidney. is not associated with the heart). > h¯ i means ‘black’. red ı Flavours 521. they have e five-phase connotations. and speech are associated with the heart. ‘chest full’. thirst o e Since colours and flavours are categorised according to the five phases. very specific definitions have been applied to them. C xi´ n. but. C 6 xi¯ ng mˇ n. in Western medicine. 507. is associated with water. fullness o a in the chest mi` n s` hu´ ng. black u 525. dreaming. 513. sour a a 518. yellow facial a e a 511.5. slow ı a 527. bitter Verbs describing the pulse are used in their LGP sense. pant (to experience difficulty in breathing) 505. A g¯ n. t` . G shu` . 515. = % h` n du¯ . moderate o 528. racing ı 530. 502. abu o dominal pain 510. but many are different (speech. su¯ n. E ch´. 9 kˇ u kˇ . warm y´ ng e a a q¯ t´ n. copious sweat a o li´ ng xu` . B x¯n. Colours and Flavours Colours ı 516. acrid a 523. ch´ ng. sleep. / 512. H j´. I duˇ n. when observed in the complexion. lit. long a a 531. red tongue e o 8 sh´ t¯ i b´ i h` u. 6 hu´ ng. particularly in later literature. @ h¯ i. a colour which. < 514. F huˇ n. rapid 529. Linguists generally agree that words are used in extended senses as a mechanism that enables the finite resources of human language to be flexibly used to meet the infinite needs of human communication. ‘connect’ 541. tax (the body)’. stone (urinary calculus) ı 5. it is the use of a word to denote a concept that it hitherto did not denote. Thus the medical definition of contains facets that do not derive from the word in its LGP usage. A problem that attaches to the concept of specialisation is the difficulty in distinguishing it from the specific use of a general expression. etc. ‘accumulate’. . ‘network’. and involuntary dripping of urine.3 Semantic Extension—Metaphor Semantic extension is the “widening of semantic scope of a word or phrase to cover more concepts” (Hartmann & James 1998: 54). the nature of the processes involved in semantic extension have only recently begun to interest scholars.2. ‘toil. the stomach and intestines). humour (thicker bodily fluids) e biˇ o a a 538. often associated with pain) o 540.. lit. muscle. dribble’.g. Nevertheless. (a certain kind of abdominal mass) a 535. lit. including the skin and flesh) ı 536. lit. ‘surface’.1. O lu` . accumulation. sh´. in Chinese medicine it denotes not merely the skin. and in some contexts it even denotes certain of the internal organs (e. We might say that biˇ o. 1 l´n.1. ‘leak’. (inability to achieve a full stream of urine. lit. gathering. (a certain kind of abdominal mass) u 534. liquid (the thinner bodily fluids) 537. ‘exterior’. lit. a ‘surface’. ‘stringy pith of tangerines. K j¯. presumably on the grounds that these form an internal surface in an apparent conception of the body as a tube along which food passes. 532.) beneath it. network [vessel]. in other words. @ biˇ o. lit.2 Specialisation Specialisation is the application of a general word to denote or describe a specific concept. Nevertheless. spotting (mild abnormal discharge of blood via the vagina) o ı 533. J l` u. y` .2. but also the flesh (fat. (severe weakness resulting from excessive physical activity or from illness) ı 539. exterior. strangury. taxation. N l´ o. Linguistic discussion about metaphor avoids the terminological use. (the exterior of the body. for example. L j` .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 5. ‘gather’. fistula. M j¯n. gourds. is merely a specific use of a general word that can be applied in the description of numerous objects. and other fruits’. lit. ‘drip. early descriptions of the system of q` flow appear to reflect an extralinguistic ı origin of this notion in the absence of any detailed evidence of its existence. As already stated in Chapter 4 (Outline of Chinese Medicine). Recently. but it has largely been considered to be merely a stylistic device of the writer or orator. connotative. the classic form of semantic extension. and philosophical background of its time. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology The notion of metaphor. Kronenfeld (1996: 5–6) has proposed a threefold division in semantic extension between denotative. Paul U. More recently. Unschuld argues. hot under the collar) consistently reflect such associations as pressure and heat. which he considers to be experientially related to the notion of anger. and metaphorical extension. I shall assume this view to be valid and in the following discussion will present some linguistic evidence for the cognitive significance of expressions that we might otherwise loosely class as metaphorical. For instance. presumably because their interest in the origins of terms is secondary to their interest in the relationship between term and concept. political. metaphors describing anger (e. or the spice of daily conversation. Lakoff and Johnson’s notion that metaphor is not only a linguistic but also a conceptualising device is based on the recognition that metaphorical expressions in particular domains cluster around certain central themes.5.. In Chinese medicine. flip one’s lid. Terminologists recognise metaphor as being one method of term-formation. for example. Lakoff & Johnson (1980: 3–4) (and Lakoff 1987) have argued that metaphor not only pervades the expression of all realms of abstraction. Metaphor is a matter of great importance in the historian’s approach to understanding any intellectual product of civilisation. The choice of metaphor for a particular concept is not necessarily fortuitous. that the extralinguistic realities of China supplied sufficient grounds for the acceptance of the notions of the channel system and q` flow as truth. . I discuss these first under Extension Status (5) because they present the widest gamut of possibilities in the so-called realm of metaphor.g. social. Unschuld states that the development of medical ideas can only be fully understood when the vocabulary of Chinese medicine is viewed against the economic. it can reflect the origin of the concept itself. His notion of connotative extension notably explains semantic extension in contiguous domains as distinct from metaphorical extension in distant domains. we find a number of terms that are difficult to categorise as being used in a literal or extended sense. has existed since antiquity. but have not investigated it in detail. ı Unschuld therefore would agree with Lakoff & Johnson that metaphor is not necessarily to be looked upon as a linguistic device. but even facilitates our conceptualisation of abstractions. ” It is interesting to note that although the author offers no alternative aetiology. or else as R u u t` qu¯ . While u a . the term harelip. at least as far as they and physicians of later generations who understood Latin were concerned. it would be wrong to classify the term as a linguistic metaphor. This condition is known in Chinese as R T S t` ch´ n. Similarly.g. then this called hare cleft. What complicates matters here is that identity and nonidentity are not universal. Nevertheless. Although one would imagine these Chinese terms to be metaphors. According to the Zh¯ b`ng Yu´ nh` ul` n (U u ı a o u V W X Y appeared in 610 a.2. They gave the cochlea its name because it shape resembles that of a snail’s shell. in one sense.. our own culture. in other words.1. seeing a hare or eating its flesh was evidently considered a cause for the appearance of the harelip. which parallels the English term exactly. The people say this arises when a woman sees a hare and eats hare’s flesh during pregnancy. they were. sea of blood). words that are not used in their primary sense are used in some extended sense. To members of cultures in which magical beliefs prevail. Another example similar to that of harelip is _ ` h´ sh` n. In naming one thing by another.. Amongst such people a harelip would literally be a hare’s lip (at least a special case of one). he distances himself from this superstition. states. Metaphor is the act of naming or describing a thing in one semantic domain in terms of a similar thing in another semantic domain. there are certain difficulties e a in determining whether words are used in an extended sense or not. 2 xu` hˇ i. When anatomists first called a part of our hearing apparatus cochlea. is similarly a deliberate falsehood. physical similarity may more easily suggest identity than to members of.d.1 Extension status In any terminology. insofar as those who used the term believed in the magical aetiology. u e “The Origins and Indicators of Diseases”) by Ch´ o Yu´ n-F¯ ng a a a which they may in fact not have been originally. the hare’s lip was believed to have been duplicated on the human face. “When a person is born with a lip cleft like a hare’s. The falsehood lies in that although it is called a snail’s shell it is not understood to actually be a snail’s shell. According to the source quoted. Nevertheless. say. ‘hare cleft’.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms attention to the relationship between them.3. metaphor rests on awareness of the difference of identity between the object it names or describes and the object that provides the naming or describing image. 5. I shall then examine the function of metaphor in terms of naming and description. foxy mounting. a name for a congenital cleft of the lip (now regarded as somewhat offensive). In the terminology of Chinese medicine. most extended senses are metaphorical (e. and formal and functional attributes. objective categories. perpetrating a lie. since it does not concede that wind can penetrate the skin or arise spontaneously in the body. undergoing some transformation. and that this rests on a certain world view. Nevertheless. lodging in certain places. were still considered partially attributable. was attributed to the ı fox demon (Harper 1998: 72).5. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology explained by reference to the fact that the intestine slips down into the scrotum and back again like a fox slipping stealthily in and out of its lair. Chinese medicine has developed different approaches to understanding health and sickness. a direct causal relationship is perceived between wind as a meteorological phenomenon and diseasecausing agent located in the body. As I explained in Chapter 4 (Outline of Chinese Medicine). There are several instances in Chinese medical terminology where the distinction between literal use and metaphorical use is not clear cut. Our understanding of modern medicine allows us to accept that exposure to wind can affect the body by causing a reduction in body temperature. known by the earlier name of a tu´. but our understanding of the causal chain is different from the traditional Chinese understanding. Nevertheless. Firstly. It is certainly not the goal of this discussion to attempt to unveil magical origins of Chinese medical terms and demonstrate that metaphor as we understand it does not exist in the terminology of Chinese medicine. The most remarkable example is wind. ‘Wind’. in some sense. At first sight. we might suspect that they are merely metaphors. since diseases that eventually came to be attributed principally to endogenous wind (such as ‘wind stroke’. It is rather to point out that the concept of metaphor rests on the notion of the source domain of term being entirely separate from the target domain. when we consider that according to traditional Chinese medical statements these entities cause disease by entering the body. the notion of endogenous wind developed gradually. and even in some cases. refer to environmental phenomena understood to be capable of causing disease. and ‘dampness’. and generally susceptible to exacerbation by external wind (Zh¯ ng B-Y a 1989: 459). This suggests that certain phenomena occurring in the body were not merely . which includes ‘stroke’ or ‘cerebrovascular accident’). We might be tempted to understand the use of the word wind to denote a disease-causing entity that is capable of entering and lodging in the body or arising spontaneously within it as a metaphorical usage of the term. Secondly. and was never severed completely from that of exogenous wind. have greater cognitive significance than a mere linguistic device for naming and describing things. ‘cold’. We know that earlier in Chinese medicine the same condition. for instance. ‘summerheat’. What we might regard as metaphor may. this is unsatisfactory for two reasons. it would appear that these words are meant in a literal rather than a metaphorical sense. anger. as I shall show. the problem is that the word q` is used in so ı many different senses that it is difficult to see how the meaning has been extended. there ı are no grounds to believe that q` is or is not a metaphor. to assume that the q` of the body is thought to be the same as gaseous substances ı on the basis of certain features. In Chapter 4. Ultimately it may be impossible to separate the cognitive function of analogy and linguistic function of metaphor. breath. is a highly polysemous term. however. which denoted mist or vapor. traditional medical texts effectively offer no explanation of q` beyond the phenomena in which it manifested. as in the case of ı ‘wind’. among them steam. Unhappily. Although our scientifically based view would not allow us to make such an identification. bodily strength. suggesting steam rising from rice. various agencies understood to power physiological activity. If we wished to categorise these extensions we might be tempted to draw a distinction between gaseous or atmospheric things on the one hand. and certain dynamic phenomena on the other. air or gas. Consequently. we cannot describe cognitive bases of knowledge that differ from our own. In the following sections I shall continue to use the word metaphor. things or phenomena a sharing like qualities and like relationships with other things or phenomena are understood to be ontologically related. which appear to have had magical origins. It is for this reason that Unschuld renders the term as ‘(finest matter) influences’. The original form of the character was + + though in the simplified script of the PRC this has been reduced to + ) contains the rice signific d . The term + q`. We might wish. although it . I stated the view that social and political analogies appear to have contributed to the understanding of the body. The complex form (al- word in the terminology of Chinese medicine. If we do not distinguish between linguistic metaphor and cognitive analogy. are of a nature and distribution that suggest that they are not merely linguistic devices. the Chinese world view appears to allow it. which according to my calculations is the most frequently used ı . but were perceived as actually being ‘wind’ because they were understood to share the essential qualitative and functional characteristics of wind in the environment. Medical ‘metaphors’ that have their origins in these systems of correspondence are not necessarily to be regarded as metaphors in any purely linguistic sense. The ‘metaphors’ that reflect this.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms described as ‘wind’ by a linguistic metaphor. in the doctrines of y¯nı y´ ng and the five phases. This form of the character came to take on a whole variety of meanings. As stated in Chapter 4 (Outline of Chinese Medicine). odors. weather (a condition of the atmosphere). but also simile and metonymy.1. o l tˇ . The terms y¯n and y´ ng. or use of the name of one object to refer to a whole class to which the object belongs. the blood is described as the ‘mother of q`’. metal. and hence more tentative. water (fluids). to denote the movement in the vessels. True metaphor is the most common.5. i. 543. u # huˇ . f shuˇ. the a pulse. Metonymy is the use of a part to represent the whole. I adopt the generally accepted view that metaphor in its widest sense includes not only true metaphor. fire.g. Chinese medical writers have commonly used simile to describe various phenomena. Simile differs from metaphor in that the act of comparison is explicit. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology should be borne in mind it may in some cases refer to cognitive analogy or cognitive identification rather than mere linguistic metaphor. earth. m n n o xi` ji¯ o r´ d´ . water. Simile is a device whereby one thing is described as being like another. as in ı g m` hu¯ . hiccup after drinking water. and ı ı o` shuˇ gˇ . flowery vision u a _ h yˇn shuˇ zu` e. 544. ı we realise that this phrase is not a genealogical account of the relationship between q` ı . and most of the examples given so far belong to this category. and ı shuˇ. Similarly. were used in the y¯n-y´ ng doctrine ı a to refer metonymically to all or any objects classified in the system. the five phases.e. grain and water (food) ı u The use of the term w m` i. may ı likewise be considered metonymical usages. It is for this reason that Newmark calls simile “a more cautious form of metaphor” (Newmark 1995: 84).3.2 Types of metaphor For the purposes of this study. I also include epithets in the category of metaphor.2. When we are aware of the metaphor. eye (vision). u ? j¯n. vessel. originally ı a referring to the shady and dark sides of a mountain. lower burner is like a sluice a a u u b´ i r´ k¯ gˇ . to mean fluids or beverages ı m` . m` . grain. the use of f gˇ . to mean food in general and u in general is metonymical. white as dry bones a u u u A metaphorical epithet is a word or phrase describing the abstract characteristics of an entity (e. may also be regarded as a metonymical usage. its functions) by equating the entity to another belonging to a different domain and known to possess similar characteristics. 545. 5. 542. In the first of the examples listed below. as in 5 u shuˇ. water. In Chinese medicine.. wood.. q` is the commander of the blood ı e e ı a ı ji¯ ng j¯ n zh¯ gu¯ n. life gate fire ı e ı o l´ ng l´ i zh¯ huˇ . T 564. | 558. wild duck bones (the arch of u u 556. (holder of the) office of general (the liver) a u ı a 5.1.e. _ } faucium) 551.g. ancestral q`.2. u f´ gˇ . ancestral q` o ı ı j¯ n huˇ . w x h´ u gu¯ n. Chinese medicine possesses a number of metaphorical LSP terms denoting body parts (e. lit. 547. & y´ng q`. peg bone. sea of marrow ı a y` hˇ i. which is discussed under 5.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms and the blood. iris. 565. glans ı o y` m´ n. metaphor has been extensively used in the naming of anatomical detail. Functions of Metaphor. but it has been traditionally less concerned with anatomical structures than with functions. pupil) Physiological entities 554. The point is rather that blood nurtures q` in the way that a mother nurtures ı her child.. for example. 563. triple burner a a Channels and network vessels . u u gu¯ t´ u. metaphor is used to name such functional entities (e. though. i. canthi. Metaphorical epithets are a specific form of descriptive metaphor. Metaphor is also used greatly in the naming and description of symptoms. q` street ı e ı zh` ng xi´ . sea of marrow). tus) 552.e. dragon and o e ı o orifice or cervix uteri) 550.. Quite expectedly. jade gates (the vaginal meau e h` u ti¯ n zh¯ bˇ n. etc.. root of later o a ı e heaven (acquired constitution) 562. y penis 553. right and evil e e white of the eye. Metaphor is used to express LSP-specific concepts for which the LGP has no words. 566. ‘tortoise’s head’. p s q _ _ r t q` w´ i xu` zh¯ shu` i. birth gate (the vaginal a e m`ng m´ n zh¯ huˇ .. and treatment. the life gate fire 561.g.). 546. z wˇ l´ n. construction q` ı ı ı z¯ ng q`. etiologies. { 557. } t t ~ j¯ng sh`. sea of jade. sovereign fire u o _ _ & & the rib-cage formed by the 7th–10th ribs) 549. In Western medicine. Metaphor plays an important role in the terminology of all aspects of Chinese medicine. essence chamber ı ı su´ hˇ i. wild duck bone. sovereign ı fire. The list below gives examples from a variety of distinct domains.3. 559. v chˇ n m´ n. the bladder u a q` ji¯ . diseases.3 The targets of metaphor The target of a metaphor is the concept which it is used to name or describe. throat pass (the isthmus o a thunder fire. i. m s¯ n ji¯ o. five wheels (eyelids. Metaphor Classed by Target Body parts 548. 560. Physiological functions and relationships 576. torpid intake a a fˇ t¯ i. ı a u u a ı menstrual flow like fish brain-marrow 592. five transport points u u jˇng xu´ .. blood flying to the eye u e e j` x¯ng zh` ng. PC-4. brook point ı e q¯ z´ . depressed u ı u e sore of the eye 607. % t´ n zhu´ m´ ng b` x¯n a o e ı ı m` f¯ i xu` . ‘thief’ sweating’. lung is the upper source of water a 577. scallion-stalk pulse a o m` i h´ ng. 604. 575. 599. Intermediary Courier a ı Disease 593. a ı o a ı sh` n. & shˇ sh¯ y` zh¯ ng. g¯ ng xi` . m yu´ n xiˇ n. 587.. e 590. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 568. x¯ng y`. n t` ng r´ d¯ o c`. 608. . ‘hole’. . 595. Cleft Gate ı e ji¯ n shˇ. impotence. q´ ch¯ ng z` i j¯n. 585. s W r` n m` i. lit. . W 588. fire-girdle a a o a ] cinnabar 606. z 571. . coin lichen a a s¯ ng p´ xiˇ n. ‘y´ ng a e a 594. L 598. 586. m` sh¯ ng s` chu¯ ng. duck’s slop a a m` i k¯ u. lit. 601. offensive precipitation o a . phlegm turbidity clouding the peria cardium 582. wˇ sh¯ . unctuous strangury a ı m´ i h´ q`. plum-pit q` e e ı ı d` rˇ . starry screen ı ı qu` m` . white tiger joint a u ı e _ ] f` i w´ i shuˇ zh¯ sh` ng e e ı ı a g¯ n. f 596. W i 7 n` d¯ i.. . its bloom is in the nails 578. a ı a a a g¯ n. its fullness is in the bone Aetiology 580. sh¯ e r` f´ . . running 597. millet u e u a fire harassing the upper body 583. / d` o h` n. . PC-3. 609. dampness trapping ı` e u orrhoids 603. . bean curd tongue fur u a y¯ t´ ng. . acupuncture point. phlegma o a a & Q hidden (deep-lying) heat 581. . controlling vessel e a xu´ . lit. 569. kidney. night a a sweating 591. Marsh at the Bend u e x¯ m´ n. . sparrow’s vision e u p steaming summerheat-damp Symptoms 584. p 8 n e T j¯ng l´ i r´ y´ nˇ o suˇ. L struction 605. drum distention u a b´ i hˇ l` ji´ . 574. PC-5. q´ hu´ z` i zhˇ o. liver. persistent flow ` u u a of lochia Treatment 610. everted flower hema a ı 602. begrudging milk u u f¯ n hu¯ zh`. % & ch´ n y¯ o huˇ d¯ n. . pine bark lichen o ı a g¯ o l´n. fearful throbbing e o gˇ zh` ng. pain like the o u a ı stabbing of a knife y´ ng wˇ i. t´ n huˇ sh` ng rˇ o. its fullness is in the sinews 579. 1 & zh¯ ng ch¯ ng. wilt’.5. ! liver. 572. . surging pulse a o e l` b´ du` n... . e ı o a u yu´ n. clustered stars obu ı a b¯ o. 573. well point ı e y´ng xu´ . . ‘cave’ 570.. q´ ch¯ ng z` i gˇ . 600. q zˇ. Interestingly. the designation of a phase u that engenders another ı 622. Fiveu u ı e a water to move the [grounded] ship. For example.1. while that of symptoms and disease tends to be natural. the liver. to Tigers-Chasing-the-Wind Powder 5. the designation of a phase that is engendered by another 623.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 612. + + w` i q`. we find natural and architectural metaphor. assistant. and artifactual metaphor. metaphors come mostly from nature and man-made artifacts and structures (3. u a w w r` n m` i. kidney is the root of q`. PC-1. military and political metaphor is far more abundant than in Western medicine. in the naming of body parts. bar (pulse position) nation . transportation point). . brook point.e. thoroughfare o a wˇ sh¯ xu´ . political. mother.4 The sources of metaphor In Western medicine. . natural and architectural metaphor is the most commonly used. but we also find a considerable amount of metaphor taken from social. e ı sh` n w´ i q` zh¯ e e ı ı g¯ n q´ hu´ z` i zhuˇ . . thumb.2. sovereign fire. military. earth 619. l ( d¯ m` i. architectural. child. heaven a 621. The metaphor of both aetiology and treatment is drawn largely from the natural and human domain. u o xi´ q`. z % z¯ ng shuˇ x´ng zh¯ u. we also find natural. In Chinese medicine. x gu¯ n. .. rake firewood u ı o ı from beneath the cauldron 614. evil q`. governing vessel. . controlling vessel) and transportational metaphor ( e a y´ng xu´ .3. mountain pass.. in the naming of physiological entities. The strong use of transportational. sovereign. % s¯ u f¯ ng zh´ h´ n. The channels and network vessels are a major category of physiologe ı ı w ical entities. B minister.1. Here we see both political metaphor ( vessel. and courier 616. well. its bloom a ı a a a is in the nails). Physiological funca ı o + h tions and relationships are described in natural metaphor (^ g¯ n. p d`. Metaphor Classed by Source Nature 617. e. an acupuncture point desigı ı 618. fˇ dˇ ch¯ u x¯n. jˇng. Nevertheless. D e ı ı # j¯ n huˇ . mˇ . track down o e u a free the stool by increasing fluid (to free urine by diffusing the lung) 615. u e o ı wind and expel cold 613. as well as general waterway metaphor u u e 0 ti¯ n ch´. Celestial Pool). c` n. inch (pulse position) u a 620.7). i. ti¯ n. defence q`. ı e ch¯ ng m` i. increase e ı ı o wˇ hˇ zhu¯ f¯ ng sˇ n. and moral life. j¯ n ch´ n zuˇ shˇ. and political metaphor has already been pointed out (Unschuld 1994b). we find certain patterns in the distribution of metaphor sources in the targets.g. . sh¯ . ni´ . s¯ ng. z zhˇ . toad as in a a p n h´ m´ a a q strangury 630. control. ] g¯ n. dragon o chu` n y¯ o l´ ng. 627. ice. as in j¯ xi¯ ng. as in e q¯ z´ . q` is the commander of ı e e ı a ı the blood 654. l´ ng. hˇ . frog. so named because it resembles a fish’s belly) 639. qu´ n. \ h´ . jade. sand a ı 645. lit. landslide. eye 644. oxu ı a sinews 651. as in u ( hˇ x¯ d´ . u e o ı 647. as in ı ı w xi` . the controlling vessel e hide lichen u 638. official. peppercorn sore of the e a a eye 636. designations of roles played by drugs in a formula a 649. the governing vessel u r` n. wild u u ing from the vagina unassociated with menstruation (flooding) 626. ox. { y´ng. marsh. r gu¯ n. PC-3.g. as in a 1 sh¯ l´n. 652. e j¯ng ı r´ h´ m´ zˇ.. red phoenix heading for the e ı a source b¯ng xi´ zh` ng. f` ng. toad-head scourge. as in u \ ] h´ sh` n. as in e ch` ı f` ng y´ng yu´ n. as in ^ ice-jade obstruction a a 632. phoenix.5. fish (the fleshy base of the thumb. collapse. as in e xi` j¯ng. shuˇ j¯. moss. ı a a 646. b¯ ng. Celestial Spring 629. e y´ . t¯ i fur or coating of the tongue e 633. wild duck as in u u f´ gˇ . as in u y` m´ n. a a o girdling dragon pine bark lichen 635. as in a minister. Latin pectus gallinatum pigeon chest 641. heavy bleede 642. foxy u a constructive aspect of bodily function 655. chicken. sovereign. tiger’s u u u gans u 650. t shu` i. ı o s harelip 640. e. y` . governor. ji¯ o. tiger. as in u P t` ch´ n. as in u ni´ p´ xiˇ n. u e duck bones (the arch of the rib-cage formed by the 7th–10th ribs) 643. as in a 0 ti¯ n qu´ n. the kidney is the root of q` ı 634. root. ^ b¯ng. d¯ . u f´ . as in o s¯ ng p´ xiˇ n. office. fox. cf. sh¯ n. Political Life o ı a 648. j¯. peppercorn. jade gates u e w¯ n. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 625. spring. assistant. m` u j¯ n ch´ n zuˇ shˇ. crab. h´ m´ . The Military u u a 653. a a h´ u zh¯ ng yˇ u shuˇ j¯ sh¯ ng. the liver governs the whiskers toxin [sore] 637. P t` . as in ı _ t q` w´ i xu` zh¯ shu` i. rabbit. encampment. w` i. the ı ‘chicken’s chest’.g.. mountain a z´ . defence (the resistance to external e mounting . crab’s e ı Marsh at the Bend 628. hare. frog rale in the o o o ı ı e throat PC-2. an epithet of or- sh¯ ng ji¯ o chu¯ ng. pine. e. govern. lichen. sand. and courier. commander. menses like toad’s eggs u a a ı Mythology (the vaginal meatus) ı 631. 7 t´ i. construction. right (q`) (health-maintaining e ı vaginal meatus) 669. and it is inherent in the flexibility of language that both these functions should be able to be performed by metaphor. now written as ) vessels) e 663. fˇ . In Chinese medical terminology.1.3. burner (a functional unit) 678. gan z` ng. zh` ng. storehouse. the pulse [is] floating a u m` i ch´ n. invade (to affect part of the body). mansion. N l´ o. an epithet for various parts of the body 671. stomach. h` . gate. liver 658. ku` . court. W 680. q` stagnates (q` [is] stagnant) ı ı ı ı h´ n xi´ k` y´ f` i. sore Transportation 662. lar 668. fˇ . rampart.2. evil (that which threatens health) e e. a class of internal organ u a 677. lichen (a skin disease) a Verbs are used metaphorically to describe pathological states and processes: 679. toil. small intestine. as in f` n. ~ Miscellaneous q` ji¯ . bladder. ~ ji¯ . 661. moss) a 675. drum (pronounced abdominal distention. quell the a a gate (the vaginal orifice or cervix uteri) 666. as in u b´ zh` . f gˇ . xiˇ n.. m ji¯ o. a g¯ n q` f` n w` i. W m` i f´ . attack (take harsh action to elimo 665. street. thoroughfare (one of the eight o xi´ . as in 664. Nouns are used metaphorically to name body parts and pathological phenomena: 674. (a class of organs includu ing the gallbladder. and triple burner. f´ ng. q` street ı e ı a 672. large intestine. malign. birth a e inate evils) 657. as in v e chˇ n m´ n. strain (disease caused by undue strain) u 673. ascites) sh¯ . nose pilı u vading the stomach Morality 659. cold evil a e e u e settling in the lung . eight a o ramparts (eight divisions of the eye) 667. nouns and verbs (stative and active) are used metaphorically. pillar. # t´ng. malign ı 670. y¯n door (the ı u ı zh` . i. ch¯ ng. (bed)room. a class of internal ora 676. quell. g¯ ng. as in ` e a ` chu¯ ng. mansion. as in a f¯ g¯ n. door. 7 t¯ i. m´ n. liver q` ina ı a e ı f¯ . 683. fur (of tongue) (lit. the pulse [is] sunken a e 682. as in o b¯ ku` . transport (a designation for an u acupuncture point) Architecture 5.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 656. u y¯n h` . q` zh`. sexual intercourse a function) 660.5 The functions of metaphor Language has the functions of naming and describing.e. grape hemorrhoids u a ı W 699. life gate ı e z¯ ng q`. % t´ n m´ x¯n qi` o. darting shrimp pulse a o a fˇ f` i m` i. . Insofar as the metaphor resides in a verbal qualifier (as in the preceding two examples). in the qualifier (or part of it). Naming and description should not be equated with noun and verb. e a & j¯ n huˇ . w¯ l` u m` i. 689. water q` intimı ı ı ı ı s¯ u f¯ ng zh´ h´ n. flying gates.5. or in both.. since verbs are used in denominative expressions and nouns are used in descriptive expressions. In e ı ı f¯ i m´ n.g. J sh´ t¯ i.. pulse 697. throat pass. the metaphor resides in a single characterword. seething cauldron u e a & m´ i h´ q`. plum-pit q` e e ı ı f¯ n hu¯ zh`. one will find the single-word noun metaphors as entries. W W xi¯ y´ u m` i. e. In h´ u gu¯ n. tongue fur (fur of the tongue). respectively. Metaphorically used nouns and verbs may be used in these ‘odd’ ways too. the metaphor may reside in the head. dragon spring o a ı clove-sore 698. but the verb metaphors are likely to be found only in their collocations). orrhoids 693. ancestral q` o ı ı 695. both head and qualifier are e e metaphors. shuˇ q` l´ng x¯n. In Chinese. it resides in the qualifier. or descriptive. leaking roof pulse u o a Descriptive metaphor classically takes the form of a verb (stative or active). the isthmus faucium. we should remember. phlegm cona ı ı a 686. the metaphor o a + resides in the head noun. 694. | 691. everted flower hema a ı l´ ng qu´ n d¯ng. 692. a descriptive epithet for the lips. 690. sovereign fire u o m`ng m´ n. 696. falling curtain screen ı a ı xi` j¯ng. qualifiers are often nouns rather than verbs. defence q`. we may speak of a descriptive metaphor within a noun phrase. In the case of verbs. % zˇ d` o mˇ q`.e. and in such cases the qualifier may be subordinative as in as in the following examples: Names Containing Noun Metaphor Qualifiers 688. i. which usually have greater terminological status than individual verbs. crab’s eye e ı p´ t´ o zh`. which in Chinese most often comprise a head (noun) preceded by a qualifier (noun or verb). child stealing the ı a u ı founding the orifices of the heart 685. while in @ w` i q`. track down o e u a idating the heart wind and expel cold In the preceding two sets of examples. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 684. the examples given above are collocations since metaphorically used verbs are used in limited collocations. (In a dictionary. chu´ li´ n y`. In compound names. q mother’s q` ı 687. % 706. ı e ı e u e a a .. ı o belong to the domain of wind and cold. spleen-stomach damp-heat sweltering the liver and gallbladder.g. 705. In English nouns do not normally function as adjectives or verbs. etiological and therapeutic terminology. In : f` d` zh` ng r´ gˇ . e. even as noun phrases. Descriptive metaphor is found in symptomatological. and attempts to describe a state or function with a noun usually involve turning a metaphor into a simile (stringlike). cold congealing in the liver vessel can be understood literally. phlegm confounding the orifices of the heart a ı ı a shuˇ q` l´ng x¯n. Nevertheless. In this case. warm evil assailing the lung and defence e e ı ı e e shuˇ h´ n sh` f` i.. the metaphor u a a u u .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms s¯ u f¯ ng zh´ h´ n. This is reflected in the fact that they are most easily rendered in translation (e. track down wind [and] expel cold. any description of the processes they are involved in that hail from the corresponding environmental domain should not be considered as metaphorical either. 704. it does not ı t´ n m´ x¯n qi` o. % 701. Similes and epithets making use of metaphors that reside in nouns are inherently descriptive. w m` i xi´ n. ‘the a a pulse [is] string’. the metaphorical element is still descriptive. heart fire flaming upward. % 703. since the metaphor is in the qualifier. whether they contain metaphor or not. as explained in the o e u a preceding section. water q` intimidating the heart ı ı ı ı ı f¯ ng r` f` n f` i. not in the head. Nevertheless. assail. wind-cold assailing the throat. is a military metaphor. terms such as 6 # x¯n huˇ sh` ng y´ n. phlegm turbidity clouding the pericardium a o e ı ı a z¯ ng shuˇ x´ng zh¯ u. and w g¯ n m` i. a quality or action is evoked by a noun. the extension status is sometimes problematic. torpid intake and sunken pulse). which are positions typically occupied by nouns. we may speak of linguistic metaphor with greater certainty. ! ı o a a / T ! . 707.g. Nevertheless. wind-heat invading the lung e e a e w¯ n xi´ q¯n x´ f` i w` i. In the etiological field. i sh¯ r` xi` zh` . a a when descriptions hail not from the source domain of the agent. p´ w` i sh¯ r` x¯ n zh¯ ng g¯ n dˇ n. abdomen as large as a drum. since they may occupy in sentences the positions of subject or object. In " x´ h´ u. If we assume words denoting environmental entities not to be metaphorical in themselves. may also serve as noun phrases. lift the pot and remove the lid ı u e a In a few cases. B f¯ ng h´ n e a x´. 702. water-cold shooting into the lung ı a e e t´ n zhu´ m´ ng b` x¯n b¯ o. noun + verb expressions such as these. More examples of this are given below: 700. ı e a u h´ n n´ng a ı damp-heat pouring downward. increase water to move the [grounded] ship e ı ı o t´ h´ ji¯ g` i. but from some other realm. cold evil settling in the lung a e e e s` n h´ n. W 711. (holder of the) office of the granaries (the spleen and stomach) a ı ı a E r . 732. % 733. 728. p 725. intake [is] torpid → torpid intake a a yˇ n hu¯ . 719. 722. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology is in the noun ‘drum’. hair knotted in awns a e u ı q 8 j¯ng r´ h´ m´ zˇ. raking the firewood from beneath the cauldron u ı o ı % s¯ u f¯ ng zh´ h´ n. Simile 721. 718. stool like duck’s slop a a u a a q¯ng r´ cˇ o z¯. 714. 723. ' 710. 709. track down wind and expel cold o e u a b´ i r´ k¯ gˇ . but the phrase as a whole is descriptive.5. 717. white as dry bones a u u u f f` d` zh` ng r´ gˇ . viscus of wind and wood e u ı a c¯ ng lˇn zh¯ gu¯ n. 720. 724. but the phrase ı ı u ı i n` d¯ i. water q` intimidating the heart ı ı ı ı ı & & ] 7 x¯n huˇ sh` ng y´ n. break blood o e fˇ dˇ ch¯ u x¯n. ? 729. k 716. head heavy as if swathed o o u o h` n ch¯ r´ y´ u. centre burner is like foam o a u¯ j¯ng l´ i r´ fˇ r` u. ı Metaphor in Description Metaphor Proper 708. blood is the mother of q`. % 713. s k n n n m n n n n o n o + h xu` w´ i e e q` zh¯ mˇ . green-blue as the colour of new shoots of grass ı u a ı n n Z t´ u zh` ng r´ guˇ . 726. abdomen as a large as a drum u a a u u zh¯ ng ji¯ o r´ ou. dissipate cold a a p` xu` . pulse [is] floating → floating pulse a u t¯ i fˇ . phlegm confounding the orifices of the heart a ı ı a shuˇ q` l´ng x¯n. 7 712. In 2 describes the relationship of the blood to q`. blood is the mother of q` e e ı ı u ı f¯ ng m` zh¯ z` ng. 715. menses like toad’s eggs ı u a a ı d` bi` n r´ y¯ t´ ng. / Epithets 731. p 727. heart fire flaming upward ı o a a m` huˇ x´ng j¯n. menstrual flow like rotten meat ı a u u o f` ji´ r´ su`. fur [is] beancurd → bean curd tongue fur a u t´ n m´ x¯n qi` o. wood fire tormenting metal u o ı ı h´ n xi´ k` f` i. the metaphor is in the noun ‘mother’. eyes [are] flowery → flowery vision a a m` i f´ . 730. putting forth oily sweat a u u o _ _ _ xu` w´ i q` zh¯ mˇ . for instance. that is. explicit definition is often lacking (see ahead to 5. In Chinese medicine. although the form is different. flying gates (the lips) e e In many if not most metaphorical usages.1. a muscular trochlea. The problem of interpretation attaches to nonmetaphorical description.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 734. The resemblance lies only in the shape. 5. 736. but with metaphoric description. alludes to the ‘intake’ function of the stomach. Terminological Rigour). Modern dictionaries describe this symptom in terms of lack of appetite and indigestion. and a a describes a pathological state of this function in terms of a psychic state ( d¯ i. sea of jade (the bladder) u a f¯ i m´ n. by contrast. torpid). ‘entrance hall’) and ventricle (‘little stomach’). the metaphor essentially defines the concept. a major problem lies in understanding the sense of the metaphor.3. Thus a metaphor may be chosen either on account of formal or functional characteristics. evidently on the grounds that the stomach is responsible for preliminary digestion (‘ripening and rotting’ as it is described) and controlling appetite. torpid intake. we are naturally only using it for specific attributes that apply to the target domain. The term n` d¯ i. In modern LSPs. Q s s t _ _ ] } f` i w´ i shuˇ zh¯ sh` ng yu´ n. many parts of the body are named by formal metaphor on the grounds of formal resemblances they share with object in other domains.2. its function is similar to that of a pulley. 735. lung is the upper source of water e e ı ı a a sh` n w´ i q` zh¯ bˇ n. it can also evoke functional characteristics. 737. By contrast. a part of the inner ear was named the cochlea because it was perceived to closely resemble a snail’s shell. not in the function (housing a snail). In the past. In the heart. In Western anatomy. the reader largely had to rely on meaning suggested by terms themselves and their context. Formal metaphor is common in both Western and Chinese medicine. . For instance. kidney is the root of q` e e ı ı e ı y` hˇ i.3. mena tally dull. which is an anchored loop of connective tissue through which a tendon passes to change its direction. In such cases. is so named because. we find two formal metaphors: atrium (lit. yet although the word that denotes it usually evokes a formal image. for example. what qualities of the image apply to the object being described. when explicit definitions were not common in medical literature. it is often much more acute. metaphorical terms are generally clarified by explicit definition.6 Types of attribute When we name or describe an object using a word or phrase from a different source domain. Any entity is most closely associated with its form (Kronenfeld 1996: 7). governing vessel u a r` n m` i. { e ı ı y´ng q`. e ı ı j¯ n huˇ . A u o jˇng xu´ . defence. health 757. Over a broader domain. 748. 754. which picture health and sickness in terms of war and predation. jade gates (the vaginal meau e the rib-cage formed by the 7th–10th ribs) 739. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology Formal Metaphor in Naming 738.5. Functional Metaphor in Naming 745. wild duck bones (the arch of u u 742. 751. right q` e ı ı su´ hˇ i. the bladder u a W ch¯ ng m` i. 747. health-maintaining function. ministerial fire a o y´ng xu´ . 746. life gate ı e j¯ n huˇ . right q`. t t w` i q`. 752. stream point. examples including muscular trochlea. as the following examples show. evil q`. Systematic metaphor in Chinese medicine is observed in a number of important concepts: Systematic Metaphor in Naming 755. triple burner a a m`ng m´ n. defence q`. phagocyte. T 749. five wheels (five concentric u u y` m´ n. 758. well point. sore y´ ng x¯ chu¯ ng. ı e sh¯ xu´ . a little folding door). u e p .. A rare example of this in Western medicine is malleus and incus. sovereign fire. z wˇ l´ n. two ossicles of the middle ear. W W m d¯ m` i.e. and resistance. sea of marrow ı a y` hˇ i. These metaphors derive from formal and functional similarities to the blacksmith’s hammer and anvil. 741. that which threatens e ı ı zh` ng q`. They are also systematic because the one ossicle strikes the other just as the hammer strikes the anvil. & w` i q`. It is far more abundant in Chinese medicine. bolt bone (the ischium) a u b´ zh` . construction q` ı ı ı xi´ q`. 740. nose pillar (stem of the nose) ı u h´ u gu¯ n. i. sovereign fire u o zh` ng q`. phagocyte (a scavenger cell). thoroughfare vessel o a Sometimes. bactericide. 753. w x ji` n gˇ . tus) 743. u f´ gˇ . macrophage. sea of jade. defence q` e ı ı & 750. This we can call systematic metaphor. two adjacent or related objects are named by the metaphorical use of words denoting objects that are similarly related in the source domain. goat’s whiskers a u a faucium) Functional metaphor is relatively rare in Western medicine. and valve (lit. controlling vessel e a s¯ n ji¯ o. we might detect some systematicity among the terms fungicide. throat pass (the isthmus o a regions of the eye) 744. brook point. ı e & xi` ng huˇ . 756. office of monarch. 760. Formal metaphors are uninformative. 763. these represent a narrower focus. When metaphor is used for the purpose of naming.. mal similarities to a pathway or the functional similarities of a line of transport. and ı ı + + xi´ q`. office of the granaries. by contrast.. In w ch¯ ng m` i. A z _ _ _ r r r j¯ n zhˇ zh¯ gu¯ n. n is an uninformative metaphor because it tells us of this disease (prolapse of the uterus) only what the affected part looks like. minister. that functional-systematic metaphor is of greater cognitive significance than formal metaphor. and courier u e o ı The water metaphors of the N` ij¯ng described in the previous chapter (p. is of significance wherever it is evident. The descriptive epithets of the internal organs are ı ı u ı systematic in nature.e. it is usual. k¯ i. assistant. for example. Similarly. usually either a formal or a functional attribute (or both in one word) of one domain is mapped onto another. i. i. closing a u e j¯ n ch´ n zuˇ shˇ. might be so named on account of the foro a @ chˇ n m´ n. office of assistant. blood is the mother of q`. e ı zh` ng e the rib-cage formed by the 7th–10th ribs) is an uninformative metaphor. to limit the choice of attributes. i. ‘gate’ both formally and functionally denotes an opening. for the sake of the brevity a name naturally requires. It seems reasonable to suggest. evil q`. sh¯ . Epithets in Chinese medical terminology usually take the form of nouns. Qualities/states and actions/processes. functional and systematic metaphor. ı e e ı a ı 2 o + h xu` w´ i e e q` zh¯ mˇ . h´ . the spleen and stomach a ı ı a xi¯ ng f` zh¯ gu¯ n. opening. thoroughfare vessel. The term 4 f´ gˇ . pivot. 106) are e ı also understood to constitute systematic metaphor. right q`. reflect a deeper level of understanding of the object in question. eggplant disease. the lung a u ı a . the functional metaphors O q`. and especially systematic metaphor. the heart u u ı a c¯ ng lˇn zh¯ gu¯ n. are much more expressive of the concepts they repree ı ı sent. 2 h + o q` w´ i xu` zh¯ shu` i. are the qualitative/functional features of entities.e. by contrast. wild duck bones (the arch of u u qi´ zi b`ng. Neverthea e less. 761. q` is the commander of the blood. because it is only vaguely suggestive of physical features. therefore. When they are named. birth gate. 762.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 759. the distinction between formal and functional. Formal metaphor in naming is often based on superficial physical similarities between the source and target.. sovereign. Physical entities have both formal and qualitative/functional characteristics. By contrast. The distinction between formal and functional metaphor is not always clear-cut because a source may be chosen for both formal and functional characteristics.e. lit. Metaphors expressed in commonly used words die less easily.3. p q _ _ r r zu` qi´ ng zh¯ gu¯ n. P 772. in Chapter 3 I noted how the live/dead status and pertinency of metaphor may also affect the translator’s choice of TL term (obscure metaphors tend not to be transferred). raking the firewood from beneath the cauldron u ı o ı p ) j¯n sh´ b` m´ng. a typical example in English being classical terms such as atrium. last flicker of the lamp a e u ı 5. Nevertheless. Metaphors expressed in unfamiliar words easily die.e.8 The live/dead status and pertinency of metaphor The degree to which users are aware of metaphor varies markedly depending on education and other factors.5. 766. 769. I suggested that exocentric idiomatic phrases. & 768. where the interpretation of concepts is more greatly influenced by literal meanings of terms.1 (Notion of LSP). the liver a u ı a 5. replete metal failing to sound ı ı u ı hu´ gu¯ ng fˇ n zh` o. 767. ‘return light back shine’. phrases whose meaning cannot be guessed from their components. Nevertheless. The phrase is exocentric because stool is not normally referred to as ‘ship’. i. As we shall see. were generally not to be found in terminology.2. increase water to move the [grounded] ship e ı ı o huˇ sh` ng x´ng j¯n. lit. which are dead for the now many English speakers unfamiliar with Latin and Greek. office of labor. In the realm of familiar Western LSPs.g. the live/dead status and pertinency of metaphor is of greater importance in Chinese medicine. office of general. pelvis. i. which few English speakers know to mean ‘the unsplittable’).e.7 Exocentric phrases In 2... ‘dying lamp brightens again’. 770. the kidney o a ı a ji¯ ng j¯ n zh¯ gu¯ n. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 764. ‘ship’ refers to dry stool in the intestines. It has been of no interest of the terminologist whose ultimate concern in matters of subjectivity is whether or not users consider a term suited to represent the concept it denotes. ] G B z¯ ng shuˇ x´ng zh¯ u. and ascites. 771. a number of examples are to be found in Chinese medicine. When such words . exuberant heat tormenting metal o e ı ı t´ h´ ji¯ g` i.3.. clavicle. pertinency. The motivation—the initial or continuing acceptability—of a term may be enhanced by the liveness of a pertinent metaphor. i 765.e. last radiance of the setting sun ı a a a c´ n d¯ ng f` m´ng. atom.1.1. In ‘increase water to move the [grounded] ship’.2. and conspicuousness of the metaphor. i. but it may also be enhanced by the deadness of an impertinent one (e.. lift the pot and remove the lid ı u e a fˇ dˇ ch¯ u x¯n.3. several factors can be suggested for the survival or death of metaphors in technical terms: the transparency. Despite this. the application in mechanical engineering is a relatively isolated metaphorical usage. The literal meaning is disguised by the addition of the flesh signific 8 (or 8 which the original characters may easily be construed as merely representing a sound. A number of disease names formed with the illness radical have undergone this fate (e. the word nut is a poor metaphor since it denotes a metal object that is usually hexagonal with a threaded hole in the centre (unlike the edible nut. Undoubtedly. which have maintained considerable stability over the two millennia of Chinese medical history. etc. As a consequence. but. Newmark (1995: 86) calls these ‘dead transparent metaphors’. a large proportion of Chinese medical terms. wˇ i. and military metaphor found in Chinese medical terminology still remains transparent and alive. Such is the case with head. but is also very much alive. unlike head.. The pertinency of a metaphor helps to ensure its vitality. denoting classes of internal organs. In butterfly nut. metaphors that occur frequently as in LSP terminology tend to be inconspicuous by their permanent presence. Certain political and a z` ng and a fˇ were apparently u economic metaphors may have been weakened or lost in the passage of time as the terminology in these domains has changed. original metaphors are the most powerful. seu . are as transparent as they were when they made their first appearance in medical texts. In Chinese. political.g. bulb of an organ. the Chinese language has always drawn on its own lexical resources. the death of a metaphor is speeded when the extended uses eclipse the primary usage. especially of those that have survived into the modern era. lichen[-like skin disease]). metaphorical uses of characters are partially normalised by the addition of new significs. For example.. e xiˇ n. . wing. butterfly bears a closer resemblance of shape to the original image than nut does. much of the natural. gate.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms metaphors. z` ng and a fˇ . in mantically mean ‘storehouses’ and ‘mansions’. chosen on account of their specific use in the H` n Dynasty as grain collection centres (Una schuld 1985: 81). wilting (of the limbs). In butterfly nut. which is usually roughly spherical and unpierced). foot. architectural. Nut denoting a food item is a common word. respectively. and for this reason. foot. bridge. as has happened with bulb in light bulb. Unlike modern European languages that to a greater or lesser degree have relied on Greek and Latin for the creation of new terms. and furthermore the element -fly may make it a more conspicuous metaphor. Here. in the old complex form) and 9 . most native speakers would probably feel it to be a homonym rather than a metaphorical extension. Metaphor in Chinese medicine is not only abundant. etc. Once again. while the metaphors of the world of human activity are largely used for physiological entities (including channels and network vessels). It includes borrowing. mythology. architectural metaphor largely used for body parts. combination. As regards the functions of metaphor. It is used to supplement LGP vocabulary in the naming of body parts.e. we should distinguish between LSP loans. and treatment. aetiology. It usually entails semantic change. the military. physiological functions and relationships. symptoms. while functional and systematic metaphors mostly come from the natural and from the human world. and is widely used to name and describe physiological entities and functions. derivation.9 The significance of metaphor Metaphor is found all aspects of Chinese medicine. morality. and LGP loans. political life.2. and abbreviation/expansion. channels and network vessels.5. needs. and therapeutic actions. 5. symptoms. rather than specific.3. Some of the examples .1. i. aetiology. aetiology.1 Borrowing In the discussion of LSP. functional. metaphorical terms naming speculative entities has potentially greater cognitive value than one naming a physical entity.2 Morphological Change Morphological change is the creation of a new word or combination of words. words adopted by the community at large out of general.2. diseases. functional and systematic metaphor may be cognitively more important than formal metaphor. targets of metaphor (body parts. architecture). words borrowed by specialists for their particular purposes. physiological entities. As regards the types of attribute. treatment). transportation. pathological processes and states. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 5.. description may be cognitively more important than naming. physiological functions and relationships. 5. I have already suggested that as regards the targets of metaphor. Natural metaphor is largely used for body parts.2. It would appear therefore that Chinese medicine relies heavily on vocabulary relating to human society for its metaphors explaining the functional aspects of the human organism. Formal metaphors mostly come from natural and architectural sources. Metaphors that have not been buried by diachronic change in the language and the increasing unfamiliarity of a foreign source conserve any cognitive significance they may have had. and the types of attributes (formal. The relative distributions of the sources of metaphor (nature. systematic) reveal a number of tendencies. and diseases.2. / 774. English names of medicinal substances whose foreign origins are attested in general dictionaries allow me to posit similar origins for similar-sounding names in Chinese. akin to Proto-Tai *[jaN]. akin to Mon [kla] u u gˇ u gˇ ). Loans 773. ‘consumption’. and Chinese medicine is no exception. and the English o m` y` o is of a Semitic origin shared by the English o a rape (Schafer 1977). ‘dog’. 2 0 1 b hu` lu` n from Greek kholera (?) o a f` i xi¯ o. as stated in 2. 775. 777. Systematic investigation of plant and animal names would most likely reveal a large number of loans. these are LGP rather than LSP loans. loans. For example. A Persian origin has been established for $ % p´ t´ o ‘grape’ (Norman 1988: 19). there may be very few loans. Probably many loans in the realm of drug names. suggest strongly that the name was imported into China with the product. Bahnar [ngGla] . Q´ B´ (interlocutor of the Yellow Thearch in the Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng from Greek ı o ı o a ı e ı Hippocrates (?) 776. the sound similarity between W . hˇ (as in ! u gˇ u (as in o 4 4 hˇ gˇ ). akin to Manchu [tukˇan] and u ı s xi` ng p´). Q y´ n akin to Proto-Tai *[Na]. Vietnamese [ng` ]. # xi` ng ‘elephant’. ‘calf’. akin to phthisis (?) e a q` b´ . Unschuld has suggested that. " d´ ‘calf’. u gˇ u ‘dog’. and o u a all of which make an appearance in Chinese medical terminology. In general terminology. a 1998: 11). xi` ng (as in J a d´ b´). 3 d´ (as in the acupuncture point name " Evenki [tukuˇ Gn] c 779. Mon [coiN]. and that * myrrh (Hsu 1986: 471). Borrowed words are often difficult to detect because the sound of the word undergoes major change to conform to Chinese phonological patterns and because borrowing was never registered in traditional lexicography. ‘tiger’. ‘elephant’. Latin raphanus.2 (Western Influence on Chinese). < & m n hu` lu` n may have derived o a q´ b´ from Hippocrates. Nevertheless. from Greek kholera. Foreign origins have been suggested for the Chinese words for ! hˇ ‘tiger’. where sound similarities between Chinese and foreign names. g¯ o li´ ng ji¯ ng a a a and its English equivalent galangal allows us to assume that the Chinese shares with the English a common source (Arabic). Burmese a ı [chaN] (?) a a 780. Paul U.2. 7 ı o f` i xi¯ o from phthisis (Unschuld e a y´ ‘tooth’ (Norman 1988: 16–22). from Proto–Miao-Yao *klu2 B o u 4 u 778.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms In Chinese. are comparatively few. It has been suggested that & u a ( ) ' l´ i f´ and its syna u onym lu´ bo is related to the Greek rhap(h)ys. on the basis of sound similarities. the terminology of Chinese medicine shows a wide variety of syntax.2. ‘honey’. from Iranian prototype *[budd¯ wa] u a a 9 : l´ i f´ akin to Greek rhapys. ‘sappan’. While many modern Western terminologies are largely composed of noun phrases (Western medicine is a typical example).5. akin to Latin mel 786. T 788. physical states or therapeutic actions. 790.2. grape. came from abroad. Compounding is one of the most productive methods of term-formation in European languages. Such phrases can generally also be used as nouns. 783. For instance. In the examples that follow. and possibly some medical ideas (Unschuld 1998: 10–12). akin to Sanskrit vidanga ı e e . there is no evidence of transmission of detailed textual knowledge which would be necessary for loan-translation. ‘chebule’. Subject + verb and verb + object phrases are used to describe. rhaphys. > ? @ > q h¯ l` l` (h¯ zˇ). and often noun forms are preferable in English. and is especially productive in Chinese (Lyovin 1997: 135). akin to Hebrew m¯ r and Arabic murr o a o ı 785. of southern Indian origin u a u There is no evidence of any loan-translation in the physiological and pathological terminology of Chinese medicine. ‘galangal’.1 Noun compounds Chinese noun combinations take a variety of forms.2 Combination Combination means the combining of existing words or morphemes to form compounds or collocations. ‘myrobalan of e ı e e ı ı ı a ı Kabul’ 787. 5. 2 bˇ xu` u e can mean to ‘supplement the blood’ or ‘supplementing the blood’ (i. f` zh` ng can be used in the active u a I sense of ‘the abdomen is distended’ or ‘abdominal distention’. 7 784.2. although combinations are explained their active sense. ‘cubeb’. ‘long pepper’.2. ( k ) s¯ f¯ ng (m` ). The terminology of Chinese medicine evinces the following relationships between combined nouns. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 782.2.. = m`. from Arabic khalanj¯ n a a a a B E b` b¯ l´ (b` b´ ). we should bear in mind that this is not their only usage. Although certain medicinal products. supplementation of the blood). from Sanskrit pippali ı o ı ı a b` ch´ ng qi` . Addition/Alternativity: Compounds of an additive nature (called dvandva com- .e. 5. G { C F H A D g¯ o li´ ng ji¯ ng. ‘myrrh’. English rape a u m` y` o. from Malay sapang. 8 < p´ t´ o. among other things. Similarly. B 789. Noun compounds and qualifier + noun combinations are often used in the naming of things. from Pashto hal¯la-¯-k¯ bul¯. as in ‘y¯n-y´ ng characteristics’). Fixed compounds were few in Old Chinese. ‘hemp rash’.g. ‘mouth lip’.) ı e l Apposition: Some noun combinations are appositional. lit. kˇ u ch´ n. both y´ and a Similarly chˇ mean tooth. lit. tooth as ‘upper teeth and lower teeth’ or O ı and small scrofula lumps’. e. For example. Qualification and subordination are not separated here since relationships of subordination may also be interpreted as relationships of qualification. whereas in others it ı a ı a h` u b´ . lit. their components never appear as individual words.. bladder. damp-heat. o u Polarity/Degree: Some combinations express polarity or degree. measles) or in which the second elea e 6 + ment is subordinate to the first (e. ı $ N yˇ n j¯ng. The notion of (degree of) ı a ı a thickness is thus expressed as L Synonymy: Some compounds are two (near) synonyms. Fixed Compounds: Some two-character compounds are fixed. these are often conventionally written with a hyphen rather than ‘and’. eye. throat. m´ zhˇ n. Synonym compounds in the spoken language tend to be compounds that have developed to cope with phonological attrition. Many combinations evincing a relationship of qualification or subordination between its components have resulted from compounding that developed owing to phonological attrition. Sometimes. d earwax. means the spleen understood as belonging to earth in the five-phase system of cor- Qualification/Subordination: Combinations in which the first element qualifies the second (e. where their use depends on esthetic considerations. The combination < = y¯n y´ ng in some contexts is additive (‘y¯n and y´ ng’). heart q` or ‘q` of the heart’) are true ı ı ı ı compounds. lip. a a . and a ı sh¯ n tˇ.. lit. scrofula as ‘large scrofula lumps o ı p´ ng gu¯ ng.. interior and exterior. body. are each composed of words of e ı w the same meaning. chˇ. they also appear in the literary language. o o implies a polarity (‘y¯n-y´ ng’.g. Often the synonymy is only partial: in y¯ n h´ u. and e P y´ a luˇ l`. As we shall see ahead. ! sh¯ r` . x¯n q`. spleenı u earth. ‘thick(ness)/thin(ness)’. and are few in the terminology of Chinese medicine. heart and spleen. the components each denote a part of the throat. Thus. palate are examples. e. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation). attempts were made to impose meaning distinction on the components of synonym compounds. / respondence.g. (In the a ı English expression of Chinese medicine. ı ı h´ ng sˇ ng..Translation of Chinese Medical Terms the word ‘and’: 6 / x¯n p´. p´ tˇ . ‘pharynxa o larynx’. ı ı J biˇ o lˇ.g. thickness. and the combination of the two characters also means tooth. a a d¯ng n´ng. This poses matters of decision in translation (see Chapter 7. yet has rarely appeared in medical terminology. lit.5. tongue. earwax ı ı t´ ng l´ ng. lit. heaven and earth a ı h´ n r` . nipple moth u´ j¯ng sh`. ‘nose abyss’. finger. 793. wind-cold e a b¯ ng l` u. ` b¯ o jiˇ n. 795. 816. cold-heat a e y¯n y´ ng. w 821. mantis egg-case a a } T Redundancy has been mentioned under more than one of the above headings. 806. nose. ı sh´ tou. 811. 807. scroo ı spleen’s q`) ı 803. ‘ears deaf’. q` strangury ı ı ı m´ i h´ q`. p´ q`. y¯n-y´ ng ı a ı a bi¯ o bˇ n. % 797. ‘skin-skin’. measles a e rˇ e. lit. { V m´ zhˇ n. 819. lit. b´ yu¯ n. X } p ti¯ n d`. lit. Redundancy in Noun Combinations 826. heart [region] and abdomen ı u xi¯ ng xi´ . % 796. Q fula Fixed Compounds 822. lit. plum-pit q` e e ı ı p´ ng gu¯ ng sh¯ r` . goose-foot wind e ´ a ni´ p´ xiˇ n. eyelid a a g¯ ng m´ n. skin ı u h´ u l´ ng. 805. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology Suffixation: Suffixation as in 4 n b´ zi. lip o u 829. o Noun + Noun Addition/Alternativity 791. and S e zhˇ ı t´ u. concretions. lit. tooth a ı - sh¯ n tˇ. oxhide lichen u ı a g¯ n sh` n. flooding and spotting e o j¯n y` . lit. the ı ı ı ı 820. and gatherings Apposition 801. deepı a source nasal congestion 804. phlegm-rheum a ı K L damp-heat Polarity/Degree 813. anus a e . 810. lit. Z 825. T U J 808. liver and gallbladder a a x¯n f` . bladder a a ı e f¯ ng huˇ . throat o o luˇ l`. essence chamber ı ı ji¯ wˇ i. 798. W % e zhˇ ng f¯ ng. M 799. ‘body-body’. spleen q` (splenic q`. spleen-earth ı u Synonymy 817. ‘throat-throat’. e a ı u conglomerations. chest and rib-side o e & 1 & q` l´n. % 800. ^ er l´ ng. 812. X 809. lit. ‘sac eyelid’. accumulations. 814. ‘anus gate’. 792. body e ı p´ f¯ . Qualification/Subordination 802. ‘scrofula-scrofula’. 3 830. 827. 823. ‘tooth-tooth’. \ ] Y R y´ chˇ. ‘mouth lips’. liver and kidney a e g¯ n dˇ n. tip and root a e zh¯ ng jiˇ j¯ j` . wind-fire e o f¯ ng h´ n. turtle-dove’s tail u e p´ ng gu¯ ng. 815. 824. A few examples are brought together in the following list. Q 818. bladder a a d¯ng n´ng. 794. deafness ˇ o kˇ u ch´ n. mantis a a pi¯ o xi¯ o. lit. p´ tˇ . liquid and humour ı e t´ n yˇn. has a long history. ‘hemp rash’. vary z¯ yˇ ng. 6 t 846. u h` u n`. lit. x` x` f¯ r` . green-blue or purple ı ı hu´ ng chˇ. ‘reverse-counterflow’. feather-warm heat effusion. P o y` zh`. large and surging o a q¯ng zˇ. l ou t` . 837. lit.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 832. Double verbs were rare in Old Chinese (Norman 1988: 121–124). yellow or red a ı . stretched a e a u u j j rigid nape and back.2. lit. wetted aversion to wind. float astray u e ch¯ ng f´ . q < take drenched 838. lit. lit. ‘vacuous-debilitated’. In post-Classical literary Chinese. lit. literature. Synonymy: As with nouns. lit. congest 841. vomitˇ u verse flow 840.2 Verb combinations Combinations of verbs (active and stative). thick and slimy o ı h´ ng d` . ‘depressed-stagnant’. lit. n m exuberate’. I Synonymy 839. ‘inhale and exhale’. express different relationships between the components. lit. e lit. lit. ‘vomit and retch’. 8 847. Intensification: In addition. enrich ı a Stative Verb + Stative Verb Addition/Alternativity 844. are commonly encountered. This sometimes makes it difficult to determine whether a double verb is a compound or simply a collocation. lit. like combinations of nouns. u a debilitated 842. a number of intensifying reduplications. a two-character subject tending to be followed by a two-character verb. or either of them. two verbs of the same meaning can be combined. s f´ yu` .2. and ı ı a e " x¯ x¯ w` f¯ ng. Q y´ chˇ. o u x¯ shu¯ i. ‘drench [and] take’. deu ı ji¯ jiˇ n. ? 845. ' yˇ n j¯ng. ‘eye-eye’. ‘add/subtract [the ingrea a dients in a formula]’. ree ı breathe 835. ‘congest- ing and retching 836. the meaning of a verb combination may be the sum of its parts. u ı ju´ n`. such as b b 0 Q mi´ n mi´ n b` du` n. eye a ı 833. tooth a ı 5. ‘tooth-tooth’. p q h¯ x¯.2. r y¯ ng o sh` ng. continuous d a a u a h h e ` f f xi` ng b` i qi´ ng sh¯ sh¯ . particularly in older ı ı u e Active Verb + Active Verb Addition/Alternativity 834. the choice of a single or double verb is often a matter of euphony. pressed 843. and only increased later. ‘enrich-nourish’. These may be analyzed as follows: Addition/Alternativity: As with nouns. ‘float-stray’. lit. ' zh¯ ng ch¯ ng. One dictionary (SYZYCD 1992). disinhibit water by w` ng x´ng. contract external evil again 5. while certain numbers derive significance from five-phase theory and the Book of Changes (~ contributed to the formation of a numerological naming habit. etc. gurgling ina ı u u 856. 849.2. continua a u a k % x¯ x¯ w` f¯ ng. lit. Number + Noun 867. for example. numerals. testines w w effusion ch´ ng m´ng l` l` . feather-warm heat ı ı a e Intensification 852.2. and palpation) : y` j¯ng). The y¯n-y´ ng u ı a binary system lends significance to odd and even numbers. somber white a a d` n h´ ng. tidal fever a e contract external evil’. ‘over eat’. contains no fewer than 130 entries beginning with the character l wˇ . huddling avere e u a sion to cold Verb Qualifying Verb Modifying Active Verbs 857. | 864. first y´ ng [channel] ı a a s¯ n y¯n. 858. wetted aversion ı ı u e to wind 855. fear-fear e o t´ ng t` ng. use raw e o w¯ i chˇ o. s` zhˇ n. five. ‘repeatu a a e c¯ ng b´ i.5. withered-yellow e a ch´ o r` . z P f` gˇ n w` i xi´ . ‘bland pera e ı ı colate disinhibit water’. Such factors ı ı (three categories of disease causes) . 868. v 850. inquiry. y¯ y´ ng. pale red a o wˇ i hu´ ng.2. three causes (of disease) a ı 869. x x s` s` w` h´ n. lit. k c p mi´ n mi´ n b` du` n.3 Mixed combinations Mixed combinations are terms containing a combination of nouns. dry-dry a a h´ ng ch`. In Chinese medicine. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 848. 866. stir-fry e a d` n sh` n l` shuˇ. c ous 854. ‘raw use’. ‘slight stir-fry’. verbs (active and stative). lit. one highly productive method of term-formation lies in the combination of numbers with nouns. lit. y B 861. painful-painful e o g¯ n z` o. 851. i i x` x` f¯ r` . { 865. four examinations (examı e ining the body by inspection. sively 862. } 6 move frenetically 860. { Y gu` sh´. eat exceso ı sh¯ ng y` ng. ‘frenetic move’. a ı bland percolation Modifying Stative Verbs 863. ( lightly 859. red-red o ı 853. lit. listening and smelling. soft tetany o ı 894. thirteen ghost ı a ı e p er sh´ b¯ m` i. eighteen clashes ı a a sh´ q¯ zhu¯ xu´ .. nineteen ı ı ı u a jiˇ zh¯ n. 893. as causes of disease) 872. white vaginal discharge. qi¯ n r` chu¯ ng. lit. (eight basic categories of disease patterns) 874. salvia (Chinese sage). lit. eight principles. / 7 sh` o y´ ng. twenty-eight ı a a ` sh´ y¯ w` i w¯ n dˇ n t¯ ng.e. they can be preceded by a human subject (e. E 895. . ‘eye redness’). ı ı e e a a Gallbladder-Warming pulses 884. they can also be used as noun phrases (e.. lesser y´ ng a a a c¯ o t¯ i. five phases u ı li` y´n. Chinese medicine combines adjectives (stative verbs) with nouns to form terms. wart.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 870. z 871. seven affects (anger. six excesses (wind. 888. but probably not as frequently. 890. fright. sinews 877. B wˇ x´ng. lit. twelve channel ı` ı ı 885. a a W ‘white belt’ 896. k (clashes between 18 drugs) 882.g. all things) Like Western medicine. the eyes are red). ı e ‘red wort’ 897. yellow sweat a a ch` l`. and. rough fur a a f´ m` i. 879. 6 892. ch` sh¯ n.. u ı 878. _ w` n w` zh¯ mˇ . but they are used in ways that have no English parallel.g. ı ı holes (or points) 880. Z 891. Its subject + verb combinations are too. ‘green alum’ u a zˇ u hu´ ng. double tongue o e hu´ ng h` n. bone 881. W ch´ m` i. b¯ g¯ ng. mother of tena u ı u or demon holes (or points) thousand things (i. cold. 17th spine ı ı ı e headropes’. ‘8 a a q¯ q´ng. These combinations can be used in an active sense of subject + predicate (e. Qualifier + Noun 887. hundred-day cough a ı e (whooping cough) sh´ er j¯ng j¯n.) 873. melanterite. sh´ b¯ fˇ n. the patient[’s] eyes are red). 898. 4 bˇ i r` k´ . lit. red dysentery ı ı r´ u j`ng. p sh´ s` j¯ng. etc. sh´ s¯ n guˇ xu´ . slow pulse ı a b´ i d` i. W needling methods) 875.. 889. Eleven-Ingredient Decoction 876. floating pulse u a ch´ ng sh´ . ‘thousand-day sore’ 886. sixteen cleft ı u ı e dampness etc. 6 ` l¨ f´ n. running yellow o a Chinese qualifier + noun combinations are a pattern we are familiar with in English.g. fourteen channels ı ı ı sh´ li` x¯ xu´ .. and hence they are like verbs. r b`ng j¯ sh´ jiˇ ti´ o. a ı a lit. u e nine needles (nine pathomechanisms 883. ‘anus [is] split’. 7 7 y´ xu¯ n. thick white tongue fur 922. ‘throat [is] a a grows awn prickles’. prominent [greenblue] abdominal veins 920. : ‘smaller convenience yellow-red’. / h` n du¯ . lit. x¯ f` zˇ o b´ i. lit. s` zh¯ j¯ j´. w throat Two-character subject with two-character verb 913. lit. t´ u y´ o. zh¯ ju` n. vexing heat in the five hearts transforming fur 912. bulging fontanel gate m` ch`. ‘sweat [is] much’. a a a ı fatigued limbs 908. ‘tongue Two-character subject with one-character e ı a a verb 927. lit. ‘tongue e a a o dry’. lit. lit. red eyes u ı mi` n hu´ ng. red or crimson tongue sh´ zh` p` ng d` . O = kˇ u jiˇ o li´ xi´ n. lit. ‘moss transforms’. rapid ı ı ı corners flow drool’. lit. lit.5. lit. Q gums 911. 6 915. lit. q` j´. T x`n m´ n g¯ o t´ . ‘eyes [are] red’. ‘q` [is] urgent/rapid’. ‘four limbs ı ı u ı mi` n s` b´ i. ‘face [is] yellow’. z wˇ x¯n f´ n r` . flailing of the arms and legs 917. t´ u t` ng. lit. ‘whiskers u a a a yellow face 901. A h´ u yˇ ng. s` zh¯ ju` n d` i. lit. ‘head [is] painful’. ‘abdomen u u ı ı expose green-blue veins’. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology Subject + Verb One-character subject with one-character verb 899. lit. enlarged tongue 914. yellow or reddish urine. lit. dry pharynx. lit. C substance fat-large’. ‘tongue rede o a crimson’. feet dance’. sh´ sh¯ ng m´ ng c`. a a 916. dry throat 907. o o headache 906. lit. sh´ h´ ng ji` ng. a a vexed [and] hot’. 900. ‘throat itches’. lit. premature graying 918. coa o f` l` q¯ng j¯n. lit. ‘fontanel ı e a u gate high protrude’. ı a moss white thick’. fatigued limbs 925. O f` mˇ n. lit. ‘limbs [are] fatigued’. ‘tongue e e a ı pious sweat 905. gaping a a fatigued fatigued’. splita e sh¯ ng y¯n s¯ yˇ . abu a dominal fullness 909. lit. ‘five hearts u ı a e t¯ i hu` . ‘voicee ı ı a sound hoarse-mute’. drooling from the corners of the mouth 919. shˇ u wˇ z´ d` o. ? breathing 904. reddish yellow urine 923. 7 8 sh´ t¯ i b´ i h` u. lit. coa o [and] hair early white’. lit. lit. ‘abdomen [is] full’. hoarse voice 924. itchy One-character subject with two-character o a verb 926. ‘hands o u u a dance. ‘face-colour a e a . lit. ‘four limbs ı ı a a ting of the anus 910. ‘gums gape’. y¯ n g¯ n. % t´ n du¯ . lit. prickly tongue 921. lit. shaking o a of the head 902. lit. 6 xiˇ o bi` n hu´ ng ch`. ‘mouth o a u a pious phlegm 903. ‘phlegm [is] much’. ‘head wabbles’. lit. g¯ ng li` . physical cold and cold limbs 936. ‘small abdomen a u o cold limbs cold’. nourish the blood a e x¯ f¯ ng. lit. Verb + Object Symptoms 941. lit. ‘phlegm a a ı ı xi¯ ng mˇ n xi´ t` ng. % t´ n b´ i q¯ng x¯. The English translations given below do not necessarily follow the grammatical structure of the Chinese. ‘repeat sound’. lit. supplement q` u ı ı zhu` ng y´ ng. cool the blood a e s` n h´ n. forwardı ı muttering 938. especially in therapeutic terminology. 0 y 3 steam taxed fever’. ‘cross o a a u r` b¯ ch´ o r` . ‘tide hot’. In the language of Chinese medicine. e e white clear thin’. smaller-abdominal pain One-character subject with three-character verb 930. ch´ o r` . xiˇ o f` t` ng. tidal fever a e N gˇ zh¯ ng l´ o r` . 948. ‘bone u e a e staring eyes Subject + verb + subject + verb 934. 932. coughing of phlegm e a 6 k´ t´ n hu´ ng ch´ u. dissipate cold a a z` o sh¯. dry dampness a ı bˇ q`. coughing e a a o of thick yellow phlegm 944. lit. ‘straight look’. the technical content of scientific and technological disciplines is mostly expressed in nouns and qualifiers. pain in the lumbar spine 929. } 939. : painful’. } cu` y´ n w` ng yˇ . lit. lit. < 953. promote the a o ı e ‘worry (agitate nervously) the tongue’. : n sh` w` r´ shu¯ ng. ‘see ı u u a things as double’. invigorate y´ ng a a a yˇ ng xu` . 956. 954. zh` ng sh¯ ng. ‘sun afterı u a e speak frenetic speak’. lit. visual distortion of objects interaction of the heart and kidney . 942. N x´ng h´ n zh¯ lˇ ng. fullness in the chest and pain in the rib-side Other 937. steaming bone taxation fever 940. lit. extinguish wind ı e r` n z` o. ‘form ı a ı e painful’. 949. 4 % % k´ t´ n. worrying tongue. 4 943. squint e ı zh´ sh`. clear thin white phlegm 931. n` ng sh´ . 952. deranged speech noon tide fever’. active verbs play a much greater role. ‘deviated look’. ' 950. Y : : tu¯ f` . late afternoon tidal fever In European languages. fortify the spleen a ı zˇ u gu` n. lit. 933. lit. moving (or sliding) cup o a ji¯ o t¯ ng x¯n sh` n. 951. o e 947. lit. lit. t Therapy u % ' li´ ng xu` . double vision 945. lit.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 928. 957. 955. S y¯ o jˇ t` ng. hair loss o a xi´ sh`. : N sh` w` bi` n x´ng. lit. ‘chest o a e o full rib-side painful’. lit. ‘lumbar spine a ı o 935. lit. ‘see ı u a ı things change shape’. moisten dryness u a ji` n p´. ‘loose hair’. Classical Chinese is incapable of revealing the semantic . @ y` q` g` biˇ o. lit. affixes. heat-clearing fire-draining formulas. boost q` and seı ı u a ı cure the exterior Some terms are noun phrases using the subordinating particle h zh¯ (equivalent ı de in the modern spoken language). hot acrid formulas ı e ı ı x¯n ji` zh¯ j´. lit. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 958. In Chinese. B _ _ H + Noun kˇ h´ n zh¯ j`. which is placed after a multi-character to the premodifier.2. cold formulas. the office o e ı a sential q` of the five viscera ı 962. the sea of the ı a ı a channels and vessels 963. the spleen is the source of phlegm formation of spring and summer Note that if the modifier is comprised of a single character. p´ w` i sh¯ ng t´ n zh¯ yu´ n. cold bitter foru a ı ı j¯ng lu` zh¯ q`.5. this method of term-building is indistinguishable from compounding. the seasons u a ı ı the lung is the receptacle that holds phlegm. ‘granaries’ official’ 961. ı ‘clear-heat drain-fire particle formula’ r´ n zh¯ y` sh¯ n. the whole of e ı ı e the human body 965. Because of its monosyllabic nature. p O + Noun _ Stative Verb + 966. the h cannot be added: h´ n j`. p W _ t j¯ng m` i zh¯ hˇ i. _ j`. _ r x¯n r` zh¯ j`. lit. a ı 5. _ @ of reception. There is another sense in which derivation may be spoken of in Chinese. ‘receive-receive particle official’ 970. A term such as ‘antifebrile’ used in West medicine in Chinese is a compound . office of the a ı ı a 968. z E _ wˇ z` ng zh¯ j¯ng q`. Constructions Noun + 959. eases granaries. lit. D mulas 967. the exterior of the entire body 964. ‘channel-network’s ı q`’ ı 960. new and old disı u ı ı c¯ ng lˇn zh¯ gu¯ n. _ r + Noun sh` u ch´ ng zh¯ gu¯ n. which is also used in the active meaning of ‘to reduce fever’. channels and ı o ı ı _ network [vessel] q`. the esu a ı ı ı Active Verb + 969. e u a ı ı ı e e a ı a ch¯ n xi` zh¯ l`ng.3 Derivation Derivation in European languages involves creating terms by combining wordroots. _ 971.2. & _ y¯ sh¯ n zh¯ biˇ o. and word-class morphemes. ‘one ı e ı a q¯ng r` xi` huˇ zh¯ ı e e o ı body’s exterior’. s % _ s % _ K f` i e w´ i zhˇ t´ n zh¯ q`. whose content morphemes can stand as independent words. lit. ontogenically speaking. provide some information. wither.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms their etymology. storehouse and mansion: two classes of internal organ . This is obviously the cases when the signific was added to distinguish a particular semantic extension of a character from its primary meaning. ‘storehouse’ and a u ‘mansion’ were used metaphorically as classes of internal organs. and cannot bridge the missing gap between the oral vocabulary and its ultimate formational motivation (Yau 1993). combined with the signific zh¯ ng. Insofar as the elements of their composition are pictographic or ideographic. the phonetic element is also a semantic element. shore. Written characters do.g. 980. sand: a disease characterised by small red papules a . mountain: an accumulation of evil or hernia a 976. . in the modern 8 (complex form 8 ) and 9 .. phonetic element appears to be used exclusively for its phonetic value. Examples are given below. wilt: wilting disease (including aftermath of polio) a nail): a clove-sore (a d¯ng ← Y in the sense of the shape of this character (whence ı li´ ← u deep-rooted furuncle) 981. Later on. are composed of an element the represents the sound and another element called a signific. bean: pox gˇ ← f . there are also cases in which the phonetic also has a semantic role. In this example as in many others. However. z` ng fˇ ← a u d` u ← o . pea. which indicates the semantic category of the character. the written forms are posterior to their oral counterparts. semanticı e phonetic compounds (as they are called by Coulmas (1989: 99). reflecting how the internal organs were perceived of as being like centers of grain collection and storage. l´ o ← N . 978. water. guest. remain. toil. 975. Chinese medicine has quite a number of characters containing elements that is in all probability semantically as well as phonetically motivated. lit. E 973. 974. settle: a tumor . z` ng and 9 fˇ . silt: stasis (of the blood) . this specific medical application of the characters was distinguished by the addition of the flesh radical. however. drum: drum distention (pronounced abdominal distention) u sh¯ ← Z . ı shuˇ (an altered form of ı ). Among the methods of composing Chinese characters x´ng sh¯ ng. Thus. 979. they preserve part of the semantic contents of words at a certain point in history. is composed of o b¯n. Graphemic Derivation 972. For example. strain: consumption a y¯ ← u wˇ i ← e . ] sh` n ← 977. e. Nevertheless. ı attempted to explain words in terms of others of similar sound. is attested in the sense of u . since . turbid water. to call or shout. it is not always possible to rule out the possibility of folk etymology. When such usages are unattested. ı e ji` n bˇ o. crust: a skin disease characterised by crusting . The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology 982. and . gˇ u wˇ i even in modern texts is sometimes seen as an alternative e y¯ .g. ‘underı a e u d` tiˇ ‘ground-iron’. Note that if these etymologies are correct. d¯ng as the name of a type of sore ( → ı zh` ng ( → a ). flock or flow together: a welling-abscess .2. gˇ appears in the compound u . elegance (H´ J-Y 1995: 72–85). ı m´ng. to ordain. The possibility of semantic significance of phonetic elements in composite characters differs from this insofar there is evidence of the character serving as the phonetic element being used in the sense of the composite character. 984. In some cases. which reached its apogee in the H` n.. For example. e u e a a m´ng. and Z a a hu` a hu` li´ o. nose. and u xi` . In European languages this may take the form of contractions (e. lit. the so-called sh¯ ng x` n xu´ p` i. a node or knot: a furuncle y¯ ng ← o xiˇ n ← a ji` ← e n` ← ı . shell. Contractions nevertheless abound. the semantic significance of phonetic elements has been explicitly proposed in the literature. then in . language for general purposes → LGP).. 986. For example. name. Of course.g. so there are no initials that can be used. health insurance. 983. or acronyms (radar. silt. to e a a i d` xi` tiˇ l` . ear.2. hidden: a disease of the nose caused by invisible bugs ( ) Such etymologies should be treated with caution.. bicycle → e e bike). 985. moss. AIDS). Chinese script is not phonetic. was explained as meaning and x¯ . WHO. fate.5. A school of linguistic thought. chemotherapy. In the medical realm. e. and ı m`ng. ji´ ← e . lichen: any of a number of skin diseases resembling lichen . underground railway.4 Abbreviation/Expansion Modern LSPs (European and Chinese) rely heavily on abbreviation. 5.g. is abbreviated to a a a a Z the use of classical forms. beard. and throat department (otorhinolaryngology) involves no reduction of the three organ names. such as ground iron-road’ becoming xu´ li´ o fˇ . These connections are now u e considered to be idle speculation. the semantic relevance of the phonetic element is an indication only of a possible etymology. ). Abbreviation is not to be confused with a a 4 ji` n k¯ ng bˇ o xiˇ n. m´ tropolitain → m´ tro. e ı o e ˇ r b´ h´ u k¯ . initialisms (e. the sickness sign- fiic has not been added to the phonetic but has replaced another phonetic. and e e sh´ o for a sh´ o y` o (peony). where ı ı ti¯ n xi¯ o. Since the terminology and expression of Chinese medicine is largely classical (monosyllabic). and therefore invite shortening. ‘tongue substance fat-large’. swollen lips u o sh´ p` ng. e o ˇ r du¯ . lit. red facial complexion the appearance of two virtual synonyms for a e o ı ‘red’ appears to be motivated by the two-character compound for ‘facial complexion’.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms the colloquial forms medical terminology. ı thirst). 992. Chinese is well-known for its lack of word-class restraints. menstruation. e. tightly contracted lips o u ı o sh´ zh` p` ng d` . In . such as when the adjectives variable and con- stant are used as nouns. a a j . Compare the following: 987. 990. lit. and : ` ı : j¯ng shuˇ. ‘four limbs fatigued-fatigued’. In mi` n s` h´ ng ch`. 991. Some abbreviations are more fixed. one might cite : : an j¯ng.2. lit. a disease partially corresponding to diabetes mellitus. ‘internal e a ‘the heart’ means specifically ‘heart y¯n’ or ‘heart blood’. a s` ı s` w` t¯ ng (Four Agents Decoction).3 Grammatical Change Conversion is a shift in word-class. ‘heaven eunuchism’. in which rrhagia stands for hemorrhage. lit. ‘nourish the heart’. t¯ ng. 989. xi¯ o kˇ . lit. the need to shorten terms is not great. in practice.e. while almost any verb . where ‘heaven’ stands for a a 6 xi¯ n ti¯ n.. 988. ‘heaven wheezing’ a a 0 j¯ng stands for ı yu` j¯ng. lit. fatigued limbs ı ı a a 5. for instance. enlarged tongue. lit. k dispersion’. The names of many medicinals are polysyllabic. menstrual flow. xi¯ o refers a yˇ ng x¯n. lit. enlarged tongue e a kˇ u ch´ n jˇn su¯ . e ı a a s` zh¯ ju` n d` i. a a ‘earlier-heaven’. Abbreviations nevertheless occur. For example. lit. e ı 0 and 0 ti¯ n hu` n. ‘dispersion-thirst’ (often rendered as wasting a e The increased use of compounding due to phonological attrition has given rise to a tendency to expansion as strong as the tendency toward abbreviation. lit. 4 n b´ zi. ‘mouth lips tightly contracted’. is elliptical since a ı n` i xi¯ o. ‘lips swollen’.. ‘lips parched’. In Chinese medicine. A m ch´ n ji¯ o. and ı h´ u l´ ng are not normally used in o o Sometimes the word . is dropped in decoction names. parched lips u a ch´ n zhˇ ng. congenital. ı u a These examples are all shorthand forms that the reader mentally fills out as he/she reads. i. surreptitious menstruation. An example of this in Western medicine is metrorrhagia. ‘tongue substance fat-large’. yet.g. w` for j u sh¯ n for D e r´ n sh¯ n (ginseng). or when the nouns format and earth are used as verbs. Agreement on definitions and term . or spring onion →to be scallion-stalk-like. string (of an instrument) →to be stringlike. the pulse (the original meaning is actually ‘vessel’). W m` i.5.. H´ u’s o ı e a o 5. lit. ‘not menstruate’) u e a 998. In modern LSPs. and b´ i sh` yˇ n a ı a ch´ ng sh` b` xi` f¯ n q¯ng yˇn. i. ‘. celsius ( e ı sh` sh`).. eyes like fish eyes that do not close during sleep The use of proper names as terms (eponyms) is observed in modern Chinese LSPs. a a Black Powder. b` yu` . Not too many examples are to be found in the terminology. ‘fish u ı u e eyes not nighting’. is seen in the a sense of ‘to take the pulse’ (or ‘examine the patient’) in H` n Dynasty literature. y` . as in ı x¯ x¯ . but also on choice of terms is part of a general ongoing process of terminology management. as in W o yu` . night → to do what is normally done at night. i. xi´ n. ı ı xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ. 994. A @ K sh´ sh´. but mostly in translated terms. W m` i. month → menstruate. absence of menses (lit. 996.e. stand in exterior-interior relationa a ı ) A @ K ship as in f` i yˇ d` ch´ ng xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ. [T]e unity between term and concept is considered an essential requirement of unambiguous communication. Nevertheless. as p e scallion-stalk pulse 997. x¯ . ‘to exterior-interior each other’. stringlike pulse a a m` i k¯ u.3 TERMINOLOGICAL RIGOUR A goal of applied terminology is to ensure the effectiveness of terms in the repre- sentation of concepts. as in W a m` i xi´ n. certain formula names or eponymic: B Poison Yam Clear-Turbid Separation Beverage. . vacuity → make vacuous. e. Ch´ ng’s Fish e ı ı e e ı ı e W > h´ u sh` h¯ i sˇ n. 993. u sh´. and respectively. as in e N 0 y´ j¯ng b` y` .e. lung and large intestine stand in e u a a a a ı exterior-interior relationship 995.g. to exacerbate vacuity and repletion. replenish repletion. . the Yellow Thearch. 4 g¯ ng s¯ n. are much rarer. eponyms are virtually unknown in the naming of diseases and body parts (the acupuncture point name y` o. repletion → make replete. stalk of a scallion. agreement not only on definitions. and Down’s e ı t´ ng sh` zh` ng). a o k¯ u. G¯ ngs¯ n. In Western medicine. but it no a longer appears in modern literature. strengthened by definitions agreed by expert practitioners and the avoidance of synonyms” (Hartmann & James 1998: 27). hertz ( syndrome ( h` z¯). The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology ing as verbs or adverbs. In Chinese medicine. B´ i’s Eye Medication. is a o u o u $ rare example).. pulse → take the pulse 999. this practice has lost popularity a ı e because it produces poorly motivated terms (uterine tube is clearer than fallopian tube). evacu u uate vacuity. and considered the early classics as the source of true medical knowledge. In modern disciplines. the reason for this is that Chinese medicine never developed a fully integrated knowledge system. Such are the concerns of modern terminology.g.. As medicine in the West until only a few centuries ago. integrated terminology. In this framework. the medical world traditionally never perceived the need for a dictionary of Chinese medical terms. The huge terminology that developed over two thousand years never prompted any efforts before the modern era to develop a systematic. continually seeks a community consensus on the understanding of any given phenomenon. help to standardise definitions and term usage). without their proponents feeling any powerful urge to resolve their disagreements. but they did not easily displace older ideas. In China. As discussed in Chapter 4 (Outline of Chinese Medicine). the conferences held to agree on Latin anatomical terms) and through lexicographical activity (dictionaries. the community of any subject field or discipline naturally seeks a consensus in the linguistic expression of its concepts. a major instrument of terminological management is terminography (terminological lexicography). linguistic concern was largely limited to to the exegesis of these texts. but they also perform an important normative role by propagating the opinion of experts as to the best terminological use. and what terms are acceptable or faulted. based on assumptions of verifiability of truth through repeatable experiment. Technical dictionaries not only define terms. Furthermore. The first Chinese medical dictionaries appeared in the modern era. They have certainly been fostered the growing size and complexity of terminology resulting from the scientific and technological boom over the last century. conspicuously as in response to the challenges of modern science.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms choices may develop gradually. Distinct. but in origin they are a product of the scientific method that pervades all modern knowledge. New ideas rose and flourished. With this. they also indicate what terms are current or obsolete. The notion that knowledge must be complete and able to account for every thing and every phenomenon characterises the roots of modern science: the nomenclature of anatomy and of all forms of organic life represent at once an act of classification and of naming. Chinese medicine looked back to the golden age of antiquity. the scientific method. or it may be actively pursued through exchanges between experts arranged specifically for this purpose (e. where lexicography has a long history. Xi` Gu¯ n ( e a - ). They are essentially descriptive in that they reflect contemporary usage. Chinese medicine differs from modern LSPs in that it traditionally had little concern for the unity of term and concept. who produced the first . for example. approaches to healing could coexist. even conflicting. ı a w¯ n e c´ diˇ n). the term must avoid pleonasm (tautology) 8. o ı a ı a “Dictionary of Chinese Medicine”). and eliminate superfluities. the term must be potentially productive of derivations 5. ı a but also dictionaries of individual characters appearing in Chinese medical terminology We should bear these considerations in mind when applying modern terminological standards to judge the efficiency of Chinese medicine or other traditional disciplines. a considerable number of speciality dictionaries. homonymous. preserve the essentials. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology comprehensive dictionary of Chinese medicine. the term must be systematic 3. there are not only dictionaries of terms ( ı (so-called z` diˇ n. the formation of the term must be in accordance with the syntactic rules of the language 4. o o ı e a ı a “Comprehensive Dictionary of Chinese Medicine”). He was aware of a need for improvements in the relationship between concepts and terms. the term should preferably not have synonymous. The terminographical effort started by Xi` has been continued profitably to the e present day. which was first published in 1921. or polysemous terms 9. which contains nearly 32. Because of the epoche relatedness of Chinese medical terminology. nothing equals a dictionary” ( : ). character dictionaries). the term should preferably not present orthographical or morphological variations 6. and warm disease ( e ı a a u b`ng). 1. the term must be well motivated 2. Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n. it is not clear whether he realised that terminography was not the only element required to achieve clear concise expression of technical concepts. the term should not contain superfluous elements 7. the Zh¯ nggu´ Y¯xu´ D` c´diˇ n (ZYD. saw in terminography the power “to establish a continuity of thought. such as those relating to the N` ij¯ng. Terminologists have devised a number of stringent guidelines for the selection and formation of terms. have appeared. These bring to light on the one hand the high accuracy of Chinese medical terms and on the other the loose relationship between terms and concepts. Furthermore.000 terms (fewer entries than Xi` ’s. the term should be as short as possible without adversely affecting its clarity . The latest major lexicographical work is the 1995 Zh¯ ngy¯ D` c´diˇ n (ZD. and many differences in terms selected). According to Picht & Draskau’s recommendations for the creation of terms (Picht & Draskau 1985: 114–117).5. that the problem of productivity of derivatives does not arise. the ease of combination. -iasis. paronychia. and because most of the LGP vocabulary used in Chinese medicine has remained in current use and undergone little change in meaning. cholecyst-. -pexy. they 3. the characteristics of the concept which are given in the definition (ISO 1987). -rhaphy. if possible. Many technical terms survive even though their motivation is obsolete. The language of Chinese medicine has nothing comparable with the burdens of classical Western medical terminology. it would be virtually impossible to find any occurrence of linguistic incorrectness in Chinese medical terminology. pthiriasis. Again. tinea. keloid. and definition. myring-. -oma. 5. In Western medicine. and possibly because their absence of lexical meaning in modern English at least ensures that they are not positively ill-motivated. if considered for standardisation. continuing dependency on Latin and Greek for the formation of new terms results in modern medical students having to learn a multitude of word-roots and affixes to be able to master their technical vocabulary: pyel-. Such terms survive by convention. alopecia. there is a veritable host of terms that have virtually no literal meaning for present-day English-speaking physicians or laypersons: pruritis. as far as possible. ul-. . be concise should also be monosemous 4. chondr-. be accurate 5. blephar-. oophor-. enter-. We are therefore concerned largely with the motivation and concision of terms. -malacia. and the absence of inflections in the Chinese language. permit. -otomy. Amongst skin diseases in Western medicine. vitiligo. angi-. be linguistically correct 2. It has neither the problem of dying motivation nor that of foreign vocabulary. urticaria. dacry-. since Chinese is virtually free of restrictions on change of word-class and on word combinations. cata-. furuncle. ot-. salping-. many Chinese medical terms are well-motivated. Because Chinese has largely drawn on its own lexical resources for the formation of terms.3. eczema. terms should 1. monosemy. herpes.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms According to the ISO’s requirements for the selection and formation of terms (ISO 1987: 12). the formation of derivatives Given the freedom from word-class restraints.1 Term Motivation A well-motivated term according to the ISO is one that reflects. phleb-. impetigo. py-. tooth. racing pulse a ı Rarer are terms that are distinguished in speech but not in writing: 1004. lit. is ill-motivated since it is usually explained as meaning a feeling of cold irrespective of whether the ambient temperature is low rather than a dislike of particularly cold environments. e ı ı yu´ n q`. aversion u a to cold. Certain near-synonym compounds such as speaking have different meanings. ‘[like] a o a a lˇ j´ h` u zh` ng. K 1002. paralysis. but half-way between the two. abdominal urgency and rectal heaviness. The single most recurrent problem as regards term motivation is that. for various reasons. / K Z urgency and posterior heaviness’. which do make sense when viewed against a definition: O d` o h` n. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology ing and the concept are comparatively rare. is a badly motivated term because it denotes not a condition in which half the signs are exterior and half are interior. lit.. and Chinese medicine. w` i q`. in the written language. centre cold o a Compounding as a result of phonetic attrition has had minor negative consequences. Similarly. ‘stretched backward like a horn or bow’. 1000. original q` a ı ı W f´ m` i. m u a m` i j´. horn [or] bow back stretch’.5. barely constitutes an exception. 1003. ‘internal ı ı o o qu` m` . they are virtually all distinguished. Homophony is endemic in modern spoken Chinese. ‘anus and external genitals’.g. night blindness) or if one is unaware of an abbreviation (e. half exterior a a a ı half interior. zh` ng h´ n. One might argue that w` h´ n. bearing many features of Classical Chinese. Some terms are poorly motivated if one is not aware of the allusions (e. ı We might also mention the poor motivation of terms due to homophony. urgent pulse.. night sweating. two y¯n). Nevertheless. a ı ı f´ m` i.g. cold strike o a zh¯ ng h´ n. have been defined by explaining that the component characters strictly a . There may be quite a few terms that barely make much sense in themselves. ‘thief sweating’. defence q` e ı ı yu´ n q`. 1001. lit. floating pulse. W W vision’. W a ı H w` i q`. source q`. but one arising when the disease is located in neither the exterior nor interior. a a y jiˇ o g¯ ng fˇ n zh¯ ng. 1005. stomach q`. and a ı t¯ n a hu` n. many terms are insufficiently specific. lit. one could argue that J b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ. hidden pulse u a m` i j´. lit. opisthotonos. and as a result have been used as the y´ chˇ. ‘sparrow e u e ı ` r y¯n. homophones in Chinese are restricted to oral expression. . namely: going alone. Ancestral q`. In Chinese medicine. . regular Arabic numerals introduce different senses of a term translated with a single equivalent. . Anything of a particular nature (e. 1009. the level of polysemy in particular is high. Air. In the examples below. Smell. great q`: 1. etc.g. 3. ı ı ı ı .) 5. 7. 3. the diachronic dimension cannot be excluded as it is in Western medicine. In practice. seven relations: Seven relationships or interactions of medicinals. = ı ı y´ ng.g. and each concept should only be denoted by one term. the four q`). gas.. 1006. 2. 1008. . Since the first three of these characters are the three most commonly used in Chinese medicine. The q` of the larger channels. anger. ı 6. ! " chˇ n m´ n. This is the problem of polysemy. cold. a e d` q`. mutual need. . polysemy and synonymy should be reduced to a minimum. For reasons the examples below will make clear. dampness. belching of putrid q`). a ı ı ı ı ı n` i xi¯ o e a internal dispersion: One of the three main methods of treating sores. Breath (e. Aura. qi: 1. flatus (e.2 Unity of Term and Concept Terminologists recognise that in the interests of efficient communication. 4. fear. aversion. and clashing.g. shortage of q` and q` shortage). internal dispersion[-thirst]: One form of dispersion-thirst (a disease characterised by thirst and emaciation). In other words. which is discussed in the next subsection. q`. One report (Xˇ 1994) u states that over 14% of Chinese medical terms are polysemous. it is easy to imagine that this is not necessarily merely a minor problem area. dryness. It must be remembered that given the nature of Chinese medical theories. Consideration of a wider range of texts and historical periods would probably increase the rate of apparent polysemy. < y¯n. introduce different meanings of the Chinese term that are rendered differently in English. 2. anxiety. 5. The vaginal meatus. 4. empowering. fear. Nature. quality (e. The polysemy or wide generalisation of term components such as + q`. one term should only denote one concept.g.. Evil q`. killing.. a one-to-one relationship of all terms to the concepts they represent is never fully achieved. another focus of polysemy is terms containing numerals. thought. y¯n q`). and fright. birth gate: 1. # $ q¯ q´ng ı ı seven affects: Joy. 2.g. 1010. sorrow.. 1007. . Enı ı vironmental forces (e.3. while only 3% of Western medical terms have more than one meaning. Air. The cervix of the uterus. and i xi` within the field of Chinese medicine means that even many compounds a a containing these words are polysemous. vapor. It involves the use of dispersing and dissipating medicinals to eliminate sores in the initial stage prior to suppuration.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms names for distinct concepts. ( * y¯n xi´ . i. inward and outward. the distribution of fluids. d) Transformation: Production of blood and fluids. q` constipation. and third a a stages of diseases. b) Warming: The temperature of the human body and the ability of the organs and tissues to perform their functional activities are dependent on the warming action of qi. dampness). second. regular evil (N` nj¯ng). the genitals). The strength of the spleen and stomach manifesting in the pulse. channel q`) that are described in terms of the following functions: ı ı ı a) Activity: Q` is highly active. * wˇ xi´ . ' 1014. cold. 2. q` stagnation). A pattern in which a sore is ı ı characterised by a broad diffuse root and pale skin. ı ı ı ı ı q` cough. heat. An evil that is y¯n in nature (cold. y¯n pattern: 1. - s¯ n fˇ . Activity of the stomach and the spleen in general. Cough and panting due to adversity in ı a ı life. q` accumulation. 11. Sweating. An evil invading ı e ı ı one of the y¯n channels. The methods for dealing with the first. This function also prevents excessive loss of fluids through overı secretion of sweat and other fluids or through excessive urination. y¯n sweating: 1. a ı 1015. y¯n evil: 1. 1018.. food. fog. hardness.g. summerheat damage. mild evil. Sweating in the ‘y¯n parts’ (private parts. leg q`. An abbreviation for diseases of q` (q` ı ı ı ı ı vacuity. Plum-pit q` (globus hystericus). ı precipitate q`. 2. Dryness phlegm. or vacuity pattern. . and precipitation. cold. as appearing in the terms q` block. q` vomiting. without redness. three methods: 1. Strength. human growth and development. 10. Wind. Disease (e. ı 1012. Anger. mounting q`). 2. Q` bears upward. five evils: 1. or bearing. q` foetus. q` tumor. and food damage (J¯nggu` a ı ı ı Y` ol¨ e). as well as all physiological ı activity and metabolism. cold damage. q` phlegm: 1. e) Containment: Under normal circumstances. 3. ejection. carrying blood and fluids with it. Implicit in this notion is the movement. ( ) xi` q` a ı lower body q`. c) Defence: Q` is the outer defence of ı the body and prevents evils from entering. ‘Q` contains the blood’. % q` t´ n. swelling. Wind stroke. Stomach e ı ı (and spleen) function as reflected in the appetite. 3. 2. stomach q`: 1. bandit a ı evil. Combinations of these four movements explain all movement in the body.5. a u` . 1017. of qi. repletion evil. Hence it is said. Sweating due to y´ ng debilitation and y¯n exuberance. 3. and the conversion of fluids into sweat and urine are all the result of q` transformation. A pattern of ı e ı cold due to right q` vacuity or of exuberant external y¯n cold. or pain. An interior.e. ı 1016. 12. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology q`. Vacuity evil. ( + y¯n zh` ng. & w` i q`. bowel and visceral q`. ı a ı ı 2. 1013. dampness. ı y¯n h` n. drink and taxation u e fatigue. 2. . spillage of blood from the vessels is prevented by the containing function of qi. plum-pit q`. 9.. ı ı ı 1011. 2. and dampness damage (N` nj¯ng). are manifestations of the activity of qi. 3. ı ı downward. cholera. The thoroughfare (ch¯ ng) vessel. 4 e o 7 gˇ zh´ . gallbladder. A major task of terminographers in any modern subject field or discipline is to show where synonymy exists and where it does not exist. malaria. 5. Its continual evolution over this long period has naturally been reflected in terminological change. 3 xu` sh`. a distinction between synonymy and nonsynonymy is not always easily made.) and a a the ‘viscera’ (8 z` ng. 2. kidney). are highly variable in their forms and it is sometimes difficult to establish synonymy or nonsynonymy between terms. 3. headache. The space between the kidneys. terms that by their literal meaning appear to be synonymous must be shown to be exact synonyms or represent different concepts. The fire of earlier heaven or the true y´ ng of the whole body. bone u e F fracture). 4. 4 o o 5 k´ s` u. = a m´ng b`ng. In particular. The negative consequences of the traditional absence of dictionaries should not be exaggerated. In Chinese medicine. Other terms are adequately described in traditional literature.. 3. A basic corpus of terms have been used consistently in the same sense(s) over the centuries. some areas of terminology. the work of collecting terms from a vast corpus of literature together with their definitions has been left till the modern era. The e ı o The lack of unity of term and concept is a major semantic weakness of the language of Chinese medicine. Both kidneys. stomach. 6. exterior and interior: 1. The outside surface of the body and to the internal a ı j¯ ı organs. Many terms of Chinese medicine are self-explanatory enough as not to require any definition ( t´ u t` ng. and many earlier classics are still widely read to this day. and 9 o a : n¨ e j´. small intestine. heart. Chinese medicine has a history spanning over two millennia. liver. ı ı 5. 2. e. / 0 biˇ o lˇ.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Polysemy in some cases is attributable to disagreement as to the nature of speculative entities. many have changed in their meaning (and it is important sometimes to know when translating what the intended meaning is). In women the ‘birth gate’ a and in men the ‘essence gate’. The ‘bowels’ (9 fˇ . m ı ı n y´ ng a hu` lu` n. 1020. etc. life gate: 1. The root of original q` and the house of fire and water. cough. such as diagnostics and methods of treatment. ‘Exterior’ in this context is sometimes referred to as the ‘fleshy exterior’ ( u biˇ o). 2 liver. lung. y´ ng brightness disease. But many terms have come and gone. The uterus.g. The ı e stirring q` between the kidneys. spleen. 1 m`ng m´ n. 1019. 2.3 Definition Because Chinese medicine has no terminographic tradition.3. blood chamber: 1. 1021. large intestine. But u` ı . carambola.5. and to add extensional definitions and examples of usage where deemed necessary..g. spleen. pear.g. Definitions are often classified by modern lexicographers as intensional. Nevertheless. the five viscera: the liver. the u ı a ı e truth of such descriptions can only be intuited. and does not specify what characteristics unite the various extensions. Of course. heart. and kidney).. It has become standard practice in general and technical lexicography in the West to give each term an intensional definition as a bare minimum.g. and assessment of Chinese medical terminographers’ definitions can to a certain extent help us to appreciate how clear and unclear Chinese medical concepts are. It is generally considered ideal insofar as it covers all the extralinguistic referents. concepts as well as their definitions are products of a culture. papaya. extensional. were often defined by metaphor. Chinese medical lexicography appears to moving toward this approach..” The contextual definition is the poorest because it presumes that the reader is familiar with the concept. Definitions of the pulses have never been In order to understand problems arising in the definition of terms. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology some terms have never been clearly defined. and contextual (Picht & Draskau 1985: 51). . An extensional definition lists all the specific things denoted by the concept (e. wax apple. We must bear in mind that a poor definition may be attributable to the defining abilities of the definer or to problems originating in the concept itself. The slippery pulse ( pearls rolling in a dish’ (: < w hu´ m` i) was defined as being ‘like a a w r´ p´ n zˇ u zh¯ ).. dysentery: a disease characterised by blood and pus in the stool and tenesmus). e A B r´ q¯ng d¯ o gu¯ zh´ ) or u ı a a u r´ b`ng c´ n sh´ y` ). lung. and does not increase his knowledge. for example. The qualities of the pulse. pomegranate. The purpose of a definition is to describe a concept as accurately and concisely as possible. It is generally considered inferior to the intensional definition insofar as a complete list of objects covered would often be too long (e. it is useful to examine how Chinese medical lexicographers have approached the problem of defining them in dictionaries. A contextual definition is one in which the term is defined by way of an actual usage. longan. aircraft: “He went from Europe to America in 6 hours in an ∼. An intensional definition gives all the essential distinguishing attributes of the concept (e. in the final analysis. fruit: apple. but is still some way from achieving it .). . although as a complement to an intensional definition it can furnish useful examples of usage. litchee. the rough pulse ( u a o u = > ? @ s` m` i) as e a being ‘like scraping bamboo with a light knife’ (: ‘like sick silkworms eating leaves’ (: standardised (Wiseman & F´ ng 1999).g. The term to be defined is shown in a sentence the whole meaning of which is known or may be guessed (e. kumquat. m n by sudden acute vomiting and diarrhoea with gripping abdominal pain. ı a This particular example shows how an extensional definition can avoid a difficulty in writing an intensional definition. Nevertheless. In the 1995 ZD. The . Over recent years. ‘supplement the blood’. mouth. Extensional definitions are numerous. though somewhat modern in flavour (e. anterior y¯n (urethra). W´ ng Z-T 1993). The ZYD gives a clear intensional definition for dysentery. two eyes. reflect characteristics by which these diseases were traditionally diagnosed. Similarly. ‘moisten the lung and transform phlegm’. two nostrils. tenesmus. Although most terms are defined intensionally.g. two ears. as “a contagious disease characterised by intermittent shivering. and throat. which are defined intensionally in recent dictionaries.g. In addition. An intensional definition of ‘orifice’ that explained the meaning clearly while remaining within the traditional Chinese medical frame of reference would be virtually useless (“any of a variable set of body parts considered as openings”?). such as F G q¯ qi` o. tongue. to the nature of Chinese medical concepts. attention has been paid to the problem of defining Chinese terms in the context of discussion about Chinese medical education (e.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms completely.” These definitions. ‘cholera’. methods of treatment such as D e ı r` n f` i hu` t´ n. a u e a a 2 + 7 Z E lˇ q`. is defined as “a disease characterised by ı ı hu` lu` n. C : l` j´. u` ı ‘malaria’. but defines the other two by a quotation from the N¯ ij¯ng in which the terms appear. Intensional definitions have increased over the history of Chinese medical lexicography. and posterior y¯n (anus). the ‘seven orifices’. especially in the ZYD. u e do not even appear in the ZYD. high fever. M` i D` (Q ı u a u H I w J ) also uses the same term to denote the two ears. with the eyes possibly as a partial exception. the L´ngsh¯ .. The seven orifices are normally taken to mean the two eyes. Effort is being made to bring definitions a of Chinese medicinal terms in line with the principles of defining that modern lexicographers apply. as “a disease characterised o a : abdominal pain. Here the notion of the ‘tongue’ as an ‘orifice’ is more difficult to understand. and. ‘rectify q`’. a number of terms are given e ı faulty definitions and some are given no definition at all. two nostrils. the mouth. and sweating. They are commonly observed in the many Chinese medical terms that include numerals. high fever).” and 9 n¨ e j´. and passing of stool containing pus and blood”. and to overestimation of the degree to which words are self-explanatory. one finds contextual definitions comprising quotations from N` ij¯ng in which the term appears. can be understood as ‘orifices’.. and I ı ı ı bˇ xu` . extensional definitions are common. ‘dysentery’. all of ı ı which. since the literal meaning of orifice clashes with the objective meaning. Difficulties in achieving such an alignment are attributable to traditional habits of defining. with frequent passing of small amounts of stool. 5. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology extensional definition, by contrast, establishes a general pattern of denotation in the relaa tionship between the literal meaning of G qi` o and referential meanings of the extensions (the ears, nostrils, and anus are all holes) that enables the reader to accommodate the exception (the tongue as an ‘orifice’) by his own powers of abstraction, without tedious explanation. Another classic example is the extension definition of the ‘the five viscera’, and 9 l 8 wˇ z` ng, u a li` fˇ , ‘the six bowels’. Dictionaries do quote the Hu´ ngd` u u a ı N` ij¯ng S` w` n’s intensional distinction, “The so-called five viscera store essential q` and e ı u e ı do not discharge waste. Thus they are full (solid), but cannot be filled. The six bowels process and convey matter, and do not store. Thus they are filled, yet are not full (solid).” Nevertheless, these intensional hints would not enable readers to identify the organs of either class with any unanimity. The lung is not a solid organ, and is repeatedly filled with air. The widespread use of extensional definitions reflects the nature of Chinese medical concepts. The same is true of contextual definitions. The term ^ K G L 5 < sh` n e k¯ i qi` o y´ er y¯n, ‘the kidney opens into the two y¯n’, only appears in SYCD (1975) and a a u` ı ı ZYCS (1983), and in both it is given a contextual definition for the obvious reason that while the kidney has a direct ontological relationship with the anterior y¯n (the opening ı of the urethra), it has only a functional relationship to the posterior y¯n (the anus). An inı tensional definition of the term reflecting all the elements of the term and its significance would be difficult. Definitions that would be considered defective by modern lexicographical standards continue to appear, although with decreasing frequency, as lexicographers become aware of the pitfalls. Definitions that are excessively restrictive, circular, or that do not ensure sufficient differentiation of one concept from others are to be found in all the main dictionaries of Chinese medicine. A circular definition, that is, a definition which includes the definiendum, is one kind of definition ideally to be avoided. This is seen in er yˇ ng, ‘itchy ear’ (lit. ‘ear ˇ a itching’), which, in the dictionaries that include the term, is given a circular definition that involves explaining yˇ ng, ‘itching’, as ! a q´ yˇ ng, ‘strange itching’, whereby ı a xu` n y¯ n, ‘dizziness’, a u the addition of the word ‘strange’ merely averts attention away from the fact that ‘itching’ is defined as ‘itching’. Similarly, in Xi` Gu¯ n’s definition of M e a as and 5 N O M N P N t´ u m` h¯ n xu` n er y¯ n ju´ , both M xu` n, ‘dizziness of the eyes’, o u u a ´ u e a y¯ n, ‘dizziness of the head’, appear in the definition. This kind of circularity, u more often seen in clinical and pedagogical texts, has been criticised (W´ ng 1993), not a entirely without justification, although it is easy to forget that it is rooted in the Chinese Translation of Chinese Medical Terms speech habit of identifying a character among multiple homophones by commonly used character combinations. The difference between specifying a sense of a word and defining a word in one or more of its senses is finely drawn. Furthermore, since most Chinese medical dictionaries are to a greater or lesser degree encyclopedic, the reason for including terms is to give practical information about the concepts they represent. The circularity in the definition for ‘itchy ear’ is largely irrelevant since the clinical information about associated symptoms, causes, and methods of treatment is actually much more important for most readers. An excessively restrictive definition is one which does not cover all the extensions of a term. Defining + Q q` y` , q` depression, as “depression due to constrainedness ı u ı among the seven affects” (1995 ZD), quite apart from introducing a circularity (defining depression as depression) and failing to define all components of the term (q` is not ı accounted for in the definition), is an excessively restrictive definition in that it fails to reflect the fact that ‘q` depression’, is often used in the sense of q` stagnation due to causes ı ı other than emotional disturbance. Defining @ chˇ n m´ n as the “external opening of a e the vagina” (1995 ZD) would not appear to apply in all contexts. Zh¯ ng Ji` -B¯n, for exa e ı ample, appears to use the term in the sense of cervix, since he says, “Below the uterus is a gate that in women can be felt with the hand and which is commonly called the birthgate” (Zh¯ ng J-B). An excessively restrictive definition of this kind may be the result of a failure to analyze the meanings of terms in multiple contexts; it may be motivated by the need to save space or by the desire to enhance the image of Chinese medical concepts by giving them a specificity they do not actually have. There are also incomplete definitions, which fail to demarcate concepts adequately. In the ZD 1995, 4 S S T b´ n` chu¯ ng, invisible-worm sores of the nose, and 4 ı ı a U T b´ n`, invisible worms in the nose, are given as synonyms for 4 ı ı b´ g¯ n chu¯ ng, ı a a gan sores of the nose, at these entries. At the entries of these two synonyms, instead of references to b´ n` chu¯ ng as one might expect, there are definitions that are similar but ı ı a not identical to the definition of b´ n` chu¯ ng. Problems of this nature are most likely ı ı a attributable to the use of multiple sources amongst which there is disagreement over the definition and hence over the synonymy of terms. Chinese medical terms often lack objective definitions or definitions generally accepted by the medical community as a whole, and when they do, the only definition possible is the one offered by the original author of the concept. This insufficient clarity in the system of definitions affects a number of commonly used terms. What the exact meanings of W chuˇ n, panting, W a X chuˇ n c` , hasty panta u 5. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology ing, W Z chuˇ n n`, panting counterflow, a ı \ + duˇ n q`, shortness of breath, \ a ı shuˇ zhˇ ng, water swelling, ı o + shˇ o q`, a ı f´ zhˇ ng, u o x¯ u shortage of q`, and + ı puffy swelling, + q` shˇ o, q` shortage, and is not clarified by any of the dictionaries ı a ı x¯ zhˇ ng, vacuity swelling, and u o examined. The same problem applies to q` zhˇ ng, q` swelling, ı o ı f´ , vacuity puffiness. Insufficient definitions are essentially ones that are not complete. A u high proportion of disease definitions comprising manifestation and causes tell us that the disease is “usually caused by X” without describing less frequent causes. Unclear definitions conform to a traditional tendency observed among medical writers not to consider the problems of decoding a written text created by faulty encoding. It seems always to have been taken for granted that the reader must rely on personal experience and intuition (for example, the H` n Dynasty dictionary Shu¯ W´ n Jiˇ Z` ( a o e e ı Simple and Complex Graphs”) defines sick” ] ^ w “Elucidation of y`, epidemic as being when “the people are all ı m´n ji¯ b`ng). ı e ı A good number of terms are left undefined in all the dictionaries examined. This is presumably due to their assumed self-explanatoriness. Compound terms comprising the names of signs such as t` ng ‘pain’, o _ su¯ n ‘aching’, or a zh` ng ‘distention’ a with the names of the affected body part are often simply left undefined, and as stated, these symptom names are usually not defined in separate entries. The modern lexicographer’s principle that even self-explanatory terms should be defined rests on the notion that all self-explanatoriness is often illusory and hence vulnerable to scrutiny. Although a difference in meaning between t` ng, ‘pain’ and _ su¯ n, ‘aching’ or ‘soreness’, that o a is of diagnostic significance is consistently reported by native speakers of Chinese, it is not made explicitly clear in dictionaries. (The fact that these terms pose translation difficulties may constitute further evidence that they require definition.) Of course, as has already been stated, many terms are included to furnish the reader with practical information rather than a fairly obvious definition. Nevertheless, this is to neglect the user difficulties. Some terms left undefined pose the problem of incongruence between literal meaning and denotative meaning. While the term j ` s` zh¯ literally means ‘four limbs’, ı ı ` it is often used to denote simply ‘limbs’, and the compound j s` zh¯ t` ng, lit. ‘four ı ı o n` i sh¯ ng e a limb pain’, denotes pain in one or more of the limbs (not limited to humans who have a full complement of limbs). The same phenomenon is observed in , F a q¯ q´ng, lit. ‘internal damage [by the] seven affects’, where in actual fact the term may ı ı denote internal damage by one or more of the seven affects, rarely in practice by all seven at once. The systematic attempts in the 20th century to define terms are invaluable in help- Translation of Chinese Medical Terms ing students of Chinese medicine understand the various uses of terms. We should not conclude from this that the vocabulary of Chinese medicine is a systematised terminology in any modern sense. Rather, we should understand Chinese medical ‘terminology’ to be an LSP vocabulary that has developed to some extent in the same haphazard way as the LGP vocabulary develops in any language. The viability of the spoken LGP, with its vagueness and ambiguity by which its finiteness achieves almost infinite adaptability, is largely supported by the common experience among interlocutors of some objective part of reality. The written language, as a secondary use of language, is inherently designed for communication over distances in space and time. The written word encounters its greatest test when the reader is located centuries or millennia in time after the message was written, and no longer shares exactly the same version of the language code or even the same basic experience of reality as the writer. In a knowledge tradition such as Chinese medicine, students, practitioners, and scholars constantly have need to read ancient texts. They also constantly use terms that appeared at different times over the two millennia of Chinese medical development. The traditional absence of terminography precluded the development of practices aiming to clarify terms in such a way as to eliminate chance interpretation by later readers or users. The Chinese medical scholar of every generation has, to a greater or lesser extent, been faced with the task of teasing meaning out of statements by previous generations. The development of terminography in Chinese medicine, insofar as it is descriptive rather than prescriptive, is of great help to the development of foreign-language equivalents of terms. 5.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS Although terminology observes a number of different term-formation methods, Chinese medical terminology is mostly comprised of a) LGP words used in their LGP sense, b) words used in extended senses, and c) combinations of various kinds. Chinese medicine deals largely in gross entities such as body parts and major internal organs known to the layman. The LGP terms denoting these entities are among the most commonly occurring words in Chinese medical terminology. The systems of correspondence explaining the relationships between phenomena mean that quite a number of LGP terms have greater technical connotations than they have in the LGP (colours, flavours, etc.). Metaphor is used extensively. As in Western medicine, it provides a way of naming body parts which are only the concern of specialists. Given the Chinese medical focus on function rather than anatomical structures, however, it is more commonly used in the 5. The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology naming and description of functions. Many of the metaphors are therefore of a functional rather than a formal nature. A large number of formal metaphors are also systematic. Many functional and systematic metaphors are from the human realm, and used in the naming of physiological entities and functions and descriptively to describe symptoms and treatment procedures. Because metaphor is frequently used for both descriptive purposes and denominative purposes, because it is used for the naming of physiological entities and description of functions and relationships, in the speculative realm, and because much of it functional/systematic rather than formal, it is of great importance in contributing to our understanding of a concept and, as suggested in Chapter 4, and possibly even to the birth of the concept in the first place. The most productive method of term-formation in Chinese medicine, as indeed in most terminologies, is compounding and combining. In the terminology of Chinese medicine, combinations are not restricted to noun phrases as they tend to be in Western medicine, but can take a variety of forms, including phrases with verbs used in an active sense. The analysis of terminology in this chapter has repeatedly shown that in the terminology of Chinese medicine the individual character-word usually constitutes the basic unit of meaning. Exceptions to this are classical reduplications and semireduplications, and post-classical synonym compounds originally arising from phonological attrition. We saw how this last phenomenon required adjustment of the modern terminological notion of abbreviation to abbreviation/expansion. These various aspects of term-formation have a bearing on the question of translation. Firstly, the distinction between zero referential change with connotative enlargement and extended sense is of great significance in determining what method of translation is used. The significance of the distinction became apparent in the translation of Western medical terminology in Chapter 3, and has been emphasised by Unschuld in the context of Chinese medical translation. Secondly, the fact that many everyday stative and active verbs used in their LGP sense have LSP-connotations (e.g., colour words, flavour words, and terms describing pulse conditions) creates problems in translation because of their often poor lexical correspondence in English and the failure of translators to recognise the LSP content of these (see 6.2.10). Thirdly, the discussion of semantic extension has shown that metaphor is not merely a linguistic device, but has great cognitive significance. In the realm of naming of speculative concepts and description of functions and therapeutic actions, metaphor provides the key to understand the concept, and should therefore ideally be transferred in translation. Fourthly, the various combinations of Chinese medical Translation of Chinese Medical Terms terms are not confined to noun phrases as most of the terms in modern disciplines are, but take a variety of forms. Finally, terminological rigour has a bearing on translation. Chinese medical terms are largely well-motivated, but are found lacking on the counts of unity of term and concept and of clarity of definition. Wherever the concept is in anyway unclear, translation must be semantic to be accurate, and terminological distinctions in the SL should be retained as far as possible in the TL. Insofar as explicit or contextually implicit definition is absent, the semantic meaning of the term constitutes the basis for understanding the concept. The traditional disregard for the relationship between concepts terms, as manifest in the lack of unity of term and concept, in the absence of terminography, and in the pervasive problem of poor definition, suggests that a firm division was never made between term and concept. Students of Chinese medicine understood terms in context, against the background of their wider understanding of medical thought. This dissimilarity of Chinese medical ‘vocabulary’ to a stringent modern scientific or technical ‘terminology’ offers a possible explanation why Western translators, particularly those lacking adequate linguistic access to primary sources, may have the impression that there are only a few Chinese technical terms that can be considered real ‘terms’, whose translation is worthy of discussion (I shall discuss Porkert’s and Maciocia’s narrowing of the range in the following chapter). At the same time, disunity of term and concept, poor definition, and speculative concepts also suggest the conclusion that the term is the consistently most reliable element in the semantic triangle, and hence the soundest basis for translation. In both term formation and in terminological rigour, the features evinced by Chinese medical terminology all argue in favour of source-oriented translation. Furthermore, the variability terms in certain fields argues in favour of systematic rendering of core terms that form the elements of compounds, so that terms can be modulated to serve different grammatical functions. The same procedure makes it possible to replicate the great variety of descriptive terminology. Translators of Western medical terms, we recall, have adopted a source-oriented approach even though the existence of explicit definitions for all concepts theoretically relieves them of the necessity to do so. In Chinese medicine, by contrast, the transfer of the semantic meaning of the term is theoretically important insofar as explicit definition is unavailable. In Western medicine, we have seen efforts to choose better TL terms where SL terms are poorly motivated. In Chinese medicine, the basis for improving terms is often lacking. CHAPTER 6 THE TRANSMISSION AND TRANSLATION OF CHINESE MEDICINE What portion of a knowledge corpus is transmitted from one culture to the other, and how accurately it is transmitted depends how the recipient community values the knowledge and how much prestige it accords to the lending community and its language. Translation is an important element in the successful transmission of a knowledge corpus, yet how much translation is performed and how well it serves as a bridge for the accurate transmission of knowledge is entirely dependent upon these wider factors. We must therefore first of all investigate the motivation of the recipient community and it expectations of Chinese medicine. In the first section of this chapter, I shall briefly outline the recent history of transmission of Chinese medicine to the West, paying particular attention to the motivation factor. In a second section, I shall examine and compare a number of different approaches to Chinese medical term translation, showing how some of these reflect extralinguistic factors hampering the process of transmission. 6.1 THE WESTERN RECEPTION OF CHINESE MEDICINE AND THE SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING IT 6.1.1 History of Transmission According to Paul U. Unschuld (1998: 93–96), the West first heard reports of medicine in China through the writings of William of Rubruk and Marco Polo, but it was not until the 17th century that it learned any detail. Jesuit missionaries visiting the peripheral regions of the Chinese sphere of influence became interested in not only the practical, but also Translation of Chinese Medical Terms to tell the West of acupuncture and moxibustion. At this time, however, Europeans were less attracted to the therapies of the Far East than to the Chinese art of pulse-taking. The first original Chinese text to appear in a European language was a translation of the M` i a Ju´ (w e b “Secrets of the Pulse”), which was published in French in 1671. In the 18th century, descriptions of Chinese medicine continued to reach Europe, but they often met with scepticism. This changed when European physiologists in the early 19th century began to investigate electricity as a possible answer to the secret of life and lighted on the idea that electricity might also explain the effects of acupuncture on the body. The idea prompted the first experiments with electroacupuncture, but the reports that resulted from these, while suggesting that acupuncture might be effective for pain relief, failed to provoke any wide or sustained interest. In the twentieth century, more detailed descriptions of Chinese medicine began to appear. The most notable figure is Georges Souli´ de Morant, who during his 22-year e stay in China in the French diplomatic service learned the art of acupuncture from eminent Chinese physicians, and with his excellent knowledge of Chinese read widely on the subject. Souli´ de Morant presented his deep understanding in a five-volume work e entitled L’Acuponcture chinoise, the last two volumes of which were compiled from his notes by his lifelong collaborator, Th´ r` se Martiny, after his death in 1955 (Souli´ 1994). ee e Apart from his detailed descriptions of Chinese medicine, the theory and practice of Chinese acupuncture, Souli´ de Morant’s contribution to the development of acupuncture in e the West lay in his attempt to bridge the divide between Western and Chinese medicine. He was the first to interpret q` as energy, and speak of a systematic-functional approach ı in Chinese medicine. In the 1950s and 60s, physicians such as Roger de la Fuye, Erich Stiefvater, and Felix Mann were attracted by Chinese medicine. But it was not until the 1970s that the greatest ever wave of Western interest in Chinese medicine began. One reason for the new interest, as Paul Unschuld explains, lay in new evidence for the pain-relieving effects of acupuncture. Chinese experiments in the analgesic effects of electroacupuncture in surgical operations, which were given sensationalised media coverage after they had been witnessed by Richard Nixon’s personal physician during the US President’s historic visit of 1972 that reopened communication between China and the West, triggered scientific experimentation by Western scientists. Initial studies suggested connections between acupuncture analgesia and the effects of endogenous opioids, which made engagement in the scientific experimentation of acupuncture respectable (Unschuld 1998: 111). 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine 6.1.2 Influence of Western Medical and Scientific Thought Western medicine exerts a powerful influence over the westward transmission of Chinese medicine, because it is the dominant medicine not only in the destination area, the West, but now also in the East. In Chapter 4, (4.4, Chinese Medicine in the Modern Era), I spoke of the influence of Western medicine in the modern teaching and practice of Chinese medicine in China. Efforts to objectify Chinese medical theory are the natural outcome of Chinese medicine’s having been relegated to second place in China. Hand in hand with this is the notion that an improved form of Chinese medicine that is closer to Western medicine would be more acceptable to Westerners than Chinese medicine in the raw. This explains why the main drive to use Western medical terminology to represent traditional Chinese medical concepts should come from the Chinese (which will be substantiated in the next section (6.2). The influence of Western medicine in the West is far more discrete. On the one hand, it is less in evidence because Western interest in Chinese medicine stems largely from dissatisfaction with Western medicine rather than from a desire to convince the scientific community of its validity. On the other hand, the scientific outlook feeds Westerners with assumptions that Chinese medicine is a highly integrated field of knowledge like any branch of Western learning. It also provides the default terminology where translation does not take place. Some evidence for these hypotheses will come to light in 6.2. 6.1.3 Complementary Health Care as the Matrix of Adoption The scientific respectability of research in acupuncture has undoubtedly been one of the reasons for the popularity of acupuncture. Nevertheless, a more fundamental reason is to be found in acupuncture’s being identified as a possible alternative or at least as a complement to Western medicine. In the 1960s, a certain segment of Western society began to lose faith in scientific medicine and turn increasingly to alternative therapies. The reasons for complemntary-health boom are generally agreed both by their proponents and by their opponents (even though the latter do not consider it as a real justified need). Biomedical treatments are often experienced as harsh and invasive, having side-effects that can sometimes create as many health problems as they solve. The great advances of Western medicine have increasingly been won through reliance on complex technology, increasing specialisation in which personalised care is difficult to provide. The care of a single physician has given way to procedures of patient ‘management’ involving many It is a direct intervention in bodily function that occurs without any physical medium such as that of an ingested drug. Among the complementary-health therapies available. Antibiotics that create resistance. proponents of these therapies all espouse similar ideals of naturalness and holism. and has turned increasingly to complementary medicines perceived to possess the qualities of naturalness and holism felt lacking in Western medicine. Hence. There treatments that require ingestion of substances and others that only touch or even scent. and relatively new ones such as Bach flower therapy. chemotherapy and nuclear medicine. and maintenance of life after brain death all evoke the fear. share the common trait that they are deemed by their proponents to work gently through the power of nature and with minimum human intervention. according to traditional explanations. When we look closer into the transmission of Chinese medicine. There are allopathic and homeopathic approaches to treatment. arguably. now encountered in so many aspects of our lives other than medicine. Bach flowers. the therapy of needles. pathological imbalances can be corrected in order to bring about major beneficial effects that reach into the deepest functional centres of the body. abortion. have not been possible had it not been for the Western focus on acupuncture. the internal organs. and not least acupuncture and Chinese medicine. herbalism. So far as we know. the Alexander technique. applied by practitioners who fulfill the role of holistic healer. we find that they are not quite as natural and holistic as their proponents would wish. There are very old medicines such as Chinese medicine. The insertion of Chinese medicine into the Western array of health-care options in the late 20th century has to a large extent been contingent upon its ability to be perceived as a ‘soft’ therapy. Ostensibly. Complementary medicines such as homeopathy. and to take care of the whole patient instead of looking at an isolated laboratory report.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms specialised workers. holistic therapy would. achieves its effect by adjusting the flow of q`. aromatherapy. Yet despite these huge differences. An increasing segment of society views Western medicine as acting forcefully against nature and failing to care for the whole patient. there are huge differences. that the science and technology are getting out of control. The perception of Chinese medicine as natural. By this subtle intervention in an intangible aspect of the body’s ı functioning. acupuncture introduces nothing into the body that remains in it after the treatment. When we look closer into the nature of complementary therapies and in particular Chinese medicine. it can be perceived as a soft therapy par excellence. . many of whom the patient never even comes in contact with. global warming. The ills of industrialisation are continually brought to our attention through media reports concerning pollution. it is not in itself a basis for specific judgements about particular therapies. in pharmacological terms. and that they are actually desiderata rather than actualities (Vickers 1998). Evidence exists that these qualities do not characterise these complementary exactly. and their attraction clearly lies in industrialised society’s alienation from the natural world. addressing spiritual. edited by Andrew Vickers reveals that such criticism is also arising from within many of those professions. The notion that ‘natural’ is ‘desirable’ and the assumption that Mother Nature is gentle and benevolent do not withstand scrutiny. mental. deforestation. or animal sources. as opposed to treating a disease. are holistic has been criticised on a number of accounts. Criticism of complementary therapies’ self-characterisation in the past came from outside the complementary medical professions (Coward 1989. it would be wrong to say that all such products are safe and gentle (Campbell 1998). and the extinction of species. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine a tendency to define Chinese medicine as natural and holistic has prevented Westerners from understanding the true nature of Chinese medicine. then any influence that it exerts in the transmission and reception process may shape the scope and content of what is presented to Westerners as Chinese medicine. treatment of causes rather than symptoms. and. If the self-characterisation of complementary medicines is flawed. Nevertheless. mineral. Complementary therapies use medications that are typically derived from simply processed vegetable. The belief that complementary therapies.6. is usually a complex blend of substances that potentially can act on the body at different sites and through different mechanisms. Different things are meant by the word holism: treatment of a sick person. Unschuld 1992). It is noteworthy that Examining Complementary Health. and emotional needs as well as . While destruction of the environment is an inescapable and lamentable fact. they do not apply exclusively to complementary therapies (Peters 1998). but what the patient receives. The overall effect on the body is gentle and diffuse and does not provoke resistance in microorganisms. in contrast to Western medicine. The concepts of naturalness and holism believed to underlie all complementary therapies can be defined in different ways. however they are defined. I intend to show that the perception of Chinese medicine as a natural and holistic complementary health therapy has created a bias toward a target-oriented reception of Chinese medicine insofar as it has encouraged adaptation and target-oriented translation rather than a straightforward presentation of China’s traditional medicine by source-oriented translation. Translation of Chinese Medical Terms plementary therapies exclusively holistic, nor do they have an exclusive claim to holism: complementary medical treatments are very often symptomatic (Stevensen 1998); the analysis of spiritual, mental, and emotional problems in some complementary therapies is simplistic (Peters 1998); and Western medicine has a better record than any other for disease prevention (Peters 1998). Furthermore, it is not superfluous to the present context that although Western medicine may lose sight of the whole, individual patient in practice, its theoretical bases are highly integrated (that is, holistic in yet another sense) in spite of the growing complexity of the multiple sciences on which it is founded. The notion of body-mind unity is a prominent aspect of holism in complementary therapy and, as David Peters (1998) has said, it has intermingled with approaches to psychotherapy, with ‘personal growth’, and with practical spiritual traditions deriving from the East, such as yoga, q`g¯ ng, and meditation. Protagonists of psychospiritual pracı o tices view them as providing keys to personal growth and levers for social transformation and cultural change; opponents say they only confuse the debate about possibly useful therapies by surrounding them with quasi-religious superstition and mysticism. Closely related to the belief in nature is the notion that natural therapies are rooted in a long, even timeless tradition (Coward 1989; Vickers 1998; Campbell 1998). Coward (1989: 37) has argued that the belief among complementary health-care proponents that practices and substances used by people from underdeveloped, nontechnological societies are natural and beneficial because such people are closer to nature than people of modern technological societies goes against the modern anthropological view of nontechnological societies as being highly complex cultural, political, and religious structures. Such societies, she argues, are “the repositories for all kinds of fantasies and projections which have little or nothing to do with how those people live or lived” (Coward 1989: 38). Andrew Vickers (1998) and Anthony Campbell (1998) both argue that even therapies of modern origin claim an ancient precedent or to have been originated by a founding father possessing near-superhuman wisdom or insight. Saul Berkovitz (1989) has demonstrated that the life of Edward Bach (pronounced ‘batch’), the founder of a therapy using flowers, has been deliberately mythologised to win supporters. Campbell (1989) comments that while proponents of complementary medicines are anti-authoritarian (in their opposition to Western medicine), the founding fathers of complementary medical systems have nearly always been strongly authoritarian. The view has been expressed that while complementary therapies are said by their proponents to be rooted in some ancient tradition, they are also felt to respond to a post- 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine modernist belief that the world cannot be understood in terms of a single framework and that technological advance does not bring progress (Peters 1998). A further characteristic of complementary medicines is that many of their proponents believe in a subtle life force or energy (Wood 1998). This notion is seen in the Chinese concept of q`, and in the Indian prana, but is also viewed as being present in ı all natural substances. Nevertheless, Clive Wood states that the notion is not clearly defined, and quotes Stanley Jacobs’s assertion that the single word energy is used to mean on the one hand the physicist’s concept of energy and on the other an entity that springs “from our own immortal unchanging self, that center of pure consciousness, knowledge and bliss.” Wood points out that the life force has never been isolated and attempts to do so (as through Kirlian photography) have failed to produce conclusive evidence. He suggests that the belief in the vital force partly hangs on its being conceived as something that precludes the design of any empirical, falsifiable experiments to explore its nature further, and hence the vital force, or subtle energy, has more in common with a religious belief than a physical principle. Of bioplasma, one substantiation of the vital force that has been posited, Wood says (1998: 118) that it “has great appeal because it brings together ancient ideas of healing and modern quantum physics—currently a very popular mixture for complementary therapies seeking orthodox acceptance.” Most of the authors contributing to Examining Complementary Medicine (1998) are at pains to point out that complementary health-care circles are averse to the kind of criticism and scepticism that is usual in academic fields. In the Introduction, the editor, Andrew Vickers, argues that complementary medical literature offers many treatments based on unsubstantiated claims, and that referencing to scientific literature is only ever used to justify positive evidence for their treatments, never negative evidence against them. He suggests that complementary medicines have suffered because they are taught in private schools, cut off from the fertile source of creative and critical thinking of mainstream education. He also argues that because practitioners tend to work alone, they miss the advantages of group interaction and discussion, and they hide in a cosy isolation that protects them from any challenges to their beliefs. Furthermore, it forestalls research that could substantiate claims to therapeutic effectiveness. The belief in naturalness, holism, body-mind unity, personal growth, and timeless tradition has a strong and widespread following among proponents of Chinese medicine, particularly noticeable in Seem & Kaplan 1989 and in Beinfield & Korngold 1991, and less conspicuous but none the less present in Kaptchuk 1983 and Maciocia 1989. I include Translation of Chinese Medical Terms a quotation from Harriet Beinfield & Efrem Korngold’s work Between Heaven and Earth. In just a few paragraphs, it evokes most of the central tenets of complementary health care. Subtle yet palpable, my initial encounter with acupuncture left me tantalized by mystery and promise. Mystery, in that tiny needles could extend my field of awareness and completely alter the state of my being. Promise, in that by burrowing into the conceptual soil of this system, I could deepen my own self-understanding. As the daughter of a surgeon and granddaughter of two surgeons, my early life was steeped in the cauldron of medicine, brewed over several generations. Enthusiasm for healing was contagious, and I became infected. As a child I was impressed by father’s devotion and satisfaction. He rushed to the hospital day or night to operate on a man lacerated in a motorcycle accident or a child threatened by a ruptured appendix. Lives would have been lost without his heroic intervention. The role of doctor and the appeal of medicine came naturally—but why Chinese medicine? The ideology of Chinese medicine immediately captivated me by its stark contrast to the perspective of Western medical science. I had never been comfortable thinking of myself in my father’s language of electrolytes and blood-gas ratios, a collection of quantities and statistics. The Chinese medical vocabulary contained metaphors from nature like Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water, Heat, Wind, and Cold. This cosmological description of human process confirmed what I knew intuitively to be so—that what moves the world outside moves within me—that subject and object are two aspects of one phenomenal world. As peculiarly outside my cultural context as it was, Chinese medicine felt familiar. What enticed me even more than my sense of continuity with family tradition was the affinity I felt with its concepts, and I wondered if the ancient wisdom embedded within its construction of reality could untangle some of our modern predicaments. When Efrem and I were first introduced to acupuncture at a seminar at Esalen in spring of 1972, there was tremendous upheaval in the world. The Chinese were in the midst of a cultural revolution, and so were we. During the sixties the concerns that I wrestled with were more social than medical. Many of us were seeking to antidote the toxicity of racism in the American social body and heal the wounds inflicted by a decade of violence in Vietnam. I struggled to understand and reconcile how Western civilization, having achieved some outstanding accomplishments, could so often contribute to rather than alleviate human suffering. How could it perpetuate vast environmental insult and the threat of nuclear disaster and yet be building a better future? To remake the world it seems we needed to rethink it. After all, solutions depend on how problems are framed, the context within which they exist. At issue for me 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine was in part how we defined reality—and the reality assumed by Chinese medicine made sense. Chinese medicine echoes the logic of quantum physics, which suggests that we exist in a relative, process-oriented universe in which there is no “objective” world separable from living subjects. The essential questions cannot be resolved by measuring static “things”; rather, answers become stories about interactions and relations. Within this paradigm contradictions are not only sanctioned but prevail, and truth is purely contextual. In contrast with our conventional Western tendency to draw sharp lines of distinction, Chinese thought does not strictly determine the boundaries between rest and motion, time and space, mind and matter, sickness and health. Chinese medicine transcends the illusion of separation by inhabiting the reality of a unified field, an interwoven pattern of inseparable links in a circular chain. Beinfield & Korngold 1991: 3–4 This passage clearly relates Chinese medicine to ills of the modern world beyond confines of Western medicine, and is viewed by the authors as being part of a wider agenda. Note the highly emotive tone of the text (“. . . left me tantalized by mystery and promise,” “what enticed me even more. . .,” “steeped in the cauldron of medicine. . .,” “I struggled to understand. . .”). It is interesting to note that although modern presentations of Chinese medicine in Chinese, such as the Zh¯ ngy¯xu´ J¯chˇ ( o ı e ı u Medicine”), Zh¯ ngy¯ J¯chˇ Lˇl` n ( o ı ı u ıu and Zh¯ ngy¯xu´ G` il` n ( o ı e a u - c “Fundamentals of Chinese c “Basic Theories of Chinese Medicine”), “Introduction to Chinese Medicine”), describe Chi- nese medicine as being holistic so far as the relationship between the body and environment, and body and the emotions are concerned, the Chinese authors neither give these notions the prominence they are often given in literature of Western authorship, nor do they mention naturalness as a fundamental feature. As far as I know, no Chinese text claims, as Beinfield does, that an individual can achieve self-understanding through acupuncture. It is of note, as Paul Unschuld has pointed out, that concern for the kind of holism dear to adherents of complementary health therapies in the West is not found in China, at least not for the time being in the PRC. As the Chinese stride out decades of technological backwardness, it is scientific medicine that they see to be the most promising. What is experienced in the West as an ecological crisis, is for the Chinese a set of technical problems for which technical solutions will have to be found. The use of chemistry and technology in diagnosis and therapy evoke not fear, but hope. Translation of Chinese Medical Terms if facts are ignored. As to naturalness, acupuncture may be considered natural in that it appears to achieve its effect by stimulating the body to correct its own imbalances, but, as has been pointed out (Campbell 1998), there is nothing natural about sticking industrially manufactured needles into people’s flesh. The naturalness of China’s materia medica is also suspect. Although vegetable products account for the vast majority, there are numerous minerals and animal products including worms such as earthworm ( d` l´ ng), insects such as screwworm (l ı o (e f d h wˇ gˇ ch´ ng), spiders such as wall spider u u o g´ ji` ) and animal and human excretions e e F k i b` qi´ n) and reptiles such as gecko (g ı a such as licorice in human feces (D ji¯ o) and needle filings ( a r´ n zh¯ ng hu´ ng) and bat’s droppings ( e o a y` m´ng sh¯ ), as well as a variety of industrial waste products such as tannery tar (j e ı a i y¯ n a zh¯ n sh¯ ). Nevertheless, proponents of Chinese medicinal e a therapy for the most part refer to their art quite misleadingly as ‘herbalism’, and I suggest that they do so out of an unconscious effort to ignore in Chinese medicine what fails to conform to the notions of complementary health. Chinese drugs are not all herbal, and they are certainly not all harmless. Not only mineral products, such as cinnabar (l sh¯ ), but also a number of the animal products such as tabanus (m a even vegetable products such as datura (n are toxic. The claim that Chinese medicine is holistic can be criticised on several accounts. As I argued in Chapter 4 (Outline of Chinese Medicine), the structure of its knowledge is not highly integrated. Chinese theories concerning the body have developed through a combination of observation and speculation, and by a combination of inductive and analytical thought. In the whole of its history, Chinese medicine has never developed unified criteria for distinguishing facts from falsehoods and definitively rejected the latter. To this day there are multiple explanatory models for interpreting tongue signs and pulse conditions, and for understanding febrile disease. Even in one treatment modality such as acupuncture, there are holistic and unholistic explanatory models, since treatment can take an allopathic approach of expelling evils from the body as well as a holistic approach of promoting balance (Unschuld 1987, 1992; Birch 1998). Some treatments are purely symptomatic (Birch 1998). As Birch points out, numerous Western defenders of Chinese medicine, including Kaptchuk, Larre, Beinfield & Korngold, Cassidy, Hammer, and even the World Health Organisation, have emphasised the exclusively holistic nature of Chinese medicine in spite of contrary evidence. As Unschuld has pointed out (1994b), a nonholistic facet of Chinese medicine is clearly reflected in a whole array battlefield metaphors, and indeed such are not hard to find: o * i zh¯ u d m´ ng ch´ ng), and e o p m` n tu´ lu´ ) and croton (+ a o o b¯ d` u) a o 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine w` i, ‘defence’; e q g¯ ng xi´ , ‘attack evil’; o e r f` n, ‘attack’; a s f¯ , ‘quell’ (NC, Zh¯ ng a a D-B & Wˇ C-C 1990). The notion of strengthening the body to restore health is only u one aspect of Chinese medicine. The opposite approach of killing disease, so closely associated with the ills of Western medicine perceived by adherents of complementary health-care, is also very much a part of medical understanding in China and indeed has been for much longer than in the West. The unholistic approach is much especially marked in Chinese medicinal therapy, which has amongst its therapeutic arsenal the principle of ‘attacking toxin with toxin’ and the methods of purgation and emesis. The diagnostic process in the now most popular style of Chinese medicine relies on correlating multiple symptoms. Although many pathological conditions are attributed to causes such as wind or fire that have to be eliminated, rather as bacteria and viruses have to be eliminated in Western medicine, these causes defy isolation and their presence is inferred from the various symptoms that the patient presents. Chinese medicine relies on the four examinations (inspection, listening/smelling, inquiry, and palpation). These naturally place the patient fully in the eye of the physician. To this extent, diagnosis is holistic. Nevertheless, the holistic diagnosis of Chinese medicine traditionally may have not been so important as is often thought. The repeated insistence in traditional literature on the performance of all four examinations rather than mere palpation of pulse suggests that many physicians based their diagnosis on the pulse alone. This is corroborated by patient expectations in China to this day: Chinese patients often expect a skilled physician to be able to offer a diagnosis based solely on the pulse. The relationship Chinese medicine establishes between psychological states and organ functions, which is much lauded in the West, is one of the dubious products of systematic applications of the five phases (obvious in the case of the liver, but less so in the case of the other organs). On paper the correspondences are simple (one reason, perhaps, why they are attractive), but less easy to see in practice, and can hardly be considered a theory of psychology in the sense of explaining thought processes and their manifestations in behavior. The significance of dreams discussed briefly in the N¯ ij¯ng, which e ı did not constitute a major point of interest for subsequent generations of physicians in China, might naturally form an attraction for Westerners (Maciocia resurrects them in the Foundations of Chinese Medicine, 1989). Chinese medicine over its long history has accumulated many theories, some of which have lasted and some of which have fallen by the wayside. The relationship between theory and practice has always been vague. The notion of a timeless tradition cannot be applied to Chinese medicine. As Un- Translation of Chinese Medical Terms ditional Chinese medicine, in contrast to historical evidence, as a coherent system of thought, basically unchanged since antiquity.” Birch (1998) has illustrated the point further with a description contained in the preface of a popular text (Maciocia 1989) of a fictious peasant woman in 154 b.c., whom an acupuncturist gave both a diagnosis and a treatment that were not to appear for centuries. Chinese medicine has never been fully integrated or static (see Chapter 4, Outline of Chinese Medicine), and the unconditional reverence for ancient knowledge is a relatively recent phenomenon (Unschuld 1992). The belief that practices of Oriental origin are rooted in ancient wisdom, in true understanding of nature, and in spiritual enlightenment makes them especially attractive to Westerners who embrace the philosophy of complementary health-care. Yet the fact that the origins of Chinese medicine lie in a distant and ancient culture by no means make the Western student of Chinese medicine particularly willing to embark on the journey through time and space to understand the roots of the art. As I shall show further ahead, classical literature seems to attract little attention. Chinese medicine provides evidence of the lack of criticism and scepticism characteristic of complementary health practices. It has been suggested that scientific research is often used by proponents of complementary health to bolster a positive claim about there treatments, while negative evidence tends to be ignored. (Vickers 1998: 2–3). It is of note that scientific research in Chinese medicine is conducted by scientists in mainstream academia; it is not considered anything worthy of promotion in Chinese medical schools. In the 1980s, in an attempt at the New England School of Acupuncture to establish a framework for clinical research in the school’s teaching clinic, teachers were asked to apply a standardised vocabulary in the writing of clinical histories. Most of the teachers refused to be bound to a strict vocabulary on the grounds that, amongst other things, all their patients were different and could not be described in a limiting terminology. As a result, the research project failed to take off (Birch, personal communication 1990). Teachers regarded the call to research to be an unwanted act of scrutiny that encroached upon the sacred realm of the clinical competence of individual practitioners. Needless to say, such an attitude is conducive neither to clinical research nor to the standardisation of terminology. Chinese medicine is deeply fraught by factionalism (O’Neill 1994: vii–x; Birch & Felt 1998: 62, 64, 68). There is competition between different treatment modalities (acupuncture, drugs, etc.), different ethnic traditions (Chinese, Korean, Japanese), different schools of thought (e.g., TCM acupuncture versus more traditional forms), as well as the divisions between those who believe only in empirically validated procedures, those 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine who believe in psychospiritual adapations of Chinese medicine, and those wishing to acquire authentically Oriental forms of Oriental medicine. As in all other forms of complementary health, factionalism arises out of the absence of principles for separating truth from fiction. The West’s interest in Chinese medicine and other forms of complementary health is closely associated with its being perceived as being natural, holistic, timeless, and spiritual. These qualities are neither consistently observed in complementary medicines, nor are they wholly absent from modern Western medicine. Rather, they are philosophical desiderata that spring from the ills created by modern industrialised society. Their projection onto complementary medicines is limiting and even damaging to the development of these medicines. In Chinese medicine, they foster distortion of the subject matter and divert attention away from the realities of knowledge transmission. The lack of a sourceoriented approach observed in successful transmission of knowledge, as I hope to show in 6.2 (Approaches to Chinese Medical Term Translation), can be explained by the influence exerted by the beliefs of proponents of complementary health. 6.1.4 Limited Interests The westward transmission of Chinese medicine presents a stark contrast to that of the eastward transmission of Western medicine (3.2.3.7, Extralinguistic Background). Chinese medicine in the West is a more or less isolated element of Chinese culture, attracting marginal interest among a population that otherwise has little interest in China. It has been accompanied by q`g¯ ng but by no other major element of Chinese learning. ı o The Western understanding of Chinese medicine may have been strongly influenced by Western portrayals of Daoist philosophy, which have been criticised for their overemphasis of the mystic and poetic aspects (Ronan 1978: 86). The Western interest in Chinese medicine has largely been focused on one element of it, acupuncture. There has been no conscious concerted effort to transmit all Chinese healing practices and all aspects of Chinese medical knowledge to the West. On the contrary, until only recently, Chinese medical enthusiasts in the English-speaking countries of the West equated acupuncture with Chinese medicine, and considered medicinal therapy as an accessory, unaware that in China acupuncture slipped out of popularity centuries ago (Felt & Birch 1998: 37). One factor that allows a partial adoption is the fact that Chinese medicine is not a fully integrated body of practices. Acupuncture and medicinal therapy have always had a relatively separate existence. The isolated transmission of acupuncture can be seen as a manifestation of this. It is interesting, once again, to adduce Western medicine as a Translation of Chinese Medical Terms understanding of physiological and pathological processes. It would be almost unthinkable for a community to adopt only parts of Western medicine, such as surgery without medicinal therapy. Interest in Chinese medicinal therapy is now undergoing rapid growth. Medicinal therapy, that is to say the medicinal therapy of the orthodox literate tradition that has its roots in Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n ( a a u “On Cold Damage”) and J¯ngu` Y` ol¨ e (? ı ı a u` v w “Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Coffer”), is in many respects far more complex than acupuncture. It would be difficult to imagine Westerners being able to practice this form of medicine in the traditional fashion without studying the classical literature on the subject. Yet, as I shall explain shortly (6.1.6, Translation Lacking), the classics currently still attract little interest. Even if Chinese medicine is to some degree segmentable, it would nevertheless appear that current interest is somewhat overly narrow. When we recall China’s determination to appropriate Western medical learning (discussed in chapter 3), it is easy to see how the Western effort to learn about Chinese medicine pales by comparison. An important factor in this is the Western lack of familiarity with the Chinese language. 6.1.5 Failure to Perceive Language as the Key to Acquisition of Knowledge The success with which a knowledge corpus is transmitted from one culture to an- other is ultimately dependent on overcoming of the language barrier. Without language, no knowledge corpus such as Chinese medicine (or Western medicine) that is handed on from one generation to the other by the written word can be transmitted successfully from one culture to another without a linguistic bridge built on acquisition of the source language and reliable translation. Without familiarity with the source language, no Westerner is even able to evaluate the success of transmission. I suggest that this challenge has never been seriously met by the Western community of Chinese medicine as a whole, and the failure to meet the challenge is a mark of the marginality of Chinese medicine in the modern West. Students entering Chinese medical schools rarely know any Chinese or other Oriental language, and receive little or no language training while in Chinese medical school. Instruction in the Chinese language would instill the idea that primary sources contain something of value not present in English-language texts. It would also create the expectation that any English terminology must be capable of conveying what concepts are contained in primary texts. The absence of language training explains why a source-dependent form of transmission has never developed on a large scale, and it stands the terminology of no single language is no longer standard. Both Japanese and Korean scripts include Chinese characters. and hence obviate the need for any translation process beyond the problem of phonetic realisation (see 2. The importance of English as the world language. though waning. the choice of English now is only a matter of convenience in a world in which English is increasingly serving as the lingua franca of the entire globe. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine in stark contrast to the great importance that is accorded to the study of English and other Western languages in China in the adoption of Western learning. In modern Western medicine.3. The French or German terminologies are no less standard than the English simply because they are (now) less widely used in the international forum. though. and the Chinese language is essentially a university speciality. which until recently was concerned exclusively with classical literature. Chinese medicine has been transmitted to Japan and Korea with a high level of success that rests on the ability of their languages to borrow Chinese technical terms in the same way as modern European languages have adopted Latin terms. In traditional disciplines such as Chinese medicine. the notion of an ‘original language’ is meaningless insofar as more than one language community is contributing to the development of knowledge. Because of what seems to be a widely held view that complementary therapies are mastered . Little is taught about the history and culture of China in the general education of English-speaking countries. This process was fostered by the general adoption of Chinese knowledge and extensive adoption of other facets of Chinese culture. I believe that expectations of Chinese medicine as a complementary therapy have forestalled the realisation that language provides the key to knowledge.5. In modern disciplines in which communication relies on clearly defined technical terms that have agreed correspondences in other languages. Once again. does not stretch to traditional fields of knowledge such as Chinese medicine that are dependent on one particular language as the vehicle of transmission. English may be a valuable language for communicating the fruits of scientific research. Terminological Translation). however. authority of early literature. we see transmission of knowledge is most successful when it takes place against a background of source-culture orientation. but to perform any research concerning the traditional body of Chinese medical knowledge requires familiarity with the Chinese language. The westward transmission of Chinese medicine is severely disadvantaged by the lack of Chinese cultural influence in the West. there is no point in acquiring a knowledge of Chinese. access to the source language is of prime importance in view of the continuing. It might be argued that since English is now the world language.6. and no school has made proficiency in Chinese an entrance requirement. however. might be curbed if more people had access to primary sources. and the belief has been traced a ı e ı to Albert Chamfrault and Nguyen Van Nghi. Learning for most students of this tradition in Chinese has meant not mere study. Until it is proved scientifically which tradition is right. Of all the healing practices of China. the transmission of Chinese medicine requires at least the presentation of the Chinese tradition. So far this has not been achieved. The tendency of writers to continually emphasise the holistic nature of Chinese medicine. it stands to reason that anyone wishing to contribute to the Western understanding of Chinese medicine should be versed in the Chinese literature. notably the Hu´ ngd` N` ij¯ng. those on which Western interest focusses are the literate traditional of acupuncture and medicinal therapy in which book learning plays an important role. In all fields of learning any scholar wishing to make a contribution to knowledge is expected to be well acquainted with the literature of that field. it is assumed that Chinese medicine accords little importance to book knowledge. but memorisation of literature. for example. Given that in Chinese medicine most of the literature is in Chinese. Citing six different writers. This view is not. A Vietnamese tradition disagrees with the Chinese. Chinese medical schools have barely sought to remedy this lack by providing adequate training in the Chinese language. in keeping with the facts of the Chinese world. but it also means that there is little scrutiny of what appears in press. and counseled ı against their needling to prevent any loss of these substances. they show that English literature has perennially expressed the belief that the eight extraordinary vessels store original q` ( ı + yu´ n q`) or essence ( a ı j¯ng). who are suspected of representing a Vietnamese school of thought. as is attested by a whole genre of mnemonic rhymes. The lack of linguistic accesses to primary sources not only means that there are fewer people capable of engaging in translation. Unless a considerable segment of the receiving community has linguistic access to primary sources. The belief is not supported by primary Chinese sources. Several schools in the United States have at one time or another offered introductions to the Chinese language.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms through clinical experience. Any knowledge deriving from other sources should be clearly labelled as such. It would be in no-one’s financial interest within the profession to extend curricula to make this (or any . the transmission of information is unreliable for lack of adequate scrutiny. Birch & Felt (1999: 75–76) offer a good example of what can wrong as a result of lack of access to primary sources. but no school has ever offered courses to provide language training to a level sufficient to read primary texts. . The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine other improvement) possible. Flaws 1998. & Wiseman 1999. Churchill Livingstone). Among those who made the effort to learn Chinese at the beginning of the boom in acupuncture are Ted Kaptchuk.6 Translation Lacking The general unfamiliarity with Chinese has made translators few and far between. Unschuld 1994a. personal communication 1999). 6. the inclusion of Chinese in texts is not always even considered an advantage. If this estimation is accurate. On their return. In scientific publications in non-European languages such as Chinese. increasing numbers of students of Chinese medicine have taken it upon themselves to learn Chinese to gain direct access to primary texts and ability to communicate verbally with Chinese physicians. and Dan Bensky. Unschuld 1988. Publishers of Chinese medical literature in English-speaking countries often do not have a single member of staff who can understand or type very-much-harder-to-learn Chinese characters (e. it is practice to include English terms in parentheses for terms with which the reader may not be familiar. Efforts have also been made to shorten their learning process by providing language-learning material geared exclusively to Chinese medicine (e. Wiseman & F´ ng 2000). Although the advent of the computer makes Chinese typesetting (and P¯ny¯n ı ı intonation) much easier than it was in the past. there are vested interests preventing any advances in the field of language learning.1. F´ ng.. Linguistic access among English speakers is growing. Mitchell. Hongkong. John O’Connor. A major US publisher and distributor of Chinese medical literature believes that the inclusion of Chinese characters in any textbook is likely to cost him sales because any Chinese references lay monolingual teachers open to student questions they are unable to answer (Felt. which initiated the development of the textbook-based education sys- .g. Furthermore. who studied in Macao in the mid-1970s. e e Efforts to bring the Chinese language into focus in English-speaking literature come up against the difficulty that many publishers are unable to handle the printing of Chinese. O’Connor and Bensky produced Acupuncture: A Comprehensive Text (1981). With the liberalisation and growing economic importance of Chinese-speaking areas (PRC. This contrasts starkly with the situation in the far East in the transmission of Western scientific knowledge. and the necessary pressure is unlikely to come from outside it.6. This is possible because all publishing staff are at least familiar with the easy-to-learn Roman alphabet.g. and T´ iw¯ n). Within the field of Chinese medicine. a a Chinese curricula in universities have increasingly stressed the practical applications of the Chinese language. publishers do not have staff capable of using it. published Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica and Chinese Herbal Medicine: Formulas and Strategies. although a translation : of the Zh¯ njiˇ Jiˇ yˇj¯ng ( e u a ıı “The Systematic Classic of Acupuncture and Mox- ibustion”) has been recently published. The availability of literature is no sign of its being widely read. markets (Felt. e Despite Western interest in acupuncture. however. SL-speaker participation in the translation process is often a practical necessity. is the paucity of translation of Chinese medical classics. & Wiseman 1999: xii).Translation of Chinese Medical Terms nation and licensing framework (Felt 2000b). and J¯nggu` Y` ol¨ e (? ı ı a u` “Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Coffer”). Later. but Paul Unschuld has lamented that reliable translations of classical literature are almost nonexistent (Unschuld 1989a: ix). F´ ng. albeit growing. The availability of adequately translated classical texts for study by Englishspeakers without linguistic access to primary texts is a major index of the transmission of Chinese medicine as traditionally studied and practised in the Orient. Kaptchuk produced The Web That Has No Weaver (1983). personal communication 1999). and are frequently fraught with ambiguities. which are the standard texts in the U. for medicinal therapy. N` nj¯ng (x a ı : : “The Inner “On “The Classic of Difficult Issues”). Birch & Tsutani put the number of classics translated at 5 or fewer. N` ij¯ng (. Indeed. Classical literature holds little interest for the Western student because they do not present information in the straightforward manner of modern textbooks. Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n ( a a u v w Cold Damage”). exist in English translation. e ı Canon”). no-one has translated the Zh¯ njiˇ D` ch´ ng ( e u a e “The Great Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion”) or Zh¯ njiˇ J` y¯ng e u u ı ( “Gathered Blooms of Acupuncture and Moxibustion”). It is difficult to assess to what extent and how well Chinese medical knowledge is being transmitted to the English-speaking world in terms of literature available in English. Doubtlessly of great significance. The Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n a a u ( “On Cold Damage”) (Lu´ X-W 1986) and J¯nggu` Y` ol¨ e (? o ı ı a u` v w “Essen- tial Prescriptions of the Golden Coffer”) (Lu´ X-W 1987) have been translated by PRC o scholars. are often so terse in their expression. which stimulated the first generation of people to adopt the modern Chinese approach as the field’s core. .S. and classical texts in translation are known to command small. The major classics. In 1996. Bensky. they might naturally be expected to be more productive in translation. so that considerable commentary is required for the reader to make any sense of them. It has been been argued that the overly simplified explanations in these works obscure the variety of traditional interpretation (Mitchell. since classical texts still form an important part of Chinese medical curricula. Given the fact that the Chinese have a greater dual command of the TL and SL than Westerners. in collaboration with other colleagues. A number of basic acupuncture textbooks from the PRC provided the basic texts for acupuncture training in the US for a number of years: An Outline of Chinese Acupuncture (1975). no real evidence of any powerful east wind (prestige attached to Oriental culture). . one cannot render clase ı sical literature literally. Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion (1987). . Zh¯ ng sums up saying.” Zh¯ ng thinks of the internationalisation of Chinese medicine in terms of convincing the a international scientific community of the value of (a suitably modified form of) Chinese medicine. and seize the opportunity to develop itself. Even though Chinese medicine is a theoretical system based on the classics. the Westernisation of an east wind can only take the wind out of sail driving Chinese medicine westward.. we cannot present it abroad in the form it had two thousand years ago. Una less he espouses some radically nationalistic view that only Chinese people are capable of understanding Chinese medicine. He is apparently unaware of the fact that Western interest in Chinese medicine has its broadest basis outside Western medicine. it is difficult to anticipate precisely what form the integrated Chinese medicine of the future will take. and Chinese medicine should take advantage of the ‘east wind’. and that Westerners themselves are engaged in the translation of ancient texts. . since the versions of Chinese medicine that have the PRC’s official stamp of approval have for the most part not by any account removed all of the 2. it has been observed in biblical translation (Nida 1964: 149) and in the transmission of Western learning to China (Hung & Pollard 1998). . We must solve the linguistic problems of translation. . . “Chinese medicine’s current popularity enables it to enter a international academic exchange.” The problem is that there is. As Zh¯ ng a W´ i-Hu¯ (1994: 19–20) says. He says that “[a]s to communication through language.In the process of translating. Essentials of Chinese Acupuncture (1980). as I have argued. China’s achievements in the integration of Western and Chinese medicine are the proper interface between Chinese medicine and world medicine.6. Moreover. The PRC contribution to the translation of Chinese medical literature suggests that the Chinese have had overly modest expectations concerning the ability or willingness of Westerners to master Chinese medicine in its traditional form.” Nevertheless. “. we cannot wait for the modernisation of Chinese medicine to be completed for this question to be solved. Zh¯ ng fails to explain why Chinese medicine cannot be presented in its original form. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine particularly in the early stages of transmission. his remark can only be interpreted to mean that the international medical community will not accept it in such a form..000-year-old elements. An outstanding feature of the English-language acupuncture textbooks that have come from the PRC is the way they reduce the description of Chinese medicine to its . driedup yellow indicates Heat in the Stomach and Spleen. is yellow. To illustrate the point. it has now been replaced by a much more comprehensive work (M` ng J-C & Zh¯ u Z-Y 1985). A clear and moist yellow colour in between the eyebrows indicates that Stomach-Qi is recovering after an illness affecting Stomach and Spleen. . A pale yellow complexion without brightness is a sign of deficiency of both qi and the blood. not as a basis for practice. A hazy. because it contains what is required to obtain a licence to practice. with the prevalence of Dampness. A pale yellow colour surrounded by red spots indicates Spleen deficiency and stasis of liver blood. If the yellow is smoky dark.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms barest essence. Essentials of Chinese Acupuncture. statements from two PRC works are compared with two Western authors (see below). Giovanni.S. is intended as an introduction to acupuncture. Maciocia.. Foundations of Chinese Medicine. but are representative of the texts. Comparison of Information on Yellow Facial Complexion Essentials of Chinese Acupuncture. continues to be a best-selling text in the U. Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion. 1980: yellow. When the entire body. A withered. Anon. it is called yin jaundice resulting from either cold damp or long-term stagnation of blood. These examples are very short. The quotation from Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine comes from Zh¯ ngy¯xu´ J¯chˇ ( o ı e ı u - c “Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine”) published by the Sh` nghˇ i College of a a Chinese Medicine in 1975. with the prevalence of Heat rather than Dampness. which suggests jaundice. 1989: Yellow indicates Spleen deficiency or Dampness or both. If the yellowness tends toward bright orange. This book at one time was a first-year text for Chinese medical students at Taiwan’s then only college of Chinese medicine. which displaced Essentials. eyes and skin. including the face. A dull-pale yellow colour indicates ColdDamp in the Stomach and Spleen. A sallow yellow colour indicates Stomach and Spleen deficiency. a translation of a Chinese text ( ). A dried up and withered-looking yellow colour in the same area is a poor prognostic sign. Cheng X-N. it is jaundice. A bright orange-yellow colour indicates Damp-Heat. it is called yang jaundice resulting from damp heat. smoky yellow indicates Damp-heat. Chinese Acupuncture e o and Moxibustion. 1987: A yellow colour indicates syndromes of deficiency type and damp syndromes. a ı b c This is often described as the colour of mandarins. Jaundice characterised by a vivid yellowb indicates damp-heat and is called “yang yellow. and coal. but it is probably representative. accompanied by pale lips but no yellowing of the sclerae. together with lassitude of spirit and lack of strength.” Jaundice characterised by a dark yellow coloration is caused by cold-damp and is called “yin yellow. Redwing’s Best-Selling Acupuncture Therapy Books (1989–1999) 1.”c and is normally caused by excessive loss of blood or depletion of blood and qi after major illnesses or by spleen-stomach damage resulting from intestinal parasites. Connelly D (1994) Traditional Acupuncture Law of the Five Elements 5. and malnutrition due to poor assimilation. and a desire to eat uncooked rice. Wiseman. Accurate publishing statistics are difficult to obtain because publishers are not required to disclose their sales figures. acute cholecystitis. and toxic hepatitis. cholelithiasis. Only two of the five best-selling books for acupuncture and medicinal therapy for the period 1989–1999. also called yellow obesity | a o ~ (hu´ ng p` ng): a a Swelling of the face and ankles with a withered-yellow complexion. Yellow swelling. according to the sales figures of the largest US distributor of Chinese medical literature. anemia. The condition characterised by this complexion is sometimes called “yellow swelling. which is a vacuity yellow. a Sclera is a Western medical term that corresponds to the “white of the eye. Yellowing of the scleraea and generalised yellowing of the skin indicate jaundice.” Yang yellow is seen mostly in cases described in Western medicine as acute icteric infectious hepatitis. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine. Maciocia G (1989) Foundations of Chinese Medicine 3. In some cases it can be associated with nausea and vomiting of yellow water. Ellis & Wiseman N (1991) Fundamentals of Chinese Acupuncture 4. Cheng X-N (1987) Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion 2. | } (hu´ ng zhˇ ng).” z { (b´ i j¯ng) spoken of traditionally. Redwing Book Company (Felt 2000b). et al.. This rating is based on the sales figures of one company. Kaptchuck T (1983) The Web That Has No Weaver . tea leaves. A pale yellow skin that is dry and puffy. 1994: Yellow is associated with dampness and vacuity. It may thus be seen in diseases known in Western medicine as ankylostomiasis (hookworm disease). have Chinese authors.6. is referred to as withered-yellow. yin yellow occurs in cirrhosis of the liver and cancer of the head of the pancreas. Nevertheless. While all the titles listed above contain Chinese sources among the references.8.) Given Westerners’ general unfamiliarity with Chinese and the absence of language study in the curricula of Chinese medical schools in the West. Adaptation). Pearson P (1987). Birch & Tsutani 1996.1. as indeed is well-known in translation theory. not of access to primary sources. mind. Birch 1998). A translated work may quite legitimately be a compilation from multiple primary sources. Kaptchuk T (1986) Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica 2. Lewith & Lewith (1983). or Japanese) sources. Barolet R (1990) Chinese Herbal Medicine: Strategies and Formulas 3. Mann (1971/1992). Mole (1992). but this is a question of academic practice. for authors to have unmentioned bilingual collaborators. any accurate assessment of this question is difficult. Gaeddert (1994). Bensky D. Gamble A. we may credit the author with linguistic access to those sources. Misediting of crib translations might explain why blatant anomalies appear in texts by authors who suggest they have access to primary . Bensky D. Beinfield & Korngold (1991). Interestingly. Wiseman N. one assumes that they were compiled from English-language sources or from personal knowledge and experience. Examples of works by Westerners that contain no Chinese sources include: Mann (1964). Since the distinction between translation and nontranslation is blurred by the intermediary category of compilation from primary sources. Mann (1992). Maciocia G (1994) The Practice of Chinese Medicine 5. Stux & Pomeranz (1997).Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Redwing’s Best-Selling Medicinal Therapy Books (1989–1999) 1. Bibliographic references may facilitate an overly generous estimate about primarysource access since it is possible. and spirit enthusiasts (see ahead to 6. Yeung H C (1983) Handbook of Chinese Herbs and Formulas (2 vols) Not all English-speaking literature is actually translated from Chinese (Unschuld 1989a. this is by no means true of all works. Korean). (English works by Chinese authors often include no bibliographies. these works are adaptations of Chinese medicine intended either for MDs or for body. Seem & Kaplan (1989). and their bibliographies suggest that no primary sources were consulted in their compilation. a book includes a bibliography containing primary Chinese (or Korean. Ellis A (1985/1994) Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine 4. Quite a large proportion of English-language works do not contain any explicit statement to the effect that they were translated or compiled from primary Chinese or other primary Oriental sources (Japanese. in the absence of any statement concerning the origin of the information contained in it. it is fair to say that if. and put their skills to use in translation in order to provide the English readership with a more detailed picture of Chinese medicine as it is practised in China. and one other participant. and others in describing the history of the development of Chinese medicine has contributed greatly to this new trend (Birch & Felt 1998: 71–77). therefore. Yang & Chace’s Zh¯ njiˇ Jiˇ yˇj¯ng (1994). The instigator of the agreement. For the purposes of transmission. Blue Poppy Press. namely that assimilation of literature from east Asian sources is still in its infancy. although Chinese medicine has not developed a high degree of unity of term and concept. because the success of intercultural transmission of knowledge partly rests upon this. Awareness of the problems of authenticity in the English-language literature. the principle of pegging TL terms to SL terms is nevertheless . u The present state of translation suggests a conclusion very much in keeping with that of Birch & Tsutani (1996) in the specific context of acupuncture. Nigel Wiseman’s work of developing and promoting the use of a source-oriented terminology is also to be seen in the context of this trend. The work of Needham. Unschuld. and certain publications of Churchill Livingstone have included designations. As I showed in the previous chapter. accepted the code and have since applied it. and this can only be achieved by the preparation of bilingual lists and the creation of dictionaries. or ‘pegged’.6. F´ ng. The significance of the agreement in the present discussion lies in its highlighting recognition of the existence of problems in the transmission process.7 Bilingual Lexicography Lagging Lexicography potentially has an important role to play in the development of an equivalent terminology in the TL. & Wiseman’s The Sh¯ ng H´ n e u a ıı e a a L` n: On Cold Damage (1998). the TL equivalent must be clearly related.1. 6. It is noteworthy that the COMP publishers have produced two classics. three major US publishers of Chinese medical literature (Blue Poppy. and Mitchell. to the SL term. and. how close the translation is. in the former case. Paradigm Publications. and Eastland) met in May 1995 to discuss a ‘Code for the Council of Oriental Medical Publishers’ (COMP) whereby publications should contain a designation indicating whether they are translated or compiled from primary sources or are original works. and realisation of the benefits to be gained from being able to access primary Oriental sources have prompted growing numbers of students and practitioners to learn Chinese. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine It might be noted in this context that with a view to eliminating the problem of the dubious origin of Chinese medical information presented in current literature. The COMP move is part of a new development in Chinese Medicine. Paradigm. Translation Lacking). there is still a large amount of literature that conforms to no discernable terminological standard. have. exuberant efforts have been made to propose terms. e Thus a preliminary observation is that the Chinese seem to be much more aware of the importance of the role of lexicography than Westerners. normative bilingual lists offering different TL equivalents can promote discussion about terminology and facilitate review of the various possible term choices so that a greater consensus can be reached. 2000. yet in general these are limited in scope. Wiseman & Zmiewski 1989). and clinical literature as ever. where the TL terminology is still in flux. failed to see Chinese medicine as the product of a foreign culture whose adoption requires mastery of the linguistic key.1. Wiseman 1995a. In Chinese medicine. there is probably still as wide a variation in the terminology contained in lexicographical works. Wiseman. Westerners. The distribution of lexicographical effort between China and the West stands in stark contrast to the fact that the best-selling English-language literature is largely of Western authorship (see 6. Most of the authors of Redwing’s ten best-selling books listed above have made no contribution to the public debate on term translation. Some works (textbooks clinical texts. but far less progress has been made as regards terminological standardisation. The efforts of the Chinese undoubtedly springs from their greater awareness (gained through the large-scale adoption of scientific and technical knowledge from the West) of the role of language in the transmission of knowledge. & Zmiewsky 1994. 1998. 1997. Wiseman & F´ ng 1990. 1993. Wiseman is the only one to have written extensively on the subject (Wiseman 1992. only three have been produced in the English-speaking recipient community. Although the number of works in which the terminology proposed in this study is applied is undergoing substantial growth following its adoption as the preferred terminology by two of the three major US publishers of Chinese medical literature (Paradigm and Blue Poppy). textbooks. all of them by Wiseman and colleagues (Wiseman & Boss 1990. Lexicographers of the last century have thus brought to light the terminological aspect of Chinese medical literature in a way that traditional Chinese medical scholarship . except for a few paragraphs in introductions to works. to a large extent. 1995c. 1995b. on the other hand. reference works) published in English-speaking countries admittedly contain glossaries. Nevertheless. A considerable effort has been made in the preparation of normative bilingual lists: at least 20 dictionaries listing Chinese terms with proposed English equivalents have appeared.6. Wiseman & Boss 1990. Ellis.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms In the initial stages of transmission. It is quite noteworthy that most of the bilingual dictionaries are the work of PRC authors. 1996. Wiseman & Feng 1998b). The appearance of a materia medica dictionary in 1994 may reflect the growing realisation by Westerners that China’s principal form of healing is medicinal therapy. it is of no help to the cause of developing an English terminology. 318). A list is provided in a special section of the bibliography (p. this work is marred consistently by a lack of native-speaker competence. the general terminology contained in the 1995 ZD is quite representative of the terminology appearing in modern literature and the major classics still prized to this day. definitions. English-language dictionaries first appeared in small volumes. but have increased rapidly in size. This is readily visible.e. the Chinese-English Medical Dictionary. were created essentially for this purpose only. and information all in Chinese and English. English-Chinese bilingual dictionaries of Chinese medicine differ from Chineseonly dictionaries in that they are intended to play a normative role in the TL terminology. the Word-Ocean Dictionary.6. such as the Glossary of Chinese Medical Terms and Acupuncture Points and English-Chinese Chinese-English Dictionary of Chinese Medicine. Despite its size. Nevertheless. and the Chinese-English Terminology of Traditional Chinese Medicine adopt the ‘mirrortranslation’ format. Four of the English dictionaries listed in the bibliography. in the PRC bilingual dictionaries a good proportion of terms are given multiple English equivalents or paraphrases. However. the Illustrated Dictionary of Chinese Acupuncture. It is of note that two of the English dictionaries listed are specifically acupuncture dictionaries. The PRC English-language dictionaries of Chinese medicine generally tend to be directed to Chinese readers rather than English readers. i. In any event.. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine never did. Some.973 pages. This may reflect a belief on the part of their authors that certain terms cannot be translated or do not have any ‘obvious’ translations.253 entries in 1. and the Word-Ocean Dictionary for a large proportion of entries offers a P¯ny¯n transcription without a complete ı ı English rendering. the text for each entry is given in Chinese with an English transla- . Since the 1980s there has been considerable effort in the realm of bilingual dictionaries. This reflects the West’s traditionally greater interest in acupuncture than in medicinal therapy. The huge amount of terms contained in the two major dictionaries cited is partially explained by the large number of main and alternative names of medicinals and acupuncture points and by the number of names of medicinal formulas (the actual total number of formulas devised and named by Chinese physicians defies count). The Word-Ocean Dictionary published in 1995 contains 26. with headwords. and hence do not contain terms without definitions and supplementary material. Filshie & White 1998). contains terms (English and Chinese) together with definitions. The tendency to address bilinguals (or the Chinese rather than the Western reader) may reflect a belief among English-language lexicographers that. and the transmission of knowledge will be lacking so long as the issues of terminology and language are ignored. The idea has been to propagate the notion that Chinese medical terminology reflects a conceptual diversity that cannot be acquired by the recipient community unless attention is paid to devising a strictly parallel terminology in English. but none has won recognition as the standard. An attempt has even been made to present traditional theories in a highly rationalised form (Porkert 1978). some have argued that empirically or scientifically based forms of Chinese medicine dispensing to a greater or lesser degree with traditional theoretical trappings are a more viable option (notably Mann 1992 vii–viii. English dictionaries of Chinese medicine have failed to solve the problem of the absence of a standard English terminology.1.. Beinfield & Korngold 1991 xiv). To make it as useful as possible for TL users.2 (Approaches to Chinese Medical Term Translation). On the contrary. I have produced three dictionaries. these works have not sold well in the West (Felt. proposing term equivalents. The absence of voices calling for the community as a whole to be able to see more of Chinese medicine in the raw before the adaptation is performed seem to suggest a belief among English-speaking students and practitioners of Chinese medicine that what is useful in Chinese medicine has already . Despite their potential use for English-language readers with little or no knowledge of Chinese. Not surprisingly.g.8 Adaptation The West has made little effort to gain access to the heritage of Chinese medical literature. dictionaries of Chinese medicine have little utility for the reader unfamiliar with Chinese. The third. Seem & Kaplan 1989: 12. at the current state of transmission at least. this has not been fully realised by the inclusion of an English index. 6. devised principally for translators. each dictionary offers a different terminology. As will become apparent in 6. Two are Chinese-English English-Chinese dictionaries. Terms represent concepts.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms tion. the entries are arranged in English order and many entries include not only a definition but also copious clinical information. a problem which persists despite the growth in popularity of Chinese medicine in the West over the past three decades. designed for use by TL users. personal communication 1999). In my own work. Others have suggested that the culture-bound nature of Chinese medicine means that it has to be adapted in order for it to gain root in the West (e. ı a By the book’s very contents. Interestingly. which has a strong following in both the UK and the US.6. but where all the detail ı a comes from. Although the authors state in their introduction that they are offering an adapted form of Chinese medicine. Between Heaven and Earth by Beinfield & Korngold (1991) is a good example of the complementary-health–type adaptation. The treatment ı ı section notably presents herbal remedies in the form of a ‘modular pharmacy’. the authors’ views are typical of the complementary-health profile. Implicit in this adaptation is a belief on the part of the authors that their interpretation of Chinese medicine is adequate and reliable. ‘Purge Moisture’. What they offer in its stead is of uncertain origin. has not published a full description of his five-phase adaptation of Chinese medicine. Beinfield & Korngold cavalierly whisk this experience away even though. unlike that of Western medicine. We know that his theory of the five human types originates from a passage of not much more ` ı u e than a thousand characters in the L´ngsh¯ . we are not told. has been not developed through repeatable experiment. and no proof of their validity. This adaptation raises a number of questions. they do not explain in detail what parts are traditionally Chinese and what parts adapted. Y¯ny´ ng Ersh´wˇ R´ n (Q H I < = 5 4 l ı u ı a D “Magic Pivot. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine arrived. they cannot know any more about it than has been presented by translators. Between Heaven and Earth is generally recognised as belonging to what is known as the traditional acupuncture movement (otherwise known as the Worsely school of thought). They offer no rationale for the adaptations. any explanation of its origin. Nevertheless. are not mentioned). etc. without linguistic access. it is reasonable to give it credit for its long experience in caring for human beings. five psychological types. we see that it presents a version of Chinese medicine in which five-phase theory and the doctrine of human types are the central. and therapy. and that more is to be gained by . The formulas have been devised by the authors and are sold by them. Y¯n-Y´ ng and the Twenty-Five Human Types”). ‘Harmonize Wood-Earth’. features. F a q¯ q´ng. or any justification for its validity. if not the only. ‘Supplement Wood’. Englishman Jack Worsely. the founder. The importance of the five phases is exaggerated to the point where the six bowels are completely subsumed to the five viscera and only five emotions are discussed (the seven-fold classification of seven affects. ‘Tonify Blood’. The book is divided into three parts: basic theories (including y¯n-y´ ng and the five phases). a belief naturally supported by the language barrier and the general absence of Chinese cultural influence. ‘Consolidate Qi’. Formulas containing multiple ingredients are labelled ‘Tonify Moisture’. Although Chinese medical knowledge. As the quotation in 6 on page 186–187 shows. Chinese medicine is still. Indeed. a similar tension . are averse to applying any critical scrutiny. and do not have the linguistic access to primary sources that would enable them to apply such scrutiny to maximum benefit. and cultural demands is rarely noted in the training of acupuncturists (Birch & Felt 1999: 74). The fact that Chinese medicine is subject to the modifying force of political. If they are unaware of the problems of transmitting a complex knowledge corpus such as Chinese medicine and of the low degree of transmission that has so far been achieved.000 according to Unschuld 1990). many people are unaware that they are adapations. The Chinese medical policy of the PRC continues to accord great importance to study of what M´ o Z´ -D¯ ng called the treasurea e o house of Chinese medicine in the hope that it will produce more clinically useful material. Adaptations of this kind are possible because those of complementary-health persuasions find them attractive. their adaptation is a simple. economic. as we have seen (4. the distinct dichotomy that certain writers establish between the holistic. the theory and practice of Chinese medicine still retains a link with the past. The fact is that they do not have a clear grasp of any of the basic issues. Chinese medicine has undergone change in China to adapt to modern conditions. in fact it represents a serious challenge. but also that of Western medicine. integrated approach of Chinese medicine on the one hand and the fractured approach of Western medicine on the other not only misrepresents the reality of Chinese medicine. and gradual extinction. not oriental. total revolution. These mutually restraining tendencies have prevented a modernisation of Chinese medicine that eliminates all elements that fail to withstand the test of modern scientific research.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms developing a Western interpretation than by acquiring linguistic access to primary texts in order to investigate in greater detail what the 2.000-year heritage of Chinese medicine has to offer. as it were. As has been pointed out (Birch 1998). In the West. In its homeland. Furthermore.000 books according to Sivin 1989 and 12. Because such adaptations are often labelled as Chinese medicine. Yet however much modern leaders of Chinese medicine in the Orient have tried to align traditional knowledge with Western medical knowledge. integrated system based on one traditional facet of Chinese medicine only. responding to what Unschuld has called a cognitive aesthetic (Unschuld 1989b) that is typically Western. Adaptations of Chinese medicine that result from subjecting its treatments to the rigorous scrutiny of empirical testing is not so easily dismissed out of hand. and it is precisely this shortcoming that COMP is intended to help remedy. then they must have far less esteem for China’s medical heritage than confidence in their own ability to improve on it. sitting on a three-edged needle of traditionalism. quite ironically. A huge legacy of literature is still accessible (10.4). Adaptation is not necessarily an argument in favour of any target-oriented approach to translation. in the recipient culture. or ignored because of a different conceptual framework. are difficult to pin down objectively. they are also operant in the choice of equivalents for Chinese terms. There is no theory or research we can draw on to understand the complex issue of the westward transmission of Chinese medicine counter to the general eastward current in the flow knowledge. Oriental models for the adaptation of Chinese medicine to present-day conditions are bound to be worthy of consideration for a long time to come. Extralinguistic factors are clearly operant in the selection of aspects of knowledge to be transmitted.g. They are also operant in the decision between translating primary text in detail or adopting a few kernel ideas and elaborating on them against the cultural background of the recipient culture. As I shall show.2 APPROACHES TO CHINESE MEDICAL TERM TRANSLATION One way of determining the best way to translate is to compare different ap- proaches and evaluate them in terms of how well the concepts of Chinese medicine are . It is certainly not an argument against the need to transmit knowledge by the mode of translation. In other words. if necessary. 6. determining whether original concepts are upheld in transmission or adapted to. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine exists between a scientifically based adaptation of Chinese medicine and preservation of the traditional discipline..6. To my knowledge. What elements of Chinese medicine should be adopted and how. Nonetheless. the extralinguistic factors surrounding the transmission of bodies of knowledge and affecting the translation of terminology have not been investigated in any field. Stephen Birch argues cogently the case that research to find the scientific bases of acupuncture have been negatively affected by the poor availability of accurate and reliable material on the practice of acupuncture. Furthermore. since researchers questions are often conditioned by Western expectations of acupuncture that have little to do with practice of acupuncture in the Orient (e. the adaptation of acupuncture to the modern intellectual environment by a fuller understanding of Chinese medicine in its pre-adulterated form. they are reflected in numerous aspects of transmission. especially the beliefs and attitudes of interested parties. Extralinguistic factors in the westward transmission of Chinese medicine. they should be adapted cannot be fairly judged until a larger quantity of adequate translations of primary texts are available and until an environment has been created that encourages source-dependent transmission. that acupuncture is a holistic therapy) (Birch 1997). I shall be concerned to determine whether LGP terms. contains nearly 37. I shall also be concerned to see how consistent term-proposers have been. while the 1995 ZD contains nearly 32. The comparison will lead to certain genealogical conclusions about origins of chosen English equivalents.2. the concerns of term-proposers will soon become clear. This selection is very limited by comparison with the total terminology of Chinese medicine.1 (German and English Translation of Latin Medical Terms). the eight terminologies are presented in chronological order of the source texts from which they were taken. while an early version of the terminology (different largely only in detail) had appeared in 1990. I shall examine and compare the English terminologies of eight translators/writers on the basis of their equivalents for 65 Chinese terms. Equivalents are not to be found in all cases. It is noteworthy that inability to locate equivalents is significant in itself. When term choices are viewed against the features of Chinese medicine as described in Chapter 4 (Outline of Chinese Medicine) and the conditions for the reception of Chinese medicine in the modern age as described in the preceding section of the present chapter. The terminologies are presented in Appendix II. The 120 terms selected here are only a small fraction of either of these figures. For instance. either because they lie outside the scope of a given work or the English terms are not pegged to Chinese. 6. The order of the terminologies as presented below only partially reflects any chronological development. the TL-terminologies cover only a brief section of the history of transmission (1978– present). since texts in which terms cannot be related to SL terms cannot be back-translated accurately. Furthermore. loan-translations. Untraceable equivalents are marked by —. the terminologies had appeared before the source-texts quoted. and source-independent formations are applied. receive the same treatment in Chinese-English translation of Chinese medical terms.000. In some cases. Locating equivalents is essentially a back-translation exercise.1 Mann's Terminology (1962) . Xi` Gu¯ n’s 1921 ZYD. I place the emphasis of the discussion on trends motivated by extralinguistic concerns rather than on the history of individual term choices. and to determine the relative extent to which loans. the first comprehensive dictionary of Chinese e a medicine. the source I have quoted for my own terminology is a 1995 publication. Finally.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms that were established in 3. which in Western medicine were consistently translated by LGP equivalents. Nevertheless.000 terms. ‘channels and ı o network vessels’. Mann uses the transcriptions Yin and Yang. whose bibliography includes both Chinese and Western sources. essence. for ı . Although Mann apparently used primary Chinese sources. This term is of great interest because of the currency it gained. xi` denotes. A notable element of Mann’s terminology is his choice of the word sedate as the equivalent of xi` . ‘cause to flow’. and to e some degree retains. and its foundation in a conception of the mechanisms of acupuncture completely alien to its Chinese origins on the other. The Chinese ture context. Most other terms are semantic translations. ‘to drain’. while that emitted by the kidney is urine. and Shen. Xu¯ nm´ng Wˇ q` Pi¯ n has no such expression: l u e a ı u ı a 2 6 o 7 o .6. the one assoo ciated with the spleen and the other with the kidney. among other things. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine ment of acupuncture in the UK. which of course Chinese medicine does associate with the kidney. It has not been possible to isolate all the representative terms chosen for two reasons: a) Mann presents only acupuncture and excludes medicinal therapy to which a number of the chosen terms relate. Qi. often e needle therapy. a therapeutic action performed in e xi´ . but for the last three also uses the translations energy (of life). the ancient Chinese considered the : j¯ng lu` . In the acupuncxi` is a needle stimulus used to free accumulations of evil ( e called ‘pathogenic factors’) or stagnant q`. and spirit. as rivers and waterways traversing the body. He follows Souli´ de Morant e in speaking of five elements and meridians. b) he is concerned with the clinical application of acupuncture and with explaining its mechanisms in terms of the scientific understanding of health and sickness. Mann’s terminology (see p. Jing. A striking example is his treatment of the two forms of saliva recognised traditionally in Chinese medicine ( xi´ n and a tu` ). Mann says that the ‘liquid emitted’ (the original locus in the S` W` n. Mann’s cavalier presentation of traditional concepts suggests that he did not rely too heavily on his Chinese sources. Its literal meaning is ‘to flow’. in the English-speaking community of Chinese medicine on the one hand. It would be difficult to ascertain whether this notion was drawn from any Chinese text. As discussed in 4. o / o ^ o l Z ) by the spleen is saliva.1 (The Beginnings of Deı terministic Medicine). that constitute the necessary transportation links between the various internal organs and body parts. 386) is taken from Acupuncture: The Ancient Chinese Art of Healing. but not in the context of the five humours. When q`. his aim apparently has not been to provide a detailed reproduction of Chinese acupuncture. As far as it is possible to tell. Sedate comes from the Latin sedare. Thus. is used to restore normal free flow. concords with this cone ception of q`. logically.e. the transposition of the Chinese concepts into modern concepts of the nervous system involves a shift to a completely incompatible frame of reference in which the ideas are not parallel but opposite. to call the stimulus used to treat q` stagnation a sedating e ı stimulus suggests a therapeutic mechanism that would aggravate rather than relieve the condition (Wiseman 2001. or to ‘seat’. If what is being described is the Chinese system of channels and network vessels and not the nervous system. This becomes clear when we probe deeper into the Chinese concept. which involves pressing (closing) the hole in the skin supposedly left after the extraction of the needle to produce a supplementing stimulus. stagnates in part of the channel system. and sediment. whereas pressing the hole prevents the q` from escaping. It is difficult to see how the word sedate. The result of a sedating action is precisely the opposite of that of xi` stimulus. Nevertheless. The obvious implication of this method is that widening the hole facilitates the discharge of q` from the body. would. The word sedate fails to represent the traditional Chinese medical concept. and settling. a problem that underlies considerations of word choice here is that we . settle. when applied to the streams of fluid-like q` in the body. which is directly related to the English words sit. In other words. or which involves waggling the needle on extraction so as to widen the hole to produce a draining stimulus. the word sedate came to be used as the equivalent of xi` on account of a belief that the channel system in some way corresponds to the e nervous system. and that the condition of stagnation corresponds to an excitation of the nervous system that is to be treated by a relaxing or sedating stimulus. ‘to drain’. to ‘cause to sit’. Birch 1998). then a stimulus. ı Of course. ‘draining’ e k¯ i h´ bˇ xi` fˇ . the application of the word sedate gives a misleading impression of the process involved in the treatment. While the term xi` . A further ı ı implication is that q` is something that can escape from the body through a physical hole ı (i. the word sedate does not. some sort of substance). result in a slowing ı down of activity and movement. it is also difficult to see how anyone using the word sedate could have conceptions of the therapeutic action and of q` that in any way match Chinese conceptions. seat. ?? Sedate implies a calming or settling action. could meaningfully describe what traditional Chinese healers understood themselves to be performing.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms one reason or another. with ı its connotations of calming.. ‘open and closed supplementation and a e u e a drainage method’. Let us examine the implications of the K I xi` . tranquilising. sepxi` . we e . personal communication 1997). The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine through them. alien concepts (such as those derived from the nervous system) can easily be projected onto the original concepts. we only have statements in ı language and the concepts that those statements suggest. Scientific experiments to discover the scientific basis of acupuncture usually use electrical stimulation. as it often is. while a weak stimulus is held to be a supplementing stimulus. Generally. In the choice of sedate as the rendering for see how the naming of a concept can shape its interpretation. Concerning the channels. sedative would be inappropriate if the choice of English term were to be based on the neurological model. a powerful electrical stimulus is held to correspond to the traditionally draining stimulus. interestingly. In the absence of detectable objective referents. We have no direct observations that we could describe with our own choice of words. but rather because its connotations are in keeping with conceptions of Chinese medicine as a soft therapy geared to restoring balance rather than to the forceful removal of offending forces. the choice of sedate may have little or no neurological justification (Pomeranz. It reflects Mann’s concern to explain the effects of acupuncture in terms of the nervous system. Felix Mann has denied the existence of the channel system (Mann 1992: 31–39). it continues to be used. and their behavior. q`. whereas the semantic translation ‘drain’ implies that the body is being weakened. We should note that although research has been able to demonstrate that certain effects of acupuncture can be explained through the nervous system. We have no direct experience of how a xi` stimulus actually affects e the body. Consequently. When q` is conceived as some sort of ‘vital energy’. A logical consequence of these comments is that traditional presentations of acupuncture and modern adaptations of them should be kept completely separate. If this is true. then the draining stimulus in neurological terms is excitatory rather than inhibitory.6. Paradoxically. in recent years. the notion of ı ‘sedate” implies a rebalancing of energy. The speculative nature of these concepts makes them vulnerable to alteration in the process of translation. no evidence has been put forward to show that the channel system as a whole corresponds to the nervous system or even that it exists as a single entity. and I suggest that this is not so much because it is felt to place the channel system on firm neurological foundations. The adoption of the word sedate evidently arose out of an attempt to make clear what is in reality not very clear by basing this Chinese concept on the solid bedrock of scientific reality. And. Although the use of the word sedate has its origins in a scientific (or quasiscientific) model of acupuncture. a h` n. ch’i constructivum. sweet. especially since he does not offer any justification for his preference for Latin over English in the introduction to Theoretical Foundations. usually by loan-translation: + = F w` i q`. 4 gˇ . D j¯ n huˇ . e h´ n. are from his Theoretical Foundations of Chinese Medicine: Systems of Correspondence. 388. 2 < p´. sweat. English terms are given as explanations. skin. nervus. ignis ministri. e Porkert’s use of Latin terminology deserves some attention. ch’i defensivum. orbis stomachi. Many of the English explanatory e ı + terms are full-blown source-independent formations: also its Latin counterpart configuratio). 2 xu` . ı e yin (Porkert’s italics are retained). orbis hepaticus. e w` i. algor. Porkert adopted H` nyˇ P¯ny¯n only in later works. 2 hs¨ eh. configurational energy (and ı sh´ n. ch’i magnum. Many LGP terms are translated with their Latin and/or English equivalents. splendor yang.g. and to replace the Latin nomenclature would be a considerable feat. " f¯ ng. e + xi´ q`. No new subject fields or disciplines that have developed in the modern era (e. ı force.. Examples in English include: tears. ch’i heteropathicum. Latin of course con- . a o Some of the Latin translations are not literal or semantic: . individually specific structive energy. w = yang. a ı # sh` o y´ ng. a T w` i. e l` i. listed on p. I shall address this issue shortly. + ch’i. bitter. e ı + \ y´ng q`.2 Porkert's Terminology (1978) Manfred Porkert’s terms. hs¨ eh-mo.g. 6. Borrowing in the form of Wade-Giles transcriptions is chosen for a number of terms: shen. The use of Latin terminology in certain modern fields is a legacy of the era when Latin was the lingua franca of Europe. symptom terms). a ı @ y´ ng m´ng. q`. bone. a a # m`ng m´ n. ı ı = + d` q`. yang minor. published in 1978.2.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms arately labelled. flavours. porta ı e fortunae. ventus. Examples in Latin include: a j¯n. ı u w` i. ignis principis. computer science) have adopted fully-fledged Latin technical terms or nomenclatures. The standard language of botany and zoology continues to be Latin because all the early work was done in Latin. u a u ı ı The LSP-bound terms are mostly translated into Latin. u ching. g¯ n. configurative e j¯ng.. structive potential. 6 u o xi` ng huˇ . and should each be expressed in a terminology in keeping with the concepts. The main feature of Manfred Porkert’s terminology is that his standard terms are in Latin rather than English. The Chinese sources in his bibliography outnumber the Western ones. and are the standard form for terms regarded (by Porkert) as less important (e. between functions accorded to the organs in Chinese medicine with those ascribed to them in Western medicine. anything round) been used to describe the internal organs. the English language has been greatly enriched by its use as a native language of Englishspeaking settlers in parts of all five continents. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine tinued for a long time to be the language of scholarship not only because it transcended regional boundaries. particularly as English has borrowed most of Latin’s lexis (without the complexities of the grammar). as a German who. Nowadays. but that these are of negligible value by comparison with the functions that the ‘orbs’ represent. there would appear to be barely any need in the English translation of Chinese medical literature to translate the terminology into a language that is now learned only by specialists.6. should have missed this important point. The organs u and the parts and the functions that they govern can be regarded as systems or spheres or orbs. ring. He does not go into the epistemological matter in depth. the kidney not only governs urination but also stores essence which. It is ironic that Porkert. in some cases major differences. In view of this. The word orbis is Porkert’s addition. the spleen is an organ of digestion. In Chinese medicine. I would suggest that Porkert wishes to highlight the Chinese conception of the organs by inserting the word orbis because of discrepancies. and does not deal with the obvious observation that organs whose functions are deducible from external observations were ascribed functions very similar to those recognised in modern medicine. In Chinese medicine. He claims that in Chinese medicine the organs have morphological substrata. it could only be replaced by the vernacular languages once these were sufficiently developed. the internal organs are described as ‘governing’ (x zhˇ ) various activities and other parts of the body. in order to reach a wider readership. In Chinese medicine. not just among Westerners but across most of the globe.1. but also because it had for centuries been the vehicle of high culture. English has assumed the role of lingua franca. but this conceptualisation was never realised in the form of an actual Chinese term denoting it. for instance. As John Lyons (1981: 328) has stated. The nonliteral element of the Latin translations and English explanatory terms for LSP-bound terms deserves further consideration. orbes) followed by an adjectival form of the Latin name of the organ. and those organs whose activities are not visible externally were not (as I explained in 4. when . writes not in Latin but in English. Beginnings of Deterministic Medicine). in no traditional Chinese text has any word whose meaning vaguely resembles that of the Latin orbis (a circle. whereas in Western medicine its chief function is that of maintaining the proper condition of the blood and adding lymphocyte cells to the circulation. Porkert consistently refers to individual internal organs by Latin orbis (pl. in this role. Nonetheless. Like many others. enables the body to grow. explains how the body weakens in old age. In reality. Neither hs¨ eh nor individually specific structive energy preserve any relationship with u . The reason for this is the same as for his choice of designations for the internal organs. Porkert’s practice of speaking consistently of orbis lienalis rather than lien. the detachment would be more or less complete. but transcribes xu` . The failure to consistently relate functions to material substrata allows the possibility in modern interpretation to decisively detach function from matter for the purposes of eliminating clashes between traditional Chinese and modern Western knowledge. Individually specific structive energy is intended to reflect the Chinese understanding of hs¨ eh. but has nothing to do with reproduction. The Chinese understanding of the internal functioning of the human body. but not all translators. as it wanes. or ageing. Porkert. which I shall have occasion to take up again later. and reproduce. Porkert’s terminological treatment of the internal organs and bodily substances prompts conjecture about the conditions that allowed it. 1978: 185). he refers to q` by transcription (ch’i). it merely serves to confirm the conviction that only the Western medical understanding of the spleen deserves to be labelled by the word spleen. like few e 2 other translators. growth. Porkert effectively tells us that Chinese medicine is not really concerned with the physical substance blood. and the reworked u concepts have a decidedly twentieth-century air. splen or spleen. We here encounter one of the major sources of disagreement among translators.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms strong. is largely speculative. refers to y¯n and y´ ng by transcription. which Chinese-English e translators of general (nonmedical) texts usually render as blood. etc. the fact remains that medical scholars never produced direct evidence to demonstrate their speculations. development. as I suggested in Chapter 4 (Outline of Chinese Medicine). whereas in Western medicine it has the function of excreting waste products as urine. and which. develop. and discourage him/her from believing that the Chinese medical understanding of the organs is anatomically based. The source-independent formations of the explanatory English terms are explained in the same way. ı a As most. Whatever confirmation for their understanding may have arisen in the clinical practice of healing. ı he refers to j¯ng (ching) and ı sh´ n (shen) in transcription. is intended to prevent the Western reader from confusing the ‘Chinese medical spleen’ with the ‘Western medical spleen’.. but fails to explain why the term 2 xu` should have been chosen to designate functions that e have little to do with the physical substance the term denotes. but his explanation is unfortunately incomplete. as indeed every modern translator. For anyone who happens to miss the mention of blood (Porkert. he does not translate. 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine the red fluid that escapes from wounds. Porkert appears to have confused the task of translation with that of presenting his highly rarefied personal view of Chinese medicine quite alien to its original conception. If Porkert’s reason for labeling the organs as orbes in Latin derives from the fact that Chinese medicine, unlike Western medicine, is unconcerned with physical entities, then one might wonder why he does not refer to external influences such as wind, cold, dampness, etc., by some similar technique, since, unlike modern medicine, Chinese medicine understands these entities to influence specific internal organs (see 5 Extension Status). After all, the Chinese " f¯ ng, for example, denotes the same meteorological e phenomenon as the English wind, but, as used in medicine, it denotes something that can enter the body, and even arise within it. Porkert offers Latin translations for five of what he calls the six climatic or seasonal excesses ( li` y´n), but he generally refers to u ı shˇ , the heat of u them by their English names. Latin apparently has no equivalent for summer (which Porkert confusingly translates as damp heat). I suggest the reason why Porkert treats the six excesses differently from the blood and the internal organs is that while Western medicine positively disagrees with the Chinese medical understanding of certain of the internal organs, it has no theories about wind, cold, or dampness that positively clash with those of Chinese medicine. Porkert’s erratic choice of English and Latin is observed in other parts of his terminology. He renders the names of the five fluids partly in English (tears, sweat, nasal secretions) and partly in source-independent formations in Latin (saliva lienalis, saliva renalis). Of the five types of tissue and body parts governed by the internal organs, only j¯n apparently receives a Latin designation nervus (originally meaning sinew in Latin). ı Porkert devotes two pages of the introduction of Theoretical Foundations to a discussion of terminology, most of which centres around the need to distinguish between technical terms whose meaning has remained constant and those used in specific senses by certain writers only and around the need to establish what he calls normative equivalents for the former category. This distinction is not as easily drawn as he claims: Porkert’s Latin names for pulses suggest a constancy of meaning in pulse terminology that is not supported by any evidence (F´ ng 1997). The terms e biˇ o and J lˇ are used in at least a ı two distinct senses (see 5.3.2 Unity of Term and Concept). Far more importantly, however, Porkert’s introduction gives no indication of the principles he applies in the selection of TL equivalents. Porkert was the first writer to speak of a need for a standard terminology for Chi- Translation of Chinese Medical Terms medicine have been well received; most people find his work abstruse. Even his close associate Nathan Sivin, who did more to explain Porkert’s approach than Porkert himself by contributing a foreword to Theoretical Foundations, and who adopted many elements of Porkert’s terminology in a highly informative introduction to Chinese medicine (Sivin 1987: 3–199), shunned his Latin terms and his explanatory English terms. Although Porkert’s terminology was influential for a time, his thoughts on Chinese medicine are apparently no longer much appreciated: Theoretical Foundations has already gone out of print, as have others of his works. Porkert’s terminology, as contained in his Theoretical Foundations of Chinese Medicine, covers the narrower field of ancient acupuncture. As we now move on to examine the terminology contained in PRC sources, we are able to broaden our view to include terminology pertaining to disease states, the modern form of pattern identification, and methods of treatment. 6.2.3 Xie Zhu-Fan's Terminology (1984) The first PRC terminology to be presented is that of Xi` Zh´ -F´ n e u a @ (see p. 389) contained in Dictionary of Traditional Chinese Medicine (1984), which, unlike any of the other lexicographical sources I have chosen for the present analysis, is presented in thematic order. Xi` ’s terminology bears evidence of Porkert’s influence. Although it does not ine clude any of Porkert’s Latin terminology, certain of Porkert’s English terms are included as alternative names: Five Evolutive Phases; + y´ng q`, constructive energy; ı ı w l wˇ x´ng, Five Elements, u ı lu` m` i, collaterals, reticular conduits. The organ names o a are translated by LGP equivalents (liver, heart, spleen), but Anglicised forms of Porkert’s names are also given (hepatic orb, cardial orb, splenic orb), although these optional alternatives nowhere appear in compound terms. Borrowing, which in this, as all PRC sources, takes the form of P¯ny¯n rather than ı ı the Wade-Giles system that Porkert used in his earlier writing, is limited to yin, yang, qi, and channel names. Partly literal English translations are given as alternatives for the channels, but these appear in no compounds. Unlike Porkert, he gives English translations for j¯ng (essence), 2 xu` (blood), ı e sh´ n (mental faculties), 2 e w xu` m` i (blood and e a vessels). Loan-translation is in evidence: + piggy; @ q` zh`, q` stagnation; ı ı ı b¯ n t´ n, running e u @ # m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i, decline of the fire of the Vital Gate; ı e o a m`ng ı 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine Paraphrastic source-independent formations are conspicuous: nary disturbance; . + r T l´n zh` ng, uriı e g¯ n q` f` n w` i, perverted flow of exuberant Qi (vital energy) a ı a e ! / = of the liver leading to dysfunction of the stomach; sh¯ k` n p´ y´ ng, disturı u ı a = bance of Yang (vital function) of the spleen owing to external cold dampness; Z hu´ y´ ng ji` n`, restore Yang (vital function) from collapse. Much more pronounced, ı a u ı chuˇ n c` , dyspnea and tachypnea; a u " however, is a tendency to match LSP-bound Chinese medical terms with Western medical terms: the limbs; W X xi¯ o kˇ , diabetes; a e b¯ ng e l` u, uterine bleeding; o zh` ng f¯ ng, apoplexy; o e wˇ i zh` ng, flaccid paralysis of e e $ b`, rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis, arthralgia; " ı f¯ ng r` yˇ n, acute e e a conjunctivitis. This is done even when it incurs a breakdown in the systematicity of the Chinese medical nomenclature, as is seen when disturbance, but 2 l´n zh` ng is translated as urinary ı e sh´ l´n is translated as urolithiasis. Yet another example is ı ı q¯ y¯ hu´ xu` , which literally means ‘dispel stasis and quicken (enliven) the blood’, is u u o e turned into promote or activate blood circulation by removing blood stasis, a translation that introduces a Western medical notion of blood circulation that does not form part of Chinese medical knowledge (see Sivin’s answer to Needham’s contention that it does, Sivin 1998: 438–440). Xi` ’s terminology reveals numerous inconsistencies. For example, e is translated as fidgets, but though the meaning of 6 x¯n f´ n ı a f´ n z` o is translated as irritability and restlessness, even a a is the same in both cases. Different translations of the character b` are given for generic term, (rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis), and the specific " ı f¯ ng b` (arthralgia due to wind). e ı Inconsistencies can lead to the deletion of concepts in translation. Xi` translates e G jiˇ qi` o as ‘nine body orifices or openings’, but the notion of orifice or opening u a G disappears when he translates K k¯ i qi` o as resuscitate. The problem here is that the a a orifice is usually (but not always) referred to in this therapeutic term, which literally means ‘open the orifice(s)’, is not the tongue (the orifice of the heart) or any of the nine orifices in specific, but the orifices of the heart (6 G x¯n qi` o). Opening the orifices (of the heart) is ı a a metaphorical (?) expression for bringing the patient back to conscious contact with the world. The word ‘resuscitation’ neatly hides the original explanatory metaphor. Again, sh´ n is translated as ‘mental faculties’, but this changes to ‘nerves’ (a concept that e does not exist in Chinese medicine) in the term k heart and soothe the nerves. There is evidence that native-speaker competence is lacking in at least one 6 U yˇ ng x¯n an sh´ n, nourish the a ı ¯ e Translation of Chinese Medical Terms To sum up the features of Xi` ’s terminology, LGP equivalents are used wherever e possible, and P¯ny¯n is used sparingly. The main principle apparent in the translation of ı ı LSP-bound terms is the institution, wherever possible, of Western medical terms. 6.2.4 CEMD Terminology (1987) We now move on to the equivalents offered in the alphabetically ordered Chinese- English Medical Dictionary (CEMD), published in 1987 by the prestigious People’s Medical Publishing House (D ] l G ), and comprising two sections, one of 1,550 pages containing Western medical terms, and a much shorter section of just over 300 pages for Chinese medical terms. The proportions may reflect the relative importance accorded to the two sections by the authors more accurately than the relative sizes of the terminologies. See p. 390. A number of minor details shows that the CEMD terminology is genealogically related to Xi` ’s: e initials); apoplexy; @ l x´ng, five elements, five evolutive phases (now with lower-case ı " b¯ n t´ n, sensation of gas rushing (like a running piggy); e u # zh` ng f¯ ng, o e G m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i, decline of the fire from the gate of life; K ı e o a k¯ i qi` o, inducing resuscitation. It should be noted, nevertheless, that virtually all traces a a of Porkert’s influence have been expunged (except for five evolutive phases). As in Xi` ’s terminology, LGP equivalents appear to be used wherever possible. e Although borrowing is kept to a minimum, all the channel names are now given P¯ny¯n ı ı names without any English translation. The same tendency toward paraphrase and the use of Western medical terms is equally apparent in the CEMD terminology as in Xi` ’s: e b¯ ng l` u, metrorrhagia and metrostaxis; " e o $ xi¯ o kˇ , diabetes; a e f¯ ng r` yˇ n, acute conjunctivitis. As with e e a Xi` , there is little concern to preserve the systematicity of Chinese medical terminology. e This is made more apparent by the alphabetical ordering of the entries, since a lack of systematicity observed in the renderings of contiguous entries suggests the choices were deliberate rather than accidental: 1022. % 1023. % 1024. % 1025. % 1026. % & & & & & f¯ ng huˇ , wind-fire e o R f¯ ng huˇ l`, lit. ‘wind fire scrofula’, acute cervical lymphadenitis e o ı f¯ ng huˇ xi¯ ng sh` n, wind and fire stirring up each other e o a a f¯ ng huˇ y´ t` ng, toothache due to pathogenic wind-fire e o a o f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n, lit. ‘wind-fire eye’, acute conjunctivitis e o a A Q ' In the above list of terms, the literal English renderings of wind and fire only 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine appear in three out of the five terms. The principle that the translator is evidently applying here is that of rendering terms with Western medical equivalents wherever such exist, and translating terms literally when no Western medical term exists. The translator who chooses equivalents in this way apparently believes that the Western medical term is the English equivalent of the Chinese medical term in question, without considering that it is an English equivalent rooted in a completely different frame of reference. Even if we assume that acute conjunctivitis is referentially the same as " # $ f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n, we must e o a nevertheless realise that they are conceptually different. In choosing Western medical equivalents that imply an alien frame of reference, the translator apparently considers it more important to show how Chinese concepts relate to Western medical knowledge than to show how the condition is viewed within the system of knowledge that he is engaged in transmitting. As with Xi` , certain concepts tend to be deleted. The traditional concepts e and G qi` o are not held intact. a The CEMD gives multiple translations for I bˇ : reinforce, tonify, invigorate, reu store, strengthen, supplement; for directions concerning their use. Bilingual dictionaries have continued to appear in profusion in the PRC. The choice of methods remains fairly constant: use of LGP equivalents, minimal use of borrowing, frequent resorting to paraphrase and Western medical terms. A Practical Dicationary [sic] of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica (1994) offers in the preface a comment on translation methodology rarely seen in the PRC, in which the authors state that their principal approach is “mainly literal” (j o sh´ n e xi` , purge, expel, and reduce. There are no clear e x yˇ zh´ y` w´ i zhˇ ), and indeed ı ı ı e u Western medical disease names are conspicuously absent in the English terminology. The choice of specific equivalents varies considerably. In this dictionary and the ChineseEnglish Dictionary of Traditional Chinese Medicine published in the same year, the word meridian, which was originally coined by Souli´ de Morant, is used instead of the other e suggestions, many of them widely used in Chinese medical circles in the West (notably channel and conduit), that have been put forward over the last twenty years or more. 6.2.5 Maciocia's Terminology (1989/1994) Giovanni Maciocia, currently one of the best-selling authors of Chinese medical literature in the English-speaking world (see p. 200), provides a list of 56 terms in his primer, The Foundations of Chinese Medicine (1989: 486–486), published by the presti- Translation of Chinese Medical Terms sive bilingual list the following list has been compiled from The Foundations and The Practice of Chinese Medicine (1994). Both books contain Chinese and Western references. See page 392. Maciocia largely adopts the terminology used by Bensky and co-authors, which to my knowledge has not been published in list form. He discusses a few of his term choices in Note on the Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms (Foundations, xiii—xv), where he suggests a preference for semantic translations. He notably opts for Directing Vessel instead of the more common Conception Vessel for w r` n m` i. e a In his texts, Maciocia capitalises the initials of the terms contained in his glossary and a number of other basic terms including those denoting bodily substances (Qi, Blood, Phlegm), organs (Heart, Uterus), adjectives describing the colours of the tongue and characteristics of the pulse (Choppy pulse, Knotted pulse, Purple tongue, Red tongue, Rapid pulse). Strangely, deficiency ( x¯ ) is not normally written with a capital. u The chief feature of Maciocia’s terminology by comparison with those discussed so far is that he recognises Chinese medicine to possess a very limited number of terms. In his Note on the Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms, he claims to have “reviewed afresh all Chinese medical terms,” and provides what he calls a “full glossary” (pp. 485– 486), which contains 56 terms. Even though he has since explained that he meant only all terms contained in the book, he still allows us to conclude that he believes that the basic theory of Chinese medicine is expressed in a small number of terms. By comparison Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine (Wiseman & Ellis 1994) contains a glossary of over 330 major or commonly occurring terms, but many other terms that crop up only once during the text are footnoted instead of being included in the glossary. In keeping with his statements about the scope of Chinese medical terminology, his books make it almost impossible to locate equivalents, especially in the realm of disease signs and methods of treatment. The problem in finding the methods of treatment lies in the fact that Practice of Chinese Medicine, in which treatments are described, is arranged according to a mixture of basic symptoms and Chinese and Western medical disease categories. Overall, his method of translation is target-oriented because its detail is beyond convenient scrutiny. Although Maciocia’s work appears to be richly backed by Chinese references, there is evidence to suggest that in fact some of his information comes from (unreferenced) Western sources. His statement that the extraordinary vessels “circulate Essence around the body” (Maciocia 1989: 355) is a theory that he would not have found in any Chinese 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine source (Birch & Felt 1999: 75; see 6.1.5, Failure to Percieve Language as the Key to Acquisition of Knowledge). 6.2.6 L Zhao-Guo's Terminology (1993/1997) We now move on to the terminological proposals of the PRC scholar Lˇ Zh` o-Gu´ , ı a o as presented in two monographs on the subject of Chinese medical translation entitled Zh¯ ngy¯ F¯ ny` Dˇ ol` n ( o ı a ı a u and Zh¯ ngy¯ Y¯ngyˇ F¯ ny` J`qiˇ o ( o ı ı u a ı ı a X “Introduction to Chinese Medical Translation”) 1 “The Craft of English Translation of Chinese Medicine”). See page 394. A central feature of Lˇ’s translation strategy is to ı translate compound terms by combining classical morphemes. Although I do not know of any Chinese medical publication applying this terminology, it has provoked considerable interest in the PRC. Lˇ does not provide a comprehensive set of terminological proposals because he ı generally accepts current PRC practice. He has little to say about the Western contribution, although his chief criticism is that PRC translators indulge in paraphrase too frequently. The major feature of his own proposed terminology is to translate compound terms and collocations into classical compounds. The use of classical derivations could theoretically be applied in the translation of Chinese medical terminology just as it is often applied in term creation in modern LSPs. I here offer four criticisms of this method of term-formation in the translation of Chinese medical terms. The first criticism is that the classical derivations so common in the Western sciences (Western medicine being a classic example), though concise for initiates, are obscure not only for lay but often also for experts in different fields. The term anemometer is clear to all meteorologists, but is obscure not only to the layman, who calls it a wind gauge, but also to a physician, who despite his familiarity with a great many Greek wordroots, is unlikely to recognise anem(o)—especially in the compound encephalanemia, which is Lˇ’s rendering of the Chinese ı " t´ u f¯ ng, lit. ‘head wind’. It is for this reason o e that classical terms always have connotations of ‘technical term’. In the Chinese medical context, this linguistically distorts the relationship between LGP and LSP-bound terms (see 2.3.5, Terminological Translation), and conceptually obscures the cognitive origins of the concepts. As Lˇ’s proposed terminology shows, the representation of Chinese medı ical concepts with Greek morphemes creates a terminology that is almost as unfamiliar to MDs as nonmedical people, e.g., anem(o), ‘wind’, cry(o), ‘cold’, hygr(o), ‘dampness’, xer(o), ‘dryness’. The connotations of learnedness and technicality attached to the Greek Translation of Chinese Medical Terms morphemes would give a false impression about the nature of Chinese concepts and their expression in Chinese. This is particularly important in view of the high frequency of the words that Lˇ suggests should be represented in classical roots. ı The second criticism is that classical derivations are used in the creation of complex adjectives and nouns, meeting the need in modern terminologies for nominalised forms. The technical expression of Chinese medicine makes greater use of active and stative verbs used predicatively. In his 1993 work, # m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i appears as ı e o a hypovitaportipyria. As explained in Chapter 5 (Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology), English terminology should enable phrases to be interpreted and translated in a nominal or active sense by grammatical rather than lexical change (in the terminology proposed by Wiseman et al., debilitation of the life gate fire; the life gate fire is debilitated). The third criticism concerns native-speaker competence. Lˇ is insensitive to the ı laws of combination by which classical morphemes tend not to be joined to words of Germanic stock (or highly Anglicised words) except for very commonly used morphemes such as anti (e.g., anti-war). Coinings such as leukoglossocoat (B hygrosis (= ! b´ i t¯ i), yangpenic a a y´ ng x¯ sh¯ zˇ ), and chanopuncture (: a u ı u j¯ng c`), etc., are unlikely ı ı to be adopted by native English speakers. Some morpheme combinations such as pyria and pathy that usually only appear in compounds appear in Lˇ’s terminology as full words, ı again contrary to normal practice. Fourthly, Lˇ makes rash judgements about what is intelligible to English speakers. ı He tells, for instance, that certain metaphorical terms would be ‘semantically unclear’ and ‘ridiculous’ in English (Lˇ Z-G 1993: 147). He gives the example of the translation ı of ? 0 j¯n sh´ b` m´ng proposed by the authors of A Chinese-English Dictionary ı ı u ı of Common Terms in Traditional Chinese Medicine published by Guˇ ngd¯ ng Science a o and Technology Press, ‘solid bell-metal can’t ring’. He says that the actual implication of the term is ‘hoarseness or aphasia caused by sthenia of lung-energy’ and so the term should be translated as such. The suggestion, however, that an English speaker would find a literal translation (in the proposed terminology, ‘replete metal failing to sound’— there is no mention of bells in the Chinese) unintelligble is very much open to question. The student who has learned that the lung is associated with metal in the five phases and that the voice is related to the lung, and who understands that repletion means being affected by a disease evil has no more difficulty in making sense of the metaphor than a Chinese person. In this regard, Lˇ’s ideas on translation reflect ideas similar to those ı of Zh¯ ng W´ i-Hu¯ discussed in 6.1.6. In my experience, Chinese scholars continually a e ı underestimate Westerners’ powers of comprehension. 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine In short, Lˇ’s use of classically derived terminology places more importance on a ı Westernised form than on efficient expression of traditional Chinese concepts. 6.2.7 Unschuld's Terminology (1995) Unschuld’s terminology is drawn from his Learn to Read Chinese 1995, one of several language-learning texts now available that are specifically aimed at helping students to master Chinese medical Chinese. In the list in Appendix II on page 396, items marked by asterisk do not appear in the stated source; the English equivalents for these were kindly supplied by the author. As the PRC sources, Unschuld renders organ names with LGP equivalents, and restricts borrowing to yin, yang, and qi. His approach differs from the PRC sources in that it applies loan-translation more rigorously, over a wider area of terms. In particular, he avoids the use of LSP-bound Western medical terms where they would introduce Western medical ideas into Chinese medicine or fail to highlight any Chinese medical conception. Unschuld keeps source-independent formation and paraphrase to a minimum. Traditional concepts are not lost in transcription: sh´ n is translated as spirit and G qi` o as e a orifice even in the context of the heart. Furthermore, none of his terms appear in uppercase initials, and, though it is probably of little significance, transcriptions are not italicised. Unlike most PRC sources, Unschuld has outlined the principles of translation he applies (Unschuld 1985: 10; 1989a). He argues that terms denoting things or phenomena experienced by human being at all times and in all cultures should be translated by their semantic equivalents. Thus, 2 xu` as ‘blood’, e as ‘brain’, 7 shuˇ as ‘water’, 4 gˇ as ‘bone’, 3 nˇ o ı u a f` i as ‘lung’, e 6 x¯n as ‘heart’, and ^ sh` n as ‘kidney’. He makes a clear ı e distinction between the thing itself and connotations or conceptual associations. Although the ancient Chinese did not conceive of blood in terms of serum and erythrocytes or water in terms of H2 O, our English words blood and water are nevertheless equivalents of the e Chinese 2 xu` and shuˇ. The distinction between denotative meaning and connotative ı meaning is discussed in Chapters 5 and 7. Unschuld claims that culture-bound terms such as the names of two classes of internal organs should be rendered literally so that the image is preserved in translation. For example, z` ng and a fˇ refer to categories of internal organs that do not appear in u any other body of medical knowledge. Such terms, he argues, should be translated literally as ‘depots’ and ‘palaces’ because these metaphors shed light on the original conception In general.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms include moisture’. Wiseman and colleagues are the only native speakers of English to have compiled dictionaries of Chinese medicine and to have related terminology used in translated text to a lexicographical source.9 General Trends We can now examine the similarities and differences between the various ap- proaches to Chinese medical term translation that I have described above. notably Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine (Revised Edition). and differs mainly in certain individual term choices.2. 6. sh¯ ng h´ n as ‘harm caused by cold’. and show how they should be applied to preserve the concepts of Chinese medicine. explanatory models of health and disease are plausible. are explained in a 40-page introduction to English-Chinese Chinese-English Dictionary of Chinese Medicine entitled The Translation of Chinese Medical Terminology (English and Chinese). 398) are drawn from English-Chinese Chinese-English Dictionary of Chinese Medicine. that is.8 Wiseman's Terminology (1995) Wiseman’s terms (see p. and observations of. When the wide . Here I describe various methods of term-formation (the adoption of existing equivalents. this terminology has the same basic features as Unschuld.2. b s¯ n ji¯ o as ‘triple burner’. and has also been applied (with some variations) in works by others. which is a revised and expanded version of Glossary of Chinese Medical Terms and Acupuncture Points (1990). because of their close correspondence to the cognitive impressions man gains from daily experiences in. and the borrowing of foreign expressions). The principles of translation applied in the term selection. published in 1995. a a @ m`ng m´ n as ‘gate of life’. ı e ! " zh` ng f¯ ng o e as ‘hit by wind’. a a zh¯ ng sh¯ as ‘hit by o ı 6. The terminology is applied in works by Wiseman and colleagues. It is further elucidated in A Practical English Dictionary of Chinese Medicine (1998: 37–80). first of all. his natural and social environment. which are essentially the same as those applied by Unschuld and those described in the present thesis. the creation of new terms. Unschuld emphasises that environmental symbolism built into explanatory models of health and illness is an important precondition for the acceptance of such modes as ‘truth’. There is also a section discussing the conditions under which Western medical terms can be usefully applied without affecting the TL reader’s understanding of the concepts. e In most of the terminologies. Differences in method of translation of both LGP and LSP-bound terms can largely be explained by whether or not term translators consider Western medical understanding to be relevant or not. and the other trying to present Chinese medicine as understood in terms of Western medical notions. Western medical statements are considered to be truth. Porkert’s avoidance of LGP equivalents (and possibly Maciocia’s use of upper-case LGP terms) for the internal organs. The most global trend one can identify among all the terminologies surveyed is that of the minimal use of direct borrowing in the form of transcription. loan-translations. or at least some of them. loans. should be rendered by transcription. and source-independent formations). LGP equivalents and borrowed equivalents (loans and loan-translations) constitute the norm in Western medicine. as well as the tendency among PRC translators to transpose Chinese disease categories into Western medical categories can all be considered expressions of a Westernising or modernising. ı sh´ n. The difference of opinion concerning translation subsists because Chinese medicine now inhabits a medical environment dominated by modern science. Nonetheless. target-oriented trend. All the terminologies use yin and yang. The translation of LSP-bound terms is far more variable. The differences in approach to translation are attributable to . The absence of cultural prestige and bilingualism do not encourage access to it. As I have argued. The translation of Chinese medical terminology is characterised by two mutually opposing trends. e 2 xu` . This suggestion has not been adopted in any widely available text.6. Wiseman) through paraphrase to the use of Western medical terms (PRC sources). The picture of opinion is not complete here: in the PRC it has also been suggested by several commentators that the internal organs. moreover they are not refuted by proponents of Chinese medicine. q` or ch’i). As I demonstrated in Chapter 3. and the channel names). The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine equivalents. one trying to assert Chinese medicine as understood in its own terms. the universal practice observed in Western medicine of rendering LGP terms with LGP equivalents is not so clear in Chinese medicine. LGP terms are translated by LGP equivalents. Porkert uses the word orb (or Latin orbis) and Maciocia (as well as many others in the West) uses the LGP terms written in upper-case initials. It ranges from loan-translation (Unschuld. not only by Westerners but by Chinese too. I would argue that it would be the norm in Chinese medicine were it not for the influence of Western medicine. Some of the terminologies use transcriptions ı for a wider range of terms ( j¯ng. but it does not share the world view on which Chinese medicine is based. certain trends in term-formation become apparent. The recipient community may be disenamoured with Western medicine. most use qi (qi. 2. For the Chinese. Representative of this tendency are Mann’s translation of xi` as sedate and Xi` ’s translation of + e e . It is further interesting to note that the Chinese translators whose terminology has been discussed in this section tend on the whole to favour a greater degree of Westernisation than the Western translators. This suggests quite clearly that the writers in question believe Chinese medicine to possess only a handful of terms/concepts that need to be preserved in translation. A tendency in several of the eight writers is that of forging false bridges between Chinese medicine and the modern view of the body and diseases affecting it. The lack of terms lists (and in Mann’s. Works such as Between Heaven and Earth represent a theory and practice of Chinese medicine so far removed from any known in China that it is impossible to find more than a handful of correspondences to standard Chinese terminology. no example of terms of highly adapted forms of Chinese medicine have been included. is the evidence amidst the terminologies presented above that on the one hand Westernising trends are in fact stronger among the Chinese than among Western translators. 6. This. Since Western medicine is now the mainstream medicine in China. it is not surprising that Westernising tendencies in translation should be strong among Chinese translators. and on the other efforts to assert a source-oriented method of translation come mainly from Western translators.10 Further Problems The preceding analysis did not bring to light all the problems relating to the English terminology of Chinese medicine. In the terminological samples. The Chinese sense the dominance of Western medicine more strongly than Westerners. Especially noteworthy. One of the most salient problems brought to light by the terminological comparison is the difficulty in locating equivalents in authors such as Mann and Maciocia. Chinese people feel a far greater need to justify Chinese medicine in terms of modern medicine than Westerners do. given the current wider intercultural state of affairs. however.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms differences between two bodies of medical knowledge. I suggest this is because. The Westernising trend in translation conforms with attempts to discover the scientific bases of Chinese medicine and to integrate it with modern medicine. is why the differences in term translation are so persistent. I suggest. for them it is a matter of national pride that their indigenous healing arts should be recognised by the Western medical community. points of similarity with Western medicine are more important than for Western translators. case even a index) shows that the authors do not consider it important to have terms pegged to the Chinese. two world views. Chinese medicine imposes divisions e on this terrain that differ to some extent than traditional Western divisions. the part above the umbilicus. e a This dilution of Chinese medical conceptuality arising through the use of familiar terms to represent specific concepts deserves further attention. but is sometimes used to mean smaller abdomen. In Giovanni Maciocia’s Foundations of Chinese Medicine (1989: 156. but Maciocia’s diagnostic descriptions suggest that it corresponds to the stomach duct. chest. The lesser abdomen (\ e a i or the heart [region] (6 x¯n). However. and the smaller abdomen ( a u x¯n xi` ) ı a xiˇ o f` ). but this does not correspond to the region shown in a major Chinese diagnostic text (D` ng 1993) or English work (Wiseman & F´ ng e e 1998a). e this is confusing because flank in Western medicine refers to the side of the body between the lowest rib and the iliac crest.6. e A few lines further on. The central part of the upper abdomen is called the stomach ı sh` o f` ) usually refers to the lateral a u areas of the lower abdomen. he describes hypochondrial pain. lower (part of) the abdomen. lower abdomen. Maciocia’s vocabulary largely comes from Western medicine (although not used with Western medical precision). and G qi` o.. the same area is described in terms of thorax. $ f¯ ng r` yˇ n as acute conjunctivitis. As translations from primary texts show (Wiseman & F´ ng 1998a 1). flank obviously corresponds to the Chinese ) xi´ since it is said to lie under the control of the liver and gallbladder. which is equated with the Chinese ) xi´ t` ng. 1994). 173). the part below the umbilicus. abdomen. We also observed how certain e e a Chinese medical concepts were not held intact for the TL reader by consistent translation sh´ n. I take Maciocia’s treatment of terms denoting parts of the chest and abdomen (Macocia 1989. hypochondrium. Thorax and chest can be presumed to refer to one and the same thing. The sides of the chest are known as the rib-side () xi´ ). The abdomen is divided into the greater e abdomen ( d` f` ). and hypogastrium. In Maciocia’s usage (1989 156). spirit. and Maciocia does not redefine it in the sense of ) xi´ . upper part of the abdomen. flank.g. or8ifice). epigastrium. however. In Practice of Chinese Medicine (Maciocia. The upper part of the abdomen just below the xiphoid process clearly corresponds . he describes stagnation of liver q` as being reflected ı in a feeling of distension and stuffiness of the ‘hypochondrium’. and is difficult to relate to Chinese concepts. Epigastrium as an anatomical area corresponds to the greater abdomen of Chinese medicine. upper part of the abdomen just before the xiphoid process. A small part of the greater abdomen immediately a u below the breastbone is variously referred to as the [region] below the heart (6 duct (T w` i guˇ n). 1994) as an example of how a whole family of concepts is obscured in the translation process. An illustration shows the site of the affected region to be what is e o called the hypochondrium in Western medicine. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine as energy and " (e. If we wish to avoid using a transcription. Chinese medical information can also be lost for the TL reader by simple deliberate omission. then we are left with the choice of redefining an existing term that does not normally mean the same thing. which. and usually associated with q` pain. but the absence of a name means that he has to repeat his description whenever he wants to mention the area again.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms to 6 i x¯n xi` . small intestinal mounting q`. and foxy ı ı ı mounting.000 suggested by the ZD to the list of 56 that Maciocia claims to be complete. the inguen. however. The reader apparently gains clinical knowledge directly through the medium of a familiar vocabulary that he/she does not have to (and probably will not) think about. A notable example recently discussed (Felt. By rendering 6 i x¯n xi` as ı a upper part of the abdomen just below the xiphoid process. Nevertheless. There is no English word corresponding to ) xi´ . so that it can be referred to elsewhere without the definition having to be repeated each time. Terms for such conditions include ı mounting q`. we must define it and attach a name to it. or base of the abdominal cavity. but the region is described without being ı a given a name. b) Various diseases of . he offers a description. 2000a) is Deadman. In fact. from the 32. for example. The Chinese term a denotes diseases that are generically characterised by pain or swelling of the abdomen or scrotum. he uses two different English words flank and hypochondrium for the single ) xi´ . If it is by denying the LSP-status of terms wherever they can be loosely rephrased in familiar language that the number of items to be considered as technical terms proper can be reduced. include the following: a) Conditions characterised by the protrusion e of the abdominal contents through the abdominal wall. or making up a new expression. as explained in the Jiˇ nm´ng Zh¯ ngy¯ C´diˇ n (“Concise Dictionary of a ı o ı ı a Chinese Medicine” 1979) and Practical English Dictionary of Chinese Medicine (Wiseman & F´ ng 1998a). the TL reader does not receive as much information as the SL reader. leaving the e intelligent reader to wonder if he means one area or two. Maciocia is obviously at pains not to confront his readers with any new concepts. small intestinal mounting q` pain. Insistence on the use of familiar expressions as far as possible creates the impression that Chinese medicine is conceptually more familiar than is in reality. In reality. but fails provide the Chinese definition. & Baker’s treatment of ` sh` n in A Manual of Acupuncture (1998). The Western medical correspondence is inguinal hernia. this convenience is achieved at the expense of transmitting Chinese medical concepts accurately. the [region] below the heart. Maciocia takes the first option. Al-Khafaji. then the loss for the TL reader incurred by this approach to translation may be considerable. and to convey the concept to the English e reader (the area from the armpit to bottom rib). a personal understanding replaces a common understanding. corresponding to hematoma of the testis. Failure to deal with groups of related terms as a whole is a common problem. proper qi. 655–656). Chinese medicine observes two kinds of large. a but offers no indication as to what specific conditions these treat. water mounta a ` shuˇ sh` n). but. sinew mounte a j¯n sh` n). bulging mounting ( ı a ` tu´ sh` n). and o y¯ ng. These conditions have been called cold mounting ( ing ( ing ( ` ` h´ n sh` n). ı a prominent mounting (a ` tu´ (ku´) sh` n). ı . not an accurate picture of Chinese medicine. The authors of the Manual provide a threefold definition of the term similar to the one given above. This differs from overt adaptations of the kind proposed by Beinfield & Korngold only by degree. The Manual not only deprives the readers of these.6. intestinal abscess (" u o l ch´ ng y¯ ng). o j¯ is not mentioned and set it in relation to u Target-oriented translation that takes the form of bleaching out Chinese medical concepts by familiar expression or of deliberate omission tends to impose a personal interpretation. c) Certain forms of acute abdominal pain associated with urinary and ı a fecal stoppage. The fact that different conditions have names that contain ` most likely reflects a failure earlier in the development of Chinese medicine to distinguish markedly different conditions. but fail to make any further distinctions. It therefore implies that ` sh` n is a generic term for a variety of conditions that despite differences can all be a treated effectively in the same way. q` mounting (+ ı a ı ` ` q` sh` n). blood mounting (2 ı ı a xu` sh` n). which it calls l y¯ ng o and j¯ . The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine the external genitals. In the analysis of different terminologies above. 1993: 467–470) contains the terms breast abscess ( l rˇ y¯ ng). vital-qi. body resistance. effectively redefines the concept of ` sh` n in such a a way as to eliminate the clinical significance of the threefold definition. but e o the notion of y¯ ng is not explained. Yet the later developments are potentially of clinical significance. Yet another way in which readers lose information is through the nonstandardisation of terms. orchitis. The Glossary of Technical Terms of Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia e Medica (Bensky & Gamble 1986. by not labelling the various different forms. and lung abscess (7 a o l f` i y¯ ng). traumatic injury of testis. right q`. we saw O + zh` ng q` e ı variously translated as ch’i orthopathicum. The reader gets only what the translator thinks is useful in Chinese medicine. which are referred to as welling-abscess and flat-abscess in PEDCM (Wiseman u & F´ ng 1998a). The Manual provides a lengthy list of acupuncture points which can be used to treat ` sh` n (pp. suppurating lesions. Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Quite obviously, the existence of different renderings in the works of different translators and writers makes things difficult for the reader. When terms are not standardised between works, the reader has difficulty establishing conceptual continuity. There is ample evidence of this. When different translators use one and the same target-language word to render two different source-language terms, confusion can arise. The following table shows how three different translators render the terms representing the seven affects. Note how worry crops up in two different places in the table. Table 9. Comparison of Renderings of Affect Terms Wiseman 1994 xˇ ı n` u y¯ u o s¯ ı b¯ i e kˇ ng o j¯ng ı joy anger anxiety thought sorrow fear fright Ch´ ng e 1987 joy anger melancholy worry grief fear fright Maciocia 1989 joy anger worry pensiveness sadness fear shock The word worry is paired with different Chinese terms by different translators. This does not necessarily mean that one translator is totally right or totally wrong in his choice. Worry is used in different senses in English, and could justifiably be used to render different Chinese words. The point to be made is that translators should be aware of the technical sense of a Chinese term and convey it to the reader through interpolations in the text, footnotes, or mention in a glossary of terms. Ideally, translators should agree on translation equivalents so that eventually interpolations, footnotes, and glossaries would largely be no longer necessary. The first step in this direction is for translators to realise that words, even very ordinary ones that one would not regard as ‘technical terms’, are often, in the medical context, systematically used in specific senses and with specific connotations (connotation, in the context of the terms denoting affects, meaning, for instance, the association with specific internal organs). The single-term pulse terms provide another example. The following table shows pulse names taken from six different sources. For each Chinese term, there are differences 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine pattern of agreement between two or more translators over the whole field. Taking the words at face value (as of course many readers do), it is possible to observe synonyms not only for different writers’ equivalents of a single Chinese term, but also among different writers’ equivalents for different terms. For example, thready in Ch´ ng means e stringlike in Unschuld and Wiseman means x`; while ı xi´ n. The foreign student reading multiple a authors might be confused by the existence of accelerated, rapid, hurried, and hasty, which in fact describe two distinct, faster-than-normal pulses (there are in fact others). Furthermore, the some of the terms are untraceable in some of the sources. Table 10. Renderings of Pulse Terms Chinese Porkert 1974 huˇ n a f´ u ch´ n e ch´ ı shu` o x¯ u sh´ ı hu´ a s` e h´ ng o x` ı xi´ n a jˇn ı c` u ji´ e d` i a r´ u ru` o w¯ i e k¯ u o d` a languidus superficialis mersus tardus celer inanis repletus lubricus asper exundans minutus chordalis intentus agitatus haesitans intermittens lenis invalidus evanescens cepacaulicus magnus Sivin 1987 moderate floating sunken retarded accelerated empty full smooth rough swollen small strung tense hurried hesitant intermittent soft weak subtle hollow large – – – Ch´ng e 1987 – superficial deep slow rapid deficiency excess rolling hesitant surging thready string-taut tense abrupt knotted regularly intermittent soft weak weak-floating weak minute – – soft weak feeble scallion-stalk large soggy weak faint scallion-stalk large Maciocia 1989 – floating deep slow rapid empty full slippery choppy – fine (thin) wiry – hasty knotted intermittent Unschuld 1994a relaxed at surface deep retarded accelerated depleted replete smooth rough vast fine stringlike tense hurried knotty intermittent Wiseman 1994 moderate floating sunken slow rapid vacuous replete slippery rough surging fine stringlike tight skipping bound intermittent It is quite easy to see how the conflation of concepts due to inappropriate word choices exacerbates the lack of terminological standardisation. Let us take the example of two similar pulse terms, 2 w´ l` and u ı ru` . A pulse that described as o 2 w´ l`, u ı 2 literally ‘having no force’, is not the same as a pulse described as qualities, are lacking in strength. The term being forceless is also sunken ( ru` , ‘weak’. o w´ l` is a descriptive term that can be applied to many pulses that, in addition to their other u ı ru` , ‘weak’, by contrast, in most Chinese o literature (possibly not, however, the earliest), specifically denotes a pulse that apart from ch´ n) and—according to some definitions—fine ( e x`). Although the Chinese terms appear to be synonymous, in reality they are not, since ı Translation of Chinese Medical Terms The challenge we face in the creation of an English terminology of Chinese medicine is to ensure conceptual distinctions made in the SL are upheld in the TL, and this can only be done satisfactorily when terminological distinctions in the SL are reflected in the TL. If the translator is unaware of the distinction between to it, then the reader might not grasp it. If translator A translates 2 w´ l` and u ı w´ l` and u ı ru` , o ru` o or if, though aware of it, fails to reflect it in translation and draw the reader’s attention 2 as ‘forceless’ and ‘weak’, respectively, but translator B translates both terms as ‘weak’, and translator C translates them both as ‘forceless’, the distinction will not get through to all readers. Of course, the reader who only reads translator A’s works will understand it clearly. But those who have learned the distinction in A and who try to apply their understanding of the distinction when reading B and C will have a distorted understanding of B and C. Again, students who read B and C without reading A will not have any notion of the distinction at all. They will be likely to think that ‘forceless’ and ‘weak’ mean roughly if not exactly the same thing. Unless all writers distinguish any distinction in name at all. The problems of translation proper arise over disagreement as to whether or not to take Western medical knowledge into account. They also arise from problems of literal synonymy in the specialised uses of terms. However, the lack of standardisation of Chinese medical terms lies not only in specific translation problems, but also in the fact that some literature is not translated. I suggest that the desire to mould Chinese medicine to conform to the tenets of complementary health-care creates a tendency toward adaptation and minimises the importance accorded to language and to gaining access to primary sources of information. This and the general lack of critical scrutiny applied in complementary health-care conjugate to minimise awareness of the problems of transmission and the benefits of standardisation. The advantages of a standardised, source-oriented TL terminology should now be quite clear. Source-orientation provides the greatest safeguard against translators’ imposing their own interpretation of concepts. Standardisation spares TL readers confusion, and helps them to build their understanding on a sound basis. Such a method of translation requires a greater effort from TL students because it introduces the Chinese conceptual framework in much greater detail. This is evidenced by the passage about yellow facial complexion taken from Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine (Wiseman, et al. 1985/1994) cited on page 199, which includes five footnotes explaining terms used in the passage. 2 w´ l` and u ı ru` with the same consistently used English terms, they might as well not bother making o 6. The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine in this passage are accessible in a dictionary (as three of the four came to be in the 1998 PEDCM), the TL student does not need to wrangle with the possible meanings of words intended by any author. For the student or teacher who is proficient in Chinese and familiar with Chinese-language literature (the person who naturally tends to shun translated literature), any text translated in this way is instantly back-translatable and hence has a degree of authority closely approaching that of any primary text. There is great reluctance to consider the value of such an approach to the transmission of Chinese medicine because it implies that Chinese medicine is not a simple handson healing method, but a knowledge corpus requiring academic study. It also brings into sharp focus the fact that Chinese medicine can ultimately only be transmitted by the vehicle of language. It would also require a level of cooperation and discipline of which the Chinese medical community of the English-speaking world has so far not shown itself capable. CHAPTER 7 PROPOSED METHODOLOGY OF TERM TRANSLATION The reasons for source-oriented translation can be summed up as follows: the speculative nature of concepts, the lack of integration of knowledge, and the descriptive rather than denominative nature of metaphor, in addition to the arguments that have been found to hold in the translation of Western medical terms into Chinese, namely the practical advantage of TL equivalents that look like the SL terms. The present chapter describes in detail the proposed methodology for the translation of Chinese medical terms. In its precise detail, the proposed methodology is designed exclusively for the source-oriented English translation of Chinese medical terms. Although I have shown precedents for source-oriented translation, the detail of the methodology does not claim any validity beyond the confines of LSP terminologies such as that of Chinese medicine that lack a modern scientific ideal of one truth for each phenomenon and one term for each concept. 7.1 LOANS (P¯NY¯N TRANSCRIPTION) VERSUS ı ı LOAN-TRANSLATIONS Having established the validity of the principle of source-translation, we have to decide whether the main mode of translation is to be loan or loan-translation, that is, whether we are to follow a model similar to that of the English translation of Latin medical terms or the Chinese translation of Western medical terms (or something in between). The question resolves around how viable loans are. Borrowing from Chinese now takes the form of transcription. Words borrowed 7. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation h` n yˇ p¯n y¯n) adopted officially by the PRC government in 1958, and throughout the a u ı ı world by 1979. P¯ny¯n transcription has gradually replaced the Wade-Giles system, and ı ı is now even being used in T´ iw¯ n, the home of its staunchest opponents. a a I propose that transcription is not an option for the translation of a large mass of terms, for the following reasons: Firstly, as stated in Chapter 3, English has no tradition of intensive borrowing from Chinese (Pyles & Algeo 1993: 310). It has never systematically borrowed families of terms from any language other than Latin, possible exceptions being those of Vedism, Buddhism, and music scores from Sanskrit and Italian. Secondly, the Chinese language has no genealogical relationship with English, and for this reason P¯ny¯n words in themselves convey no meaning to English speakers. Thirdly, Chinese ı ı has many same-sounding words and words distinguished only by tone, a facet of Chinese pronunciation that cannot be easily transferred into English. For example, if the translator decided that / p´, ‘spleen’, ı pˇ, ‘glomus’ and ı p`, ‘afflux’, should best be repreı sented in P¯ny¯n transcription, he/she would introduce the confusion of homophony, since ı ı the tonal difference does not exist for English speakers. Fourthly, P¯ny¯n transcription is ı ı ineffectual when used for the translation of stative and active verbs (and nouns derived from them). It is generally recognised that words of these classes are less easily borrowed in any language (Trask 1996: 314; Lass 1997: 190). They are by nature descriptive and need to be translated with self-explanatory descriptive vocabulary. For instance, it seems almost unimaginable that English speakers would ever get into the habit of saying ‘bˇ the u centre and y` the q`’ or that a facial complexion is ‘white or q¯ng’. ı ı ı In Chinese medicine, LSP-bound terms are numerous, and texts are often densely packed with them. If all LSP-bound terms were translated by P¯ny¯n, the result would be ı ı texts such as the following: B`ng zh` ng that arise when xi´ q` is exuberant and zh` ng q` is not debilitated ı e e ı e ı (e.g., w` i gˇ n, t´ n yˇn, xu` y¯ , sh´ zh`, and h´ n j¯ b`ng zh` ng) are treated by methods a a a ı e u ı ı a ı ı e that remove the xi´ q` such as jiˇ biˇ o, q¯ t´ n, hu´ xu` hu` y¯ , ruˇ n y`ng, xi` xi` , e ı e a u a o e a u a ı e a and xi¯ o dˇ o. a a In translation practice, P¯ny¯n transcriptions are used for the channel names and ı ı certain acupuncture point groupings, for drugs, and for physiological entities (jing, qi, shen). The use of P¯ny¯n in these areas is by no means a last resort, and is probably due to ı ı the the influence of Chinese teachers, or due to the prestige value attached to a handful of known Chinese words. In any given text, the number of concepts labelled only in P¯ny¯n ı ı Translation of Chinese Medical Terms translation practice, P¯ny¯n is supplied parenthetically in addition to a translation for key ı ı terms and the names of medicinals, formulas, and acupuncture points as the following examples show: 415. Radix Glycyrrhizae (g¯ n cˇ o) a a 416. HT-7 (sh´ n m´ n, Spirit Gate) e e 417. Perfect Major Supplementation Paste (sh´ qu´ n d` bˇ g¯ o) ı a a u a Some transcriptions are well established. No translator nowadays would consider any rendering other than transcription for the culture-bound terms y¯n and y´ ng. It is ı a useful to consider why this is so. The Chinese < and = originally denoted dark and light topographical slopes, respectively. Y¯n was the north side of a mountain or the ı north-facing, i.e., southern, bank of a river; y´ ng was the south side of a mountain or a the south-facing, i.e., northern, bank of a river. English does not have words specifically denoting slopes in relation to the sun’s rays. When used symbolically in the philosophical doctrine of y¯n and y´ ng, the original sense of the terms has been virtually lost, probably ı a because slopes are not typical examples of things classified by the system (dark/light, male/female, high/low). Thus, in their philosophical usage, they are perceived primarily as category names, which, once again, have no obvious correspondence in English. Any typical examples such as ‘dark’ and ‘light’ that might be considered to stand as generics might would be confusingly polysemous. The attempt to translate the terms y¯n and y´ ng ı a has been made, notably by Andreas Cleyer in his De pulsibus libri quattuor e sinico translati published in 1682, in which the two terms appear in Latin as humidus, ‘damp’, and calor, ‘heat’. Needless to say, the contexts in which these renderings would make sense are limited. Similarly, any translation of the word + q` is problematic because of the wide ı gamut of phenomena the term denotes (see 5). The Chinese word entered English in transcription long ago, and it would appear almost senseless to attempt to assert any translation into our own lexis. Nevertheless, there have been continuing attempts to enable energy, and in French souffles, to represent the Chinese concept. Unschuld (1985: 126) has suggested finest matter influences as a paraphrase. Harper (1998: 77) has suggested vapor. Most other Chinese concepts can be expressed in English, and so do not have to be transcribed. The common use of P¯nyin for concepts such as ı sh´ n, e j¯ng, and ı w` i e seems to arise from the prestige value of the Chinese words rather than out of a lack of corresponding terms in English. The most useful application of transcription is to provide 7. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation medicinals and acupuncture points. When this practice is systematically adopted for the names of acupuncture points, medicinals, and formulas, people who do know the Chinese names are greatly benefited. Nevertheless, this does not obviate the need for translation. In the old Wade-Giles system, the four tones of Mandarin were not usually marked. Until recently, Westerners mostly learned Chinese to gain access to China’s philosophical and literary heritage, not as a means of verbal communication. Tones were considered a complexity of the spoken language that could be ignored. Over recent decades, increasing numbers of Westerners have learned Chinese for practical, real-world purposes. P¯ny¯n ı ı transcription, which is now replacing Wade-Giles, has tone marks as an integral part. For the benefit of the increasing numbers of students learning Chinese, tone marks should preferably be included in P¯ny¯n, whether it is used to represent or give the pronunciation ı ı for Chinese characters or as a borrowed word in English. The now widespread availability of computer typesetting software allows the insertion of accents (and indeed Chinese characters) much more easily. It is, incidentally, because of the West’s growing interest in the Chinese language that in this and other texts I have adopted the practice of writing P¯ny¯n loans with their Chinese accents. ı ı It will be recalled that a translation approach based essentially on loan-translations rather than loans was identified in the Western medical terminology of German and Chinese in Chapter 3, and has also been identified as being the preferred method of terminological translation in general (Sager 1998a). 7.2 PRINCIPLES The approach proposed for the translation of Chinese medical terms is source- oriented. It takes semantic translation, that is, LGP equivalence and loan-translation as its basis, and allows for deviations from this principle under certain circumstances. These principles have been applied in creation of the proposed terminology presented in Appendix IV. 1. Semantic translation: Each term is translated in such a way as to reflect the motivat- ing sense of its components outside the domain of Chinese medicine (usually the LGP), provided there is no incompatibility between the literal meaning of English term and the concept as understood within the framework of Chinese medicine. 2. Nonsemantic translation into English is used only where semantic translation fails to produce a satisfactory term. Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 3. Loans (in the form of transcription) is reserved for terms for which no satisfactory English equivalent is to be found. 4. Where different senses of SL words have to be translated with different TL words, the number of equivalents is kept to a minimum. 7.2.1 Motivating Sense and Semantic Translation The first principle of the translation scheme proposed in this study for the English translation of Chinese medical terms is that each term is translated in such a way as to reflect its motivating sense of its components outside the domain of Chinese medicine. This entails translating terms used in their LGP sense with LGP equivalents in the TL (e.g., translating e ˇ r as ear), and translating LGP words used in extended (notably metaphorxu` sh` as blood chamber). As explained in Chapter 3, LGP equive ı ical) senses by words of equivalent meaning in the LGP of the TL, i.e., by loan-translation (e.g., translating 2 alents and loan-translations may together be called semantic translations. Since P¯ny¯n ı ı is of limited use (7.1, Loans [P¯ny¯n Transcription] Versus Loan-Translations), semantic ı ı translation is procedurally the first option to be considered. As I explained in 3.1.4 (Loans and Loan-Translations), semantic translation differs from literal translation, which implies the rendering of words of equivalent literal meaning. Literal meaning is the core or primary meaning of a word as opposed to any extended meaning. It cannot, however, serve to represent a class of word meanings that would be useful in interlingual comparisons. Words are continually gaining new meanings and shedding older ones, and at any given point in time, may be used in multiple senses. In the historical development of languages, earlier and later meanings can be traced, as is done in dictionaries based on historical principles. In this diachronic context, literal meaning also includes etymological meaning, i.e., past meaning, which is often inextricably bound up with present meaning (e.g., will as the future marker being interrelated with will in the sense ‘want’ or ‘desire’). The distinction between core and extended meaning is not easily drawn. If we take literal translation to be translation of words ‘out of context’, it has, as Newmark (1988: 46) has suggested, little practical value in the discussion of translation choices. Words do not necessarily have one literal meaning only, and any given meaning may have multiple partial equivalents in another language. Any methodology of translation based on the notion of translating the literal meaning of words irrespective of context would be too unspecific. No such methodology would determine, for instance, how a translator of a German text should deal with the word Bein, whose . and ‘responsibility’. sublingual i sh´ xi` . ‘to perform a buck’. one of these senses of the word has to be identified. subinflammation = u a o u q¯ng y´ n). The motivating sense is usually an LGP sense of a word. or ‘to have diarrhoea’. We can say that the choice of the word ‘drain’ is the motivating sense. The difference between literal equivalence and semantic equivalence is seen most clearly in compounds. xi` . hence . These ı a specific senses have to be identified before the term can be translated. ‘vaulting horse’. ‘to drain’. In the translation of Chinese medical terminology. and the TL equivalent of the word used in the motivating sense is called a semantic equivalent. ı o When we investigate the use of the word in the acupuncture context (see 6. der Hund nagt an einem Bein.. Because no language other than English is likely to have a single word that has precisely the same range of meanings as buck. When the word is used to describe a particular acupuncture stimulus that affects the flow of q` in the channels ı and network vessels (: j¯ng lu` ). The sense in which a word or morpheme is used in a technical sense is here referred to as the motivating sense. subculture e a k c` p´ i yˇ ng j¯ n. ‘vertical jump performed by a buck’. the two translate ‘literally’ into French as une merle and un oiseau noir. we can return to a term discussed in 6.7. the relevant sense in the given context has to be identified before the word can be translated. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation meaning as its English cognate bone (e. A blackbird is not the same as a black bird. For a good example of a polysemous word. ‘a dollar’.2. it has the transitive meaning required). sub. such as ‘to e flow (swiftly)’. In Western medicine. Mann’s Terminology). ‘a low-ranking member of the military’. we encounter all of these problems. Many words can be used in many senses.1. subluxation 0 ı e b` qu´ n tu¯ ji` .1 (Mann’s Terminology). In LSP. blackbird and merle are semantically equivalent. The exact u chronical relationship of the two meanings is unclear. The word buck is used in the sense of ‘male animal’. Schl¨ sselbein). ‘to rush down’. words are used in different senses in different domains such as transmission in the domain of radio and TV and car mechanics. and the correct sense has to be identified before the word can be translated. Brustbein.g. and in medicine Schambein. indications as to which sense applies are provided by the linguistic or extralinguistic context. and the intended meaning can only be discerned from the context.2.g. Nevertheless. we find that ‘to drain’ appears to be the relevant meaning (notably. subexcite < ı e a u yˇ a x¯ng f` n. The Chinese word has other meanings. but it can in some cases xi` in the e acupuncture context was motivated by its use in the LGP in the sense of ‘to drain’. In most cases.appears in Chinese as several different words (e. but blackbird has a literal meaning not shared by merle. etwas f¨ hrt jea mandem in die Beine. Paul Unschuld believes that these entities were conceptualised in moral terms. it ceases to constitute the motivating sense. dee noting the health-maintaining forces of the body and health-destructive forces from outside or arising within the body. When a metaphor dies. lit. ‘(paddy) field chicken’ or a ı frog’. the motivating sense of z` ng in its LSP usage is a highly specific usage of the a word in the LGP (or LSP of agricultural economics). ‘frog’ is the sense that motivates the appearance of just as well have been shuˇ j¯ in the symptom description. Semantic translation reflects in the TL the motivating sense of the lexical item(s) comprising each term. lit. According to Unschuld. o o o ı ı e respectively. which originally meant to wear and was u used in connection with evil-repelling talismans or amulets. and reflects this in his choice of orthopathy and heteropathy. Sivin’s renderings. on the other hand. but introduce difficult and highly ambiguous terms. He gives the example of f´ . Unschuld argues that only those etymological meanings that have no conceptualising significance can be ignored. a fully literal translation (‘water chickens’) is not necessary—unless shuˇ j¯ were an obsolete expression whose reference were ı ı unknown. . which are other expressions denoting ‘frog’. which generally denotes a place where things are stored.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms come from another specialist realm. one category of internal organs is called z` ng. and hence that the translation of them should reflect this. was extended to mean the ingestion of medicine used for similar health-purposes (Unschuld 1989a: 104). In other words. The important thing is for the reader to know that the sound produced by the patient is similar to that of a chorus of frogs. Nathan Sivin (1987: 102). Even in a source-oriented method of translation. ‘green ı a ti´ n j¯. The two characters shuˇ and ı j¯ appear in the term ı h´ u zh¯ ng yˇ u shuˇ j¯ sh¯ ng not because they mean ‘water’ and ‘chicken’. a what those who first used the term had in mind was a collecting place for grain. It is true that the metaphors in question may have much less meaning for the modern student who has been brought up with Western medical conceptions than they traditionally had. The terms O zh` ng and e xi´ . especially where the literal translation preserves a metaphor that is easily understood by TL readers. have the literal meaning of ‘right’ and ‘evil’. believes that the terms have lost these meanings. it is wise to err on the side of etymologising translation. In other words. but the relevance of ancient literature even today calls for attention to be paid to historical fidelity. It could ı ı q¯ng w¯ . it might be noted in passing. combined. But for the sake of historical fidelity. they mean ‘frog’. which is not the case here. The degree to which the original meaning of a term should be reflected in translation is a point of disagreement among translators. but rather because. For example. not only eliminate the metaphor. Option (b) is a literal. of course. Knie. the text translator usually has at his/her disposal a relevant technical dictionary to supply the equivalences. a x¯). Hammer. Although shuˇ j¯ could theoretically be interpreted as ‘water [and] chicken’. by the use of quotes. terms are usually (unless the text is being rewritten rather than simply translated) as elements that have to be transferred. LGP equivalents appear in the same places as in German ( to add words ( t´ u. the unit of translation is of interest to us. Scheide. we found u patterns strikingly similar to those of German. it is apparent that LGP equivalents and some of the loan-translations are characterised by word-for-word translation (Kopf. In the Chinese translation of Western medical terms. Option (d) reflects the view that the wheezing is the equivalent of the whole Chinese phrase. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation 7. ‘water chicken’ as a single expression with some special meaning that could be made clear to the reader by the addition of a note. the ı ı Chinese reader knows that shuˇ j¯ is an expression meaning ‘frog’. Auge. In primary term translation (secondary term formation). h´ u zh¯ ng yˇ u shuˇ j¯ sh¯ ng could be translated o o o ı ı e at the level of individual components. u ı 4 h´ ng m´ . o o chu´ gˇ ). but is limited to the narrower scope of terms.7. and presents ı ı the semantic translation instead. the concern is not for text. Such a translation does not give the TL reader the same information as the Chinese terms gives the SL reader. as sound of frogs in the throat.2. although loan-translations show a greater tendency ı f` shuˇ. Speiche) and that some of the loan-translations and an exception is Dr¨ se). Option (c) ignores the literal meaning of shuˇ j¯. Taking up a previous example again. if . when equivalents are being worked out for the first time.2 Unit of Translation The unit of translation is the stretch of text on which the translator focuses atten- tion in order to represent it as a whole in the TL (Malmkjær 1998). and that the notion of frogs in the throat can be replaced in English with ‘wheezing’ (and. o $ independent formations contained more elements (Regen|bogen. In most modern domains. ı u Different possibilities are theoretically open for the translation of terms. Nevertheless. From the German translation of Latin terminology. In LSP-text translation. Hoden|sack. ı ı etymologising translation. Bauch|wasser|s yˇ n. or in larger units as follows: (a) sound of water [and] chicken in the throat (b) sound of ‘water chickens’ in the throat (c) sound of frogs in the throat (d) wheezing Option (a) is a literal translation of the individual components. that nevertheless marks. but unı ı acceptable if we were not sure. strangeness should be minimised by avoiding the introduction of new TL expressions where there are existing ones. but the losses and gains are not necessarily incalculable. In the present example. as the Chinese term indeed does for the SL reader too. which appears in the Western sky. ı ı There are times when we are clearly unsure of the meaning. it also denotes a mountain in China. Outside Chinese medicine. exclusively to wheezing. The whole-term translation provides the TL reader with a familiar term. On the one hand. but without self-explanatoriness (the term requires explanation. while windfire eye is a word-for-character translation. option (a) is discounted because it represents a misintepretation. and can fortify earth to engender metal (the phase to which the West corresponds). Option (c) preserves the motivating sense and historical fidelity. and to any kind of wheezing rather than a particular kind. The previous example of " # $ f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n can also be analyzed in terms of the e o a unit of translation. without etymologising translation. Wiseman. & Boss 1989: 102). and there is of course chance of confusion with ‘a frog in one’s throat’. The matter can only be decided by meaning. the introduction of “water chicken” is redundant. if we are sure that shuˇ j¯ means ‘frog’.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms xi¯ o and a xi´ y´ were also translated by the same word. the aim should be to provide the TL reader with information that is identical to that provided by the SL term. In source-oriented translation. hoarseness). while the word-for-character translation provides the reader . no one of these can be discounted on any formal grounds. In terminological translation. Both free and literal translation have their dangers. on the other. Acute conjunctivitis is an equivalent of the whole term. Option (b) would be acceptable if we were not sure that shuˇ j¯ referred to a ‘frog’. The nature of Chinese medical terminology generally requires us to be as literal as possible without introducing expressions that can be unequivocally replaced by an existing (usually LGP) expression in the target language. Option (d) would be acceptable when we were sure that the phrase referred to what in English is called wheezing. the Chinese name denotes the heavenly body known a a in modern astronomy as the planet Venus. Both these references may have influenced the choice of the acupuncture point name. Any semantic translation intended to support either of these two interpretations must be a literal word-for-character rendering. this point is the earth point of the spleen channel. there is no agreement among scholars as to why the third point on the spleen channel is called B t` i b´ i. the TL terminology would a a be relieved of redundant synonymy). it is located next to the mountain-like protrusion of the ball of the foot (Ellis. For example. For example. At the same time. a ı zˇ e. u a compounds that would create redundancies in English if word-for-character translation N yˇ n j¯ng. Notably there are many near-synonym a a y´ chˇ. so that the unit of translation in any given case is chosen to ensure maximum transfer of medical concepts and minimum burden of incidental complexities. nasal congestion. brew. u e sh¯ n tˇ. lodge. eye. u` m´ ng b`. urine. e ı j¯ zh`. water chicken is not. and the similarity is merely attributable to universal patterns of term formation. u a j¯ lu´ n. The source-oriented system of translation proposed here assumes that the reader wants to be fully informed about Chinese medical concepts (but not about the vagaries of the Chinese language). a u hu´ ng r´ n. There are many examples of Chinese compounds for which single-word English equivalents involve no loss of any literal meaning that motivates their usage in the Chinese medical context: O hu´ ng h¯ n. These can be treated as single elements in translation. accumulate. body. s b´ s¯ i. a ı y` n ji´ . While equivalence is often found at the level of multiple characters. ı ı r` n sh¯ n. skin. The term word-for-word translation suggests a definable unit that is the same in the TL as in the SL. and insufficiency is one word composed of a number of morphemes. teeth. but actually they are LGP equivalents. obstruct. ı u 4 chˇ t` ng. palate. premature ejaculation. e e tension. body. sundown. a ` xiˇ o bi` n. it is interesting to note that in the proposed methodology a large number of terms are translated ‘word for word’. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation importantly. deviated. e fire. is composed e ı of two characters but is arguably one word. a e d` z`. hypertonicity. " # $ f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n differs from e o a W h´ u zh¯ ng yˇ u shuˇ j¯ o o o ı ı sh¯ ng in that whereas each of its components are all Chinese medical concepts (wind. a e sh` ng e. ı o 0 xiˇ o bi` n b` j`n. toothache. sh¯ n tˇ. e ı ku¯ i xi´ . cloud. Both frog and acute conjunctivitis ignore the literal meanings of the SL terms in preference for existing TL conventions for naming the referent. an equivalence of form that barely exists. Certain equivalents that are chosen in the TL might suggest that they have been constructed on a word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme basis when in actual fact they have not: r` r` .7. The notion of word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme translation is more inclusive. dusk. pregnancy. The English equivalents here appear at first sight to be at least a ı partly loan-translations. inner canthus. a e p´ f¯ . blistering. In the examples presented below. iris. inflammation) that belong to a different knowledge corpus. ı u li´ li` n. and eye). a a were applied: $ f¯ p` o. each of the content words in the Chinese terms is a single character . while network is one word composed of two others. but acute conjunctivitis only does so by evoking concepts (conjunctiva. urinary a a u ı incontinence. ı a zˇ o xi` . has no implications about word order or word-class. It simply means ensuring that each major semantic element is represented in English. Nevertheless. & J ' f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n. q` of the channels and net|work vessels ı o ı ı ı ji¯ o gˇ . % 1028. In English translation. while net|work is considered as a single entity. inter|locking bones a u Word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme translation. 1032. oppression in the chest o e x¯n p´ j` x¯ . 1030. t W O p g¯ n xu` b` z´ . wind-fire eye e o a b¯ ng l` u. 1029. in|sufficiency of liver blood a e u u ch¯ ng m` i. very often using characters as single words. the overall pattern of word/morpheme-forword/morpheme translation is distinctly visible. p 1037.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms complex). In the examples below. 1036. thorough|fare vessel o a _ j¯ng lu` zh¯ q`. In Chapter 3. # g¯ n huˇ sh` ng y´ n means ‘liver fire flames upward’. leg q` surging into the heart a ı o ı ı p´ i tˇ sh¯ ng j¯n. As explained in Chapter 5. and the words not underlined are merely grammatical words such as conjunctions and prepositions such as and. since word order often has to be adjusted to make grammatical sense. 1031. the nominal form is more commonly required. in|sufficiency is treated as being composed of two parts. In some cases. as used in the present methodology. flooding and spotting e o jiˇ o q` ch¯ ng x¯n. tiger’s-whiskers clove-sore u u ı It should be emphasised that the correspondence is only rough. 1034. the word-classes are different in the TL than in the SL. in. of. 1033. The content words in both English and Chinese are underlined. 1027. but the whole phrase can a o a a also serve nominally as ‘liver fire flaming upward’ (or upward flaming of liver fire). The reason why a word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme translation is so often observed is because the terminology of Chinese medicine is largely classical in nature. causes of disease) are single characters. Many of the basic terms of Chinese medicine (such as organ names. . etc. I showed that the translation of Western medical terms was based on a similar character-for- . body parts. In some cases. bank up earth to engender metal e u e ı xi¯ ng m` n. dual vacuity of the heart and spleen ı ı u u hˇ x¯ d¯ng. the order of the content words in the translation does not follow that of the Chinese. a Chinese medical term can often serve both an active (verb + predicate) and a nominal function. For example. 1035. limp aching lumbus and legs a ı a a y¯ o tuˇ t` ng. a word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme approach assumes a slightly different dimension because. it is possible to achieve high accuracy in back-translation despite the variability of terms. 1049. lumbar and hip pain a a e o c S y¯ o ruˇ n w´ l`. 1052. disinhibit water and disperse food ı ı a ı q¯ng r` l` shuˇ. often represented by a single-character in compounds. 1045. In Chinese medicine. stiffness of the lumbar spine a ı a y¯ o jˇ t´ ng. aching lumbus and limp legs a a ı a y¯ o su¯ n zh¯ lˇ ng. pain in the lumbar spine a ı e y¯ o ku¯ n t´ ng t` ng. 7 1054. Symptom descriptions containing the word lumbus or lumbar 1038.7. 1046. 1057. with- . lack of strength in the lumbus and knees a ı a ı y¯ o x¯ ruˇ n ru` . disinhibit water and disperse swelling ı ı a o Y Y 1 By establishing terminological equivalence at the level of word/morpheme. aching pain of the lumbus and back a e a u y¯ o b` i t` ng. 1042. warm yang and disinhibit water e a ı ı l` shuˇ xi¯ o zhˇ ng. lumbar and back pain a a e o y¯ o su¯ n tuˇ ruˇ n. 1050. 1051. 1039. lumbar pain a o y¯ o tuˇ su¯ n ruˇ n. 1055. it is possible to replicate the Chinese terms in all or most of their variations of form and possible nuances of meaning. fortify the spleen and disinhibit water a ı ı ı l` shuˇ xi¯ o sh´. Y 1056. 1040. lumbar and back pain a e o y¯ o gˇ t` ng. pain in the lumbar spine a u o y¯ o jˇ qi` ng. S S v v y¯ o b` i su¯ n chˇ . lumbar and leg pain a ı o c y¯ o x¯ f´ l`. By holding to the principle that each morpheme of the SL term should as far as possible be reflected in the translation. the synonym/nonsynonym status of many terms is doubtful. as I showed in Chapter 5 (The Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology). 1044. 1048. limp lumbus a a u ı y¯ o su¯ n b` i t` ng. 1043. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation to independently by multi-character-words are nevertheless following a classical model. clear heat and disinhibit water ı e ı ı w¯ n y´ ng l` shuˇ. promote q` transformation and disinhibit water a ı ı ı ı ji` n p´ l` shuˇ. Y Y Y 1 water hu` q` l` shuˇ. limp lumbus and knees a ı a o Treatment action descriptions containing disinhibit 1053. aching lumbus and cold limbs a a ı e y¯ o t` ng. 1041. 1047. 1058. have often failed to preserve LSP meaning. in an apologetic zeal to convince a Western readership of the value of Chinese medicine.. for example. their LGP remains unchanged. Numerous examples are at hand. g¯ n. Two slightly different arguments can be adduced to support this claim. or at least write the English names with capitalised initial letters. we preserve for the TL user the relationship between lay and medical knowledge that traditionally existed in China. etc.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 7. do not share ı common referents with the English ‘heart’. a / p´. rather than solid morphological entities. and this becomes an LSP connotation of the term . g¯ n. By preserving the LGP equivalance in translation. as I suggested in 6. Approaches to Chinese Medical Term Translation. they are not accorded the same functions as they are in modern Western medicine. e To neither the lay Chinese or the lay Westerner do ‘wind’ and ‘liver’ have any special association that they have in Chinese medicine. I shall refer to all these approaches generically as semantically deviant even though in the case of upper-case initials the deviation (or deviance) is only minor. Despite the differences in connotation. Although LSP terms gain certain conceptual connotations when they enter LSP. It is worthwhile dwelling on this question because. g¯ n. Many words used in Chinese medicine are used in the same referential meaning as in the LGP. between the liver and eye.2. ı .3 Preserving LGP Equivalence The motivating sense is usually an LGP sense. and preferred P¯ny¯n ı ı transcriptions to represent them. The other is that. a " f¯ ng shares with the English wind a common physical referent. or orbs of function. Similarly. and this has to be preserved as far as possible in the TL if the integrity of the conceptual edifice of Chinese medicine is to be preserved for the TL reader. and ‘spleen’. but to the Chinese physician. Some translators believe that the terms 6 x¯n. The layman’s knowledge goes little further. ‘liver’.2. even if the organs spoken of in Chinese medicine are morphological entities. or refer to them as orbs (or Latin orbes). but in some cases it is an LSP B meaning (as in the previous example of t` i b´ i). . One is that these organs represent spheres. the referents are the same. translators and writers both East and West. ‘liver’. there is a special connection. denotes a an organ of the human body that to the layman is recognisable by a specific shape and colour (most people are actually more familiar with the liver of animals). Preservation of LSP meaning is a a particularly important for preserving the cognitive structure of Chinese medical knowledge for the TL reader. The Chinese . heart. it is easy to see how the rejection of . not a matter of identifying them. and distort the original Chinese conception. ‘tongue’. ‘flesh’. Chinese medicine regards the bone as relating to the kidney in a special way that is not recognised in Western medicine. or capitalised ı ı semantic translations) effectively reformulate traditional Chinese concepts simply to accommodate the modern medical understanding. The translator who proposes a semantically deviant translation for organs understood to have functions or relationships to other parts of the body not accorded them in Western medicine should. If this principle of translation were applied generally. or ‘spleen’. likewise use semantically deviant translation for those body parts. the result would be semantically deviant translations of high-frequency body part names like ‘eye’. and kidney) are understood to dominate certain parts of the body and certain physiological functions. when the translation of Western medical terminology into Chinese began. / p´. e e Chinese medicine does accord functions to the internal organs that differ from those that Western medicine accords them. Early medical writers identified the physical organs by their LGP names. Statements in traditional Chinese medical literature support the notion of orbs of function insofar as five of the internal organs (liver. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation mental to the development of deterministic medicine in China was the notion that disease was not to be explained through the pernicious activity of demons and ancestral spirits but through natural causes that followed certain laws. ‘mouth’. there was no discussion about what Chinese words were to be used to translate the ‘heart’. ‘nose’. The semantically deviant translations (P¯ny¯n transcription. and ^ sh` n denoted orbs independent of any morphological organs. Ultimately. Since. for the sake of consistency. lung. Latin. According to this notion. the organs of the body each perform certain functions. spleen. ‘liver’. g¯ n. for example. this is a matter of understanding how the organs work. and gave descriptions of them that confirm for us that these are the same organs as those known by the same names in modern anatomy. ı a ı 7 f` i. and therefore translate 4 gˇ as u ‘Gu’ (or ‘Bone’). Taken to this extreme. and failure to do so results in illness. Moreover. since its original authors did not have the technology to detect the microscopic structures and understand the biochemical reactions upon which the modern understanding of the organs is based. This is not surprising. Nevertheless. No later writers ever stated that the terms in question did not refer to physical organs. etc. Yet this is not to say that the terms 6 x¯n. . they merely serve to assert the Western medicine understanding of the body as the true understanding. These organs are likened to ‘officials’ who ‘govern’ activities and domains of the body.7. the translator in question would have to admit that the bone of which Chinese medicine speaks is not the bone of which Western medicine speaks. If concern about the inexactness of conceptual correspondences between Chinese LGP terms and their equivalents in English were taken to it limits. If any term other than the LGP equivalent is chosen. One writer (Liang J-X 1995) has suggested that " f¯ ng should be transcribed as Feng. or that it is accorded functions in Chinese medicine that are not accorded it (in the LGP. The soundest thing we know about 2 xu` is that its physical referent in the LGP is the red fluid we in e English call blood and that there is abundant evidence (e. environmental entities are not. Western medicine has no theories about the nature of the disease-causing effect of ‘wind’ that are actively in conflict with those of Chinese medicine since it does not consider ‘wind’ to be a cause of disease at all. blood-letting) to show that Chinese physicians have always understood this word in this sense. The prime motivation for deviated translation is the urge to .. The LGP meaning is the motivating sense for the use of the word 2 xu` in the medical context. Precisely what constitutes this ‘difference’ is not clearly stated by the proponents of transcription. its movement around the body.g. e The Chinese and the English terms have identical referents. whatever connotations they may have added to the word through observation of and speculation about the behavior of this fluid. and is therefore the only solid basis for translation. or less than the red e fluid that issues from wounds. and indeed traditional Chinese medical descriptions of the formation of blood. A striking example of avoiding the obvious LGP equivalent is seen in the transcription of 2 xu` . which denotes the red bodily fluid that in English is known as blood. or in modern medicine). e The reason why there is a greater tendency to rename the internal organs but translate " f¯ ng literally as wind would appear to lie in the fact that while the organs are the locus of e a clash of understanding between East and West. and the detail concerning its nutritive function are not entirely unequivocal. more than. but his plea does not seem to have been heard. and share at least one fundamental connotation in the LGP usage: blood is vital to human (and animal) life. The LGP e sense of words reflects the common knowledge that provides the basis for reception of technical knowledge. The decision of Porkert and others to render the Chinese term as hs¨ eh (or xu` ) is apparently u e based on the idea that 2 xu` denotes something other than.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms ordinary everyday equivalents of Chinese words (for misguided technical reasons) may cause the English-speaking reader to entirely lose sight of elements of reality familiar to both Westerners and Chinese. then we might have expected a stronger voice than there has been for the translation of environmental entities such as ‘wind’ to not be translated literally. the reference to common knowledge is destroyed. Writing Liver instead of liver might almost suggest for those acquainted with the opening lines of Lˇ o Zˇ that “the a ı liver that can be spoken of [in scientific terms] is not eternal Liver. the tendency to choose classical terminology even where a vernacular expression may exist has increasingly reflected the attitude that the medical understanding of any thing or phenomenon related to the human body is very much divorced from any lay conceptions. no such division between lay understanding and expert understanding was ever reflected in linguistic usage. in trying to make semantic translation the same to modern Western readers.7. given the tendency in complementary health to see Chinese medicine rooted in some exotic Oriental mystery. Yet this difference of understanding is not sufficient to warrant any choice other than cold and heat in Chinese medical term translation. Nevertheless. for e example. each as real as ı a the other (Grinnell. But it does so by sacrificing all-important LGP equivalence. personal communication 1996). or 6 x¯n as Xin (or Heart). it is potentially quite evocative. which reflect the historical dimension of Chinese medical knowledge. In our modern Western e understanding. conversancy with them is the mark of a physician who has a good command of medical literature. In Western medicine. The practice of writing English organ names with uppercase initials would seem. we have to point out the speculative nature of Chinese concepts. the two concepts are understood in terms of the y¯n-y´ ng doctrine as complementary opposites. The terminology of Chinese medicine abounds in archaisms. e u e e ı we misrepresent the relationship that existed in China between lay and expert knowledge. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation adapt Chinese medicine to the Western medical framework. Very many universal concepts are not fully universal in that they bear the mark of their culture or some technical conception. " f¯ ng as Feng. to be insignificant. In Chinese medicine. In Chinese medicine.” The choice between a familiar and an unfamiliar label for a familiar concept may reflect a major difference of attitude to the subject matter. The practical cognitive consequences of different ways of translating terms seem partly to lie in the elusive realm of connotation. it could even be argued that in their LGP English usage cold and heat have connotations similar to those of h´ n and a r` in Chinese medicine (cold. The point is that if we represent 2 xu` by hs¨ eh (or xu` ). but this is not to say that the words h´ n and a r` mean exactly the same as cold and heat. Yet unfamiliar linguistic expressions did not traditionally mark different perceptions of basic entities. Nevertheless. is often said to ‘get into one’s bones’). the Chinese medical understanding of health . ‘cold’ is the absence of ‘heat’. We find the notions of ‘heat’ and ‘cold’ in both China and the West (as probably anywhere else too). In fact. on the surface of things. Even in circles that enthusiastically support Chinese medicine. blood chamber. By comparison. as well as to equivalents such as vacuity instead of deficiency. Again. as all languages. life gate. f` (Appendix IV. *a patient’s hide and *skin of a tree are unnatural expressions. and the bark of a tree. but it nevertheless has to be kept to a minimum (see 7. e a b s¯ n ji¯ o. and bark is reflected in the fact that these words appear in different subdomains: skin occurs in the physiological and pathological realm. hide. hide. map the world and human experience in p´. The power of the modern medical model explains all attempts to redefine Chinese medical concepts toward senses that require representation by non-LGP equivalents.7. Choices have to be made carefully. 7. bark (see Appendix IV. difficult delivery as opposed to *post delivery and *difficult partum).Translation of Chinese Medical Terms and disease does not eclipse Western medical knowledge. and for this reason they should be semantically translated.3. This having been said. partum. the use of an unfamiliar or so-called ‘difficult word’ in preference for a more familiar one can act as a warning to the TL reader that he/she may not be acquainted with the concept denoted by it.2. and : e ı channels and network [vessels]. ı o m`ng m´ n. ı different ways. if the translator chooses anything but semantic translation he or she may replace the information provided by the name with the product of his or her own speculation. while skin of an ox is acceptable but by no means the rule. We have seen the consequences of this in Chapter 6 (The Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine). @ xu` hˇ i. Minimising Polyequivalence). and a ı B s¯ ng b´ i p´. term 142) u corresponds to abdomen (of a human patient) and to belly (of an animal). 2 ı e xu` sh`. Metaphorical terms the existence or nature of whose referents are not clear may provide clues for discussion of the concepts they represent. Similarly.4 Polyequivalence and Preservation of Conceptual Unity Chinese and English. For terms such as 2 triple burner. delivery. The English words have a specificity that is reflected in distinct collocations: a patient’s skin. a birth. elephant’s hide. chˇ n (term 140) has several equivalents in English (in the medical context). the hide of an ox. This applies to terms like wind-fire eye. Illustrative of this is skin.g. In translation. presentation. postpartum. term 146). polyequivalence is unavoidable. hide and bark appear in pharmacy (as in the names of animal and vegetable products such as J xi` ng p´. a a j¯ng lu` . the English distinction between skin. In terminological translation. sea of blood. which has three correspondences in English.. where belly in the medical context would be out of place since it expressively marks voluminousness. a a ı . whose choice is collocationally determined (e. The words < y¯n and = y´ ng are used in many senses in ı a Chinese medicine. so the context does not disambiguate the term. There is no conceptual unity between o ı a chˇ n. ‘yellow kernel’. The polyequivalence frequently observed in LGP terms becomes problematic when LGP terms enter the LSP domain and take on new connotations. 2 as ‘uterus’. but they are usually always systematically transcribed. i. a number of speculative concepts have been interpreted in different ways. As we saw in Chapter 5 (Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology). but in Chinese medicine hu´ ng includes not only colours we call a problems because the concept of giving birth is familiar and unique enough not to have iris). and any interpretation should be reserved for commentary. it might be quite appropriate to use different words in different hu´ ng is one of five basic colours that are each asa sociated with one of the five phases. pine-bark lichen). blood chamber is variously interpreted e ı ch¯ ng m` i).. hu´ ng and a q¯ng. or ‘liver’. the chosen rendering would only be valid when translating texts by writers known to hold to this particular interpretation. This association may disintegrate if different words are used in English. Nevertheless. The Chinese ‘yellow’. . Any one of these could o a serve as a rendering in texts only where this is known to be the intended meaning. While the concept of giving birth is not lost when referring to it by different expressions. and s¯ ng p´ xiˇ n. and provides no grounds for choosing any one of the specific interpretations. This problem arises in the translation of colours in Chinese medicine. As to the polyequivalence of to be consistently named with the same expression. this too poses no a these different domains whose preservation for the TL reader might be jeopardised by the use of different English words. In LGP translation. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation lichen. Quite often a Chinese writer provides no indication of which interpretation he holds to. there are some uses of terms that we might consider exempt from the need to preserve conceptual unity. the notion of the colour associated with the phase earth is lost if hu´ ng is translated by any term other than one used to denote the colour associated with a earth (universally yellow) (see Wiseman 1995b: 52–53). In the context of polyequivalence. have wider meaning than any ı hu´ ng r´ n. For example.e. we should mention the problem arising in the translation of terms that have been differently defined by medical scholars in China. The solution applicable to all texts is a semantic translation.7. Finally. At least two of the colour words found in Chinese medical texts. the a e corresponding English words. ‘thoroughfare vessel’ ( w xu` sh`. but also ones we call ‘brown’ (as in contexts. While the translator might be tempted to base his or her rendering of the term on one of these interpretations. marrow Numerous examples of terms such as those listed above are given in 5. 1071. heel e zhˇ. etc.3. are clearly circumscribed). ankle a g¯ n. spittle 1078.1 Nouns bodily substances are an important part of the technical vocabulary. urine a u 1069. 1062. is translated as glans penis. 1065. dampness ı a 1081. = xi´ n. 1068. lit. ‘y¯n eggs’ (testicles). T suˇ. 1063. Nouns Used in LGP Sense 1059. the list of LGP terms goes beyond this to include the names of environmental entities (wind. gallbladder a w` i. The ı o ı same is true of < y¯n luˇ n. Most of them are universal insofar as we might expect all languages to have words denoting these concepts (the body parts. $ tu` . the words representing them in both languages are frequently used LGP words. lit. mouth o gˇ . I shall now discuss the way in which each of the methods of translation are applied in the practice of translating Chinese medical terms.1 Translating Words Used in LGP Sense In Chinese medicine.1. The concepts they represent are common to English and Chinese. ‘y¯n head’. 1064. sh¯. which are viewed as common causes of disease. in most cases. and < ı a ı lit. ‘y¯n shrinkage’ (retracted genitals). . tears e a 1076. and understood the importance of preserving LGP equivalence in preserving the known. eye u kˇ u. lit. cold. 1073. bone u 1067. 1066.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms y¯n t´ u.3. 1072. 7. wind 1080. < ı a ı y¯n chu¯. and 7. dryness u 1082. as in Western medicine. 7. buttocks 1070.1. nose ı m` .). ‘vaginal flatuı ı y¯n su¯ . ni` o. chest o 1075. ' z` o.3 PRACTICE Having investigated the theoretical issues involved in preserving meaning. organs. ‘y¯n itch’ (pudendal itch). < y¯n yˇ ng. 1061. leg ı hu´ i. drool o 1077. ji¯ n. names for body parts. X t´ n.2. ı as the Mˇ -W´ ng-Du¯ texts reveal. 1060. It should however be noted that earlier in history. g¯ n. tuˇ. " l` i. liver a dˇ n. head o b´. finger ı e 1079. the y¯n-nature was of great significance in hygienic a a ı ı practices (Harper 1998: 122).1 (Zero Referential Change/Connotative Enlargement). stomach e t´ u. lit. shoulder a xi¯ ng. In Chinese medicine. ı o lence’ (flatus vaginalis). no medical information is lost. ( d´ . dampness. toxin ı 1074. % f¯ ng. j´.1. General descriptive vocabulary. drink ı Speed 1100. These problems will be dealt with e o 1099. strong a . the classical 5 m` . black Flavours a 1086. sweet a 1087. These diachronic variations are u u of no concern to the term translator. as it were. Here I take the view that archaism is a nonconceptual connotation and that it therefore does not have to be transferred. ch`.2 Verbs (stative and active) In Chapter 5 (ss:semanticchange. this is usually only accepted where the author of the SL text deliberately includes archaisms of his own time. 4 k´ . cough e 1093. long a m´ o and a fˇ . Verbs used in LGP Sense Colours ı 1083. there are numerous LGP words in Chinese that do not have exact LGP equivalents in English (such as further ahead. at least in certain contexts. Size 1096. eat ı yˇn. thick e 1085. Nevertheless. sour a e 1092.7. The monosyllabic classical forms 4 b´. H j´. 1095. frequent Strength 1103. racing o 1102. green-blue 1084. 9 kˇ . Nowadays. red ı 1089. su¯ n. swelling o ı 1101. and ) xi´ . thirst 1094. small a t` ng. is often replaced by $ m` zh¯ . C xi´ n. frozen in Chinese medical usage. 8 h` u. Besides universal concepts. which has no equivalent). G shu` . pain o zhˇ ng. ı + x¯ as knee. 1091. In literary translation. zuˇ ba do not normally appear. often appears in LSP terms and descriptions. Semantic Change). sh´. are the standard. or rather. rapid. but remain. A g¯ n. sleep ı 1090. qi´ ng. as they were used at the time of their first appearance in medical terminology. which are both called a hair in English. xiˇ o. rapid ı 1098. ı e ˇ r duo. @ h¯ i. salty 1088. 7.3. 1 shu`. though in itself not necessarily denoting LSP concepts. I discussed general descriptive vocabulary. the modern forms 4 o yˇ n j¯ng or 5 a ı n b´ zi. ı u N ‘eye’. in medical texts. ch´ ng. ? q¯ng. some have applied the practice of reproducing archaic styles in the TL. essentially because ı e ˇ r. Many classical expressions used in Chinese medicine have since changed or been replaced in the LGP. All the Chinese words in the above examples are used in Chinese medicine in the same sense as they are used in the ordinary language. kˇ u. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation All translators instinctively translate 4 b´ as nose and ı in both cases there is no other choice. sh¯ ng. u t¯ ng. P hu´. surge o desiccated a 1143. withered. return 1147. agitated racing pulse a a ı ni` o shˇ o. and the terminology of therapeutic action. thick (viso Position. increase e Cleanliness/Dirtiness 1115. eliminate u zh` . up(ward) 1127. stem u ı 1131. sh¯ ng. cumbersome u Loss Tactile Qualities ı 1109. [the] throat [is] sore. particularly in diagnostic descriptions. u n`. 1141. free 1129. front a 1125. 1154. sore throat a o H m` i z` o j´. assist. move u li´ . 1130. reverse 1139. secure. j´. [the] eyes [are] red. resolve e Ease/Difficulty 1117. issue u Enhancement 1142. xi` . ch´ . fall a 1107. 1134. fullness a 1120. scant urine a a Methods of Treatment . y´. dry a 1108. clear ı ı 1146. soft a y`ng. withereda e e a yellow facial complexion 1152. fatigued a lˇ n. [the] facial complexion [is] withered-yellow. drain e xu¯ n. grimy o q¯ng. [the] pulse is agitated [and] racing. -ward) a 1126. ascend 1137. dispel The above words appear in numerous terms. 1112. y` n. 1145. C 6 mi` n s` wˇ i hu´ ng. xi` n. rough. anterior. : mˇ n. ch¯ ng. engender e z¯ ng. u e 1138. f´ n. o k¯ . tense ı c¯ . slimy 1110. = q¯ . Freeing o 1128. 1118. coarse u ruˇ n. dry a Subjective Feelings 1119. hard ı ch´ u. r` n. ' z` o. Removal 1149. 1113. 1153. supplement u 1140. p ju´ . P w` i. W 1156. flow u u 1150. lazy a k` n. Y l`. 1116. 1155. disinhibit 1132. disease pattern names. thick slimy tongue fur e a o ı m` ch`. as the following examples show: Signs 1151. 1123. cous) 1114. out (-er. 1106. red eyes u ı y¯ n t` ng. jiˇ . < yˇ ng. easy ı n´ n. 1121. [the] tongue fur [is] thick [and] slimy. reinforce u g` . desert o 1135. 1111. bˇ . y`. ] sh` ng. lose ı tu¯ . dry. nourish 1144. 9 qi´ n. 1148. moist u g¯ n. g` u. 1122. diffuse a ch¯ . ! 7 8 u sh´ t¯ i h` u n`.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Wetness/Dryness 1105. ] sh` ng. upbear e a 1136. urine [is] scant. Direction a 1124. vexation a ju` n. difficult a Movement 1133. surging pulse. medial. bland a 1162. 1171. flood. For instance. { 1163. { d` n h´ ng. bland taste in the mouth o a % f` n. pale red a o kˇ u d` n. u % nuˇ n w` i. right e 1170. 1169. expressions comprising a body part and single verb more easily assume nominal status than multi-verb phrases. r h´ b`ng. the distinction is further highlighted by the use of the classical 5 m` as opposed to u a the modern $ yˇ n for ‘eye’. 5 m` ch`. rumbling ı 1168. ringing. ringing in the ears (tinnitus) ˇ ı ch´ ng m´ng. p zh` ng j¯ng. = 1161. o a A further characteristic of general descriptive words is that they often have multi- ple senses that have to be rendered by different TL expressions. a more formal term is marked by the reversing of the o # m` i h´ ng. uniting point e e ( m´ng. q 1160. regular. combine. dispel phlegm u a t¯ ng bi` n. medial headache e o o .7. pale. In symptomatology. unite e 1166. 1165. regular channels e ı zh` ng t´ u t` ng. can also be expressed as a o w h´ ng m` i. In some cases. which merely describes it. free the stool o a Certain fine distinctions in the status of Chinese terms cannot easily be replicated in English. $ d` n. er m´ng. acid upflow a a ' h´ . deu ı N scribes a condition and may also stand as a name for it. & & y´ ng x¯ shuˇ f` n. combination disease e ı h´ xu´ . warm the stomach a e z¯ sh` n. " 1159. y´ ng vacuity water flood a u ı a a f` n su¯ n. Thus. The verb + noun format is usually only possible with single verbs. In this exama ı o o o ple. w # ch` as opposed to the modern colloquial ı h´ ng for ‘red’. rumbling intestines a ı ) zh` ng. Consider the following examples. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation 1158. 1167. upflow a 1164. enrich the kidney ı e q¯ t´ n. as compared with $ yˇ n j¯ng h´ ng zhˇ ng t` ng. and the classical subject-verb order. red eyes. red sore swollen eyes. lit.2 Anisomorphic LGP Equivalents I have pointed out that one reason for semantic translation is to ensure LGP equiv- alence. from the Greek glycyrrhiza. lit. closely parallels the Chinese g¯ n cˇ o. lit. The English licorice. 1177. is expressed in English by u o single word sprain. ‘malaria disease’. H n¨ e j´. sprain u a rˇ t´ u. alternating [aversion a a a e to] cold and heat [effusion] 1178. q 1175. Nevertheless. lit. We can call these anisomorphic LGP equivalents or nonliteral semantic LGP equivalents. defecation a a xiˇ o bi` n. two Chinese character-words are often found to correspond to one English word.t´ ng (5 m` . ‘infant’s palace’. Because Chinese makes greater use of compounding than English. both alluding to the o Latin pupilla. LGP equivalents show more than chance similarities to their Chinese equivalents. 1176. and hence acceptable equivalents in the context of Chinese medical LSP. but they are not strictly speaking ‘literal equivalents’. there is LGP equivalence between the Chinese and English terms. stool. but the morphological structure and literal meaning is different. urine. ‘little girl’. lit. lit. ‘fecal q`’.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 7. ‘headrest bone’. measles a e shˇ q`. lit. ‘breast head’. The Chinese the single word nipple. + 1181. ‘going [and] coming cold [and] heat’. 1182. from the a a t´ ng. the part on which the head rests. The expressions listed below are LGP equivalents. anyone familiar with both Chinese and English is aware of the existence of a large number of LGP equivalents between the two languages that are neither morphological (word for word) nor literal matches. lit.3. uterus ı o d` bi` n. scrotum ı a ı zˇ g¯ ng. lit. In several cases. pupil. lit. ‘twist injury’. 1180. lit. ‘breast heat’. corresponding closely to the Chinese / 4 zhˇ n gˇ . small image of oneself that is reflected in another’s eye. lit. flatus ı ı ı niˇ sh¯ ng. Likewise. In both cases. ‘twist injury’. ‘y¯n sack’. ‘greater convenience’. niˇ sh¯ ng. nipple u o The Chinese . ‘child’). is expressed in English with the u a rˇ t´ u. eye. lit. Nevere u . ‘hemp rash’. lit. parallels the Chinese method of naming reflected in the construction of the character . The English occipital bone (Latin ob against + caput head) is the bone of the back of the head. + o u . 1174. a 1179. ‘sweet herb’. ‘lesser convenience’. 1173. ‘sweet root’. urination a a wˇ ng l´ i h´ n r` . * 8 y¯n n´ ng. malaria u` ı m´ zhˇ n. 1196. 3 1193. whose primary a . menstruation (Latin menstruo. ‘eyes mouth wry-skew’. centre q` fall o ı a a ı ı y¯ o x¯ ruˇ n ru` . ‘lumbus [and] knees limp-weak’. lit. ‘sac eyelid’. it would appear unnecessary since in such cases it reflects no specialist medical understanding. some translators might render bˇ fˇ . red facial complexion a e o ı kˇ u yˇ n w¯ i xi´ . lit. lit. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation theless. lit. lit. In LGP terms. ‘mouth lip’. lit. headache o o b´ kˇ ng. deviated eyes and mouth o a a e I Taking another example. A t´ ng kˇ ng. deafness ˇ o kˇ u ch´ n. ‘sweet herb’. joint pain a e e o mi` n s` h´ ng ch`. monthly) 1187. eyeball u u t´ u t` ng. anus a e n¨ e j´. 1188. a little girl) o o g¯ n cˇ o. lit. we saw a considerable amount of redundancy in Chinese medical terms. ı In the translation of LSP-bound terms. lit. lit. lit. and that ‘method’ is conventionally reserved in English for specific rather than generic methods (‘supplementing y¯n is one method of supplementation’). eyelid a a g¯ ng m´ n. ‘anus gate’. x 1198. lip o u m` zh¯ . 1185. limp lumbus and knees a ı a o gu¯ n ji´ t´ ng t` ng. 1191. ‘child’ . malaria u` ı Redundancy at the phrase level in literary Chinese also gives rise to noncorrespondence at word level. ‘eye bead’. pupil (Latin pupilla. ‘head painful’. 1186. 1192. ‘method’. 1199. C ' 0 v zh¯ ng q` xi` xi` n. They are not understood at the level of LGP meaning. 1195. ‘malaria disease’.7. lit. licorice (Greek glyky(s) sweet + rhiza root) a a In Chapter 5 (Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology). ‘eye-bead’. a H _ ` ^ er l´ ng. 1189. lit. lit. eye u u b¯ o jiˇ n. nostril (from Old English nos yrel) ı o yu` j¯ng. lit. lit. lit. metaphor should be preserved as far as possible. ‘nose hole’. 1184. One could nevertheless argue that the word serves as little more than a nominalising particle like the ending ‘-ation’ of the English term. these correspondences are only understood when the etymology of the words in question are known. 1194. 1183. literally as u a fˇ . ‘monthly warp’. ‘facial complexion red-red’. a ‘supplementing method’. 1190. ‘joints painful-painful’. lit. menstruate ← mene ı struus. 1197. A prominent example is the word bi` n. p _ m` zh¯ . ‘centre q` falling down’. + signific 5 ‘eye’. ‘ears deaf’. This also accounts for morphological noncorrespondence between LGP equivalents. The TL reader would understand the metaphor of the semantic translation: the organ as a container (metaphorically described as a ‘palace’) in relation to what it contains (the foetus). Similarly. translating n : zˇ g¯ ng. In the H` n Dynasty. It therefore requires a distinct equivalent that can only be supplied by the technical medical term lumbus. we might consider the LGP equivalent uterus (the word uterus that ı o appears to have originally denoted the abdomen. ‘tortoise’s head’. most of which are metaphorical. and in Chinese medicine. and hence we may consider it insignificant from the point of view of medical thought. The replication of the euphemism in English through semantic translation would not enhance the Westerner’s understanding of the concept. and $ ni` o. Obviously. But he or she would probably only understand it after this familiar referent has been point out to him or her. This is one of the rare occasions when preservation of a medical concept requires sacrificing the maintenance of LGP equivalence. a conflict of choice may arise between an existing LGP equivalent and a loan-translation. the metaphor by which the glans penis is ı o named.3 Translating Words Used in Extended Senses Numerous words that serve as terms or serve in the composition of terms are used in extended senses. In the Chinese LGP. 7. it was already being used as a euphemistic a synonym of 1 shˇ. this translation will not do. Since the images of Chinese medical . and translate the words as such. Since. the word uterus is preferable to infant’s palace insofar as the reader will ı o relate it directly to the referent without need of any explanation.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms meaning is ‘convenient’. When translating n : zˇ g¯ ng. though. is of LGP origin and has no medical relevance. We can therefore take ‘stool/urine’ to be the relevant LGP meaning. 2 gu¯ t´ u.3. the LGP equivalent of 3 y¯ o t` ng is backache. ‘urine’. In modern English. and later came to specifically denote a female reproductive organ within it) or a semantic translation of the Chinese. This usage is unlikely to have evolved out ı a of any medical need. ‘stool’. 3 y¯ o is a distinct body part. At the borderline between LGP terms and LSP-bound terms. pain or weakness a in this area is usually understood to reflect the state of the kidney. ‘infant’s palace’. it makes sense to use it since coining a new term through the re-creation of a metaphor in the target language poses an unnecessary obstacle to the reader’s understanding. For example. however. To be set against this principle is that of rejecting an LGP equivalent that may be unclear in the Chinese medical context. when a term has an equivalent in the target language that in its primary sense denotes the same referent or concept. a clear distinction is made in Chinese medicine a o between the upper part of the back and the lumbus. lit. political. the qualities associated with animals. Given the much common ground in these respects between China and the West. armies. Metaphor in Chinese medicine is largely natural. or else are common to Chinese and English speakers in that they hail from forms of human culture characterised by bureaucratic political hierarchies. and refined forms of architecture. not a name. ‘thunder’. translation must be semantic if the description or definition is not to be altered. ‘child’. lichen. which vary considerably even among culturally close language communities such as those of Europe). The metaphor of Chinese medicine does not appear to touch on any of the areas that are often problematic for the translator (e. 1200. but a description or definition. ` sh` n. stool like duck’s slop a a u a a 5 d` bi` n r´ y´ ng shˇ.2. The Chinese 0 ti¯ n.. ‘piglet’. mounting. as loan-translation in general. 1203. with its philosopha ical and religious implications. 1201. ‘official’.2. ‘invade’. drum distention. and architectural. e etc. The metaphor images are universal insofar as they come from the natural world. transportational. or when the metaphor constitutes a defining standard. Metaphors embedded in graphemic derivations (see 5. stool like sheep’s droppings a a u a ı . ‘palace’. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation translation is the only accurate method of translation when the concept denoted by the term is in any way speculative.3. In Chapter 5 (Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology). military. I drew a functional distinction between naming metaphor and descriptive metaphor. (various cona u a ditions involving accumulation in the lower abdomen or scrotum) S n`. may be somewhat obscure for English speakers in some contexts when translated as heaven. Derivation) can be rendered literally on the basis of their etymology where existing equivalents are lacking: wˇ i. 1202.g. invisible sores. The similes and metaphorical epithets given below are essentially instances of metaphor being used to provide. ı zh¯ ng ji¯ o r´ ou. m n n o n n xiˇ n. wilting. 4 gˇ . helps to preserve transparency for the translator. centre burner is like foam o a u¯ b´ i r´ k¯ gˇ . most of the metaphors of Chinese medicine are easily transferred. white as dry bones a u u u d` bi` n r´ y¯ t´ ng. English even has equivalents of mythical creatures (dragon.7. and furnishes the TL reader with the same information as the SL reader about the possible origins of the concept. complex economies requiring transportation networks. phoenix). The transfer of metaphor. ‘defence’. and ‘drum’ is not distorted when transferred. moral. ‘sovereign’. The metaphorical use of such concepts as ‘mother’. In such cases. right q` and e ı ı xi´ q`. Though many Chinese physicians may confidently identify among different samples of human feces those which they believe correspond to the notion of ‘duck slop’. Translation of Metaphor LGP metaphor dispensable LSP formal ← Metaphor functional literalism systematic definitional → indispensable . I distinguished several types of metaphor: formal. one suspects that different Chinese physicians (even ones with first hand experience of ducks) might identify different samples. but this should be done through textual notes. the metaphor is a quality-defining standard. blood is the mother of q`. 1207. ringing in the ears like the sound of cicadas u a e ˇ ı 8 sh´ t¯ i r´ j¯ fˇ n. succinctly expressing ideas whose expression in direct language might be much wordier.e. The importance of preserving the metaphor would therefore follow the same order. 1205.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 1204. lit. since it requires distinguishing those characteristics of the metaphor image that apply to the target from those that do not apply. mealy tongue fur e a u ı e Z t´ u t` ng r´ guˇ . 1206. systematic. we are apparently expected to know a) the characteristics of the sloppy excrement of ducks and b) in what respect human stool described as being like ‘duck slop’ actually resembles duck excrement.. head heavy as if swathed o o u o Metaphor is often descriptively powerful. indicating that the metaphor and the problems of what it means have been conveniently ‘settled’ by the translator by a choice of some term that is apparently more meaningful to the Western reader (loose stool? diarrhoea?). in ascending order of their importance in reflecting the concept denoted. When one browses current English-language literature. than the functional ı o xu` w´ i q` zh¯ mˇ . not by tampering with the term. evil q`. one finds far fewer references to duck’s excrement than in Chinese literature. it is often vague. or the systematic e e ı ı u ı + zh` ng q`. Nevertheless. functional. ‘tortoise’s head’. Nevertheless. It is less important to preserve the formal metaphor of 2 metaphor of 2 metaphor of O o + + h gu¯ t´ u. i. The translator may wish to relate this standard to something more familiar to the reader (fewer Westerners are familiar with ducks than Chinese). 7 n n n 6 7 K d` bi` n shuˇ y` ng. and must be preserved in translation if the standard is to be preserved for the TL reader. watery stool a a ı a er m´ng r´ ch´ n sh¯ ng. glans penis. and definitional. a doubtful area of term meaning can be turned into certainty in the translation process. In duck stool. When stool is described as being ‘like duck slop’. In Chapter 5 (Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology). e ı ı Table 11. lit. the term + d` bi` n. " f¯ ng. While the word # fire e is clearly metaphorical. ‘network’. J l` u. strangury (inability to achieve a full stream of urine. and further ahead. lit. and involuntary dripping of urine. ‘toil. exterior (the exterior of the body. ‘liquid’. ‘drip. M j¯n. the terminology of Chinese medicine makes use of LGP expressions in narrowed or specialised senses. lit. liquid (the thinner bodily fluids) 1213. ‘surface’.7.. ‘stringy pith of tangerines. Nevertheless. ‘hemp [and] wood’ (numbness). @ biˇ o. lit. dribble’. tax (the body)’. K j¯. it is being used in a specific extended sense. Metaphor is sometimes poorly distinguished from direct language. It is used in the ı 9 + primary sense of gas or vapor (e. N l´ o. also lie at the borderline of metaphor and direct language. ‘greater convenience’ (stool). Other examples follow: 1208. shˇ q`. network [vessel] The six excesses ( + li` q`). wind. In Chinese medicine. In the term 1 T h´ w` i. lit. The word j¯ denotes any form of accumulation. The reason for this is that q` as an active principle is a speculative concept. spotting (mild abnormal discharge of blood via the vagina) o ı 1209. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation One type of metaphor that can be safely ignored is metaphor of LGP origin. y` . ı At the borderline between primary and extended meaning. lit. is not so easy to . accumulation (a certain kind of abdominal mass) u 1210. a a xiˇ o bi` n.g. often associated with pain) o 1216. which are of great importance in the explanation of u ı disease. humour (thicker bodily fluids) e a 1214. lit. and other fruits’. lit. although it is difficult to state whether this is a metaphorical extension or not. 1 h´ is used in the e e e specific sense of promoting the stomach’s function of ensuring the downward passage of food. when the word q` denotes the entity that flows through ı the channels and activates physiological processes. will be discussed a u q` appears to be used in many distinct senses in Chinese. taxation (severe weakness resulting from excessive physical activity. ‘connect’. or illness) ı 1215. as stated in 5 (Extension Status). 1 l´n. and in the specific extended ı ı sense of breath. ‘flatus’). O lu` . Notable examples of this. including the skin and flesh) ı 1212. harmonise the stomach. gourds. it is used in the specific ı sense of an accumulation of the contents of the digestive tract. fistula. ‘liquid’. ‘lesser a a m´ m` . ‘gather’. For instance. for example. lit. ‘accumulate’. convenience’ (urine). gathering (a certain kind of abdominal mass) a 1211. L j` . ‘leak’. the technical concepts embodied in terms should be transferred to the TL in the translation process. % h´ w` i. liver fire flaming upward a o a a sh¯ r` xi` zh` p´ ng gu¯ ng. I argued that it should be applied all the more stringently in the translation of Chinese medicine given the ambient dominance of Western medicine. as equivalent to the English ‘measles’. < 1229. 1225.3. effulgent y¯n vacuity fire ı u o a ı | ] 7 : The problem seems to affect many descriptions of pathomechanisms ( 1223. 1226. 1217. ı ı It is also seen in descriptions of therapeutic actions: 1227. It is important to distinguish conceptually inaccurate Western medical equivalents from anisomorphic LGP equivalents used in Western medicine such as ‘measles’ for m´ zhˇ n. harmonise the stomach e e hu´ xu` . I noted that this principle was generally applied in the translation of Western medical terminology into Chinese.4 Western Medical Equivalents I have emphasised several times that in the interests of preserving as far as possible the conceptual fabric of the subject matter. 1221.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms classify. q` stagnation ı ı ı g¯ n q` y` ji´ . lung heat scorching the lobes e e e a y¯n x¯ huˇ w` ng. liver wind stirring internally a e e o f` i r` y` ji¯ o. ‘hemp rash’. 1222. 7. depressed liver q` a ı u e ı g¯ n q` f` n w` i. 1224. lit. if not the only translations possible. attack phlegm o a These descriptions may be understood to rest on metaphorical or general uses of the verbs in question. semantic translations are adequate. damp-heat pouring down into the bladder ı e a u a a g¯ n f¯ ng n` i d` ng. 1218. & % m W & h´ n n´ng g¯ n m` i. liver q` invading the stomach a ı a e ı q¯ h´ n. expel cold u a b`ng j¯). 1228. q` zh`. the pathological processes to which the six excesses give rise are described in terms that are difficult to categorise as metaphorical or direct. 1219. In either case. A term used in Western a e medicine is a suitable equivalent provided it is free of connotations alien to the Chinese medical concept and preferably if it does not obscure the Chinese medical connotations . cold congealing in the liver vessels a ı a a g¯ n huˇ sh` ng y´ n. quicken the blood o e g¯ ng t´ n. 1220. Furthermore. and in Chapter 6. In Chapter 3. when stroke is reformulated as wind stroke. . though opaque to English speakers. diphtheria (‘leatheriness’). which. LGP terms also include body parts. malaria) that have no connotations of the modern medical understanding of the disease in question. Similarly. sh¯ ng h´ n is better literally translated as cold damage than as febrile disease if we are a a to reflect the causes to which Chinese medicine attributes it. In English. " zh` ng f¯ ng is better translated as wind stroke (or wind o e zh` ng f¯ ng. In the LGP category are old terms of popular origin (measles. By the same token. these associations do not in any way interfere with the understanding of the Chinese concepts. The list below includes both LGP terms and LSP-bound terms. penis (‘tail’). o strike) than as cerebrovascular accident. scrotum (‘quiver’). and papule. vagina.7. Cerebrovascular accident is commonly referred to in nonmedical English as stroke. Of course. o e zh¯ ng. the student is drawn from traditional lay perceptions common to both Chinese and Westerners into the conceptual world of Chinese medicine. ‘acute conjunctivitis’ is an unacceptable equivalent of " # $ f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n on the one e o a hand because it might misleadingly imply that Chinese medicine identifies the conjunctiva as an anatomical entity and on the other because a semantic translation of the Chinese term supplies useful information about the concept (a disease of the eye caused by wind and fire). mumps. diarrhoea). enuresis. Nature of Chinese Medical Terminology). tenesmus. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation ‘Measles’ is acceptable for m´ zhˇ n on the one hand because the term has long been a e used by the lay and has no technical connotations in Western medicine and on the other because the semantic translation of the Chinese term (‘hemp rash’) includes no technical Chinese medical information that we might wish to preserve in translation. The number of terms used in Western medicine that can represent Chinese medical terms without introducing extraneous notions is limited. In the LSP-bound category are terms such as lochia. organ names. Even for those who understand the etymology of scrofula (‘little pig’). By contrast. as well as terms adopted into popular speech from medical Latin (penis. Cerebrovascular accident implies an understanding of the disease in modern scientific terms that is removed from both the lay perception and the Chinese medical perception. have no literal meaning that would make specialised modern medical knowledge inappropriate in the Chinese medical context. just as in Chinese it is referred to as The English stroke is an exact semantic parallel with " zh` ng (to strike [in the o ‘centre’]). and bodily substances previously mentioned (Chapter 5. and in the Chinese term the additional presence of ‘wind’ (" f¯ ng) serves e to indicate the cause perceived in Chinese medicine. and hemorrhoids (‘bleeding’ [vessels]). ‘convenience flowa e u` 1266. ‘y´ ng wilt’. ‘internal ı ı o o 1263. epilepsy a a In Chapter 3. goiter 1273. ' luˇ l`. / o 1253. P 1256. z 1274. lit. lit. 1246. lit. harelip u u t´ u t` ng.e. measles a e gˇ n m` o. tongue e a 1248. lit. 1 l´n. lit. hemiplegia 1245. lit. e u muttering 1242. mumps a a urgency and posterior heaviness’. Before deciding whether Western medical terminology should be allowed to be used to the same extent. ‘steal needle’. jaundice a a pi´ n zh¯. 1255. ‘chicken’s eye’. 1269. larynx. lit. I noted that numerous Chinese medical terms had been included in the Chinese terminology of Western medicine. Chinese physicians attempting . ‘hemp rash’. lit. a b¯ n. it is important to consider a) the nature of the knowledge and b) the gradients of cultural influence. B x¯n j`. night a a a 1260.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 1230. ji´ . w b´ i h´ u. ^ y¯n n´ ng. glans ı o er l´ ng. ‘y¯n stem’. tence 1238. fur 1231.. callus a ı zh` s¯ i. corn ı a m´ zhˇ n. a ı constipation 1244. throat a ternal genitals 1234. scrotum ı a ı gu¯ t´ u. lit. p @ l` j´. lit. abdomen u y¯ n. Q R body not following [the command of conscious control]’. 1247. hemorrhoids ı H ing’. lochia ` u d` o h` n. k t¯ u zh¯ n. = 7 sh´ t¯ i. ‘white throat’ diphthea o y¯n j¯ng. ‘external kidney’. lit. ‘tortoise’s head’. lit. lit. K Z lˇ j´ h` u zh` ng. 1232. sty o e fair’. zh`. 1259. ‘dribbling’. scrofula o ı ı 1272. P w` i sh` n. J l` u. lit. heart palpitations ı ı zhˇ n. 1262. ‘y¯n head’. 1239. impoa e a 1257. ‘repetitious speech’. lit. ‘y´ ng (i. exa e f` . glans penis ı o ı y´ ng wˇ i. K yˇng. male) afa ı a ria 1250. macule 1261. ‘malign dew’. L y´ ni` o. pharynx. y penis 1236. ? bi` n b`. 1235. lit. penis ı ı ı y´ ng sh`. 3 zh` ng yˇ . pox o D F H sweating 1240. lit. miliaria alba a e e l` . papule e C b´ i p´ i. headache o o y¯n t´ u. ‘tongue moss’. dysentery ı ı b` n sh¯ n b` su`. G hu´ ng dˇ n. common cold a a di¯ n xi´ n. 1237. ‘thief sweating’. 1252. in the translation of Chinese medical terminology. ‘y¯n sac’. boil e d` u. lit. lit. fistula 1271. a n¨ e. enuresis ı a j¯ yˇ n. A 1251. w h´ u. diarrhoea 1243. strangury ı 1249. ‘convenience tight’. throat 1254. > bi` n xi` . penis 1233. I y`. epidemic 1268. 6 1264. ‘lose urine’. deafness ˇ o t` ch´ n. lit. or even indiscriminately. 1258. tenesmus 1241. lit. E 1265. ‘half a e u ı o 1270. malaria ı 1267. chill u a d¯ n d´ . O 1284. although written with characters meaning ‘sudden turmoil’. dysentery ı ı Q The Chinese C jiˇ o g¯ ng fˇ n zh¯ ng corresponds to opisthotonos in Westa o a a . and lost any connotations deriving from the Chinese medical LSP. 1282. like the Chinese m n hu` lu` n. lit. 1285. Any Chinese medical term that was chosen to represent a Western medical concept assumed the Western medical definition. carphology u ı o a f¯ r` . fever a e / d` o h` n. Western medicine does not recognise wind as a cause of disease. The English ‘cholera’. Nevertheless. O 1277.1 (Borrowing). lit. In the translation of Chinese medical terminology in English. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation to label Western medical concepts in their own language had a cast-iron definition for each concept. and Western medicine is dominant.7. their problem was merely to find a name for it. The staunchest enthusiasm for Chinese medicine is not strong enough to banish the strictly Western medical associations of terms such as acute conjunctivitis. On these grounds. it is important to avoid the use of any Western medical terms that implicitly suggest Western medical ideas. cholera o a y M N jiˇ o g¯ ng fˇ n zh¯ ng. 1280. originally referred to any condition of fulminant vomiting and diarrhoea. ‘sudden turmoil’. the literal meaning of the Chinese term (wind o e stroke) was ignored. lit. ! 1278. ‘sparrow vision’. ‘[like] horn [or] bow back stretch’. because Chinese medicine is marginal. lit. lit. night blindness e u b` j¯ng. lit. 1279. ‘thief sweating’. ‘menstrual block’. lit. the situation is different. like our English word (Unschuld 1998: 11–12). o a The definition in modern medicine has been reduced in the scope of its meaning to conditions caused by Vibrio cholerae. When " zh` ng f¯ ng was used to represent ‘apoplexy’. ‘cinnabar toxin’. p P H ( 0 hu` lu` n. 1283. may in fact be a loan from the Greek. lit. ‘effuse heat’. 1281. lit.2. Given the negative prestige factor. ‘malign obstruction’. the Chinese word. ‘uninhibited (referring to diarrhoea) disease’. There are borderline cases where it is difficult to decide whether to adopt an existing English term or translate the Chinese literally. amenorrhoea ı ı e zˇ . there is a further argument in favour of ‘cholera’: as mentioned in 5. ‘feel clothes. ‘aversion to cold’. touch bed’. There are a number of borderline cases: 1275. opisthotonos a o a a x´ n y¯ m¯ chu´ ng. / 1276. lit. night sweating a a w` h´ n. morning sickness ` u l` j´. it has been suggested that a semantic translation such as ‘sudden turmoil’ might be more acceptable. erysipelas a u qu` m` . lit.2. so the ‘wind’ in wind stroke is a completely dead metaphor. the question remains as to whether it is justifiable not to render LGP/WM terms with LGP/WM equivalents. and sweating). a term used in Western medicine is nearly. according to its accepted definition a a (sweating during sleep or at night. The Chinese shuˇ zhˇ ng is rendered by most translators as oedema. he or she runs e a into problems when translating a discussion explaining that the tongue moss is so called . Although shuˇ zhˇ ng is used in ı o this sense in Western medicine. In all of the foregoing five examples. referentially synonymous with a Chinese medical term. the existing o u English terms can be replaced with semantic translations (heat effusion. Actually. Semantically deviant translations are immediately thrown into question when the relationship of a concept to its (Chinese) name is discussed. but none of the complex terms has the familiarity that the original Chinese terms have for the Chinese speaker. the term includes subjective sensations of heat that could not be described as fever in either the modern medical sense or on the colloquial sense of the term (in Western medicine. both of which are explanations of the terms to be found in Western medical literature. and carphology is probably no longer even familiar to modern medical physicians. In Western medicine. are clearer names for these concepts. but the term itself suggests sweating at night only. in Chinese medicine it refers to swelling due to disease among the five viscera. Nevertheless. fever is referred to as f¯ sh¯ o). oedema refers to any excessive presence of fluid in the tissue spaces. heat. Arched-back rigidity and picking at bedclothes. Precipitation. and thief sweating contain generic LGP words (cold. If the translator renders sh´ t¯ i with either of our normal expressions.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms English terms is familiar to most native English speakers. whereas in fact it u a is considerably narrower in meaning (referring to acute sensations of cold only). aversion to cold. Night d` o h` n. precipitation. they are close in literal meaning to the Chinese. lit. thief sweating. in particular. Purgation refers to the same object as i xi` . as in tuberculosis). Although f¯ r` is generally a e considered to be equivalent to our Western notion of ‘fever’. asks the foreign reader to reconceptualise a familiar phenomenon. The answers to such questions lie in how great the conceptual difference is between an existing equivalent of a Chinese term and how far the readership is prepared to follow the translator. but in the proposed termiı o nology it is translated literally as water swelling. In certain cases. which in Chinese medicine might be classed as zhˇ ng d´ . yet a while the English literally means to cleanse the Chinese means to send down. Chill is often considered as the equivalent of a a sweating is referentially the same as W V w` h´ n. aversion to cold. ‘[causing to go] down’. The terms heat effusion. but not quite. tongue fur or tongue coating. and water swelling). and does not include wound oedema. but any attempt to use this choice in the context of the Chinese differentiation into different colours (red. say. 1288. Sometimes the poor motivation of an equivalent becomes apparent in certain contexts. etc. kidney sac/scrotum e a er m´ng. I included a number of optional translations for cases like this: 1286.) causes a dissonance for the reader sensitive to the literal meaning of the English term leukorrhea. stomach duct. malign obstruction/morning sickness ` u In such cases. those unfamiliar with Chinese would require an explanation of the term in relation to the concept. At first sight. / 1287. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation (in Chinese) because of its similarity to moss (Seifert.7. For many. 1290. herb (Latin herba grass) is the natural equivalent of the Chinese strike most speakers as being wrong. While those familiar with Chinese would be likely to accept. There might be adequate grounds in such cases for reserving tongue moss as an acceptable alternative to the idiomatic expressions (semantic equivalents). or to accommodate the source to the TL reader. 1289. see the Chinese through the English. a u The translator’s choice between an existing term and a new coinage might depend on the type of text being translated and the purpose of the translation. The choice between adopting an existing English term and coining a new term (source-independent formation) is sometimes difficult. It seems logical to suppose that readers unfamiliar with the Chinese language are much less likely to accept semantic translations as substitutions for familiar terms. ı a T w` i e d` f` . sudden turmoil/cholera o a f¯ r` . it does not seem unreasonable to translate X i d` i xi` as leukorrhea (from Greek leuk. the term thief sweating since they can.white. heat effusion/fever a e y´ ng wˇ i. yellow. P 0 y` o. In the translation of historical documents for the purpose of understanding their content in terms of the . ringing in the ears/tinnitus ˇ ı e zˇ . personal communication 1998). y´ ng wilt/impotence a e a sh` n n´ ng. In English-Chinese ChineseEnglish Dictionary of Chinese Medicine. It would be legitimate to imagine that widespread learning of Chinese would increase the acceptance of source-oriented terms. It would also tend to reduce conflation of what in Chinese are distinct concepts into one familiar concept in English. it is difficult to decide whether to move the TL reader toward the source. as it were. [region] below the heart. a a -rhea flow). but mineral herbs as a category would surely a hu` lu` n. as appears to happen when guˇ n. greater abdomen are all rendered as epigastrium. and a 6 i x¯n xi` . 1291. 3.. I discussed the disadvantages of Porkert’s use of Latin terminology and Lˇ Zh` o-Gu´ ’s use of classical ı a o derivations. 7. ‘righteous’. and it is naturally important to determine which of their multiple senses they are used in. the translator were to translate n : zˇ g¯ ng as ‘infant’s palace’. mostly of a universal nature. the choice of one semantic translation does not necessarily rule out other choices. In a document prepared for those unfamiliar with Chinese medicine. Suffice it here to repeat that both of these methods place unnecessary burdens even on educated English speakers. say. translating n : zˇ g¯ ng as infant’s palace and explaining it ı o as ‘uterus’ in a note or commentary). A straightforward example is O zh` ng t´ u t` ng.5. In general. etc. semantic translations would be unnecessarily burdensome.. a O ‘partial’. Another example is the Chi- . ‘rectify’. In Chapter 6 (Transmission and Translation of Chinese Medicine). i.5 Narrowing the Choice of TL Term The discovery of a semantic translation for terms is not necessarily the end of the term-formation process. where no ready-made English expression corresponding to the Chinese exists. in O + zh` ng q`. In other contexts. ‘biased’. including ‘straight’. and consider the choices restricted to standard English vocabulary.3. in which O zh` ng specifies a kind of headache. however. O zh` ng t´ u t` ng is often contrasted with e o o ponent Y Y pi¯ n t´ u t` ng. Procedures are needed to decide which of two or more candidate terms is the best. ‘regular’. ‘upright’.g. If.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms to greater literalism (e. Chinese medical terminology is largely composed of commonly used LGP words. I shall discuss them no further. Although the aim of this study is to establish principles for the translation of Chinese medical terms rather than to propose a normative list of terms. but on an extended moral sense of ‘right’. he or she would impose on ı o the reader the burden of learning a new vocabulary item. ‘positive’. but would not stretch the reader’s capacities of conceptualisation very far. 7. ‘prejudiced’. the choice of e ı zh` ng rests not on positional e sense. Given the low level of exact lexical correspondence between languages.e. it is none the less appropriate to discuss how the scope of choice can be narrowed down. senses. For example. having relatively clear equivalents in other languages. in which the coma o o zh` ng may be used in different e O pi¯ n is also used in many difference senses: ‘inclined to one side’.1 Determining the motivating sense Terms often contain polysemous words. a semantic translation of the Chinese term usually supplies the need well. ‘correct’. This character has many e o o e meanings. Other suggestions have also been put forward (see. ‘a swelling in the throat that looks u e like a breast/nipple or a moth’ or else ‘suckling moth’. a u gested (X¯ & Ch´ n 1992). shiver sweating a a z` ng fˇ . medial headache e o o pi¯ n t´ u t` ng. for example. p 1296. and denotes a condition that in modern medicine would be diagnosed as tonsillitis. waist as if girthed with rope. 1297. back transport point e u wˇ sh¯ xu´ . be based on an extended use of ‘suckling’ unless we assume that the person who coined the term was ignorant of the fact that moths do not suckle their young. The latter interpretation would. migraine a o o rˇ e.. channels and network [vessels] ı o b` i sh¯ . Proposed Methodology of Term Translation be chosen: 3 : Z y¯ o r´ sh´ ng sh` . 1299. Once we determine which sense motivates the choice of these words in the Chinese terms. the choice of English equivalent is narrowed. while Unschuld (1985) suggests a transformational metaphor. u ´ literally means ‘breast/nipple/suckling moth’.3. five transport points u u e / zh` n h` n. the question as to the best sourceoriented translation will remain open. s : V O zh` ng t´ u t` ng. ı o channels and network [vessels]. Ch´ n Z-F & H´ S-H 1990).2 Comparative componential analysis When two or more literal equivalents of the motiving sense of the Chinese word present themselves and these are close in meaning. 1293. on which conduit and channel have been based. a u e u 3 _ y¯ o su¯ n. 1295. A clear semantic translation of the latter is baby moth. z 1298. baby moth u´ j¯ng lu` . ^ 1294.5. Different interpretations have been put forward for : j¯ng in ı : j¯ng lu` . Until e e the origin of the term has been definitively established. rˇ e. Two possibilities have been sugu rˇ could be taken as qualifying moth. hemilateral headache. storehouses and mansions a u zh¯ mˇ n. Souli´ de Morant (1994: 24) suggests an astronomical e metaphor on which the translation meridian is based. 1292. propping fullness ı a _ The motivating sense is not always easily identifiable. A semantic translation is problematic. of course. 7. One is a double metaphor. i. Note that this is quite a rare example of a term component being used in an LGP extended sense. a a aching lumbus. because the exact sense of rˇ in the term is unclear. 1300.e. a comparative analysis of the meaning .7.. for example. Of the two candidates. ‘protect’). humid and humidity in general contexts imply dampness associated with heat. and ‘defend’ e w` i and ‘defend’ both imply resistance. Moisture means slight wetness. and the two words are often collocated (‘the heat and humidity of tropical climes’). Humidity in the meteorological usage means ‘degree of dampness of the atmosphere’. w` i. By comparative componential analysis. whereas e ‘protect’ implies the interposition of a shield or barrier. on a surface. ! sh¯ and its potential equivalents can ı be presented in schematic form in the table below. Depending on the context. We have four ı words in English that correspond to the Chinese. Comparative componential analysis for the translation of Keep safe e w` i e By resistance + + By a shield w` i e + + + Defend Protect + Let us consider another example. we find that all imply ‘keeping something safe’. Wetness is the state of being covered in or soaked in water. and moist(ure). The Chinese ! sh¯ might suggest a number of ı possibilities beyond Wiseman’s choice of the word dampness. ! sh¯ corresponds to wet(ness).Translation of Chinese Medical Terms The term + w` i q` has been variously rendered as protective q` and defence (defensive) e ı ı q`. This is a comparative application of componential analysis for translation purposes that has been described by Nida (1964: 82– 87) and Newmark (1988: 114–123). A comparative componential analysis of connotations. We can express this analysis in the following way: Table 12. Damp (as a noun) denotes ‘moisture in the air. and comparing these with a similar analysis of the Chinese term. water in an evaporated or condensing state. Nevertheless. These two renderings are both literal and they are close in meaning. damp(ness). diffused through a solid’ (The New Shorter Oxford Dictionary). ‘protect’. ‘defend’ is the better because it shares the same semantic components as the Chinese term. Yet we require ı a mechanism to decide which choice is the better. We can do this by breaking down the meaning components of potential equivalents (‘defend’. humid(ity). Double addition signs indicate strong . The word damp often collocates with cold (‘cold and damp’). e In choosing equivalents. (It might not be superfluous to note that ! sh¯ in the environment is considered to be a major cause of conditions we ı normally describe as rheumatic.7. and those suffering from rheumatism in the West complain of exacerbation in cold.) Careful choice of semantic translation that takes account of the various applications of terms in context can provide solutions for terms that have been used in different meanings and where it is not always possible to determine in what sense the term is used. we have a term that can be used in any context. Similar problems in the translation of pulse terms have previously been described (Wiseman & F´ ng 1999). Contact with water is recognised as a contributing factor to diseases attributed to ! sh¯. The English word ‘moderate’ covers both these senses. we are left with dampness and humidity. ‘Dampness’. Hence the notion of pervasiveness is more central to ! sh¯ as a cause of disease than liquidity. ı ı by its typical association with ‘cold’. it is important to reflect the distinction between LGP and LSP terms in translation. and besides it is probably the most commonly used equivalent. g huˇ n generally denotes a pulse slightly slower than nora mal (four beats per respiration). The choice is decided when we consider that in Chinese medicine ! sh¯ is said to be a ‘y¯n evil’. but the ı presence of water in liquid form is not a necessary condition. conveys this connotation better than humidity. Similarly. it is not always possible to find words of the same . Proposed Methodology of Term Translation Table 13. When we choose a literal equivalent such as ‘skipping’ that does not clash with either of these specific senses. damp weather—precisely the cause the disease is attributed to in Chinese medicine. Nevertheless. The term X c` in pulse descriptions may have originally meant nothing more than u ‘urgent’ or ‘rapid’ until W´ ng Sh¯ -H´ (F a u e 1 ) in his M` i J¯ng (w a ı : “Pulse Canon”) defined it as a rapid interrupted pulse. Comparative componential analysis for the translation of ! sh¯ ı Liquidity Pervasiveness f Cold Heat ++ + + sh¯ ı + + + – – + Wet(ness) Moist(ure) Damp(ness) Humid(ity) + ++ + ++ + None of the English words are as broad in meaning as the Chinese term. If we discount ı wetness and moisture as term equivalents on account of their denoting liquid (or closeto-liquid) forms of water. but can also mean ‘coming and going evenly’ or ‘flowing gently’. 7. frenetic movement of hot blood. ı hu´ ng. Between universal concepts such as ‘umbilicus’. which is a learned word by comparison with the Chinese (change would not convey the right sense).6. where semantic translation. for numerological reasons. B b´ i. the distinction is an important one. LGP and LSP can only be considered as poles. ‘head’. and cer- tain peripheral considerations (blood. Despite this. How are our concepts of ‘blue’. the number of primary colours had. There are some instances. componential analysis remains a practical method of comparing meanings between languages. it should be noted that componential analysis as a method of analyzing the meanings of words has fallen out of favour with linguists since Eleanor Rosch (??) pointed out flaws in the classical taxonomy on which it is based and proposed instead the notion of prototypes. ı . What an English speaker considers ‘missing’ on the basis of the English colour names given as ‘equivalents’. there are apparent gaps in this colour spectrum. to be restricted to five. organ names). or lexical noncorrespondence between languages. white (metal). the colour spectrum is divided into five primary colours. in contrast to Y bi` n. red (fire). however. green (wood). a a e ı Although there are other commonly used colour words (notably j zˇ. and > h¯ i. In the a proposed terminology. ‘eye’. Despite this. yellow (earth). For linguists. exterior vacuity. For English speakers considering the words given as translations of these colour words.1 Absence of Exact LGP Equivalents The first problem posed by semantic translation is that some LGP terms do not have exact equivalents between languages. In Chinese medicine. ‘orange’ and ‘brown’ to accommodated in this system? If we assume that the five-section spectrum is complete.6 Deviation from Semantic Translation So far I have only dealt with typical cases calling for semantic translation. colour words have long been classic examples of anisomorphism. 7. the missing colours must be covered by the five terms. purple).3. there are a multitude of terms that would e a ı be difficult to place in either category.3.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms medicine it is used in the specific sense of gradual change. are ch`. Finally. or a u 2 xu` e r` w` ng x´ng. this sense is rendered systematically transform. and terms that only the initiate understands such as biˇ o x¯ . each of which is associated with one of the five phases: ? q¯ng. ‘knee’. does not apply. black (water). in the strict sense in which this expression is used here. The boundary between LGP terms and LSP-specific terms is not clearly drawn. The problem that the translator faces is whether to vary the ı translations according to context. a highly literal translation can stretch the reader’s imaginative capacities. rather than named. a a a ı ‘half exterior half interior’. that from the translator’s point of view. Another option is to define less familiar colour words such as cyan or virid . In actual fact. because according to Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n a a a u theory. The latter two are the only options if the fixed slots of colour categories are to be preserved in translation. u Periphrastic descriptions can usually be sharpened into tighter naming compounds (body hair.7. is beyond doubt. For instance. Some body parts have no exact correspondences: knee. Body parts are a domain in which there are many universals between languages (‘head’. the more semantic translation is perhaps preferable because it is more easily related to the original Chinese term. or universals as they are referred to in this study. or to coin a new term. to force a match by redefining the English terms. ‘half exterior half interior’ would suggest partly greater y´ ng and partly y´ ng a a brightness.3. summerheat).6. ‘neck’. hair. It is interesting to note. the solution I offer in the proposed terminology is green-blue. although we can express the distinction by saying hair of the body and hair of the head. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation ‘blue’ is covered by q¯ng. ‘half exterior half interior’ means a location between greater y´ ng and y´ ng brightness. ‘chest’). though back of the knee resists this. For . it is probably sufficient for the TL reader to be alerted that yellow must be understood to mean a broader section of the colour spectrum than we normally associate with the word. however. the Chinese m´ o and a fˇ (corresponding to French poil and cheveux) have only a a y¯ o corresponds to both waist and a ) single equivalent in English. ‘ear’. concepts common to all or a large portion of mankind. For in the Chinese sense. but they do not form a fixed set of identical synonyms.2 Source-Independent Formation When a Chinese term is poorly motivated. lit. The concept is more clearly expressed in English as ‘half-way a a penetration’ or ‘mid-stage penetration’. are described: sides of the ribcage. back of the o shˇ has no name in English. which in the Sh¯ ngh´ nl` n refers to the location of the disease a a u evil in lesser y´ ng disease. rib-side. The Chinese 3 lumbus (or low back). but is described as heat of the summer. The translation ‘half-way penetration’ suggested for J b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ is a a a ı . The term is misleading. A good example is J b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ. but which nevertheless does not entirely escape the problems of anisomophormism. The existence of generics. 7. Similary. xi´ and e * gu´ are areas that. ‘eye’. Terms used in their LGP sense largely belong to a category of terms that Unschuld calls generics. In all of these cases. . independently formed on the basis of the definition of the concept. Look in English means using one’s eyes with the intention of seeing. we can produce a new name or adjust the semantic translation. ‘shoulder-breathing’. ‘Looking (or seeing) straight’ might be considered a more literal translation for w zh´ sh` than ı ı forward-staring eyes. W " v 5 g¯ o f¯ ng qu` m` literally translates as ‘high a e e u wind sparrow eye’. Y l`. fails to explain the connection between the body part a ı _ and physiological function. ‘hubub’. disinhibit ı 1302. in part at least. 1304. The Chinese ‘high’ in this context means high up in the body. dull eyes a u a a Sometimes a semantic translation is confusing because of different connotations of words in English. a a gives only a poor indication that this refers to the palpebral margin (although ‘eye line’ e d¯ b` i literally means ‘reach/touch back’ but gives no a e hint that the term denotes a sore on the back (that can be reached with one’s own hand). From our understanding of the concept. Consider the following examples: 1301. In a number of cases. ' O S Y o b` l`. Nevertheless. Stare fits the need better because it means to gaze fixedly. p 1303. a a that patient swallows the acid welling up from his own stomach rather than industrially produced acid accidentally or intentionally swallowed. Nevertheless. inhibited u ı jiˇ l´ . Nevertheless. gaping corners of the mouth o a u ı yˇ n w´ gu¯ ng cˇ i.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms is a name for the concept that is. $ might almost be acceptable). the collocation ‘high wind’ in English suggests wind of high speed. k yˇ n xi´ n. p 1305. literally ‘eye string’. a semantic translation of a poorly motivated Chinese term produces an English term that is not sufficiently self-explanatory. it is problematic. The patient whom the Chinese phrase describes neither looks with intention nor may actually be seeing anything. ununited skull e u p p ] O q sˇ t¯ i b` xi` . does not inform the reader u a c´ o z´ . ‘swallowing acid’. For instance. m t¯ n su¯ n. ‘noise’. l ji¯ n x¯. Note that the problems here are similar to those of translating ascites or scrotum into German and Chinese. retention of dead foetus ı a u a kˇ u jiˇ o b` b`. In many cases. negative and affirmative polarity can be reversed in translation. 1306. the semantic translation can often be improved by the addition of words. mindfully or mindlessly. while see implies perception. n gives no indication of the metaphorical usage nor location of the supposed ‘noise’. the definition of the concept helps to provide English speakers with meaningful translations. but is here used as a verb meaning to agitate or stir (to produce waves). x g¯ n l´ n shuˇ literally means ‘sweet bila a ı low(ed)/swash water’. In fact the collocation of flail with arms and legs in English is almost sufficient to consider this translation to be an LGP equivalent. No literal English translation can express the meaning of the term. z C lˇ n y´ n has been rendered as very literally a a is somewhat broader in meaning. which refers to the sudden brightening ı a a a of the sky sometimes observed just before the sun sets. a ı Under certain circumstances. ‘return light. it is a redescription of the image evoked by the Chinese phrase in idiomatic English. Certain features of Chinese expression are not easily recreated in translation. shine back’. This translation barely reflects any of the components of the Chinese term. A literal translation of the paratactical couplet | } shˇ u wˇ z´ d` o such as ‘hands dancing. and denotes water that has been repeatedly scooped from its conx l´ n means a ‘billow’ or ‘wave’. ‘The last radiance of the setting sun’ captures the metaphorical image more clearly in English. In English. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation ous since straight in the sense of ‘normal’ can collocate with look in the sense have a particular kind of appearance. Below is a list of terms whose equivalents are not so literal (but not necessarily unsemantic): . introduces some (unclear) notion of energy that is alien to the Chinese understanding. laziness usually denotes a state attributed to lack of discipline rather than to illness. and ) as laziness to speak. The Chinese Chinese speakers explain the term z C z lˇ n y´ n in modern colloquial speech as z a a { lˇ n de jiˇ ng hu` . Worked water. metaphorically describing a shortlived improvement in a patient’s condition before death. Another reason is that although English does have couplets such as these (‘foot loose and fancy free’). a close semantic translation of the Chinese synonym y l´ o shuˇ. however. lit. is much more self-explanatory. In the proposed terminology. “cannot be bothered to speak. no energy to speak. it might be permissible to stretch English usage.” Such an expression in English has no a a a appropriate noun form. Grammatical considerations influence the acceptability of semantic translation. One reason is that English speakers prefer to describe exaggerated movement of the limbs as ‘flailing’ rather than ‘dancing’ (‘dancing’ wrongly suggests elegant movement). Another example of a paratactical couplet is o u u a e Q ~ hu´ gu¯ ng fˇ n zh` o.7. it would be difficult to devise one that would be clear as well as accurate to match | } shˇ u wˇ z´ d` o. o u u a feet dancing’ would barely be acceptable in English. and the natural LGP equivalent. The term tainer and poured back into it. earlier-heaven wheezing (earlier heaven = congena a q¯ng m´ ng. ‘increase water to move the ship’. ‘whole bug’. ‘heaven wheezing’. lit. 1317. lit. lit. hauling the boat upı u a o z¯ ng shuˇ x´ng zh¯ u. lit. 1322. ‘sweet swash water’. ‘return light back shine’. 1327. lit. lit. bleeding gums ı u zh¯ ng ch¯ ng. dull eyes u u a a y´ chˇ s¯ ng d` ng. 1316. ‘heaven eunuchism’. ? c ] G ) hu´ gu¯ ng fˇ n zh` o.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Unliteral Translations 1307. increase water to e ı ı o move the [grounded] ship 1326. 1318. ‘take food not fragrant’. lit. A 1319. B n` li´ wˇ n zh¯ u. Q 1323. lit. K 1331. ‘looking straight’. 1321. lit. lustreless a e u a facial complexion 1324. prickly tongue e ı a ı p R O P O kˇ u jiˇ o b` b`. 1309. C S S r ti¯ n hu` n. ‘dying lamp brightens again’. ‘nose dee-spring’. whole scorpion a o b´ yu¯ n. abdominal urgency and rectal heaviness ı ı o o ni` o yˇ u y´ l`. lit. last radiance of the setting sun ı a a a c´ n d¯ ng f` m´ng. ‘eyes have no light or colour’. lit. 1332. e ^ sh´ qˇ m´ ng c`. lit. p 1329. sweet worked water a a ı y b´ kˇ ng sh¯ n zh¯ ng. lit. clear-eye blindness (earlier heaven ı a = congenital) 1311. last flicker of the lamp a e u ı ti¯ n xi¯ o. ungratifying defecation a a u a n` gˇ b` xi¯ ng. ‘green-blue (or black) blindness’. fearful throbbing e o : zh´ sh`. jerking sinews and twitching flesh ı ı o u Z lˇ j´ h` u zh` ng. ‘bleeding teeth’. no pleasure in eating a u u a . loosening of the teeth a ı o o mi` n s` w´ hu´ . lit. dribble after voiding a o u ı p p d` bi` n b` shuˇ ng. gaping corners of the mouth o a u ı j¯ng w` i q` xu´ . earlier-heaven eunuchism a a ` chˇ n¨. 1320. lit. ‘tongue raises awn prickles’. ‘nose fans’. flaring nostrils ı o a a b´ sh` n. lit. q stream 1325. lit. 1313. ‘saving the boat against the current’. 1328. ‘nose hole fan stretch’. 1312. ital) 1310. P 1308. 1314. lit. dragover disease ı ı g¯ n l´ n shuˇ. ‘teeth loose move’. 1330. ‘fearful-fearful’. lit. lit. ‘facial complexion without bloom/splendor’. ‘mouth corners not closing’. nonchannel point ı a ı e j¯n t` r` u r` n. deep-source nasal congestion ı a b`ng b`ng. forward-staring eyes ı ı qu´ n ch´ ng. lit. ‘nonchannel strange hole’. Y 1315. lit. flaring nostrils ı a ] q m` w´ gu¯ ng cˇ i. lit. ‘side-by-side disease’. 1333. the exceptions are few.7 Minimising Polyequivalence The last of the three translation principles is that equivalents of one SL word should be kept to a minimum. in the proposed terminology. This is somewhat lamentable since a semantic translation such as ‘hole’. without the flesh signific). would possibly confuse Western readers. the number of LSP-bound terms that cannot be semantically translated are relatively few. or ‘foramen’ would be much more informative about the nature of the xu´ . Following Porkert and Unschuld. Any semantic translation of e zh` ng. meaning ‘silt(ing)’. hare cleft u e Occasionally. representing a form of pathological fluid. earth has been adopted as the equivalent for l tˇ . perhaps it would be wiser to use soil (as for example Unschuld u does) in order to prevent conflation with d`. such e as ‘evidence’ or ‘testimony’. rather than by ı the literal drink. Another term proposed is agent (Harper 1998: 9–11). Earth (by contrast to Heaven). a u storehouse and mansion have been proposed as options (that appear to be particularly desirable for older texts in which the characters appear in their pristine form. which is not close to the original meaning of military camp. the compound term ‘rib-side’ was coined in the proposed terminology. y´ng has been rendered ı as construction. so I have rejected these in favour of the best English term among those currently in use (sign and pattern). corresponding to nutrition in Western medicine (the use of ı a in this context means to supply). yˇn. 8 z` ng and 9 fˇ are rendered as viscera and bowels. The Chinese xu´ has been e chosen purely out of deference to an existing convention. In the proposed source-oriented terminology. because they represent ı functional rather than material characteristics. is rendered in the proposed terminology by the more generic stasis. when no correspondence exists in the target language. Proposed Methodology of Term Translation 1335. upflow nausea a ˇ t` qu¯ . Although many Chinese terms have anisomorphic LGP equivalents.7. The Chinese y¯ . Finally. Since English has no word for this region (the word side means the whole side of the torso). & 1336. is rendered as rheum. which appears to have derived from its homophone u . The term ) xi´ denotes the lateral area of the ribcage. meaning to ‘go’ or ‘act’ is translated as phase in the context of ı l the fivefold system of correspondence. Scholars now generally agree that the wˇ u x´ng are not to be compared with the elements of Greek thought. ı 7. the other popular translation is ‘nourishment’. an equivalent e has to be devised on the basis of definition alone. but a u z` ng fˇ . which often . In all languages. ‘cavity’. The Chinese x´ng. words are used in different senses. anachronistically based on the modern compound k y´ng yˇ ng. P Q f` n e.3. respectively. and it is one of the parameters that is studied in the next chapter. A terminology that translators can be expected to abide by must be one they can use with minimal lookups in a glossary.2 (Unit of Translation) in the present chapter. Indeed. ‘acute’ hu´ is used in the senses of ‘slippery’ (of a O the pulse). In the terminology of Chinese medicine. . say. I provided examples of how diagnostic and therapeutic-action terms could be varied in English in the way they were in Chinese. zh` ng e is used in the senses of ‘regular’ (of channels). An English terminology that is pegged closely to the Chinese must be convenient for the translator to use. because it might be argued some of the examples at least could be considered as synonymous and that the synonymy could be eliminated in English for the benefit of the English reader. ‘to slip’ (out of the body uncontrollably). the number of equivalents must be kept to a minimum for the convenience of the translator. The proposed terminology takes this into account. j´. while at the same time trying to preserve philological accuracy. ‘rapid’ (of breathing).2. the word (of illnesses). compromises have been made between making things easy for the reader and making things easy for the translator. If each of the basic 1. ‘glossy’ (of the tongue). the English terminology can be assimilated into memory with minimum lookups in a glossary.000 terms is not easily memorised. Again. which is used in its original ı sense of ‘sun’ and in the extended sense of ‘day’ (a period of time characterised by one appearance of the sun). ‘urgent’ (of the desire to urinate). is used in ı several different senses: ‘tense’ (of the sinews). ‘right’ (of q`). In section 7. A vast terminology of. These distinct meanings of the Chinese word have to be rendered with different words in English. This is known as polyequiv- alence. the proposed terminology conflates terms wherever imitation of the distinctions in Chinese terms is difficult in English and no loss is incurred by doing so. ‘medial’ (of headache). 30. In devising the proposed terminology. Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology) has a minimum number of English equivalents. different words have to be used in translation (as different words have to be used to explain the different senses of the Chinese). This is an area of potential disagreement in translation theory.500 characters of which Chinese medical terminology is comprised (see Chapter 8. for example. Nevertheless. A simple example of this is the Chinese word r`.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms have to be translated with different target-language words. In ı each of these cases. while the second analyses it from the point of view of the individual component characters of terms. that is. and loans are sourceoriented translation. The terms are placed in one of four categories. I subject my own proposed source-oriented terminology to analysis. the extent to which terms are borrowed from or modelled on the terms of the source language.2 (Chinese Translation of Western Medical Terms).CHAPTER 8 THE SUCCESS OF SOURCE-ORIENTED TRANSLATION IN THE PROPOSED TERMINOLOGY This chapter attempts to show the degree to which a source-oriented approach can be achieved in translation. LGP equivalents and loan-translations can be considered semantic translations.1 DEGREE OF SOURCE-ORIENTED TRANSLATION IN FULL TERMS 8. LGP equivalents. loan-translations.) Sourceindependent formations constitute the source-deviant category. (LGP equivalents show the least sign of source-orientation.1. loan-translations. The first section investigates the question from the point of view of full terms including compounds. Terms were also divided into simple terms and compounds.1 Aims and Methods English equivalents of Chinese medical terms chosen in accordance with the term translation methodology set forth in Chapter 7 (Proposed Methodology of Term Translation) are analysed to determine the extent to which they are source-oriented. LGP equivalents. To do so. 8. The procedure is almost identical to that of the analysis of Chinese equivalents of Western medical terms presented in 3. The only one combining form different from a simple . loans. and source-independent formations. . lt Loan-translations . e o The terms analyzed are contained in Appendix III. zh¯ ng ch¯ ng.. . .g.. . hence the term selection can be considered sufficiently representative.g... . . . ... 109 ..... .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms The analysis covers 831 terms drawn from a textbook designed to teach the proposed English terminology of Chinese medicine to Chinese-speaking students of Chinese medicine in T´ iw¯ n (Wiseman & F´ ng 1998b).. . . .. ... . . . . . .81%) 4 (3... ... ... source-independent formations (e.. . . .. . g l LGP/WM equivalents Loans lt i Loan-translations Source-independent formations Elements added in loan-translations are marked by double underlining (e. .. 8.. An asterisk following an English term indicates that the English term is the equivalent of two or more (e. .. Independent formations and nonsemantically translated e o elements of loan translations are marked by single underlining (e.. . laryngeal prominence ı ı a a ji´ h´ u)... . physiologa a e ical..2) included combining forms. loan-translations (e. . fearful throbbing)..g..76%) 4 (3. The terms denote anatomical... clear the heart and open the orifices for ı K G q¯ng x¯n k` i qi` o). .67% decrease) .. ..1.. .. . .g. .. ....g. Chinese equivalents are each assigned to one of four categories of term-formation in relation to the SL terms: LGP or Chinese medical equivalents (head for t´ u).. and therapeutic concepts spanning all the major aspects of the subject.. .. . each followed by the proposed English equivalent. Each entry is headed by a ringed letter indicating the category to which the term is ascribed.. .. .. ..81%) Simple Chinese Terms English equivalents LGP/WM terms Loans l g . . lt ). . . . The study on the Chinese translation of Western medical terms (3. 105 (03. . . . .. . . pathological. . . ....2 Results . lt tongue body* lt y . .. neutral cause)... .. . . but no combining forms are used in the proposed English terminology of Chinese medicine. 89 (84. loans o 6 ı (e. .. . q` for + q`). . The Chinese terms were were divided into simple terms and complex terms. They are arranged in thematic order. .g. . . .. ... . . .. .. . . .. . 10 (1. . . . 735 (1. . ..... . . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. 69 (9.... ... .. ... . 40 ... 173 (26.11%) i Source-independent formations Unclassified equivalents ? .. . 41 (4. . lt Loan-translations .. .. . . .14%) .39%) 1 (0. ...... . . .... . . . .. ..81%) 5 (0..45%) . . ... . . .. . . . .. . ..91%) . ... . . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . Combined Total of Chinese Terms . .. . . . . 659 (78. . 835 ... .. Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology Unclassified terms Complex Chinese Terms English equivalents LGP/WM equivalents Loans l ? . . 726 ... . . . .. .. . 113 Added elements in loan-translations Deleted elements in loan-translations Changed elements in loan-translations Total .24% increase) g ..8.. ... . .. .... . . .36%) 0 (0%) . . .. . . 20 ... . .. . . ... . . ..... .. .... . . 655 (89. . . .. . ..25%) i Source-independent formations Uunclassified equivalents ? .. .. . . . . 18 (2. . ... . . ........ . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . ... . . . .. lt Loan-translations ... . . .. . . . . .... . ..6%) . ...... . .. .. ... .. .14%) 0 (0%) . . . . . . . 158 (18. .. .. . . ... . . .6% increase) Combined total of English equivalents Polyequivalence Deleted synonymy LGP/WM equivalents Loans l . . . .. ... . ... .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . 16 (1. . . .. . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . .. . . 0 (0%) .. . ... . .. . . . . . . . ... . ... .92%) g .. . 840 (0. .. . . . . sign and pattern for two distinct meanings of the Chinese term. In most cases.3. The ad- ditional equivalents are occasionally due to polysemy of the English term. Amongst loan-translations. as measured by added. When the two groups (simple terms and complex terms) are added together. In a few cases (1. clear patterns in the choice of term-formation method can be discerned. LSP-bound terms in the SL are overwhelmingly rendered by loan-translation rather than loan. and independent formations for most of the rest. e.2). LGP/WM equivalents account for nearly 85%. is about one deviation in ten terms. taking LGP/WM equivalents. Overall..Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 8. loans. therefore. the English translation of Chinese medical terms are nearly 98% source-oriented. deviation from exact word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme duplication. and loans and loan-translations for the other half.3 Discussion Just nearly 5% of Chinese terms have more than more English equivalent. however.g. the additional equivalents reflect indecision about which is the best term. LGP terms in the SL are represented by LGP/WM terms. sourceindependent formations for half of the rest.2 LGP/WM equivalents .1. Note that this follows the same pattern as in the Chinese translation of Western medical terms (3. synonymy in the Chinese is eliminated in English.1 Relative Frequency of the Use of Methods Although classifying TL term-formation methods in relation to the SL terms poses certain problems (discussed below). deleted. and loan-translations to be source-oriented. Among single terms. The extent to which this kind of deviation affects the source/target-oriented status of translation is difficult to evaluate as will become apparent from the discussion below. and changed elements in the TL equivalents.1. the percentage of loan-translations accounts for nearly 90%. I would say that a larger selection would reveal greater elimination of synonymy. we find that loan-translation accounts for nearly 80%.1. 8. Among complex terms. From experience.3. LGP/WM for less than 20%. 8.9%). LGP/WM and independent formations accounting for most of the rest. r H l` j´ ı ı d¯ n d´ a u ( j`ng b`ng ı ı c` u lˇ o ı b` n sh¯ n b` su` a e u ı lˇ j´ h` u zh` ng ı ı o o interstice. epiglottis. it must be applied more rigorously in Chinese medicine. As I showed in 6.3. tenesmus. erysipelas. given the dominance of Western medicine.8. as I have argued in the previous chapter. g¯ o-hu¯ ng. # t` ı pharynx. transcriptions are the most common renderings for these terms. y´ ng. Note that the last two terms in the preceding list are Western medical terms that have been used with different definitions. The ı a ı a a a first three of these are among the most commonly occurring words in Chinese medicine. as previously stated. tetany. Although. These can be regarded as specialisations. g g g g g nasal mucus.3 Loans Although borrowing is a form of source-oriented translation. The literal meaning of signifier with and pitting erosion of the skin. and hence they constantly reappear in compounds. K y¯ n a hu` y` n ı a p Z @ g g g g dysentery. the principle of exluding LSP-bound terms from a target-culture domain of knowledge that gives rise to a conceptual clash is largely applied in the translation of Western medical terminology into Chinese.2 (Approaches to Chinese Medical Term Translation). and the term has two distinct referents: malnutrition a . The literal meaning of unclear. U g¯ o hu¯ ng and its referent are a a g¯ n is also unclear (the composition is the sickness a g¯ n meaning sweet). 8. and g¯ n. Y¯n.1. y´ ng and q` are old loans in the ı a ı English language (the last recently having had its spelling renewed). it has been kept to a minimum in the proposed term list for reasons explained in 7. and also reflecting the consistent effort to ensure LGP equivalents in the TL for LGP terms in the SL. The only loans included in the list are y¯n. Western medical LSP-bound terms could not be separated from LGP terms. Examples of Western medical terms appearing in the proposed terminology are given below. q`. hemiplegia. Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology portance of LGP terms in Chinese. they have been deliberately kept to a minimum.1 (German and English Translation of Latin Medical Terms).1 (Loans [P¯ny¯n Transcripı ı tion] Versus Loan-Translations). As I showed in 3. kidney y¯n vacuity e ı u ı zh¯ ng q` xi` xi` n. semantic translation of an LSP-specific term. 1345. 1338. Transcribed elements: The loans y¯n. 1339. sh` n y¯n x¯ . raised-shoulder breathing a ı Deleted elements: As described in 5. that is. Loan-translations are mostly complex terms. Chinese has many compounds containing elements redundant in the written langauge that appear to resulted from phonological attrition. centre q` fall o ı a a ı y´ ng tu¯ . prepositions. excessive consumption of raw and cold foods o ı e e kˇ u su¯ n.4 Loan-Translations Loan-translation. sour taste in the mouth o a O w` i zh¯ d` lu` . conjunctions. 1343. and q` appear in many loanı a ı translations. y´ ng. y´ ng desertion a o a Added elements: The following are examples of where elements can be usefully added to complete the sense in English.1. A certain leeway is allowed in deviation from word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme translation. 1337. but also include terms composed of a single word or morpheme. Note that exactly the same phenomenon was observed in the translation of Western medical terminology from Latin into German and from English into Chinese.1 (Features of the Chinese Language). Nevertheless. 1340. 1344. In establishing whether a given TL term is a loan-translation. 1342. _ gu` sh´ sh¯ ng lˇ ng. whether translating u a moot point.3. and articles that are added or deleted in translation are ignored since grammar imposes certain requirements on expression that often have nothing to do with word choice.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 8. deep-source nasal congestion ı a ji¯ n x¯. loan-translations may include loans and elements of terms are often added. is by far the most common form of translation used in proposed terminology. It is used in nearly 80% of terms. It could be equally argued that S ch´ n and S kˇ u ch´ n simply as lips. deleted or changed in the translation process. only content words/morphemes need be taken into account. should be considered deletion is o u S kˇ u ch´ n are both LGP o u . fearful throbbing e o b´ yu¯ n. 1341. rather than lips of the mouth. great network vessel of the stomach e ı a o zh¯ ng ch¯ ng. In most of the examples below. 1362. the changed element is a source-independent translation of the element. 1361. predilection for greasy and rich foods [flavours] a ı o ı o e xu´ d` o. 1363. f´ ng a sh` as a euphemism for sexual activity might possibly be considered as an LGP equivalent. lying in curled-up posture [facing inward] a ı a o Changed elements: Some elements are different in meaning. K ^ sh´ qˇ m´ ng c`. homing and netting [belonging] u o jiˇ l´ . ununited skull [cleft] e u p Y o xiˇ o bi` n b` l`. groping in the air and pulling [invisible] strings o o ı a kˇ u yˇ n w¯ i xi´ . spleen governs upbearing of the clear ı u e ı w` i zh¯ d` lu` . half-interior half-exterior pattern. though not too commonly. the most obvious examples are in the order of elements in possessive or subordinative relationships (Chinese Y X of Y). ^ 1351. 1360. 1353. disinhibit dampness [free] ı ı biˇ o zh` ng. inhibited urination [not free] a a u ı l` sh¯. ‘spleen opens orifice at the ı a a u o xi` ng lˇ qu´ n w` . acupuncture point [hole] e a shˇ lu` . dental impressions on the margins of the tongue e a ı e cu¯ k¯ ng lˇ xi` n. 1346. 1358. ı 1349. sexual intemperance [bedroom] a ı u e 8 pi¯ n sh` y´ u n` h` u w` i. deviated eyes and mouth o a a e z u In this context. @ 1357. 1350. 1352. great network vessel of the stomach e ı a o f` i zhˇ t¯ ng ti´ o shuˇ d` o. mouth’] 1348. Y 1356. lung governs regulation of the waterways e u o a ı a sh´ bi¯ n chˇ h´ n. flailing of the arms and legs [dancing] a o ı u i mid-stage pattern In addition to lexical changes. 1355. the changed element appears with a single underscore. Differences in grammatical structure between Chinese and English often require changes in word order in translation. 1347. prickly tongue [ e ı a ı m´ ng = awn] a p´ k¯ i qi` o y´ kˇ u. 1364. it should also be pointed out that a single Chinese medical term can . exterior pattern [evidence] a e K b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ zh` ng.8. Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology More substantial deletions do occur. @ O } p u f´ ng sh` b` ji´ . In the examples below. and a literal translation of the changed element is placed in brackets after the whole term. there are of course grammatical changes. a a a ı e y´ ng shˇ u zh´ z´ . At the phrase level. ' 0 h X → English z _ O p´ zhˇ sh¯ ng q¯ng. 1359. spleen opens at the mouth [lit. 1354. yˇn ı zh` ngzheng=4signsign. In the proposed English terminology. source-independent formation: It is difficult to determine whether to consider ‘clenched jaw’ as an LGP equivalent or as a source-independent formation. For example. / + p´ q` x¯ translated as spleen q` vacuı ı u ı ity is classed as a loan-translation even though the component q` is a borrowing. nominal form. Loan-translation v. ‘cholera’. deleted. Clenched jaw is not a set term in English. names of signs of disease are listed in their green-blue. other categories: Any complex term is classed as a loantranslation if its overall structure matches the SL term. For example. Y sign. # q¯ng r` xi` huˇ can be ı e e o translated as to clear heat and drain fire or as clearing heat and draining fire. but clench and jaw often collocate. e pat- i i welling-abscess.1.3. In English. it is not always possible to distinguish LGP equivalents from Western medical equivalents. forward-staring eyes. j¯ u y¯ ng o 8. the two were placed in the same category.5 Source-Independent Formations The source-independent formations are as follow: i i i i i i f` t` ng can function as the abdomen is painful or abdominal u o pain. Note that this problem is comparable to the difficulty in distinguishing LGP and CM equivalents in the translation of Western medical terms into Chinese. rheum. Loanı translations sometimes contain added. WM: As I have already said. so it cannot count as an LGP/WM equivalent. even if individual elements are formed by other methods.3. ‘malaria’. LGP v.1. or changed elements: in excessive con- . For this reason. flat-abscess. e o i xu´ d` o e a : ji´ h´ u e o i i zh´ sh` ı ı pattern i stomach duct. should be treated as LSP-bound terms or LGP terms. xi´ e wˇ n a w` i wˇ n e a w i acupuncture point. Disease signs are often expressed in Chinese in a way that allows them to be used predicatively or nominally. it does not specifically denote a pathological state. Is tern zh` ng h` u. ? q¯ng ı laryngeal prominence. clench means to close (jaws or fists) tightly. 8.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms in English without varying the form. rib-side. For instance. stomach duct.6 Categorisation Difficulties LGP v. It is difficult to determine whether ‘measles’. and to the existence of fewer poorly motivated terms than in Western medicine. This section complements it by showing the degree to which this orientation is reflected at the level of component characters of terms. kidney. is a lˇ j´ h` u ı ı o deleted. Medicine in the West has undergone much greater change since antiquity than Chinese medicine. ‘interior’ o 8. the words abdominal and rectal do not exactly render the Chinese (lit. awn. in prickly tongue as the rendering of sh´ qˇ m´ ng c`. However. whereas in the Chinese terminology of Western medicine there are fewer equivalents English terms The reduction in terms in Western medicine is due to high synonymy in the English in basic terms. ren. kidney. zh` ng. In loan-translations. etc. This can be largely explained by the fact that the components of Chinese medical terms are full words. . in abdominal urgency and rectal heaviness as the rendering of J and ‘posterior’.8. The higher level of LGP/CM terms in Western medical terminology can be accounted for by the high incidence of exact synonyms observed in Western medicine (e. This can be accounted for by the need for source-orientation in Chinese medicine on the one hand.1 Aims and Methods The previous section showed to what extent the translation of full terms in the proposed translation scheme is source-oriented.3. (e.2 DEGREE OF SOURCE-ORIENTED TRANSLATION IN COMPONENT CHARACTERS 8.. There are markedly fewer source-independent formations in the proposed terminology for Chinese medicine than in the Chinese terminology of Western medicine. -itis. there is a much lower deviation from strict word/morphemefor-word/morpheme replication. there are more equivalents than original terms.7 Comparison with Chinese Translation of Western Medical Terms In the proposed English terminology of Chinese medicine. Nearly 19% of terms in the list are translated by LGP/WM equivalents. Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology is added. nephr-). ren-.. whereas many components of Western medical terms are meaningless particles (-ium. and retains terms that are now poorly motivated.g. This is lower than the percentage of Western medical terms translated by LGP/CM equivalents in Appendix I (nearly 27%). I would suggest that if a wider range of terms were chosen in Chinese medicine we would find a higher level of English terms serving as equivalents for multiple Chinese terms.2.1. e ı a ı m´ ng.). 8.g. nephr-). respectively). and nontranslations. The nonsemantic equivalents are translations of LSP-bound terms whose literal meaning differs from the Chinese.124 Chinese medical terms taken from a smaller Chinese medical dictionary.). the number of TL equivalents for each character has to be kept to a minimum. In the first stage. In secondary term formation. it is wise to be fully aware of this problem. and arranged in order of frequency (the first character is + q`. it is of interest to determine the average ratio of TL term components to SL term components. and were each marked for ascription to one of four categories: loans. that is. Thus. which occurs 252 times. and for this reason. In addition to the Chinese terms. Nontranslation means that the character appears in terms in whose English equivalents it has no corresponding word/morpheme. from the full-terms listed under the character and pulse (as in strange pulses). ch¯ ng m` i. the seven ı a a . their English equivalents in the proposed terminology were also included in the database. Since an effective terminology is one that can be mastered by translators easily. but the section containing archaic characters difficult for modern readers was excluded. The SYCD includes a total of 4. semantic equivalents. Nonlexical Chinese characters. Zh¯ ngy¯ M´ngc´ Sh` yˇ C´diˇ n (SYCD) ( o ı ı ı u u ı a “Dictionary of Chinese Medical Terms”) published in 1975. I chose this list rather than the one used in Appendix III because it includes substantially more terms. The database was then analysed in two stages by means of a custom-designed programme created by Gu¯ Ni´ n-F¯ ng ( o a e ). and these were then listed under the headword characters. nonsemantic equivalents.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms morphemes appearing in terminology have different meanings and have to be translated in different ways. thoroughfare vessel.124-term list were extracted from the database. all the individual character types (see Glossary of Terms) occurring in the 4. With the data arranged in this way. To this end I created a database of 4.285 terms. etc. The English equivalents for each character were listed under the headword characters. In the second stage. the second is < y¯n occurring 198 ı ı times. articles. the database was searched for all of the terms in which each individual character type occurred. it was a easily seen that this character had been translated with two distinct equivalents: vessel w w q¯ gu` i m` i. The semantic equivalents include LGP equivalents and semantically translated LSP equivalents. it was a relatively easy manual task in a third stage to determine the way or ways in which each character had been dealt with in the translation process. and F o a w m` i. and the percentage of the whole term-list that it accounts for (for example. and at least one term exemplifying the use of each equivalent of each character. y¯n). conjunctions.. wind.290). The third line presents the various translation equivalents of the character. The number of different equivalents is given in box at the end of the line (e. it permits the most frequently used characters to be isolated and thereby to ensure that we have a more meaningful selection of characters... vacuous) are considered as a single equivalent.g. The full list of characters with all the terms in which they occur is too large to present in full. In the second line. The parenthesised AT value is the accumulated total of commonly used characters so far in the list. prepostions. As will be explained in greater detail below different grammatical forms of words (e. but their English equivalents are not categorized or counted. Nontranslations are represented by an . At least one example is given for each English equivalent. with its serial number in the character-list. The arrangement of the characters in order of their frequency (as opposed to say stroke order or some other script-related order) serves two purposes: Firstly.g. liver.g. The parenthezised ı value AT is the accumulated total percentage. etc. containing the 260 characters most frequently occurring in the 4. accounting for 2.. Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology pronouns. vacuity. followed by indication of semantic and nonsemantic translation. 4 ).g. The remaining lines of each character entry are example terms. N = not commonly used). The data is presented as follows: Each entry character is written in bold. pattern). .290 = x% expresses the number of occurrences of the char- acter in the term-list.8.g. small ı empty box capitals mark semantic translations e. B.. are included. Secondly.232% of the 11. Italic type marks loans (e. + q` occurs 252 times. it enables to determine the relative frequency of individual characters used in medical terminology and compare this with the frequency of the characters in the LGP. number 11. and C in descending order of frequency. typewriter type nonsemantic equivalents (e. A sample of the list is presented in Appendix IV. Next to this is an indication of the frequency of the character in LGP (A..124-term list. 98%) Nonsemantic equivalents: . . . . . . . .53%) 1 : 2. . . . . . . . . . . 590 Ratio of Chinese characters to English words/morphemes: . . . . Characters with 4 English equivalents: . . . . . . . . . . 466 (78. . .76%) 8 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .08% 9 (1. . . . Lexical equivalents Loans (P¯ny¯n): . . . . . . . .07%) Nontranslations: . . . . . . . . . . . . .15%) 2 (0. . . Characters with 3 English equivalents: . . . . . . Characters with 7 English equivalents: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Results Types of English Equivalents Number of Characters listed: . . . . . . . . . . .85%) 30 (11. . . . . . . . . Characters with 1 English equivalent: . . . . . .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 8. . .27 . . .54%) 12 (4. . . . . . . . . .124 list: 85 (14. . 260 Lexical English equivalents: . .290 contained in the 4. . . .62%) 3 (1. . .31%) 58 (22. . Nonlexical characters: . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ı ı Semantically translated equivalents (LGP/WM equivalents or loan-translations): . . . . . . . . . . .41%) 8 97 (37. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characters with 2 English equivalents: . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characters with 5 English equivalents: . . . . . Characters with 6 English equivalents: . Characters with nonlexical English equivalents: Frequency Chinese Characters Frequency of characters in Chinese medical terminology Sets of most frequently used characters as a percentage of the total number of tokens 11. . . 21 (8. . .31%) 49 (18. . the character is not translated by a corresponding word in English. as few as 1. third. .555% of 11. words of the same root are considered identical.15%) Characters appearing among Lˇ & Zh` o’s ı a 1.8. Characters 1–200 account for 64. Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology Characters 1–100 account for 48. the level of source-oriented translation is over 80%. 187 (71.2. so that.3. Three.074 most commonly used characters: . . for example. i.290 tokens.216% of 11. an overwhelming majority (76.. 226 (86.1 Distribution of Translation Methods defined with precision insofar as English words vary in their form.175% of 11. . . .2. and triple are treated as separate words (although the first two could be considered as mere variants). . Characters 1–250 account for 69. . even though referentially they are identical. .735 most commonly used characters: . . Frequency of characters in the LGP Characters appearing among Lˇ & Zh` o’s ı a 1.290 tokens.3 Discussion What constitutes a separate English equivalent of Chinese character is not easily 8. . .92%) 8. . Only 8.290 tokens.92%) are semantic equivalents.92%) Characters appearing among Lˇ & Zh` o’s ı a 2.290 tokens. . . .588 most commonly used characters: . . Of the English equivalents of the 260 single headword characters listed in Appendix IV. These findings show that a high degree of source-oriented word/morpheme-forword/morpheme translation at character level has been achieved. Similarly. . . Characters 1–150 account for 57. As source-oriented equivalents include semantic equivalents and loans.353% of 11. For the present purposes. mouth and oral are considered as distinct translations. Just over 15% are nontranslations.e.07% are nonsemantic equivalents. This figure is somewhat different than for full terms (Appendix III). 159 (61. and the reason lies in the nontranslation brought into focus at the single-character level. vacuous is not treated as a separate translation from vacuity. They reflect the fact that many basic concepts are represented by a single character and the generally monosyllabic nature of the largely classical terminology of Chinese medicine. .3% are loans. o just. complexion e u (242) G ch¯ issue.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms The ratio of Chinese characters to English words/morphemes is 1 : 2. ascend. which corresponds not e s` z´ . e vital. major. exhale. Polysemy in Chinese is typified by of the character. delayed.2. protrude u j´ rapid. down. but it is also used in the specialised sense of jaundice. man (215) (221) (241) sh¯ course.3. bar. great. e latent (165) a l` uninhibited. adverse. advanced. wrap.1. early a b¯ o envelop. In Chinese. Each character thus has on average of over two distinct English renderings. tense. superior. regular. post. meaning ‘colour [and] moiste e only colour. descend. diarrhoea e xi` discharge. flow to o tu¯ shed. classic. delivery. later. Below is a sample of characters with multiple equivalents (numbers refer to serial numbers of entries in Appendix IV): (9) i xi` low. This is due to anisomorphism between Chinese and English on the one hand and to polysemy in Chinese on the other (see 7. eject. Principles). unı favourable. loose. ı emergency (195) p´ng calm. urgent. inferior. child. a precipitate (13) : presentation (147) (156) gu¯ n pass. for a discussion of the problems of translating this word). reproduce (29) (83) then (88) kˇ u mouth. disinhibit. ‘complexion’ is an extended meaning (character 138) hu´ ng corresponds to yellow (see 7. u j¯ng channel. error (129) s` colour. relaxed u xi¯ n first. normal ı ı (94) n zˇ infant. acute. crouch. food.6. arise. medial. human. (character 129) s` . conı sume. pregnancy (96) (97) t¯ ng free. straight. (up)stream. smell e (208) D r´ n person.138. partum. desert. menstruaı tion (30) (57) (49) (69) l sh` ng up. diarrhoea e sh¯ ng engender. be born. disloo cation (98) sh´ eat. prolapse. adult a h` u after. joint a f´ deep-lying. a (140) chˇ n birth. but also to complexion. sometimes represented by ness/sheen’. light (177) (191) t` vomit. opening o d` large. exit . rise a xi` drain. offcenter e (205) W w` i flavour. half-body. gate. suckling. hidden. full ı (176) F m´ng bright. meal (70) Z a (201) Y pi¯ n hemilateral. peria n` counterflow. diet. Absence of a LGP Equivalents. diarı rhoea (167) O zh` ng right. block. Predictably. as is immediately apparent from the list above.2. liver). ı ten. If all of the 1. and that flatus vaginalis (or vaginal flatulence. 4 4 sh´.124-term list. is given a nontranslation classication on account of the fact that the word ten does 5 sh´ er.2.515 component characters of the 4. fire. The Chinese not appear in the the word twelve. may justifiably be called a semantic translation ı ı on the grounds that only the full term is equivalent. which are marked as ı semantic equivalents. It might be objected that < y¯n does not have these specific meanı ings except in combinations with other characters.138 English types to 1 Chinese type belies a very uneven distribution. 8. The result nevertheless suggests that the terminology of Chinese medicine is largely composed of a small number of characters. Although the larger analysis would almost certainly include many characters that are not commonly used core words and that therefore tend to be translated in different ways according to context. We have nothing to compare this with (a similar frequency analysis of word/morpheme components in Western medicine would be a major task since it cannot be automated to the same degree). and vagina.2 Comparison of Character Frequency in LSP and LGP 8. The 100 characters most commonly used account for 48%. a slightly higher percentage than those with three or more equivalents. The translations of the Chinese < y¯n in Appendix IV include not ı only the loan y¯n but also the words genital. however. the figures would no doubt change. The ratio of 2. Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology The classification of character equivalents as semantic or nonsemantic is sometimes problematic.3. < y¯n chu¯).2. pudenda. By logical ı` sh´ in this compound is reflected conceptually as ‘ten’ in the ı . not the parts. the equivalent of the Chinese 4 implication.1 Frequency of characters in medical terminology The 260 most commonly used types chosen for analysis account for 70% of the terminology.124 terms had been analyzed. there are nevertheless about five hundred characters that only appear once in the 4. English. for example.3. and hence only have at most one equivalent. Over 37% of terms have only one equivalent. the proportion of loans would be lower.8. The characters with multiple renderings by and large do not represent concepts in themselves. The terms that have only one equivalent represent full concepts that can stand independently (wind. The nontranslation classification can also be problematic. Yet whether the number of English equivalents for each character would change is not clear. one would measure the frequency of occurrence over a variety of Chinese medical texts. 159 (61. phlegm).147. a a In the present analysis.3. and bodily substances (blood. The three groups thus comprise the most commonly used 2..g.000 characters (e.92) to category A or B. heart. dampness. liver. Many if not most elements of Chinese medical terminology are of considerable vintage. i. the LGP frequency of may have differed from that of today. McNaughton’s u ı a list of over 2.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms y´ ng (their Chinese nature is highlighted by the fact that these terms are almost universally a rendered in transcription as they are here). and the fact that many of them are still commonly used words in the LGP attests to the great stability of the Chinese language. The few lists of commonly used characters exist (McNaughton 1979. cold. Hu´ ng D-S & K¯ X-T 1993). wind. Ideally.2 Frequency of characters in the LGP Since the present analysis involves calculating the relative frequency of characters occurring in Chinese medical terminology. are not among the 2. which e probably every toddler knows through personal experience.07%) are labelled as N.e. Lˇ & Zh` o 1998). only 34 (13. for example. It is quite possible that some of the terms that modern readers find obscure would have been more common in the past. kidney. dryness). and group C the next 1. a e Of the 260 characters listed in Appendix IV. group B includes the next 514 most commonly used characters. For the present analysis. does not include the word 4 k´ . (Group D is ignored because it is too large.2.. and body parts (vessels. B. and 187 (71.735 characters. It might be noted that dictionaries intended for elementary school children often contain as many as 5. 8.) Group A includes the 1. Li´ 1990. We can conclude that Chinese medicine is largely composed of easy words. each character is marked A.92%) belong to A.290 characters). This can only be done very roughly. I have measured each character’s frequency of occurrence by its frequency of in the list as a whole (11. 226 (86. tongue).2. In second place are environmental qualities (heat.074 characters most commonly occurring in elementary school textbooks. lung. and N if it does not appear in these three. I chose Lˇ & Zh` o’s study on the frequency of characters found in elementary school textı a books in T´ iw¯ n. it seems worthwhile to compare this with their frequency in the LGP. B.000 characters. This was not attempted because it would require a large amount of text to produce valid results and would require more sophisti- . In the past. or C according to Lˇ & Zh` o’s ı a rating. or C. which divides characters into four levels of descending frequency A–D.15%) belong to category A. cough.735 characters most frequently appearing in elementary school textbooks. no comparison of component-level features was made with Western medicine. For example.8. As I pointed out in the Introduction (Chapter 1). Secondly. . true feasibility can only be demonstrated by the proposed terminology being adopted. The 250 most commonly occurring characters account for 70% of all the 11. then it is easy to see how the impression could arise that Chinese medicine only has a handful of terms (see Chapter 6).124-character list. If one were to measure the frequency of characters occurring in text. categorisation of characters is problematic. This would be difficult because a component analysis of Western medical terms could not be automated to the same degree as that of Chinese medical terms. we would probably find that they accounted for a good deal more than 50 per cent of the terminological elements over a broad variety of texts. Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology characters in text would widen frequency differences.290 tokens. ‘y´ ng vacuity’ and a ‘sudden reversal’ each occur once in the 4. but the former is much more common in most texts. The present analysis has certain limitations. This demonstrates only a theoretical feasibility. First and foremost. If this is so. so this would raise the frequency of ‘y´ ng’ and ‘vacuity’ against a ‘sudden’ and ‘reversal’. Both the analyses performed in this chapter suggest a high level of sourceorientation in the proposed terminology. to the dominance of Western medicine and. and in particular term translation. which has provided the principal motivation of the Western reception of Chinese medicine. philological translators. to the complementary-medicine countercurrent. The westward transmission of Chinese medicine has been less successful. LGP terms were rendered with LGP equivalents and LSP terms with loan-translations.CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSION Source-orientation as an approach to translation. It reflects recognition of the need for a standardised Chinese terminology that is pegged to the SL. These requirements have their roots in extralinguistic factors: the desire to appropriate the whole of Western medical learning. The preference is explained in some cases by the systematic nature of the SL terminology and more generally by the practical advantage of look-alike SL and TL terms. is recognised by translation theorists. and by terminologists. paradoxically on the other. It has been applied in practice in modern disciplines in which terms are unequivocally defined to a much greater extent than is theoretically required. and the evident desire for SL terms to be visible in the TL terms. and acknowledgement of language as the key in the transmission process. In both cases. recognition of dependency on a foreign source of information. On both the Chinese and Western sides. The source-oriented translation of Western medical terminology into Chinese is attributable not to hazard but to source-dependency for information. The approach applied by Chinese translators in Western medical terminology is very similar to that applied in the German translation of Latin terminology of Western medicine. the need for communication in the TL to be as unequivocal as in the SL. This has been due. on the one hand. discussion of how to translate Chinese terms has been complicated by the perceived need for Western medical understanding to . In China. In general. and preoccupation with health-related and wider issues of indigenous origin. Conclusion different connotation or by encouraging the use of LSP-bound Western medical terms to represent traditional Chinese concepts. Indeed. this is the one that dominates attitudes to translation. the issues of standardisation. it has expressed itself in different ways. In the West. This. the belief that Chinese medicine only possesses a few medical terms. and continuing presence of writers not working from primary sources still hamper the general acceptance and development of a source-oriented language of Chinese medicine. Whatever other views about Chinese medicine exist in China. The source-oriented methodology described in this study and the proposed terminology created through its application are intended to facilitate the faithful translation of any Chinese medical text from the N` ij¯ng onward and thereby provide access to the full e ı body of Chinese medical knowledge in hopefully all of its historical dimensions. The underlying cause is the lack of prestige accorded to the culture and language of China. The drive to encourage the Western acceptance of Chinese medicine by forcing a bridge between Western and Chinese medicine in the translation process and the Western projection onto Chinese medicine of expectations alien to the cultural environment in which Chinese medicine historically evolved have conjugated to preclude otherwise apparently perennial common-sense attitudes to the relatively simple task of acquiring a knowledge corpus from another culture. experience in the reception of Western scientific knowledge has made scholars much more aware of the need for terminological management. Nevertheless. In a couple of isolated instances. and transparency have attracted the concern of very few people. does not necessarily clash with any aims to insert Chinese medicine into any . Western medicine has not exerted a single pull on the translation of Chinese medical terminology. the westward transmission of Chinese medicine in China is viewed in the same context as the transmission of Chinese medicine from the past into a present dominated by Western medicine. where for many the only hope of survival for Chinese medicine is seen to lie in its integration with modern medicine. reflecting a failure to understand that Chinese medicine is a body of knowledge that exists fully only in Chinese and that access to that body of knowledge requires language learning and translation. complementary health tenets tend to steer attention away from the minutiae of translation and toward adaptation. however. The lack of linguistic access among Westerners. I contend. we have seen TL term choices being swayed by the expectations of holism and naturalness projected onto Chinese medicine. virtually all of the Chinese-English dictionaries have been created by Chinese scholars. pegging.9. source-orientation based on LGP equivalents and loan-translations is equally desirable for the practical purpose of developing an efficient transmission mechanism as in Western medicine. it is not necessarily because the theories on which the treatment is based are correct. Chinese medicine is a body of knowledge whose basic levels do not necessarily possess immediate relevance to clinical practice. It is difficult to pinpoint the failings of attempted shortcuts in this respect. Chinese medicine is a complex construct. it merely ensures that the door to the past is kept open. as indeed the Chinese now have to do. I would argue. In Chinese medicine. It does. it would appear that any successes that Chinese efforts might achieve by promoting . the representation of Chinese medical concepts with Western medical terms undermines the foreign reader’s ability to grasp the traditional concepts to an extent that would be difficult to counter by additional commentary. But proper transmission of Chinese medicine cannot do without this any more than Western medicine. It is by accepting it that we avoid the temptation to paste over the differences between traditional Chinese knowledge and modern medical knowledge. however. source-dependency is practically desirable. The practical desirability has nevertheless prevailed. impose an added burden for Western readers not interested in the historical dimensions. I have found continual need to speak of the speculative nature of Chinese medical concepts. If it treats human suffering effectively. In the translation of Chinese terminology. We must accept the failings of Chinese. in a of discipline that looks back to antiquity as a golden age. Unwillingness to accept this. poor definition. but not theoretically necessary since all terms are unequivocally defined. Yet if there is to be any large-scale transmission of Chinese knowledge and experience—traditional as well as modern—a source-oriented approach to translation is necessary because it does not preclude points of similarity with Western medicine being provided alongside the traditional ideas. sourceorientation transmission has not asserted itself as the dominant trend. and the broader need. In the Chinese translation of Western medical terminology. Despite these added reasons. however. In the translation of Chinese medicine. it would enable a gradually growing body of translations of the many traditional and modern texts of Chinese medicine to form an integrated whole. to reflect adequately in the translation of terms the origins of Chinese medical thought. it is all the more necessary because of the speculative nature of Chinese medical concepts. is equivalent to Western medical students skipping anatomy on the grounds that most doctors only use a fraction of their anatomical knowledge in the speciality they eventually choose. In arguing in favour of source-oriented translation.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms modern framework either East or West. e A major stay of my argument for source-oriented translation is the fact that this approach has been used in Western medicine. I have shown. it affects the nature of the product and its market. possibly revealing much more with regard to the relationship between a translator’s views on Chinese medicine and its Western reception. and would help to nurture a culture of adequate ‘product description’ of the COMP type. A further reason arises through the dominant position of Western medicine in the modern world: it is wise to be aware of the erosive power of any modern medical or quasi-modern medical notions creeping into kernel concepts (+ q`. as I pointed out in the Introduction (Chapter 1).2 (Approaches to Chinese Medical Term Translation) could be done in greater detail. I believe conclusively. Deviations from semantic translation of LSP-terms can be explained in linguistic terms without recourse to any cultural equivalents (such as energy for + q` or ı sedate for xi` ). and it would be worthwhile investigating variations in source/target orientation that are attributable to the nature of the subject matter and its expression in language. the acceptability of any given terminology necessarily . Further study of the source-dependent terminologies in a wider range of fields and languages would be necessary to confirm the suggested tendency. As I have shown in Chapter 8 (Success of Source-Oriented Translation in the Proposed Terminology). In particular. Other fields may show less borrowing in Chinese. that a source-oriented approach to Chinese medical term translation is feasible and desirable. a necessary factor in the viability of a terminology. is a complex issue. e A source-oriented approach to translation is not only highly desirable. Conclusion Western understanding of Chinese medical ideas by the substitution of Western medical concepts in translation will be achieved at the expense of foreclosing Western access to traditional Chinese medicine in the raw. but is also easily achieved. The present study could be criticised for having labored certain observations accepted among linguists at the expense of developing further specific aspects of Chinese medical translation. in other words. Nevertheless. Studies of this kind would stimulate critical appraisal of present approaches to translation. As the analysis of the motivation underlying the current terminological variation showed.9. ı xi` ). the comparison of existing terminologies that I presented in 6. It should now be apparent that source-oriented translation avoids simplification of the subject matter. the proportion of Chinese medical terms translated into English by loan-translation is considerably higher than in the Chinese translation of Western medical terms. the question of user acceptance. is strong because it intrinsically questions the validity of the present system by which Chinese medical knowledge is delivered to English-speaker students and practitioners and in which writers with no linguistic access to primary sources can achieve authoritative status. . the resistance is largely silent or expressed privately because the arguments against source-oriented translation are inherently too weak to be articulated publicly. it would appear that not only do students and practitioners of Chinese medicine now have a greater knowledge of the subject than 20 years ago.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms is based. Looking at general trends. As Chinese medicine moves into mainstream academia. and any terminology geared to target-oriented transmission of Chinese medicine cannot easily be presented in a bilingual list without advertizing its own failings. Any attempt at such an assessment would therefore be a highly complex task. all of the issues surrounding the westward transmission of Chinese medicine will be harder to ignore than in the self-isolated world of complementary health. and knowledge of Chinese assumes its place in post-graduate education. The terminology proposed in this study has been adopted by two of the main U. No assessment of acceptability of terms among TL users is of any significance that does not take account of the user’s expectations with regard to the role of Chinese medicine in the Western world. indeed to any discussion of terminological issues. Nevertheless.S. publishers of Chinese literature. but also more of them are taking on the task of learning Chinese and performing translation. 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Cassell’s French Dictionary: French-English English-French (1963). Bˇ ij¯ng. nose. 264. 167 # . 261 a terior. 244. ice-jade obstruction. dragover disease. 276 ı ı Q . invisible-worm sores of b´ n` chu¯ ng ı ı a . 264 a e . nasal congestion. white as dry bones. 411 biˇ o x¯ @ a u . 406 a a . 156 b¯ g¯ ng a a the nose. 408 bi` n n´ n a a b¯ n a . constipation. 401 ı b` m` i p d . 156 bˇ i r` k´ a ı e bi` n b` ? . 411 b¯ng ^ . 153. white tiger joint running. 403 b` i sh¯ e u . 407 b´ s¯ i ı a bˇ m` i t W . half-exterior biˇ o zh` ng @ b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ zh` ng a a a ı e . b¯ng xi´ zh` ng ^ b` n sh¯ n b` su` a e u ı . exterior cold. 405 139 b¯ o jiˇ n 3 ` . white. maculopapular eruption. 411 a e half-interior pattern. invisible worms in the nose. 127. flaring nostrils. diarrhoea. nineteen pathı ı ı u a drinking. sleeplessness. 415 ı bˇ q` u ı . 140. 264. 130. 265 a ı a a ı ı tion. 174 b´ n` ı ı an j¯ng p . nose. 415 bˇ xu` u e . hundred-day cough. 285 . menstrual block. 276 b´ sh` n ı a b´ i . whooping cough. 410 ı ı b´ i t¯ i 7 . 269. 264 a e . 411 biˇ o h´ n @ a a K . flaring nostrils. supplement y¯n. take the pulse. exterior vacuity. 413 b` zh` ng ı e 4 . hemiplegia. ı a a 283. b´ i h´ u w . half exterior half inb` n biˇ o b` n lˇ @ a a a ı biˇ o @ . supplement. mid-stage biˇ o sh´ @ b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ zh` ng @ a a a ı e . menstrual block. flaring nostrils. running piglet. 252. 415 ı bˇ y¯n u ı b¯ ng l` u J . 415 a bˇ y´ ng u a b¯ ng . back transport point. 145 ı u 137 b´ zi q . 274 u ı b´ . repel foulness and b` hu` k¯ i qi` o ı ı a a . voracious eating and b`ng j¯ sh´ jiˇ ti´ o r b` o yˇn b` o sh´ Q a ı a ı . 153 ı b´ i p´ i C . 409 u e o 414 b` l` p Y . 410 b` j¯ng ı ı a b´ i sh` yˇ n y` o f ' < . 139 e . deep-source nasal congestion. 401 a . 259 . macule. white vaginal discharge. 413 b¯ n t´ n e u . 135. 402 e . b` d´ w` p e o . 411 a ı [penetration] pattern. exterior. 129. 406 b¯ n zhˇ n a a e bi¯ o bˇ n X } . 153 a e K . 406 b´ y` sh¯ n d` ng ı ı a o . nose pillar. 156 b¯ i . eight principles.b` j¯ng O p . 411 . amenorrhoea. 139 ı p @ . miliaria alba. 163 b` j¯ng O p . 411 biˇ o r` @ a e K . back. diphtheria. 410 a a . b´ zh` b´ i hˇ l` ji´ a u ı e . landslide. 162 ` ı . abdominal urgency 276 and rectal heaviness. 264 a bi` n xi` > . B´ i’s Eye Medica. 413 a o 153. surreptitious menstruation. ice. lˇ j´ h` u zh` ng K ı ı o o Z . 158. 230 e bˇ . supplement q`. runny nose with clear b´ li´ q¯ng t` ı u ı ı . 152 b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ zh` ng @ a a a ı e a ı half-interior pattern. exterior repletion. 140 b¯ ku` a o . 174 . flooding and spotting. interior and exterior. impediment pattern. 413 bˇ i r` k´ a ı e . 167 . 276. difficult defecation. half-exterior biˇ o lˇ @ K . 415 143. exterior pattern. 254 u b` i . sleeplessness. 409 u e . tip and root. belching of sour putrid ai q` su¯ n fˇ ` ı a u snivel (nasal mucus). white fur. 403 omechanisms. collapse. eight ramparts. 264. 127. 407 q` (gas). 285. supplement y´ ng. eyelid. 272. 156 b´ i d` i a a b´ yu¯ n ı a . supplement the blood. inhibited. 284. 413 . 153. 408 a ı 4 . 257 a a b`ng b`ng r . b´ i r´ k¯ gˇ n o a u u u open the orifices. 407 ı . exterior heat.P¯ny¯n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms ı ı b´ kˇ ng sh¯ n zh¯ ng ı o a a y . sorrow. 272. groping in the air cu¯ k¯ ng lˇ xi` n o o ı a and pulling [invisible] strings. 402 c` u lˇ o ı c¯ . 405 . somber white. 159 c¯ o t¯ i 7 . tugging wind. last flicker of the c´ n d¯ ng f` m´ng G a e u ı lamp. petalled gums. vacuous puffy gums. 136. ungratifying d` bi` n b` shuˇ ng a a u a defecation. 154 ch¯ ng f´ n o u ch¯ ng m` i W . 276 . 410 e a . 162 ch´ n zhˇ ng u o . 174. 285 cu` y´ n w` ng yˇ 0 y 3 . 254 o ch¯ ng . bleeding gums. deep pulse. 402 d` bi` n a a . fecal. salvia (Chinese sage). tidal heat [effusion]. 401 u ch´ n ji¯ o m . inability eat. slow. take drenched. inability to ch´ ng y¯ b` d´ w¯ n Z o ı u e e get warm despite extra clothing. 146. jerking. 175 a ı . o a 244. issue. the seasons of ch¯ n xi` zh¯ l`ng u a ı ı spring and summer. neutral cause. 410 ı a chˇ . 254 o ch¯ . 141 chu´ li´ n y` ı a ı _ . sunken pulse. 121 . 254 u ch´ . clamoring stomach. 162 u a . 253 a ch´ ng . 410 u c` n . seminal emission ´ ı without dreaming. 146. 407 a e ch´ nm` i W . tidal fever. 158 ch´ o r` } a e . intestines. sore. tooth. 402 a a p . 405 ch¯ u d` ng o o ch¯ u f¯ ng % . 276 p . long. 402 chˇ y´n ı ı \ . surge. 127. 410 u a c` n . 147. 276 chˇ n¨ ı u chˇ y´ Q . inch. 409 c´ o z´ F a a & . panting counterflow. 402 ı a . skipping pulse. deranged speech. 405 o e ch´ u . 140 o . rough fur. red dysentery. 409 b` sh´ p u ı . gastrointestinal acch´ ng w` i j¯ zh` a e ı ı cumulation. 139 chu` n y¯ o l´ ng a a o . 129. ch´ ng sh` b` xi` f¯ n q¯ng yˇn f e ı ı e e ı ı Ch´ ng’s Fish Poison Yam Clear-Turbid Sepae ration Beverage. no thought of food and b` s¯ yˇn sh´ p c u ı ı ı drink. absence of menses. 402 ı chˇ u . 127 a ch´ ng m` i W . cubit. 156. 139 ch` l` ı ı . chˇ y´n x¯ f´ ı ı u u 407 ch` f` ng y´ng yu´ n ı e ı a . 156 ch` sh¯ n ı e ch¯ ng . slow pulse. rumbling intestines. 145. groping in the air cu¯ k¯ ng lˇ xi` n o o ı a and pulling [invisible] strings. 260 d` bi` n a a d` bi` n c . 155. 256. long pulse. 410 b` n` i w` i y¯n u e a ı P . 283. 155 c¯ ng b´ i | a a _ r . fire-girdle cinnabar. 175 a u chuˇ n n` 5 q . tooth. girdling dragon. loosening of the chˇ y´ s¯ ng d` ng Q ı a o o teeth. 409 . stool. rough. 255. 156 a a . tidal fever. o a a u 158 . swollen lips. red phoenix heading for the source. 256.P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms b` m` ng er y´ p 2 j u e . thick (viscous). ungratifying d` bi` n b` shu` ng a a u a . 407 ch´ ng m´ng a ı w w . 254 u chuˇ n 5 . office of the grac¯ ng lˇn zh¯ gu¯ n a ı ı a naries. 168 chˇ n m´ n v a e ch´ ng . gurgling intestines. 156 ch´ ng sh´ Z o e p . 159 ch´ n . thoroughfare. 127. wrist pulse. 402 d` bi` n a a . 412 . stool. 402 . ch´ n y¯ o huˇ d¯ n a a o a 137 . 146. defecation. thumb. 140. hasty panting. 403 . eliminate. panting. 163 ch´ E . 410 ı ` . 414 chu¯ ng y´ ng a a . 410 c` n kˇ u u o . parched lips. birth gate. 138 u . 407 . 163 b` yu` p u e . gum. 410 a a . ch´ ng m´ng l` l` a ı u u 155 K . 407 ch´ o r` } a e ch´ o r` ( . interstice. falling curtain screen. intestinal welling-abscess. 129 ı ch´ m` i E W . thoroughfare vessel. double tongue. 413 a chuˇ n c` 5 Y . 407 chˇ y´n ji´ b` n ı ı e a . lip. ch´ ng y¯ ng a o 414 . 254 u c` m` i Y W . 156 . 410 e a ch´ nm` i v . frostbite. great thirst with fluid d` kˇ yˇn yˇn 9 a e ı ı intake. 409 ˇ ı e . 122. 140 ` . 140 f¯ g¯ n a a . 407 ` ı e zˇ P . persistent flow of e l` b´ du` n a ` u u lochia. ear. intermittent pulse. 407 duˇ n q` I a ı . large pulse. watery stool. short. spiritedness. 260. 127. 264. 408 d` m` i W . 408 d` bi` n h¯ i s` a a e e @ C . earwax. 401 er l´ n ˇ u o m . black stool. 121 du¯ m` ng 2 . dry bound stool. large intestine governs the conveyance and transformation of waste. hair. 409 er m´ng ˇ ı . goose-foot wind. er sh´ b¯ m` i ı a a ` 156 f¯ . hair loss. 145. clove-sore. f` ji´ r´ su` a e u ı 143 f` k¯ o . persistent flow of lochia. d` bi` n shuˇ y` ng a a ı a 407 . d` bi` n sh¯ j`n a a ı ı 408 6 . 161 ı . 265. malign obstruction. malign obstruction. 252.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms d` bi` n g¯ n ji´ a a a e . 403 a a d¯ n d´ ( . poison. thin sloppy stool. twenty-eight pulses. 259 n 5 . 267. nausea. 137 d` rˇ u u duˇ n m` i I W . shortness of breath. dry hair. 161. 137. e l` b` ju´ ` u u e 410 e n` j q . 259. 267. knocks and falls. 267. venom. 175. pox. 414 ` u . 265. girdling vessel. short pulse. 410 e l` ` u p . 407 u u . 407 d´ yˇ 3 . 410 a a . 401 ˇ er l´ ng ^ . 267 er m´ng ˇ ı er m´ng 4 . toxin. 257. 409 ˇ o . disinhibit water by d` n sh` n l` shuˇ { a e ı ı bland percolation. 227. 413 o d¯ . large intestine. pale red. hiccough. erysipelas. 155. malign sore. 252 u d´ ( . 155 d` o h` n / . 267 ` u e zˇ P . 127. deafness. 127. precipitation of d` bi` n xi` xu` a a a e blood with the stool. 406 a u . 265. ringing in er m´ng r´ ch´ n sh¯ ng u a e ˇ ı the ears like the sound of cicadas. epilepsy. clove-sore. 405 d´ sh´ n e e d` p . 260. 283. gallbladder. 409 W . 168 ı d` q` a ı d` i m` i ~ W . 141 . night sweating. morning sickness. soliloquy. 153 e ´ a e x¯n . 127. hair knotted in awns. 403 u a d´ ( . 152. fever. tinnitus. 407 3 . 409 ˇ ı n 7 . 414 e zˇ ` u er . 403 e a d¯ng . 255. 252. withered helices. 153. 407 f¯ r` a e f¯ r` ( . 407 n . 138 ı . 140 a . stirred pulse. 410 o a d` u . a a 408 . 127 a n . heat effusion. 265. lochia. 127. 137. 402 d` f` a u . 140 e chu¯ ng a ` . 402 z 7 d` ch´ ng zhˇ chu´ n hu` z¯ o p` a a u a a a o . fever. 153 d¯ng n´ng ı ı . 137 p r . 406 f` lu` a o . stool like d` bi` n r´ y´ ng shˇ a a u a ı sheep’s droppings. 264. talking alone. 264. profuse dreaming. d` bi` n x¯ t´ ng a a ı a 407 . 255. 409 o e duˇ n I . 255 d` n h´ ng { a o Y . quell the liver. 410 a a . 264. greater abdomen. 402 a . 414 d` ng chu¯ ng o a d` ng m` i W . 404 . 143. great q`. 136. begrudging milk. 414 d¯ n d´ a u dˇ n . mania and withdrawal. quell. 403 u d´ ( . 129 a e zhˇ ng f¯ ng X W % . 407 d` ch´ ng a a . ringing in the ears. tinnitus. 410 a a d` i m` i W . helix. cinnabar toxin. 413 di¯ n xi´ n a a di´ dˇ ^ J . 264. 122. 139 u d¯ m` i W . 407 a e f` . 267 f¯ r` a e . 414 di¯ n ku´ ng a a . 414 a u . governor. 407 er l´ n k¯ ji¯ o ˇ u u a . 252 u d´ yˇ u u . [aversion to] cold du¯ h´ n shˇ o r` o a a e more pronounced than heat [effusion]. stool like d` bi` n r´ y¯ t´ ng a a u a a duck’s slop. earth. 414 d¯ng chu¯ ng ı a . malign. everted flower hemorf¯ n hu¯ zh` a a ı rhoids. governing vessel. fecal incontinence. the spleen is the source of phlegm formation. prominent [green-blue] f` l` q¯ng j¯n u u ı ı abdominal veins. 285. lung-kidney y¯n vacuı f` i sh` n y¯n x¯ e e ı u ity. wind-heat invading f¯ ng r` f` n f` i % e e a e the lung. 411 ı f` i q` x¯ e ı u m . 144 f` i w´ i zhˇ t´ n zh¯ q`. 277. raking the firewood fˇ dˇ ch¯ u x¯n u ı o ı from beneath the cauldron. 142 . 147 W . f` i w´ i shuˇ zh¯ sh` ng yu´ n s e e ı ı a a lung is the upper source of water. wind-phlegm. 411 ı f` i y¯n x¯ e ı u . wind-damp. abdominal pain that f` t` ng j` an u o u ` refuses pressure. 242. wind-heat. lung governs depue u u a rative downbearing. impaired depurative f` i sh¯ s` ji` ng e ı u a downbearing of the lung. pulmonary welling-abscess. wind. 159 . lung. 410 u a f´ m` i W . rake firewood from fˇ dˇ ch¯ u x¯n u ı o ı beneath the cauldron. abdominal distention. foul-smelling diarf` xi` hu` ch` u u e ı o rhoea. float astray. 413 e a H p . 409 B . 141. 218 e o ı f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n % & ' . lung and large intestine stand in exteriorinterior relationship. f´ ng sh` b` ji´ } p a ı u e 285. 139 e f´ u . 409 f` t` ng u o U . 404 . 410 f´ zhˇ ng u o fˇ . 157 f` mˇ n : . 414 f` n . p´ w` i sh¯ ng t´ n zh¯ yu´ n e e u a ı ı ı e e a ı a s % _ s % _ K . seething cauldron pulse. 411 { | . 156. acid upflow. 412 f` ng . 167. wind-fire scrofula. inhibition of lung q`. 410 f` zh` ng u a . 2. 139. 145. stomach reflux. lung heat scorching the f` i r` y` ji¯ o e e e a lobes. 139 u . lung and large intestine stand in interiorexterior relationship. 252. lung opens at f` i k¯ i qi` o y´ b´ e a a u ı the nose. 154 u e . 138 . wild duck. 127. lung f` i zhˇ t¯ ng ti´ o shuˇ d` o z u e u o a ı a governs regulation of the waterways. 142 f¯ ng huˇ % & . 246. 403 . 141 fˇ f` i m` i u e a fˇ t¯ i 7 . upflow nausea. wind-fire. (bed)room. 401 e . mansion. wild duck bones. 413 fˇ n zh` a ı . 143. viscus of wind and e u ı a wood. 409 f` n su¯ n & a a f´ ng . 175. 144 f¯ i m´ n Q e e f` i . 404 f¯ ng % . 264. 262 . the lung is the receptacle that holds phlegm. floating pulse. sexual intemperance. 409 f` n e & a ˇ . 402 e . abdomen as a f` d` zh` ng r´ gˇ u a a u u large as a drum. 143 n f . 403 u o f´ m` i m W . lung governs q`. 409 . 133. 414 f` i y¯ ng e o A @ f` i yˇ d` ch´ ng xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ ) e u a a a a ı K . invade. 255. 129.P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms fˇ n w` i a e . paradoxical treatment. hidden pulse. puffy swelling. 136. 121. 412 f¯ ng r` % e e . 140 u . abdominal pain. contract external evil f` gˇ n w` i xi´ z P u a a e again. 121 f¯ ng sh¯ % e ı f¯ ng t´ n % % . 140 a . lung q` vacuity. wind evil entering f¯ ng xi´ r` j¯ng % e e u ı the channels. 414 f` i wˇ i e e . lung wilting. 404 f` i shˇ j¯n e u ı _ ] . superficial network vessel. phoenix. 163 A @ f` i yˇ d` ch´ ng xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ ) e u a a a a ı K . 402 u n f . abdominal pain that f` t` ng xˇ w¯ n u o ı e likes warmth. 412 f¯ ng h´ n % e a f¯ ng h´ n x´ h´ u % e a ı o w . abdomen. 167. abdomen as f` d` zh` ng r´ gˇ u a a u u large as a drum. wind-fire eye. 404 V . 153 e o f¯ ng huˇ l` % & R . 146 f´ gˇ u u u f´ lu` O . 407 . 143 . 155 ? . wind-cold assailing the throat. 404 p Y . lung y¯n vacuity. 244 e o a f¯ ng m` zh¯ z` ng % k _ E . 127. 411 ı . 404 . 410 u a f´ yu` m . 137. 127. 404 ı f` i zhˇ q` z e u ı f` i zhˇ s` ji` ng z { | . 411 ı f` i q` b` l` e ı u ı f` i q` b` xu¯ n e ı u a p . 140 a . abdominal fullness. 409 u a . 411 . wind-cold. 157. lung governs the skin f` i zhˇ p´ m´ o z e u ı a and [body] hair. 142 . bean curd tongue fur. lung belongs to metal. 137 u a f` . 153. nondiffusion of lung q`. flying gates. liver fire flaming a o a a upward. 129. joint pain. liver opens at g¯ n k¯ i qi` o y´ m` a a a u u the eyes. official. sweet worked water. 404 g¯ n l´ n shuˇ A a a ı . g¯ o-hu¯ ng. back of the knee. bar. contraction of dryness evil. 262. 411 . 403 B . 137 g` u . 252 e g¯ ng . gan. a ı a a a its bloom is in the nails. 412 . . depressed liver q`. liver governs the sinews. . . 404 gˇ n m` o z L . heel. steaming bone gˇ zh¯ ng ch´ o r` u e a e tidal heat [effusion]. 122. 259 u . 264 gu¯ t´ u y ı o . 403 . q´ ch¯ ng z` i j¯n . 127. liver stores blood. 139 a gu¯ n x . 262 ı g¯ n q` y` ji´ a ı u e . 252. liver-gallbladder g¯ n dˇ n sh¯ r` a a ı e damp-heat. 157 g¯ ng li` a e . 411 a A @ K . 139 h´ m´ a a . drum. 257 g¯ n cˇ o A a a . steaming bone tidal gˇ zh¯ ng ch´ o r` u e a e fever. liver y´ ng transa g¯ n y´ ng hu` f¯ ng a a a e forming into wind. drum distention. 284. secure. ascendant hyg¯ n y´ ng sh` ng k` ng a a a a peractivity of liver y´ ng. 140 o g¯ ng t´ n % . 139 e g¯ n . 136. insufficiency of liver g¯ n xu` b` z´ a e u u blood. . 254 a g¯ n A . 137. g¯ n. 262. ascendant g¯ n y´ ng sh` ng k` ng a a a a liver y´ ng. 140. licorice. 410 a gu¯ n x . . excessive consumpgu` sh´ f´ i g¯ n o ı e a tion of sweet and fatty foods. 413 gˇ zh` ng f u a gˇ zh´ 8 . 153 g¯ n sh` n a e k . 404 . 407 } . 410 e a g¯ n ] . mountain pass. 404 g¯ n c´ ng xu` a a e . root. diaphragm. splitting of the anus. anus. office. 408 gu¯ n ji´ t´ ng t` ng x a e e o . 158 g` . toad-head scourge. 276 . g¯ n zhˇ j¯n z a u ı 404 > . q´ hu´ z` i zhˇ o . a ı o a ı its fullness is in the sinews. 412 g¯ ng . 402 a a g¯ o hu¯ ng a a g¯ o l´n 1 . 127 o . 122. eat excessively. 415 g` j¯ng u ı g` j¯ng p . 412 g¯ n xu` x¯ a e u 7 % . 254 o gˇ . joint pain. 140 u gˇ e . binding depression of g¯ n q` y` ji´ a ı u e liver q`. 404 . sweet. 161. 412 ] . 127 a . liver is the ung¯ n w´ i g¯ ng z` ng s a e a a yielding viscus. bone. liver. tortoise’s head. 254 u . 412 . liver q` invading the ı g¯ n q` f` n w` i a ı a e stomach. h´ m´ w¯ n a a e . liver and gallbladder. secure essence. attack. . 401 a g¯ n V . 244 . 137. unctuous strangury.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms g¯ n . 170 u e ( . 155 gu` sh´ o ı S A . dry. liver governs free g¯ n zhˇ sh¯ xi` z a u u e coursing. . 262. glans penis. excessive congu` sh´ sh¯ ng lˇ ng o ı e e sumption of raw and cold foods. excessive consumpgu` sh´ x¯n l` o ı ı a tion of hot-spicy acrid foods. attack phlegm. 401 u gˇ f . liver blood vacuity. drumskin pulse. 257 gu¯ n ji´ t´ ng t` ng x a e e o . 415 u ı gu¯ n r . grain. 404 p . g¯ n. . . 137. drum distention. . 414 o a g¯ ng xi` o a . 136 gu¯ t´ u y ı o gu´ . steaming bone taxgˇ zh¯ ng l´ o r` u e a e ation fever. 414 a ı g´ 4 . 137 ! . liver wind stirring g¯ n f¯ ng n` i d` ng % a e e o internally. 135 u gˇ . . 264 a a gˇ n sh` u z` o xi´ z a o a e ' . bone fracture. 404 g¯ n shˇ m` a u u E . liver g¯ n yˇ dˇ n xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ ) a u a a a ı and gallbladder stand in interior-exterior relationship. 411 a . 402 e g´ m` i W . grimy. . 138 a v . secure the menses. liver belongs to wood. 253. 153. 257 g¯ ng m´ n a e . 413 a . 403 v . 407 N . toad. 412 . 411 ı . 127. offensive precipitation. 153 g¯ n dˇ n a a . liver. liver q` invading the ı g¯ n q` f` n p´ a ı a ı spleen. 262. anus. 412 g¯ n huˇ sh` ng y´ n & ] 7 . liver and kidney. common cold. seminal efflux. 255 e ı @ K . 139 u h´ sh` n \ ] . 145. 414 . fire. transform phlegm. 413 a a . 401 a n . epiglottis. 401. 415 hu` y¯ 7 a u hu´ i . 403 o . door. last radiance of hu´ gu¯ ng fˇ n zh` o P ] ı a a a the setting sun. exuberant heat huˇ sh` ng x´ng j¯n & o e ı ı tormenting metal. 415 a a 4 . 402 o h´ u gu¯ n w x . 412 . 122. transform stasis. 253 o h` u b´ 8 M . 265. 410 a a hu´ ng 6 . 405 h¯ n dˇ o u a h¯ n shu` 1 . 127. 409 hu´ j¯ng 4 a ı hu´ m` i 4 W . 127. 272. 139 h´ u zh¯ ng yˇ u shuˇ j¯ sh¯ ng w o o o ı ı e . uniting point. 152 o o _ } . 407 h´ u zh¯ ng yˇ u t´ n sh¯ ng w o o o a e % .P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms h´ n . 264. harh´ jiˇ b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ e e a a a ı monise half exterior half interior (midstage) patterns. 413 o a . palate. 245 . fox. 156 a a hu´ ng t¯ i 6 7 . cholera. ankle. 129. o h´ u sh` h¯ i sˇ n f @ o ı e a 163 . 262 . moderate pulse. sound of phlegm in the throat. throat. breathe. cold precipitation. yellow. 253. 267. 139 u . cholera. 402 o h´ u . 262 h´ w` i e e . 272. 147. 129. 140 . cold-heat. 141. 283. 129. 406 e a h´ ng m` i W . 142 W . 150. 140 u . cold formulas. 153 o o . sweat. 415 . putting forth oily h` n ch¯ r´ y´ u / a u u o sweat. 139. return y´ ng and stem a hu´ y´ ng ji` n` P ı a u ı counterflow. promote q` transforı hu` q` l` shuˇ 7 a ı ı ı mation and disinhibit water. throat pass. 414 @ K . itchy throat. 157 h´ u yˇ ng w o a . 147 hu` lu` n / 0 . black fur. 229. 127. 401 e h¯ i t¯ i @ 7 . 136 h¯ x¯ I . 409 u ı . 136. thickness. harh´ jiˇ b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ e e a a a ı monise midstage patterns. 401 a hu´ ng dˇ n 6 D . cold mounting. 262 hu´ xu` < o e huˇ & . hˇ x¯ d¯ng u u ı 244 hˇ x¯ d´ u u u ( . 229 u a hˇ . yellow sweat. cold congealing h´ n n´ng g¯ n m` i a ı a a in the liver vessel. jaundice. transform dampness. slippery pulse. 411 h´ n zh` ng a e h` n / . 406 h` u 8 . 157 h` n du¯ / a o . 132. 402 a huˇ n F . frog rale in the throat. tiger’s whiskers toxin [sore]. 413 hu` lu` n o a . sudden turmoil. 135. 170. cold congealing h´ n n´ng g¯ n m` i a ı a a in the liver vessels. larynx. 415 . black. 264. 129 a huˇ n m` i F W . cold impediment. 276 q . 153 h´ n r` a e * 8 . cold evil settling in the h´ n xi´ k` f` i a e e e lung. 402 o a h´ u h´ w & . thick. 154 u ı h´ \ . surging pulse. 413 a a hu´ ng h` n 6 / . tiger. 255 h´ xu´ e e h¯ i @ . cold phlegm. cold pattern. 152 h´ ng sˇ ng a a h´ b`ng r . combination disease. cold evil settling h´ n xi´ k` y´ f` i a e e u e in the lung. throat. 252. H´ u’s Black Powder. foxy mounting. clouding sleep. 159 h´ n j` a ı W . 143 . transform phlegm and hu` t´ n zhˇ k´ 7 % a a ı e suppress cough. 414 h´ n xi` a a . yellow fur. throat node. clouding collapse. larynx. harmonise the stomach. 267 o a hu` lu` n / 0 . 406 a a ) . cold. 415 hu` sh¯ 7 a ı hu` t´ n 7 % . alternating [averh´ n r` wˇ ng l´ i a e a a sion to] cold and heat [effusion]. copious sweat. 402 hu` y` n ı a . 402 o e h´ u l´ ng w Y . 139 h` . moderate. 145. root of later heaven h` u ti¯ n zh¯ bˇ n o a ı e (acquired constitution). 407 . 143 . tiger’s-whiskers clove-sore. 410 o a h´ u w . 402 a h´ n b` a ı . 407 h´ n sh` n ] . 264 o h´ u w . alternating fever and h´ n r` wˇ ng l´ i ( a e a a chills. h´ u zh¯ ng yˇ u shuˇ j¯ sh¯ ng w o o o ı ı e frog rale in the throat. quicken the blood. 150. 412 a a h´ n t´ n % . 410 a a Y . vary. ı o 403 . office of general. 147 . chicken. 264 ı a j´ H . 158 y .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms hu` t´ n k¯ i qi` o % o a a a . flesh. 409 ı ı j¯ng ju´ p . semen. 139. essence chamber. replete metal failing j¯n sh´ b` m´ng ı ı u ı to sound. 139 a ji¯ o m . harmonise the stomh´ w` i hu` t´ n e e a a ach and transform phlegm. 402 a . 402 ı e jˇn m` i W . 253 ı j´ . 414 e ji´ h´ u w . 244 ji¯ o gˇ t a u . fortify the spleen and ji` n p´ l` shuˇ a ı ı ı disinhibit water. sweep phlegm and open the orifices. raised-shoulder breathing. laryngeal prominence. 244 j¯ng m` i zh¯ hˇ i p W _ t . 261 ı j¯n . bound pulse. q` of the channels and ı j¯ng lu` zh¯ q` p O _ ı o ı ı network [vessels]. leg q` surging into ı jiˇ o q` ch¯ ng x¯n a ı o ı the heart. hypertonicity of the j¯n m` i j¯ lu´ n W ı a u a sinews. 161 e j¯n . fright. racing. 161. 415 j¯ ( . 410 ı a ji¯ jiˇ n P o . 159 ı . boil. 405 j¯n sh` n ] . 254 e jiˇ biˇ o @ . 403 ji¯ o hu` xu´ t a ı e . 264. jiˇ o g¯ ng fˇ n zh¯ ng O a o a a 265 . return. fortify the spleen. 401 ı . burner. official of genra u ı a eral. 244 ji¯ ~ . 120. 401 ı j¯ K . flesh. 162 j¯ng shuˇ p ı ı . 410 e a jiˇ . essence. 269 j¯ng lu` p O . 405 y . 276 j¯n t` r` u r` n ı ı o u . fright wind. forgetfulness. tension of the sinews. shoulder. menstrual j¯ng l´ i r´ y´ nˇ o suˇ p 8 n e ı a u u a ı flow like fish brain-marrow. racing pulse. 254 ı 7 % . a u ı a 147 ji¯ ng j¯ n zh¯ gu¯ n p q _ r . 129. channels and network [vessels]. 153 j¯n y` M ı e j¯n y` C . 402 ı j¯ng . 139 ı . 158 ji` n p´ a ı Y . street. 127. 402 ı j¯ng f¯ ng % . 405 ı e . 252. 405 . 402 ı . resolve. ji¯ n x¯ a ı 407 . 137 j¯ng lu` p O . emaciation. 414 e a ji` . corn. resolve the exterior. 140 e ji´ . 265. arched-back jiˇ o g¯ ng fˇ n zh¯ ng O a o a a rigidity. liquid and humour. metal. liquid and humour. 143 j¯ng sh` } . 154 a a . 413 ı e j¯ng j` B . 153 ı ı . sinew mounting. 136. rapid. 127. sinew. nonchannel point. 405 jiˇ sh´ n a e ji¯ n . 401 j¯ r` u ( ı o . 402 j¯n y` M ı e . 130. 229 ı a p . 140 a . 145 ji` n gˇ a u . jerking sinews and j¯n t` r` u r` n ı ı o u twitching flesh. 405 j¯ r` u sh` u xu` ( ı o o e j¯ yˇ n ' . channels and network j¯ng lu` zh¯ q` p O _ ı o ı ı [vessel] q`. 230 ı j¯ng i . fluid. menses like j¯ng r´ h´ m´ zˇ p n ı u a a ı toad’s eggs. 135. 401 ı j¯n M . bolt bone. 130. 261 ı j¯ . 286. scab. 143 T . menstrual flow. 159 q . tetanic reversal. tight pulse. 410 ı a j¯ng . peppercorn. 284. accumulation. menstrual flow j¯ng l´ i r´ fˇ r` u p 8 n ı a u u o like rotten meat. intersection point. 136 ji¯ o . opisthotonos. 415 hu´ P . promote the inji¯ o t¯ ng x¯n sh` n t u a o ı e teraction of the heart and kidney. 245 ji` n w` ng ( . false spiritedness. j¯ng w` i q´ xu´ p P R ı a ı e 276 . liquid. the sea of the chanı a ı a nels and vessels. tense. 253 ı j´ . channels and network vessels. jerking sinews and twitching flesh. 408 a a ji¯ ng j¯ n zh¯ gu¯ n p q _ r . j¯n m` i j¯ j´ W ı a u ı 405 . fright palpitations. 254 ı j´ m` i H W . channel and network j¯ng lu` zh¯ q` p O _ ı o ı ı vessel q`. interlocking bones. ı o 250. 402 e o ji´ m` i W . lazy. 414 u j` L . pale lips. 145 jˇng xu´ ı e j`ng b`ng r . tetany. 158 lˇ n . cough. 252 o kˇ u . 406 = . 286. pivot. 283. kˇ h´ n zh¯ j` D u a ı ı u e . 406 kˇ u ch´ n d` n b´ i o u a a m . 145 u o j¯ n zhˇ zh¯ gu¯ n z _ r . reverting y¯n disease. mirror tongue. 136. thirst. 254 k´ sh¯ ng zh` ng zhu´ 4 e e o o u voice. parched lips. minister. reverse. 406 kˇ u j`n o ı kˇ u kˇ 9 . mania and agitation. reverting y¯n. 140 o k´ s` u 4 6 . 403 ı ju´ y¯n p e ı r . 153. 158 e a kˇ u kˇ 9 . menstruation at irregular intervals. mouth. cumbersome. expectoration of blood. thirst. thirst with a liking for cool drinks. gaping corners of the o a u ı mouth. 254 a . sovereign fire. 127. clenched jaw. 408 kˇ ng . green-blue or purple lips. harmony of mouth. 276. 405 a a k´ 4 . opening. prominent mounting. 255 o a . taxation fatigue. 139. and courier. 405 . bland taste in the mouth. u u ı a 146 kˇ xˇ li´ ng yˇn 9 B e ı a ı . 127. lip. firm pulse. 130. 162 kˇ u ch´ n q¯ng zˇ o u ı ı ? t . 408 u e jiˇ zh¯ n k . 402 o . 130. 402 ı jˇng . strain. flat-abscess. 156 u e j¯ . 405 . 254 a c . thirst with a liking for hot drinks. 405. thirst without large l´ o . thirst. 408 ju´ p . lip. 409 kˇ u ti´ n o a . sovereign. 413 ı ju´ y¯n b`ng p e ı ı . 146 ku´ ng z` o ! . 254 e ju´ n` p q . oral. well. 285. nine needles. 229 ı a Z . 274. fatigued. rampart.159 k¯ i sh¯ h´ a ing. neck. consumption. 138 . coughing of phlegm. cough with thick lˇ n y´ n 0 . 254 u kˇ D . 141. bitter. 161 kˇ b` du¯ yˇn 9 p e u o ı a . reverse flow. scallion-stalk pulse. minister. 253 e . 406 kˇ u ch´ n g¯ n ji¯ o o u a a . 408 l´ o ju` n N a a . rigidity of the jˇng xi` ng qi´ ng zh´ \ ı a a ı neck. 410 a a kˇ b` y` yˇn 9 p < e u u ı . bitter taste in the mouth. thirst with no desire to l´ o m` i ~ . 137. 140 a kˇ 9 . 129 o e . 401 o k¯ u m` i W . 408 o e kˇ u kˇ D . 408 kˇ u g¯ n o a kˇ u jiˇ o b` b` O p O . 406 kˇ u d` n { . 406 j`ng mi` n sh´ ) ı a e ji¯ wˇ i { T . river point. 170 e o . 413 ı ı .P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms j¯ng x´ng xi¯ n h` u w´ d`ng q´ p B ı ı a o u ı ı S e n . 401 kˇ u ch´ n o u k´ t´ n 4 % . drooling from the kˇ u jiˇ o li´ xi´ n O o a u a corners of the mouth. laziness to speak. 157. 407 l´ o N . 230. 154 e ı . dry. 410 . heavy turbid k` n . 129. 409 kˇ u su¯ n o a . taxation. well point. clos. sovereign. j¯ n ch´ n zuˇ shˇ u e o ı assistant. fear. dry mouth. 284. toil. 261 u . 408 kˇ xˇ r` yˇn 9 B e ı e ı . 137 ju` n . coughing of thick k´ t´ n hu´ ng ch´ u 4 % 6 e a a o yellow phlegm. mouth. 407 kˇ xu` a e _ . 401 u . sweet taste in the mouth. 406 . 138 ı Y . turtle-dove’s tail. clustered stars obstrucj` x¯ng zh` ng L u ı a tion. 409 kˇ u zh¯ ng h´ o o e k¯ o . j¯ n ch´ n zuˇ shˇ u e o ı assistant. 145 j¯ng xu´ p ı e jˇng \ . and courier. office of monarch. enduring diarrhoea. 402 o kˇ u . cough. 407 a a k´ t´ n hu´ ng ch´ u 4 % 6 e a a o yellow phlegm. 129. 137. 146 j¯ n huˇ & . tightly contracted kˇ u ch´ n jˇn su¯ o u ı o lips. 257. deviated eyes and kˇ u yˇ n w¯ i xi´ ' 0 o a a e mouth. fatigue and lack of ju` n d` i f´ l` a a a ı strength. 261 a l´ o N . cold bitter formulas. gathering. 410 o a kˇ u . 153 u e jiˇ xi` 6 > . 409 o u . 407 ku` . 253 e ku´ sh` n ^ ] . 403 fluid intake. sour taste in the mouth. 257 kˇ u ch´ n o u { . abdominal urgency lˇ j´ h` u zh` ng K ı ı o o and rectal heaviness. 405 . 127. 137.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms l´ o zh` i a a . red face. 141 l` u J . 167 m` i j´ W a ı . 405 6 . 127. withered-yellow mi` n s` wˇ i hu´ ng C a e e a facial complexion. 415 liˇ n f` i a e liˇ n h` n / . 413 ı ı . 136 . 403 o a . ı m´ i h´ q` & e e ı 413 m´ n . 130. black facial complexion. 122. rectify q` and harmonise ı lˇ q` h´ y´ng ı ı e ı construction. 162. 254 a m´ o V . racing pulse. constrain sweat. scrofula. connecting point. 283. 255 m` i h´ ng W a o m` i j´ W H . tears. 264 ı . red facial complexmi` n s` h´ ng ch` C a e o ı ion. 130. 437 mi` n ch` a ı mi` n hu´ ng 6 . 285. 413 l` i " . network [vessel]. consumption. 252. tumor. 140 e m` ng 2 . constrain the lung. 139 o l´ ng b` O . network [vessel]. pestilential q`. 157 a a . 154. 254 a a ı mˇ n : . fistula. 264. crick in the neck. 127. 264 o ` . white facial complexion. 130. yellow face. lip. sunken pulse. numbness. agitated racing pulse. face. 405 mi` n s` h¯ i C @ . cool the blood. [body] hair. 276 . 415 . 141. 156 l¨ f´ n u a lu` n j¯ng 0 p . 260 m` i W . 143 m` i f´ W a u . disinhibit water and l` shuˇ xi¯ o sh´ Y ı ı a ı disperse food. disinhibit dampness. 136 m`ng m´ n zh¯ huˇ ı e ı o . 405 C S . 405 mi` n s` q¯ng zˇ C ? t . 128 e . debilitation of m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i ı e o a the life gate fire. 245 1 . stringlike pulse. chaotic menstruation. 402 a . 414 l´n zh` ng 1 ı e l`n 1 . 127 a . mi` n s` b´ i C a e a 157. continuous. 414 li´ ng xu` a e ] : . 401 a m` i ch´ n W a e . 264. 264. dragon and thunder l´ ng l´ i zh¯ huˇ o e ı o fire. life gate. red facial complexion. mi´ n mi´ n b` du` n c c p a a u a 155 mi` n . 402 li` y´n u ı l´ ng . disinhibit water. 140. disinhibit water l` shuˇ xi¯ o zhˇ ng Y ı ı a o and disperse swelling. mi` n s` h´ ng C a e o 406 . 245 . 409 m` ng y´ 2 e ı . interior pattern. measles. 437 mi` n s` hu´ ng C 6 . 415 a a . 161 u . 415 l` shuˇ Y ı ı 1 . 412 _ & . lustreless facial mi` n s` w´ hu´ a e u a complexion. melanterite. 406 . 257. dribbling urinary block. tenesmus. streaming sore. 413 o ı _ & . 254 u li´ . 401 e Z . 129. 153. 152 m´ zhˇ n a e . 414 a ı m´ m` a u k . dream. 129. 405 . urgent pulse. 414 . 402 m`ng m´ n ı e & s . green-blue or purple a e ı ı facial complexion. 403 ı l` q` M ı ı l` sh¯ Y ı ı . 152 kˇ u ch´ n o u li´ . taxation strangury. flow. life gate fire. fistula. 152. fullness. 158. yellow facial complexa e a ion. surging pulse. 163 m` i k¯ u W a o . lˇ j´ h` u zh` ng K ı ı o o 408 { . 411 lˇ zh` ng K ı e l` Y . vessel. upward staring liˇ ng m` sh` ng sh` a u a ı eyes. 141. dragon spring clovel´ ng qu´ n d¯ng o a ı sore. 261 o lu` m` i O W . 145. 163 m` i xi´ n W a a m` i z` o j´ W ! H . disinhibit. dream emission. 265. scallion-stalk pulse. 167 a ı . 156. somber white fami` n s` c¯ ng b´ i C | a e a a cial complexion. 414 o ı lu` O . 413 l` o zhˇ n a e . 122. 250. plum-pit q`. 405 . 406. 414 li´ zh` u u . pale white facial mi` n s` d` n b´ i C { a e a a complexion. 254. 261 o l` u J . strangury. 410 a ı luˇ l` Q R . 403 lu` xu´ O o e l´ o l´n N 1 . 140 . dysentery. floating pulse. six excesses. strangury pattern. a e e 406 . 153. bright white fami` n s` huˇ ng b´ i C a e a a cial complexion. 137. gate. 276 Z . 261. 254. 274 ı l` j´ H . 137. 283. dragon. no pleasure in eating. 142 . torpid intake. affect damage. blood flying to the eye. 139 . 406 u a . 152. brain. 255. 404 p´ m´ o V . 139. alarm point. spleen opens p´ k¯ i qi` o y´ kˇ u ı a a u o at the mouth. 153 ni´ p´ xiˇ n u ı a . slight m` k¯ sh` ng w¯ i zhˇ ng u e a e o swelling of the eye nest. 401 u . membrane. worrying tongue. 120. skin and [body] hair. 407 . mother. 285. 405 u ı a nuˇ n w` i " a e . 402 . 252. 408 . eye. membrane source. spleen q` vacuity. 406 m` ch` u ı . night blindness. 246. dry eyes. 152. 157. 137. 401 ı a . dribble after voiding. 402 a ni` o yˇ u y´ l` a o u ı . 127. fat. slimy. urine. 230. spleen vacuity. 154 ou t` l ˇ u % . upward staring eyes. 411 . 409 m` t` ng u o m` w´ gu¯ ng cˇ i S ] q . 167 a a ni´ . 135. 144. 411 . skin. 406 u a ı . spleen failing to move p´ sh¯ ji` n y` n ı ı a u and transform. n` i sh¯ ng q¯ q´ng e a ı ı 402 E F . pus. eye. 412 . 406 m` sh` ng sh` ] : . dizzy vision. invisible worms. 138 u m` . 137 . 143. blurred vision. bladder. 252. eye pain. internal cause. 405 a . 409 u u m` k¯ n` i xi` n u e e a . spleen-earth. difficult. n` gˇ b` xi¯ ng e p a u u a 276. 409 a a . 153. 153. dull eyes. sunken eyes. wood. no pleasure in eating. 127. 153 p´ tˇ ı u p´ w` i sh¯ r` x¯ n zh¯ ng g¯ n dˇ n ı e ı e u e a a . 127. 403 m` xu´ t u e m` zh¯ _ . 254 a nˇ o . yellow eyes. 409 . 276 u u a a m` xu` n $ . 256. internal damage by n` i sh¯ ng q¯ q´ng e a ı ı the seven affects. 264 u` n¨ e j´ a H . 158. 254. vomiting of phlegmou t` t´ n yˇn l ˇ u a ı rheum. vomiting and retching. 255 n¨ e a . 403 u e . red eyes. 256 niˇ sh¯ ng u a n´ ng . 127 o m´ yu´ n K . 404 p´ shˇ tˇ ı u u . 137 m` f¯ i xu` Q u e e . 408 u a m` xu´ s . jiˇ o g¯ ng fˇ n zh¯ ng O a o a a 167 . bladder dampp´ ng gu¯ ng sh¯ r` a a ı e heat. 143 m` h´ ] . spleen-stomach damp-heat sweltering the liver and gallbladder. 170. dribble after voiding. 401 ı . warm the stomach. 401 u m` k . 402 o a mˇ . 406 ] ( . 257 u u m` zh¯ _ . night sweating. opisthotonos. spleen failing to conp´ b` tˇ ng xu` p r ı u o e trol the blood. skin. 153. 276 ni` o yˇ u y´ l` a o u ı 1 . 401 u ˇ n¨ zˇ b¯ o q 3 . p´ ng gu¯ ng a a 402 . malaria. malaria. 153 ı p´ q` ı ı . hauling the boat upn` li´ wˇ n zh¯ u q ı u a o stream. 135. invisible sores. 167 qu` m` e u d` o h` n / . wood fire tormentm` huˇ x´ng j¯n k & u o ı ı ing metal. 127. sprain. torpid intake. 402 n` i y¯n e ı n` u . 257. 135. 161 ı . 127 o . 153 p` ng . 409 m` g¯ n s` u a e . anger. 253 a p´ . 257 u u n` d¯ i i . 139 u . spleen-kidney y´ ng a p´ sh` n y´ ng x¯ ı e a u vacuity. 140 a a n´ n . 411 p´ x¯ ı u . 413 u` ı y . millet sore of m` sh¯ ng s` chu¯ ng u e u a the eye. spleen. 259 ı n` . 127. 276 ni` o . 153 p´ f¯ ı u . uterus. 127 ı p´ . 406 n` ng sh´ o e n` .P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms m´ . mustering point. 411 ı p´ q` x¯ ı ı u . ox. 409 m` hu¯ u a m` hu´ ng 6 . spleen belongs to earth. n` gˇ b` x¯n e p a u u ı 409 n` i d¯ i i . flowery vision. 254 ı n` . peppercorn m` sh¯ ng ji¯ o chu¯ ng u e a a sore of the eye. 122. spleen q`. eyeball. oxhide lichen. 411 ı q` zh` ı ı . devitalised spleen y´ ng. 272. 153 ı ı hibit water. 128 u p´ x¯ ji¯ sh´ ı u a ı . 413 ı q` f` n zh` ng ı e e .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms q` su´ xu` tu¯ ı ı e o . 407 q` c¯ ı u . 414 q¯ng xu` r` ı e e ı q` n` q . q` mounting. 136. 139. 403 . orifice. 411 q` zhˇ ng ı o . 410 e a q¯ng ? . mantis egg-case. hasty breathing. 140. 404 . 403 ı ı . rough breathing. subdue y´ ng and a qi´ n y´ ng x¯ f¯ ng a a ı e extinguish wind. great network vessel of p´ zh¯ d` lu` _ ı ı a o the spleen. q`. 141 p´ t´ o zh` u a ı . 404 . p´. 139 j¯ xi¯ ng ı o % . 285. dual vacuity of q` and ı q` xu` j` x¯ ı e u u blood. 410 pˇ ku` i O ı a u 8 . banking up earth to pi´ tˇ sh¯ ng j¯n e u e ı engender metal. 264 a ı pi¯ o xi¯ o \ ] . 411 ı ı clearing fire-draining formulas. clear-eye blindness. 414 q¯ng x¯ r` ı u e ı q` l´n 1 . 143 p` xu` o e . hemilateral headache. scurrying pain q¯ng r` xi` huˇ q´ zh¯ u cu` n t` ng W R X ı o a o & . clear heat and disinq¯ng l` sh¯ r` Y ı ı ı e hibit dampness. rapid breathing. 402 ı & _ . eggplant disease. 411 ı p´ y¯n x¯ ı ı u A @ K . bend. q` swelling. q` stagnation. spleen y´ ng vacuity. 404 7 . q` strangury. 407 ı u colour of new shoots of grass. spleen governs upbearing of the clear. ı ı a a u its bloom is in the lips. 158 q¯ng r` ı e ( . q` deserting with the ı blood. seven affects. 157 q` j´ ı ı open the orifices. 146 . q` stagnation and blood ı q` zh` xu` y¯ ı ı e u stasis. glomus lump. q´ hu´ z` i ch´ n . q` is the comı q` w´ i xu` zh¯ shu` i s ı e e ı a mander of the blood. 146 e ı qi` m` i W . 411 a . q` block. 414 . 159 . spleen vacuity with food damage. spleen p´ yˇ w` i xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ ) ı u e a a ı and stomach stand in interior-exterior relationship. 123 ı q` . clear blood heat. pi¯ n t´ u t` ng ^ a o o 408 pi´ n zh¯ E F . 286. green-blue. 156 q¯ q´ng ı ı Y . clear heat and resolve q¯ng r` jiˇ d´ ı e e u toxin. 168. 229 ı q` t` ng ı o _ t . anterior. 276 ı a . . 229 ı a q¯ / . 411 q` t´ n % . 262. 414 ı ı . 153 a a . clear q` heat. 156 qi¯ n r` chu¯ ng a ı a qi´ n 9 . 123 . 413 p` sh¯ ng f¯ ng o a e . clear. 409 fire. . heatq¯ng r` xi` huˇ zh¯ j` ı e e o ı ı ı q` b` O . . break blood. 402 ı a . q` pain. q` transformation. predilecpi¯ n sh` y´ u n` h` u w` i ^ a ı o ı o e tion for greasy and rich foods. q` vacuity. q` counterflow. . 414 ı q¯ng q` r` ı ı e . 128 u ı q` sh` n ] . 414 q¯ng sh¯ r` ı ı e ı q` hu` 7 . 411 ı ı qi´ . lockjaw. spleen y¯n vacuity. 253 a qi` o . 411 . q`-aspect pattern. spleen. sniveling. 253. q` strangury. clear heat and drain ı e e o around the umbilicus. 415 ı q` ji¯ ~ . spleen p´ zhˇ j¯ r` u s` zh¯ z ( ı u ı o governs the flesh and limbs. when q` is vacuous. tugging and slackening. spleen governs movep´ zhˇ y` n hu` z ı u u a ment and transformation. 402 a qi´ zi b`ng q r . callus. 136. . q` street. 411 a p´ y´ ng x¯ ı a u . 134. 413 p´ y´ ng b` zh` n ı a u e p A . 140 ı e . 401 ı q¯ng . 169 ı a ı . clear heat and disinq¯ng r` l` shuˇ ı e ı ı ı q´ l´n 1 . pigeon chest. clear the heart and q¯ng x¯n k¯ i qi` o ı ı a a . strong. 414 q¯ng m´ ng ? c . grape hemorrhoids. 129. 405 q` z` ng ı o . 244 . . 411 ı q` x¯ ı u . clear damp-heat. clear heat. 245 . wart. clear vacuity heat. . 415 qi´ ng . 285. 404 p´ zhˇ sh¯ ng q¯ng z ı u e ı . 404 O . take the pulse. q` phlegm. 175 ı . ı q` x¯ z´ h´ n ı u e a there is cold. green-blue as the q¯ng r´ cˇ o z¯ ? n ı u a ı q` c` Y . 254 ı . 254 a % . 143 . 412 sh¯ ng sh´ a ı . 228. cheek. soft. rough pulse. nipple moth. dispel wind. 403 ı sh` o y¯n a ı r . lesser y¯n. sh´ gu¯ ng h´ ng ] e a o 406 . 158 . crimson tongue. 254 a sh` ng ] . 161. 254 s` n h´ n a a s` n m` i W . nipple. food damage. 285. enlarged tongue. 227. 406 . 402 a a . 155. heat entering the perir` r` x¯n b¯ o H e u ı a cardium. tongue fur. 413 a . 137. sparrow’s vision. 403 a sh` o y´ ng a a r . 415 ruˇ n ji¯ n a a r` n . 410 o a . 403 e a } . late afternoon tidal r` b¯ ch´ o r` ı u a e fever. sh´ qˇ m´ ng c` ^ e ı a ı 285. spring. mounting q`. lesser y´ ng. 129. lesser-abdominal pain. 139 a ı sh¯ n . 406 sh´ j`ng e ı . 412 a ı . 250. three causes (of disease). 254 u . lesser y´ ng disease. red or crimson tongue. 139 a qu´ n . 276. 406 sh´ ji` ng e a . red tongue. 265 qu` m` e u . 410 u a rˇ e V . 413 e a . 406 sh´ h´ ng e o . huddling aversion to cold. 402 s¯ n y¯n a ı . 255 u a qu´ n . dissipated pulse. lesser abdomen. 406 sh´ li` e e . smooth. 413 r` t´ n % . 269 u´ rˇ e V . 139 a sh` n ] . 139 e r` n m` i W . 412 . 169 s¯ n fˇ a a s¯ n ji¯ o m . 145. dispel. 413 u´ . 159 r` n . 136. 129. controlling vessel. 114 sh¯ ng h´ n a a sh¯ ng j¯n M . curled tongue.P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms q¯ = . 406 sh´ d` n { . 158. 401 o r´ m` i z W . soften hardness. cold damage. 156 r´ u j`ng o ı r` u . damage to liquid. dissipate cold. clean tongue. 410 a a . 413 ı sh` o y¯n b`ng a ı ı sh´ . shrunken tongue. sh` o f` t` ng a u o 409 . bare red tongue. 137 qu` m` e u q¯ f¯ ng hu` t´ n % 7 % . dental impressions sh´ bi¯ n chˇ h´ n e a ı e on the margins of the tongue. 410 e a s` s` w` h´ n x x e e u a . expel cold. enlarged tongue. 127 a . 158 u a ru` m` i W . mountain. baby moth. 415 % . 402 sh` o f` a u . 155 sh¯ . 415 s` m` i W . fissured tongue. 412 ı sh¯ ng y¯n a ı sh` ng ] . sand strangury. 414 r` n xi` u a r` n z` o ' . 405 . 401 e . 162 sh´ p` ng e a . 254 a . 413 ı sh` n q` ] a ı . baby moth. triple burner s¯ n ji¯ o zhˇ ju´ d´ m z a a u e u governs the sluices. 276 qu´ n ch´ ng a o . 153. heat phlegm. 229. extreme heat engenr` j´ sh¯ ng f¯ ng e ı e e dering wind. three methods. sh´ h´ ng ji` ng e o a 157 . 406 sh´ sh` u biˇ e o e sh´ t¯ i 7 . night blindness. prickly tongue. ascend. the whole of the hur´ n zh¯ y` sh¯ n _ e ı ı e man body. transu e a a form phlegm. 254 u q¯ h´ n u a . prickly tongue. thick white tongue sh´ t¯ i b´ i h` u 7 e a a o fur. 264 e a 8 . dispel phlegm. pale tongue. 415 q¯ sh¯ = u ı q¯ t´ n = % . whole scorpion. sand (disease). shortage of q`. tongue. 256 rˇ t´ u u o ruˇ n . 145. astringe the ins` ch´ ng g` tu¯ e a u o testines and stem desertion. mounting. lesser y¯n disease. weak pulse. 139 a sh¯ . stiff tongue and sh´ qi´ ng yˇ jiˇ n e a u a impeded speech. dispel dampness. damage to y¯n. 156. and suppress cough. 411 r` zh` ng e e . 406 sh´ juˇ n e a . heat pattern. sand. moist. control. 161 a sh¯ l`n 1 . 413 rˇ e u´ . 254 a . 259. 406 e a . 406 sh´ p` ng d` e a a . a sh` o y´ ng b`ng a a ı 413 . 406 3 . 175 ı shˇ o q` a ı . soft tetany. 129. 157 . flesh. soggy pulse. moist precipitation. 127. 262 . up(ward). triple burner. sh´ sh¯ ng m´ ng c` e e a ı 157 . moisten dryness. 412 P . 155 sh¯ ng y` ng e o sh` ng . kidney sac. dry fur. 413 ı a sh¯ zˇ P . 142 . 128. 406 e ı sh` n` sh` n q` e a e ı . kidney governs sh` n zhˇ k¯ i h´ e u a e opening and closing. tongue body. 253 ı . 137. 405 e o . 405 . dampness trapping hidden sh¯ e r` f´ ı` e u (deep-lying) heat. 405 sh´ n . 403 ı sh¯ . damp-heat. 137 . sh` n zhˇ gˇ z e u u 405 z . e ı a a a its bloom is in the hair (of the head). 402 e sh¯ n B . 404 . exuberant. damp phlegm. spirit. e ı o a u its fullness is in the bone. 401 e . body. 412 . kidney is the sh` n w´ i q` zh¯ bˇ n s e e ı ı e root of q`. clouded spirit. 267 sh` n n´ ng e a . generalised heaviness. 153 sh´ tou e sh´ zh` A . insufficiency of kidsh` n j¯ng b` z´ e ı u u ney essence. 246. 270 ı m . 253 e sh¯ . q´ ch¯ ng z` i gˇ . 406 sh´ t¯ i g¯ n z` o 7 e a a a ' . 405 sh¯ ng . seminal loss. sh` n c´ ng j¯ng e a ı 404 p . kidney. . 156 sh´ b¯ fˇ n ı a a . . kidney governs the bones. . kidney sh` n k¯ i qi` o y´ er y¯n e a a u` ı opens at the two y¯n. body. 412 ı u sh´ . 254 e sh¯ ng . . groaning. purple tongue. sh` n zhˇ shuˇ z e u ı 404 . sh¯ r` xi` zh` p´ ng gu¯ ng ı e a u a a damp-heat pouring down into the bladder. tongue. . 130 ı sh´ . enlarged tongue. kidney failing to absh` n b` n` q` p e u a ı sorb q`. 407 sh¯ ng y¯n s¯ sh` O e ı ı a . kidney opens sh` n k¯ i qi` o y´ er e a a uˇ at the ears. damp-heat pouring sh¯ r` xi` zh` ı e a u downward. sh` n. 252. damp-heat sh¯ r` li´ li` n q` f` n ı e u a ı e lodged in the q` aspect. . kidney belongs to water. dampsh¯ r` xi` zh` d` ch´ ng ı e a u a a heat pouring down into the large intestine. insomnia. 406 e ı . upbear. spiritlessness. 405 sh¯ sh´ n ı e sh¯ t´ n % . 402 e . engender.. 404 . 267 sh` n n´ ng e a p . kidney. 406 sh´ t¯ i h` u n` 7 8 u . stretch. insecurity of kidney sh` n q` b` g` e ı u u q`. 412 ı T . 405 . sh´ zh` p` ng d` e ı a a A 157. 404 . 127. 412 . 406 e ı . dampness. 412 a sh` n y´ ng x¯ e a u sh` n y¯n x¯ e ı u . 405 sh´ n h¯ n e u sh` n . 262. 412 ı . . 415 ı sh¯ n . mealy tongue fur. 163 ı sh´ . damp obstruction. kidney governs water. 412 sh¯ r` ı e . damp(ness). eighteen clashes. 412 . sh¯ n zh` ng b` y` zhuˇ n c` e o u ı a e heavy body with difficulty in turning sides. tongue body. . 412 ı . eat. sh` n shˇ shuˇ e u ı 404 _ } . 152. kidney stores essence. hoarse voice. 157 sh¯ ng y¯n s¯ yˇ O e ı ı a . thick slimy tongue fur. 409 sh¯ j¯ng ı ı sh¯ mi´ n b . . e a o ı 254 sh´ t¯ i r´ j¯ fˇ n 7 n K 8 . 144 ı . q´ hu´ z` i f` . scrotum. repletion. . promote absorption of q` by the kidney. 412 . 409 ı a . e a u ı e 260 sh´ tˇ . . stone. 405 ı . 254 e . 412 ı sh` n yˇ p´ ng gu¯ ng xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ ) e u a a a a ı A @ K . mealy white tongue fur. damp. 128 e sh¯ n tˇ .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms sh´ t¯ i b´ i r´ j¯ fˇ n 7 e a a u ı e n K 8 . heavy body. hoarse voice. 153 e ı . kidney. 407 sh¯ n y´n e ı sh¯ n zh` ng Z . damp-heat sh¯ r` zˇ zh` p´ w` i ı e u ı ı e obstructing the spleen and stomach. 270 ı sh¯ . kidney engenders sh` n sh¯ ng gˇ su´ e e u ı the bone and marrow. dampsh¯ r` y` n ji´ g¯ n dˇ n ı e u e a a heat brewing in the liver and gallbladder. kidney y´ ng vacuity. 405 sh¯ n zh` ng e o Z p . 162 sh´ zˇ t . kidney and bladder stand in interiorexterior relationship. sh` n. kidney y¯n vacuity. 152. . 127.. use raw. 402 u s¯ ng . 163 sh´ sh´ ı ı p . fatigued cumbers` zh¯ k` n zh` ng ı ı u o and legs. 410 . 137. 401 sh` kˇ u b` y` yˇn @ u o u u ı . replenish repletion. repletion pattern. 410 . 403 s` zˇ ng xu´ v ı o e shˇ & . flatus. visual distortion of sh` w` bi` n x´ng : ı u a ı . 412 sh´ r` ı e ı sh´ s¯ n guˇ xu´ ı a ı e . Eleven. fifteen network vessels. 256 shˇ q` + ı ı . thought. 17th spine bone. twelve channel sinews. flailing of the arms shˇ u wˇ z´ d` o o u u a . lack of warmth in the s` zh¯ qi` n w¯ n ı ı a e sh¯ biˇ o @ . pine. four command points. 401 p . 403 shuˇ . somnolence. 407 gling) of the limbs. summerheat-damp. 402 o 162 shˇ u . 405 . 141. 401 ı p . 409 ı a limbs. 253. 158 157 n . water-cold shooting shuˇ h´ n sh` f` i ı a e e h . 139 shuˇ j¯ ı ı sh´ l´n 1 . 145 sh¯ xu´ u e .shu` 1 . 138. stone strangury. washing the su¯ n . 139 o shˇ lu` O . pine bark lichen. water-damp. repletion heat. stream point. summerheat-heat. sˇ t¯ i b` xi` p ı a u a sh´ y` b` zh` n < p A .P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms mouth with water without desire to swallow sh´ b` xi` p ı u a . 156 shuˇ sh` n ] . 403 ı ı . 408 ı u u e 274 _ . sour. 128. numbness (and tins` zh¯ m´ m` ı ı a u the) palms and soles. 157 some limbs. 129. 137 a p < . unsurfaced heat. 405 N . 141–143 points). 412 shˇ r` & u e . frog. 403 u o . 407 e e u a . 175. poor appetite. hypertonicity of the limbs. rapid pulse. four examinations. 285. 135. 414 p . transport. water. 410 o a . repletion is treated by sh´ z´ xi` zh¯ ı e e ı . arm. depressed steaming shˇ sh¯ y` zh¯ ng & u ı u e . it. 410 ı a . 129. s` zh¯ j¯ j´ ı ı u ı objects. 156s¯ c . 140 u . 403 . 414 u a limbs. heat in the (heart of shˇ u z´ x¯n r` o u ı e k .sh¯ n r` b` y´ ng ( sh´ y¯ w` i w¯ n dˇ n t¯ ng ı ı e e a a ı Ingredient Gallbladder-Warming Decoction. 408 409 shu` i t . 402 o limbs. fourteen channels. 403 ı u o . thirteen ghost or de. track down wind s¯ u f¯ ng zh´ h´ n % o e u a . 156 shuˇ sh¯ sh´ q¯ zhu¯ xu´ ı ı ı e . 127. homing and netting. 143 . water mounting. 411 sh´ zh` ng ı e limbs. 158 sh` w` r´ shu¯ ng : ı u u a . 127. 142 eating. abiding food. s` zh¯ ju` n d` i ı ı a a shˇ u . double vision. 156 sh´ s` j¯ng ı ı ı 407 sh´ wˇ lu` z O . sh¯ n r` b` y´ ng e e u a p . 139 s¯ ng p´ xiˇ n o ı a . 139 a sh´ er j¯ng ı` ı p . reversal cold of the s` zh¯ ju´ lˇ ng ı ı e e shˇ u . hand. 412 s` sh´ u ı summerheat-damp. lack of warmth in the s` zh¯ b` w¯ n ı ı u e . sleep. 230. 410 sh¯ . 414 shuˇ zhˇ ng ı o . grain and water (food). 229 ı a sh´ m` i W . 253 o mon holes (or points). course the exterior. water q` intimidating ı ı ı ı ı . 414 ı ı . inability to get food down. replete pulse. retention of dead foetus. 159 limbs. commander. sixteen cleft holes (or shuˇ q` l´ng x¯n sh´ li` x¯ xu´ ı u ı e the heart. 412 shˇ sh¯ & u ı and expel cold. 253 shu` G . 135 ı u 156. sh´ er j¯ng j¯n ı` ı ı shuˇ gˇ e . water swelling. 127 o p . hand. 156 shu` m` i G W . summerheat. convulsion of the s` zh¯ ch¯ u ch` ı ı o u sh` mi´ n b . the office of sh` u sh` ng zh¯ gu¯ n o e ı a q . 155 s` zhˇ n ı e draining. rapid. unsurfaced fever. drowsiness after sh´ h` u k` n d` n ı o u u into the lung. 409 . counterflow cold of the s` zh¯ n` lˇ ng ı ı ı e reception. 157. twelve channels. fatigued limbs. 408 _ r . 410 . 136. body. premature graying of t´ u f` zˇ o b´ i o a a a the hair. 403 a t` i y¯n u a ı r . 408 . 127. 406 t¯ i g` u 7 a o t¯ i h` u 7 8 . harmonise the stomach and intestines. 257 t´ ng kˇ ng o o . 254 o . 414 a e . thick fur. 401 ı ti¯ n . 137 p O . phlegm lodged in the t´ n li´ j¯ng lu` % a u ı o channels. 401 ı t` # . lift the pot and remove t´ h´ ji¯ g` i ı u e a the lid. head heavy as if t´ u t` ng r´ guˇ o o u o Z n swathed. 413 t´ n yˇn % a ı . 402 ı t` # . 127. 252. 276 ti¯ n xi¯ o a a ti´ o h´ ch´ ng w` i a e a e . 413 p .. mantis. 140 ı t¯ ng u . 408 o o . 143. free the stool. greater y¯n disease. body inch. 257. sea of marrow. marrow. snivel. 252 ı . transforming fur. shaking of the head. 147 tˇ . 415 su¯ ni` o o a . 403 t´ ng sh¯ n c` n o e u t` ng . 407 . harmonise the liver ti´ o h´ g¯ n w` i a e a e and stomach. 255 t¯ ng bi` n u o a . bean curd tongue fur. stirring foetus. 157. 406 a o t¯ i hu` 7 7 . 406 Z . phlegm. copious clear thin t´ n du¯ q¯ng x¯ % a o ı ı phlegm. 414 . 158 . 414 . 138 a ti¯ n d` p . 405. 412 s¯ n lu` d O . 264 o e t´ u . dizzy head. distention in the head. 141–143. 413 t´ ng l´ ng Z a a . 152 a o . copious phlegm. 406 a ı . 401 u t` . 409 t¯ n sh´ a ı t´ n % . 410 t¯ i d` ng b` an a o u¯ t¯ i fˇ 7 a u . 406 a o p R . grandchild network vessel. 137. 157. 143 s` n h´ n a a t¯ i 7 . 253 o . smallpox. 408 t´ u zh` ng o a t´ u zh` ng Z . sty. 413 ] . head. paralysis. 127 ı t` . reduce urine. harmonise the liver ti´ o h´ g¯ n p´ a e a ı and spleen. phlegm turbidity t´ n zhu´ sh` ng rˇ o % a o a a harassing the upper body. 129 u . 407 . 414 t´ng # . slimy fur. 127. earlier-heaven eunuchism. head heavy as if t´ u zh` ng r´ guˇ Z n o o u o swathed. 143 . 408 o u . phlegm-fire hat´ n huˇ sh` ng rˇ o % & ] a o a a rassing the upper body. 408 tˇ . greater y´ ng. phlegm-rheum. thin fur. 157 t´ n du¯ % a o . vomit. rapacious eating. headache with pulling t´ u t` ng r´ ch` o o u e sensation. 157. 153 a ı . 403 u o . clear thin white t´ n b´ i q¯ng x¯ % a a ı ı phlegm. 403 a t` i y´ ng u a a r . 142. 153 y¯ n h´ u w . 407 t´ n h´ % & . greater y´ ng disease. 145 ı a suˇ T . heavy-headedness. emptiness of the sea suˇ hˇ i k¯ ng x¯ T t ı a o u of marrow. pain like the stabbing t` ng r´ d¯ o c` n o u a ı of a knife. phlegm confounding t´ n m´ x¯n qi` o % a ı ı a the orifices of the heart. 276 ti¯ n hu` n a a . pupil. 167 t¯ n hu` n a a . court. phlegm clouding t´ n m´ ng x¯n b¯ o % a e ı a the pericardium. 406 t¯ i b¯ 7 a o t¯ i b´ 7 M . 137 t¯ u zh¯ n A k . heaven. scant phlegm t´ n shˇ o b´ y` kˇ % a a u ı a expectorated with difficulty. t´ u t` ng o o 264. earth. t´ u y´ o o a 406 t´ u y¯ n % . 140 a . fur. 413 . heavy cumbert´ u sh¯ n k` n zh` ng o e u o some head and body. greater y´ ng. earlier-heaven wheezing. grimy fur. phlegm node. throat.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms su´ hˇ i T t . 170. 127. 402 o . 120. 413 ı t` i y¯n b`ng u a ı ı . 403 a . 406 a a t¯ i n` 7 u . 260 . 276. phlegm containt´ n zh¯ ng d` i xu` % a o a e ing blood. 142. 135. peeling fur. 408 n ! . 405 . 153. 283. nasal mucus. headache. 413 ti¯ n hu¯ a a . snivel. pain. 413 . t´ n zhu´ m´ ng b` x¯n b¯ o % a o e ı ı a phlegm turbidity clouding the pericardium. 413 a t` i y´ ng b`ng u a a ı . free. heaven and earth. dissipate cold. external contraction. 252 u . 404 . five transport points. 155 w´ i chˇ o ( e a . external cause. warm y´ ng. 127. 167. postmeridian tidal u o a e things. 155 u w` n . external contraction w¯ n xi´ q¯n x´ f` i w` i w` i gˇ n h´ n xi´ P z a a a e . 402 w` i wˇ n e a O . five wheels.w¯ n zh¯ ng s` n h´ n wˇ n f` t` ng j` an a u o u` . 410 wˇ n f` t` ng xˇ an a u o ı` u ı ach duct and abdomen that likes pressure. stomach governs w` i zhˇ fˇ sh´ e u u u ripening and rotting. mother of ten-thousand wˇ h` u ch´ o r` w` n w` zh¯ mˇ a u ı u ( . leaking roof pulse. 155 e a 403 . 252. external contrac. warmth. 127 e w¯ n b`ng r . -ward). 145 wˇ l´ n z u u . 415 . harelip. 137 wˇ sh¯ z u u wˇ i . 156 fever. 155 a ı Chasing-the-Wind Powder. desert. 139 u t` ch´ n P u u . 408 u e e _ . hare. 127. wilting. 256 % . fifth-watch diarrhoea. 408 tu¯ g¯ ng o a . 114 e ı w` i P . blood collapse. 264 w` i sh` n P a e . 264 . two y¯n. buttocks. hair loss. 413 wˇ i zh` ng e e . 141 u o a B . 412 assailing the lung and defence. 404 w¯ n . 167. spittle. great network [vessel] w` i zh¯ d` lu` _ e ı a o of the stomach. stomach duct. 413 a a and dissipate cold. postmeridian tidal wˇ h` u ch´ o r` u o a e . 409 wˇ z . and dissipate cold. 132 ı tu´ sh` n ] . 169 wˇ xi´ z u e t` P . defence q`. 139. stomach governs decomposition. five. 402 w` i y¯n P a ı Y . move frenetically. leg. 415 409 w¯ l` u m` i J W . 406 t` qu¯ P Q . stomach q`. stomach duct. 136. pain in the stom. warm the channels w¯ n j¯ng s` n h´ n p e ı a a w` i gˇ n P z . 407 sion to] cold and heat [effusion]. warm evil e e ı ı e e cold evil. protrusion and worrying of t` n` ng sh´ u o e the tongue. vomiting of acid. 141. swallowing of upflowing acid. stomach governs w` i zhˇ ji` ng zhu´ z | e u a o downbearing of the turbid. 132. bulging mounting. 252 e w` i . wrist. w` i f` n zh` ng e e e 413 . 411 w´ ng xu` a e } . 409 t` su¯ n u a . 161. 402 a wˇ g¯ ng xi` z 8 > . pain in the stom. 406 t` sh´ u e . 127. 407 . 132. 402 ı . great network vessel w` i zh¯ d` lu` _ e ı a o of the stomach. t¯ n su¯ n K u a 409 t´ n X . shedding of tu¯ r` u p` jiˇ ng (j` n) o o o o u flesh and loss of bulk. 404 w` i zhˇ fˇ sh´ e u u u . 402 a inhibit water. withered-yellow. wilting pattern.P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms w` i . forceless. 169 ı w` i q` e ı . 245 U . 138 w¯ i m` i ( W . stomach governs w` i zhˇ sh` u n` e u o a z intake. stomach. warm yang and disw¯ n y´ ng l` shuˇ e a ı ı wˇ n . 403 z . 158 tu¯ f` o a . 252. 277 u e . wˇ sh¯ xu´ z u u e wˇ i hu´ ng 6 . 227. 129 a w¯ n y´ ng e a . 254 o tu` $ . defense-aspect pattern. protrusion of tongue. bulging. 127. warm the centre e o a a ach duct and abdomen that refuses pressure. 412 . five evils. blood ejection. 142 . faint pulse. hare cleft. 127. 410 e a . 401 o . 269. warm evil. 284. stir-fry lightly. five transport points. stomach. out (-er. Five-Tigerswˇ hˇ zhu¯ f¯ ng sˇ n z u u ı e a w` ng x´ng y B . 286. prolapse of the rectum. 414 e a tion of wind evil. 405 tu´ . 259 e .w¯ n xi` w` i gˇ n f¯ ng xi´ P z % a a e e . 403 w¯ n xi´ e e . 254 a . 404 . 286.w´ l` S c . 402 ı w` i q` e ı . external genitals. rabbit. 285 O . alternating [averwˇ ng l´ i h´ n r` * 8 a a a e heat [effusion]. 167 ı er y¯n ` ı . 136. 401 e . warm disease. gastr 401 e w` i . 229 ı a tuˇ . warm precipitation. 145. 409 t` xu` u e tu´ ^ . 127. fine pulse. knee. 154. 156 u ı . reddish yellow urine. darting shrimp pulse. 159 ı w` f¯ ng % . 155 W . 415 xi¯ o sh´ 1 a ı xiˇ o . 145. urinary incontixiˇ o bi` n sh¯ j`n a a ı ı nence. lichen. 413 a e . 230. 252. 401 a xi´ n m` i W . stand in exterior-interior a a ı relationship. 410 a a xiˇ n . 253 a . fall. child fright wind. aversion to cold. 227. 401 ı x` . 246. G . 157. 402 x¯n b¯ o lu` ı a o . mounting. 407 u e . aversion to light. nape. 402 a g g . 158 ı e % . 141 xi` j¯ng e ı . wheezing. 163 _ r . urine. 404 % . 413 a xi¯ o chuˇ n 5 . 408 6 . 161. small intestine. smaller-abdominal pain. evil q`. inhibited urination. 402 a a p Y . lying in curled-up posture. ministerial fire. urine. diarrhoea. five phases. w` gu¯ ng xi¯ m´ng ] ` u a u ı 409 . feather-warm heat effux` x` f¯ r` i i ı ı a e sion. 286. joy. 265. 401 ı x¯n B . 167 w` h´ n u a . lying in curled-up xi` ng lˇ qu´ n w` K a ı a o posture. 127. 403 xi` h´ xu´ a e e . long voidings xiˇ o bi` n q¯ng ch´ ng a a ı a of clear urine. small. 154. drain. 145 a o . 407. 410 ı a . precipitate q`. lower uniting point. abductive dispersion. 402 e xi´ . 408 . 139. 406 e ı xi` . acrid. 155 xˇ B . 129. 141 xi¯ y´ u m` i a o a . 169 ı xi` q` a ı . exhaustion of the xi` yu´ n x¯ b` i a a u e true origin. heart vexation. clear-grain diarrhoea. 408 3 . small intestine governs separation of the clear and turbid. heart. xi` l` q¯ng gˇ a ı ı u 407 . salty. 407 w` h´ n u a x¯ . crab’s eye. 413 a a xi¯ o dˇ o 1 F . xiˇ o er j¯ng f¯ ng a ´ ı e 413 . disperse food. clear-food diarrhoea. stretched xi` ng b` i qi´ ng sh¯ sh¯ a e a u u rigid nape and back. squint. 414 a xi` n . 254 e . 256 xiˇ o bi` n a a . 402 xiˇ o f` a u . the essential wˇ z` ng zh¯ j¯ng q` z E _ u a ı ı ı q` of the five viscera. aversion to wind. 127. 140. 154 xi` ng huˇ A & . wetted aversion to x¯ x¯ w` f¯ ng k k ı ı u e wind. xiˇ o f` t` ng a u o 158. 408 I . vexing heat in the five hearts. 402 ı x¯ f¯ ng % . yellow or redxiˇ o bi` n hu´ ng ch` a a a ı dish urine. 408 x¯n an ı ´ O . 139 ı x` m` i 2 W . 229 xiˇ o ch´ ng sh` n q` a a a ı z xiˇ o ch´ ng zhˇ f¯ n bi´ q¯ng zhu´ a a u e e ı o . rib-side. 408 xi` xi` > e e x¯n . 408 xiˇ o bi` n duˇ n ch` a a a ı I . evil. frequent urinaxiˇ o bi` n p´n shu` a a ı o tion. 227. 253. aversion to cold. 402 ı xi´ q` e ı xi´ sh` : . office of assistant. 259. 402 xiˇ o bi` n a a xiˇ o bi` n c .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms wˇ x¯n f´ n r` z u ı a e . 256. 407 w` h´ n u a . chill. 408 . drool. 409 xi´ . 140 e . 129. crab. 146. short voidings of reddish urine. 405 xi` ng lˇ qu´ n w` K a ı a o . 413 x¯n b¯ o zh` ng ı a e . pericardium. xi` l` q¯ng gˇ Y a ı ı u 407 . 412 xi´ n = . voiding. dispersion-thirst. stringlike pulse. urination. 127. pericardiac pattern. 410 wˇ x´ng z B . smaller abdomen. 157 . wheezing and panting. short voidings xiˇ o bi` n duˇ n shˇ o a a a a of scant urine. 401 ı . xi¯ ng f` zh¯ gu¯ n A a u ı a 146 xi` ng . lower burner is like a xi` ji¯ o r´ d´ m n a a u u sluice. 260 xiˇ o bi` n a a . 401 xiˇ o ch´ ng a a ] . 285 xi¯ o . 401 a xi´ n C . 209–211. 158. 135 e . 127. 260. 169 ı xi` q` a ı . xiˇ o bi` n b` l` a a u ı 285. lower body q`. 254 a xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ A @ K . extinguish wind. 415 a a xi¯ o kˇ 1 9 . 154 u a . heart palpitations. resolve the exterior x¯n li´ ng jiˇ biˇ o B ı a e a with coolness and acridity. bulging fontanel gate. . heart [region] and abdomen. 143.P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms x¯n b` ı ı . resolve the exterior x¯n w¯ n jiˇ biˇ o B ı e e a with warmth and acridity. 402 ı e E O . 142. chest and rib-side. 244. 411 . dual vacuity of the x¯n p´ liˇ ng x¯ ı ı a u heart of spleen. heart fire flaming ı o a a upward. obesity. heart and small intestine stand in interiorexterior relationship. vacuity is treated by x¯ z´ bˇ zh¯ u e u ı supplementing. heart-kidney y´ ng a x¯n sh` n y´ ng x¯ ı e a u vacuity. 285. blood. 410 u a . 153 x¯n f` ı u x¯n huˇ sh` ng y´ n & ] 7 . 158 . vacuity. 411 ı x¯n q` x¯ ı ı u _ . 404 x`n . 409 ı ı _ H . 409 o a . 402 o xi¯ ng mˇ n : . 411 . premature graying. physical. 411 . 405 x´ng tˇ f´ i p` ng N . 227 x¯n xi` ı a . 402 xu´ n y¯ ng chu´ / 0 a o ı xu` n y¯ n $ % . 152 ı x¯n q` ı ı . 402 ı x´ng . 254 a . acpuncture point. physical fatigue x´ng ju` n sh´ n d` i N ı a e a and lassitude of spirit. 152 .S ı ı e a xi¯ ng . 409 x¯ . 402 u ı x¯ m` i W . x¯n ji` zh¯ j´ ı u ı ı 159 . [region] below the heart. 411 ı x¯n y¯n x¯ ı ı u A @ x¯n yˇ xiˇ o ch´ ng xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ ) ı u a a a a ı K . vacuity fire. noninteraction of x¯n sh` n b` ji¯ o ı e u a the heart and kidney. 277 ı x´ng N . vacuity swelling. chest. 414 . 129. depressed fontanel gate. 402 ı . heart blood vacuity. 411 x¯n j` B .. 163 x¯ x¯ u u _ . heart belongs to fire. starry screen. heart and spleen. 402 ı . fullness in the xi¯ ng mˇ n xi´ t` ng : o a e o chest and pain in the rib-side. 410 x´ng h´ n N ı a . 412 x¯ r` u e x¯ shu¯ i s . hole. 414 . vacuity pattern. 403 xu´ d` o e a xu` . 408 a u xu´ . dizziness. heart governs the x¯n zhˇ xu` m` i z ı u e a blood and vessels. 277 e xu´ . 402 x¯n xi` ı a O . 157. 252. 137 x¯ng y` ı ı x´ng B . 409 o ı . phase. 153 xi¯ ng xi´ o e D : . Vacuous Li. chest pain. 411 x¯ zh` ng u e . heart q` vacuity. xi¯ ng m` n o e 409 xi¯ ng pˇ O . fontanel gate. diffuse. evacuate vacuity. below the heart. physical cold. 277 e xu´ . anterior fontanel. vacuity heat. 411 x¯n xu` x¯ ı e u . physical cold and x´ng h´ n zh¯ lˇ ng N ı a ı e cold limbs. acupuncture point. fullness in the chest. 175 x¯ zhˇ ng u o xu¯ n . hole. heart opens at x¯n k¯ i qi` o y´ sh´ ı a a u e the tongue. 248 e . retarded closure of x`n m´ n ch´ b` ı e ı ı the fontanel gate. 127. heart q`. 402 x`n m´ n ı e x`n m´ n . 412 u o x¯ lˇ 3 . 403 x¯n shˇ huˇ ı u o @ . vacuous pulse. 408 x´ng tˇ N . 138 e . 414 x¯n p´ ı ı . 406 x`n m´ n xi` xi` n ı e a a . chest and rib-side xi¯ ng xi´ kˇ mˇ n o e u a fullness. heart x¯n y´ r` y´ xiˇ o ch´ ng ı ı e u a a spreading heat to the small intestine. 411 x¯n c´ ng sh´ n ı a e . cave. debilitated. new and old diseases. vacuity puffiness. oppression in the chest. hot acrid formulas. 409 xi¯ ng t` ng o o . glomus below the heart. heart impediment. 411 . 127. 159 x¯n r` zh¯ j` B ı e ı ı p t . 409 x¯n xi` pˇ ı a ı . heart stores the spirit. heart-spleen blood x¯n p´ xu` x¯ ı ı e u vacuity. 411 & . 411 a x¯n y´ ng x¯ ı a u . 244 . 163 u . 404 . body. heart-kidney y¯n ı x¯n sh` n y¯n x¯ ı e ı u vacuity. heart y¯n vacuity. 402 ı ı . 286. body. 406 x`n m´ n g¯ o t´ ı e a u T . 175 x¯ f´ u u x¯ huˇ & . 264. 403 W . 158 . fontanel. glomus in the chest. heart y´ ng vacuity. 404 @ . uvula. 406 . 157 x¯ f` zˇ o b´ i u a a a . 403. 408 y¯ o t` ng a o . 167. 264 a y´ ng wˇ i a e . aching lumbus and y¯ o su¯ n tuˇ ruˇ n a a ı a limp legs. 402 a y¯ n . 245 . nourish. flowery vision. lumbus. 267. 229 e a xu` sh` } . 245 . speak. limp aching lumy¯ o tuˇ su¯ n ruˇ n a ı a a bus and legs. 408 . frenetic movement xu` r` w` ng x´ng e e a ı of hot blood. 276 O . 245.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms xu` f` n zh` ng e e e . carphology. lumbar and leg pain. blood mounting. 285. 407 . 411 xu` y¯ e u M N . blood heat. stiffness of the lumbar y¯ o jˇ qi` ng S a ı a spine. blood is the xu` w´ i q` zh¯ mˇ e e ı ı u s mother of q`. lumbar pain. 403 a y´ ng w´ i m` i a e a . pain in the lumbar spine. 254 a . impotence. 250 e a . y´ ng wilt. nourish y¯n. throat. loosening of the y´ chˇ s¯ ng d` ng Q a ı o o teeth. y´ ng x¯ chu¯ ng a u a 145 y´ ng x¯ shuˇ f` n a u ı a & . aching lumbus and y¯ o su¯ n zh¯ lˇ ng a a ı e cold limbs. red sore yˇ n j¯ng h´ ng zhˇ ng t` ng ' a ı o o o swollen eyes. 401 a y´ ng m´ng b`ng a ı ı r . aching pain of the y¯ o b` i su¯ n chˇ a e a u lumbus and back. 146. 410 y´ ng wˇ i a e . dull eyes. y´ ng. sore throat. 245 S c . clenched jaw. y¯ o jˇ t` ng S a ı o 158 v . pharynx. 411 xu` h´ n e a xu` l´n 1 . 251 e ı _ . picking at bedx´ n y¯ m¯ chu´ ng ! u ı o a clothes. 408 a a . 405 . sore swollen y¯ n h´ u zhˇ ng t` ng w a o o o throat. 401 a . 128 a y´ n 0 . lumbar and back y¯ o su¯ n b` i t` ng a a e o pain. gaping gums. aversion to food. blood vacuity engendering wind. 413 y´ ng qi¯ o m` i m a a a n W . 411 xu` sh` n ] . 267 a y´ ng wˇ i a e . 158 yˇ ng xu` < a e . penis. blood chamber. 264. y¯ o gˇ t` ng a u o 245 . 403 y´ ng sh` = . 127. 412 yˇ ng < . y´ ng springing a vessel. 414 e ı . blood-aspect pattern. 129. 415 ı yˇ ng y¯n < a ı y¯ o . eye. 137 y¯ t´ ng a a y´ Q . 157 y¯ n g¯ n a a . 245 . 254 y¯ n t` ng a o y´ n 0 . 265. flailing of the arms y´ ng shˇ u zh´ z´ a o ı u and legs. aching lumbus and y¯ o su¯ n x¯ ruˇ n + a a ı a limp knees. eye. 402 a . 265 x´ n y¯ m¯ chu´ ng ! u ı o a M N . 407 . limp lumbus. 411 xu` x¯ e u xu` x¯ sh¯ ng f¯ ng e u e e % . lumbar and hip y¯ o ku¯ n t´ ng t` ng a a e o pain. impotence. 245 . 402 a . 157 y´ xu¯ n Q a a y¯ n . blood stasis. 272. y´ ng brightness disa ease. sea of blood. duck’s slop. 260 ı . 245 . 245 . y´ ng vacuity water a flood. 413 xu` hˇ i t . 412 . teeth y´ chˇ g¯ n z` o r´ k¯ gˇ Q a ı a a u u u dry as desiccated bones. pharynx. aching lumbus and y¯ o su¯ n tuˇ ruˇ n + a a ı a limp legs. 154 yˇ n j¯ng ' a ı . 245 y¯ o b` i t` ng a e o . 250. dry throat. 128 a yˇ n ' . blood strangury. 255. y´ ng linking vessel. 406 yˇ n qi´ w` i t´ ' a u a u yˇ n w´ gu¯ ng cˇ i ' S ] q . 408 . 405 y´ gu¯ n jˇn b` Q x a a ı ı . 411 xu` r` e e y B . goat’s whiskers sore. 137. blood vacuity. 409 y` n sh´ a ı a y´ ng . 245 y¯ o ruˇ n w´ l` a a u ı y¯ o su¯ n + . aching lumbus. tooth. 245 y¯ o tuˇ t` ng a ı o . lumbar and back pain. nourish the blood. blood cold. 264. 283 a y¯ n . 405 W . 143. 152–154. 274. 402 y´ chˇ Q a ı ' n o . 264 a ı . speech. 152. 402 a . 143 yˇ n hu¯ ' a a . 170. tooth. bulging eyes. 255 P . y´ ng wilt. 264 y´ ng wˇ i a e . pain in the lumbar spine. a u a a 406 . 264. boost q` and resolve the ı y` q` jiˇ biˇ o ı ı e a exterior. 139 u y` hˇ i t . easy. 145 u a . 415 ı y` q` ı ı @ . y¯n door. 402 ı yu´ n q` a ı . 410 o ı y¯ . 128 u yˇ 3 . 257 e ı yu` j¯ng b` l` p p Y . stasis macules. 413 a ı z` ng . profuse menstruayu` j¯ng gu` du¯ p e ı o o tion. 406 y¯ diˇ n u a y¯ xu` u e . 412 . 159 @ . dysphagia-occlusion. pain in the lumbar spine. 401 o yˇ u l` c . 403 yu´ n xu´ K a e yu` j¯ng p . hard. 409 i j . 153 ı a y¯n y´ ng ı a y´n . inhibited menstruae ı u ı tion. 269 z` ng fˇ a u _ . a ı e 245 z´ b`ng r . humour. 155 a y¯ y´ ng ı a . 403 y´ e . 167. enuresis. 402 ı yˇn . construction q`. y¯n. encampment. 159 . 277 z` ng fˇ E a u . welling-abscess. 136. miscellaneous disease. original q`. 140 ı y¯n h` ı u . limp lumbus and knees. 408 _ @ . 128 u y` . 410 . forceful. 415 ı y` y¯n u ı . jade gates. 261 e . speech. anxiety. 277. 135 . drink. fish. 402 ı . storehouse. 161. 136. 140 a . 403 . rheum. 403 ı y¯n w´ i m` i ı e a . 405 y` n` ı u . 286. y¯n springing vesı y¯n qi¯ o m` i m ı a a sel. 402 ı yu´ n q` K a ı . passing twice as much yˇn y¯ s¯ u er ı ı o ` fluid as is drunk. storehouses and mansions. 408 y¯ g´ 4 . first y´ ng [channel]. 257. 264 ı y` . speak. 254 ı . 139. 406 u a . 169 ı y¯n xi´ ı e & : . menstrual irreguyu` j¯ng sh¯ ti´ o p e ı ı a larities. 245 y¯ o x¯ ruˇ n ru` a ı a o . irascibility. effulgent y¯n vacuı y¯n x¯ huˇ w` ng ı u o a ity fire. y¯n linking vessel. congest. 262. 408 y´ ni` o ı a y` I . bowel and visceral q`. repress the liver. 277 u y¯ b¯ n a . 136. source point. menstruation. 414 o . 410 n . 145 y´ng xu´ ı e yˇng K . 410 n . 169 ı a . 403 ı p . 264 y¯n j¯ng ı ı . hiccup after drinking yˇn shuˇ zu` e ı ı o` water. 286. dietary irregularities. advanced menstruyu` j¯ng xi¯ n q´ p e ı a ı ation. 254 u y¯ o jˇ t´ ng S v . ı z` ng fˇ zh¯ q` E a u ı ı . 264 y¯n n´ ng ı a n W . 230. lack of strength in the lumbus and knees. 264 y¯n t´ u ı o W . 253 ı yˇn . source q`. coin lichen. jade. seminal emission. scant menstruayu` j¯ng gu` shˇ o p e ı o a tion. 167. gum. depressed. 139 ı y´ng f` n zh` ng { ı e e . 409 y´ j¯ng ı ı . static blood. scrotum. 121 y´ng { . 145 y` m´ n u e . y¯n sweating. 256. epidemic. 410 . construction-aspect pattern. 128. 154 y¯ ng sh` ng r o e y¯ u . 145. 137. y¯n-y´ ng. 139 u yˇ 3 . 401 ı ı y¯n h` n / . move. y¯n evil. boost q`. 413 y´ng q` { ı ı . 410 y` n . 254 ı y¯ ng . 161. penis. brook point.P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms y¯ o x¯ f´ l` a ı a ı c . bowels and viscera. 410 . goiter. stasis. little thought of food yˇn sh´ shˇ o s¯ ı ı a ı and drink. construction. 154 y` zh` u ı . delayed menstruayu` j¯ng h` u q´ p e ı o ı tion. 264. the exterior of the y¯ sh¯ n zh¯ biˇ o ı e ı a entire body. 121 ı y¯n . yˇn sh´ b` ji´ ı ı u e 403 c . foster y¯n. stasis speckles. 137 y` g¯ n ı a . 413 e e y` . 137 yu´ n xiˇ n L a a . sea of jade. 144. 162. 130. profuse urination at y` ji¯ n du¯ ni` o e a o a night. 245. boost q` and secure the ı y` q` g` biˇ o ı ı u a exterior. 414 ı y`ng . glans penis. 414 ı e zh` bi¯ o X . 413 zh` ng f¯ ng o e . 407 a e . 410 zh` ng h` u e o . invigorate y´ ng. 153 zhˇ tou ı . 167 zh¯ ng h´ n o a . 415 . 402 ı zh` ng q` e ı . vomiting in the zh¯ o sh´ m` t` a ı u u evening of food eaten in the [previous] morning. child stealing the mother’s zˇ d` o mˇ q` q ı a u ı q`. 128 a zh` s¯ i G H . 254 e . 254 u . 414 a a . 143. agitation. 407 zh` ng sh¯ ng e e . 413 o e . 252 ı zhˇ . zhuˇ ! . 127. 255. increase water z¯ ng shuˇ x´ng zh¯ u e ı ı o to move the [grounded] ship. sign. 252. propping fullness. expel stasis. check vaginal discharge. 264 ı zh` bˇ n } . .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms z` ng f` E a u . hardness of hearing. vigorous heat [effusion]. 264 e R . 414 ı a . 269 ı a zh´ sh` Y : . ı ı 286. 405 a . 410 zh` ng h` u e o . 127 ı . 158 a zhu` ng y´ ng a a . ı zh¯ ng q` xi` xi` n o ı a a 411 zhˇ ng . 410 a e z` o ' . treat the tip. child. zh¯ ng ch¯ ng e o 284. 139 e z¯ ng . mussitation. treat the root. sign. 157. prolapse of the zˇ g¯ ng xi` chu´ q ı o a ı uterus. dry dampness. 121 zhˇ o. 127. drinker’s nose. true heart pain. 167 zh` ng h´ n o a zh` ng t¯ng Z Z . 136 zh` ng xi´ e e zh` ng yˇ 3 . (of the pulse) forcezh` ng an w´ l` Z o ` u ı less under heavy pressure. govern. 127. dry. 127 a a . dryness. 410 zh¯ lˇ ng ı e zh¯ mˇ n s : . 146. 409 zh¯ ng jiˇ j¯ j` T U K L . 137. 407 zhu` ng r` a e zhu` ng r` ( . abhorrence of cold. 276. 407 z¯ ng h´ n e a B . 408 . cold strike. 121 zh` ng f¯ ng % . right (q`). nail. 153. assist. 256. elbow. 127. increase. 255 z¯ sh` n q ı e z¯ yˇ ng q < . centre cold. 286 zh` ng h` u e o zh` ng j¯ng p . 410 e zh` ng . bowels and viscera. 158. pillar. 142. 413 ı zh` ng . right and evil. fatigued limbs. wind strike. 414 zh¯ . 412 a p . sign. 408 zh¯ ju` n ı a . premature ejaculation. scorching heat. wind stroke. pattern. 411 zh¯ n x¯n t` ng e ı o p . 154 ı a . hemorrhoids. finger. 406 zhˇ . mumps. delirious speech. enrich the kidney. and gatherings. 412 zhˇ n . right q`. centre burner is like zh¯ ng ji¯ o r´ ou m n o a u¯ foam. 264 a a zh¯ n y´ n 0 . cold limbs. muttering. 140 e zh` ng . 254 a z` o ' . insufficiency of the zh¯ n yu´ n b` z´ e a u u true origin. 408 a a . 410 zhu´ r` o e . 257. 403 a z` o ! . assist y´ ng. toe. 255 e ı . 139 u zh` . centre q` fall. vigorous fever. papule. 255. enrich. muttering. 141 ı . conglome a ı u erations. 259 . swelling. 269. 264 e u zh` ng zh` e ı . 145. 407 a a zh` n h` n / . fearful throbbing. regular channels. 409 o ı zhˇ u . straight treatment. 276 zh¯ . 253 o S c . 415 zhˇ xu` ı e zh` . uterus. 415 z` o sh¯ ' a ı z´ . forward-staring eyes. accumulations. 158. 138. concretions. 415 zhˇ d` i ı a . 405 zˇ g¯ ng q ı o . 410 e . 138 ı . marsh. enrich y¯n. 415 ı z¯ y¯n q ı ı zˇ q . 415 a zh` y´ ng u a zhuˇ n b¯ o 3 . 402 o . stanch bleeding. hemilateral headache. 414 zh´ y¯ u u zhˇ z . 407 zh` ng sh¯ ng e e . zh` ng t´ u t` ng ^ e o o 269 . medial headache. 410 . 276. zh` ng t´ u t` ng e o o 269. 402 ı . 260. shifted bladder. finger. 161 zˇ o xi` m . insufficiency of true zh¯ n y´ ng b` z´ e a u u y´ ng. 140 u zh` . settle fright and zh` n j¯ng an sh´ n e ı ¯ e quiet the spirit. pattern. limb. 158. shiver sweating. 147. 127. moving (or sliding) cup. leg. 136. foot. spontaneous sweating. 141. office of labor. 402 u _ r . 158 zˇ u gu` n o a zˇ u hu´ ng 6 . 402 ı . running yellow. 127 u z´ . 402 u z´ . 156 o a z´ . zu` qi´ ng zh¯ gu¯ n i o a ı a 147 . 408 ı a z¯ ng q` | o ı . foot. ancestral q`.P ny n-Chinese Index of Chinese Medical Terms z` h` n / . Translation of Chinese Medical Terms . 227 ı a [region] below the heart sh´ q¯ zhu¯ xu´ . 121 o a a e [effusion] a [body] hair V m´ o. 415 e a u o o a attack phlegm % g¯ ng t´ n. 412 u ı abiding food b` yu` . u a u ı aversion to light ] ` 409 u e aversion to wind % w` f¯ ng. 244 e u e ı a bar x gu¯ n. 409 B f` u abdominal pain that likes warmth t` ng xˇ w¯ n. 415 u a assist y´ ng a u assist zh` . 153. 255. 130. 410 u a abdominal distention u a abdominal fullness : f` mˇ n. 230. 413 u´ baby moth o back of the knee gu´ . 265. 408 aching pain of the lumbus and back y¯ o b` i su¯ n chˇ . 254 astringe the intestines and stem desertion s` ch´ ng g` tu¯ . 163 u e absence of menses p ı accumulation K j¯. 157. 408 a ı a y¯ o a aching lumbus and limp legs su¯ n tuˇ ruˇ n. 127. 411 a zh` y´ ng. 408 a ı a a a aching lumbus + y¯ o su¯ n. 261 y¯ o a aching lumbus and cold limbs su¯ n zh¯ lˇ ng. 407 e a abhorrence of cold s` sh´. 410 . 402 o ı ancestral q` | ı u anger n` . 167 u a aversion to cold w` h´ n. 252. 409 u o abdominal pain abdominal urgency and rectal heaviness K Z lˇ j´ h` u zh` ng. 407 u a aversion to cold y` n sh´. 129. 403 e u back transport point e back b` i. 127 o anxiety y¯ u. 402 banking up earth to engender metal pi´ tˇ sh¯ ng j¯n. 254 ascendant hyperactivity of liver y´ ng a g¯ n y´ ng sh` ng k` ng. 276 ı ı o o a a abductive dispersion 1 F xi¯ o dˇ o. 136. 411 a a a a ] g¯ n y´ ng sh` ng a a a ascendant liver y´ ng a k` ng. 121 o ` u ı S c [aversion to] cold more pronounced than heat du¯ h´ n shˇ o r` . 127 x¯n xi` . 269. 407 a a ı ı amenorrhoea O p b` j¯ng. 402 a ascend ] sh` ng. 127. 141. 401 xu´ d` o. 402 ı e anterior fontanel . 245 a ı e y¯ o a aching lumbus and limp knees + su¯ n x¯ ruˇ n. 409 u o u` f` t` ng. 410 ı alarm point s m` xu´ . 264. 140 a (of the pulse) forceless under heavy pressure Z zh` ng an w´ l`. 257 a e anus a anus g¯ ng. 401 y jiˇ o g¯ ng fˇ n a o a arched-back rigidity O zh¯ ng. 285. 409 a a acid upflow & e acpuncture point xu´ . 245 a ı a + y¯ o a aching lumbus and limp legs su¯ n tuˇ ruˇ n. 286. 156 ı ı ı e 17th spine bone abdomen as a large as a drum n f f` u d` zh` ng r´ gˇ . 403 u e alternating [aversion to] cold and heat [effusion] * 8 h´ n r` wˇ ng l´ i. 415 z¯ ng h´ n. 262. 409 o ı e U abdominal pain that refuses pressure f` t` ng j` an. 127 b` i sh¯ . a anterior 9 qi´ n. 407 a e a a alternating [aversion to] cold and heat [effusion] * 8 wˇ ng l´ i h´ n r` . 265 z¯ ng q`. 407 u´ baby moth V rˇ e. 129.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms (bed)room f´ ng. 245 a e a u f` n su¯ n. 256 a a a e h´ n r` a e alternating fever and chills ( wˇ ng l´ i. 277 ı acrid B x¯n. 230. 414 o attack g¯ ng. 402 f` zh` ng. 140 w` h´ n. 167. 127. 142 a u u u abdomen f` . 403 e a acupuncture point n yu` j¯ng xi¯ n e ı a advanced menstruation p q´. 143 a a u u n f f` d` u a abdomen as large as a drum zh` ng r´ gˇ . 127. 269 rˇ e. 409 a ı aversion to food w` gu¯ ng xi¯ m´ng. 402 a x`n m´ n. 405 a o arm shˇ u. 401 ankle hu´ i. 254 g¯ ng m´ n. 163 a a ı callus E F pi´ n zh¯. 402 ı a below the heart u bend / q¯ . 401 p´ ng gu¯ ng sh¯ a a ı bladder damp-heat r` . a a bladder 402 o a bland taste in the mouth { kˇ u d` n. 406 a u a u bulging eyes ' T x`n m´ n g¯ o t´ . 415 ı ı boost q` ı e a bound pulse W ji´ m` i. 154 u ı mi` n a bright white facial complexion C s` huˇ ng b´ i. 143. 407 a u x¯n xi` . 137 u e e blood flying to the eye Q xu` r` . 411 e u blood stasis e ı blood strangury 1 xu` l´n. o ı a a centre q` fall ı 411 j¯ng ı channel and network vessel q` p O _ ı lu` zh¯ q`. 127. 255 `. 143 o e break blood breathe I h¯ x¯. 409 u e blood ejection m` f¯ i xu` . ı e a u bulging fontanel gate 157. 128 g¯ n q` a ı binding depression of liver q` ı y` ji´ . 129. 229 ı bulging ^ tu´. 265 u ı o a carphology ! zh¯ ng ji¯ o o a centre burner is like foam m n r´ ou. 153. 403 a ı chaotic menstruation 0 p lu` n j¯ng. 401 u boost q` and resolve the exterior ı @ y` q` ı ı jiˇ biˇ o. 409 u a xi¯ ng xi´ . 122. 414 ji` n gˇ . 276 chˇ n¨ ı u bleeding gums e ı blood chamber } xu` sh`. 140 u buttocks X t´ n. 253. 402 ı body x´ng. 127. 405 e a a y´ng xu´ . 159 o ı ı ı o channels and network [vessels] p O j¯ng lu` . 402 ı ı body N . 152. 277 a u bowels and viscera E z` ng f` . 269 ı o channels and network vessels p O j¯ng lu` . 143 a u begrudging milk d` rˇ . 415 ı a check vaginal discharge a cheek qu´ n. 403 o e u body inch e ı body . 153 e body sh¯ n. 410 _ z` ng fˇ zh¯ q`. 406 ı a bulging mounting ] tu´ sh` n. 152. 412 u e e xu` x¯ . 129. 411 u e chˇ n m´ n. 272. 406 e a @ C d` bi` n h¯ i s` . 411 e a blood cold w´ ng xu` . 411 e e blood heat _ xu` w´ i e e blood is the mother of q` s ı q` zh¯ mˇ . 260 ı ı u e a blood mounting ] xu` sh` n. 414 % xu` e blood vacuity engendering wind x¯ sh¯ ng f¯ ng.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms bean curd tongue fur 7 t¯ i fˇ . 137. 410 zhˇ d` i. 403. 405 p` xu` . 264. a u ı ı bowel and visceral q` E ı 402 z` ng fˇ .tˇ. 161 a u bowels and viscera E a brain nˇ o. 153 o e chest and rib-side xi¯ ng t` ng. 407 a a e e black stool e black @ h¯ i. 136. 257. 159 u a y` q`. 409 t´ ng sh¯ n c` n. 402 ı body . 168 a e birth gate v o u bitter taste in the mouth D kˇ u kˇ . 127. 137 u u a ı belching of sour putrid q` (gas) ı ` i q` su¯ n fˇ . 127. 401 a e e black facial complexion C @ mi` n s` h¯ i. 145 a u bolt bone u e bone fracture 8 gˇ zh´ . 402 o ı ı j¯ng ı channels and network [vessel] q` p O _ ı lu` zh¯ q`. 250. 413 e e e blood-aspect pattern u u blurred vision ] m` h´ . 251 xu` h´ n. 229 xu` y¯ . 264 M N x´ n y¯ m¯ chu´ ng. 409 u bitter D kˇ .x´ng tˇ. 127. 143. 127 D : xi¯ ng xi´ o e chest and rib-side fullness kˇ mˇ n. 167 o a centre cold zh¯ ng q` xi` xi` n. 252 a ı a B´ i’s Eye Medication f ' < b´ i sh` yˇ n a y` o. 146. 252. 406 black fur @ 7 h¯ i t¯ i. 140. 170 bone gˇ . 146. 409 o o chest pain . 153 e p´ ng gu¯ ng. 411 e u blood vacuity e blood xu` . 132 a burner m ji¯ o. 402 e boil ji´ . 259 u¯ zh¯ ng h´ n. 411 a e blood collapse t` xu` .sh¯ n tˇ. 121 e a @ y` q` ı ı boost q` and secure the exterior ı g` biˇ o. 145 ı e brook point P yˇ n qi´ w` i t´ . 161. 250. 248 xu` f` n zh` ng. accumulations. 153 a e cold-heat e ı combination disease r h´ b`ng. 142 a ı a a W cold congealing in the liver vessels h´ n n´ng g¯ n m` i. 127. 408 a a constrain sweat / liˇ n h` n. 403 s` zh¯ ch¯ u ı ı o convulsion of the limbs ch` . a ı ı u clear-food diarrhoea 407 e xi` l` q¯ng gˇ . 414 ı ı e clear damp-heat clear heat and disinhibit dampness Y q¯ng l` sh¯ r` . 158 ı q¯ng x¯ r` . 262 a ı a a sh¯ ng h´ n. 412 a ı cold impediment zh¯ lˇ ng. 411 a e cold pattern a a cold phlegm % h´ n t´ n. 145. 406 e ı clean tongue q¯ng xu` r` . e a ı u and gatherings T U K L zh¯ ng jiˇ j¯ j` . 403 o e connecting point O a ı constipation ? bi` n b`. 406 o ı clenched jaw O y´ gu¯ n jˇn b`. 402 h´ n r` . ı e e construction-aspect pattern { 413 l´ o zh` i. 415 liˇ n f` i. 414 a e cool the blood . 229. 264. 150. a ı ı u clear-grain diarrhoea Y 407 kˇ u j`n. 161 j` x¯ng zh` ng. 410 y¯ ng sh` ng. 141 u ı ı child q zˇ. 414 a a cold precipitation zh` ng h´ n. 405 a a ı ı clenched jaw Q x sh´ n h¯ n. 145. 405 u a clouding collapse u ı clouding sleep 1 h¯ n shu`. 264 concretions. 136. 255 a commander t shu` i. 254 ı a clear-eye blindness ? c q¯ng m´ ng. 405. 114 a a cold damage h´ n a cold evil settling in the lung xi´ k` y´ f` i. 167 o a cold strike a cold h´ n. 414 ı ı e clear q` heat ı clear the heart and open the orifices q¯ng x¯n k¯ i qi` o. 413 h´ n xi` . 409 a a sh´ j`ng. 154. 414 e u q¯ng r` . 159 a ı cold formulas h´ n b`. 245 e ı ı & q¯ng r` xi` ı e e clear heat and drain fire huˇ . 414 a u cinnabar toxin clamoring stomach F c´ o z´ . 161 mi´ n mi´ n b` du` n. 415 a e constrain the lung y´ng q`. 414 ı ı ı e Y q¯ng ı clear heat and disinhibit water r` l` shuˇ. 140 e e u e h´ n xi´ a e cold evil settling in the lung k` f` i. 139 ı child fright wind % xiˇ o er j¯ng f¯ ng. 414 ı u e clear vacuity heat ı clear q¯ng. 413 a a consumption a consumption l´ o. 143 e e h´ n j`. 159 u a ı ı cold congealing in the liver vessel W h´ n n´ng g¯ n m` i. u ı a clustered stars obstruction L 137 yu´ n xiˇ n. a a u a continuous c c p 155 f` gˇ n u a contract external evil again z P w` i xi´ . 137. conglomerations. a ´ ı e 413 zˇ d` o ı a child stealing the mother’s q` q ı mˇ q`. 405 u li´ ng xu` . 413 a a confined pulse W l´ o m` i. 410 ı e cold limbs cold mounting ] h´ n sh` n. 163 e e ı ı d¯ n d´ . 413 o a cholera Ch´ ng’s Fish Poison Yam Clear-Turbid Separae ch´ ng sh` b` e ı ı tion Beverage f xi` f¯ n q¯ng yˇn. 409 d¯ng chu¯ ng. 139 e a controlling vessel W r` n m` i. 276 xi` l` q¯ng gˇ . 154 o e congest r lu` xu´ . 412 a a h´ n zh` ng. 155 a e ' gˇ n sh` u a o contraction of dryness evil z z` o xi´ . 412 a e e control r` n. 153. 129.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms chicken j¯. 265. 405 e u clouded spirit h¯ n dˇ o. 123 o ( q¯ng r` ı e clear heat and resolve toxin jiˇ d´ . 402 ı ı construction q` { ı y´ng f` n zh` ng. 170. 414 ı a clove-sore ı clove-sore d¯ng. 158 ı e clear heat q¯ng q` r` . 407 u a chill o a cholera / 0 hu` lu` n. 267 hu` lu` n. 414 ı e e clear blood heat q¯ng sh¯ r` . 138 w` h´ n. 265. 137 a a coin lichen L cold bitter formulas D _ kˇ h´ n zh¯ j`. 415 ı ı a a t´ n b´ i q¯ng a a ı clear thin white phlegm % x¯. 158. 139 a a common cold z L gˇ n m` o. 254 a diffuse xu¯ n. 264 k´ e cough with thick yellow phlegm 4 % 6 t´ n hu´ ng ch´ u. 264. 409 debilitation of the life gate fire & s m`ng ı m´ n huˇ shu¯ i. 254 kˇ u yˇ n w¯ i o a a deviated eyes and mouth ' 0 xi´ . 158 o desert tu´ . 285. ı ı u e dietary irregularities 403 bi` n n´ n. 406 a g¯ n q` y` ji´ . 152. 158 k´ e coughing of thick yellow phlegm 4 % 6 t´ n hu´ ng ch´ u. 127. 153. 142 a u sh¯ r` . 141 e ı crab’s eye l` o zhˇ n. 137 ı` e u ı dampness sh¯. 270 w` i f` n zh` ng. 285. 407 dental impressions on the margins of the tongue sh´ bi¯ n chˇ h´ n. 264. 402 a e diarrhoea > bi` n xi` . 158 a a o q s` zh¯ ı ı counterflow cold of the limbs n` lˇ ng. 285. 264 xi` xi` . 412 ı a damp phlegm % sh¯ t´ n. 270 W xi¯ y´ u m` i. 406 e a crimson tongue ı cubit u chˇ. 153. 402 a a defecation w` i q`. 141 a o a darting shrimp pulse e o deafness ^ ˇ r l´ ng. 412 ı e u ı ı e damp-heat pouring down into the bladder sh¯ r` xi` zh` p´ ng gu¯ ng. 410 ı a a delirious speech 0 zh¯ n y´ n. 274 q¯ sh¯. 412 ı e damp-heat dampness trapping hidden (deep-lying) heat m sh¯ e r` f´ . 413 l` sh¯. 405 e p A p´ y´ ng b` ı a u devitalised spleen y´ ng a zh` n. 254 a o diphtheria w b´ i h´ u. 412 e o a deep pulse W ch´ nm` i. 415 ı ı disinhibit dampness Y 1 l` ı disinhibit water and disperse food Y shuˇ xi¯ o sh´. 413 ı damp sh¯. 412 sh¯ ng y¯n. 145. 410 ı e course the exterior @ sh¯ biˇ o. 254 sh´ juˇ n. 403 damp-heat brewing in the liver and gallbladder sh¯ r` y` n ji´ g¯ n dˇ n. 136. 129. 412 ı e a u a a damp-heat pouring down into the large intestine sh¯ r` xi` zh` d` ch´ ng. 262. 167. 255 . ı a deep-source nasal congestion 276. 414 u a ı court # t´ng. 155 a e ı ı l` shuˇ. 157 a o h` n du¯ . 412 ı e u e a a damp-heat lodged in the q` aspect ı sh¯ r` li´ li` n q` f` n. 410 e a b´ yu¯ n. 257. 407 a a o e o cough 4 6 k´ s` u. 140 ı crab x`. 154 u ı depressed o a a u deranged speech 0 y 3 cu` y´ n w` ng yˇ . 413 a e crick in the neck sh´ ji` ng. 139. 252. 407 ı ı copious phlegm % t´ n du¯ . 413 d` bi` n. 415 ı ı disinhibit water Y ı disinhibit Y l`. 256. 245 ı ı a o Y disinhibit water by bland percolation { d` n sh` n l` shuˇ. 410 u cumbersome k` n. 170 e cough 4 k´ . 406 e a ı e x`n m´ n xi` ı e a depressed fontanel gate xi` n. e e e defense-aspect pattern 413 n yu` j¯ng h` u e ı o delayed menstruation p q´. 139 xi` j¯ng.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms copious clear thin phlegm % t´ n du¯ a o q¯ng x¯. 408 a a difficult defecation a difficult n´ n. 402 e ı defence q` ı e defence w` i. 137 u ı u e y` zh`. 254. 284. 139. 141. 129. 412 a ı damage to y¯n ı ı u damp obstruction P sh¯ zˇ . 262 a ı u e depressed liver q` ı depressed steaming summerheat-damp & shˇ sh¯ y` zh¯ ng. 415 u ı dispel dampness = u a dispel phlegm = % q¯ t´ n. 412 ı e u a ı e damp-heat obstructing the spleen and stomach P sh¯ r` zˇ zh` p´ w` i. 411 e e diaphragm 4 g´ . 408 e e diarrhoea > p yˇn sh´ b` ji´ . 129. 245 ı a ı 1 disinhibit water and disperse swelling Y l` shuˇ xi¯ o zhˇ ng. 270 ı damp(ness) sh¯. 253 e a coughing of phlegm 4 % k´ t´ n. 257. 157 a o copious sweat / ı a corn ' j¯ yˇ n. 412 ı e a u a a sh¯ r` ı e damp-heat pouring downward xi` zh` . 406 e a curled tongue a ı damage to liquid M sh¯ ng j¯n. 405 ı o o e emaciation ( suˇ ı emptiness of the sea of marrow T t hˇ i k¯ ng x¯ . 209–211. 254 a a dissipate cold s` n h´ n. 413 u a drum distention f u drum distention gˇ . 136 o l´ ng qu´ n o a dragon spring clove-sore d¯ng. 128. 412 a o u ı encampment. 264.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms dispel wind. 128 ni` o yˇ u y´ l`. 410 d` bi` n g¯ n ji´ . 254 u a dryness ' z` o. 254 A sh´ zh` p` ng d` . 409 e ı dream emission 2 e dream 2 m` ng. 401 ı earth p d`. 244 ı a u y¯ t´ ng. 156 a a eight principles b¯ ku` . 413 ear ˇ r. 139 ı ı dragover disease r b`ng b`ng. 141 ı o dragon l´ ng. 406 o a u a h sh´ h` u k` n ı o u drowsiness after eating d` n. 413 ı drink yˇn. 413 e e dysphagia-occlusion 4 y¯ g´ . 403 q` xu` ı e dual vacuity of q` and blood ı j` x¯ . 411 u u x¯n ı dual vacuity of the heart of spleen p´ liˇ ng x¯ . 283. 406 u u a a dull eyes S ] q m` w´ gu¯ ng cˇ i. 254 a dry o k¯ . 140 ch´ ng sh´ . 408 a a a e dry bound stool z` o sh¯. 412 a e ı eggplant disease q r qi´ zi b`ng. 402 Eleven-Ingredient Gallbladder-Warming Decocsh´ y¯ w` i w¯ n dˇ n t¯ ng. 401 e ti¯ n hu` n. 137. zh¯ . 120. 262. 409 u a e dry eyes ' sh´ t¯ i g¯ n z` o. 154 y´ ni` o. 127. 254 gu` sh´. 157 a a dry throat a dry g¯ n. 253 a drinker’s nose . 140 e a drumskin pulse W g´ m` i. 408 o a distention in the head a u dizziness $ % xu` n y¯ n. construction { y´ng. 415 a ı a e dispersion-thirst 1 9 xi¯ o kˇ . 264 . 146 b¯ g¯ ng. 158. 137 a a duck’s slop a u a a dull eyes ' S ] q yˇ n w´ gu¯ ng cˇ i. ı ı e e a a tion 156 u eliminate ch´ . 127. 409 u gˇ zh` ng. 162 sh´ p` ng d` . 158. 406 e a a enlarged tongue sh´ p` ng. 127. 156 ı a a eighteen clashes o elbow zhˇ u. 408 o u dizzy head % t´ u y¯ n. 161. 156 o e double tongue Z n sh` w` r´ shu¯ ng. a o u ı dribble after voiding 276 1 ni` o yˇ u y´ l`. 415 ı ı enrich y¯n q ı ı a enrich q < z¯ yˇ ng. 274. 253 & : y¯n x¯ huˇ ı u o effulgent y¯n vacuity fire ı w` ng. 401 drooling from the corners of the mouth O = kˇ u jiˇ o li´ xi´ n. 254 dry ' z` o. 264. 252. 138 d¯ng n´ng. 415 a ı dry dampness ' m` g¯ n s` . 415 u dispel = q¯ . 408 e engender sh¯ ng. 127. 152. 410 t´ u zh` ng. 413 s` n h´ n. 276 a a earlier-heaven eunuchism ti¯ n xi¯ o. 408 u a dizzy vision $ m` xu` n. 254 m` ng y´. 157. 406 kˇ u g¯ n. and suppress u e a a cough % 7 % q¯ f¯ ng hu` t´ n. 139 u e enduring diarrhoea 6 > jiˇ xi` . 408 ı a enuresis ı epidemic I y`. 255 ı e enrich the kidney q z¯ y¯n. 408 u door h` . transform phlegm. 265. 143 a a dissipate cold a a dissipated pulse W s` n m` i. 155 o ı eat excessively ı eat sh´. 259 u drum f gˇ . 254 j¯ r` u sh` u xu` . 135. 276 e drain xi` . 122. 254 disperse food 1 xi¯ o sh´. 408 o a dry mouth y¯ n g¯ n. 128. 162 e a enlarged tongue z¯ sh` n. 128 a drool = xi´ n. 153 ı ı earwax ı easy y`. 276 ı ı dysentery H l` j´. 406 e a a a dry fur 7 a u dry hair o f` k¯ . a o u ı dribble after voiding 408 o ı dribbling urinary block O l´ ng b`. 158 ı u u a double vision : _ & l´ ng l´ i zh¯ o e ı dragon and thunder fire huˇ . 252. e ı a a enlarged tongue 157. 276 a a earlier-heaven wheezing u earth tˇ . 140 a o eight ramparts sh´ b¯ fˇ n. 155 ı a first y´ ng [channel] a u fish e y´ . 408 ı a s` zh¯ ju` n d` i. 403 o ı e a xi` yu´ n a a exhaustion of the true origin x¯ b` i. 411 a u exterior vacuity @ a exterior @ biˇ o. 254 o fear kˇ ng. 158 % r` j´ e ı extreme heat engendering wind sh¯ ng f¯ ng. 135. 130. 252 o fire & huˇ . 261 o fistula J l` u. 402 wˇ u essential q` of the five viscera z E _ ı z` ng zh¯ j¯ng q`. 403 & ch´ n y¯ o huˇ a a o fire-girdle cinnabar d¯ n. 137. 265. 408 ı a fine pulse 2 W x` m` i. 135. 269. 140 excessive consumption of hot-spicy acrid foods B gu` sh´ x¯n l` . 261 w` i y¯n. 410 zhˇ tou. 127. 141 ı a ı falling curtain screen jiˇ sh´ n. 413 a a erysipelas ( d¯ n d´ . 153 ı finger ı finger zhˇ. 265. 169 u e five evils z u ı five phases z B wˇ x´ng. 414 u u expel stasis biˇ o h´ n. 264 wˇ xi´ . 276. 401. e o fearful throbbing 284. 154. 139 sh´ li` . a a ı everted flower hemorrhoids 137. 136. 402 a a fecal f¯ r` . 153 ı essence i j¯ng. u u e five transport points z 403 wˇ l´ n. 403 o ı e e excessive consumption of sweet and fatty foods S A gu` sh´ f´ i g¯ n. 410 a a firm pulse ~ y¯ y´ ng. 152. 264 a e external genitals P ı e extinguish wind % x¯ f¯ ng. 413 w` i sh` n. 410 a fall xi` n. 130. 145. 407 a e expectoration of blood q¯ h´ n. 146. 285. 412 e e huˇ o exuberant heat tormenting metal & sh` ng x´ng j¯n. 122. 408 a ı s` zh¯ ı ı fatigued cumbersome limbs k` n zh` ng. 254 chu´ li´ n y`. 156 wˇ sh¯ . 411 a ı exterior repletion @ biˇ o x¯ . 402 a ı external cause P w` i a external contraction cold evil P z gˇ n h´ n xi´ . a a ı ı fecal incontinence 408 d` bi` n. 411 a a exterior cold @ biˇ o r` . 141 xi´ q`. 407 ı u o fifteen network vessels z O sh´ wˇ lu` . 155 .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms epilepsy di¯ n xi´ n. 411 a e exterior heat @ _ @ y¯ sh¯ n zh¯ ı e ı exterior of the entire body biˇ o. ı ı a a fatigued limbs 162 a fatigued ju` n. 153. 267 a e fever a e fever ( f¯ r` . 402 e ı evil q` ı e evil xi´ . 136. 153. 414 a u ı ı essence chamber } j¯ng sh`. 284. 401 eyeball eyelid 3 _ ` m` zh¯ . 283. 409 x` x` f¯ ı ı a feather-warm heat effusion i i r` . 137 u u five transport points z wˇ sh¯ xu´ . 127. 257 u eye m` . 262 u a expel cold zh´ y¯ . 163 u u evacuate vacuity f¯ n hu¯ zh`. 264. 401 zh¯ ng ch¯ ng. 253 m` t` ng. 252. 157. 159 a ı ı ı x¯ x¯ . 260. 272. 127. 157. 409 u o eye pain yˇ n j¯ng. 137 a l´ o m` i. 412 a e e a a external contraction P z w` i gˇ n. 145 u u five wheels z u five z wˇ . 154 a ı eye ' a eye ' yˇ n. 159 a biˇ o zh` ng. 406 e e fissured tongue o fistula J l` u. 403 o ı ı a excessive consumption of raw and cold foods gu` sh´ sh¯ ng lˇ ng. 401 u u eye _ m` zh¯ . 253 c ju` n d` i a a fatigue and lack of strength f´ l`. 230. 147 e ı ı e exuberant sh` ng. 155 e 3 d` bi` n sh¯ j`n. 257 a a a face mi` n. 405 a e false spiritedness a fat p` ng. 405 u o fatigued limbs zh¯ ju` n. 403 u e e fifth-watch diarrhoea z 8 > wˇ g¯ ng xi` . 411 a e exterior pattern @ biˇ o sh´. 402 e a faint pulse ( W w¯ i m` i. 412 a a e w` i a external contraction of wind evil P z % gˇ n f¯ ng xi´ . 257 u u b¯ o jiˇ n. 412 u e kˇ xu` . 402 o ı forceful c yˇ u l`. 405 o ı u y b´ kˇ ng sh¯ n zh¯ ng. 409 ı e fright wind % j¯ng f¯ ng. 129. 167. 409 pˇ ku` i. 403 u governor d¯ . 272. 401 ı o flesh ( flesh ( j¯.w` i. 401 K ch´ ng a gastrointestinal accumulation w` i j¯ zh`. 409 a fullness : mˇ n. 127. 139 ı u grain and water (food) e shuˇ gˇ . 138 u u ı e a shˇ u wˇ o u flailing of the arms and legs z´ d` o. 135. 157 u a y´ ng a flailing of the arms and legs shˇ u zh´ z´ . 143 a u floating pulse W u a floating pulse W f´ m` i. 276. 256 ı ı flatus + j¯ r` u. 135 u grain e gˇ . 229 t¯ ng bi` n. 410 u ı forceless S c w´ l`. 139. 143 a a flowery vision ' m` hu¯ . 406 ı ı a o flaring nostrils u flat-abscess j¯ . ı a a gan sores of the nose V 174 a gan V g¯ n. 252. 144 e e flying gates Q x`n m´ n. 158 a ı fortify the spleen ı ı forward-staring eyes Y : zh´ sh`. 264. 127 u foot z´ . 276. a a ı o 408 ı ı fright palpitations B j¯ng j`. 415 u ı foster y¯n ı f` xi` hu` u e ı foul-smelling diarrhoea ch` u. 136. 140 u gathering L j` . 130. 139 ı ı frog d` ng chu¯ ng. 405 chu` n y¯ o l´ ng. 139 u a governing vessel W d¯ m` i. 402 ı e fontanel gate ı fontanel x`n. 410 ı a glomus lump O y´ ng x¯ chu¯ ng. 136. 414 u flow li´ . 255 o a free the stool u o free u t¯ ng. 155 ı e four examinations p sh´ s` j¯ng. 411 e a ı frequent urination . 413 o a gaping corners of the mouth O p O kˇ u jiˇ o b` b`. 158. 286. 412 e ı ı e gate m´ n. 153. 261 e o generalised heaviness Z sh¯ n zh` ng. 406 y` y¯n. a u a goat’s whiskers sore 145 ı goiter K yˇng. 254 yˇ n hu¯ . 145. 157 a a gaping gums Q e gastr. 414 e a e goose-foot wind X W % ´ zhˇ ng f¯ ng. G xiˇ o bi` n p´n shu` . 274. 413 ı fright j¯ng. 406 u ı y´ xu¯ n. 254 a fur 7 t¯ i. 409 ı a ı glomus below the heart o ı glomus in the chest O xi¯ ng pˇ. 156. 230 h´ u zh¯ ng o o frog rale in the throat w yˇ u shuˇ j¯ sh¯ ng. ı o a a flaring nostrils 276 b´ sh` n. 153 u govern z zhˇ . 140. 132. 141. 402 b´ g¯ n chu¯ ng. 414 shˇ q`. 401 u e float astray m f´ yu` . 154 m` i f´ . 407 o ı ı e shuˇ j¯. 412 a ı food damage u foot z´ . 276 ı a flaring nostrils b´ y` sh¯ n d` ng. 244. 402 ı e fluid M f¯ i m´ n. 403 ı o e four command points v s` zhˇ n. 139 u a foxy mounting \ ] h´ sh` n. 139 o ı ı e h´ u zh¯ ng o o frog rale in the throat w yˇ u shuˇ j¯ sh¯ ng. 156 ı ı ı fourteen channels u fox \ h´ . 158 o a e o o a fullness in the chest : xi¯ ng mˇ n. 135 . 408 Y fortify the spleen and disinhibit water ji` n p´ l` shuˇ. 254 frenetic movement of hot blood y B xu` e r` w` ng x´ng. 140 a gallbladder dˇ n. 410 e o flooding and spotting J b¯ ng l` u. 285. 403 y¯n t´ u. 409 u a flowery vision j¯n y` . 264 ı o glans penis gu¯ t´ u. 402 sh¯ ng sh´. 410 a a forgetfulness ( ji` n w` ng. 286. 414 o a frostbite fullness in the chest and pain in the rib-side : xi¯ ng mˇ n xi´ t` ng. 264 ı o glans penis y O x¯n xi` pˇ. 407 o s` zˇ ng xu´ .English Index of Chinese Medical Terms Five-Tigers-Chasing-the-Wind Powder z % wˇ hˇ zhu¯ f¯ ng sˇ n. 245 a ı ı ı ji` n p´. 139 a a o girdling dragon a a girdling vessel W d` i m` i. 401 ı o flesh r` u. 257. 408 x¯n f` . 143. 405 o o ı a groping in the air and pulling [invisible] strings cu¯ k¯ ng lˇ xi` n. 253. 143 heart and spleen a e u ı hair knotted in awns x¯n p´. o o headache 264. 403 ı u o heart belongs to fire tu¯ f` . 262 e e harmonise the stomach kˇ u zh¯ ng h´ . 254 sh¯ n y´n. 403 a a greater y´ ng u a greater y´ ng u a t` i y¯n. 409 o hand shˇ u. 402 a u greater abdomen r t` i y´ ng b`ng. 414 e a e harmonise the stomach and intestines ti´ o h´ ch´ ng w` i. 411 a a a ı e qi` o y´ sh´ . 254 x¯n q`. 129. 139 u t` ch´ n. 411 a a b` n lˇ. 170. 411 ı e u heart blood vacuity a hair f` . 141 u a ı great network [vessel] of the stomach _ O w` i zh¯ d` lu` .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms grape hemorrhoids p´ t´ o zh`. 406 a o grimy fur 7 o grimy g` u. 264. 227. 167 a ı W heart governs the blood and vessels z K half-exterior half-interior pattern @ x¯n zhˇ xu` m` i. 260 o t´ u zh` ng o o head heavy as if swathed Z n r´ guˇ . 402 x¯n q` x¯ . 127. 403 ı a o O great network vessel of the stomach _ w` i zh¯ d` lu` . 402 w w ch´ ng m´ng l` l` . 413 a a ı greater y´ ng disease u a t` i y´ ng. 407 a u hasty panting 5 Y chuˇ n c` . 153 ı u heart [region] and abdomen heart and small intestine stand in interior-exterior ) A @ K x¯n yˇ xiˇ o ı u a relationship ch´ ng xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ. 402 ı ı gum ı gum y´n. 407 e ı groaning groping in the air and pulling [invisible] strings cu¯ k¯ ng lˇ xi` n. 285 o o ı a chˇ y´n. 413 a ı ı greater y¯n disease u ı green-blue as the colour of new shoots of grass ? n q¯ng r´ cˇ o z¯. 175 n` li´ wˇ n ı u a hauling the boat upstream q zh¯ u. 408 u o o head t´ u. 402 n ! t´ u o headache with pulling sensation t` ng r´ ch` . 152 ı ı heart q` ı . 404 a u e o hand shˇ u. 409 o o e harmony of mouth ı u hasty breathing Y q` c` . rabbit P t` . 408 o u e t´ u t` ng. 414 a e a e harmonise the stomach and transform phlegm 7 % h´ w` i hu` t´ n. 402 a a g¯ o-hu¯ ng a a hare cleft P Q t` qu¯ . 143. 158 o a hair loss x¯n xu` x¯ . 414 e a ı ti´ o a harmonise the liver and stomach h´ g¯ n w` i. 139. 120. 415 e e a a h´ w` i. 277 u e hare. 276 o t´ u t` ng r´ o o u head heavy as if swathed Z n guˇ . 403 a a a ı n f` ji´ r´ su`. 157. 405 a e ı ı ? t kˇ u ch´ n o u green-blue or purple lips q¯ng zˇ. 403 e ı a o d` q`. a ı u u gurgling intestines 155 g¯ o hu¯ ng. 408 ı d` f` . 284. 286. 411 ı ı heart impediment half-exterior half-interior pattern x¯n k¯ i ı a heart opens at the tongue b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ zh` ng. 285 a a a ı e x¯n b`. 401 t¯ i g` u. 406 a o hair loss & x¯n shˇ huˇ . 152 ı ı f` lu` . 132. 404 ı u e a b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ zh` ng. 143 ı u a ı green-blue or purple facial complexion C ? t mi` n s` q¯ng zˇ. 285 e ı a o O p´ ı great network vessel of the spleen _ zh¯ d` lu` . 272. 406 ı ı ı green-blue ? q¯ng. 414 ı @ K h´ e harmonise midstage patterns jiˇ b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ. 403 a ı r t` i y¯n b`ng. 132. 411 ı ı u heart q` vacuity ı ı hard y`ng. 168 a ı great q` ı d` kˇ yˇn a e ı great thirst with fluid intake 9 yˇn. 414 e a a a ı ti´ o a harmonise the liver and spleen h´ g¯ n p´. 142. 264 u u harelip P harmonise half exterior half interior (midstage) @ K h´ jiˇ b` n biˇ o b` n e e a a a patterns lˇ. 127 ı o heart fire flaming upward & ] 7 x¯n huˇ K b` n biˇ o a a half exterior half interior @ sh` ng y´ n. 127 ı ı heart palpitations B x¯n j`. 252. 407 i j yˇn shuˇ ı ı hiccup after drinking water zu` e. 411 a u x¯n sh` n y¯n ı e ı heart-kidney y¯n vacuity ı x¯ . 135 o` u a hidden pulse m W f´ m` i. 121 o ı u e e p u inch c` n. 409 u ı inability eat p sh´ b` xi` . 411 u heat effusion f¯ r` . e ı u u insecurity of kidney q` ı 412 ı a insomnia b sh¯ mi´ n. 264 a e impotence y´ ng wˇ i. 156 a ı e hundred-day cough s` zh¯ j¯ j´. 411 e ı u ı inhibition of lung q` ı p sh` n q` b` g` . 411 e e heat pattern e a heat phlegm % r` t´ n. ı ı u ı hypertonicity of the limbs 157 j¯n m` i ı a hypertonicity of the sinews W j¯ lu´ n. 408 e heel g¯ n. 411 u x¯n p´ xu` ı ı e heart-spleen blood vacuity x¯ . e o o hemilateral headache ^ 269 p @ b` n sh¯ n b` su`. 167. 139 ı b¯ng xi´ zh` ng. 412 ı u u p g¯ n xu` a e insufficiency of liver blood b` z´ . 410 a e impotence b` sh´. 405 o e u o Z k´ sh¯ ng zh` ng e e o heavy turbid voice 4 zhu´ . 413 ı a heat in the (heart of the) palms and soles shˇ u z´ x¯n r` . 153 a heaven ti¯ n. 401 pi¯ n t´ u t` ng. 412 a u u p zh¯ n y´ ng e a insufficiency of true y´ ng a . 252 e u helix ˇ r l´ n. 407 o o o heavy-headedness Z t´ u zh` ng. 411 e ı u a b` zh` ng. 403 u o _ x¯n r` zh¯ j`. ı a a ice-jade obstruction ^ 139 impaired depurative downbearing of the lung { | f` i sh¯ s` ji` ng. 137. 405 u a h´ u sh` h¯ i sˇ n. a o o hemilateral headache ^ 408 zh` ng t´ u t` ng. 407 e ı ı a hoarse voice O e hole xu´ . 274 p Y f` i q` b` l`. 130. 159 ı e e o ı ı _ a ı heaven and earth p ti¯ n d`. 407 a e r` r` e u heat entering the pericardium H x¯n b¯ o. 401 x¯n sh` n ı e heart-kidney y´ ng vacuity a y´ ng x¯ . 411 ı a u heart y´ ng vacuity a x¯n y¯n x¯ . 410 increase water to move the [grounded] ship z¯ ng shuˇ x´ng zh¯ u. 138. 138 heavy body with difficulty in turning sides Z p sh¯ n zh` ng b` y` zhuˇ n c` . 264 e ı hiccough j q ` n`. a a u ı inhibited urination 285. 407 o u ı e r` zh` ng.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms heart spreading heat to the small intestine x¯n y´ r` y´ xiˇ o ch´ ng. 138 e homing and netting O shˇ lu` . a e u ı hemiplegia 283. o ı e a H´ u’s Black Powder f @ o 163 ice ^ b¯ng. 264. 285. cave xu´ . 404 ı a e heart stores the spirit x¯n an. 155 a e humour y` . 267. ı u a inability to get food down p 409 inability to get warm despite extra clothing Z ch´ ng y¯ b` d´ w¯ n. 244 u u p zh¯ n e insufficiency of the true origin yu´ n b` z´ . 254 e ı u ı inhibited menstruation p p Y yu` j¯ng b` l`. 413 & heat-clearing fire-draining formulas q¯ng r` xi` huˇ zh¯ j`. 409 p sh` n e insufficiency of kidney essence j¯ng b` z´ . 410 p Y xiˇ o bi` n b` l`. 159 ı e ı ı hot acrid formulas B s` s` w` e e u huddling aversion to cold x x h´ n. 408 u ı inhibited p Y b` l`. 157 e ı ı a hoarse voice O sh¯ ng y¯n s¯ sh` . 405 e o heavy body Z heavy cumbersome head and body t´ u sh¯ n k` n zh` ng. 261 4 bˇ i r` k´ . 147. 142. e ı ı o B 276 e increase z¯ ng. 277 hole. 410 sh¯ ng y¯n s¯ yˇ . 246. 408 ı ´ heart vexation x¯n y´ ng x¯ . 411 ı ı u heart y¯n vacuity ı ı heart x¯n. 405 e o u ı a e sh¯ n zh` ng. 405 ı hemorrhoids zh`. 127. 413 ı e impediment pattern y´ ng wˇ i. 267. 411 ı ı e u a a x¯n c´ ng sh´ n. 127. e u u kidney governs the bones z 405 sh` n zhˇ shuˇ. 174 ı ı invisible worms in the nose ı invisible worms n`. 152 a ı interior pattern K lˇ zh` ng. 413 j¯n ı jerking sinews and twitching flesh t` r` u r` n. 405 e ı a a a kidney. 139 a a jaundice 6 D hu´ ng dˇ n. 412 e ı u kidney y¯n vacuity ı e kidney sh` n. 259 ı b´ n`.. 276 a a a } r` b¯ ch´ o ı u a late afternoon tidal fever r` . . sh` n. . 405 ı u irascibility u issue ch¯ . 402 o larynx w h´ u. q´ hu´ z` i f` . 276 ı o u j¯n ı jerking sinews and twitching flesh t` r` u r` n. e a ı kidney stores essence 404 sh` n y´ ng x¯ . e u ı kidney belongs to water 404 kidney engenders the bone and marrow e e u ı T sh` n sh¯ ng gˇ su´. 404 a uˇ kidney opens at the two y¯n ı sh` n k¯ i qi` o y´ er y¯n. . 227. 402 a u lesser abdomen . 404 u a a a o d` ch´ ng. 403 lack of strength in the lumbus and knees c y¯ o x¯ f´ l`. 401 kidney. 410 e s` zh¯ ı ı lack of warmth in the limbs qi` n w¯ n. 137. 254 u o a leaking roof pulse J W w¯ l` u m` i. 264. 139 large intestine governs the conveyance and transz 7 d` ch´ ng a a formation of waste zhˇ chu´ n hu` z¯ o p` . 139. 147. its fullness is in the bone . 264 o larynx h´ u. 127. 286. 408 a e e o joint pain x v gu¯ n ji´ t´ ng t` ng.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms interior and exterior @ K biˇ o lˇ. 245 a ı a ı p s` zh¯ b` ı ı u lack of warmth in the limbs w¯ n. sh` n. 158 e a a laziness to speak 0 lˇ n y´ n. 127 a invade f` n. 402 c´ n d¯ ng f` a e u last flicker of the lamp G m´ng. . 405 o o jerking v gu¯ n ji´ t´ ng t` ng. 246. . 140 zhu` ng y´ ng. 404 e u a e sh` n zhˇ gˇ . . 402 e ı internal cause E F internal damage by the seven affects n` i sh¯ ng q¯ q´ng. 412 a ı kidney governs opening and closing z sh` n zhˇ k¯ i h´ . 276 ı ) hu´ ı last radiance of the setting sun P ] gu¯ ng fˇ n zh` o. 252. 145 u e jade gates u jade y` . 404 a a a ı sh` n shˇ shuˇ. its bloom is in the hair (of the head) . 158 a a invigorate y´ ng a invisible sores n`. collapse b¯ ng. 141 jiˇ o q` a ı leg q` surging into the heart ı ch¯ ng x¯n. 402 ı leg tuˇ. 283. 407 a lazy lˇ n. q´ ch¯ ng z` i gˇ . . 405 e a a u` ı sh` n n´ ng. 157 o a itchy throat w y` m´ n. 405 ı o u ch¯ u d` ng. . 410 e o laryngeal prominence w ji´ h´ u. 412 e a u kidney y´ ng vacuity a sh` n y¯n x¯ . 174 a y` n` . 147. 244 a u interlocking bones t a a intermittent pulse ~ W d` i m` i. 411 ı e ji¯ o gˇ . 402 sh` o f` . 144 ı ı e kidney opens at the ears sh` n k¯ i e a qi` o y´ er. 402 o ı interstice ch´ ng y¯ ng. 414 a o intestinal welling-abscess a intestines ch´ ng. 267 e a kidney sac sh` n c´ ng j¯ng. 402 a a large intestine a a large pulse W d` m` i. 136. e u ı kidney governs water z kidney is the root of q` s ı _ } sh` n w´ i e e q` zh¯ bˇ n. . 254 h´ u yˇ ng. 405 e ı o a u ı knee x¯. 257 a e e o joint pain x ı joy B xˇ. . 161 b´ n` ı ı invisible-worm sores of the nose chu¯ ng. 405 sh` n b` e u kidney failing to absorb q` p ı n` q`. 402 e a knocks and falls ^ J di´ dˇ . 402 e a ı ı ji¯ o hu` xu´ . 127. 403 a ı e intersection point t c` u lˇ. 230.. 127. 244 o ı u leg z´ . 410 n` i y¯n. 127. 401 kidney and bladder stand in interior-exterior re) A @ K sh` n yˇ p´ ng e u a lationship gu¯ ng xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ. 410 a e e landslide. 137. 129. 404 a ı a a a liver. g¯ n. 412 a e g¯ n c´ ng xu` . 404 a a e liver stores blood g¯ n f¯ ng a e liver wind stirring internally % n` i d` ng. 404 a a ı f` i shˇ j¯n. 153 a e liver and kidney k g¯ n shˇ m` . 261 c yˇn ı little thought of food and drink sh´ shˇ o s¯. 404 u e g¯ n zhˇ j¯n. q´ ch¯ ng z` i j¯n. 140. 141. 163 a a ı lung and large intestine stand in interior-exterior A @ K f` i yˇ d` ch´ ng e u a a relationship ) xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ. 276 o xi` q`. ! g¯ n. 246. its bloom is in the nails . . 259. 136 ı e ı o life gate fire m`ng m´ n. 130. 161. 412 a a a e a liver g¯ n. . 410 % p` sh¯ ng f¯ ng. 245. 262 e a lung is the receptacle that holds phlegm. 252. 404 m f` i r` e e lung heat scorching the lobes y` ji¯ o. 408 ı a long ch´ ng. 404 e u o a ı a lung governs the skin and [body] hair z e u ı a V f` i zhˇ p´ m´ o. 404 e u u a f` i zhˇ q`. 411 a a > g¯ n zhˇ a u liver governs free coursing z sh¯ xi` . 257. 404 u u g¯ n q` a ı liver q` invading the spleen ı f` n p´. . 262. 152. 145. 156. 412 ı e e u lochia ` l` . 401 o u lip u lip ch´ n. . . 412 e o liver y´ ng transforming into wind a 7 % g¯ n y´ ng hu` f¯ ng. 245. . . 169 a ı lower body q` ı xi` ji¯ o a a lower burner is like a sluice m n r´ d´ . 127. . . 404 e u ı lung governs q` z ı lung governs regulation of the waterways z u f` i zhˇ t¯ ng ti´ o shuˇ d` o. 153 ı e liquid and humour M j¯n y` . 409 a u o lesser-abdominal pain a lichen xiˇ n. 402 lung and large intestine stand in exterior-interior A @ K f` i yˇ d` ch´ ng e u a a relationship ) xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ. 245 a e o lumbar and back pain v y¯ o ku¯ n t´ ng a a e lumbar and hip pain t` ng. 245 a a limp lumbus and knees y¯ o x¯ ruˇ n a ı a ru` . 262. a u ı liver governs the sinews z 404 E g¯ n w´ i a e liver is the unyielding viscus s g¯ ng z` ng. 403 a ı lesser y¯n ı sh` o f` t` ng. 245 o y¯ o tuˇ t` ng. 402 y¯ o tuˇ a ı limp aching lumbus and legs su¯ n ruˇ n. 408 o S c y¯ o ruˇ n w´ l`. 401 j¯n y` . . 402 ı e liquid and humour C ı liquid M j¯n. 404 e u ı lung belongs to metal lung governs depurative downbearing z { | f` i zhˇ s` ji` ng. 414 g¯ n cˇ o. 257 a a licorice A _ & m`ng m´ n zh¯ huˇ . . its fullness is in the sinews . 413 a ı ı sh` o y¯n. 140. 153. 253 a chˇ y´ s¯ ng ı a o loosening of the teeth Q d` ng. 245 o y¯ o b` i t` ng. 409 ı a ı liver and gallbladder stand in interior-exterior A @ K g¯ n yˇ dˇ n xi¯ ng a u a a relationship ) biˇ o lˇ. 407 o y´ chˇ s¯ ng a ı o loosening of the teeth Q d` ng. 403 a e e lower uniting point y¯ o su¯ n b` i a a e lumbar and back pain t` ng. 403 a a lesser y¯n disease ı r sh` o y¯n b`ng. 408 a o lumbar pain a lumbus y¯ o. the . 410 xiˇ o bi` n a a long voidings of clear urine q¯ng ch´ ng. 402 ı e life gate t´ h´ ı u lift the pot and remove the lid ji¯ g` i. 245 a a u ı limp lumbus kˇ u ch´ n. 142. 245 a ı o lumbar and leg pain y¯ o t` ng. 257 o u lip kˇ u ch´ n. 413 o a e lockjaw a a long pulse W ch´ ng m` i. 401 liver. 412 a ı g¯ n q` a ı liver q` invading the stomach ı f` n w` i. 135 u u xi` h´ xu´ . 404 a ı g¯ n dˇ n. 262. . 127. 264. 404 a u u liver belongs to wood g¯ n xu` x¯ . 285. 127. 127. 412 a e u liver blood vacuity a o liver fire flaming upward & ] 7 g¯ n huˇ sh` ng y´ n. q´ hu´ z` i zhˇ o.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms lesser y´ ng a sh` o y´ ng. 153 a a liver and gallbladder g¯ n sh` n. 404 a a g¯ n k¯ i qi` o a a a liver opens at the eyes y´ m` . 137 a ı o a ı g¯ n dˇ n a a liver-gallbladder damp-heat sh¯ r` . 250. 147 e a ı limb zh¯. 127 a nape xi` ng. 264 zh` ng sh¯ ng. 407 e e mussitation m` xu´ . 401 f` i sh` n y¯n e e ı lung-kidney y¯n vacuity ı x¯ . 143 a ı b` j¯ng. 135. 257 ı metal j¯n. 152. 140 a a mania and agitation ! ku´ ng z` o. 129 r` n xi` . 127. 143 ı a u u o j¯ng shuˇ. 414 e e lung wilting f` i y¯n x¯ . 162 ı ı menstrual flow p yu` j¯ng sh¯ e ı ı menstrual irregularities p ti´ o. 137 a a o ministerial fire A & xi` ng huˇ . 264 a e m` sh¯ ng s` u e u millet sore of the eye chu¯ ng. 406 ı a e mirror tongue ) a ı miscellaneous disease r z´ b`ng. 159 ı ı ı e e a ı a _ ] lung is the upper source of water s f` i w´ i shuˇ zh¯ sh` ng yu´ n. 254 u a moisten dryness ' r` n z` o. 137. e o o medial headache 269. 145 j`ng mi` n sh´ . 264 b¯ n zhˇ n. 407 ı a nasal congestion ı nasal mucus # t`. 411 e ı u lung q` vacuity ı f` i wˇ i. 254 zˇ u gu` n. 127. 140 a a mantis egg-case \ ] pi¯ o xi¯ o. 257. 162. 127 q j¯ng r´ h´ ı u a menses like toad’s eggs p n m´ zˇ. 137. 252 e marsh z´ . 403 u e mustering point t e u muttering 3 zh` ng yˇ . 411 a a a ı e miliaria alba C b´ i p´ i. 283. 404 u ı f` i q` x¯ . 410 a S menstruation at irregular intervals p B e n j¯ng x´ng xi¯ n h` u w´ d`ng q´. 139 sh` n q`. 413 a e measles zh` ng t´ u t` ng. 405 di¯ n ku´ ng. 265. 413 u` malaria a n¨ e. 410 a moderate F huˇ n. 156 u ı u u mother mˇ . 260 n K 8 sh´ t¯ i e a mealy white tongue fur 7 b´ i r´ j¯ fˇ n. 137 ı a u u a ı menstrual flow like rotten meat p 8 n j¯ng l´ i r´ fˇ r` u. 408 ` l¨ f´ n. 155 u move y` n. 285 a o a macule a b¯ n. 252 o mouth kˇ u. 156 u a melanterite o a membrane source K m´ yu´ n. 158. 267. 140 e malign ` . 410 ı ı a o u ı ı e ı menstruation p yu` j¯ng.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms spleen is the source of phlegm formation s % _ s % _ K f` i w´ i zhˇ t´ n e e u a zh¯ q`. 411 e ı u lung y¯n vacuity ı e lung f` i. 259. 153. 267 e u malign obstruction ` zˇ . 246. 276 u a xi` ng lˇ a ı lying in curled-up posture K qu´ n w` . 413 a a moderate pulse F W huˇ n m` i. 414 a a mania and withdrawal u mansion fˇ . 139. 153. 414 u a moist precipitation u moist r` n. 264 zh` ng sh¯ ng. 144 e e ı ı a a f` i k¯ i qi` o e a a lung opens at the nose y´ b´. 411 u lustreless facial complexion C S mi` n s` a e w´ hu´ . 405 a o xi` ng lˇ a ı lying in curled-up posture K qu´ n w` . 264. 413 ] xiˇ o ch´ ng sh` n q`. 127. 407 e e muttering a a nail ! zhˇ o. 228. 256. 264 e u malign obstruction P ` zˇ . 401 @ K mid-stage [penetration] pattern b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ zh` ng. 414 _ w` n a mother of ten-thousand things w` zh¯ mˇ . 402 b´ s¯ i. 138 a mountain sh¯ n. 406 a e maculopapular eruption a u` ı malaria a H n¨ e j´. 158 o a moving (or sliding) cup a a mumps G H zh` s¯ i. 402 a ı move frenetically y B w` ng x´ng. 158 e u morning sickness P ` zˇ . 161. 406 a u ı e m´ zhˇ n. 138 a mountain pass x gu¯ n. 414 e a malign sore ` chu¯ ng. 256. 170. 127. 139 e a u ı e mealy tongue fur 7 n K 8 sh´ t¯ i r´ j¯ fˇ n. zhuˇ . 402 o membrane m´ . 127. 153 a a mantis Z ı marrow T suˇ. 410 ı ı menstrual block menstrual flow like fish brain-marrow p 8 n e T j¯ng l´ i r´ y´ nˇ o suˇ. 153 t´ ng l´ ng. 229. 401 . 255. 413 a ı mounting q` ] ı a mounting ] sh` n. p´ w` i sh¯ ng t´ n zh¯ yu´ n. 229 a a a ı mounting o mouth kˇ u. 409 b` s¯ u ı no thought of food and drink p c yˇn sh´. -ward) P w` i. ı a ı e nonchannel point p P R 276 p f` i q` b` e ı u nondiffusion of lung q` ı xu¯ n. 137 u a ı o pain t` ng. 121 ı ı o ` zh` ng h` u. 147 _ r zu` qi´ ng zh¯ gu¯ n. 158 a e nourish the blood < yˇ ng y¯n. 127. 129. 137 o a offensive precipitation _ r xi¯ ng f` zh¯ gu¯ n. 405 ı ı e a obesity N . 139 ni´ p´ xiˇ n. 406 o u a a pale lips d` n h´ ng. 167 a a paralysis m kˇ u ch´ n g¯ n ji¯ o. o a ı a office of labor i 147 u u ı a office of monarch z _ r j¯ n zhˇ zh¯ gu¯ n. 156 b`ng j¯ ı ı nineteen pathomechanisms r sh´ jiˇ ti´ o. 261 P b` n` i w` i y¯n. 265 e u night blindness a a night sweating / d` o h` n. a u u ı no pleasure in eating e p 409 n` gˇ b` xi¯ ng. 245 pain in the stomach duct and abdomen that likes B wˇ n f` t` ng xˇ an. 140. a o a a opisthotonos O 167. 153 ı nose b´. 408 u e nine needles k jiˇ zh¯ n. 122. 406 o u a a parched lips u a parched lips m ch´ n ji¯ o. ı u ı ı new and old diseases 159 qu` m` . 253 h´ ng sˇ ng. 401 b´ kˇ ng. a u o pain in the lumbar spine 245 y¯ o jˇ t` ng. a u o u ` fuses pressure 409 t` ng o pain like the stabbing of a knife n r´ d¯ o c`.S g¯ ng xi` . 167. 139. 264 fˇ n zh`. 174. 244. 403 o a o network [vessel] O lu` . a u u a no pleasure in eating e p 276. office r gu¯ n. closing 146 y jiˇ o g¯ ng fˇ n zh¯ ng. 139 k¯ i sh¯ h´ . 409 ı ı j¯ng w` i q´ xu´ . 175 a panting 5 chuˇ n. 136 a a official.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms neck \ jˇng. 146. 260 x´ng tˇ f´ i p` ng. 158 a ı o pain in the lumbar spine S a ı e pain in the lumbar spine S v y¯ o jˇ t´ ng. 402 a ı a out (-er. 402 u e a ı neutral cause _ H x¯n ji` zh¯ j´. a u e opening. 402 a orifice qi` o. 137. 167. 156 ı u a u´ nipple moth V rˇ e. 413 nipple rˇ t´ u. 405 a a a ı panting counterflow 5 q chuˇ n n`. 409 a u o ı` pressure pain in the stomach duct and abdomen that reU wˇ n f` t` ng j` an. 167. 402 original q` ı yu´ n q`. 414 a ı paradoxical treatment t¯ n hu` n. 265 xi¯ ng m` n. 162 passing twice as much fluid as is drunk yˇn y¯ s¯ u er. 153. 153 u ı a oxhide lichen y¯ o gˇ t` ng. 411 ı e u a b´ zh` . 413 e papule zhˇ n. 152 a a palate { kˇ u ch´ n d` n b´ i. 410 e o pattern e pattern zh` ng. 402 ı network [vessel] O W lu` m` i. 254 k numbness (and tingling) of the limbs s` zh¯ m´ m` . 264. 410 t¯ i b¯ . 265. pivot. 408 ı ı a u a u numbness k m´ m` . 257 ı o nostril yˇ ng xu` . 127. o e oppression in the chest 409 o oral kˇ u. 255 a o pale red { e a pale tongue { sh´ d` n. 411 a p noninteraction of the heart and kidney t x¯n sh` n b` ji¯ o. 130. 146 _ r sh` u sh` ng zh¯ o e ı office of reception office of the granaries _ r c¯ ng lˇn zh¯ a ı ı gu¯ n. 415 a ı nourish y¯n < ı a nourish < yˇ ng. 406 a o peeling fur 7 . 145 ı u nose pillar ı nose q b´ zi. 254 u ox ni´ . 252. 256 u o n` gˇ b` x¯n. 155. 406 mi` n s` a e pale white facial complexion C { d` n b´ i. 159 a official of genreral p q _ r ji¯ ng j¯ n zh¯ a u ı gu¯ n. a u ı a office of assistant A 146 a u ı a office of general p q _ r ji¯ ng j¯ n zh¯ gu¯ n. 406 o pus n´ ng. 406 u o e t` sh´ .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms penis y¯n j¯ng. 277 t´ n a phlegm clouding the pericardium % m´ ng x¯n b¯ o. 285. 413 a ı ı a t´ n zh¯ ng a o phlegm containing blood % d` i xu` . 410 premature graying of the hair t´ u f` o a zˇ o b´ i. 413 xi` q`. 127. 410 ı a physical cold N physical fatigue and lassitude of spirit N x´ng ju` n sh´ n d` i. 413 ı a e pericardiac pattern O x¯n b¯ o lu` . 137. 408 ı a e a ı physical N x´ng. 409 yu` j¯ng gu` e ı o profuse menstruation p du¯ . 127 n h` n ch¯ r´ a u u putting forth oily sweat / y´ u. 153. 139 m´ i h´ q`. 402 a ı phase B x´ng. 264. 229 promote absorption of q` by the kidney ı sh` n` sh` n q`. 410 u o puffy swelling f` i y¯ ng. 137. 169 a ı precipitate q` ı precipitation of blood with the stool d` bi` n xi` xu` . 142. 157 u a a a premature graying sh´ qˇ m´ ng c`. 406 sh´ sh¯ ng m´ ng c`. 265. 403 a ı o ı o e u 8 a e premature ejaculation m zˇ o xi` . 158 a o ı e ı a propping fullness s : zh¯ mˇ n. 264 ı ı peppercorn sore of the eye m` sh¯ ng u e ji¯ o chu¯ ng. 403 ı ı pestilential q` M ı \ chˇ y´n ji´ b` n. 413 a o a a a phlegm % t´ n. e ı a ı prickly tongue ^ 285. 245 a ı ı ı promote the interaction of the heart and kidney t u ji¯ o t¯ ng x¯n sh` n. 402 ı a o pericardium e u u a p persistent flow of lochia ` l` b´ du` n. 283 pharynx y¯ n. 140 s¯ ng p´ xiˇ n. 414 e o pulmonary welling-abscess t´ ng kˇ ng. 413 u ı o a e phlegm node % & t´ n h´ . 137 a o a a t´ n yˇn. 161. 139 x´ng ı physical cold and cold limbs N h´ n zh¯ lˇ ng. e e ı plum-pit q` & ı 413 poison ( d´ . 141–143. 414 phlegm turbidity clouding the pericardium % t´ n zhu´ m´ ng b` x¯n b¯ o. 252 u poor appetite < p A sh´ y` b` zh` n. 410 ı prominent [green-blue] abdominal veins ? f` l` q¯ng j¯n. 276. 139 ı o pigeon chest u pillar zh` . 127. 137 e u u e p r ` l` b` ju´ . 153. 143 o . 257 o o pupil e ı purple tongue t sh´ zˇ. 141. 413 a ı phlegm-rheum % e phoenix f` ng. e e a ı prickly tongue 157 o e profuse dreaming 2 du¯ m` ng. 405 a j¯ xi¯ ng. 407 a e p O t´ n a phlegm lodged in the channels % li´ j¯ng lu` . 269 protrusion and worrying of the tongue t` n` ng sh´ . 407 o a e o pox d` u. 137. 139 a a a peppercorn ji¯ o. 407 e } wˇ u postmeridian tidal heat [effusion] h` u ch´ o r` . 410 o y` ji¯ n du¯ e a o profuse urination at night ni` o. 406 u e protrusion of tongue f´ zhˇ ng. 139 x¯n b¯ o zh` ng. 139 o ı a pine bark lichen o pine s¯ ng. 415 e a e ı promote q` transformation and disinhibit water ı 7 Y hu` q` l` shuˇ. 158 a ı e x´ng h´ n. 413 e ı a phlegm confounding the orifices of the heart % t´ n m´ x¯n qi` o. persistent flow of lochia 410 l` q`. 407 a a a e predilection for greasy and rich foods ^ pi¯ n sh` y´ u n` h` u w` i. 406 a a x¯ f` zˇ o b´ i. 402 M N x´ n y¯ m¯ u ı o picking at bedclothes ! chu´ ng. 408 a tu¯ g¯ ng. 157 u u ı ı ı a prominent mounting ^ ] ku´ sh` n. 408 o a prolapse of the rectum zˇ g¯ ng xi` ı o a prolapse of the uterus q chu´. 175. 403 phlegm-fire harassing the upper body % & ] t´ n huˇ sh` ng rˇ o. 407 ı ı e a petalled gums a pharynx y¯ n. 408 ı u u e ( wˇ h` u ch´ o u o a postmeridian tidal fever r` . 264. a o e ı ı a 413 phlegm turbidity harassing the upper body % ] t´ n zhu´ sh` ng rˇ o. 139. 175 ı o q` swelling ı ı a q` transformation 7 q` hu` . 140 ı q` zhˇ ng. 167 @ x¯n w¯ n jiˇ biˇ o. 415 o a reduce urine e ı regular channels p zh` ng j¯ng. 153 ı ı ı q` strangury 1 q` l´n. 147 u ı o ı q hu´ ı return y´ ng and stem counterflow P a o rampart ku` . 410 lˇ ng. 414 ı a e a resolve the exterior with warmth and acridity B a ı racing pulse W H m` i j´. 139 ı e ı a yˇ n j¯ng a ı red sore swollen eyes ' h´ ng zhˇ ng t` ng. 244 ı o ı ı _ q` t` ng. 411 ı ı q` stagnation ı ı ı q` strangury 1 q´ l´n. 415 ı ı a a sh´ sh´. 163 ı ı replenish repletion p j¯n sh´ ı ı replete metal failing to sound b` m´ng. 403 m` ch`. 406 e o red tongue ı red ch`. 138 u ı o ı p sˇ t¯ i b` xi` . 136. 410 e a resolve the exterior @ jiˇ biˇ o. 284. 402 ı q` f` n zh` ng. 414 ı racing H j´. 402 mi` n ch`. 407 retarded closure of the fontanel gate a ı raised-shoulder breathing E O rake firewood from beneath the cauldron x`n m´ n ch´ b`. 409 a ı rapacious eating ı return P hu´. 277. 414 ı ı e q` street ~ q` ji¯ . 437 a ı red face e right (q`) zh` ng. 146 ı e e ı a ı a q` mounting ] q` sh` n. 253 e ı reverse flow p q ju´ n`. 227. 140 ı mi` n s` h´ ng right and evil a e o red facial complexion C zh` ng xi´ . 403 e ı reverting y¯n p ı ch` l`. 437 ı zh` ng q`. 262. 254 rectify q` and harmonise construction ı r ju´ y¯n b`ng. 157 ı ı rapid breathing p s` zh¯ ju´ ı ı e reversal cold of the limbs o a rapid pulse G W shu` m` i. 136 e e ch`. 411 ı q` su´ xu` ı ı e q` deserting with the blood ı tu¯ . 255 o o o sh´ h´ ng. 411 o _ t q` is the commander of the blood s ı q` w´ i xu` zh¯ shu` i. 140 y´ ng ji` n`. 143. 257. 406 u ı red eyes e rib-side xi´ . 168. 262 o e quicken the blood < ı ı q` block O q` b`. 156 ı ı red dysentery ı rheum yˇn. 127. ı a u a retention of dead foetus p raking the firewood from beneath the cauldron 274 fˇ dˇ ch¯ u x¯n. 255 repel foulness and open the orifices b` hu` k¯ i qi` o. 253 e reverse p ju´ . 140 a a quell f¯ . 122. 414 ı ı e ı { ju´ y¯n. 414 ı e e a ı a racing pulse H W j´ m` i. 410 e o rapid G shu` . 253. 411 e u q` zh`. 169 ı ı a q` shˇ o. 411 ı e repletion pattern ı repletion sh´. 137 ı a repress the liver resolve the exterior with coolness and acridity B @ x¯n li´ ng jiˇ biˇ o. 136. 254 q` j´. 253 e resolve jiˇ . 122. 175 ı a q` shortage ı q` zh` ı ı q` stagnation and blood stasis ı xu` y¯ . 229 ı q` of the channels and network [vessels] p O ı j¯ng lu` zh¯ q`. 286.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms quell the liver f¯ g¯ n. 229 ı o q` pain ı q` phlegm % q` t´ n. 413 ı e e q`-aspect pattern ı red facial complexion C mi` n s` h´ ng. 413 e ı ı reverting y¯n disease p ı lˇ q` h´ y´ng. 410 sh´ r` . 414 e ı sh´ zh` ng. 120. 276. 157. 129. 406 ı e ı ı fˇ dˇ ch¯ u x¯n. 411 ı u q` vacuity ı ı q` q`. 415 a u ı t¯ n sh´. 154 ı rapid j´. 146. 406. 286. 140 a hu´ xu` . 255. 260. 145. e o a 157 red phoenix heading for the source ch` f` ng y´ng yu´ n. 163 y` g¯ n. 134. 129. 129. 402 ı q` x¯ . 254. 129. 272. 147 u ı ı a replete pulse W sh´ m` i. 401 su¯ ni` o. 402 e ı right q` ı . 255. 162. 254 ji¯ n x¯. 411 ı ı ı q` counterflow q q` n`. 140. 412 ı e repletion heat _ sh´ z´ ı e repletion is treated by draining xi` zh¯. a e o 406 red or crimson tongue sh´ h´ ng ji` ng. 410 rigidity of the neck \ Y jˇng xi` ng qi´ ng ı a a zh´. 409 ı o a o ı skin p´. 401 I xiˇ o a short voidings of scant urine ch` sh¯ n. 254 a a scant urine ı sinew j¯n. 139 shˇ o q`. 159 a ı ı a ı slimy fur 7 u t¯ i n`. 127 e a sea of blood t xu` hˇ i. 128. 414 a a a a shiver sweating / zh` n h` n. 410 u rough c¯ . 129. 406 e o e shrunken tongue o a scallion-stalk pulse W k¯ u m` i. 161 a short I duˇ n. 415 u ı secure essence ı slimy u n`. 127. 409 u e m` i zh¯ hˇ i. 409 j¯ng xu´ . 256. 136. 264 ı a scrotum x¯ xu´ . 402 m` i k¯ u. 414 sh´ li` ı u sixteen cleft holes (or points) y¯n n´ ng. 175 a ı shortage of q` ı a sand sh¯ . 136. a ı u e sexual intemperance } p 285. 410 u a sea of jade t y` hˇ i. 408 a a a a sand (disease) sh¯ . 163 a o scallion-stalk pulse W sh´ sh` u biˇ . 255. 406 e a e o xi` zh¯ l`ng. 156 runny nose with clear snivel (nasal mucus) # b´ li´ q¯ng t`. 413 e u running piglet o a running yellow 6 zˇ u hu´ ng. 409 e ı ringing in the ears ˇ r m´ng. 406 g` j¯ng. 139 duˇ n q`. 410 e o sign scant phlegm expectorated with difficulty % e sign zh` ng. 255. 407 a a u ı a ı a sinew mounting ] j¯n sh` n. 401 scurrying pain around the umbilicus W R X p´ f¯ . 264. 260. 405. 254 u ı secure the menses p g` j¯ng. 410 p t´ n shˇ o b´ y` kˇ . 267 e a scrotum ı a skin and [body] hair V p´ m´ o. 156 ı ı seven affects f´ ng sh` b` ji´ . 415 a a slippery pulse 4 W hu´ m` i. 267. 139 q` c¯ . 159 a ı a ] ( m` u slight swelling of the eye nest _ ch¯ n u seasons of spring and summer k¯ sh` ng w¯ i zhˇ ng. 405 o o o u shifted bladder 3 zhuˇ n b¯ o. 145 ı sleep 1 shu`. 286 e o 410 zh` ng h` u.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms semen j¯ng. 252. 405 ı ringing in the ears like the sound of cicadas e ı u a e n 7 ˇ r m´ng r´ ch´ n sh¯ ng. 409 ı ı seminal loss R zh` n e settle fright and quiet the spirit j¯ng an sh´ n. 156. 156. 127. 402 u ı six excesses o ı scrofula Q R luˇ l`. 410 o e scorching heat li` y´n. 410 I xiˇ o a short voidings of reddish urine bi` n duˇ n ch`. 156 ı e salvia (Chinese sage) bi` n duˇ n shˇ o. 253. 161 a shoulder ji¯ n. 175. 409 ı ı seminal emission sh¯ j¯ng. 410 u secure g` . 406 o a shaking of the head tu¯ o shedding of flesh and loss of bulk r` u p` jiˇ ng (j` n). 415 ı ¯ e q¯ q´ng. 409 u e o sleeplessness p ı sea of the channels and vessels p W _ t j¯ng sleeplessness p d b` m` i. 136 o a ı e e root ] g¯ n. 137. 407 ı u ı ı . 253 ı a sea of marrow T t su´ hˇ i. 153 ı u skin q´ zh¯ u cu` n t` ng. 145 b` d´ w` . 408 a a short pulse I W duˇ n m` i. sign e ı o a scant menstruation p zh` ng h` u. 157. 407 a ı sighing yu` j¯ng gu` shˇ o. 153. 410 t` n x¯. 144. 145 ı e river point p root of later heaven (acquired constitution) _ } h` u ti¯ n zh¯ bˇ n. 407 a ı shortness of breath I e scab ji` . 403 t´ u y´ o. 410 u e ´ ı y´ j¯ng. 229 ni` o shˇ o. 408 a a ı a salty C xi´ n. 156 e a rough pulse W s` m` i. 254 rumbling intestines ch´ ng m´ng. 254 ı a slow pulse E W ch´ m` i. 401 zhu´ r` . 402 ı seminal efflux 4 hu´ j¯ng. 407 a ı b¯ n t´ n. 407 ı u rough breathing a a rough fur 7 c¯ o t¯ i. 129 a ı sand strangury 1 sh¯ l`n. 156 ı e sh` n n´ ng. 250 u a skipping pulse Y W c` m` i. 409 a ı seminal emission without dreaming p 2 j b` m` ng er y´. 269. 152. 407 u u soliloquy mi` n a somber white facial complexion C | s` c¯ ng b´ i. 136. 128 a speech 0 y´ n. 137 ı ı starry screen u a stasis macules a y¯ b¯ n. 401 spleen. 254 ruˇ n ji¯ n. 411 ı a u spleen y´ ng vacuity a p´ y¯n x¯ . 277 y¯ xu` . 405 e e spiritedness sh¯ sh´ n. 252. 406 o ı snivel # t`. 407 o y¯ n t` ng. 411 ı ı u spleen y¯n vacuity ı ı spleen p´. 404 ı u u a spleen governs the flesh and limbs z ( p´ zhˇ j¯ r` u s` zh¯. 142 ı e u e a a g¯ ng li` . 411 ı u spleen vacuity p´ y´ ng x¯ . q´ hu´ z` i ch´ n. 415 a a soften hardness u a soggy pulse z W r´ m` i. 146 u e o ı qu` m` . minister. 167. 246. qi´ . . 129 ı small intestine governs separation of the clear and turbid z xiˇ o ch´ ng zhˇ a a u f¯ n bi´ q¯ng zhu´ . 139. 404 a ı p´ shˇ tˇ . and courier j¯ n ch´ n zuˇ shˇ. 401 a a small intestine a small xiˇ o. assistant. 230 % h´ u o sound of phlegm in the throat w zh¯ ng yˇ u t´ n sh¯ ng. 158. 401 o spleen and stomach stand in interior-exterior relationship ) A @ K p´ yˇ w` i xi¯ ng ı u e a biˇ o lˇ. assistant. 402 a u smaller abdomen xiˇ o f` t` ng. 155 a a somber white | ı a somnolence b sh` mi´ n. 227. 127. 404 ı u ı o ı ı spleen governs upbearing of the clear z p´ zhˇ sh¯ ng q¯ng. minister. 404 ı u e ı p´ k¯ i ı a spleen opens at the mouth qi` o y´ kˇ u. 401 ı u sniveling . 285. 410 d´ yˇ . 128 u speech 3 yˇ . 161. its bloom is in the lips . 256 u a sprain a spring qu´ n. 127. 404 ı u u spleen belongs to earth p´ ı spleen failing to control the blood p r b` tˇ ng xu` . 138 u e o ı sovereign. 409 y¯ n h´ u zhˇ ng a o o sore swollen throat w t` ng. 404 a u o p´ q` x¯ . 404 ı ı a a u p´ tˇ . . 403 a e source point K yu´ n q`. 158 a e . 405 e a a c¯ ng b´ i. 411 u o e spleen failing to move and transform p´ sh¯ ji` n y` n. a u o smaller-abdominal pain 158. 405 ı e spiritlessness spittle $ tu` . 285. 163 a a ı x¯ng y`. 403 u e static blood N gˇ zh¯ ng u e steaming bone taxation fever l´ o r` . 402 d´ sh´ n. 402 a ı source q` K ı u o sovereign fire & j¯ n huˇ . 412 a u spleen-stomach damp-heat sweltering the liver p´ w` i ı e and gallbladder sh¯ r` x¯ n zh¯ ng g¯ n dˇ n. 406 zhˇ xu` . p´. 413 a a smallpox ] sh´ gu¯ ng e a smooth. 153 ı ı spleen q` ı p´ ı spleen vacuity with food damage x¯ ji¯ sh´. 406 u a stasis speckles u stasis y¯ . 409 ti¯ n hu¯ . 408 niˇ sh¯ ng. 129. 414 a a sore e sorrow b¯ i. 409 o a sour taste in the mouth a sour su¯ n. 128 e spirit sh´ n. . 404 e e ı o xiˇ o ch´ ng. 156 o ı soft tetany a soft ruˇ n. 254 a o sore throat chu¯ ng y´ ng.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms slow E ch´. 411 ı ı a u spleen governs movement and transformation z 7 p´ zhˇ y` n hu` . 253 xiˇ o f` . 157 a e splitting of the anus ı a spontaneous sweating / z` h` n. . 406 y¯ diˇ n. 153 ı u spleen-earth p´ sh` n ı e spleen-kidney y´ ng vacuity a y´ ng x¯ . . 253. 127 snivel t`. 415 ı e stanch bleeding stand in exterior-interior relationship A @ K xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ. 411 ı ı u spleen q` vacuity ı p´ q`. 128 r´ u j`ng. 284. 137 e u sparrow’s vision a speak 0 y´ n. 413 u a ı p´ x¯ . 152. 141. bare red tongue h´ ng. 139 e ı squint : xi´ sh`. 406 o o a e kˇ u su¯ n. 401 yu´ n xu´ . . and courier j¯ n ch´ n zuˇ shˇ. 128 u speak 3 yˇ . 145 sovereign. 169 e ı stomach q` ı fˇ n w` i. 227. 259. 130. 158. 267. 264 subdue y´ ng and extinguish wind a % qi´ n y´ ng x¯ f¯ ng. 406 a u a S y¯ o jˇ a ı stiffness of the lumbar spine qi` ng. 407 a ı a a u u u Z lˇ j´ h` u zh` ng. 410 surreptitious menstruation p an j¯ng. 253 ch´ n zhˇ ng. u a swallowing of upflowing acid K 409 a sweat / h` n. 127. 137. 414 u u streaming sore e street ~ ji¯ . 252. 407 a e steaming bone tidal heat [effusion] } gˇ zh¯ ng ch´ o r` . 410 e a sunken pulse v u o superficial network vessel O f´ lu` . 286. 253. 259 a a n 5 d` a stool like sheep’s droppings bi` n r´ y´ ng shˇ. 276 a a ı sweet worked water A a sweet A g¯ n. 254 m` i h´ ng. 412 u e summerheat-heat & m` k¯ n` i xi` n. 167. 130 n d` bi` n r´ a a u stool like duck’s slop y¯ t´ ng. 414 a taxation N l´ o. 254 . 413 u summerheat & shˇ . 404 e u a o w` i zhˇ sh` u e u o stomach governs intake z n` . 140 e stretch B sh¯ n. 410 a o u¯ stirring foetus w` i wˇ n. 143. 140 z` ng fˇ . 269 a u storehouses and mansions zh` ng zh`. 402 e a stomach duct a stomach duct wˇ n. 407 u e a e 3 sh´ e stiff tongue and impeded speech qi´ ng yˇ jiˇ n. 413 a e stomach reflux e stomach w` i. 415 u a supplement y´ ng a supplement y¯n ı bˇ y¯n. 401 sweep phlegm and open the orifices % hu` t´ n k¯ i qi` o. 264 sh¯ xu´ . 412 u ı summerheat-damp & shˇ r` . 245 a w´ i chˇ o. 129. 286. 127. 255 a o surging pulse W o a surging pulse W h´ ng m` i. 261. 407 a u a ı d` bi` n. 127. 414 ı stone sh´. 415 o a a a kˇ u ti´ n. 261 e tears " l` i. 401 ' n o teeth dry as desiccated bones Q y´ chˇ g¯ n z` o r´ k¯ gˇ . 410 a a take the pulse t W bˇ m` i. 414 e ı straight treatment l´n zh` ng.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms steaming bone tidal fever ( gˇ zh¯ ng u e ch´ o r` . ı ı o o tenesmus K 408 ı tense j´. 407 l´ o ju` n. 163 a a stringlike pulse W a a stringlike pulse W xi´ n m` i. 410 a strong qi´ ng. 404 a stomach governs ripening and rotting z w` i zhˇ fˇ sh´ . 415 u e supplement the blood bˇ y´ ng. 130. ı a u ı tension of the sinews W 405 ı e tetanic reversal p j¯ng ju´ . 406 u e e a sunken eyes m` i ch´ n. 404 u u u stomach governs downbearing of the turbid z | w` i zhˇ ji` ng zhu´ . 264. 409 o a sweet taste in the mouth g¯ n l´ n shuˇ. 145 u e stream point li´ zh` . 403 bˇ q`. 283. 404 e u u u w` i q`. 402 a storehouse z` ng. 402 stomach governs decomposition w` i e zhˇ fˇ sh´ . 256. 252 e stomach w` i. 413 o thick (viscous) ch´ u. 254 j¯n m` i j¯ j´. 154 o u take drenched n e a take the pulse W qi` m` i. 260 a a stool a a stool c d` bi` n. 403 a a taxation fatigue N a ı taxation strangury N 1 l´ o l´n. 415 u ı u supplement bˇ . 155 e a stir-fry lightly ( o a stirred pulse W d` ng m` i. 127. 410 p R t¯ i d` ng b` an. 283. 402 shˇ sh¯. 154 e a u u m` i xi´ n. 162 u o swollen lips ch¯ ng f´ . 253 o e sty A k t¯ u zh¯ n. 401 o swelling zhˇ ng. 415 u ı supplement q` ı bˇ xu` . 128 g g xi` ng a stretched rigid nape and back b` i qi´ ng sh¯ sh¯ . 140 a e sunken pulse W ch´ nm` i. 405 ı ı tetany r j`ng b`ng. 410 u u talking alone 3 d´ yˇ . 150. 401 ı ı stone strangury 1 sh´ l´n. 254 o surge ch¯ ng. 415 a a ı e o a sudden turmoil / 0 hu` lu` n. 414 ı e strangury pattern 1 ı strangury 1 l`n. 162 ` ı t¯ n su¯ n. 141. 403 p sh´ er j¯ng. 408 o e thirst 9 kˇ u kˇ . 138 ch´ o r` . 153 e tongue e tongue sh´ . 401 s¯ n y¯n. 152 a o thin fur 7 M t¯ i b´ . 402 a ı three causes (of disease) s¯ n fˇ . 156 ı a ı e o a thoroughfare vessel W ch¯ ng m` i. 129 e thirst 9 kˇ . 139 a a e ı toe zhˇ. 145. 402 u thumb c` n. 127. 139 ( hˇ x¯ d´ . 145. 136. 408 a . 402 a o throat w y¯ n h´ u. 403 s¯ u o track down wind and expel cold % f¯ ng zh´ h´ n. 156 e ı two y¯n ı ` r y¯n. 162 o e ı tinnitus ˇ r m´ng. 129. 408 u ı thirst without large fluid intake 9 p kˇ b` e u du¯ yˇn. 408 o ı o e thirst 9 kˇ u kˇ . 155. 415 a ı transform dampness 7 transform phlegm and suppress cough 7 % hu` t´ n zhˇ k´ . 415 a u transform stasis 7 a a transforming fur 7 7 t¯ i hu` . 407 a a ı a thin sloppy stool kˇ e thirst with a liking for cool drinks 9 B xˇ li´ ng yˇn. 403 o thoroughfare ch¯ ng. 140 ı thought c s¯. 410 kˇ u ch´ n jˇn o u ı tightly contracted lips su¯ . 409 a a a a torpid intake i n` i d¯ i. 158 a e tidal fever } a e tidal fever ( ch´ o r` . 264. 143 e u a hu` sh¯. 136 ı o tortoise’s head y u toxin ( d´ . 153 toad h´ m´ . 415 a a ı e 4 a a transform phlegm 7 % hu` t´ n. 402 torpid intake i n` d¯ i. 401 ı a tooth Q chˇ y´ . 167. 137. u u ı tiger’s-whiskers clove-sore 244 ı a tight pulse W jˇn m` i. 402 ı tooth chˇ. 411 e ı o true heart pain q` z` ng. ı` ı ı twelve channel sinews 156. 122. 276 a p d` bi` n b` a a u ungratifying defecation shu` ng. 244. 155. 146. e a o ı 254 thick white tongue fur 7 8 sh´ t¯ i b´ i e a a h` u. 169 a a three methods o e throat node w & h´ u h´ . 141. u u u tiger’s whiskers toxin [sore] 139 hˇ x¯ d¯ng. 407 a e tidal heat [effusion] } u tiger hˇ . 405 u tumor li´ . 253 o o thickness 8 M h` u b´ . 406 u transport sh¯ . 406 e ı tongue body . 153 p sh´ er j¯ng j¯n. 143. 264. 153 o throat w h´ u.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms thick slimy tongue fur 7 8 u sh´ t¯ i h` u n`. 405 ı o tugging and slackening o e tugging wind % ch¯ u f¯ ng. 127. 152 a throat y¯ n. 122. 402 zh¯ n x¯n t` ng. 138. 137. strain N l´ o. 139 a a toad-head scourge h´ m´ w¯ n. 127 a toil. 267 e ı tinnitus 4 ˇ r m´ng. 408 ı e ı kˇ b` e u thirst with no desire to drink 9 p < y` yˇn. 157 o o thick 8 h` u. 250. 253 thirteen ghost or demon holes (or points) sh´ s¯ n guˇ xu´ . 140 e ı tongue body A sh´ zh`.sh´ tˇ. 145. 157. 161 u e turtle-dove’s tail { T ji¯ wˇ i. 255. 136. 167 a ı unctuous strangury 1 g¯ o l´n. 230. 140 gu¯ t´ u. 152–154. 414 p d` bi` n b` a a u ungratifying defecation shuˇ ng. 402 a ı tooth Q a tooth Q y´ . 407 ch´ o r` . 127. 252. 144. 140 ı e treat the root } zh` bˇ n. 402 y´ chˇ. 408 ı a ı kˇ e thirst with a liking for hot drinks 9 B xˇ r` yˇn. 414 ı a treat the tip X zh` bi¯ o. 402 o a throat pass w x h´ u gu¯ n. 414 triple burner governs the sluices m z s¯ n ji¯ o zhˇ ju´ d´ . 403 ı` ı twelve channels e ı a a W twenty-eight pulses ` r sh´ b¯ m` i. 264 sh´ tou. 405 a a u e u a a triple burner m s¯ n ji¯ o. 409 a e tip and root X } bi¯ o bˇ n. 406 e a tongue fur 7 sh´ t¯ i. 415 hu` y¯ . 402 o o throat w Y h´ u l´ ng. 406 d` bi` n x¯ t´ ng. 414 ı o water swelling ı water shuˇ. 129 e a warm y´ ng a e warmth w¯ n. 403 e e warm evil w¯ n xi` . 127. 167 a ı urgent pulse W 3 xiˇ o bi` n sh¯ a a ı urinary incontinence j`n. 260 a a urine a a urine c xiˇ o bi` n. 135. 175. 415 e ı a a nuˇ n w` i. 412 u e vacuity heat _ vacuity is treated by supplementing x¯ z´ bˇ zh¯. ı ı u e wetted aversion to wind k k 154. 123 u e a b´ i r´ k¯ gˇ . 405 xu´ n y¯ ng chu´. 145 ı e well point ı well jˇng. 402 a a voiding u vomit t` . 175 u u vacuity puffiness x¯ zhˇ ng. 245 a ı ı w¯ n y´ ng. a a ı a watery stool 407 o a weak pulse W ru` m` i. 259 . 155 a a wheezing and panting 5 xi¯ o chuˇ n. 256. 256 a a urination urine ni` o. 254 e upbear sh¯ ng. 286. 405 ı o uterus q ˇ u ı a uterus q 3 n¨ zˇ b¯ o. 127. 402 chˇ y´n x¯ f´ . 229 shuˇ ı water q` intimidating the heart ı q` l´ng x¯n. 252. 127 qi¯ n r` chu¯ ng. 252 a vessel W m` i. 408 ı xiˇ o bi` n. 154 u venom ( d´ . 127. 410 jˇng xu´ . 407 ı voracious eating and drinking Q Q b` o a yˇn b` o sh´. 409 a ˇ upflow nausea & u a ı upward staring eyes ] : m` sh` ng sh`. 413 q` ı when q` is vacuous. 161. 142 e e ı ı e e w¯ n xi´ . 157.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms unsurfaced fever ( sh¯ n r` b` y´ ng. 274. 406 a up(ward) ] sh` ng. 254 f` n e. 254 wˇ x¯n u ı vexing heat in the five hearts z f´ n r` . 141–143 ı ı ı shuˇ zhˇ ng. 407 a e vigorous heat [effusion] e u ı viscus of wind and wood % k _ E f¯ ng m` zh¯ z` ng. 408 u o u u ı swallow it @ ı a water mounting ] shuˇ sh` n. 401 a vexation f´ n. 255 a e warm the stomach " Y w¯ n e warm yang and disinhibit water y´ ng l` shuˇ. 407 e e u a e u ununited skull o jiˇ l´ . 137. 260. 407 zhu` ng r` . 409 u a ou t` t´ n % vomiting of phlegm-rheum l ˇ u a yˇn. 406 ] : liˇ ng m` sh` ng a u a upward staring eyes sh`. 403 ı a ı e ı warm disease r w¯ n b`ng. 407. 402 a xiˇ o bi` n. 175 u o vacuity swelling u vacuity x¯ . 411 u e vacuity pattern x¯ f´ . 414 % x¯ x¯ w` f¯ ng. 135. 402 sh¯ ng y` ng. 256. ı ı u u vacuous puffy gums 407 u a vacuous pulse W x¯ m` i. 142 ı a e e shuˇ sh¯. 412 x¯ r` . 143 a N sh` w` ı u visual distortion of objects : bi` n x´ng. there is cold ı x¯ z´ h´ n. 285. 156 a ı a wart washing the mouth with water without desire to p < sh` kˇ u b` y` yˇn. 413 a wheezing xi¯ o. 114 warm evil assailing the lung and defence w¯ n xi´ q¯n x´ f` i w` i. 402 a o ı uvula / 0 u o vacuity fire & x¯ huˇ . a ı u u 121 vomiting of acid t` su¯ n. 414 e a warm precipitation warm the centre and dissipate cold w¯ n zh¯ ng s` n h´ n. 277. 138 o welling-abscess y¯ ng. 406 ı m` i j´. 158 a ı xiˇ o bi` n. 403 ı ı water-damp 6 d` bi` n shuˇ y` ng. 163 u ı Vacuous Li 3 x¯ lˇ. 129 ou t` . 415 e o a a warm the channels and dissipate cold p w¯ n j¯ng s` n h´ n. 154 vomiting and retching l ˇ u vomiting in the evening of food eaten in the [previous] morning zh¯ o sh´ m` t` . 407 e e u a unsurfaced heat p sh¯ n r` b` y´ ng. 155 e o use raw zˇ g¯ ng. 410 a e a e vigorous fever ( zhu` ng r` . a u u u white as dry bones n o 143. 414 u e u ı x¯ zh` ng. 410 a a vary P o ji¯ jiˇ n. 401 water-cold shooting into the lung shuˇ h´ n sh` f` i. 143 ı ı u wood k m` . 139 wilting pattern wˇ i zh` ng. 405 a a yellow fur 6 7 hu´ ng t¯ i. 145. 129. 252. 413 a ı e whooping cough f´ gˇ . 272. 159 e qu´ n ch´ ng. 169 ı ı y¯n y¯n. 406 yellow or reddish urine. 412 e u ı o e wind strike % zh` ng f¯ ng. 158. 401 r´ n zh¯ y` e ı ı whole of the human body _ sh¯ n. 142 a e f¯ ng r` . 410 u o wrist pulse a wrist w` n. 402 y´ ng wˇ i. 276 a o whole scorpion 4 bˇ i r` k´ . 412 ı a y´ ng wˇ i. 142 a ı o f¯ ng h´ n. 406 a a yellow face 6 mi` n hu´ ng. 401 r y´ ng m´ng b`ng. 121 e ı wind-damp % e o a wind-fire eye % & ' f¯ ng huˇ yˇ n. 156 a a white vaginal discharge a white b´ i. 407 6 withered-yellow facial complexion C mi` n s` wˇ i hu´ ng. 405 white fur 7 b´ i t¯ i. 127. a u ı e white tiger joint running 137 b´ i d` i. 272. 146 u u wild duck bones u u wild duck u f´ . 413 e e e wilting wˇ i. reddish yellow urine 6 xiˇ o bi` n hu´ ng ch`. 254. a e a 157. 161. a ı ı y´ ng brightness disease a 170. 401 a a y¯n h` . 412 e e wind-heat % e a wind-phlegm % % f¯ ng t´ n. 242. 157 a e a yellow facial complexion C 6 mi` n s` hu´ ng. 140 ı u y¯n door ı y¯n xi´ . 127. 403 a ı a y¯n sweating / y¯n h` n. 156 a yellow 6 hu´ ng. 129. 133. 155 m` huˇ u o wood fire tormenting metal k & x´ng j¯n. 403 a e a y´ ng linking vessel a m n W y´ ng a y´ ng springing vessel a qi¯ o m` i. 264 a e y´ ng wilt a y´ ng y´ ng. 2.English Index of Chinese Medical Terms white facial complexion C mi` n s` b´ i. 413 e u u a o m withered helices ˇ r l´ n k¯ ji¯ o. 259 H p f¯ ng e wind evil entering the channels % xi´ r` j¯ng. 403 ı e a y¯n linking vessel ı n W y¯n qi¯ o ı a y¯n springing vessel m ı m` i. 412 e a wind-cold % f¯ ng sh¯. 153 f¯ ng r` e e wind-heat invading the lung % f` n f` i. 121. 406 o e worrying tongue c` n kˇ u. 129. 402 w f¯ ng e wind-cold assailing the throat % h´ n x´ h´ u. 218 e o wind-fire % & f¯ ng huˇ . 406 a a b´ i hˇ l` ji´ . 255. 403 a ı y´ ng brightness a W y´ ng w´ i m` i. 153. 401 ı y¯n y´ ng. 139. 157 a a a ı a a yellow sweat 6 / hu´ ng h` n. 267 a e y´ ng wilt a u a yellow eyes 6 m` hu´ ng. 153 ı a y¯n-y´ ng ı a . 135. 136. 403 a a & y´ ng x¯ a u y´ ng vacuity water flood a shuˇ f` n. 405 a e e a e a withered-yellow 6 wˇ i hu´ ng. 413 o e wind stroke e wind % f¯ ng. 413 zh` ng f¯ ng. 401 n` ng sh´ . 413 y´ ng m´ng. 169 ı e y¯n evil ı W y¯n w´ i m` i. 244 e o ı wind-fire scrofula % & R f¯ ng huˇ l`. Translation of Chinese Medical Terms . 61. 109 Hu´ ng-Fˇ . 17. David. Hans-R¨ diger. 202. Sh`-G¯ o R S T . 252. 96 B`. 200. 200. 26 Chace. 236 Connelly. 18 a ı . 198. 95 Bassnett. 188 Harper. . 184. Michael A. Andrew. 20 Hung. 19 Halliday. 150 Hsu. 201. Y` > ? . 191. 27 Fedorov. 49 Callow. Aliki. Eva. Edward. von. 160 Coward. 199 Connolly. H-Y. 188 Catford. 50 Benjamin. 5. Peter. John. Thomas. John. e e 202. Gu´ a * . 124. Edward. 294 Hu´ ng. 231 Chesterman. 13. 99. 28 Fawcett. 227. 210 Boss. 205. 27. 20 . D. 229 Baker. Anthony. 201. Reinhard R. 251. Robert L. 207 Birch. 277 Hartmann. 269 e ı u Cheng. 269 e o Ch´ n. David. 75. 33 Hammer. 73. 229 Berkovitz. 33 Barolet. 33. M` a u ı Humboldt. 40 Cicero. 36. 75 u France. 271. Tsunedaro r s t u v . 235 ¯ An. 210 F´ ng. Roger T. 20 Bensky. 25. 188. Albert. 25. 190 Crystal. 202. 87 Fuye. L´ i u e Fujita. 13. 21 Cleyer. 180 . Randall. 22 H´ . 21 .. 4. 196. Walter. 20. 4. 200 Bartholin. 18 Coulmas. 99. Roger de la. 58. 197 International Standards Organisation (ISO).. Edwin. Xinnong. 51 Darbelnet. Andrew. Charles. 99. Stephen J. Andrei. Mona. 26 Felt. 21 Flaws. J. Marcel. 180 Gamble. Ch´ ng ı e Birch. Saul. 23 F` .Name Index Algeo. Jacqueline. 194 . 199. 21 Greek-Latin. 16 Horace. 188 Cassidy. 33. L. Zˇ-F` a q b . + .. 18 ı a Bach. 163 Hatim. 188. 33 Danchev.. G¯ ng-Z´ u o e Hu´ n D` L M . 34. Rosalind. 201 Chamfrault. John. Terry. Susan. 190. 49. 171. 119. 132 Ch´ o. Donald J. 39. 30 Goethe. 229 Bell. Johann W. 30. 229 Baker.K. 229. Bob. 34. 27. 17. 20 Granet. 228. Theodora. Robert. 33 Deadman. 58 H´ . 20. 191. Andrew... 195. 200. Al-Khafaji M.. 200. 4.. 123. 16 Grinnell. 242 Bynon. Itamar. D´ -Sh´ 6 a e ı . 19. 21 Beekman. J. 185. 196. Harriet. 20. Yu´ n-F¯ ng Z a a a Ch´ n. 229 Ellis.M.C. 204 Fitzgerald. 436. 50. A. Florian. 4 Fluck. 200. 229 Gentzler. 437. 18 Baker. Basil. 220. 183. 249 Hale. Peter. 22. 215. 19 Graves. K. C. 269 e u a Homer. 165. 440 Jerome. 280 Filshie. 133. Lawrence. St..V.. 31 Campbell. 184 Bacopoulou-Halls. 195. Wilhelm von. Ken. 184.. 199. Stephen.. 27.K. Andreas. 199. Sh` -Hu´ i c d .. 242 Even-Zohar.. Dan. 230. 166 ISO. 184 . 31 Beinfield. 124. 184 Picht..Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Johnson. Vladimir. Georges. 201 Sager. 184 Stiefvater. 220. Mark. 205. 180. 33. Z´ -D¯ ng V a e o Masini. 131 Lˇ o Zˇ p q . 231. 57.. 49. 180 e Steiner. Hassan. Craig. 118. 206 M´ o. 35 . Zh¯-Z` o ( _ ` . 52. 26.. 33. 34. 185. Kirsten. 20. 34. Eugene. Zh` o-Gu´ ( ) * . Joseph. Anthony. 94. Anatole V. 20 Nord. 188. 100. 441 Nida. 18 ı ı D . X` n u u Lu´ . Winfred P. 229 Kronenfeld. 25 e Parthamasiris (Zh¯ Li´ n s t ). Peter. 200 S¯ n. 46. 64 Pollard. 440 Schafer. 8. Richard. 16 . 47 Ortega y Gasset. 19 Lehmann. 196. 235 Pym. 51. 21 Romaine. 34 Lewith. W´ n-S` u a u . 225– 231 Malmkjær. 7. 33. 185. 239 . 27. 195. 208–211. Ian. Morten. 151 Mole. 200 Mustapha.W. 34. Xu` n-Ti¯ n e a a Kelly. Christiane. 99. David. 31. Gwei-Djen . Gˇ o ( ı a . 197 Pomeranz. Felix. 35. Manfred. 113. 95 Kaplan. 200 Pelka. Peter. 171 Pilegaard. 294 Li´ . 26. 19. 20 Nixon. 118. 217. 228. 24 Pearson. 25 K¯ ng X¯ a ı . Xiˇ n ( ı a Lˇ. 20. 270. Needham. Louis G. 219. 131 Jumpelt. 47 Mason. Albrecht. 20 Newmark. 216. 204.. Robert. 47 e ı Maciocia. 165. 201. 19. 7. 180 Stux. 135. 231 Pyles. Caroline. 226. Thomas. 237.. 22. 17 . 16 Korngold. 123. Juan C. Jerry. 199 . Ted. Efrem. Jos´ . 198–200. 200 Kaptchuk. 217 Neubert. 58 McMahon. 150 Schleiermacher. 130. 439. Roger. 200 Sivin. 95 Lakoff. Joan. 200. 28 Ricci. 29 Souli´ de Morant. 28 Norman. 35 Legge. 32. 8. 188. 131. George. 96. Friedrich. David B. style H´ -Ji¯ n e a Li´ . James. 200. 270 Nietzsche.. 53 Pennycook. 23 Lˇ . 54. Edward H. Gabriel. 19 a ı Larre. 30. Katharina. 294 K¯ . 241 Mann.T. Douglas. 99 Lu. 30. Giovanni. 148. 200 Lewith. N. 50 Seem. 21. Erich. Friedrich. 238. 4. John. 18 M` ng Zˇ q . 113. 144 Kuramajiva (Ji¯ M´ Lu´ Sh´ { | } ~ ). 188 Lass. 110 Z ). David. Roland. X¯-W´ n } x d . Eleanor. 114 M` ng. 20. Peter. 196 o ı e Luther. Yu´ n u a Livius Andronicus. 196. 24. 110 Lˇ. 213 Lyovin. 24. 3. 25. 17 Ramsey. A. 200 . 30 Stevensen. 52. J¯ng-Wˇ i ( p ı ı e . 57. J¯ng-Wˇ i ( p ı ı e . Mary. 5.. Heribert. 21 ı a Paz. 24. 272 . Octavio. 185. 18 ı ı a L´ng D` N M . Claude. 19. George.. 114. 180 Nobokov. 200 Porkert. 17 Lyons.S. Mark.. April M. 130.. 20 Peters. Jˇng-Ch¯ n { e ı u Mitchell. 49 Reiss. Nathan. 109 . 19. 7. 95 Lˇ. S¯-Miˇ o u ı a . Suzann. 222 ı a o Lˇ. 240 Snell-Hornby. 36.R. G. Matteo (L` Mˇ -D` u Y ı a o Robinson. Martin. 31. 212–216.. Bruce. 99. 22 u o o ı Lˇ. 294 Lˇ. R. S. Federico. 111. 25. 221. 436 Rosch. Andrew. 188 Worsely. Nguyen. 269 u a . see Zh¯ ng. 210. Johannes Toury. 108. 200. 33 Waley. 32. 271 W´ ng. 133 . 219 Xi` . J¯. 204 Wilhelm.. Gideon. 102. Xu¯ n \ ` . Zh` o. 13. 34 Tsutani. 171. Zh` o. 217. Jack. 19 Wilss. 231.R. William. 29. 179–181. 224. 195. 227–231. 200 Zh¯ ng. 184 Vinay. 205 . Richard. Zh´ -F´ n e u a u X´ . 108– o ı 110. W´ i-Hu¯ y a e ı a ı Zh¯ ng. Gu¯ ng-Qˇ \ ] ^ (baptised as Paul X´ ).. 4. L`-Y´ n . 294 a ı u 223–225. Robert L. 75. 201 = . 23 Y´ n. 28 Verney. J`-Zh¯ u a ı o . 95 . F` ng-Ji¯ a e e . Sh¯ -H´ a u e W´ ng. Kiichiro h Tyndale. P. Zˇ i-Xˇ @ A B . 222 Zh¯ ng. 109 a ı . 160 Yau. 96 W´ ng. style Zh` ng Jˇng z { . 2. 119. 197. 199–202. 174 Zh¯ ng. Paul U. 273 . Nigel A. Hans J. Adrian. F` a u . J¯ y a ı . 96. Wolfram. 19 W´ ng. 99. 109. Zh`-Qu´ n + u ı a . B¯ng ^ . 271. 51 Vermeer. a o ı 115 Unschuld. 17 Zh¯ ng. 119. 30. 194 Zmiewski. Ch´ ng-Ch¯ n u u a u . 115 R . Zh` ng-Jˇng z { . 21. 131. Paul.. 105. Guichard J. J-P. 111 Y´ ng. 18 a a ı Terrenz. 22 Y` n Z¯ ng a o Yang. 183. 225. 114 Zh¯ u. D¯ ng-Bˇ n y t } . 201. Him Chi. 242. Zh` ng Y¯ng R z o o ı Zhu¯ ng Zˇ r q . 19 a ı Van Nghi. 216. 22 Xu´ n Zhu¯ ng a a . 150. 200. 33 Wiseman. Yˇ u-X`ng u o ı . 265. Arthur.Name Index T´ n. Shun-Chiu Yeung. u a ı 18 X´ . 251. 95 Vickers. 196.. Clive. Shou-Zhong. 115 a ı e 106. 27. 100. 280 Wood. 189 Wˇ . B´ -Y´ y a o u b c . 201 y . 189 a e e Zh¯ ng. 185 World Health Organisation. 202 Venuti. J¯n-F¯ ng . 172 a ı a White. 111 W´ . Ji` -B¯n y a e ı . 183. Lawrence. Zh`-Tˇ n ??. 28 Trask.. 168 Xˇ . 148. Translation of Chinese Medical Terms . 2. 121. 117. 149 comparative componential analysis. 183–187. 38 anisomorphism. 199. 237 literature on. 69. 251 conflation. 206. 151 Council of Oriental Medical Publishers (COMP). 216. 123 copulative compounds. 32 bilingual dictionaries. 16 Armenian. 12. 250. 54. 269 complementary medicine. 109. 160. 97. 191. 7–10. 54. 299 cultural equivalent. 250 preservation of. 25. 268 classical. 228–231 Arabic. 54. 184 book sales. 48. 261 descriptive epithet. 192. 436 classical derivation. 38 Bach flowers. 221. 170. 21. 206. 63. 27 documentary translation. 201–204 bilingualism. 38 classical Chinese. 194. 54. 199 borrowing. 436 adstratum. 61. 436 grammatical. 118. 34. 238. 150 as an isolating language. 36. 436 culture-bound term. 245. 123 definition. 182 Amerindian languages. 54. 37. 37 Akkadia. 259. 436 conceptual unity. 38 Afrikaans. 35 African languages. 439 syntax. 19. 436 approaches to Chinese medical term translation. 48 lexical. 16 Alexander technique. 24. 98. 71. 159. 202. 67. 300 componential analysis. 108. 3. 123. 118 Christianity. 437 deletion. 199 acupuncture analgesia. 436 body-mind. 33 content word.Subject Index Page numbers underlined refer to the Glossary of Terms. 185–188. 28 domain. 2. 37. 39 Buddhism. 31. 221 cold damage. 149. 1. 209. 182 alternative medicine. 211. 182 Australian languages. 125 compounds. 70 . 222. 39 Bible translation. 201–203. 159. 39. 126. 437 derivation. abbreviation. 108 combination. 220 bilingual lexicography. 152. 201. 27 Dutch. 65. 190. 179–182. 180 adaptation of Chinese medicine. 35 Britain. 269 compounding. 122. 22. 436 culture-specific term. 181. 436 acupuncture. 11. 117. 124. 235. 150 Aramaic. 18. 39. 161 active verb. 161 acronyms. 208. 436 conversion. 16 aromatherapy. 3. 191. 50. 149. 160. 170. 154. 135 discourse analysis. 96. 200. 437 Old. 16. 436 contact between languages. 123–126. 17. 436 Danish. 16. 436 Bible. 181. 204–207 addition. 219. 120 word-classes. 33. 235 Burmese. 4. 16. 196. 149. 182 back-translation. 21. 123. 126 concept. 296. 24. 221 graphemic. 34. 126. 207–226. 436 literary. 11. 203. 118 classical. 62. 86 81. 164 German influence in Chinese terminology of LGP. 260 271–273. 55 Old. 258. 34–36. 35 Hippocrates. 150 Islam. 70 Iranian. 36. 7. 193. . 164. 58. 211. 16 Hongkong. 176. lexicography. 170. 55. 26. 286. 78–81. 151 East European languages. 38 128. 256. 437 functionalism. 17. 47. 37 initialisms. 146. 211 energetics. 37 formal equivalance. 282. 269. 28 interlinear translation. 177. 47. 437 246–250. 123. 37 Icelandic. 170. 150 herbalism. 7. 50 India.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms dvanda compounds. 58. 24. 24 internationalisms. functional equivalent. 44. 126. 122. 52–54. 86 Japanese. 437 equivalents LGP. 37. 8–12. 188 Hindi. 149. 69. 41. 32 . 180. 26 formal. 177. 24 kambun kundoku w formal metaphor. 97. 31 dynamic. 260 . 257. 28 Latin. 66. 239. 32 graphemic derivation. 122. 86 Japanese influence in Chinese terminology of Western medicine. 261. 92. 179. 34. 40. 118 Italian. 299 English Middle. 96. 39. 52–54. 71. 126–128. 27 Finnish. 16. 61–69. 149. 150 historical fidelity. 71 lexical borrowing. 8–12. 145. 32 functional. 17. 201–204 193. 41 Indian languages. 71. functional metaphor. 144–146. 436 functional. 37. 126– Norman. 38 extralinguistic factors influencing translation. 38. 36–38. 39 Egypt. 44. 149. 86 Jesuits. 179 febrile disease. 161 instrumental translation. 230. 181–197. 263. 34. 35 German. 19 French. 58. 176. 61–69. 252. 239 Chinese medical. 108 field. 437 eponyms. 259 Greek. 240. 83. 136. 31 equivalent. 185 energy. 160. 242. 31 holism. 39. 239. 200–207 gloss translation. 50. 136. 17 isolating language. 437 cultural. 237. 58. 97. 214. 236. 177. 123. 7 formal equivalence. 71. 21. 64–73. 241. 78– Western medicine. 28 expansion. 182 Homer. 91 exoticisation. 294. 50. 24. 252 etymologising translation. 13. 273 57. 123. 185. 289. 37–40. 36. 180. 47. 162 equivalence cultural. 84. 34. language for general purposes. 27 headword. 16. 64. 437 extension semantic. 123. 34–36. 47. 23. 149. 241 euphemism. 39. 235 Italy. 16 electroacupuncture. 40. 37. 92. 39. 180. 195 Hungarian. 150 Gricean principles. 253. 439 epithet. 437 Hebrew. 86 kanji France. 216. 19 Japan. 34–36. 122. 50. 182–190 homeopathy. 57. 203. 225. 160. 195–197. 110 Nida Eugene. 241. 52–57 LSP translation. 71. 146. 202. 146. 257–261. 260. 34–36 Northern Germanic languages. 30. 179. 91. 438 metonymy. 56. 263. 31. 34. 27 Mon. 256. 121 Pashto. 32 Norman French. 130–136. 97. 152. 10 LGP-terms. 38. 38–41. 439 Old English. 208. 439 ı ı Pˇ t¯ nghu` . 282. 122. 28 LSP. 53. 188. 149. 266 meditation. 439 uo a Pacific languages. 23. 109. 150 monosyllabism. 91. 437 loan-translation. 192. 73. 95. 257. 63. 241. 65–67. 9. 237. 199. 206. 33 medicinal therapy. 203. 177. 268. 278 loyalty. 241. 241. 106. 438 evoked. 10. 39 noun compounds. 221–223. 45. 8. 258. 63. 33 expressive. 162. 203. 223. 182–190 neo-Confucianism. 438 systematic. 54. 54. 147. 156. 86. 154. 80. 219. 248. 135. 246. 262. 33 literal. 221. 219. 438 Middle Dutch. 11. 11 life force. 235 . 294. 252. 223. 12. 191. 247. 438 functional. 181–187. 252 LGP equivalent. 69. 87 burden of. 41. 251. 206. 11. 439 People’s Republic of China (PRC). 95. 150. 144–146. 29 loan. 82. 13. 218. 182 Chinese. 33–35. 238 presupposed. 437 LGP equivalents. 162. 13. 241 literary Chinese. 86. 149. 437 loan-words. 437 LGP equivalence. 263. 28. 438 formal. 250. 248. 35 naturalness. 25. 114. 73. 178. 150 peg. 1. 247. 47. 236 parataxis. 58. 1 complementary. 44. 274. 191. 151 object. 246–250. 64.Subject Index 237. 35 Malay. 149. 206.. 145. 54 loanword. 260. 1 Western. 217. 134. 222. 138. 246. 271–273. 55 mnemonic rhymes. 273. 33 propositional. 269. 190. 150 meaning. 269. 121. 125. 36. 111. 66. 66. 260. 73. 87. 71. 36–38. 38 paraphrase. 67. 151. 245. 121 morphological change. 246– 250. 275. 237–241. 181. 38. 438 motivation in term formation. 261. 93. 225. 216. 69. 96. 265. 239. 437 literal translation. 238–241. 163. 70– 73. 209 literature on. 194. 74 metaphor. 179 Nahuatl. 91. 296 Japanese. 439 P¯ny¯n. 124. 194 mode. 287 moxibustion. 70. 242. 65. 189. 37 Middle English. 54. 191. 47. 184 Meiji. 40. 122. 438 Old Chinese. 246. 252. 234–238. 269. 116. 216. 140–149. 63. 268. 202. 138. 108. 126 motivating sense. 23. 13. 125. 253. 1. 145. 437 literary translation. 12. 289. 66. 80. 123 loans. 62. 200 medicine alternative. 66. 237. 165– 167. 218. 117. 437 lookups burden of. 63. 33–35. 196. 10. 1 Korean. 185 lit. 286. 110. 69. 94. 168. 245 ease of. 73. 177 register. 277. 277. 40 Sanskrit. 249–251. 440 terminologisation. 117. 176. 73–75. 223. 11. 146. 184 ı o Qur’¯ n. 289. 292. 124. 193. 221. 439 source-oriented translation. 259. 235 a a target. 56 Syrian. 7. 73. 28. 178. 440 target language. 202. 149. 61. 152–154. 214. 22 token. 439 substratum. 27 Tibetan. 69. 122. 97. 439 semantic extension. 7. 154. 12. 135. 440 transcription. 226. 1–8. 298 source-independent formation. 151. 54 semantic-phonetic compounds. 209. 440 anthropological. 21 Russian. 41. 162 polequivalence. 30. 267. 30. 238. 241 gloss. 48. 28 source language. 150 psychospiritual practices. 237. 211. 125. 184 pragmatics. 266. 35 synonymy. 279. 27 Proto-Miao. 21. 126. 118. 263. 184 q`g¯ ng. 32 history of. 31. 73. 55. 28 interlinear. 37. 47 speculative nature of concepts. 123. 27 return loans. 439 Spain. 241 . 439 skopos theory. 21. 32 character-for-word/morpheme. 17 systematic metaphor. 240. 283. 224. 68–71. 123–125. 298. 17 a reduplication. 170. 39 semantic change. 164. 241. 247. 195. 71. 150. 296. 237 Septuagint. 71. 24. 27 stative verb. 25. 261 speech acts. 440 term-formation. 97. 268. 47. 234. 61. 91. 258. 13. 34. 279. 256. 19 instrumental. 164. 238. 220. 28 domesticating. 19 translation. 161. 160 sense. 34. 29 postmodernism. 155. 177. 237. 249–251. 16 superstratum. 35 suffixation. 32 phonetic attrition. 27. 29 etymologising. 150 Proto-Tai. 269. 279.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Philippines. 259. 69. 226. 66. 10–15. 20. 440 term translation. 149. 296. 145. 73. 280 terminography. 47 Rome. 93. 94. 17. 38 semantic translation. 178. 75. 164 text linguistics. 287. 260 T´ iw¯ n. 235 Scandinavian languages. 38. 91. 16 signific. 54. 251. 24 literal. 299 semantic triangle. 7. 211. 440 terminological rigor. 126 semantic equivalent. 10. 440 tenor. 11. 116. 440 target-oriented translation. 234. 440 term formation. 56 polysystem theory. 92–94. 439 phonological attrition. 439 simile. 287. 265. 27 term. 19 specialisation. 152 Sumeria. 127 terminology. 32. 94 documentary. 277. 240–242. 439 motivating. 41. 439 polysemy. 440 Chinese medical. 250. 159. 30 Bible. 278. 54. 439 source-dependency. 299. 22. 63. 251 polyequivalence. 271–275. 234–238 translated literature figures for. 177. 262. 41 philological translation. 220. 97. 118. 56. 150 Vulgate. 291 translation from Arabic. 7. 234. 21. 205 unity of term and concept. 61. 71. 200. 32. 66. 30. 441 active. 277. 283. 64 use of in translation. 262. 178. 296. 69. 235 verb.Subject Index philological. 209. 265. 240–242. 436 stative. 287. 243 word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme. 18 translation in China. 279. 440 unit of translation. 206 word-for-word translation. 32 semantic. 154 Vietnamese. 19. 35. 20 transparency. 441 Vedism. 1–8. 268. 284. 441 United Kingdom. 159. 249– 251. 269. 71. 243. 298. 202. 264. 271–275. 16–18 translation theory history of. 94. 3. 30. 299 target-oriented. 94. 193. 10–15. 159. 2. 291 yoga. 69. 244. 211. 243. 439 verb combinations. 238. 223. 92–94. 16 translation into Latin. 284. 266. 19 translation into Arabic. 244. 292. 241. 289. 263. 17 Western medical terms. 256. 17 translation into Greek. 13. 247. 262. 195. 237. 287. 440 Turkish. 37 type. 243 word/morpheme-for-word/morpheme translation. 34. 199. 93. 279. 168 universal. 118. 184 . 265 Western medicine. 277. 267. 18 translation in the 20th century. 17. 94. 226 word-for-word. 91. 202. 209 United States. 237. 17 translation from Chinese. 258. 226. 73–75. 16. 299 source-oriented. 205. Translation of Chinese Medical Terms . as follows: g l lt i LGP/CM equivalents Loans Loan-translations Souce-independent formations : Single underlining marks terms that are source-independent formations or changed elements in loan translations. lt lt dermis. A dagger (†) following a Chinese term indicates that the Chinese term is a loan-translation that follows a model not represented in the English (usually German). An asterisk following a Chinese term indicates that the Chinese term is the equivalent * cutis vera. of two or more SL terms of which it is the loan-translation of one (e. : Double underlining marks a word added in the translation process. Each entry is headed with a mark showing term formation category. Structure of the Body i lt i i i lt i lt lt lt lt lt lt lt g lt lt lt i lt lt nervous tissue membrane mucous membrane mucosa serous membrane synovia synovial membrane integumentary system lt respiratory system cell. tissue organ gland system i cyte- lt lt digestive system genitourinary system lt endocrine system cell membrane organelle cytoplasm nucleus nucleolus connective tissue epithelial tissue muscle tissue lt g nervous system foramen duct g . g lt musculoskeletal system lt g g ductule canal sac papilla cardiovascular system g g . cellul-.APPENDIX I: THE DEGREE OF SOURCE-ORIENTATION OF THE CHINESE TERMINOLOGY OF WESTERN MEDICINE This appendix is a list of English Western medical terms with their Chinese equivalents that provides the basis for the study contained in Chapter 3.. lt corium).g. g lt lt lt lt lt lt tinea barbae tinea pedis .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms i ampulla meatus g . g lt g i i ! dermatosis psoriasis vitiligo paronychia urticaria Integumentary System lt g g lt lt integument skin. muscul-. i chondrmuscle. lt * cutis vera. ten(d(in)-. g oss-. lt stratum corneum epidermidis g g my(os)ligament tendon. lt tinea capitis tinea unguium tinea cruris pediculosis pediculosis capitis . lt lt dermis boil i g % corium sweat gland sebaceous gland hair follicle pigment & lt lt lt lt g lt lt g i i i ' ten(on(t)fascia aponeurosis bursa & hair arrector pili muscle subcutaneous tissue veruca g ( cranium. inflammatory vesicle blister bulla erosion ulcer fissure nodule papule / 0 pediculosis corporis lt lt g lt g g 1 pediculosis pubis phthiriasis scabies keloid burn laceration 2 maxilla mandible turbinate bones zygomatic bone 2 4 5 shoulder girdle scapula 4 5 . . lt lt i lt lt g lt lt i lt g g i g lt g 3 ) * skull frontal bone parietal bone nasal bone lacrimal bone occipital bone temporal bone ethmoid bone sphenoid bone vomer tinea corporis g lt g lt lt g g i g g lt lt i nails lesion infection . g g g g g g g scar cicatrix tumor wheal itching. g derm(at)-. - inflammation lt lt lt . lt + . i pus. pur-. cartilag(in)-. cut(an)epidermis. crani-. pyMusculoskeletal System g g i $ cuticle g lt i g ? lt g g i lt lt lt g g suppuration necrosis gangrene swelling eczema dermatitis acne furuncle. pruritus g lt " # cutis. herpes herpes genitalis herpes simplex herpes zoster verruca wart. g g stratum granulosum epidermidis skeleton bone. g osteo- lt stratum granulosum epidermidis cartilage. g s fixator lt k external oblique 7 K u corrugator arrector lt muscle of the abdomen A M M K iliopsoas muscle pectineal muscle sartorius muscle N v w supinator lt O v x pronator lt P articul-. a sinus c platysma Sitzbein) lt b symphysis prominence tuberosity striated muscle smooth muscle cardiac muscle lt lt lt muscle deltoid muscle 7 d e Schambein) lt g g g g g g g lt g D C f d greater pectoral pelvis femur patella tibia fibula tarsal bones metatarsal bones phalanges g h muscle x i anterior serratus muscle lt 9 E j adductor abductor extensor flexor levator depressor dilator biceps muscle of F k l the arm lt G m latissimus dorsi muscle H n lt lt 9 ? brachial muscle : o I J vertebral column vertebra. spondyl- 9 brachioradial p muscle lt I K q g lt lt lt g g g L K r constrictor t rectus abdominis muscle cervical vertebrae thoracic vertebrae lumbar vertebrae sacrum coccyx joint. great adductor k { g myel- muscle | } . † pubic bone (Ger. g long adductor v rotator invertor evertor sphincter lt muscle j { Q medull-. lt lt lt lt lt y tensor lt j z g g g P arthrarticulation marrow. g \ @ lt g ] 7 6 Z @ g lt g lt g i lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt i i ! groove ` .Appendix I: Source-Orientation in Chinese Terminology of Western Medicine g g g ? g g g g g g g lt < 7 sternum rib humerus radius ulna carpal bones metacarpal bones / ? lt lt g g i lt lt g K R vertebral arch i i lt lt lt . ~ origin insertion temporal muscle frontal muscle orbicular muscle 8 S lamina T 9 @ acetabulum : U malleolus W ) V olecranon acromion xiphoid process g 4 X of the eye lt = Y Z orbicular muscle of the mouth > phalanges hipbone os coxae ilium foramen fossa . g ^ spine sternocleidomastoid muscle lt L A _ incisure B † ischium (Ger. lt muscle of the wrist lt tenontitis bursitis sprain rheumatism middle gluteal muscle lt g lt greatest gluteal muscle g lt P arthritis gout lt & semitendinous g g lt M muscle lt k angi- low back pain I K vastus lateralis † artery (Ger. . I schistorachis long peroneal g Achilles tendon) acute chronic progressive deformity congenital . Herzkammer) paralysis . lt fracture dislocation subluxation muscular dystrophy muscle lt lt ? m soleus muscle long extensor g lt lt g lt muscle of the toes lt lt lt - occipitalis muscle trapezius muscle infraspinatus Cardiovascular System g lt lt dysfunction lt heart.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms lt rectus femoris muscle lt j great adductor lt g $ osteomalacia rickets osteogenesis muscle lt lt lt gracilis muscle vastus medialis muscle biceps muscle of the thigh lt imperfecta short peroneal lt lt I I J lt F spina bifida spinal lt E x anterior tibial lt muscle ? n Q muscle lt F long flexor lt lt g lt lt lt meningocele I J gastrocnemius lt muscle of the toes & rachischisis J muscle lt F calcaneal tendon (syn. vas(cul)-. Sclagader) P muscle lt ankylosing spondylitis semimembranous lt i lt vein. i i lt lt lt lt lt lt lt g lt lt g lt k valve tricuspid valve mitral valve bicuspid valve aortic valve semilunar valve myocardium endocardium pericardium epicardium blood vessels. g cardi- muscle lt lt lt 9 motor myalgia spasm # teres major muscle teres minor muscle triceps muscle of lt ? g i † ventricle (Ger. g the arm lt : < m paresis myasthenia long radial lt extensor muscle of the wrist lt < m gravis lt myositis & ulnar extensor lt tendinitis. atrium g cord-. i phleb- osteoporosis muscle † aorta (Ger. Appendix I: Source-Orientation in Chinese Terminology of Western Medicine lt lt lt R vena cava arch internal carotid lt E w posterior tibial lt A common iliac artery lt w vein posterior pedis lt lt A k L external iliac vein R artery lt L k artery external carotid lt lt F = palmar arch palmar digital peroneal artery a lt = > artery lt L superior sagittal lt veins femoral vein k common carotid lt sinus a artery lt 6 inferior sagittal lt external (short) subclavian lt sinus L k saphenous vein external jugular lt lt E w artery lt lt lt lt 9 popliteal vein posterior tibial axillary artery brachial artery hepatic artery superior mesenteric artery lt lt vein L internal jugular lt vein E x vein brachiocephalic vein lt anterior tibial vein lt R dorsal venous lt lt lt lt lt celiac trunk splenic artery gastric artery renal artery superior vena cava l arch of the foot lymph. abdominal aorta inferior mesenteric artery hem(at)-. g i i lt lt lt g lt lt lt 6 subclavian vein cephalic vein great cardiac vein axillary vein lt lt lt lt g testicular/ovarian (gonadal) artery lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt 9 brachial veins hepatic veins portal vein basilic vein splenic vein median sanguin-. lymphlymphocyte lymph(atic) vessel lymph node lymph gland blood. emplasma serum S lt A common iliac platelet thrombocyte red blood artery lt lt lt lt lt = R > digital arteries radial artery ulnar artery deep palmar arch superficial palmar lt lt lt basilic vein median cephalic vein superior mesenteric vein renal veins : corpuscle/cell lt lt erythrocyte white blood corpuscle/cell = R arch lt lt lt E x lt i leukocyte angina pectoris myocardial infarction femoral artery popliteal artery anterior tibial lt testicular/ovarian vein lt lt inferior . laryngnasopharynx oropharynx laryngopharynx trachea lung.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms i lt # heart attack k lt lt heart transplant ? g asthma asphyxiation bronchitis pneumonia 7 cerebrovascular accident g lt lt coronary bypass lt lt y lt lt lt lt stroke arteriosclerosis vasodilator vasopressor pleurisy pleural effusion pulmonary Respiratory System atherosclerosis g g g g lt lt lt ? g g lt i lt i lt lt g 7 + + 7 nose. u amygdale) hay fever bronchospasm tachycardia lt lt electrocardiograph electrocardiogram (ECG. Mandel(dr¨ se)). thoracic empyema pneumothorax pulmonary i lt lt lt lt aneurysm heart murmur hemophilia myocarditis rheumatic heart disease 7 lt 7 tuberculosis lt pulmo-. lt i lt + # $ % whooping cough pertussis a paranasal # $ % sinuses lt diphtheria & ' ( † tonsils (Ger. + . g rhin- lt lt † anemia (Ger. EKG) lt ) * dysphonia - adenoids. (Fr. pharynglarynx. g lt lt lt lt emphysema 7 hemothorax pyothorax. adenoid vegetation (Ger. rale lt / 0 hypoxia lt q k open heart uvula 1 . pulmonary fibrosis lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt endocarditis pericarditis thrombosis embolus embolism fibrillation phlebitis pneum(on)thoracic cavity pleura pleural cavity bronchus bronchioles (pulmonary) alveolus epiglottis lt lt lt lt i lt lt lt lt g g g lt lt lt lung cancer laryngitis pharyngitis + 7 7 rhinitis ! allergy + ! allergic rhinitis + a sinusitis " y transient ischemic attack (TIA) lt lt lt lt g g 8 intercostal muscles diaphragm mediastinum bronchiectasis tonsillitis g leukemia hypertension hypotension . hypercapnia - hyperventilation anoxia lt cardiac catheterization Rachenmandelwucherungen) g / . lt lt lt lt l / . g nas-. Blutarmut) + nostrils pharynx. rect/ F F b dilatation catarrh : proct- d 7 8 anus peritoneum mesentery c 9 _ lobectomy -ectomy ` _ : e 6 ) * dysphagia _ : laryngectomy rhinoplasty -plasty thoracentesis centesis G tongue. f cleft lip (palate) malnutrition esophagitis stomatitis glossitis h glossteeth salivary gland pancreatic liver. esophagstomach.(Ger. Crohn’s Y Z lt B appendix † colon. gastrintestine. Y Z disease lt r s @ regional Grimmdarm) lt C ] loss of appetite anorexia g ileitis t ascending colon = \ ^ hemorrhoids . c 6 g lip-. g Eiweiß) g lt g g i lt g g g i g i i i lt ? lt = \ T j Q R S + M gastroenteritis = 6 or-. bowel. intestin-. col. stomach-.Appendix I: Source-Orientation in Chinese Terminology of Western Medicine g g lt g g g l lt lt lt lt lt lt lt 7 < ^ + " y 5 % 2 cough wheezing ) * lt lt lt g g g g i i g g transverse colon D g lt g g g g g g lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt i G = c _ stomachache epigastric pain nausea a 3 4 splenic flexure descending colon sigmoid colon dyspnea p hemoptysis 6 E ` vomiting diarrhoea constipation hemafecia hematemesis exudation rectum. g stomat- fats. lt alimentary canal lt L cholecyst† proteins (Ger. g g lingu-. g Z k hernia ? jejunum ileum. anorexia nervosa lt lt g lt g g g g g g g g g g lt i lt A > = digestive tract mouth. g enter- digestion absorption elimination peristalsis V small intestine > stomach cancer j duodenum . g g lt g g H I < ^ J hepat- g sialithiasis gastritis = \ ^ Gastrointestinal System lt g K gallbladder. ilelarge intestine caecum O U colitis l @ T defecation Y Z polyposis o q p @ W X metabolism anabolism catabolism (6 ) secretion m n . g adip- lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt g lt g lt food poisoning pancreatitis peptic ulcer gastric ulcer oral cavity esophagus. g carbohydrates J N O sugars fiber vitamins trace elements > > duodenitis appendicitis peritonitis B O gut. lt w x y pyloric stenosis lt lt lt lt lt g urinary frequency c z laparotomy q urinary urgency genitalia genitals _ -tomy colostomy lact-. cysturethra g vesic-. lt i leiomyoma ~ cystolithiasis nephropyosis renal failure uremia proteinuria pubis vulva labia clitoris pubic hair lt lt lt uteri trichomoniasis trichomonas trichomonas vaginalis . Bauchwassersucht) lt lt lt nycturia oliguria polyuria 0 lt i lt lt lt lt lt lt K cholecystitis cirrhosis c . g g v pyuria anuria enuresis nocturia. B O _ : appendectomy gastrectomy k external genitalia sex glands gonads ovary ovum _ : amenorrhea Genitourinary System g g lt lt c leukorrhea y c kidney. . galactmastalgia dysmenorrhea . g lt lt g lt | uterine tubes fallopian tubes uterus endometrium L premenstrual syndrome (PMS) lt lt lt lt lt lt lt | ^ urine lt lt g | { | renal pelvis ureter .Translation of Chinese Medical Terms g g lt lt lt lt K h u fistula beriberi hepatitis cholelithiasis h lt lt lt g lt T ) * dysuria g lt g g g g lt lt g g i g g lt lt g g lt x breasts mammary gland embryo fetus umbilical cord menstruation menstrual period menstrual cycle reproduction pregnancy lactation milk. nephr- g g ren-. lt agalactia ovarian cyst salpingitis vaginitis colpitis endometritis } ~ bladder. lt g lt lt ? lt cervix uteri g lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt L } } ~ placenta fimbriae vagina hymen p urinary meatus nephritis cystitis pyelitis urinary calculus nephrolithiasis h . lt K gallstones † ascites (Ger. lt x endometriosis lt { Bartholin’s glands lt g i g lt i lt f endometrial carcinoma h mons pubis s h pudendum. R¨ ckenmark) u lt lt lt lt lt $ _ hysterectomy oophorectomy colporrhaphy : * pituitary gland . lt neur- gland g g g g g ~ thyromegaly lt lt I cranial nerves spinal nerves † ganglion (Ger. glandular aden- lt † spinal cord (Lat. (Ger. cerebr- lt k extrauterine lt lt lt lt s pregnancy g g l g lt lt lt lt lt lt | | m vasectomy circumcision orchiopexy lt lt lt abortion miscarriage shock eclampsia hydrosalpinx ~ Z _ cerebellum. encephalon. i prostate * goiter. testicle epididymis seminal ducts i i lt lt lt g lt g i lt lt lt lt 7 thymus adrenal glands suprarenal glands lt cerebrospinal fluid autonomic nervous system lt i J pancreas. nerv-. Nervenknote) scrotum penis glans penis foreskin erection lt e exophthalmic goiter g g lt tetany tetanus i lt synapse S neuron . pancreatacromegaly gigantism cretinism dwarfism N 0 peripheral nervous system | ductus deferens vas deferens duct of the seminal lt sympathetic nervous system | i i lt vesicle lt lt x i hypoglycemia myxedema i parasympathetic nervous system nerve. i ejaculatory duct . } cystocele : medulla spinalis). cerebellgrey matter white matter brain stem I Q t Endocrine System i i lt lt lt lt lt lt i gland. glandul-.Appendix I: Source-Orientation in Chinese Terminology of Western Medicine lt } ~ u g lt lt lt lt x ~ impotence impotence cryptorchidism prostatitis orchitis epididymitis | i _ : i central nervous system vesicovaginal fistula lt lt vaginal carcinoma ectopic pregnancy g g i i brain. hypophysis pineal gland thyroid gland parathyroid glands _ : meninges dura mater arachnoid pia mater I Q c _ salpingectomy i i lt g lt lt lt lt lt i i semen sperm spermatozoon testis. encephalcerebrum cerebral. g ot- centralis retinae lt % auricle pinna helix earlobe external auditory suspensory ligament of the lens g neuralgia lt lt lt lt I B eyelid. corne-. tympanglaucoma lt lt lt lt lt myringmalleus incus stapes cavity of the middle ear Eye g g lt lt lt lt lt i lt lt g i ? cataract chalazion S eye. g ocul-. _ q dacryocystotomy lt _ : iridectomy . irid-. humor lt aqueous lt lt . meningocele poliomyelitis multiple lt lt lt p blindness hyperopia myopia presbyopia strabismus keratitis conjunctivitis blepharitis . iritpupil. vitreous humor retina optic nerve lacrimal gland lacrimal sac . dacryocystitis hordeolum sty lt lt lt lt lt lt lt . lt sclerosis lt lt lt lt lt i Alzheimer’s disease lt senile dementia tympanum. iri-. g A sciatica I Q blephar- . lens g chalazion trachoma retinopathy detached retina detachment of lt lt internal ear bony semicircular canals the retina lt lt lt retinitis iritis corneal ulcer keratoconus uveitis lt i lt lt lt cochlea labyrinth * auditory tube. pupil(l)-. g g g palpebr-. + nasolacrimal duct \ Ear g g lt g g lt k fovea ear. i i lt lt lt lt ophthalmsclera cornea.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms lt lt lt lt g lt i lt lt lt lt lt 8 facial paralysis cerebral palsy botulism encephalitis epilepsy hematoma herpes herpes zoster hydrocephalus meningitis neuralgia intercostal lt . g lt . keratconjunctiva uvea choroid ciliary body iris. i lt g lt lt lt lt meatus k Q external ear canal cerumen middle ear tympanic membrane eardrum . g aur-. eustachian tube eustachian cor- lt lt . g lt g H anodontia bruxism periodontosis gingiva. dent-. deciduous teeth permanent teeth ul- ? lt lt H g lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt G x H H gingivitis H canine teeth (canines) H T premolars Infectious Diseases lt T H molars cuspids H Meni` re’s e H staphylococcal infection i disease lt lt lt lt lt _ : _ q bicuspids tricuspids streptococcal infection otosclerosis tympanoplasty myringotomy otoplasty stapedectomy H lingual surface facial surface mesial surface distal surface c g i g lt # common cold. cold influenza measles # * German lt . rubella surface Teeth g i lt lt i lt H H cholera smallpox. lt c occlusal g g g g measles. g odont- lt i i g i lt H dental calculus chickenpox typhoid I Q enamel cementum dentin Q h lt poliomyelitis ( H caries abscess pyorrhea lt g g dengue fever H pulp pulp cavity diphtheria thrush H Q . g lt g H dental plaque h variola tooth.Appendix I: Source-Orientation in Chinese Terminology of Western Medicine lt lt lt lt lt lt lt lt ? k otitis externa otitis media tympanitis myringitis otitis interna labyrinthitis aerotitis p g H gum. gingiv-. . l 8 wˇ z` ng suˇ zhˇ . ı / p´. 14. extra meridians: w d¯ m` i. five elements: ı m` . summer heat. tears. Yin. — + xi´ q`. Yang (hollow) organ: a a a a a a stomach. blood vessels. : 21. — 13. D 16. spleen. = a a < t` i y¯n. b s¯ n ji¯ o. heart. P < ju´ y¯n. a biˇ o. cold. \ = sh` o y´ ng. pericardium ı a o kidney. — f + gˇ q`. Greater Yin. : = l` i. ı a o a y´ ng m´ng. Yang ı a x´ng. l 4. wind. w ch¯ ng m` i. 8 z` ng. sour. six excesses: " f¯ ng. 6 17. ı r` u. e a 20. — a o jiˇ qi` o. e h` n. ı 12. w lu` m` i. sweet. water ı e 3. g¯ n. small intestine. 2 xu` . Nourishing Qi. meridian. h tu` . Sunlight Yang. T w` i. — u o xi` ng huˇ . muscle meridians ı ı li` y´n. — + zh¯ n q`. connecting meridians. u w xu` m` i. triple warmer 9. lung. j¯ng j¯n. — ı e j¯ n huˇ . muscles. — O + zh` ng q`. skin. — (replaced with ‘urine’) o mucus. a g¯ n. Governing vessel. ı ı a a u a 19. 2 ı kˇ . 18. — + yu´ n q`. evil Qi a ı ı ı e ı e ı a a 7. Lesser Yang. Yin (solid) organ: . + y´ng q`. Qi. Protecting Qi. 5. \ a ı j¯ng m` i. ! : o a a a Conception v. saliva. — : + j¯ng q`. bone ı a u x _ j¯n. = y¯n y´ ng. Jing ı sh´ n. liquid and humour (fluid) ı e 11. fat. Absolute Yin a ı e ı w w q´ j¯ng b¯ m` i. Girdle v. d e p´ ng gu¯ ng. + d` o ı e ı ı ı u ı a ı q`. meridians: : ı o t` i y´ ng. 7 f` i. u o u ı shuˇ. a xi´ n. l tˇ . ı e e u dˇ n. blood j¯ng. a ı a a sh` o y¯n. damp u ı . Greater Yang. salt. hot. 15. fire. essence. —: u a o u p´ m´ o. Penetrating v. — u a w F < # # G j¯ng lu` . " xiˇ o ch´ ng. — ı + yu´ n q`. ? j¯n. a shˇ . o e 10. — a @ m`ng m´ n. 4 gˇ . " d` ch´ ng. e a x¯n. liver. 6 6 x¯n. x¯n b¯ o lu` . flavour: d` n. large intestine. energy of life: + w` i q`. # huˇ . sweat. a t`. a a a e 8. ı j¯n y` . wood.APPENDIX II: SELECTED TERMINOLOGIES OF CHINESE MEDICINE I. — + j¯ng q`. r` n m` i. ! sh¯. < 2. earth. bladder.. — u + z¯ ng q`. a xi´ n. Lesser Yin. u ı e h´ n. W w` i. Mann’s Terminology (1962/1971) 1. + q`. gall bladder. ^ sh` n. — a su¯ n. spirit. 9 fˇ . J lˇ. metal. X w d` i m` i. Shen e ı e ı ı ı a 6. bitter. — a ı q` zh`. fullness and emptiness u ı + r / T = 7 g¯ n q` f` n w` i. 4 36. E 24. — ı e sh´ l´n. 55. — a a . — ı u ı a f¯ ng r` sh` f` i. — u u o e hu` t´ n. + 25. — e u gˇ zh¯ ng. 6 31. K 59. 34. 28. 40. 32. — ı f¯ ng r` yˇ n. — a a b¯ n t´ n. — ı ı xu` y¯ . — a a U ji` ng q`. tonify. — a u x¯ sh´. — ı a chuˇ n c` . — a 23. — e u i x¯n xi` pˇ. . — e e u e g¯ n y´ ng hu` huˇ . sedate u e Z hu´ y´ ng ji` n`. — e e l´n zh` ng. — o a f¯ ng b`. 50. E t´ n. — e o $ b`. — ı a f´ n z` o. 35. 49. 33. ! 52. — ı ı xi¯ o kˇ . — a a x¯n f´ n. " 48. — o e hu` lu` n. — u e ji´ xi¯ ng. — a a a o m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i. 58. 44. Z E = G 6 + 2 # = @ t´ n yˇn. — a ı p` xu` . 6 27. — a ı ¯ e k¯ i qi` o. . 63. 37. X 30. 38. — e o $ X i " n zh` ng f¯ ng. 42. — a a j¯ j´. — e e o o d¯ n d´ . 45. 2 26. m 39. — u ı n` d¯ i. — a o Z # # bˇ xi` . k 60. W 29. — a e b¯ ng l` u. 46. — ı a ı y´ ni` o. " 53. 43. " 47. — o e 2 q¯ y¯ hu´ xu` . 51. 62. 56. Z 54. — a u d` i xi` . " 41. — ı a u ı yˇ ng x¯n an sh´ n.Appendix II: Selected Terminologies of Chinese Medicine 22. I 57. — e ı wˇ i zh` ng. — a ı a e sh¯ k` n p´ y´ ng. — ı e o a hu` huˇ . 61. — e e a f¯ ng r` t´ u t` ng. sinarteria u a r` n m` i. o. sinarteries. primordial ch’i. ^ sh` n. yin flectens a ı e ı 19. yin maior. splendor yang. ! : regens. repletio. 8 z` ng. renalis. " d` ch´ ng. ignis ministri. hs¨ eh e a u xi´ n. algor. T a a p´ ng gu¯ ng. \ < sh` o y¯n. heteropathy e ı a a ı ı 7. 23. correct ch’i.P. u o 2. metalli. e u 3. saliva a m`ng m´ n. g¯ n. defensive energy.P Water ı Fire. transvectus ligni. tricalorii a 9. t. humiditas. o. u ı z` o. dampness. sovereign fire u o xi` ng huˇ . individually specific structive energy 4. configurative force e ı e ı 6. sinews and muscles. yin. cardinal conduit ch’i. ! sh¯. sinarteriae reticulares. + y´ng q`. conduits: : w j¯ng m` i. t. e e x¯n b¯ o lu` . s. : 21. + xi´ q`. l 8 mo. o. biˇ o. h t`. b s¯ n a a a 2 wˇ z` ng suˇ zhˇ . humi. orbes aulici. ch’i ı e ı cardinale. sinarteriae cardinales. + yu´ n q`. sinarteriae. zonalis 20. 9 fˇ . ch’i merum. E. impedimentalis. e a o a a a j¯ng j¯n. drain off u e . + yu´ n a ı ı ı q`. # huˇ . dryness. repletion u ı bˇ xi` . sour. ı r` u. t. sinarteriae nervocardinales. 5. replenish. a w xu` m` i. odd conduits. —: u a o u j¯n. shen. o. yin orbs: w` i. t. < t` i y¯n. ch’i defenı ı a ı sivum. structive potential ı sh´ n. O + zh` ng q`. orbis felleus.P. bitter. + q`. s. configurational energy. ı a u kˇ . ı j¯n y` . u g¯ n. alimentary ch’i. ariditas. ı tu` . E. 6 u dˇ n. nasal secretions. o. = F y´ ng m´ng. wind. Gate of Destiny ı e j¯ n huˇ . intestini tenuis. 4 gˇ . ch’i orthopathicum. u ı e h´ n.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 65. yin orbs: . j¯ng. : o a a a dinal conduits. ch’i frumentarium. \ = sh` o y´ ng. skin and body hair. yang ı a x´ng. hs¨ eh. six climatic or seasonal excesses: " f¯ ng. D 16. cardialis. inanitas. a 8. + zh¯ n q`. s. ignis principis. o. Earth. ? j¯n. flavor: _ su¯ n. ignis. sweat. flavorless a salty. ı 12. orbis hepaticus. + j¯ng q`. a xi´ n. stomachi. constructive energy. nine specific body openings u a # # G j¯ng lu` . + d` q`. a e a 10. u + z¯ ng q`. = t` i y´ ng. P < ju´ y¯n. chin. ch’i constructivum. o ı e ı ch’i magnum. ı ı a a w d¯ m` i. Five Evolutive Phases: ı m` . J lˇ. sapor. orthopathy. E. aquae. genetic ch’i. ventus. 2 xu` . nervus. 15. flesh.P. 14. yang a ı a a a ı maior. cold. o. 7 f` i. carı o ı a 18.P Metal. : + j¯ng q`. exhaustion. vesicalis. sinarteriae cardinales. original ch’i. sweet. intima 13. ı ı u ı a true ch’i. pungent. d e a a ji¯ o. configuratio. o. species a @ h` n. + lˇ q`. pericardialis ı a o lienalis. Porkert’s Terminology (1978) 1. heteropathic ch’i. l u ı shuˇ. yeh. 6 x¯n. ı e e 11. X w d` i m` i. E. yin minor. 6 17. f + gˇ q`. 22. I w w q´ j¯ng b¯ m` i. x¯n. energetic configuration: + w` i q`. respondens. muscle conduits ı ı li` y´n. active and structive fluids: l` i. Wood. ignis. d` n. ministerial fire a o jiˇ qi` o. o p´ m´ o. bone. tears. E. ch’i originale. intestini crassi. saliva renalis o lienalis. l tˇ . fire a o x¯ sh´. x " e xiˇ o ch´ ng. W w` i. great ch’i. porta fortunae. o. reticular conduits. w ch¯ ng m` i. o. ch’i genuinum. pulmonalis. — ı ı II. a shˇ . yang minor. < = y¯n y´ ng. ching. / p´. damp heat. ch’i heteropathicum. # huˇ . w lu` m` i. ch’i primum. ching-ch’i. orbes horreales. skin surface. wind. wood. viscera: . = F y´ ng m´ng. collaterals. 6 y¯ xu` . e m`ng m´ n. O + zh` ng q`. " xiˇ o ch´ ng. \ = sh` o y´ ng. + yu´ n q`. renal orb. / p´. liquid nutrients ı e 11. —: u a o u j¯n. essence ı sh´ n. ?? 23. Five Evolutive Phases: ı 2. u + z¯ ng q`. E 24. sweat. yin. Extra Channels: w d¯ m` i. 6 x¯n. body fluid.Appendix II: Selected Terminologies of Chinese Medicine III. hepatic orb. u ı z` o. Taiyang. 15. muscles distributed along the Twelve Regular Channels ı ı li` y´n. a a a ı reticular conduits. channels and collaterals: : w j¯ng m` i. : + j¯ng q`. l 8 flesh. a t`. W w` i. Ministerial Fire a o jiˇ qi` o. slobber. body resistance. Yangming. 6 8. mild-flavoured a a salty. six excessive or untimely atmospheric influences: " f¯ ng. Shaoyang. bitter. Taiyin. w lu` m` i. vitality. a h` n. e a g¯ n. splenic e e x¯n b¯ o lu` . Yin a ı e ı Maximum. X w d` i m` i. 7 f` i. dryness. b s¯ n ji¯ o. + d` q`. stuffiness in the gastric region ı a ı . + ı ı u ı yu´ n q`. exterior a @ kˇ . interior 13. Ren (Front Middle) Channel. stagnated blood) u e x¯n xi` pˇ. 6 17. pungent. (orb of the) large intestine. bowels: u dˇ n. Conception Meridian. Vital Channel. blood 4. ! : w r` n m` i. q` stagnation ı ı ı xu` y¯ . food energy. o xi´ n. cardial orb. tears. 2 xu` . Yin Minimum. fire a o t´ n yˇn. sweet. a ı o ı e ı + j¯ng q`. pericardium ı a o orb. Five Elements. + 25. spittle o snivel. f + gˇ q`. ı 12. Yin in Equilibrium w q´ j¯ng b¯ m` i. defence energy. metal. + y´ng q`. # huˇ . u l` i. a x¯n. earth. channel. j¯ng j¯n. a a a T w` i. " d` ch´ ng. x wˇ z` ng suˇ zhˇ . ı shuˇ. l tˇ . dampness. E t´ n. u ı e shˇ . Shaoyin. yang ı a m` . 2 26. # huˇ . (orb of the) small intestine. ? u o u x´ng. pathogenic factors a a ı ı 7. Xi` ’s Terminology (1984) e 1. \ < sh` o y¯n. cold. Chong Channel. J lˇ. vital essence. vital substance. summer heat. 4 gˇ . ı p´ m´ o. d` n. blood and vessels. — ( e u i 2 h´ n. original vital energy. kidney. 14. + xi´ q`. vital energy a ı a ı ı ı e ı e ı of the conduits. d e p´ ng gu¯ ng. genuine energy. j¯n y` . 9 fˇ . Du (Back Middle) Channel. a r` u. water ı e 3. : = t` i y´ ng. biˇ o. (orb of the) triple burner 9. vital energy: + w` i q`. ch¯ ng m` i. : 21. retention of phlegm and fluid a ı q` zh`. e a w erning Meridian. fire. — u o xi` ng huˇ . Gate of Life ı e j¯ n huˇ . and vital energy. heart. (orb of the) stomach. ! sh¯. constructive energy. + zh¯ n q`. mental faculties e ı e ı ı ı 6. (orb of the) gallbladder. Govı ı a a u a 19. sour. a a 22. pectoral energy. spleen. cosmic energy. pulmonic orb. ı e a 10. < t` i y¯n. flavour: _ su¯ n. taste. sinew. P < ju´ y¯n. bone ı a u 2 w xu` m` i. original vital energy. j¯ng. D 16. 8 z` ng. liver. 5. < = y¯n y´ ng. h tu` . Vital Gate. Belt Channel o a a a 20. ı o ı a o a 18. Jueyin. lung. l j¯n. + q`. Yang Maximum. d` n. a a a ı Yang in Equilibrium. ı xi´ n. ^ sh` n. e a a a a a a (orb of the) urinary bladder. g¯ n. Yang Minimum. nine body orifices or openings u a # # G j¯ng lu` . dyspnoea and tachypnoea a u d` i xi` . morbid leukorrhoea a a x¯n f´ n. erysipelas a u x¯ sh´. ! ternal cold dampness 52. 63. W 29. + E = G 6 + 2 # = @ 7 f¯ ng r` sh` f` i.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 28. 65. K 59. 40. X 30. anorexia a a b¯ n t´ n. restore Yang (vital function) from collapse ı a u ı yˇ ng x¯n an sh´ n. purgation/reduction. excessiveness u ı a ı a e 50. promote or activate blood circulation by removing blood stasis u u o e hu` t´ n. uterine bleeding e o $ b`. 33. resuscitate a a U ji` ng q`. disintegrate masses a ı lˇ q`. CEMD Terminology (1987) 1. 43. 61. Z 64. keep air or gas going downward a ı p` xu` . 46. 56. resolve phlegm a a xi¯ o p´. 45. 35. 32. " 53. accumulation of excessive harmful factor in the chest e o zh` ng f¯ ng. Z 54. 49. ??? a a a o m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i. 37. + r T g¯ n q` f` n w` i. headache due to wind and heat e e o o d¯ n d´ . acute conjunctivitis e e a f¯ ng r` t´ u t` ng. < = ı a y¯n y´ ng. " 41. disturbance of Yang (vital function) of the spleen owing to exı u ı a 51. 44. fidgets ı a f´ n z` o. diabetes a e b¯ ng l` u. nourish the heart and soothe the nerves a ı ¯ e k¯ i qi` o. 6 31. " 47. want of appetite. ?? a o Z # # bˇ xi` . perverted flow of exuberant Qi (vital energy) of the liver leading to dysfunction of the stomach / = sh¯ k` n p´ y´ ng. m 39. regulate the flow of vital energy ı ı IV. 55. bone steaming u e ji´ xi¯ ng. apoplexy o e hu` lu` n. . choleraic disease o a f¯ ng b`. arthralgia due to wind e ı wˇ i zh` ng. rheumatic or rheumatoid arthritis ı f¯ ng r` yˇ n. urolithiasis ı ı xi¯ o kˇ . running piggy e u gˇ zh¯ ng. 58. contracture or subjective sensation of contraction u ı n` d¯ i. irritability and restlessness a a j¯ j´. 4 36. I 57. " 48. 62. decline of the fire of the Vital Gate ı e o a hu` huˇ . 42. flaccid paralysis of the limbs e e l´n zh` ng. urinary disturbance ı e sh´ l´n. eradicate blood stasis o e 2 q¯ y¯ hu´ xu` . reinforcing/replenishing u e Z hu´ y´ ng ji` n`. " n X i chuˇ n c` . yang . 38. k 60. . yin. attack of wind and cold on the lung e e u e g¯ n y´ ng hu` huˇ . insufficiency (or deficiency). 34. # huˇ . w lu` m` i. saliva. f + gˇ q`. = F y´ ng m´ng. 15. bland a su¯ n. genuine qi. vitality. six climatic conditions in excess as pathogenic factors: " f¯ ng. a t`. ! sh¯. \ < sh` o y¯n. < t` i a a a ı a a a a ı e ı y¯n. ı shuˇ. : 21. monarch fire u o xi` ng huˇ . + j¯ng q`. 8 z` ng. l 8 vessels. sputum . Yangming. 18. enuresis ı a chuˇ n c` . wind. blood stasis e u x¯n xi` pˇ. skin and hair. channel qi. ı ı 12. X d¯ m` i. + q`. tears. flavor: e d` n. Dai Channel a a w r` n m` i. stomach. air. P < ju´ y¯n. u ? ı e ı ı ı a 6. urinary bladder. —. irritability a a $ X i h´ n. dyspnoea a u d` i xi` . fire a o t´ n yˇn. E 24. vexation ı a f´ n z` o. 6 31. / p´. a a 22. fu-organ: u dˇ n. 7 f` i. u g¯ n. ying-qi. : + j¯ng q`. genuine energy. 6 a a ı ı e e x¯n b¯ o lu` . 6 17. atmosphere. Jueyin ı w w w q´ j¯ng b¯ m` i. large intestine. W 29. \ = sh` o y´ ng. primordial qi. ı j¯n. qi. small intestine. 9 " fˇ . 4. blood and e a xi´ n. a xi´ n. o l tˇ . spittle o biˇ o. g¯ n. five evolutive phases. dysphoria. Shaoyang. u + z¯ ng q`. 2 xu` . h wˇ z` ng suˇ zhˇ . a a a e d` ch´ ng. + d` o ı e ı ı ı q`. pericardium ı a o 8. + xi´ q`. mentality. collateral. vital energy: + w` i q`. epigastric fullness ı a ı y´ ni` o. pathogen ı 7. D 16. Taiyang. 2 26. essence (of life). J lˇ. water ı e 3.Appendix II: Selected Terminologies of Chinese Medicine 2. sweet. vital ı u ı essence and energy. pectoral qi. Eight Extra-channels: ı ı a a 19. u # huˇ . u a d` i m` i. blood. W 11. 28. Shaoyin. viscera: . Chong Channel. ı j¯n y` . Taiyin. 6 x¯n. defensive energy. + yu´ n q`. — ı ı li` y´n. 23. ı sh´ n. sour. dryness. wood. —: u a o u j¯n. X 30. metal. e h` n. nasal discharge. 5. 4 gˇ . + zh¯ n q`. bone ı a u _ 2 w xu` m` i. w ch¯ ng m` i. essence derived from a ı a ı ı ı e food. + yu´ n q`. a x¯n. ^ sh` n. channels and collaterals: : w j¯ng m` i. gate of life ı e j¯ n huˇ . vital-qi. fidgitiness. ı r` u. E t´ n. j¯ng. 6 27. + 25. retention of phlegm and fluid a ı q` zh`. b s¯ n ji¯ o. ministerial fire a o jiˇ qi` o. a w` i. + y´ng q`. lung. kidney. cold. fire. interior 13. exterior a @ l` i. restlessness. 10. salty. : m`ng m´ n. ! : o a Ren Channel. pathogenic factor. pungent. primordial energy. bitter. liver. l x´ng. phlegm retention. Du Channel. tendon (and muscle). dampness. u ı z` o. O + zh` ng e ı q`. a kˇ . sweat. consciousness and thinking e m` . T w` i. tri-jiao a a a a a a x 9. muscle. d e p´ ng gu¯ ng. i j¯ng j¯n. chi. " xiˇ o ch´ ng. ı o ı a o a = t` i y´ ng. e a 20. o p´ m´ o. stagnation of qi ı ı xu` y¯ . 14. spleen. u ı e shˇ . channel. phlegm. earth. gallbladder. leukorrhoea a a x¯n f´ n. nine orifices u a # # G j¯ng lu` . summer-heat. five elements. heart. body fluids: ı e tu` . 46. metrorrhagia and metrostaxis e o $ b`. fire-transformation a o Z # # 56. u e Z hu´ y´ ng ji` n`. 2 xu` . 38. hyperactive liver-qi attaching the stomach a ı a e sh¯ k` n p´ y´ ng. Z 64. K 59. expel. apoplexy. ı . 55. stagnation-syndrome of qi and blood ( ı f¯ ng r` yˇ n. 61. . restore. disintegrate masses. m 39. 51. Earth. 50. tonify. — a a b¯ n t´ n. j¯ng. strengthen. relieve distention and fullness a ı lˇ q`. l Water e 3. Fire. 45. accumulation of pathogens in the chest e o " n zh` ng f¯ ng. acute conjunctivitis e e a f¯ ng r` t´ u t` ng. regulate the flow of qi ı ı V. stranguria caused by the passage of urinary stone ı ı xi¯ o kˇ . cholera morbus o a b` zh` ng. headache due to pathogenic wind-heat e e o o d¯ n d´ . relieve the stagnation of qi with potent drugs o e 2 q¯ y¯ hu´ xu` . Yang ı a m` . Maciocia’s Terminology (1989) 1. invigorate. purge. wind arthralgia e ı wˇ i zh` ng. 5. 40.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 32. 37. promote blood circulation by removing blood stasis u u o e hu` t´ n. 4 36. 65. ı shuˇ. Five Elements ı 2. diabetes a e b¯ ng l` u. " 53. 62. recuperating depleted yang and rescuing the patient from collapse ı a u ı yˇ ng x¯n an sh´ n. hectic fever due to yin-deficiency u e ji´ xi¯ ng. decline of the fire from the gate of life ı e o a hu` huˇ . resolve phlegm a a xi¯ o p´. blood 4. Mind e huˇ . " 48. sensation of gas rushing (like a running piggy) e u gˇ zh¯ ng. 49. arthralgia-syndrome) ı e f¯ ng b`. 35. transformation of Yang (vital function) of the liver into fire a a a o m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i. supplement. o l tˇ . < = y¯n y´ ng. u ? j¯n. wind-stroke syndrome (of Taiyang) o e hu` lu` n. ! 52. nourishing the heart to calm mind a ı ¯ e k¯ i qi` o. . Metal. reinforce. u # x´ng. 44. I reduce 57. — e e u e g¯ n y´ ng hu` huˇ . erysipelas a u x¯ sh´. sending down abnormally ascending qi a ı p` xu` . Z 54. # = @ j¯ j´. 34. k 60. " 41. contracture or subjective sensation of contraction u ı n` d¯ i. 43. " 47. Yin. Shen. disturbance of spleen-yang due to dampness ı u ı a f¯ ng r` sh` f` i. 33. deficiency and excessive u ı + r / T = 7 g¯ n q` f` n w` i. stranguria ı e sh´ l´n. numbness. + E = G 6 + 2 bˇ xi` . 58. inducing resuscitation a a U ji` ng q`. essence (of life) ı sh´ n. flaccidity syndrome e e l´n zh` ng. 42. 63. Wood. —. Pericardium ı a o Kidney. + yu´ n ı a ı ı ı e ı q`. u ı e 21. \ < sh` o y¯n. : t` i y´ ng. 33. Small intestine. mental restlessness ı a f´ n z` o. + yu´ n q`. Large Intestine. stasis of Blood e u x¯n xi` pˇ. bone ı a u 10. enuresis ı a chuˇ n c` . D 16. Greater Yang. bland a _ su¯ n. h w` i. pathogenic factor e ı a a ı 7. \ = sh` o y´ ng. f + gˇ q`. Greater Yin. + ı xi´ q`. —. 32. ı t´ n yˇn. W 29. Defensive Qi. sweet. channel qi. Interior 13. — ı a ı y´ ni` o. a a a ı a a t` i y¯n. bitter. u g¯ n. nasal discharge. 6 17. Lung. a xi´ n. — e u gˇ zh¯ ng. skin and hair. Wind-stroke o $ X i . 28. Blood and blood vessels. w lu` m` i. Bright Yang. e ^ sh` n. a t`. + 25. 6 x¯n. Ministerial Fire a o jiˇ qi` o. orifice. Stomach. O + zh` ng q`. # huˇ . Cold. 4 36. Girdle Vessel a 20. d e p´ ng gu¯ ng. connecting channel. Original Qi. o p´ m´ o. ! : o a a a m` i. Lesser Yin. a 22. + j¯ng q`. + y´ng q`. W 11. Directing Vessel. Terminal Yin a ı a ı e ı w q´ j¯ng b¯ m` i. ı o ı a o a 18. Dryness. sinew 2 w xu` m` i. breathlessness) a u a d` i xi` . True Qi. Phlegm-Fluids a ı q` zh`. leukorrhoea a a x¯n f´ n. 2 26. — u e ji´ xi¯ ng. — ı ı h´ n. Triple Burner a a a a a a x wˇ z` ng suˇ zhˇ . tears. 9 fˇ . x¯n b¯ o lu` . Liver. g¯ n. b s¯ n ji¯ o. T w` i. Summer-Heat. pungent. body fluids: ı e tu` . e h` n. —. — (G qi` o. E 24. 8 z` ng. 15. — u o xi` ng huˇ . E t´ n. muscle. J lˇ. sour. " i sh¯.Appendix II: Selected Terminologies of Chinese Medicine 6. 4 gˇ . Gall Bladder. u + z¯ ng ı e ı ı ı a ı o e ı ı ı u ı a q`. 6 / p´. l 8 r` u. —: u a o u j¯n. — u ı n` d¯ i. + q`. 34. Gate of Vitality ı e j¯ n huˇ . ı ı 12. " d` ch´ ng. 6 31. channels: : w j¯ng m` i. 6 27. Exterior a @ l` i. ı e a 9. a kˇ . — a a b¯ n t´ n. w ch¯ ng m` i. 35. e u a a a e 8. : + j¯ng q`. a x¯n. Six Excesses: " f¯ ng. + d` q`. Bladder. m`ng m´ n. Fire a o Dampness. Phlegm 23. sweat. channel. Wind. Qi stagnation ı ı xu` y¯ . flavor: e d` n. — (W chuˇ n. — e o e zh` ng f¯ ng. 37. + zh¯ n q`. Governing Vessel. saliva. X w d` i m` i. " xiˇ o ch´ ng. w r` n ı ı a a u a e 19. Qi: + w` i q`. u ! li` y´n. Upright Qi. ı xi´ n. sense organ) u a a = < # # G j¯ng lu` . Gathering Qi. = F y´ ng m´ng. Lesser Yang. : j¯ng j¯n. a shˇ . 14. Yin organs: . ı 7 f` i. X 30. Yang organs dˇ n. Penetrating Vessel. Spleen. Heart. extraordinary vessel: w d¯ m` i. a j¯n y` . z` o. Nutritive Qi. — a a j¯ j´. Food Qi. salty. P < ju´ y¯n. spittle o biˇ o. g¯ n. healthy qi. " 53. d e p´ ng gu¯ ng. blood j¯ng. —. 44. m 39. — e ı wˇ i zh` ng. — a o Z # # bˇ xi` . + xi´ q`. spirit e ı e ı ı ı a ı o ı 6. —. + yu´ n q`. — a ı lˇ q`. " 41. Liver Qi Invading the Stomach a ı a e sh¯ k` n p´ y´ ng. viscera: . 65. . — a ı ¯ e k¯ i qi` o. u o u ı shuˇ. e ı ı ı u ı a ı a ı : + j¯ng q`. tonify u e Z hu´ y´ ng ji` n`. — ı ı VI. 6 x¯n. f + gˇ q`. O + zh` ng q`. five elements: ı m` . — a ı p` xu` . u + z¯ ng q`. a " xiˇ o ch´ ng. Deficiency u ı + r / T = 7 g¯ n q` f` n w` i. — u u o e hu` t´ n. — a a a o m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i. " 48. —. —. = y¯n y´ ng. — a a U ji` ng q`. hepato-. — a u x¯ sh´. Stone Painful-Urination Syndrome ı ı xi¯ o kˇ . 7 f` i. Difficult Urination Syndrome ı e sh´ l´n. l 4. pericardium ı a o u 8. 49. I 57. comb. comb. gallbladder. yingqi + d` q`. 45. + q`. 63. — ı u ı a f¯ ng r` sh` f` i. —e e o o d¯ n d´ . cardio. — a e b¯ ng l` u. large intestine.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 38. qi: + w` i q`. + zh¯ n q`. —. 2 xu` . — ı a u ı yˇ ng x¯n an sh´ n. essence ı sh´ n. 46. 56. 62. heart. bladder. comb. a a e d` ch´ ng. resolve Phlegm a a xi¯ o pˇ. small intestine. K 59. Li’s Terminology (1993/1997) 1. yin. Atrophy Syndrome e e l´n zh` ng. — e e u e g¯ n y´ ng hu` huˇ . comb. energiser " dˇ n. meridial qi. 61. — o e 2 q¯ y¯ hu´ xu` . stomach. Painful Obstruction Syndrome ı f¯ ng r` yˇ n. " 47. —. kidney. —. — ı e 3. # huˇ . yang ı a x´ng. ? j¯n. 9 fˇ . < 2. fu: gastro-. + E = G 6 + 2 # = @ n hu` lu` n. weiqi + y´ng q`. weakness of the Fire of the Gate of Vitality ı e o a hu` huˇ . l tˇ . T w` i. nephro-. 43. . lung. —. — e e a f¯ ng r` t´ u t` ng. k 60. + j¯ng q`. 55. 51. 40. 58. triple a a ./ p´. Full. —. primordial qi. spleen. Excess. liver. ^ sh` n. 5. 42. — o a f¯ ng b`. 6 e e x¯n b¯ o lu` . a a a a b s¯ n ji¯ o. pathogen ı ı e ı e ı a a ı ı 7. Empty. 50. menorrhagia and metrorrhagia e o $ b`. ! 52. Z 64. + yu´ n q`. 8 z` ng. Z 54. —. hygro-. shˇ . u h` n. muscular stiffness u ı n` d¯ i. ameno-. —. — a a j¯ j´. yangming. body fluid: ı e biˇ o. 18. bitter. taiyin. superficies a @ m`ng m´ n. sour. —. 28. 33. —. X o a j¯ng j¯n. — u e ji´ xi¯ ng. comb. — ı ı li` y´n. 15. pyroa o a 22. ! 20. a g¯ n. vitaport ı e j¯ n huˇ . leukorrhoea a a x¯n f´ n. —: ı ı a a d` i m` i. six pathogens: " f¯ ng. u a w r` n m` i. = F y´ ng m´ng. enuresis ı a chuˇ n c` . — u o xi` ng huˇ . flaccid syndrome e e l´n zh` ng. " 41. taiyang. bone. — a o jiˇ qi` o. 4 36. 38. X 30. u ı e h´ n. comb. —. 6 17. a 21. apoplexy o e hu` lu` n. e a x¯n. 2 26. ı t`. e kˇ . interior su¯ n. E t´ n. a xi´ n. —. jueyin ı w : w q´ j¯ng b¯ m` i. comb. comb. stranguria ı e sh´ l´n. : w d¯ m` i. 45. + 25. stony stranguria ı ı xi¯ o kˇ . — o j¯n y` . —. —. qi stagnation ı ı xu` y¯ . m 39. sweet. 4 gˇ . —. 44. comb. — a u d` i xi` . P < ju´ y¯n. 6 31. : ı 12. a xi´ n. 40. summer-heat. — ı a f´ n z` o. exterior. dampness. < t` i a a a ı a a a a ı e ı y¯n. h 13. \ < sh` o y¯n. # huˇ . shaoyin. — e o zh` ng f¯ ng. 14. E 24. bland a 11. o e 10. meridian. " n i t´ n yˇn. 6 27. W w` i. 32. wind. —. 43. osteoı a u _ w xu` m` i. blood stasis e u x¯n xi` pˇ. a l` i. x wˇ z` ng suˇ zhˇ . l 8 muscle. e a w ch¯ ng m` i. \ = sh` o y´ ng. D 16. flavour: d` n. salty. w lu` m` i. — a ı q` zh`. arthralgia ı . shaoyang. — o a f¯ ng b`. nine orifices u a # # G j¯ng lu` . 42. phlegm 23. blood and vessels. —: u a o u j¯n. u ı z` o. J lˇ. — a a 19. cold. — ı a ı y´ ni` o. meridian and collateral: : w j¯ng m` i. — a a b¯ n t´ n. anemogenous arthralgia e ı wˇ i zh` ng. —. muscle (?) 2 ı p´ m´ o. collateral. W 29. —.Appendix II: Selected Terminologies of Chinese Medicine 9. ! sh¯. ı o ı a o a = t` i y´ ng. diabetes a e b¯ ng l` u. metrorrhagia e o $ X i b`. a tu` . 34. 35. 37. cryo-. — e u gˇ zh¯ ng. ı r` u. soil. yin. . small intestine. d` ch´ ng. — e e u e g¯ n y´ ng hu` huˇ . spittle o mucus. " xiˇ o ch´ ng. —: u a o u j¯n. palaces: dˇ n. 62. u o u ı shuˇ. 6 a a ı ı e e x¯n b¯ o lu` . — u u o e hu` t´ n. water ı e 3. e g¯ n. sweat. ancestral qi. stomach. k 60. 65. — a ı ¯ e k¯ i qi` o. regulating qi ı ı VII. liver. great qi*. h tu` . sweet. 7 f` i. blood j¯ng. depots: . five phases: ı m` . sinew. / p´. 56. — a ı lˇ q`. l 4. K 59. x wˇ z` ng suˇ zhˇ . fire. ı a u _ xu` m` i. O + zh` ng q`. original qi. 51. acrid. spirit e ı e ı ı ı a ı 6. + zh¯ n q`. generating fire a o Z # # bˇ xi` . ? j¯n. u + z¯ ng q`. < 2. — a a a o m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i. heart-enclosing network ı a o " u a a a e 8. 50. 8 z` ng.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 46. a kˇ . . " 47. ı xi´ n. constructive qi. 61. 58. —e e o o d¯ n d´ . 5. 63. gallbladder. proper qi. drool. b s¯ n ji¯ o. ^ sh` n. defence qi. kidney. 9 fˇ . + j¯ng q`. ! 52. + d` q`. — ı a u ı yˇ ng x¯n an sh´ n. g¯ n. large intestine. 1. W w` i. e a x¯n. a xi´ n. nasal ı j¯n y` . blood and vessels. Unschuld’s Terminology (1995) Note that asterisked items were not contained in Unschuld 1995. metal. — a ı p` xu` . — o e 2 q¯ y¯ hu´ xu` . a t`. 6 x¯n. — u e Z hu´ y´ ng ji` n`. bland a su¯ n. 49. sthenia u ı + r / T = 7 g¯ n q` f` n w` i. bitter. body liquids: ı e 11. a ı a ı ı ı e ı + xi´ q`. Z 54. I 57. heart. acute conjunctivitis e e a o f¯ ng r` t´ u t` ng. = y¯n y´ ng. 2 xu` . Z 64. T w` i. l 8 flesh. bone. d e p´ ng gu¯ ng. wood. u l` i. evil qi e ı 7. 2 w ı p´ m´ o. — ı e o a hu` huˇ . — a a U ji` ng q`. true qi. —. spleen. asthenia. snivel. —: + yu´ n q`. but were kindly supplied by the author. 55. # huˇ . bladder. . o e 10. skin and body hair. — ı u ı a f¯ ng r` sh` f` i. sour. : + j¯ng q`. 4 gˇ . flavor: d` n. — a ı a e sh¯ k` n p´ y´ ng. a r` u. + E = G 6 + 2 # = @ $ f¯ ng r` yˇ n t` ng. + y´ng q`. grain qi*. essence ı sh´ n. + q`. eliminate phlegm a a xi¯ o pˇ. essential qi. triple burner a a a a a a 9. lung. qi: + w` i q`. f + gˇ q`. tonify. " 53. yang ı a x´ng. tears. l tˇ . o ı e ı ı ı u ı + yu´ n q`. salty. a h` n. " 48. acute skin infection a u x¯ sh´. enuresis ı a chuˇ n c` . accumulation (of qi) in the chest e o zh` ng f¯ ng. " 48. = F y´ ng m´ng. conduit w lu` m` i. 23. # huˇ . phlegm $ X i b`. u ı e z` o. strangury ı e sh´ l´n. D 16. paralysis ı f¯ ng r` yˇ n. ! : vessel*. minister fire a o jiˇ qi` o. 6 31. 46. wind. major yin. wasting and thirst* a e b¯ ng l` u. depletion and repletion u ı r T g¯ n q` f` n w` i. ruler fire u o xi` ng huˇ . network ı o ı a o a 18. X w d` i e a o a a m` i. blockage below the heart* ı a ı y´ ni` o. hypertonicity u ı n` d¯ i. ceasing yin w q´ j¯ng b¯ m` i. yang brilliance. six excesses: " f¯ ng. 44. dampu ı a 22. wind-heat headache* e e o o d¯ n d´ . blood stagnation e u x¯n xi` pˇ. \ = sh` o y´ ng. panting a u d` i xi` . cold. wind-heat eye* e e a f¯ ng r` t´ u t` ng. 33. supervisor u a 19. 45. 14.Appendix II: Selected Terminologies of Chinese Medicine 13. 37. : a a a ı a a vessel = t` i y´ ng. + " n i j¯ng j¯n. controller vessel*. stone strangury ı ı xi¯ o kˇ . major yang. 49. running piglets e u gˇ zh¯ ng. w ch¯ ng m` i. 32. thoroughfare vessel*. P < ju´ y¯n. qi sluggishness ı ı xu` y¯ . vexation of the heart ı a f´ n z` o. + 25. outside a @ m`ng m´ n. E 24. 35. 34. breakdown with leakage* e o $ h´ n. 28. — ı ı li` y´n. — a a b¯ n t´ n. X 30. liver qi invading the stomach* a ı a e . dryness. [medicine concerned with diseases] below the belt* a a x¯n f´ n. eight extraordinary conduit vessels: ı ı a a w d¯ m` i. minor a ı a ı e ı yang. 50. a shˇ . biˇ o. 42. — a u x¯ sh´. . cholera* o a f¯ ng b`. 6 17. 40. minor yin. " 41. phlegm drink a ı q` zh`. belt vessel* a 20. ! sh¯. struck by wind o e hu` lu` n. 43. \ < sh` o y¯n. steaming bones u e ji´ xi¯ ng. m 39. nine orifices u a # # G j¯ng lu` . 4 36. ness. W 29. 2 26. conduits and network [vessels]: : w j¯ng m` i. w r` n m` i. summerheat. vexation a a j¯ j´. stiffness e e l´n zh` ng. fire a o t´ n yˇn. 38. 6 27. < t` i y¯n. gate of life ı e j¯ n huˇ . 15. : 21. " 47. E t´ n. wind paralysis e ı wˇ i zh` ng. e x¯n. a ı ı a ı ı ı ı ı e ı e ı ı right q`. a t`. stomach. skin and body hair. a kˇ . constructive q`. + yu´ n q`. nine orifices u a j¯ng lu` . d e p´ ng gu¯ ng. wood. W w` i. u ı ı e ı ı ı ı ı a ı ı z¯ ng q`. earth. pericardiac network ı a o u dˇ n. make qi descend* a ı p` xu` . blood j¯ng. greater q`. a m`ng m´ n. evil q` ı a a ı ı e e 7. ı j¯n y` . sovereign fire u o xi` ng huˇ . I 57. drool. T w` i. — ı u ı a f¯ ng r` sh` f` i. fire. a a a e 8. transformation resulting from the qi of fire* a o Z # # bˇ xi` . acrid. bowels: d` ch´ ng. y¯n. water ı e 3. open the orifices* a a U ji` ng q`. — ı a u ı yˇ ng x¯n an sh´ n. five phases: ı m` . + + = y¯n y´ ng. J lˇ. 6. dissolve blockage* a ı lˇ q`. q`: + w` i q`. tears. 62. a l` i. viscera: . spittle o snivel. 5. . 6 17. u o u ı shuˇ. l 4. governings of the five viscera: u a o u j¯n. ı xi´ n. 55. e a e 10. l tˇ . transform phlegm a a xi¯ o pˇ. network o a . bladder. triple burner a a a a a a x wˇ z` ng suˇ zhˇ . + j¯ng q`. kidney. ministerial fire a o jiˇ qi` o. / p´. — e e u e g¯ n y´ ng hu` huˇ . interior 13. channel. life gate ı e j¯ n huˇ . flavor: d` n. essential q`. " 53.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 51. nourish the heart and pacify the spirit* a ı ¯ e k¯ i qi` o. + d` q`. Z 64. small intestine. bone ı a u blood and vessels. defence q`. lung. 56. < 2. b s¯ n ji¯ o. regulate the flow of qi* ı ı VIII. o ı ı e ı ı ı ı ı u ı ı + yu´ n q`. ı a w lu` m` i. 7 f` i. spirit e q`. l 8 r` u. K 59. supplement. 8 z` ng. + zh¯ n q`. ı 12. : + j¯ng q`. 65. g¯ n. sweat. k 60. 6 x¯n. 18. u g¯ n. 4 gˇ . y´ ng ı a ı a x´ng. 2 ı 9. 63. grain q`. o p´ m´ o. f + gˇ q`. exterior a @ h` n. " xiˇ o ch´ ng. channel q`. ^ sh` n. a xi´ n. debilitation of the life gate fire??* ı e o a hu` huˇ . liquid and humour (fluid): ı e 11. Wiseman’s Terminology (1995) 1. ancestral q`. 9 fˇ . essence ı sh´ n. bland a _ su¯ n. metal. liver. 61. spleen. O + zh` ng q`. drain u e Z hu´ y´ ng ji` n`. source q`. # huˇ . 15. h tu` . + xi´ q`. channels and network vessels: : ı o w # # G j¯ng m` i. D 16. true q`. 14. break blockages caused by blood* o e 2 q¯ y¯ hu´ xu` . liver yang transforming into fire* a a a o m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i. original q`. w " xu` m` i. ? j¯n. flesh. ! 52. 58. heart. sour. + y´ng q`. large intestine. sweet. gallbladder. + E = G 6 + 2 # = @ / = 7 sh¯ k` n p´ y´ ng. Z 54. salty. ?? and make the blood flow u u o e hu` t´ n. : biˇ o. bitter. 6 x¯n b¯ o lu` . sinew. 2 xu` . nasal mucus. = F y´ ng m´ng. ! 52. 50. I # = @ j¯ng j¯n. a shˇ . X w d` i m` i. E t´ n. steaming bone u e ji´ xi¯ ng. reverting y¯n a ı ı a ı ı e ı ı w q´ j¯ng b¯ m` i. glomus below the heart ı a ı y´ ni` o. 44. 38. wind stroke o e hu` lu` n.Appendix II: Selected Terminologies of Chinese Medicine vessel. \ = sh` o y´ ng. liver qi invading the stomach a ı a e sh¯ k` n p´ y´ ng. w ch¯ ng m` i. thoroughfare vessel. 34. : 21. cholera. 37. dryness. greater y´ ng. 46. wind-heat fettering the lung e e u e g¯ n y´ ng hu` huˇ . # huˇ . ness. transformation into fire a o Z # # bˇ xi` . hypertonicity u ı n` d¯ i. 4 36. supplement. lesser a a a a ı a a a t` i y¯n. 6 27. m 39. 40. dampu ı a 22. y´ ng. 49. drain u e . u ı e z` o. \ < sh` o y¯n. X 30. strangury ı e sh´ l´n. panting a u d` i xi` . fire a o t´ n yˇn. girdling vessel a 20. wind. . 51. 56. vaginal discharge a a x¯n f´ n. qi stagnation ı ı xu` y¯ . " 47. vacuity and repletion u ı + r / T = 7 g¯ n q` f` n w` i. 35. ! sh¯. summerheat. stone strangury ı ı xi¯ o kˇ . governing vessel. 45. phlegm x¯n xi` pˇ. wilting e e l´n zh` ng. 2 26. 42. vexation and agitation a a j¯ j´. wind-heat headache e e o o d¯ n d´ . liver y´ ng transforming into fire a a a o a m`ng m´ n huˇ shu¯ i. dispersion-thirst a e b¯ ng l` u. " 48. chest bind e o $ X i " n zh` ng f¯ ng. y´ ng brightness. ! : o a a a m` i. running piglet e u gˇ zh¯ ng. w r` n ı ı a a u a e 19. controlling vessel. torpid intake a a b¯ n t´ n. Z 54. phlegm-rheum a ı q` zh`. 55. lesser y¯n. impediment ı f¯ ng r` yˇ n. dampness encumbering spleen yang ı u ı a f¯ ng r` sh` f` i. extraordinary vessels: w d¯ m` i. six excesses: " f¯ ng. wind impediment e ı wˇ i zh` ng. " 53. P < ju´ y¯n. E 24. + 25. channel sinews ı ı li` y´n. wind-fire eye e e a f¯ ng r` t´ u t` ng. cinnabar toxin a u x¯ sh´. 23. 43. 28. greater y¯n. sudden turmoil o a f¯ ng b`. blood stasis e u i h´ n. " 41. a = < t` i y´ ng. 6 31. enuresis ı a chuˇ n c` . W 29. flooding and spotting e o $ b`. debilitation of the life gate fire ı e o a hu` huˇ . cold. vexation ı a f´ n z` o. 33. . 32. transform phlegm a a xi¯ o pˇ. break qi o e 2 q¯ y¯ hu´ xu` . downbear qi a ı p` xu` . Z 64. dispel stasis and quicken the blood u u o e hu` t´ n. nourish the heart and calm the spirit a ı ¯ e ji` ng q`. k 60. K 59. 61. + E G 6 + 2 k¯ i qi` o. open the orifices a a U yˇ ng x¯n an sh´ n. 65. 62. disperse glomus a ı lˇ q`.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms 58. 63. rectify qi ı ı . lt tongue body* lt Y¯ ang and Five Phases ın-Y´ l l g g g g g g g g g g g g g g skin and [body] hair. k m` u fire.APPENDIX III: SOURCE-ORIENTATION OF THE PROPOSED ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS OF CHINESE MEDICAL TERMS This appendix contains the list of terms with their proposed English equivalents the forms the basis of the study contained in Chapter 8. sinew. kidney. @ h¯ i e tears. vessels: Double underlining marks a word added in the translation process. ı l black. ch´ n u gˇ u m` . " l` i e sweat. liver. lip. ? q¯ng ı red. as follows: g l LGP/WM equivalents Loans lt i Loan-translations Source-independent formations sexual: Single underlining marks a changed element in a loan translation. u kˇ u o g g g g g i g g g g l nose. su¯ n a bone. 6 hu´ ng a white. b´ i a Body Parts and Bodily Substances g g vessel. ( j¯. W m` i a flesh. / h` n a g r` u. c s¯ ı anxiety. w` i e xiˇ o a j¯ r` u ı o small intestine. y¯ u o kˇ ng o n` u sh´ e g f ch´ n. Each entry is head with a mark showing its term formation category. joy. lt ). D kˇ u sweet. lung. B x¯n ı salty. helix. tˇ u j¯n ı shuˇ ı g¯ n a x¯n ı p´ ı f` i e sh` n e j¯n ı yˇ n a g g bitter. A g¯ n a acrid. o g g g stomach. b´ ı e ˇr e u ˇ r l´ n g g g g g green-blue. g gastr-. ı y´ ng.. An asterisk following an English term indicates that the English term is the equivalent of two y . $ tu` o sour. or more (e. tongue. ear. a y¯n ı y´ ng a g g g g spittle. heart. water. g nasal mucus. fear. C xi´ n a anger. u g g wood.g. . & huˇ o earth. eye. metal. spleen. B xˇ ı thought. p´ m´ o ı a V g g snivel. t` ı y¯n. ch` ı yellow. xiˇ o f` a u lt q` transformation. limb. j¯n y` ı e c c m´ n e g g diaphragm. a a d` a mouth. h´ n a li` y´n u ı i lt rib-side. E lt F affect n` i e xu´ n y¯ ng a o membrane source. leg. % f¯ ng e cold. u lt bowel and visceral q`. ji´ h´ u e o seminal. back. q`. hand. y´n. wrist. ni` o. ı evil q`. { ı q` ı Vacuous Li. adj. stomach duct. C fecal. ı right q`. g Causes of Disease lt throat. ı lt z` ng fˇ zh¯ q` a u ı ı sh¯ n. ankle. wˇ n a wˇ n a w` i e lt lt lt g g lt g gallbladder. h´ u o & x lt lt internal cause. wind. e x´ng tˇ ı ı g g greater abdomen. orifice. essence. \ jˇng ı nape. xi` ng a urine. elbow. abdominal f` . w throat pass. c g g g g gum. g y´ chˇ. tooth. ch´ ng a d` a lt belong the heart. b` i e ji¯ n a lt liquid and humour. xiˇ o bi` n a a neck. damage. ı q` ı external cause. chˇ. ı g lumbus. i j¯ng ı lt neutral cause. knee. yu´ n a m´ o sh¯ ng q¯ q´ng a ı ı c` u lˇ o ı qi` o a g lt g i epiglottis. ı g chˇ y´n ı ı voiding. head. K ı yu´ n q` a ı y´ng ı lt g g six excesses. adj. f` u d` a g channel and network vessel q`. H g oral. pharyngeal. e diaphragmatic g stool. o l lt source q`. g dˇ n a p´ ng gu¯ ng a a m g abdomen. facial a x`n ı lt lesser abdomen. thoracic xi¯ ng. adj. xi` a x¯n ı lt lt defence q`. x`n ı g g g shoulder. y¯ n a three causes (of disease). t´ u o x´ng ı lt smaller abdomen. spirit. life gate. bladder. g g d` bi` n. p b` n` i w` i y¯n u e a ı P g chest. hu` y` n ı a w g g g interstice. ı ancestral q`. a ı chˇ y´ ı a H adj. x¯ lˇ u ı . s¯ n y¯n a ı g larynx. 4 g´ . . ı original q`. a a g g y¯ o. lumbar a zh¯ ı arm. a g g g g g g g g g g defecation. ı hu` a 7 q` ı mi` n. leg. | ı w` i q` e ı zh` ng q` e ı xi´ q` e ı yu´ n q` a ı z¯ ng q` o ı g pericardium. adj. body. sh´ n e g anterior lt fontanel. g throat. g H kˇ u o y´ . w uvula. b¯ o lu` a o O x¯n ı i i stomachduct. triple burner. fluids. f` u sh` o a g fontanel. / chu´ ı 0 h´ u h´ o e h´ u gu¯ n o a lt l lt internal damage by the seven affects. foot. adj. laryngeal. adj. urinary. urinary a tuˇ ı x¯ ı zhˇ u o hu´ i a w` n a m`ng m´ n ı e g¯ o hu¯ ng a a K pharynx. shˇ u o z´ u g bi` n a g urine. physical. g¯ o-hu¯ ng. lt fontanel gate. adj. xi´ e 3 lt construction q`. P y¯n ı w` i a laryngeal prominence. face. n` i y¯n e ı lt lt g throat node. adj. E ı _ s¯ n ji¯ o a a tˇ.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms g large intestine. p ı q` ı O _ j¯ng lu` zh¯ ı o ı g g g g body. O dietary irregularities. ^ dˇ a di´ e lt Bowels and Viscera W lt sexual intemperance. sh´ er j¯ng ı` ı m` i a lt w¯ n xi´ e e l` q` ı ı lt y¯n linking vessel. a m n j¯ng lu` ı o p W y´ ng qi¯ o a a lt twelve channels. d` lu` a o _ O p´ zh¯ ı ı lt back transport point. shˇ lu` u o O yˇn sh´ b` ji´ ı ı u e lt grandchild network vessel. z wˇ sh¯ xu´ u u e gu` sh´ x¯n l` o ı ı a J lt four command points. & huˇ o warm evil. m` i a d¯ u lt heart belongs to fire. d O lt voracious eating and drinking. p } lt governing vessel. ch¯ ng m` i o a W lt heart and small intestine stand in interior-exterior lt girdling vessel. B lt lt lt greater y´ ng. a W y¯ xu` u e xu` y¯ e u lt network vessel. ( d´ u static blood. z O sh´ wˇ lu` ı u o lt body inch. a m´ng ı t` i y´ ng a a y´ ng a lt gu` sh´ f´ i g¯ n o ı e a connecting point. yˇn ı twelve channel sinews. ı m xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ a a ı .Appendix III: Source-Orientation of Proposed Equivalents g g g lt lt g lt lt g i lt lt damp(ness). sh¯ ı lt channels and network vessels. phlegm. S A source point. xi` h´ xu´ a e e pi¯ n sh` y´ u n` h` u w` i a ı o ı o e lt excessive consumption of hot-spicy acrid foods. t ji¯ o hu` xu´ a ı e b` o a lt great network vessel of the spleen. p sh´ er j¯ng j¯n ı` ı ı W lt y´ ng linking vessel. @ K ) A x¯n yˇ xiˇ o ch´ ng ı u a a Channels and Network lt y¯n springing vessel. xu´ d` o e a lt fifteen network vessels. point. shuˇ sh¯ ı ı lt superficial network vessel. s` zˇ ng xu´ ı o e v lt knocks and falls. & f´ ng sh` b` ji´ a ı u e l´ o a lt x¯n shˇ huˇ ı u o lt taxation fatigue. ı y¯n w´ i m` i ı e a W pestilential q`. b` i sh¯ e u lt excessive consumption of raw and cold foods. blood stasis. O m` i a lu` o i y´ ng w´ i m` i a e a acupuncture point. Q yˇn b` o sh´ ı a ı Q s¯ n lu` u o lt intersection point. u a lesser y¯n. p f´ lu` u o lt homing and netting. ı reverting y¯n. N ju` n a thoroughfare vessel. p O lt y´ ng springing vessel. dryness. u a y´ ng brightness. m` i a W d` i a relationship. r` n m` i e a t` i y¯n a ı sh` o y¯n a ı ju´ y¯n e ı W lt five transport points. ' z` o a fire. K xu´ e lt lt greater y´ ng. M ı toxin. p ı controlling vessel. sh¯ n c` n e u t´ ng o water-damp. ^ u 8 lt lesser y´ ng. s lt mustering w` i e lt m` xu´ u e yu´ n a lt excessive consumption of sweet and fatty foods. a y´ ng a sh` o a lt lower uniting point. % t´ n a rheum. O xu´ e lu` o lt predilection for greasy and rich foods. gu` sh´ sh¯ ng lˇ ng o ı e e lt great network vessel of the stomach. zh¯ d` lu` ı a o _ O lt alarm point. q´ hu´ z` i ch´ n ı ı a a u lt g¯ n zhˇ j¯n a u ı . q´ hu´ z` i zhˇ o a ı a a a lt f` i yˇ d` ch´ ng e u a a lt stomach governs intake. @ K spleen opens at the mouth. zhˇ p´ m´ o u ı a z V small intestine governs separation of the clear and turbid. f` i zhˇ s` ji` ng e u u a z { | stomach governs E g¯ n w´ i a e ripening and rotting.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms vessels. its bloom is in the nails. z ( lˇ ı lt liver governs free coursing.. x¯n c´ ng sh´ n ı a e lt zhˇ sh¯ ng q¯ng u e ı spleen governs the flesh and limbs. z > lt heart opens at the tongue. . z f` i e ) A sh` n yˇ p´ ng gu¯ ng e u a a lt lung opens at the nose. . s lt lung governs depurative downbearing. sh` n zhˇ shuˇ e u ı z f` i zhˇ t¯ ng ti´ o shuˇ e u o a ı d` o a lt w` i zhˇ ji` ng e u a lt zhu´ o lt kidney and bladder stand in interior-exterior relationship. . ! ) A g¯ n. K d` a lt sh` n zhˇ k¯ i h´ e u a e kidney opens at the ears. lt liver stores blood. z relationship. sh` n k¯ i qi` o e a a y´ er uˇ lt ch´ ng zhˇ chu´ n hu` z¯ o a u a a a A @ ) p` o lt p´ yˇ w` i xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ ı u e a a ı liver belongs to wood. z u stomach governs downbearing of the turbid. k lt spleen governs movement and transformation. f` i shˇ j¯n e u ı lt liver governs the sinews.. . lt lung and large intestine stand in interior-exterior relationship. p´ k¯ i qi` o ı a a y´ kˇ u u o lt liver. z g¯ n shˇ m` a u u kidney opens at the two lt liver and gallbladder . lt lt liver is the unyielding viscus. z liver opens at the eyes. sh` n c´ ng j¯ng e a ı lt spleen belongs to earth. g¯ n k¯ i qi` o y´ a a a u m` u xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ a a ı lt w` i zhˇ sh` u n` e u o a lung governs q`. xu` m` i e a lt z W x¯n zhˇ ı u lt spleen governs upbearing of the clear. . . p´ shˇ tˇ ı u u lt kidney governs opening and closing. z lt spleen and stomach stand in interior-exterior relationship.. sh` n shˇ shuˇ e u ı lt lt lung governs regulation of the waterways. z 7 xi¯ ng biˇ o lˇ a a ı lt kidney stores essence. . w` i zhˇ fˇ sh´ e u u u lt lt g¯ ng z` ng a a kidney belongs to water. ı zhˇ q` u ı z f` i e lt stomach governs decomposition. z | kidney governs water. its bloom is in the lips. f` i k¯ i qi` o y´ e a a u b´ ı lt xiˇ o ch´ ng zhˇ f¯ n bi´ a a u e e q¯ng zhu´ ı o large intestine governs the conveyance and transformation of waste. . K ) A @ p´ ı g¯ n yˇ dˇ n xi¯ ng biˇ o a u a a a heart stores the spirit.. @ K lung governs the skin and [body] hair. . x¯n k¯ i qi` o ı a a y´ sh´ u e lt g¯ n zhˇ sh¯ xi` a u u e p´ zhˇ j¯ r` u s` zh¯ ı u ı o ı ı spleen. z p´. g¯ n c´ ng xu` a a e lt lung belongs to metal. z lt heavy body with difficulty in turning sides. hu´ z` i f` a a a sh` n.. y´ ng shˇ u a o g lt y´ gu¯ n jˇn b` a a ı ı clouding collapse. q nˇ o a zˇ g¯ ng. lt i clenched jaw. sh´ n e d´ sh´ n e e sh¯ ı lt x´ n y¯ m¯ chu´ ng u ı o a groping in the air and pulling [invisible] strings. . i P lt kidney. C | lt false spiritedness. ( r` u sh` u xu` o o e j¯ ı lt mi` n s` hu´ ng a e a tugging wind. .. . q´ e ı lt lt fatigued cumbersome limbs. ! M N lt pale white facial complexion. j¯n t` r` u r` n ı ı o u tension of the sinews. W j¯n m` i j¯ lu´ n ı a u a lt kidney engenders the bone and marrow. Z p jiˇ o g¯ ng fˇ n zh¯ ng a o a a kˇ u j`n. . zh` ng o lt generalised sh¯ n e lt twitching flesh. kˇ u yˇ n w¯ i xi´ o a a e lt mi` n s` c¯ ng b´ i a e a a bright white facial complexion. j¯n m` i j¯ j´ ı a u ı lt W kidney. sh¯ n b` su` e u ı p @ g g brain. k` n zh` ng u o heavy cumbersome head and body. its fullnesss is in the bone.. C lt clouded spirit..Appendix III: Source-Orientation of Proposed Equivalents y¯n. t´ u y´ o o a triple burner governs the sluices. ku´ ng z` o a a lt white facial complexion. ! z` o a irascibility. lt mi` n s` d` n b´ i a e a a somber white facial complexion. N f´ i p` ng e a - S x´ng tˇ ı ı lt mi` n s` huˇ ng b´ i a e a a lt convulsion of the limbs. h¯ n dˇ o u a hemiplegia. sh¯ n k¯ n zh` ng e u o Z s` zh¯ ı ı hypertonicity of the sinews. heaviness. ch¯ u d` ng o o xi` ng lˇ qu´ n a ı a jerking sinews and . q` z` ng ı o g obesity. p` jiˇ ng (j` n) o o u tu¯ r` u o o lt tetanic reversal. C ji¯ o zhˇ ju´ d´ a u e u Four Examinations lt lt g mi` n s` b´ i a e a picking at bedclothes. y` n` ı u ! ˇ n¨ zˇ b¯ o u ı a lt lt shaking of the head. o ı sh` n zhˇ gˇ e u u . its bloom is in the hair (of the head). spiritlessness. h¯ n u sh´ n e lt tugging and slackening. ı k¯ i qi` o y´ er y¯n a a u` ı lt sh` n e lt heavy body. mi` n s` q¯ng zˇ a e ı ı C ? t lt lying in curled-up posture. . C { spiritedness. K g lt jerking. m z s¯ n a mania and agitation. ju´ e p j¯ng ı lt mi` n s` wˇ i hu´ ng a e e a green-blue or purple facial complexion. sh` n. uterus. \ Y t´ u o i jˇng xi` ng ji` ng zh´ ı a a ı arched-back rigidity. . . sh` n sh¯ ng gˇ su´ e e u ı T lt rigidity of the neck. . O y lt kidney governs the bones. C 6 g emaciation. sh´ n e jiˇ a lt ' 0 cu¯ k¯ ng lˇ xi` n o o ı a deviated eyes and mouth. . f¯ ng e % ch¯ u o lt withered-yellow facial complexion. C 6 lt shedding of flesh and loss of bulk. s` zh¯ ch¯ u ch` ı ı o u yellow facial complexion. q´ ch¯ ng z` i gˇ e ı o a u sh¯ n zh` ng b` y` e o u ı zhuˇ n c` a e flailing of the arms and legs. ı o g lt g lt b` n a zh´ z´ ı u agitation. ji` ng yˇ jiˇ n a u a 3 kˇ u jiˇ o o a sh´ e lt shaking of the head. juˇ n a sh´ e lt transforming fur. zh`. a b¯ n zhˇ n a e stasis macules. w % lt mirror tongue. { sh´ d` n e a sh´ h´ ng e o sh´ e lt premature graying of the hair. 7 thin fur. red tongue. thick fur. b` b` u ı O p O lt stiff tongue and impeded speech. @ 7 7 7 b´ i t¯ i a a hu´ ng t¯ i a a h¯ i t¯ i e a 7 lt bulging eyes.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms lt red facial complexion. ) j`ng ı lt h´ u o . n` ng sh´ o e t` u lt bulging fontanel gate. purple tongue. 6 black fur. o jiˇ l´ e u parched lips. t´ u y´ o o a lt drooling from the corners of the mouth. b´ i a t´ u f` zˇ o o a a lt o crimson tongue. bare red tongue. ch´ n d` n b´ i u a a { kˇ u o lt protrusion and worrying of the tongue. b´ y` sh¯ n d` ng ı ı a o lt curled tongue. C @ mi` n s` h¯ i a e e lt lt A lt a upward staring eyes. sh´ qˇ m´ ng c` e ı a ı ^ r´ j¯ fˇ n u ı e lt white fur. Y zh´ sh` ı ı : black facial complexion. kˇ u jiˇ o li´ xi´ n o a u a O = lt lt lt pale tongue. ' S ] q yˇ n a mi` n s` h´ ng a e o mi` n ch` a ı lt lt sh´ gu¯ ng h´ ng e a o t w´ gu¯ ng cˇ i u a a lt lt lt red face. T x`n m´ n g¯ o t´ ı e a u lt green-blue or purple lips. t` sh´ u e lt lt ununited skull. n` ng sh´ o e retarded closure of the fontanel gate. 7 slimy fur. kˇ u ch´ n g¯ n ji¯ o o u a a m lt worrying tongue. 7 m` k¯ u e lt shrunken tongue. g¯ n z` o a a M 7 8 y¯ b¯ n u a lt liˇ ng m` sh` ng sh` a u a ı ] t¯ i h` u a o t¯ i b´ a o ' upward staring eyes. xi´ sh` e ı m` ch` u ı 6 lt enlarged tongue. ] ( peeling fur. li` e sh´ e lt lt lt flaring nostrils. sh´ sh` u biˇ e o e mealy white tongue fur. yellow fur. sh´ bi¯ n chˇ h´ n e a ı e lt slight swelling of the eye nest. 7 hu` a t¯ i a lt pale lips. sh´ p` ng d` e a a lt lt lt lt lt clean tongue. grimy fur. k¯ n` i xi` n e e a m` u lt prickly tongue. 7 u sh´ j`ng e ı t¯ i g` u a o t¯ i n` a ı t¯ i b¯ a o lt yellow eyes. ji` ng a clenched jaw. : lt tongue body*. 7 n K sh` ng w¯ i zhˇ ng a e o lt 8 sh´ t¯ i b´ i e a a sunken eyes. hair loss. stasis speckles. kˇ u j`n o ı lt dry hair. diˇ n a sh´ zˇ e ı y¯ u forward-staring eyes. red eyes. f` k¯ a u f` lu` a o lt sound of phlegm in the throat. ? t lt depressed fontanel gate. C lt smooth. hu´ ng a m` u lt dental impressions on the margins of the tongue. x`n m´ n xi` xi` n ı e a a zˇ ı lt kˇ u ch´ n q¯ng o u ı lt protrusion of tongue. ] lt dull eyes. 7 dry fur. x`n m´ n ch´ b` ı e ı ı E O i gaping corners of the mouth. ' yˇ n qi´ w` i t´ a u a u P lt fissured tongue. ı lt G sh´ e lt lt m` sh` ng sh` u a ı : sh´ tˇ e ı sh´ t¯ i e a g lt squint. ] : lt maculopapular eruption. l % h´ n r` wˇ ng l´ i a e a a % ou t` t´ n yˇn ˇ u a ı g zh` ng sh¯ ng e e rumbling intestines. lt heat in the (heart of the) palms and soles. muttering. z¯ ng h´ n e a lt precipitation of blood with the stool. heat [effusion]. n 5 lt unsurfaced fever. b´ li´ q¯ng t` ı u ı ı b´ ı lt groaning. f¯ ng e w` u lt thin sloppy stool. w lt black stool.Appendix III: Source-Orientation of Proposed Equivalents lt sore swollen throat. hasty breathing. lt lt nasal congestion. sh¯ n r` b` y´ ng e e u a ( chˇ y´ s¯ ng d` ng ı a o o o frog rale in the throat. 4 k´ sh¯ ng zh` ng zhu´ e e o o Z lt vexing heat in the five hearts. lt alternating fever and chills. I duˇ n q` a ı steaming bone tidal fever. z f´ n r` a e wˇ x¯n u ı t´ n du¯ q¯ng x¯ a o ı ı lt lt cough with thick yellow phlegm. y´ n a 0 lˇ n a lt k´ t´ n e a lt lt g postmeridian tidal fever. chˇ y´n x¯ f´ ı ı u u lt stool like sheep’s droppings. bi` n shuˇ y` ng a ı a 6 vigorous fever. shˇ u z´ x¯n r` o u ı e expectoration of blood. d` bi` n x¯ t´ ng a a ı a lt abhorrence of cold. lt tidal heat ( e u u a ˇ r l´ n k¯ ji¯ o lt ch´ o r` a e lt copious clear thin phlegm. g cold and heat [effusion]. Q d` bi` n r´ y´ ng shˇ a a u a ı lt unsurfaced heat. sh¯ n y´n e ı talking alone. 4 % 6 laziness to speak. m tidal fever. f` xi` hu` ch` u u e ı o y¯ n h´ u zhˇ ng t` ng a o o o lt teeth dry as desiccated bones. lt lt hiccough. chˇ y´n ji´ b` n ı ı e a \ lt watery stool. ch´ ng m´ng a ı lt aversion to wind. lt heat effusion. [effusion]. j q e ı ` n` ( clear-grain diarrhoea. bi` n h¯ i s` a e e @ C d` a lt foul-smelling diarrhoea. hoarse voice. kˇ xu` a e sh¯ ng y¯n s¯ sh` e ı ı a lt lt runny nose with clear snivel (nasal mucus). y´ chˇ g¯ n z` o r´ k¯ gˇ a ı a a u u u lt f¯ r` a e d` a lt petalled gums. ai q` ` ı . d` a belching of sour putrid q` ı (gas). h` u ch´ o r` o a e lt wˇ u shortness of breath. zhu` ng r` a e lt vigorous ( lt vacuous puffy gums. % heavy turbid voice. lt ( lt vomiting of phlegm-rheum. % t´ n shˇ o b´ y` kˇ a a u ı a p [effusion]. w h´ u zh¯ ng yˇ u o o o shuˇ j¯ sh¯ ng ı ı e lt lt withered helices. ji¯ n x¯ a ı gˇ zh¯ ng u e t´ n zh¯ ng d` i a o a lt lt ch´ o r` a e t` n x¯ a ı O xu` e lt sighing. zh¯ n y´ n a a 0 lt aversion to cold. Q ' n o lt clear-food diarrhoea. % lt raised-shoulder breathing. xi` l` q¯ng gˇ a ı ı u g fever. # delirious speech. lt ( lt phlegm containing blood. s¯ i a g soliloquy. lt hu´ ng ch´ u a o lt rough breathing. w` h´ n u a lt chill. Y q` c¯ ı u q` c` ı u postmeridian tidal heat ( scant phlegm expectorated with difficulty. lt alternating [aversion to] d´ yˇ u u g mussitation. lt lt loosening of the teeth. @ p < lt limp lumbus and knees. bi` n b` a ı lt aching lumbus and limp legs. G . K h` u zh` ng o o lˇ j´ ı ı lt heavy-headedness. + dry bound stool. kˇ yˇn yˇn e ı ı 9 lt lt lumbar pain.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms lt spontaneous sweating. duˇ n ch` a ı I lt prolapse of the rectum. ^ pi¯ n t´ u t` ng a o o tenesmus. % % xu` n y¯ n a u t´ u y¯ n o u $ ( q¯ng ch´ ng ı a lt kˇ e profuse urination at night. d` bi` n g¯ n ji´ a a a e g sh` kˇ u b` y` yˇn u o u u ı poor appetite. < y¯ o su¯ n a a p A . + lt difficult defecation. 9 B forgetfulness. h` n a zh` n a s` zh¯ ı ı g fecal incontinence. duˇ n shˇ o a a I dry mouth. / lt aching lumbus and limp knees. $ dizzy head. 9 b` du¯ yˇn u o ı p lt lt lt lt dizziness. dizzy vision. t` ng r´ ch` o u e n ! kˇ b` y` e u u t´ u o lt long voidings of clear urine. xiˇ o bi` n a a thirst with no desire to drink. 3 washing the mouth with water without desire to swallow it. bi` n n´ n a a z` h` n ı a / y¯ o a g lt g night sweating. t´ u zh` ng o a lt short voidings of scant urine. > xi` xi` e e > enduring diarrhoea. aching lumbus. zh` ng t´ u t` ng e o o lt ju` n d` i f´ l` a a a ı lt fifth-watch diarrhoea. 9 yˇn ı p < lt headache with pulling sensation. 9 kˇ u kˇ o e kˇ u g¯ n o a distention in the head. c d` bi` n sh¯ j`n a a ı ı 8 medial headache. 1 great thirst with fluid intake. 3 g lt headache. Z n lt short voidings of reddish urine. h` n a d` o a lt / su¯ n x¯ ruˇ n a ı a numbness (and tingling) of the limbs. p d` bi` n b` shuˇ ng a a u a lt head heavy as if swathed. Y kˇ xˇ r` e ı e lt joint pain. li´ ng yˇn a ı lt lt heart vexation. y¯ o x¯ ruˇ n ru` a ı a o lt lt xiˇ o bi` n sh¯ j`n a a ı ı ? constipation. f´ n a x¯n ı lt v xiˇ o bi` n p´n shu` a a ı o p thirst with a liking for hot drinks. t´ u t` ng o o lt fatigue and lack of strength. tu¯ g¯ ng o a t´ u zh` ng r´ o o u xiˇ o bi` n a a g lt lt guˇ o lt thirst. w` ng a kˇ xˇ e ı frequent urination. t´ u zh` ng o o Z lt fatigued limbs. N x´ng ju` n sh´ n d` i ı a e a g wˇ g¯ ng xi` u e e Z lt hemilateral headache. 6 jiˇ xi` u e lt shiver sweating. urinary incontinence. ju` n a zh¯ ı lt ungratifying defecation. su¯ n a y¯ o t` ng a o + ni` o yˇ u y´ l` a o u ı y´ ni` o ı a lt d` a y¯ o a g g enuresis. z > physical fatigue and lassitude of spirit. xiˇ o bi` n a a lt thirst without large fluid intake. 9 yˇn ı B inhibited urination. m´ m` a u k diarrhoea. x ji´ t´ ng t` ng e e o gu¯ n a lt xiˇ o bi` n b` l` a a u ı lt dribble after voiding. y` ji¯ n du¯ e a o ni` o a lt m` xu` n u a ji` n a lt thirst with a liking for cool drinks. sh´ ı fearful throbbing. t` ng xˇ w¯ n o ı e B lt lt somnolence. n lt inability to get food down. . D lt abdominal pain. flowery vision. W R X lt seminal efflux. s` e ] m` h´ u u pain in the stomach duct and abdomen that likes pressure. U lt lt seminal loss. i n` d¯ i a a clamoring stomach. xi¯ ng m` n o e lt smaller-abdominal pain. Z zh` ng t¯ng o ı yˇn sh´ ı ı lt chest and rib-side fullness. 4 j¯ng ı hu´ a upflow nausea. b sh¯ mi´ n ı a b` u sleeplessness.Appendix III: Source-Orientation of Proposed Equivalents lt no thought of food and drink. F c´ o z´ a a wˇ n a lt aversion to light. e ı ˇ x¯n t` xu` u e lt t` ng j` an o u` scurrying pain around the umbilicus. ^ e o ˇ r l´ ng Z lt little thought of food and drink. nausea. kˇ u zh¯ ng h´ o o e lt pain in the stomach duct and abdomen that refuses pressure. h sh´ h` u k` n d` n ı o u u sh¯ j¯ng ı ı y´ ı lt vomiting of acid. p d´ w` e o lt sweet taste in the mouth. g ringing in the e ı ˇ r m´ng i no pleasure in eating. f` mˇ n u a lt profuse dreaming. seminal emission. du¯ m` ng o e lt bitter taste in the mouth. p C e mˇ n a lt ears. O eye pain. f` t` ng j` an u o u` U insomnia. f` t` ng xˇ an u o ı` B m` g¯ n u a lt lt torpid intake. sh´ ı t¯ n a lt x¯n xi` pˇ ı a ı lt lt blurred vision. b sh` mi´ n ı a swallowing of upflowing acid. 2 m` ng y´ e ı fullness in the chest. f` n e a ˇ xi¯ ng t` ng o o : q´ ı lt zh¯ u cu` n t` ng o a o lt dream emission. xiˇ o f` t` ng a u o b` s¯ yˇn u ı ı lt glomus in the chest. shu` ı 1 h¯ n u kˇ u kˇ o u f` n su¯ n a a lt lt lt acid upflow. a u u a n` gˇ b` x¯n a u u ı i heart palpitations. j¯ng j` ı ı B 7 e ı u a ˇ r m´ng r´ ch´ n sh´ b` xi` ı u a b` sh´ u ı y` n a lt lt sh¯ ng e lt lt lt lt inability eat. xi¯ ng pˇ o ı O g lt deafness. ] ` w` gu¯ ng xi¯ m´ng u a u ı g g lt harmony of mouth. t` ng o f` u lt clouding sleep. p aversion to food. dry eyes. hu¯ a m` t` ng u o m` u lt rapacious eating. kˇ u su¯ n o a lt abdominal fullness. B 4 n` gˇ b` xi¯ ng. p lt fright palpitations. kˇ u ti´ n o a wˇ n a lt : sleeplessness. zh¯ ng ch¯ ng e o glomus below the heart. shˇ o s¯ a ı c hardness of hearing. j` ı x¯n ı lt ringing in the ears like the sound of cicadas. & abdominal pain that likes warmth. D : xi¯ ng xi´ kˇ o e u g tinnitus. K t¯ n su¯ n u a t` u lt f` u drowsiness after eating. su¯ n a abdominal pain that refuses pressure. lesser-abdominal pain. p sh´ ı c lt oppression in the chest. & chest pain. j¯ng ı f` u lt lt lt lt lt blood ejection. p d b` m` i u e 2 lt sour taste in the mouth. W W w¯ i m` i e a x` m` i ı a lt s` zh¯ ju´ lˇ ng ı ı e e i menstruation at irregular intervals. lˇ ng e q B S e W W ru` m` i o a d` m` i a a W s` zh¯ n` ı ı ı j¯ng x´ng xi¯ n h` u w´ ı ı a o u d`ng q´ ı ı lt dissipated pulse. m` i a W g´ e lt lt glomus lump. F m` i a huˇ n a Patterns i bˇ a sign. z surging pulse. short pulse. S cold limbs. t m` i. take the pulse. r` e zhu´ o persistent flow of lochia. qi` n w¯ n a e s` zh¯ ı ı yu` j¯ng gu` shˇ o e ı o a lt lt lt rough pulse. y´ ng wˇ i a e lt deep intermittent pulse. m` i a s` n a lt physical cold. 4 m` i a x¯ m` i u a sh´ m` i ı a hu´ a yˇ u l` o ı w´ l` u ı zh¯ lˇ ng ı e lt profuse menstruation. w¯ n e p lt advanced menstruation. ( fine pulse. sunken pulse. Y m` i a W c` u b` u f´ m` i u a lt lt bound pulse. p m` ng er y´ e ´ ı 2 j lt lt lt bar. p r e u u e ` l` b` ju´ c` n kˇ u u o W lt lt hidden pulse. m` i a xi´ n a lt p Y yu` j¯ng b` l` e ı u ı lt lt lack of warmth in the limbs. slippery pulse. p yu` j¯ng sh¯ ti´ o e ı ı a p vacuous pulse. ~ lt confined lt lt stirring foetus. G ch´ m` i ı a shu` m` i o a W W W lt lt lt lt lt lt long pulse. p n reversal cold of the limbs. m` i a W W r´ m` i u a h´ ng o lt s` zh¯ b` ı ı u yu` j¯ng xi¯ n q´ e ı a ı lt delayed menstruation. zh` ng e qi` m` i e a . p stringlike pulse. E rapid pulse. p n soggy pulse. ~ m` i a d` i a premature ejaculation. g scallion-stalk pulse. p n counterflow cold of the limbs. v lt W lt skipping pulse. 0 lu` n j¯ng a ı lt lt tight pulse. H stirred pulse. m` i a j´ m` i ı a d` ng o lt g lt lochia. x gu¯ n a cubit. N h´ n a x´ng ı chaotic menstruation. f` zh` ng u a firm pulse. replete pulse. W s` m` i e a W inhibited menstruation. pulse. z f´ n r` a e wˇ x¯n u ı lt menstrual block. b` ı lt j¯ng ı lt drumskin pulse. q zˇ g¯ ng xi` chu´ ı o a ı lt abdominal distention. pulse. W jˇn m` i ı a W lt vexing heat in the five hearts. m W f´ m` i u a W lt lt wrist pulse. I forceful. h` u o i pattern. t¯ i d` ng b` an a o u¯ p R l´ o m` i a a W W puffy swelling. yu` j¯ng gu` du¯ e ı o o lt scant menstruation. 2 weak pulse. m ch´ n m` i e a W W zˇ o xi` a e lt lt lt lt lt slow pulse. forceless. a lt _ moderate pulse. u chˇ ı floating pulse. k¯ u m` i o a amenorrhea. p lack of warmth in the limbs. c c W W ch´ ng m` i a a duˇ n m` i a a lt menstrual irregularities. O pˇ ku` i ı a prolapse of the uterus. large pulse. p yu` j¯ng h` u q´ e ı o ı lt lt lt lt lt p faint pulse. e u ` l` scorching heat. zhˇ ng o f´ u lt lt racing pulse.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms lt seminal emission without dreaming. W ji´ m` i e a W g g impotence. ı x¯n sh` n y¯n x¯ ı e ı u p´ b` ı u q` counterflow.Appendix III: Source-Orientation of Proposed Equivalents lt exterior pattern. q` zh` ı ı lt nondiffusion of lung q`. @ biˇ o sh´ a ı x¯n q` x¯ ı ı u lt lt lung q` vacuity. lt lung-kidney y¯n vacuity. a p A lt repletion pattern. ı O q` n` ı ı lt q` b` ı ı xu` y¯ e u xu` x¯ e u w´ ng a heart-spleen blood vacuity. @ exterior cold. a y´ ng sh` ng k` ng a a a lt frenetic movement of hot blood. & lt spleen y¯n vacuity. blood vacuity. ı q` block. vacuity pattern. ı x¯n y¯n x¯ ı ı u cold pattern. ı p´ y¯n x¯ ı ı u ] 7 x¯n huˇ sh` ng ı o a lt lt lt heat pattern. ı q` su´ xu` tu¯ ı ı e o lt lt inhibition of lung q`. K zh` ng e lˇ ı lung y¯n vacuity. ı f` i y¯n x¯ e ı u heart y´ ng vacuity. ı q` x¯ ı u heart q` vacuity. b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ a a a ı zh` ng e lt lt spleen vacuity. & ] 7 g¯ n huˇ sh` ng a o a y´ n a lt lt lt blood heat. xu` e lt heart spreading heat to the small intestine. { | f` i sh¯ s` ji` ng e ı u a lt exterior vacuity. x¯n xu` x¯ ı e u lt lt [penetration] pattern. ı p Y f` i q` b` l` e ı u ı f` i e lt exterior repletion. ı q` x¯ ı u q` zh` ı ı lt heart-kidney y´ ng vacuity. spleen q` vacuity. ı centre q` fall. a x¯n sh` n y´ ng ı e a x¯ u lt spleen failing to control the blood. q` xu` j` ı e u lt impaired depurative downbearing of the lung. zh` ng e r` zh` ng e e x¯ u lt y´ n a true heart pain. ı p f` i q` b` xu¯ n e ı u a lt lt exterior heat. sh¯ ji` n y` n ı a u p´ ı lt lt lt q` vacuity. blood collapse. x¯n p´ xu` x¯ ı ı e u lt binding depression of liver q`. ı f` i sh` n y¯n x¯ e e ı u mid-stage lt heart blood vacuity. ı p´ q` x¯ ı ı u p´ x¯ ı u heart y¯n vacuity. xu` r` e e lt ch´ ng a noninteraction of the heart and kidney. tˇ ng xu` o e p r zh¯ ng q` xi` xi` n o ı a a lt lt lt lt lt lt q heart-kidney y¯n vacuity. ı g¯ n q` y` ji´ a ı u e blood stasis. sh` n b` ji¯ o e u a p t ascendant hyperactivity of liver y´ ng. w` ng x´ng a ı y ascendant g¯ n a B xu` r` e e x¯n ı . b` ı x¯n ı lt p´ y´ ng b` zh` n ı a u e spleen failing to move and transform. ı q` stagnation. a p´ y´ ng x¯ ı a u lt devitalised spleen y´ ng. a liver y´ ng. zh¯ n x¯n t` ng e ı o spleen y´ ng vacuity. zh` ng e h´ n a lt heart fire flaming upward. a x¯n y´ ng x¯ ı a u lt lt half-interior half-exterior pattern. @ x¯ u biˇ o a lt x¯ u q` deserting with the blood. x¯n y´ r` y´ xiˇ o ı ı e u a lt liver fire flaming upward. @ zh` ng e biˇ o a lt q` stagnation and blood ı stasis. @ h´ n a biˇ o r` a e biˇ o a lt xu` y¯ e u dual vacuity of q` and ı blood. ı lt lt interior pattern. zh` ng e sh´ ı lt heart impediment. % f¯ ng h´ n e a f¯ ng r` e e wind evil entering the channels. ı y¯n ı sh¯ ng a m`ng m´ n ı e huˇ shu¯ i o a lt lt food damage. a p´ sh` n y´ ng x¯ ı e a u damp-heat. sh¯ r` ı e liver y´ ng transforming a into wind. sh´ ı sh¯ ng a insufficiency of kidney essence. T t summerheat-heat. zˇ u P sh¯ ı g¯ n a lt sh` n q` b` g` e ı u u lt lt f¯ ng n` i d` ng e e o lt spleen-kidney y´ ng vacuity. q` f` n w` i ı a e g¯ n a lt lt lt wind-cold. ı & : sh` n e y¯n x¯ huˇ ı u o lt lt abiding food. % wind-heat. j¯ng b` z´ ı u u p effulgent y¯n vacuity fire. P r` j´ e ı zh¯ n e sh¯ r` zˇ zh` p´ ı e u ı ı lt blood vacuity engendering wind. yu´ n b` z´ a u u p damp-heat obstructing the spleen and stomach. g¯ n xu` x¯ a e u lt kidney failing to absorb q`. a sh` n y´ ng x¯ e a u lt contraction of dryness evil. sh¯ r` y` n ji´ ı e u e g¯ n dˇ n a a lt xu` x¯ e u lt liver-gallbladder damp-heat. gastrointestinal accumulation. ch´ ng w` i j¯ zh` a e ı ı s` sh´ u ı w` ng a lt lt emptiness of the sea of marrow. sh¯ r` xi` ı e a zh` d` ch´ ng u a a lt liver q` invading the ı stomach. a & xi´ e ] y´ ng x¯ shuˇ a u ı lt cold mounting. y´ ng hu` f¯ ng a a e 7 % damp-heat lodged in the q` ı aspect. a p zh¯ n y´ ng b` z´ e a u u lt lt extreme heat engendering wind. ı g¯ n q` f` n p´ a ı a ı f¯ ng e lt damp-heat pouring down into the bladder. ı p lt summerheat-damp. sh¯ ng f¯ ng e e % lt exhaustion of the true origin. & s lt lt lt lt repletion heat. sh¯ ng f¯ ng e e % lt insufficiency of the true origin. b` ı h´ n a gˇ n sh` u z` o a o a lt y´ ng vacuity water flood. P gˇ n f¯ ng xi´ a e e z % w` i a damp-heat pouring down into the large intestine. sh¯ ng j¯n a ı M f` n a lt debilitation of the life gate fire. ı p damp obstruction. x¯ b` i u e xi` yu´ n a a lt w` i e damp-heat brewing in the liver and gallbladder. sh¯ r` xi` zh` ı e a u p´ ng gu¯ ng a a lt kidney y¯n vacuity. % lt insecurity of kidney q`. ı sh` n y¯n x¯ e ı u lt external contraction cold evil. & r` e shˇ u K suˇ hˇ i ı a . & shˇ sh¯ u ı sh` n b` n` q` e u a ı lt lt liver wind stirring internally. r` li´ li` n q` f` n e u a ı e sh¯ ı g¯ n a lt insufficiency of true y´ ng.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms lt liver blood vacuity. & sh´ r` ı e x¯ r` u e x¯ huˇ u o lt damage to y¯n. % xi´ r` j¯ng e u ı H p lt liver q` invading the spleen. dˇ n sh¯ r` a ı e g¯ n a lt external contraction of wind evil. z ' cold impediment. vacuity fire. vacuity heat. P h´ n xi´ a e z w` i gˇ n a a lt lt kidney y´ ng vacuity. sh` n a h´ n a lt damage to liquid. t´ n u lt phlegm lodged in the channels. % Diseases lt xiˇ o er j¯ng f¯ ng a ´ ı e % lt phlegm turbidity clouding the pericardium. b` zh` ng ı e ju´ y¯n b`ng e ı ı g lt defense-aspect pattern. % li´ j¯ng lu` u ı o p O lt deep-source nasal congestion. % t´ n a % % % sh¯ t´ n ı a h´ n t´ n a a r` t´ n e a lt blood-aspect pattern. O l´ ng b` o ı lt q`-aspect pattern. rˇ e u´ lt w b´ i h´ u a o nipple moth. { lt plum-pit q`. % t´ n zhu´ m´ ng b` a o e ı x¯n b¯ o ı a external contraction. t` i y´ ng b`ng a a ı g xi¯ o chuˇ n a a 4 lt y´ ng brightness disease. p ı r impediment pattern. f zh` ng a dispersion-thirst. r` x¯n b¯ o u ı a H g cholera. 5 lt concretions. bˇ i r` k´ a ı e accumulations. w` i e fˇ n a % f¯ ng e lt heat entering the pericardium. ı lt wilting pattern. ı q` ı & m´ i h´ e e y´ng f` n zh` ng ı e e lt damp phlegm. 5 chuˇ n a wheezing. xi¯ o a lt phlegm-rheum. heat phlegm. V g¯ n a malaria. ] sh` n a mounting q`.Appendix III: Source-Orientation of Proposed Equivalents damage. lt lt zh¯ ng jiˇ j¯ j` e a ı u mounting. P w` i gˇ n a a z lt l g lt fright wind. gan. x¯n b¯ o zh` ng ı a e lt stomach reflux. baby moth. a r diphtheria. w` i f` n zh` ng e e e crick in the neck. ji¯ sh´ a ı lt lt lt lt p´ x¯ ı u lt construction-aspect pattern. lt sudden turmoil. cold phlegm. ] ı wind stroke. wind-phlegm. xu` f` n zh` ng e e e dysphagia-occlusion. y¯ g´ e e 4 lt pericardiac pattern. % t´ n zhu´ sh` ng rˇ o a o a a ] r` e g g g lt hu` lu` n o a dysentery. d` u o m´ zhˇ n a e ti¯ n hu¯ a a lt lt lesser y¯n disease. wˇ i e . a r whooping cough. panting. % t´ n m´ ng x¯n b¯ o a e ı a D lt phlegm confounding the orifices of the heart. lockjaw. smallpox. lt phlegm turbidity harassing the upper body. r H l` j´ ı ı hu´ n dˇ n a a lt phlegm clouding the pericardium. a H j¯ng f¯ ng ı e lt miscellaneous disease. u a r wheezing and panting. pox. and gatherings. % t´ n m´ x¯n qi` o a ı ı a j`ng b`ng ı ı child fright wind. zhˇ n e l` o a lt dribbling urinary block. lt sh` o y´ ng b`ng a a ı lt greater y¯n disease. T U K L y´ ng m´ng b`ng a ı ı g lt r lt lesser y´ ng disease. r n¨ e j´ u` ı b¯ n e z´ b`ng a ı running piglet. % yˇn ı t´ n a g g lt xi¯ o a lt greater y´ ng disease. 6 tetany. 1 kˇ e 9 gˇ u consumption. u ı t` i y¯n b`ng a ı ı sh` n q` a ı wind strike. b´ yu¯ n ı a l´ o zh` i a a lt lt t´ n a g drum distention. f¯ ng e % di¯ n xi´ n a a p` sh¯ ng o a lt reverting y¯n disease. conglomerations. g r measles. jaundice. ı sh` o y¯n b`ng a ı ı g g lt zh` ng f¯ ng o e g g epilepsy. frostbite. @ K e zˇ ` u lt paradoxical treatment. lt straight treatment. zhˇ ng o shuˇ ı lt streaming sore. fˇ n zh` a ı pulmonary welling-abscess. X } zh` bˇ n ı e zh` bi¯ o ı a lt attack phlegm. d¯ n d´ a u goiter. t´ n a % g¯ ng o lt malign obstruction. l´n ı 1 sh´ ı lt repletion is treated by draining. di¯ n ku´ ng a a q¯ng ı lt lt q` strangury. q¯ng x¯ r` ı u e lt stone strangury. xu` e li´ ng a lt strangury pattern. chu¯ ng a xiˇ n a d` ng o lt clear damp-heat. h´ ch´ ng w` i e a e ti´ o a g lt scrofula. @ K lt intestinal welling-abscess. B @ lˇ ı erysipelas. f` i wˇ i e e lt @ x¯n w¯ n jiˇ biˇ o ı e e a g cinnabar g g g i i g lt resolve the exterior with coolness and acridity. ı q` r` ı e lt q¯ng ı harmonise the stomach and intestines. Q luˇ l` o ı & phlegm node. treat the tip. y¯ ng o f` i e lt resolve the exterior. . ji´ e j¯ u lt harmonise the liver and spleen. ı 1 q` l´n ı ı 1 unctuous strangury. jiˇ biˇ o e a @ h´ jiˇ b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ e e a a a ı lt harmonise midstage patterns. boil. h´ g¯ n w` i e a e ti´ o a course the exterior. sh¯ biˇ o u a clear heat and resolve toxin. chu¯ ng a d¯ng ı lt R jiˇ d´ e u clear q` heat. l` sh¯ r` ı ı e Y mania and withdrawal. x¯ z´ bˇ zh¯ u e u ı _ lt shifted bladder. flat-abscess. w¯ n xi` e a vacuity is treated by supplementing. q` h´ y´ng ı e ı lt { lt lung wilting. q¯ng sh¯ r` ı ı e lt blood strangury. B lt h´ jiˇ b` n biˇ o b` n lˇ e e a a a ı rectify q` and harmonise ı construction. h´ n xi` a a sh´ z´ ı e lt lt taxation strangury. b¯ ng l` u e o J lt lt lt treat the root. g¯ o l´n a ı Principles and Methods of Treatment lt clear vacuity heat. zh` ng zh` e ı lt lt expel stasis. N l´ o l´n a ı 1 xi` zh¯ e ı lt warm precipitation. ( welling-abscess. lt harmonise half exterior half interior (midstage) patterns. _ lt cold precipitation. K yˇng ı sore. l´n ı 1 xu` e lt lt clear heat and disinhibit dampness. ch´ ng y¯ ng a o lt resolve the exterior with warmth and acridity. chu¯ ng y´ ng a a y¯ ng o lt lt x¯n li´ ng jiˇ biˇ o ı a e a @ harmonise the liver and stomach. g¯ n p´ a ı ti´ o h´ a e q¯ng r` ı e lt clove-sore. 1 zh` ng e l´n ı lt lt lichen. toxin. zh´ y¯ u u morning sickness. zhuˇ n b¯ o a a 3 lt moist precipitation. r` n xi` u a lt flooding and spotting. % t´ n h´ a e clear blood heat. zh` u li´ u lt cool the blood.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms lt water swelling. transform phlegm. ı y` q` ı ı bˇ q` u ı lt hu` t´ n a a harmonise the stomach and transform phlegm. a y´ ng a disinhibit dampness. sh` n` sh` n q` e a e ı lt transform stasis. xu` e zhˇ ı lt lt dry dampness. h` n a / liˇ n a return y´ ng and stem a counterflow. an sh´ n e ¯ R supplement y´ ng. % lt lt reduce urine. ı y¯n ı bˇ u lt dispel dampness. Y shuˇ ı l` ı lt subdue y´ ng and extinguish a wind. Y l` sh¯ ı ı zh` n j¯ng e ı lt lt assist y´ ng. w¯ n j¯ng s` n h´ n e ı a a p lt dispel wind. secure the menses. q ı foster y¯n. zhˇ d` i ı a lt lt lt lt nourish y¯n. j¯ng ı g` u lt lt lt supplement q`. x¯n k¯ i qi` o ı a a q¯ng ı lt lt abductive dispersion. % hu` o lt promote absorption of q` ı by the kidney. < ı enrich y¯n. liˇ n f` i a e hu` t´ n zhˇ k´ a a ı e lt astringe the intestines and stem desertion. j¯ng ı su¯ ni` o o a p supplement the blood. = sh¯ ı check vaginal discharge. ' z` o sh¯ a ı lt settle fright and quiet the spirit. 7 hu` sh¯ a ı lt stanch bleeding. 7 hu` t´ n a a % lt constrain sweat. 7 4 % lt constrain the lung. bˇ xu` u e 7 g` u h´ w` i hu` t´ n e e a a q¯ u lt lt supplement y¯n. % 7 % q¯ f¯ ng u e lt secure essence. y´ ng x¯ f¯ ng a ı e % qi´ n a lt F clear the heart and open the orifices. and suppress cough.Appendix II: Selected Terminologies of Chinese Medicine dissipate cold. 1 sh´ ı zh` y´ ng u a xi¯ o a lt disinhibit water. k¯ i qi` o a a b` hu` ı ı . a disperse food. s` ch´ ng g` tu¯ e a u o lt warm the channels and dissipate cold. ı yˇ ng y¯n a ı z¯ y¯n ı ı y` y¯n u ı bˇ u lt transform dampness. ı boost q`. 1 xi¯ o dˇ o a a promote absorption of q` ı by the kidney. ji¯ n a ruˇ n a lt t´ n k¯ i qi` o a a a repel foulness and open the orifices. 7 y¯ u hu` a lt sweep phlegm and open the orifices. w¯ n zh¯ ng s` n h´ n e o a a lt lt transform phlegm. P hu´ y´ ng ji` n` ı a u ı q lt transform phlegm and suppress cough. sh` n` sh` n q` e a e ı lt soften hardness. A more detailed explanation is given in Chapter 8 (8. ı Beginning with the fourth line are examples of terms in which the character appears with their English translations. 3. Loans are marked in italics. genital. 4. vagina.290 = 1. Eng: q`.290 = 1. ı R two y¯n.290 5 q` No. The list comprises the 260 characters most frequently occurring in a list of 1. A least one example is given to illustrate the usage of each different TL equivalent.523% (AT 7. breath.042%) 3 Eng: y´ ng. 2. pudenda. page 287). ı 252 11. ı q` ascent ı pregnancy q`. male.APPENDIX IV: SOURCE-ORIENTATION IN THE TRANSLATION OF COMPONENT CHARACTERS OF THE PROPOSED TERMINOLOGY The list of characters contained in this appendix forms the basis for the study contained in Chapter 8 (8.g. B. second y¯n channel ı ı insufficiency of heart y¯n ı genital cold pudendal itch testicle. The first line of each entry gives the character and its P¯ny¯n pronunciation in bold type. 1. LGP frq: A (AT 4) a 172 11. LGP frq: A (AT 3) e 173 11.. together with an accumulated total for all entry characters that have appeared so far. a return y´ ng and stem counterflow a .2).232% (AT 2. testis r` No.1. LGP frq: B (AT 2) ın 198 11.518%) Eng: heat 1 + w ( triple burner repletion heat ( clear construction and discharge heat ( tidal heat [effusion] ( hot formula y´ng No. ı ı together with a serial number indicating the character’s position in the list. This is followed by the frequency of the character in the LGP (A.290 = 1. N in descending order of frequency) with the accumulated total of frequently used characters (A.232%) 3 Eng: q`. semantic translations (LGP equivalents and loan-translations) are marked in small caps. C. C) in the list so far. arranged in descending order of frequency. and occurrences where the character is not translated are marked by an empty box (e.532% (AT 5. The second line shows the percentage of the total number of character tokens that the headword character accounts for in the 1.142-term list.986%) Eng: y¯n. ). B.142 terms. breath. LGP frq: A (AT 1) = 2. The third line gives the English translation/s of the character in the terms in which it appears. filial q` ı ı shortness of breath > u twenty-four solar terms y¯ No.2.754% (AT 3. 290 = 0.178% (AT 8. LGP frq: A o o (AT 16) 89 11. LGP frq: A (AT 12) u 98 11.290 = 0.930% (AT 12.163%) Eng: subordinating particle.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters liver y´ ng a weighted y´ ng a y´ ng affair. LGP frq: A (AT 11) ı 100 11. LGP frq: A (AT 6) e 127 11.886% (AT 14. penis a k y´ ng wilt.850% (AT 15.290 = 0. 12.290 = 0. abbr. 10.771% (AT 19. classic. inferior. 5 S s insecurity of the lower origin ( damp-heat pouring downward. fail.547%) Eng: liver 1 repress the liver liver governs the sea of blood zh¯ ng. LGP frq: A (AT 14) ın 96 11.850% (AT 16. 13.903% (AT 13.815% (AT 17.345%) Eng: blood 1 heart governs the blood blood goiter m`i No. 8.374%) Eng: low. LGP frq: C (AT 8) u 111 11. impotence a f¯ng No.290 = 0.105%) > .290 = 0.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 9) a 105 11.220%) Eng: wind 1 wind stroke internal wind white patch wind red wandering wind xu` No.277%) Eng: cold 1 cold stroke exterior cold cold bind zh¯ No.335%) Eng: zh¯ ng center.116% (AT 10.031%) 7 Eng: not. 16. zh` ng No. in-. down.290 = 0. male affair. 5. for menstruation 3 twelve channels classical remedy menstruation x¯ No. ( exterior effusion does not shun heat t nonfixed point a five unwomanlinesses c 2 urinary incontinence earth failing to dam water a sleeplessness ] devitalised center y´ ng a insufficiency of heart q` ı ] devitalised heart y´ ng a j¯ No. object preposition it.290 = 1.290 = 1. LGP frq: C (AT 7) a 126 11. middle burner > o p middle finger body inch medium grade wind stroke channel stroke huˇ No.290 = 0. 14.461%) Eng: vessel.868% (AT 15. her.788% (AT 18. pulse 2 thoroughfare vessel E seven strange pulses large pulse tangled red-thread vessels x¯ No. middle.290 = 0. precipitate.290 = 1. 6. un-.444%) Eng: vacuity 1 1 large intestinal vacuity a 1 five vacuities 1 heart vacuity 1 vacuous pulse xi` No. them B office of justice 8 B life gate fire b` No. him. LGP frq: A (AT 10) a 102 11. -less. 15. 7. LGP frq: A (AT 5) e 133 11. LGP frq: C (AT 15) a 92 11. o zh` ng strike 4 o + center burner. upflaming heart fire heart governs speech % heart cough g¯n No.732%) Eng: heart 1 heart fire flaming upward. downpour of damp-heat inferior practitioner moist precipitation promote lactation h´n No. 9. 17.881%) : Eng: channel. LGP frq: A (AT 13) ıng 96 11. non.983% (AT 11. 11.125% (AT 9. medium. LGP frq: A (AT 17) o 87 11. 290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 20) ıng 74 11.290 = 0.694%) Eng: stomach 1 G disharmony of the stomach. LGP frq: A (AT 21) u 70 11.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 26) a 57 11.602% (AT 23. 25. major.290 = 0.290 = 0. sacred tortoise method sweating G harmonisation d`.620% (AT 22. d`i No. adult.496% (AT 26. scrotal welling-abscess wˇ No. LGP frq: C (AT 22) e 68 11.860%) Eng: kidney 1 noninteraction of the heart and kidney w liver and kidney are mutually engendering kidney enrichment kidney-sac welling-abscess. LGP frq: A (AT 27) a a 56 11. 20. LGP frq: A (AT 23) e 66 11.647% (AT 21.576% (AT 24. 27.091%) Eng: dampness 1 + ( lower burner damp-heat 5 . sickness. large pulse great sweating l major masses of flesh adult medicine inner canthus doctor sh`ng No. LGP frq: N (AT 21) ı 69 11.753% (AT 19.700% (AT 20. LGP frq: A (AT 19) ı 79 11.505% (AT 25. 21. acupuncture and moxibustion sty p´ No. large needle fire needling acumoxatherapy.611% (AT 23.290 = 0.480%) Eng: five. LGP frq: A (AT 28) a w bid mor- 4 seasonal disease enduring illness pregnancy sickness morbid complexion sh`n No.290 = 0.854%) Eng: spleen 1 boost the spleen spleen governs center-earth gˇ No.558% (AT 25. great.413%) 5 Eng: large. 18. fifth 2 a five entries a five unwomanlinesses a five-colored vaginal discharge a five transport points a 7 fifth-watch diarrhoea sh¯ No.412%) Eng: bone 1 interlocking bones extreme of the bone steaming bone fˇ No. flame 2 civil flame fire needling fire eye b fire diarrhoea sovereign fire f`i No. 28. LGP frq: A (AT 25) u 63 11.290 = 0. LGP frq: C (AT 24) ı 65 11. 23.290 = 0.290 = 0. three methods of treatment friction eightfold method of the sacred tortoise. illness.917%) 2 Eng: method. 24.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Eng: fire. 22.558%) Eng: water 1 B grain and water q` ı water swelling b` No. mutual contention of wind and dampness ) dampness encumbering spleen y´ ng a w`i No.290 = 0. 30. LGP frq: N (AT 20) e 73 11.585% (AT 24.655% (AT 21. LGP frq: C (AT 18) e 85 11. 29. 19. acu-.290 = 0. stomach disharmony w stomach domain repletion zh¯n No.278%) 3 Eng: needle.858%) Eng: lung 1 lung governs q` ı lung q` ı w lung repletion shuˇ No. 26.213%) Eng: disease. 886%) Eng: point 1 0 cleft point ch´ng No. ascend.290 = 0. organ cough chu¯ng No. LGP frq: B (AT 37) a 44 11.496% (AT 26.290 = 0. warm acrid exterior resolution K # warm epidemic zhˇ No.290 = 0.390% (AT 31.275%) Eng: intestine 1 large intestinal welling-abscess small intestine 2 intestine-gripping sand d´ No. 40.469% (AT 27.290 = 0.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters = 0.238%) 4 Eng: transform. pattern 2 three inward fall patterns precedence of signs over the pulse w¯n No.290 = 0. 34.290 = 0. phlegm-fire [sore] biˇo No. upflaming heart fire superior practitioner q` ascent ı & anger causes q` to rise ı palatal welling-abscess zh`ng No. + center burner governs transformation a ) fire formation due to excess among the five minds O transform phlegm. 38. melt. phlegm transformation O phlegm-fire.399% (AT 30.778%) Eng: clear 1 clear-food diarrhoea. LGP frq: N (AT 39) a 42 11.290 = 0.487%) Eng: evil 1 ? fire evil k ? external evil .399% (AT 30. LGP frq: B (AT 38) u 44 11. LGP frq: C (AT 36) e 45 11.461% (AT 29. LGP frq: C (AT 39) a 42 11. 42.290 = 0.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 32) ıng 52 11.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 40) ı 42 11. clear-grain diarrhoea clear liver fire ? turbid evils harm the clear hu` No. LGP frq: N (AT 33) a 51 = 0. 32.469% (AT 27. 44.909%) 5 Eng: up. 31.372% (AT 32. heart fire flaming upward. 41. rise.690%) 56 11.378%) Eng: sign.317%) Eng: govern/or 1 B % invigorate the governor of water to restrain the brilliance of y´ ng a ' liver governs the sinews K & gallbladder governs decision q¯ No. - ! / $ 1 3 ' 7 ( 8 + Eng: phlegm 1 O transform phlegm.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 30) e 53 11. 33.399% (AT 30. LGP frq: A (AT 33) a 52 11. form. LGP frq: A (AT 34) a 45 11.037%) Eng: viscus.469% (AT 28. superior. LGP frq: C (AT 35) e 45 11.290 .390% (AT 31. LGP frq: B (AT 29) e 53 11.290 = 0.409%) Eng: sore 1 9 sore at the corner of the mouth : bald white scalp sore sh´ No.665%) Eng: toxin 1 4 5 6 mountain forest miasmic toxin % attacking toxin with toxin ( heat toxin damp toxin z`ng No.290 = 0.372% (AT 32. organ 2 a five viscera a G A % coughs of the five visceral and six bowels.089%) Eng: exterior 1 w 2 heart and small intestine stand in interior-exterior relationship $ = cool acrid exterior resolution w exterior repletion xi´ No. 35. 37. 43.372% (AT 32. 39.452% (AT 29.781%) Eng: repletion 1 . phlegm transformation * melt in the mouth suppurative moxibustion t´n No. 36. LGP frq: A (AT 31) u 53 11.848%) Eng: warm 1 " K winter warmth $ K resolve the exterior with warmth and acridity. ? support right and dispel evil xu´ No.461% (AT 28. 290 = 0. 53. tetanus xi` No. 50.290 = 0. 58. 47.290 = 0. replete evil w ( repletion heat n`i. LGP frq: N (AT 51) o 36 11.337% (AT 35.290 . LGP frq: A (AT 51) a 37 11. ejaculation. internal.345% (AT 34. 54. then supplement. 51. attack followed by supplementation s¯n No. third y¯n channel ı ı + triple burner three postpartum surges y¯ ng No.290 = 0.225%) 3 Eng: damage.880%) Eng: needle. LGP frq: C (AT 45) e 39 11.290 = 0.310% (AT 37. diarrhoea. 45.310% (AT 37. 52.372% (AT 33.570%) Eng: discharge. 49.328% (AT 35.290 = 0. n` No.153%) a Eng: n` i inside/ward. b drain the heart b fire diarrhoea b ^ great draining needling. LGP frq: A (AT 46) e 38 11.563%) Eng: three.236%) Eng: supplement 1 first attack.301% (AT 37. 57.319% (AT 36.337% (AT 34. LGP frq: A (AT 47) e k ? G I J K L N P = 0. 7 major chest bind bound pulse y´ ng bind a H petalled gums w`i No.907%) 2 Eng: bind. n` ine w ? < E sert = 3 > ? A B C D judging the inside by the outside inward fall of an exterior evil D internal cause internal blowing mammary welling-abscess needle insertion y´ No.290 = 0. LGP frq: N (AT 51) e 35 11.525%) Eng: at.372% (AT 33.192%) 3 Eng: drain.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms repletion evil.290 = 0. LGP frq: C (AT 49) a 37 11. LGP frq: A (AT 52) e 35 11. often rephrased in translation as with a ‘when’ construction 1 ( when y¯n is vacuous.244%) Eng: be e q greater y´ ng is the opening a sh´ No. 46.328% (AT 36. diarrhoea.290 = 0. 4 bloody discharge premature ejaculation a 7 fifth-watch diarrhoea liver governs free coursing ji´ No.328% (AT 36. to. third. prick 2 @ ^ leopard-spot needling ^ network vessel pricking ^ prick sh¯ng No.502%) Eng: conjunction so.290 = 0. LGP frq: N (AT 52) ıng 34 = 0. injury. there is ı internal heat _ O taxation causes wearing of q` ı d¯ No. 48.803%) 38 11.882%) Eng: welling-abscess 1 internal welling-abscess k external blowing mammary welling-abscess xi` No. LGP frq: A (AT 41) e a 42 11.354% (AT 33. 56. ( ' heat damaging the sinews.908%) Eng: dryness 1 ' K J earth likes warmth and dryness H J autumn dryness bˇ No.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 44) a 39 11.580%) Eng: tongue 1 G F deviated tongue G ~ ^ prickly tongue z`o No. 55. by q = y + lung opens at the nose ( y heart spreading heat to the small intestine y y´ ng is engendered by y¯n a ı c` No.290 = 0.337% (AT 35. LGP frq: C (AT 48) e 38 11.290 = 0. LGP frq: B (AT 50) u 37 11. LGP frq: C (AT 42) u 42 11. damage to the sinews by heat sprain lockjaw.345% (AT 34. LGP frq: B (AT 43) ı 40 11. 59. triple 3 three hairs triple y¯n. lancing M z b twirling supplementation and drainage z´ No. LGP frq: C (AT 55) o 33 11.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 64) u d Y Z h i _ j . ı SP insufficiency of center q` ı m` No. 67. LGP frq: N (AT 55) u 33 11. 68. 73.709%) Eng: engender. LGP frq: A (AT 59) a 32 11.983%) Eng: counterflow. LGP frq: A (AT 58) = 0. U 2 pass from the interior to the exterior 2 tenesmus. revert 2 g R reversal cold of the extremities g reverting y¯n ı ` S a T b No. vital. LGP frq: C (AT 61) ı 31 11.990%) Eng: flat-abscess 1 mammary flat-abscess xiˇo No.290 = 0.283%) 3 Eng: small.292% (AT 38. > u twenty-four solar terms > \ ] nineteen fears > ^ twelve well points > ten diffusing points ju´ No. abdominal urgency and rectal heaviness 2 1 interior vacuity h´ u No. 63.258%) Eng: cough 1 % dry cough % 2 cough in pregnancy z´ No.142%) 3 Eng: disperse.301% (AT 38. : dispersion-thirst O disperse phlegm waxing and waning of y¯n and ı y´ ng. unfavorable sign g first adverse treatment minor error return y´ ng and stem counterflow a stomach q` ascending counterı flow k´ No.275% (AT 41. wane. adverse. 72.290 = 0.290 = 0.105%) 2 Eng: effuse.301% (AT 38.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters Eng: clove-sore 1 f lip-turning clove sore Q R tiger’s-whiskers clove sore f¯ No.290 = 0.292% (AT 39. 61.532%) Eng: foot.283% (AT 40. arise. 71. LGP frq: N (AT 57) e 32 11.292% (AT 38.290 xi¯o a duce 4 ( V C # fire failing to engender earth extreme heat engendering wind engender liquid c y hundred diseases arise out of q` ı vital q` ı B i reproductive essence n` No. ( heat effusion effusion of the lower back yellowing blistering lˇ No. LGP frq: A (AT 53) a 34 11. 62. error 5 L counterflow fullness below the heart e f hauling the boat upstream unfavorable pattern. minor. abdomen. LGP frq: A (AT 56) a 33 11.858%) Eng: reverse.290 = 0. sufficient 2 e foot greater y¯n spleen channel. larynx 2 W back of the throat throat moth P throat pass laryngeal prominence X throat-entwining wind j¯ No.290 = 0. 60. LGP frq: A (AT 60) e 32 11.283% (AT 40.290 = 0.406%) 3 Eng: interior.275% (AT 40. LGP frq: A (AT 63) u 31 11. LGP frq: A (AT 54) ı 34 11. unfavorable.698%) Eng: throat. 65. natural flux of y¯n and y´ ng a ı a b´i No.425%) Eng: white 2 white scaling wind white papules sh¯ng No.290 = 0.292% (AT 39.275% (AT 41.575%) 2 Eng: ten.290 = 0.283% (AT 40.283% (AT 39. 66. repro32 11. small intestine smaller abdomen minor formula sh´ No. 69.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 57) ı 33 11. LGP frq: C (AT 62) e 31 11. up(stream). 70.290 = 0. 64. 290 = 0.239% (AT 45. LGP frq: A (AT 67) a 29 11. pack.809%) Eng: open 1 O q = transform phlegm and open the orifices e q greater y´ ng is the opening a zhˇ No. LGP frq: C (AT 68) ı 28 11.290 = 0.239% (AT 44.004%) a Eng: great. Eng: breast. LGP frq: C (AT 70) u 28 11.055%) Eng: impediment 1 moving impediment ( wind-heat throat impediment sh´n No. LGP frq: A (AT 66) a 29 11.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms = 0.287%) 5 Eng: after.290 = 0.074%) 3 Eng: formula.3 k outward desertion k D external cause k q nonchannel point j` No. 86. a xi` ng minister 4 a w o fire and water help each other w ministerial fire w ] fearing w`i No.569%) . 82.239% (AT 44.248% (AT 43. 78. post.239% (AT 44. anus ı ~ _ taxation relapse t menstruation at irregular intervals delayed menstruation h´ No. 76. LGP frq: A (AT 76) a 27 11. nipple.290 = 0.290 = 0.290 = 0.570%) mammary.239% (AT 44.290 = 0. non.266% (AT 41. 74.290 l x m y { n p r t u nipple wind failure to take milk promote lactation 2 suckling cough fine-mortar grind k¯i No. digital eye k high-altitude wind sparrow vision b` No. 75. LGP frq: A (AT 72) e 27 11.239% (AT 43.290 = 0. lact-. Eng: xi¯ ng mutually. LGP frq: A (AT 71) a 27 11. co-.290 = 0.290 = 0. 85.826%) Eng: out.257% (AT 42. t` i. 84. later. (breast) milk. connect 4 c triple-y´ ng combination disease a c correlation of complexion and pulse c f united brightness of two y´ ng a c } ~ kidney is connected with the bladder c spleen is connected with the stomach s` No. imperial 3 e great granary e hand greater y¯n lung channel ı . 81.290 = 0. fine 7 v weeping breasts suckling breast welling-abscess w mammary rock 30 11.290 = 0. each other. external.048%) Eng: nominalizing/topic marker z i B fright is treated by calming h` u No.257% (AT 42. then. 83.290 = 0.322%) Eng: taxation 1 _ sexual taxation _ worked water _ taxation strangury rˇ No. vision 1 x lower eyelid rim > eye of the finger. LGP frq: A (AT 74) e 27 11. unite. LGP frq: A (AT 65) e 29 11.526%) Eng: combine.257% (AT 42.248% (AT 43.312%) Eng: spirit 1 x heart stores the spirit o quiet the spirit spiritedness xi¯ng No. LGP frq: A (AT 69) a 28 11. LGP frq: N (AT 64) ı 29 11.248% (AT 43. LGP frq: A (AT 75) ı 27 11.765%) 2 Eng: four.257% (AT 42. | } take after meals B later heaven fire three postpartum surges posterior y¯n. 77. 79. LGP frq: A (AT 73) o 27 11. > twelve formula types s decoction (preparation) l´o No. u four seasons u four seas u loss of use of the limbs t`i No.798%) Eng: eye. suckle. 80. 230% (AT 46. 96. 87.244%) Eng: heaven. 98. 95. LGP frq: A (AT a a 82) 26 11.290 = 0. Eng: shed.750%) Eng: eat.174%) Eng: mounting 1 j cold mounting ' j sinew mounting h`n No.963%) Eng: physician. 93.230% (AT 45.634%) e E Eng: sh` o a age lesser.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters T` i-Yˇ moxa stick a ı e imperial physician ti¯n No.529%) desert. tian.483%) Eng: mouth. } 2 free the interior } free the vessels } y kidney q` flows to the ears ı } precipitation tu¯ No. 88. diet.230% (AT 46. prolapse. orifice opening t¯ ng No. 89.290 = 0. anal desertion T dislocation sh´ No. pregnancy. oral gan q` opening. LGP frq: N (AT 80) a 26 11. 0 0 meal 6 relapse due to eating meat = dry belching with food malodor = diet therapy = suckling epilepsy = vigorous fire consuming q` ı = } take between meals y¯ No. 92.864%) 4 Eng: infant.290 = 0. heavenly tenth a ı eunuchism 3 congenital panting kˇ u No. consume. natural. 97. LGP frq: C (AT 79) u 26 11.239% (AT 45.290 = 0.307%) 3 Eng: free.290 = 0. oral.086%) Eng: orifice 1 \ = nine orifices q = open the orifices.404%) Eng: sweat(ing) 1 sweat is the humor of the heart great sweating streaming sweating q expiration sweating sh`o. 99.290 = 0. shorta 3 lesser y¯n ı shortage of q` ı ^ 0 scant inhibited menstruation zˇ No. medicine 3 e imperial physician shaman healer = l .713%) Eng: summerheat 1 I summerheat stroke I K summerheat warmth t¯i No. LGP frq: A (AT 86) ı 25 11. opening 3 deviated eyes and mouth gan of the mouth.290 = 0.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 78) o 27 11. abbr. 91.239% (AT 45. food.290 = 0. infant’s gate child steals the mother’s q` ı pregnancy sickness pupil qi`o No. LGP frq: B (AT 85) o 25 11.213% (AT 47.290 = 0. suckle. child. dislocation 4 l shedding of flesh and loss of bulk blood desertion k outward desertion F prolapse of the rectum.221% (AT 47. 94.221% (AT 47.230% (AT 46. LGP frq: C (AT 80) a 26 11. stirring foetus foetal water foetal death pregnancy habitual miscarriage sh`n No. LGP frq: A (AT 77) a 27 11. LGP frq: A (AT 87) ı 24 11. for 0 congenital 5 spleen governs later heaven celestial court natural moxibustion ti¯ n-guˇ. shˇ o scant. shˇo No. LGP frq: A (AT 83) ı 26 11. LGP frq: B (AT 81) a 26 11. wrist pulse ı goose-mouth sore shˇ No. LGP frq: A (AT 84) o 25 11. heal. flow to.221% (AT 47.290 = 0.290 = 0.943%) 2 Eng: foetus.230% (AT 46. 90.290 = 0.221% (AT 47. celestial. LGP frq: N (AT 83) a 25 11.230% (AT 45. LGP frq: C (AT 89) u 24 11. 112. LGP frq: A (AT 99) e 24 11. nasal 2 + nasal vaccine + 7 flaring nostrils and outthrust chest ` u ˇ e.089%) Eng: treat.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Eastern medicine t´ u No. semen 2 B i earlier heaven essence i seminal emission jiˇ No.290 = 0.301%) 5 Eng: move. control 3 paradoxical treatment = diet therapy O control wind and transform phlegm x´ No. 100.026%) Eng: network vessel] 1 > a fifteen network vessels j¯ No.876%) Eng: uterus. headache heavy-headedness tip of the nose zh¯ No. 113. l excrescence creeping over the eye + l nasal polyp ` r No. phase.213% (AT 48.290 = 0. w` . LGP frq: C (AT 93) ın 24 11. w` averse to.134%) u Eng: e malign. 110.238%) 2 Eng: sinew. 109. 4 E seven malign signs malignity stroke 5 .213% (AT 50.601%) Eng: essence.290 = 0.290 = 0.290 = 0. 101.213% (AT 49. 107. LGP frq: A (AT 100) ı 23 11. 111. treat through y¯n ı B confluence of the y´ ng [channels] a j¯ No. 114. LGP frq: A (AT 91) e 24 11.290 = 0.213% (AT 48.663%) Eng: dysentery 1 dysentery enduring dysentery b¯o No.213% (AT 49.290 = 0.213% (AT 49. current. > ' twelve channel sinews ' liver governs the sinews @ ' ancestral sinew z ' cramp t` ng No. .213% (AT 50. joint.813%) Eng: resolve.204% (AT 50.388%) 3 Eng: all.213% (AT 50.204% (AT 51. LGP frq: A (AT 90) ıng 24 11.514%) 2 Eng: flesh. 103.213% (AT 49. q = y kidney opens at the two y¯n ı second y´ ng channel a > ^ twelve well points b´ No. P c q y all fulminant rigidity is ascribed to wind B i ( z B when any treatment with cold [medicinals] gives rise to [even greater] heat.213% (AT 48.290 = 0.726%) 3 Eng: two.213% (AT 49. eyelid 3 uterus twisting of the bladder tie drooping of the upper eyelid zh` No.290 = 0. therapy. 104.290 = 0.290 = 0.290 = 0. 106.290 = 0. go. 102.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 97) ıng 24 11. LGP frq: A (AT 96) ı 24 11. LGP frq: A (AT 88) o 24 11.213% (AT 50. uninited 3 resolve the exterior. exterior resolution ( ununited skull 6 knee joint lu` No. e No. 108.213% (AT 48.930%) Eng: nose. bladder. LGP frq: A (AT 94) o 24 11. LGP frq: A (AT 98) o 24 11.175%) 2 Eng: head. e nauˇ ` sea. any. 105. ache 3 pain below the heart headache l` No.290 = 0. LGP frq: C (AT 92) o 24 11. second. LGP frq: C (AT 95) a 24 11.451%) Eng: pain. N transform stasis and move the blood going alone heaven-current red eye a five phases g seasonal whooping cough 9 ungratifying menstruation z severe conditions with single [medicinals] r` u No. LGP frq: A (AT 101) 23 11. LGP frq: N (AT 94) ı 24 11. 195% (AT 52. door gate 8 life gate w dark gate.290 = 0. LGP frq: N (AT 109) a 22 11.290 = 0.195% (AT 52. LGP frq: A (AT 105) e 23 11.337%) 3 Eng: exuberant. LGP frq: B (AT 103) e 23 11. 122. LGP frq: A (AT 111) ı 21 11. pylorus h´ No.186% (AT 53. fluid 2 large intestinal humor depletion snivel is the humor of the lung C fluid collapse m´n No.195% (AT 52.290 = 0. 117. watch 3 D D D act according to time. aspect 2 major divide l divided flesh dividing interstices q` aspect ı > defence aspect y`o No.322%) Eng: moxibustion 1 natural moxibustion direct moxibustion shˇ No. 121. season. LGP frq: A (AT 102) e 23 11.932%) Eng: gan 1 gan of the mouth. 116.694%) Eng: time. LGP frq: C (AT 109) a 22 11.949%) Eng: harmony.290 = 0. 120.186% (AT 53.290 = 0.290 = 0. 123.195% (AT 53. 126. 127. 115.290 = 0.127%) Eng: depressed 1 depressed wood transforming into fire q` depression ı zh` No.195% (AT 52. 119.204% (AT 51. 118.347%) 2 Eng: medicinal/ated.290 = 0. LGP frq: N (AT 109) ı 22 11.290 = 0. ' Chinese medicinals and herbal medicines f B boat and oar medicinal medicated cupping a wreathing insufflation decoction 9 plaster.290 = 0.290 = 0.290 = 0. gentle 1 G harmony of mouth G disharmony of liver q` ı G harmonise the liver G harmonisation K G gentle moxibustion f¯n No.745%) 2 Eng: gate. LGP frq: B (AT 110) u 21 11. 124. plenitude.204% (AT 51.508%) Eng: ascribed to.542%) Eng: construction 1 = clear q` and cool construction ı construction-blood ji¯o No. oral gan monkey gan y` No.195% (AT 53.152%) Eng: divide.541%) Eng: humor.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters aversions of the five viscera liver is averse to wind I upflow nausea nausea p lochia sh`ng No. sorch 2 + triple burner ( 9 + lung heat scorching the lobes g¯n No. LGP frq: A (AT 104) e 23 11. place. attributed to 2 c q y all reversal with constipation or diarrhoea is ascribed to the lower body P c q y all fulminant rigidity is ascribed to wind B % q weaken it according to its ascription q treatment demands [correct] attribution [of signs] sh´ No.204% (AT 52.204% (AT 51. medicinal paste y´ No. LGP frq: N (AT 109) u 22 11. LGP frq: A (AT 106) e 23 11. 125. LGP frq: A (AT 107) a 22 11.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 108) ıng 22 11.737%) Eng: burn.204% (AT 51. and person u B untimely seasonal q` ı u four seasons . exuberant heart q` ı exuberant fire tormenting metal exuberant y´ ng repelling y¯n a ı B office of receiving plenitude intense stomach fire y` No. LGP frq: A (AT 115) a 21 11. jaundice.290 = 0.615%) Eng: malaria 1 female malaria ? malarial evil fˇ No.483%) Eng: stasis 1 N transform stasis N ( stasis heat hu´ng No.880%) 2 Eng: red. tinnitus Y deafness f¯ng No.156%) 2 Eng: metal. LGP frq: N (AT 117) u 19 11. LGP frq: A (AT 120) a 19 11. LGP frq: A (AT 121) ın 19 11. LGP frq: A (AT 119) a 19 11.168% (AT 55. LGP frq: C (AT 122) u 20 11. 140.290 = 0. presentation 4 T shoulder presentation three postpartum surges birth gate * difficult delivery j¯ No. 132. 133. delivery. LGP frq: B (AT 116) o 20 11. 142.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms # heaven-current seasonal epi- demic > twelve watches ch` No.066%) Eng: color. 134. 141.290 = 0. deviated eyes and mouth fire eye white of the eye stye chˇn No.168% (AT 55. 131.290 = 0.969%) Eng: chest 1 7 major chest bind 7 M oppression in the chest No. 129.168% (AT 55. LGP frq: C (AT 117) = 0.314%) Eng: turbid 1 O phlegm turbidity ? turbid evil y¯ No. wood fire tormenting metal incised wound bank up earth to engender metal f` No.290 ji¯ e .290 = 0. remedy. heaven-current red eye red wandering cinnabar seeing red as white wind-wheel rice bean s` No.438%) Eng: formula. 138.792%) Eng: bowel.290 = 0. organ 2 A meeting place of the bowels A cleanse the clean bowel q B A extraordinary organ xi¯ ng No.186% (AT 54. major formula post-antique formula school classical remedy itinerant healer wing of the nose gentle formula n¨ e No.290 = 0.168% (AT 55.168% (AT 56. 130.290 = 0.988%) partum.186% (AT 54. 139. LGP frq: A (AT 114) e 21 11. ear gate earwax 4 ringing in the ears. 137. y´ ng yellow a a dusk watch iris.177% (AT 54. yellow of the eye yˇn No.651%) 3 Eng: yellow.290 = 0. complexion 2 a five colors right complexion benign complexion ˇ r No.186% (AT 53. 136. old yellow tongue fur yellow sweat yellow tongue fur y´ ng jaundice. 135.290 = 0. LGP frq: N (AT 115) u` 20 11.290 = 0.819%) 2 Eng: eye.186% (AT 54. 128.290 = 0. Eng: birth.168% (AT 55.177% (AT 55.146%) 2 Eng: all. LGP frq: N (AT 115) u 20 11.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 118) a 19 11.177% (AT 54. LGP frq: B (AT 112) ı 21 11.252%) 2 Eng: ear. LGP frq: A (AT 113) e 21 11. LGP frq: N (AT 117) o 19 11. " c q y all wind with shaking and dizzy vision is ascribed to the liver # c y the hundred diseases arise out of q` ı zhu´ No.177% (AT 54. 857%) 2 Eng: take.159% (AT 56.254%) 18 11.706%) Eng: person.151% (AT 57.634%) Eng: true 1 true wind stroke true visceral color j¯ No.104%) Eng: pass.151% (AT 58. i } take at calm dawn g } quaff. 150. fluid collapse # C engender liquid with cold and sweetness C boost q` and engender liquid ı p´ No. bar.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 124) e 18 11. 145. convey. and cubit z B P kidney is the gate of the stomach P thigh joint P blocked y¯n ı yˇng No. 152. LGP frq: A (AT 123) a 18 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 131) u 17 11. do- main 4 person who suffers from blood collapse veiling patient u four great physicians i person who suffers from seminal loss w stomach domain repletion f´ No.290 = 0.151% (AT 57. LGP frq: A (AT 130) a 17 11. LGP frq: A (AT 128) a 17 = 0. 4 skin water cutaneous needle oxhide lichen pine bark lichen gu¯n No. 153.290 = 0.290 = 0. without.290 = 0. constipation 3 s i secure essence S s insecurity of the lower origin ^ s astringe the intestines and stem desertion s constipation and diarrhoea ch¯ ng No. bar. nonpassage red vessels spreading across the eye skipping channels B office of conveyance shift zh¯n No. belly.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 133) o 17 11. LGP frq: A (AT 126) ı 18 11.315%) Eng: abdomen.159% (AT 56.151% (AT 58.475%) 11. 143.555%) Eng: no. 154. take in a single dose f` No. 6 no toxicity nonscarring moxibustion Y regularly interrupted only. without stomach limeless wine pulse bereft of stomach q` ı ( ( avoid the mistake of using heat against heat ji¯ No.151% (AT 57.290 4 Eng: pass. 151. 149. 147. 148. abdomen 4 smaller abdomen L abdominal fullness simple abdominal drum snake’s-belly clove sore death in utero chu´n No.151% (AT 57.151% (AT 57.159% (AT 56.290 = 0.007%) Eng: secure.290 = 0. hide. patient. LGP frq: A (AT 129) u 17 11.151% (AT 57. joint. fluid 2 C collapse of liquid and humor.159% (AT 56.953%) Eng: skin. gate. stem. 144.290 = 0. water swelling phlegm node of the eyelid 1 vacuity swelling w´ No. physician. LGP frq: B (AT 132) u 17 11. LGP frq: N (AT 128) o 17 11. LGP frq: A (AT 127) a 17 11.794%) Eng: liquid. non-. bark. block 5 P throat pass 8 P life bar p P inch.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters = 0.158%) . cutaneous.290 Eng: nourish 1 nourish the blood nourish the stomach zhˇ ng No.405%) 2 Eng: swelling. -less. spread. LGP frq: C (AT 125) ın 18 11.159% (AT 56.290 = 0. bereft. 146. drench 4 thoroughfare vessel surging y´ ng pulse a } take drenched E seven gates r´ No.290 = 0.052%) e blood stasis flooding and spotting leaking roof pulse umbilical fistula weeping canthus zhˇn No.290 = 0. _ palpation u four examinations examination of the complexion inquiry d` ng No. 164.290 = 0. surge.151% (AT 58. stream. and y¯n channels along the arms ı reachable sore of the lower back li` No. 160. midday-midnight point selection fire flow e f hauling the boat upstream zh` No. move.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 145) ın 16 11.308%) 3 Eng: like. LGP frq: A (AT 134) u 17 11. LGP frq: A (AT 138) u 17 11.290 = 0. 156. diarN rhoea 3 inhibited q` dynamic ı disinhibit q` ı clear-food diarrhoea. 166.290 = 0.911%) Eng: six 1 G c six ways G H six excesses G six extremes l` u No.142% (AT 59. downpour of damp-heat streaming sore l` No.142% (AT 59. down 3 three hairs pubic hair region lung. stem and branch point selection.142% (AT 59.194%) 2 Eng: examination.290 = 0.142% (AT 59. LGP frq: C (AT 140) e 16 11. crouch.151% (AT 58. LGP frq: A (AT 143) u 16 11. arm. tent la- 4 h deep-lying heat in the thoroughfare and controlling vessels hidden pulse crouching rabbit K latent q` warm disease ı m´o No.290 = 0. 161.459%) Eng: deep-lying.142% (AT 59. 162. LGP frq: C (AT 139) o 16 11. LGP frq: A (AT 141) o 16 11. (upper) extremity. + lower burner is like a sluice 0 lesser-abdominal draft & white as dry bones f´ No. as. pulsate 3 liver wind stirring internally stirring foetus stirred pulse liver governs physical movement > twelve pulsating vessels li´ No.903%) 2 Eng: cause. 155.151% (AT 58. LGP frq: A (AT 137) o 17 11. 159.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 136) a 17 11. clear-grain diarrhoea y¯ No.761%) Eng: unhibitied. 158.290 = 0.290 = 0.290 = 0. ( 4 hand greater y´ ng small ina testine channel g R reversal cold of the extremities y´ ng channels pass through the a head.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Eng: thoroughfare. LGP frq: A (AT 142) u 16 11.619%) Eng: pour 1 ( damp-heat pouring downward.151% (AT 58. LGP frq: A (AT 144) ı 16 11.336%) Eng: stir.142% (AT 59.151% (AT 58. hidden. disinhibit. lash. LGP frq: B (AT 135) u 17 11. D three causes [of disease] } D } treating the unstopped by unstopping D assess the patterns and seek the . 165.142% (AT 59. 157. its bloom is in the [body] hair eyelash down shˇ u No.477%) 3 Eng: flow.609%) Eng: body] hair.760%) Eng: hand. 163. 177.585%) Eng: extreme 1 lower extreme G six extremes u four extremities ( extreme cold engenders heat.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 148) ıng 15 11.249%) Eng: bright. LGP frq: A (AT 147) ı 16 11.290 = 0. o 15 11.290 = 0. bone righting sh¯ No.133% (AT 60. k skin and [body] hair wilting k impotence.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 149) ı 15 11.290 = 0.133% (AT 61.133% (AT 60. l excrescence creeping over the eye white of the eye } cross-eye weeping canthus wˇi No. extreme heat engenders cold & No.290 = 0. medial.133% (AT 60.142% (AT 60. impaired pulmonary depuration spiritlessness C p abnormal upbearing and downbearing c 2 urinary incontinence j¯ No.186%) Eng: lose. 172. justice. 176. in6 % ! " loss of voice x storage failure z impaired lung depuration.290 = 0. LGP frq: B (AT 151) a 15 11. seek the cause from patterns identified D i B debilitation is treated by brightening zh`ng No. ejection a . no sweet or acrid [medicinals] bear downward p stomach governs downbearing of the turbid p downbear counterflow and precipitate q` ı zh` ng No. impaired. limp.116%) . 174. 178.133% (AT 61. 170. rheum 2 drink propping rheum deep-lying rheum zh`ng No. 167. exhale. fail.319%) 3 Eng: eye. LGP frq: B (AT 150) = 0. light 2 f ( bright hall i f B ) house of bright essence f heart governs the spirit light t` No. weighted.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters cause.133% (AT 61.290 = 0.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 152) o 15 11.515%) ` a .850%) Eng: distention 1 water distention q` distention ı drum distention ji`ng No. regular. LGP frq: B (AT 154) u 15 11.133% (AT 60.133% (AT 60. LGP frq: A (AT 153) ıng 15 11. 168. 169.133% (AT 61. 171. W exhale the old and inhale the new a G protrusion of the tongue tˇ No. pro- trude 4 - vomiting + a eject. ab-. LGP frq: N (AT 148) e 15 11. canthus.290 yˇ ın double 4 ' * heavy-headedness heavy voice weighted y´ ng a pregnancy double contraction G double tongue m´ No.133% (AT 60.290 = 0.044%) Eng: right.983%) Eng: bear downward 1 # $ p no sour or salty [medicinals] bear upward. 175. LGP frq: N (AT 150) a 15 11.142% (AT 60. ch´ ng o Eng: zh` ng heavy.452%) 3 Eng: wilt. 5 # $ right complexion regular channel regular water B office of justice u B untimely seasonal q` ı ulna. LGP frq: A (AT 155) u 15 = 0. y´ ng wilt a k g wilting reversal G k limp tongue j´ No. -less. 173.717%) Eng: drink. LGP frq: A (AT 146) e 16 11. eject.382%) Eng: vomiting. 290 = 0. q` stagnation ı = food stagnation stuck needle torpid stomach intake chuˇn No. in. 186. depressed 2 center q` fall ı three inward fall patterns 1 vacuity fall .648%) Eng: prevail.290 = 0. distress. 183.290 = 0. 189. LGP frq: A (AT 157) u 15 11.780%) 3 Eng: enter.276%) Eng: defence 1 > defence q` ı zh` No.124% (AT 62. rapid.904%) Eng: dispel 1 .290 = 0.124% (AT 62.124% (AT 61.290 7 . 179. LGP frq: A (AT 162) e 14 11.647%) Eng: eight 1 / eight ravines eight ramparts r` No.290 = 0. crisis 7 urgent formula 2 tenesmus. LGP frq: N (AT 157) u 14 11.124% (AT 62. 185.290 = 0.290 = 0. 182.124% (AT 62. through.290 = 0.124% (AT 62. 184.290 = 0.144%) Eng: urgent. LGP frq: A (AT 164) o 14 11. hypertonicity. depressed fontanel t` u No. tense. retaliate. acute. 191. 190.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Eng: earth 1 earth failing to dam water m wood restrains earth. 187. LGP frq: A (AT 156) a 15 11. 181. LGP frq: B (AT 159) a 14 11. abdominal urgency and rectal heaviness > C emergency precipitation to preserve liquid acute jaundice acute fright wind ? .133% (AT 61.124% (AT 63.152%) Eng: gallbladder 1 K & gallbladder governs decision w`i No.124% (AT 62. 188. wood overwhelming earth fire failing to engender earth b¯ No. 4 8 14 11. stuck. LGP frq: B (AT 163) a 14 11.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 158) a 14 11.524%) Eng: panting 1 hasty panting 1 vacuity panting sh`ng No. prevalence of wind gives rise to 0 9 : 1 stirring 8 restrained 8 retaliatory q` ı xi`n No. 180. LGP frq: A (AT 160) e 14 11.290 = 0.028%) Eng: store 1 x heart stores the spirit x spleen stores construction 6 i x convey and transform. emergency.133% (AT 61.772%) Eng: fall.400%) 3 Eng: stagnation.896%) Eng: outthrust. LGP frq: N (AT 164) a 14 11.124% (AT 62. LGP frq: A (AT 165) ı 14 11.124% (AT 62. penetrate. restrain. but do not store dˇn No.124% (AT 63. LGP frq: N (AT 160) ı 14 11.290 = 0. join 4 2 < 3 4 = 5 6 outthrust evils > ( discharge defence and outthrust heat P extension of visible veins through all the bars through to the nail = heaven-penetrating cooling method joining channel-joining method t¯i No. LGP frq: C (AT 161) a = 0. ? support right and dispel evil O dispel phlegm c´ng No.020%) Eng: fur 1 white tongue fur peeling fur j´ No. a five entries $ sundown watch U 2 pass from the exterior into the interior inhale ingrown eyelash ( heat entering the pericardium q¯ No. 756%) Eng: fulminant. store 2 . LGP frq: A (AT 178) o 13 11.290 = 0.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 177) e 13 11. LGP frq: B (AT 170) a 13 11.115% (AT 64. 201.290 = 0.268%) Eng: grain.446%) 3 Eng: breathe.115% (AT 64. LGP frq: A (AT 169) ıng 14 11. regulate.290 = 0.986%) Eng: vexation 1 vexation. 196.562%) Eng: back 1 back snake’s-back clove sore effusion of the back suˇ No. LGP frq: C (AT 173) ı 13 11.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters tense lesser-abdominal bind hypertonicity of both rib-sides distress below the heart rapid panting three postpartum crises gˇ No.516%) Eng: stone 1 " h stonelike in winter h stone flat-abscess h stone goiter p´ No. LGP frq: B (AT 172) a fire-girdle sore red and white vaginal discharge girdling vessel women’s doctor pi¯n No.115% (AT 64. relative pronoun O medicine store @ gathering place of the ancestral vessels $ P late afternoon watch a Y five-flavor entry a governings of the five viscera . f rough breathing e great respiration L % e intermittent great respiration.331%) off-center. Eng: hemi(lateral). T hemilateral wind.290 = 0. 202. 197.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 167) e 14 11. 194. LGP frq: B (AT 175) a 13 11.124% (AT 63. 0 H ? I = 0. 4 half-body.115% (AT 64.124% (AT 63. 192.290 = 0. solar term. intermittent sighing b`i No.101%) Eng: enrich 1 enrich y¯n ı d`i No.115% (AT 63. 204.871%) Eng: joint. LGP frq: A (AT 174) a 13 11.290 = 0. clear-grain diarrhoea a five grains c ^ valley union needling ( @ stomach heat with rapid digestion lˇng No. vaginal discharge.290 = 0. sudden 2 P fulminant pouring P A sudden blindness ji´ No. 199. 198.115% (AT 64. LGP frq: A (AT 171) e 13 11. 200.290 = 0. 203. half-body wind T hemiplegia T off-center mouth-level ju a Y T U flavor predilection T shoulder presentation T hyperactive kidney fire x¯ No.677%) Eng: place.124% (AT 63. LGP frq: A (AT 176) ı 13 11. LGP frq: A (AT 168) ı 14 11.124% (AT 63. respiration.290 A J B C K D M E N 4 G base joint. 193.115% (AT 63. valley 4 clear-food diarrhoea.115% (AT 64. food. 3 13 11. heart vexation vexation and agitation z¯ No. normal 1 i calm pulse O i disperse phlegm and calm panting i normal individual b`o No.216%) Eng: girdle. 195. knuckle F joint-running wind solar term lung governs management and regulation f´n No.392%) Eng: cold 1 R counterflow cold of the extremities R cold sweating R cold dysentery sh´ No.290 = 0. .115% (AT 63.640%) Eng: calm.290 = 0. LGP frq: B (AT 166) u 14 11. philtrum human-center clove sore X man’s prognosis.988%) Eng: strangury.290 = 0.094%) Eng: boost 1 B < % h boost the source of fire to disperse the shroud of y¯n ı boost the stomach supplement (and boost).669%) 3 Eng: detriment. like.792%) Eng: flavor. LGP frq: A (AT 183) ıng 12 11. and person human center.106% (AT 66. LGP frq: C (AT 188) u 12 11.290 = 0. 207.290 = 0. LGP frq: C (AT 187) u 12 11. 216.244%) Eng: fright 1 z i B fright is treated by calming fright wind P fright palpitations zh`ng No. LGP frq: A (AT 185) ın 12 11. LGP frq: A (AT 179) 13 11. 210. reduce. 215. o T liver and kidney are of the same source C o T liquid and blood are of the same source o like treatment of unlike disease > o dual disease of defence and q` ı m` No.106% (AT 65.290 = 0. 208.907%) 4 Eng: same.290 = 0. LGP frq: N (AT 187) ı 12 11.106% (AT 65.350%) Eng: obstruction 1 internal obstruction k external obstruction ^ clustered-stars obstruction j` No.562%) 2 Eng: meeting. continence. 218. 212. abruptly fluctuating pace l´ No.106% (AT 65. E sevenfold reduction and eightfold boost b detriment to y¯n affects y´ ng ı a h damage to the thoroughfare and controlling vessels pˇ No.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 191) a 12 11. smell 2 a Y five flavors Y nature and flavor R Y smell odors t´ ng No.022%) Eng: wood 1 G wooden tongue V water failing to moisten wood r´n No.290 = 0.200%) Eng: sea 1 u four seas a 2 secret 3 .115% (AT 65. 209. 206.106% (AT 65.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Q S U W \ ] _ No.115% (AT 64. 211.106% (AT 66. dribble 2 a five stranguries blood strangury c 0 dribbling urination y` No. course the liver course the exterior e e now relaxed. LGP frq: A (AT 182) e 13 11.106% (AT 65. D D D act according to time. LGP frq: A (AT 180) o 13 11. 213.881%) 4 Eng: course. supplementation (and boosting) hˇi No. 217.290 = 0.290 = 0.290 = 0. LGP frq: C (AT 184) a 12 11. eight meeting points A meeting place of the bowels epiglottis sˇ n No. human. dual.290 = 0.137%) 4 Eng: person.115% (AT 64. place. 205. now rapid. man.456%) Eng: contraindication. LGP frq: B (AT 190) ı 12 11.290 = 0. 214. ren-ying Y woman t serenity watch Z pox inoculation hermaphrodism j¯ No. w`i e ` a c d f g i five contraindications c 2 urinary incontinence 2 secret formula hu` No.290 = 0.106% (AT 65.106% (AT 65.115% (AT 65.290 = 0.106% (AT 65. relaxed. LGP frq: C (AT 189) ın 12 11. LGP frq: A (AT 181) u 13 11. LGP frq: A (AT 186) ı 12 11.775%) Eng: glomus 1 N glomus below the heart N L glomus and fullness sh¯ No. 290 = 0.097% (AT 67.290 = 0.290 = 0.732%) Eng: origin 1 S s insecurity of the lower origin S original q` ı d¯n No. erysipelas red wandering cinnabar X M girdling fire cinnabar xi´n No. interstice 2 dividing interstices course the liver and rectify q` ı rectify q` ı interstices qi´ng No.290 = 0. menstruation 2 n bimonthly menstruation absence of menses ~ menstrual irregularities. 233. attack followed by supplementation advanced menstruation kidney governs earlier heaven yu` No. 229.290 = 0. dual.325%) Eng: full 1 L center fullness $ : L soften hardness and eliminate fullness L abdominal fullness gˇn No. LGP frq: B (AT 197) a 12 11. 228.106% (AT 66. insect 2 p inch whiteworm @ kill worms v animal and insect wounds mˇn No. LGP frq: A (AT 202) a 11 11. menstrual disorder yu´n No.106% (AT 66. LGP frq: N (AT 197) a 11 11.106% (AT 66. 223.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 199) a 11 11.130%) Eng: lichen 1 oxhide lichen blown blossom lichen snakeskin lichen ch´ ng No.520%) Eng: tetany 1 z soft tetany resolve tetany lˇ No.290 = 0.617%) Eng: rectify. LGP frq: N (AT 200) ıng 11 11.106% (AT 66.290 = 0.290 = 0.290 = 0. elixir.625%) Eng: month. LGP frq: A (AT 195) e 12 11.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters thoroughfare vessel is the sea of blood Q sea of marrow bi`n No. double 3 c f united brightness of two y´ ng a 1 dual vacuity of the heart and spleen. 227. elixir n. LGP frq: A (AT 201) ı 11 11.306%) a 4 Eng: stool. 224.422%) 2 Eng: contract. then supplement.097% (AT 67. LGP frq: A (AT 200) a 11 11. heart-spleen vacuity double contraction xi¯n No. LGP frq: A (AT 192) a 12 11.097% (AT 67. c visceral toxin bloody stool c 2 urinary incontinence c bi` n toxin [sore] a c enema c damp toxin bloody stool liˇng No.838%) 3 Eng: cinnabar. 232. 230. 220.519%) Eng: first. 226.715%) j s t k u l w m x o y p { r | . LGP frq: N (AT 197) a 11 11.290 = 0. 222.033%) Eng: sand 1 2 wind sand 2 sand distention xiˇn No. LGP frq: A (AT 193) a 12 11.097% (AT 67.097% (AT 66. 219.097% (AT 67.097% (AT 67. 231. LGP frq: A (AT 196) a 12 11.290 = 0.097% (AT 67.935%) Eng: epilepsy 1 epilepsy of pregnancy y´ ng epilepsy a fright epilepsy sh¯ No.106% (AT 66. advanced. 225.290 = 0.097% (AT 67.413%) Eng: two.106% (AT 66. LGP frq: N (AT 197) a 11 11. 221. bi` n. LGP frq: A (AT 194) a 12 11.290 = 0. k external contraction double contraction I summerheat contraction W K new contraction warm disease j` No. LGP frq: A (AT 198) o 11 11. q cinnabar field fire cinnabar.290 = 0.228%) Eng: worm. early 3 first attack. 910%) Eng: epidemic 1 # % epidemic cough # epidemic clove sore fˇ No.290 = 0. ji` ng stiff. LGP frq: A (AT 212) ı 11 11.097% (AT 68.592%) 3 Eng: issue. 5 z > i B 11 11.097% (AT 68. conduct. bitter fullness in the chest and rib-side y` No.494%) Eng: envelop.290 = 0.097% (AT 68. pericardiac network [vessel] cold enveloping fire ch¯ No. 244. " bitterness enters the heart " ( discharge heat with cold and bitterness 7 " L fullness in the chest and rib-side. up.290 = 0.007%) Eng: house.787%) Eng: draw. LGP frq: A (AT 211) u 11 11.097% (AT 68. wrap. w clashing paradoxical treatment stomach reflux stomach reflux R y arched-back rigidity sh¯ng No.397%) 2 Eng: sweet.097% (AT 68. 243.097% (AT 68. . paradoxical. bearing > .097% (AT 68.105%) Eng: official 1 B office of the granaries q´ No.097% (AT 68. + lower burner governs exit = clear y´ ng issues through the a upper orifices $ sunrise watch yˇ No.290 = 0.290 = 0. 246.202%) Eng: its.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 203) u 11 11. LGP frq: C (AT 204) ı 11 11. the. (in order) to.097% (AT 67. 234. NULL 3 pericardium. LGP frq: A (AT 215) e 11 11.290 = 0.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 206) a 11 11. extract.097% (AT 68.812%) 2 Eng: bitter. floating. its bloom is in the [body] hair C spleen governs movement of stomach liquid x¯ No. LGP frq: A (AT 205) u 11 11. LGP frq: A (AT 213) ın 11 11. C p b v upbearing. ..097% (AT 68. % treat the right through the left % r pain indicates the point z K B % insufficiency of the physical body is warmed with q` ı B < % h boost the source of fire to disperse the shroud of y¯n ı B % q weaken it according to its ascription yˇ No. 245. lung. downbearing.290 = 0. # sweetness enters the spleen # worked water G = 0.290 = 0.290 = 0.884%) 3 Eng: clash. 236. a 3 } ~ stiff tongue stiff neck rigid center kˇ No. 235.689%) Eng: through..981%) 2 Eng: bear upward. their. according to. LGP frq: A (AT 207) ı 11 11. .299%) Eng: acrid 1 $ acridity enters the lung $ = cool acrid exterior resolution g¯n No. exit. mansion 2 S ) origin house. 237. origin mansion ) mysterious house B ) house of the kidney B ) house of conveyance and transformation i f B ) house of bright essence gu¯n No. with. 242. LGP frq: A (AT 209) a 11 11. LGP frq: A (AT 214) a 11 11.290 draw out and exhaust what is low needle extraction > channel conduction j > cold causes contracture and tautness > < return fire to its source fˇn No. 240. 239.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms Eng: qi´ ng a rigid strengthen. and sinking. LGP frq: A (AT 208) ın 11 11.290 = 0.097% (AT 67. 238. taut.097% (AT 68. 250.097% (AT 69.290 = 0. 249. 248.290 = 0.089% (AT 69. LGP frq: A (AT 220) a 10 11. 252. LGP frq: N (AT 223) o 10 11.796%) Eng: bladder 1 } ~ % bladder cough ku` No.089% (AT 70.176%) Eng: seven 1 E seven formula types E F seven relations.089% (AT 70.079%) ~ G li´ u 10 11. zh` No.290 = 0. LGP frq: A (AT 221) a 10 11.290 = 0. LGP frq: N (AT 226) ı 10 11. conduct. harmonize 2 ~ G harmonise the liver and stomach upraise center q` ı upbearing formula C spleen q` governs upbearing ı No. LGP frq: C (AT 225) a 10 11. abductive dispersion of food stagnation abductive dispersion > conduction enema ti´o No.290 = 0.619%) .265%) 5 Eng: twirl. LGP frq: B (AT 226) ı 10 11. shift.089% (AT 69. 253.097% (AT 69. M z b twirling supplementation and drainage z needle rotation z spinning pill pulse z shifted bladder z ' cramp z outthrust construction heat through q` ı j¯ No. 254. 260.089% (AT 69.290 = 0. LGP frq: N (AT 221) = 0. 247. 258.290 = 0. LGP frq: B (AT 223) a 10 11.531%) Eng: regulate. 255.062%) Eng: macule 1 transform macules maculopapular eruption worm macule b` No.353%) Eng: accumulate 1 a five accumulations = food accumulation dˇo No.290 = 0. rotate. 251. LGP frq: A (AT 219) ı 10 11.089% (AT 70. LGP frq: B (AT 224) u 10 11.089% (AT 69.973%) Eng: drum 1 blood drum spider drum b¯n No. seven affects zhuˇn No.290 = 0.290 Eng: nine 1 \ ^ nine needling methods \ Z nine types of heart pain q¯ No. 256.089% (AT 69.708%) Eng: moist(en) 1 # enrich and moisten with cold and sweetness moist tongue fur p´ng No.885%) Eng: rampart 1 eight ramparts gˇ No. LGP frq: A (AT 218) a 10 11.290 = 0.089% (AT 69.290 Eng: tumor 1 l flesh tumor fatty tumor bean curd dregs tumor r` n No.239%) Eng: hemorrhoids.089% (AT 69. LGP frq: A (AT 216) = 0.290 = 0.151%) 2 Eng: block. pile 2 + t nose pile { t everted flower hemorrhoids 6 F t anus-stopping hemorrhoids harmonise the liver and spleen No. LGP frq: C (AT 222) u 10 11.089% (AT 69.Appendix IV: Source-Orientation in the Translation of Component Characters C C o jiˇ u 11 11. LGP frq: A (AT 217) ı 11 11. 257. 259. spin. = disperse food and abduct stagnation.089% (AT 69.442%) 3 Eng: abduct.290 = 0. GLOSSARY OF TERMS Terms marked with a star denote concepts specifically defined in the context of this dissertation. one-to-one translation concept The basic notion which a term is equivalents (Hartmann and James 1998). usually resulting bilingualism The alternate use of two lanin the loss of any conceptual distinction they guages. consisting of a monosyllable tion. especially a loan. Likewise. represented in writing by a single character. calque (from French calque. Any form that has been borrowed. ‘mouth bitter’. a a ı e a active verb ⇒ verb. Many definitions of bilingualism imply. Bilinmorpheme with a stateable lexical meaning. have been proposed (see. as opcross-cultural transmission of knowledge. grammatical.g. any unit of thought (ISO 1987). lit. Romaine 1989/1995). Chinese. if kˇ u kˇ .g.. as represented by writings of Conand cultural differences. * (asterisk) placed before a word or expression indicates that the word or expression is unattested or unacceptable (e. to trace) ⇒ loanaddition The inclusion in the TL of an element translation. *B b´ i ni´ n n` sh´ t¯ i). anisomorphism A mismatch between a pair of classical Chinese The written form of Old languages due to their semantic. A word that has a stateable lexical meaning. for example. For example. e. 3. and other thinkers. but in the context of the content word Also called contentive. as applied in the present study. A term-formation method by the TL culture. specific to the SL culture used as an equivalent for a term denoting a concept specific to borrowing 1. a content morpheme is a cialty information in another language. 2. as a test of conflate To translate two or more different SL how accurate the TL translation is. the term includes loantranslation. is translated as character-word The minimum unit of meano u bitter taste in the mouth. This leads to a relafucius. In a broader definition. a posed to a functional word or grammatical bilingual is any person who has access to speword. terms with a single TL term. designed to express (Hartmann and James back-translation Translation of a TL text back 1998). tive absence of direct. Mencius. not contained in the SL. borrowed are referred to as loans or loanwords. energy as the equivalent which a word is transferred from one lan- . the taste is an insering in Chinese. guals are the principal link between the SL and TL in the interlingual transmission of cultural equivalent A term denoting a concept knowledge. into the original source language. ). heart as the LGP equivalent of 6 x¯n. In the present study. lit. bor.. e. profession.g. . language. to language for general purposes epithet A word or short phrase used to charac(LGP). expansion A lengthening of a word. the opposite of abbreviation. facial complexion. a called general language. e. rowing. Words rarely have LGP ⇒ language for general purposes. A term denoting a concept that is found in one culture. lents. for example. true equivalents in any other language. A type of knowledge used as the equivalent of a term translation where the morpheme constituents denoting a similar but not identical concept of the SL word or phrase are each translated specific to the TL culture or body of knowlinto equivalent morphemes in the TL. loan-translation.Glossary of Terms tionary or word-list. whose meaning corresponds to a word or expression in the SL. deletion The nonrepresentation in the TL of language for special purposes (LSP) A variety of a given language understood in contrast any word or morpheme contained in the SL. just as the represent SL terms may be called equivaSL term for which it is the chosen equivalent. etc. the tendency to exwords or morphemes in a later stage of the press ideas in four character phrases). sphenoideum sphenoid bone.. words chosen to consistently LGP equivalent A TL term used in the LSP in the same sense as in the LGP. within a system of concepts (ISO 1987). perguage community in contrast to language mitting its differentiation from other concepts for special purposes (LSP). y¯n and ı language for general purposes (LGP) Also y´ ng. expansion usually refers based on classical models and reflecting deto the writing of abbreviations in their full velopments in the spoken language..g. functional equivalent A term denoting a concept specific to the TL culture or body of loan-translation Also called calque.g. or phrase. Bein bone = Latin os rower notion of cultural equivalent. which is the topic of that culture-specific term Also culture-bound entry. but not in others. used by members of a group involved terise an object. term. e. so that equivalent is at best a rough semantic match. yet prestandard form.g. ı cipline. mi` n s` h´ ng ch`. Introduces a strictly literal or semantic meaning of a term. disq`. or equivalent A word or expression in the TL used differently than in the LGP).. The ordinary everyday language shared by all speakers of a landefinition Verbal description of a concept. red face in later literature is reexa ı foreign language. loan-word ⇒ loan. Functional equivalent includes the narGerman Keil wedge. ⇒ cultural equivalent. as. In literary Chinese Any form of written Chinese Western languages. when a red facial complexion described in the N` ij¯ng as e ı loan A word or expression borrowed from a mi` n ch`..e. red a e o ı pressed as ⇒ borrowing. term. the term senting unique characteristics present in neiis used to denote the process observed in Chither the classical language nor any contemnese whereby an idea is reexpressed in more porary spoken form (e. LGP ı equivalent. blood is the mother of in a specific activity (trade. edge. Literally. In LSP. Also called loan-word. and characterised primarily by special terms (words not used in the LGP. independent formation.g. e. e. empty metaphor: Metaphor whose source domain contributes minimally to the understanding of the concept. In Chinese.e. malleus (hammer) and incus (anvil) in modern anatomical terminology. naming metaphor: A metaphor used to provide a name for an object. in contrast to any extended meaning (notably including metaphorical meaning). muscular trochlea. is the reproduction of metaphor in the TL. The image of a metaphor is the item in terms of which the object is described. a u u u cludes simile (e.. bridge as in dentistry)..g. B : white as dry bones) and metaphorical epithets q` w´ i xu` zh¯ shu` i. then this matter may be of concern to us in the translation of LSP terminology. in my usage in the LSP context. Using the terminology of Newmark (1995: 85). e. Metaphor can be contrasted with direct or nonmetaphorical description.g. mitral . states).g. The literal meaning is disguised by the addition of the flesh signific (9 ). f´ . systematic metaphor: Metaphor in multiple terms denoting interrelated concepts drawn from corresponding expressions in the source domain that are similarly interrelated. The term connotative meaning also includes affective and attitudinal meaning. Literal meaning is the primary meaning.g. meaning The relationship between words or phrases and the objects or ideas which they designate (Hartmann and James 1998). wind impediment. events. in Chinese e ı medicine. senses known or assumed to have existed in the past. also referred to as replication. but if it is taken to include familiarity/unfamiliarity and technicality/nontechnicality (compare the affective connotations of the referentially exact synonyms skin and cutis in Western medicine). + o 2 h is the commander of the blood).. connotative meaning is normally of little concern.g.e. Finally.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms LSP-bound term Any term whose use is generally confined to language for special purposes and not used by noninitiates. which. literally means an official residence or office. Descriptive metaphor also in4 b´ i r´ k¯ gˇ . The lexical meaning of a term is the meaning of a word in contrast to its grammatical meaning. The denotative meaning is the content of the term.g. e. e. Different referential meanings of a word are often called senses. atherosclerosis in Western medicine or " f¯ ng b`. In the realm of terminology.. referential meaning (denotative meaning) is the relationship between language and objects (entities. the object of metaphor is the item described by it. a term denoting a class of organs.g. Literal meaning also includes etymological sense(s). The sense of metaphor is what particular aspects of the object and the image are similar. transfer of metaphor.. Different parts or a class by one of its members. in pulse u description. descriptive metaphor: Metaphor used to describe the qualities of an object rather than to name it.. Since LSP uses LPG lexical material to form terms... e. in which fˇ is easily construed as merely representing u a sound. a concept by its formal aspects. there is connotative meaning. metaphor The application of words used in one domain to name or describe an entity or metonymy The naming of a whole by one of its phenomenon in a different domain. normalisation of metaphor (as used by Newmark) is the translation of a metaphor with a direct expression in the TL. ‘grain and water’ denoting food in ı u formal metaphor: Metaphor representing general. For u example. processes.g.g. e.g. i.. representing a concept by its functional aspects. floating. metaphorical uses of characters are normalised by the addition of a new signific. it is often useful to distinguish between LGP sense (e. atrium. includes technical content or implications of the concept. fˇ . q` ı e e ı a ı (. bridge as an architectural structure) and LSP sense (e.. forms of metaphor may be distinguished:f shuˇ gˇ ..g. the need to ensure transnot influenced by the lexical form or lexiparency of SL terms in the TL terms re. an event. In terminotion of an LSP term in one language that is logical translation. nese. ⇒ classical Chinese. source language (SL) The language out of ˇ o Put¯ nghu` lit. imum. which has were traditionally the primary level for the arnow been adopted by world media and has rangement of characters in dictionaries. source-independent formation 1. ⇒ metaphor. In terminology. quires that polyequivalence be kept to a min2. Old Chinese The Chinese language from the sense One of several meanings of a word. LGP pegging The explicit linking (of terms in the sense: A primary or extended sense of a word TL to terms in the SL). ple.d. For a system of conor phrase in the LGP. ⇒ meaning. all TL terms should be pegged to terms in the motivating sense: The primary or extended SL. terms. The formaor phrases in another language. or government officials). a person or thing to alect of Bˇ ij¯ng as its model. mary sense. a highly inflected also includes metaphorical sense. In grammar. heat. describing simile A figure of speech comparing two essential unlike things.) to the end of the H` n Dynasty (220 extended senses. sense in which a word or phrase was chosen phonetic attrition Reduction in the total numas an LSP term. e ı which an action is directed. a material entity. more recently started to replace the WadeGiles system in sinology. ⇒ pegging. The dialect of Northern and Western source-oriented translation ⇒ transla- . a process. The P¯ny¯n Also H` nyˇ P¯ny¯n ( ı ı a u ı ı jiˇ moxiu with fire. SL ⇒ source language. For examcaused an increase in compounding.).Glossary of Terms franca of China. system of Romanisation of Chinese devised e e bustion. extended sense: A nonpria. 2. ⇒ translation. largely taking the specific diobject 1. Any term thus formed. usually introduced by like w p¯n y¯n w´ n ı ı e any phonetic script ( or as. or a state. term. that a word or phrase has only in an LSP. ber of sounds in a language. or phrase. r` heat.cal meaning of a term in another language. zh¯ ng steam. ical sense: A sense in which a word or phrase is used metaphorically. in contrast to a 476 b. cup as a measuring cup is an extended sense of cup as a medium-size vessel Old English The language of the Angloused especially for drinking hot beverages.c. A steep reduction in the number of sounds in Old Chinese signific The part of a Chinese character that indicates its domain of signification. Significs in the People’s Republic of China. Simile is included in the wider sense of z`) and in particular any Romanisation of Chiı metaphor. It Saxons up to around 1150. metaphorlanguage with mostly Germanic vocabulary.g. spoken by mandarins. ‘ordinary speech’. 3.. the fire signific # (or its variant ) is included in many characters that have to do ). metaphor (Newmark 1995: 85). Also called a which a text or term has been translated or is Mandarin (originally denoting the language to be translated. or heating e. primary sense: The main sense end of the Spring and Autumn Period (770– or senses of a word or term. The item described by a semantic equivalent An equivalent formed by semantic translation. Note that the term is broader in meaning in Chinese. LSP sense: A sense cepts to be expressed in the TL as in the SL. polyequivalence The existence of multiple equivalents in one language for words. ⇒ polyequivalence. ⇒ transla- term A word. type The individual examples of different words or combination of words occurring in a given corpus. term formation results from the appearance Several approaches to terminological translaof new concepts in any field. prelation of terminology denotes specifically an cise sense. source-oriented : Any form of mann and James 1998). For examing. In the to designate a concept (ISO 1987). Primary ted from one language community to another. has only three character 2 bˇ xu` li´ ng. guistic community. ⇒ type. for example. target language (TL) The language into which a text or term has been translated or is to be translated. lating each word with a TL word of similar terminography Terminological lexicography. and derivation. term translation The initial act of deeming an transparency Clear reflection in the target lanequivalent for a term.. reflects the motivating sense of the elements (⇒ sense). the Chinese 3 y¯ o literally means both and their use in particular fields of speciali‘waist’ and ‘lumbus’. aching lumbus. ⇒ tou e a types I ken. literal meaning to the SL word. target-oriented translation tion. unequivocality. semantic : Translating LGP terms with LGP equivaterminological rigor The extent to which aclents and LSP terms by loan-translation that curacy. 2.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms stative verb ⇒ verb. secondary term tion can be distinguished: target-oriented formation occurs as a result of a) mono: Any form of translation that tends not to be lingual revision of a given terminology or literal. In my usage. waist as if girthed a u e u concepts of a given field. Terms are formed by terminologisation (use of an terminological : The act of establishing equivalents in the TL for terms in the SL.translation The restatement of the written or spoken forms of one language by those of nical subject to designate a concept (Hartanother. word-for-word : Translating each b) in the transfer of knowledge to another lin(content) word (or morpheme). etc. in contrast to formation of TL terms independently of term formation The process by which one or the form and literal meaning of the SL terms. target ⇒ metaphor. a a with rope. lents. source-orientation in the transeral. grammatical words. which consists of four u e a e character tokens. guage (TL) term of the meaning of the source . sation (Hartmann and James 1998). and explaining technical terms in general a ple. the term I 2 2 bˇ xu` li´ ng xu` . or alphanumeric symbol used by the practitioners of a specialised tech. 3 _ y¯ o su¯ n. in LGP expression to denote an LSP concept). For example. any expression used in a definite. In semantic translation. more lexical items becomes a term. A field concerned with the tivating sense that semantic translation diftheory and practice of coining. loan-translations. In genpresent study. token An instance of a graphic word occurring in a corpus. etc. target language. phrase. documentfers from strictly literal translation. a process which requires it does not necessarily entail adherence to the the creation of new terms in the target lanword-order of the original. Term differs from word in that it approach to translation based on LGP equivaexcludes. a word or phrase used translation that tends to be literal. It is only in reflecting the moterminology 1. subject fields and disciplines being transmitcompounding. literal : Transguage (Sager 1998a). The the motivating sense must be chosen: 3 : entire vocabulary representing the technical Z y¯ o r´ sh´ ng sh` . and loans. are achieved. but not necessarily. and hence they are referred to more accurately as active verbs and stative verbs. and for which most languages have words. S g¯ n g¯ n j`ng j`ng) and are a a ı ı jiˇ o. tense. that is inflected according to person. It normally ranges from the word through the collocation to the clause (Newmark 1988: 285).Glossary of Terms translators to remember terms. mood. unit of translation (UT) The smallest segment of an SL text which can be translated. ‘moon’. as a whole. ‘head’. In modern Chinese. ‘earth’. ‘nose’.. However. see Lyons 1977: chapter 11). ‘eye. In the body. universal A concept common to mankind in most places and at most times.. verb In Indo-European languages a verb is a word most commonly signifying. verbs are not fully distinguished from adjectives in that they can be used predicatively or attributively. . for example. are concepts that most human beings share. are universals. ‘rain’. ‘Sun’. ‘blood’. or aspect (for a much more precise definition. in isolation from other segments. In Chinese. a often distinguished from active verbs in predicative sentences by the addition of a copulative verb and adjectivalising particles. and may be one of the main reasons for source-orientation in terminological translation.g. without morphological distinction. active and stative verbs obey different reduS bˇ jiˇ o bˇ ı a ı plicating patterns (e. signifying action. in many cases the distinction remains blurred.’ etc.