From the “F” Word to Indigenous/FeminismsLuana Ross Wicazo Sa Review, Volume 24, Number 2, Fall 2009, pp. 39-52 (Article) Published by University of Minnesota Press DOI: 10.1353/wic.0.0041 For additional information about this article http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/wic/summary/v024/24.2.ross.html Access Provided by University of Washington @ Seattle at 04/13/11 9:08PM GMT 2 039-052 Ross. so Indian feminism must also be recognized as powerful in its own terms. located in the appendix in her WSR 24. and Paula Gunn Allen (Laguna).1 Early in my academic career. Opal Swaney Cajune. in its own right. I was heavily influenced by the writings of three Native academics: Beatrice Medicine (Lakota). B EATRIC E M E DICI N E S A W I C A Z O 39 FALL 20 0 9 T his essay focuses on the evolution of my classes on Native women and feminism. I was deeply influenced by my mother. as well as my personal journey as an indigenous feminist. Kate Shanley (Assiniboine). Most importantly. First. Each scholar added a piece to the definition and practice of feminism for and about Native people. R E V I E W —Kate Shanley Someone who lived comfortably in both urban and reservation worlds was the late Beatrice Medicine. Her vita.indd 39 9/15/09 10:50:33 AM . I must mention several academics who impacted my thinking regarding indigenous/feminism.From the “F” Word to Indigenous/Feminisms Luana Ross Just as sovereignty cannot be granted but must be recognized as an inherent right to self-determination. my discipline. not through a body of work but by a single thought-provoking essay published in 1984. Shanley. therefore.” In the mistaken belief that she would express disapproval. reveals that she was a charter member of the American Indian Women’s Service League in Seattle in 1954. She was the first powerfully out-feminist Native academic that I met. one of strong and capable Native women.5 Medicine presents a new image. Shanley outlines issues that all women encounter— for example. told her with great disdain that I was a “feminist. I began to use the notion of role and status as she conceptualized it. did not effectively deal with culture. our paths would cross at conferences. but Medicine’s work on Native women fed my soul and piqued my interest in ethnography as a method. titled “Thoughts on Indian Feminism. in his lurch to introduce us. K AT E S H A N L E Y I was greatly influenced by Kate Shanley. by 1974 Medicine was instructing a class on Native women.3 I had the good fortune to meet Medicine in 1979 in Portland. who brazenly calls herself a feminist in the essay. and because Medicine was an anthropologist. argues that many Native women misunderstand feminism and. Way ahead of the game. Oregon. she provides excellent examples of role-flexibility and gender variability. she was thoroughly versed in the realities of reservation life. he was shocked when she announced that she was a feminist.FALL 20 0 9 40 W I C A Z O S A R E V I E W last book. although she did not specifically define “feminism. Medicine began the academic exploration of the roles of Native women in the 1960s.” Not only did the anthology The Hidden Half provide a valuable text for my class. However. published in 2001. WSR 24. This brief encounter influenced me tremendously. I was horrified when a Native man. children’s health and welfare. and she always remembered me and was extremely supportive of my work. Her groundbreaking essay on “Warrior Women” (manly hearted women) and sex roles was published in The Hidden Half in 1983.”6 Raised on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation in Montana. and I was interested in culture conceptually.4 This essay counters the existing negative stereotypes about Native women. I began reading her work in the 1970s. reproductive rights. too. Moreover. although she understood the discipline through the lens of a Native woman. Moreover. Then she bravely asks: Does being a feminist make her less Indian? In her essay.2 This was in-the-trenches activist feminist work. I was drawn to her work because of who she was as a Native woman. do not want to be associated with a white woman’s movement. equal pay. Her work is important to indigenous/feminism because most of the early studies on Native women were anthropological.2 039-052 Ross. Throughout the years.indd 40 9/15/09 10:50:33 AM . she took my hand and warmly greeted me—feminist to feminist. In front of a large audience. sociology. in order to survive as a people. Paula Gunn Allen published her essay “Who Is Your Mother? Red Roots of White Feminism. “Just as sovereignty cannot be granted but must be recognized as an inherent right to selfdetermination. is that we promote tribal sovereignty. WSR 24. she didn’t feel as though she betrayed her Native community and the label did not make her any less Indian.indd 41 S A W I C A Z O 41 FALL 20 0 9 The same year that I read Kate Shanley’s essay on Indian feminism. the People seek sovereignty as a people in order to maintain a vital legal and spiritual connection to the land. She says. I was encouraged by her words. However. In 1985. she discusses racism and the “dynamics of Indian hating.10 In this paper. For me. Allen was also one of the first Native women to publicly discuss violence in Native communities. so Indian feminism must also be recognized as powerful in its own terms. as indigenous people. and that there are and should be many strands of feminism. I was empowered by her thoughts that “feminism” has a special meaning for Native women because.”8 As a Native feminist. it would become a part of our decolonizing efforts. In 1986. albeit romanticized. She continues: Thus. and (2) on the societal level.2 039-052 Ross.12 This was a substantial collection of boldly feminist essays. Shanley believes that diversity is beneficial and powerful.7 This was the first definition of Indian feminism that I encountered. Recognizing that there is no single woman’s movement. “Violence and the American Indian Woman. Allen’s book The Sacred Hoop was published. in its own right.”9 Allen’s thesis. the Indian women’s movement seeks equality in two ways that do not concern mainstream women: (1) on the individual level. After all. is that Native peoples are traditionally feminist and now is the time to reclaim that belief. this was the beginning of an ongoing dialogue about violence in Native communities. the important difference between Native women and other women.” which appeared in a short-lived publication. Most important to me was the fact that Allen was not afraid to call herself a feminist. according to Shanley. Part of its importance is R E V I E W PAULA GUN N ALLE N 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM . This essay was immediately added to my reading packet. Like Shanley.and domestic violence. she published an essay. we are concerned with issues of sovereignty.”11 She connects this dynamic with self-hate and media images and launches into a discussion of violence against Native women. the Indian woman struggles to promote the survival of a social structure whose organizational principles represent notions of family different from those of the mainstream. history. and who brought love and compassion into other people’s lives. without a doubt.15 WSR 24. culture. Her book immediately became a primary text in my class on Native women. saying that she recognizes these characteristics in our female relatives: My great-grandmothers and grandmother all lived during the time of the so-called “Indian Wars” or “Indian up-risings” (an interesting term used in those days). I call them women of courage. I approach it from a strongly tribal posture.” Allen further explains that both terms work: “If I am dealing with feminism.indd 42 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM .”13 Allen fully recognizes that not all Native women are happy with a white feminist analysis. mother. What they actually lived through was being dispossessed of their ancestral homelands and land both in the Bitterroot and the Nez Perce country. OPAL CAJ U N E As I think about the journey of my life. I began to rethink the notion of feminism. she believes. the strongest and wisest person I have known. sexism within their communities. M Y MOTH E R .that she defines her approach as “tribal-feminism” or “feminist-tribalism. They possessed great strength of spirit and did not easily give in to hatred or anger. A graceful and beautiful woman. is because Native women are ill informed about the larger issues of feminism. Some of this.14 My mother continues her story. She is. my mother has greatly influenced my work and my conceptual understandings of feminism. and when I am dealing with American Indian literature. I had to think about the women in my family. This was a time of great change accompanied by grief. Allen’s work was cutting-edge. and white racism. not just individual families. who is a natural intellectual. she wrote about the changes for Native women over the past one hundred years: FALL 20 0 9 42 W I C A Z O S A R E V I E W In contemplating the affects of change on Indian women over this time period. A woman of courage was one who persevered under sometimes terrible conditions.2 039-052 Ross. who spent her life caring for others. and I found her early work thoroughly liberating for me as a reservation Indian woman. and sisters. sorrow and homesickness that affected whole tribes of people. Her words made me think of the women in my family and reservation community who were feminists and my heroes. I found Allen’s idea of tribal-feminism/feminist-tribalism empowering. such as my grandmother. or philosophy I approach it from a strongly feminist one. the Salish. some as young as six years of age.2 039-052 Ross. I can lease my own land without the BIA Superintendent’s permission and collect the rent myself without having the funds deposited in a special account and dispersed by the Superintendent according to a volume of regulations spelling out how and when I can spend the money. I can travel where I please. R E V I E W We are now encouraged to learn and speak our own language. they provide a spirit that allows me to persevere.” This was a remark of contempt for native dress. she stated that with the coming of white people we. were made to feel inferior. Women were encouraged to cut their hair. each in different ways. There was a saying when a young adult returned from boarding school and reverted to native dress: “she has gone back to the blanket. Boarding school children had their hair cut as a matter of course. They were encouraged to change their dress.indd 43 S A W I C A Z O PERSONAL JOURNEY 43 FALL 20 0 9 These four brilliant women have played a profound role in my life.Discussing the changes she has witnessed.17 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM . We were raised to be strong women. Moreover. They embody indigenous feminism. nonetheless equally important.16 Discussing the changes she has seen for herself and her daughters. WSR 24. I am one of six daughters raised predominately by a mother and grandmother in an extended family on the Flathead Indian Reservation in Montana. Adults could not leave the reservation without permission or lease their own land and collect the rent. These marriages were arranged by the Ursuline nuns in the mistaken belief that they were doing the native women a favor. Children were rounded up and sent far-off to boarding school. and children are not arbitrarily taken off to boarding schools. probably for the first time in our lives: Great efforts were made by government employees and missionaries to teach them the English language creating the idea that their language was inferior. My journey began the moment I was born. There were even cases of marriages arranged for Indian women with white men. we can wear native dress whenever we please and wear our hair in braids. my mother says: Feminism is also a personal journey. roles of Indian women.I initially became active in the women’s movement at the University of Montana in 1972. Diane Sands. accessing education. but most of them were Native women. noted activist Janet McCloud chastised the well-dressed. My lectures are always guided WSR 24.2 039-052 Ross. I also felt out-of-place as a reservation woman—like an ignored. I was a single mother of a two-year-old son and on welfare.18 I remember thinking that the conferences seemed very assimilationist. poor relative. Silence. role model administrators.20 Berkhofer’s premise. I used the romanticized book Daughters of the Earth and put together a reader of early ethnographies. and eventually sociological. there were virtually no readings for me to assign. sponsored by the Ohoyo Resource Center. FALL 20 0 9 44 W I C A Z O S A R E V I E W PE RSONALIZ I NG TH E EARLY CLAS S E S Elaine Gilham Clayborn developed a class on Native women at the University of Montana in the fall of 1981.21 The early classes were filled with anthropological. There was clearly a split (actually. I was not the only one who felt this way and recall vividly how. too. gender. lectures on intersectionality (race/ ethnicity. There were many interested students. at a conference in Seattle. The students were really interested in the topic. secrecy. and they appeared to be threatened during all the years I taught that class. networking. literature—specifically. urban Indian women. including class) between the reservation and the urban Indian women. acculturated. many divisions. but I assigned them so that the class could critique them. most of the Native men in the class felt threatened. as a young feminist I attended the first national conference on Native women. I was desperately poor and was beginning to wrestle with the fact that I had been sexually abused as a child. During this time. However. and violently victimized as a teenager and young adult. I began teaching this class in the spring of 1982. Hence. In that year.indd 44 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM . that images of Natives are connected in complex ways to federal policy. Yearning for connections with other Native women. held in 1981. and a talk on Indian feminism by a white woman. I began to incorporate images and stereotypes of Native women into the curriculum. I was also teaching a class on images of Natives in the cinema and used Robert Berkhofer’s book The White Man’s Indian as a primary text.19 The readings were all problematic. thanks to a good friend. and nationhood). The published proceedings of such a conference. included workshops and presentations on the following topics: stereotyping. At that time. I also encouraged the students to do research on women in their communities. these early explorations were both painful and necessary. guided my thinking about the Native women class. I imagined that we defined feminism differently. and hiding are deeply entrenched habits in many communities. class. 23 I find myself grateful. especially the violence of boarding schools. they were not ready to air their dirty laundry in the white women’s world. In the early 1980s. Violence is still very prevalent in Native communities. white women expressed that they felt left out and Native men expressed that they felt threatened. I had organized retreats and enlisted the help of female counselors to aid in a healing process.” In fact. and in the class. and we Native feminists in Montana became a power to be reckoned with. the women began to understand how this violence had impacted who they were. I began giving presentations to various reservation communities about the “f” word: feminism. Consequently. It became a very empowering class for me to teach. Native women were fiercely protective of Native men. We would. and activist. at least where I’m from.24 In these retreats.indd 45 R E V I E W S A W I C A Z O 45 FALL 20 0 9 by Robert Blauner’s theory of colonialism. although at that time I couldn’t use the word “rape. I was emotionally overwhelmed by this racism and sexism. No one was openly talking about boarding schools at that time. for the early scholars who have influenced us all. As I think about my classes now.2 039-052 Ross. because I did speak out. with great 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM . as well as how they had learned (or not learned) how to parent. These retreats were for Native women only. which must be viewed in the context of colonialism. I found a common thread: The especially useful readings were those that reflected a deep understanding of the processes of colonialism and racism. too. I would go to several reservations in Montana and Oregon and talk about domestic violence and rape. This reality made for difficult conversations. I also organized the syllabus around my experiences of a life filled with violence. The women yearned to speak of violence and sexism in their respective communities. Remember that. And. These were greatly appreciated on all reservations. and their effects upon Native people—hence my reliance on theories of colonialism. While Native women were ready to dialogue about sexism. During this time period. Feminism is very empowering at its core. but when I was a young adult it was far worse. my early classes would not have been possible. Issues of violent victimization would surface.WSR 24. it was imperative that an outsider address issues of violence. I am appreciative for the available literature and wonderful transnational scholarship. it was referred to as “Indian love. along with the work of Frantz Fanon and Albert Memmi. Without their work. and my struggle to find my voice as a Native feminist. This notion of feminism was grassroots. issues of violence were shrouded in silence. I was negatively labeled. In the 1980s.” because I was coming to terms with my own sexual abuse history. if a woman had black eyes. in-the-trenches. the violence was so normalized that no one from those reservations could speak to the issues.22 In these early pedagogical efforts. Native women were not about to turn their men over to a white criminal justice system. By the time I was teaching it in the late 1980s. To my knowledge. global/ international feminism. that was the first time white women invited Native women to an event in Montana and recognized us. liberal feminism. Today. eco-feminism. and third wave of the women’s movement. Partially because of feminism. I think feminist efforts contributed to the resurrection of various Native women’s societies. second. we are beginning to hear the stories of brave women from our communities. state feminism. feminism remains in transition and fragile. that’s when we started calling feminism/feminist the “f” word. Moreover. domestic violence programs are now in Native communities. Part of my strategy in calling myself a feminist was that I wanted to build a bridge with white women. even though I felt the movement was racist. People dialogue more about issues of violence. There are black feminism. These institutions are a result of Native feminist struggles.indd 46 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM . The next time that happened was in 1989 at Northern Montana State College. an earthshaking event. It was like a secret society. definitions created by those who aren’t white—for example. What feminism is (and is not) has been variously defined throughout time. talk about the “f” word. radical feminism. I was asked to arrange several panels of Native women for a conference organized by white women. Many women from nearby reservations came and it was a wonderful experience. Since the 1970s. womanism. although they are written by privileged academics. they had very little understanding of tribal sovereignty or the realities of racism. Being called a feminist in the Native community was not a positive thing. social feminism. It was a source of strength for us when I told them we would set our own agenda. the conferences they organized had little to do with our lives as Native women. Another example is that. In 1982. Building a bridge with Euroamerican feminists remains difficult.2 039-052 Ross. and definitions that supposedly fit the underprivileged. who were doing great things. I wanted to be part of the larger women’s movement. We talked about issues important to us and the sessions were well-attended. As well. However.glee. Many of the public profile white feminists early in my career were antiIndian. challenges still remain but there have been important changes. and finally transnational feminism. It is clear that there are varying definitions of feminism: definitions that suit white women from the first. women’s stories and songs from my community are returning. The conference organizers gave us a list of “important” topics. which was difficult to do in the past. Chicana feminism. postcolonial/postmodern feminism. and I was asked to keynote. and by different racial/ethnic groups. feminist fundamentalism. I have WSR 24. It was truly memorable. racism was everywhere and I considered that a given.25 FALL 20 0 9 46 W I C A Z O S A R E V I E W W H AT I S FE M I N I S M ? W H AT I S TRA N S NATIONA L FE M I N I S M ? As a reality. For one. For one. In academia. which directed feminist attention toward power difference rooted in the structures of race. I am reminded that complex terminology can be devoid of meaning. Eliza Noh added another dimension to the definition and warned: I N DIA N PEOPLE S ARE NATION S S A W I C A Z O 47 FALL 20 0 9 As we continue to experience shifting definitions and terminology. Deniz Dandiyoti stated that transnational feminism is the activism of various groups of women. all the while colonial projects rigorously persevere and expand in astonishingly flexible ways. We are transnational by WSR 24. sexuality. culture. The prefixes “trans-” and “post-” are semantic smoke screens. class. I continue to strive to make sense of them.27 Native nations have a nation-to-nation relationship with each other. erasing as if by magic the contemporary pervasiveness of coloniality from discourses on modernity and nationalism.2 039-052 Ross.26 In 2003. more globally sensitive feminism. The new buzzword in women’s studies is transnational feminism. whom mainstream Western feminist theory and practices traditionally marginalized. R E V I E W The adoption of the “post-” and “trans-” by feminism may represent an attempt not only to separate imperial feminism of old from a supposedly new and improved. Any ideas about transnational feminism must take into account the perseverance of colonialism for indigenous women. and so on.indd 47 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM . terminology can be used to exclude and disempower various groups. In 1995. but to create artificially a break between the modern days of empires and the days of consolidating neo-empires. this is damaging to indigenous people who struggle to maintain their sovereign powers. and other countries.traversed and managed the different definitions of feminism. histories of colonization and migration. While this challenge to universal feminism has enabled more contextualized analyses of women’s lives and opened new spaces for coalition building. the United States. It is important to note that people maintain power and control over new terminology. Obviously. it has unsettled traditional feminist demands for gender equality that were based on developmentalist and modernization discourses. 28 Native scholar Renya Ramirez instructs us that her definition includes reservation and non-reservation Natives: I use the term transnationalism to emphasize that many Native Americans living away from their tribal land bases as part of the Native American diaspora nonetheless maintain connections with tribal communities or important senses of tribal identity. Rather than assuming that urban Indians progressively lose a sense of their tribal identity and become closer to ethnics or other minorities. Rameriz writes: FALL 20 0 9 48 W I C A Z O S A R E V I E W I use the term transnational because it not only accentuates Native peoples’ special status in relationship to the nation-state. We urban Indians are often not living within the physical boundaries of our tribal nations and must constantly interact with U. and another is negotiating politics of memory. Fortunately.29 Furthering her definition of transnational. even if they are not officially enrolled or federally acknowledged. the term transnational highlights their maintenance of tribal identities. the following points are noted: • What does it mean to position the field of WS and feminist scholarship within a transnational frame.30 The discipline of women’s studies is experiencing tension regarding relationships between various groups and the assortment of definitions. Regarding the narrow conception that most women’s studies (WS) departments have of transnational feminism.” This clearly reflects strain between feminists of color and white feminists. It is noted in the NWSA’s recent call for proposals newsletter that the conference theme for next fall is titled “Difficult Dialogues.indd 48 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM . including the definition and practice of transnational feminism. and illustrating the complexities.definition because we are nations. At the conference. one subject is the continued marginalization of feminists of color. currently and historically? WSR 24. institutions.2 039-052 Ross. but also suggests an experience of living at the interstice of various cultural and political communities. such as public schools and legal institutions. the National Women’s Studies Association (NWSA) is confronting this head-on.S. Yet another most important issue to me is reconceptualizing women’s studies within the notion of transnational feminism. another is intersectionality. particularly when it comes to race? • How does thinking about the transnational within the local (e. I refuse to be run out of the movement. Despite its flaws. this past year an important question surfaced among feminist bloggers: Must women of color renounce feminism in order for racism to be dealt with effectively by white women? This question reminds us of the fragility of feminist sisterhood and the pervasiveness of racism in the United States. many times it is at the expense of the local issues and the indigenous peoples and their problems. . calling myself a feminist is the truth. methods. And I refuse to let racism define feminism for me. I refuse to be silenced. My feelings on the topic are stated best by blogger Viva La Feminista. presently and historically? • Does a focus on transnational feminism sometimes operate as a means to evade or ignore more local issues of inequality and oppression. immigrant communities.2 039-052 Ross. and of feminist subjectivity remain operative?31 This is vital to me. Each movement has its own devils to wrestle with—but that is an individual thing. transcends the bullshit and comforts me. While we are encouraged to think globally. cooler. . and theories in WS? • What are some challenges of transnational work in WS? For example. indigenous sovereignty. because the examination of colonial relationships and issues of indigenous sovereignty are included. migrant politics) shift some key questions. of course. of feminist theory.• How do globalization and neoliberal politics manifest within the academy and within feminist theories and practices. Feminism the philosophy.indd 49 S A W I C A Z O It’s my home. when asked why she keeps coming back to feminism despite the racism: R E V I E W CONCLUSION 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM .g. even if their soapboxes are larger. I refuse to let racists have total access to the soapbox.. and get more ears. 49 FALL 20 0 9 As we are reminded of the tension between feminists of color and Euroamerican feminists. WSR 24. how does Western hegemony continue to impact or impede cross-cultural feminist alliance? Whose notions of feminism. I believe that it is imperative to take note of the indigenous peoples of the Americas and privilege their voices. . frameworks. because seriously. Furthermore. We must continue to work in ways that challenge prevailing attitudes and rigid institutions.33 While there is much work to be done. It’s there and can’t be removed.2 039-052 Ross. male. I also argue that to reject feminism completely is dangerous. It includes female.And honestly . communities. I do not see the world thru a feminist or gender lens. . These stories carried me through adolescence and teenage identity. . It has also been through story that I learned about whom my family is and their place in the world. there has also been great progress. However.32 FALL 20 0 9 50 W I C A Z O S A R E V I E W The heart and soul of my feminism remains the promotion of tribal sovereignty and the empowerment of women. My indigenous/feminism privileges storytelling as a way to decolonize and empower our communities. Our larger sovereignty movement cannot omit issues of gender. feminism frames almost everything in my life. We must continue to define what Native feminism might mean in our families. She repeated family history and reminded her daughters always of the goodness and grace of the older generations of their family. . These stories continue to instruct me today of the generational privilege and responsibility I have as an Indian person and tribal member. Julie Cajune. However. Stories are such an important part of my life that I remember recounting them silently in my mind when faced with personal difficulties. Native women remain marginalized within the larger women’s movement and the discipline of women’s studies. if I left feminism. This is partly due to Native women rejecting what they see as a white women’s movement and studies. WSR 24. we cannot afford to privilege nationhood and race over gender. where I could go.indd 50 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM . Let the words of my sister. and other genders. instruct on the importance and power of storytelling: Much of my life has been spent searching for stories to make meaning of who I am and how this world came to be. I don’t know how I would survive. These stories that I repeated in mind and heart were often in the voice of my mother. This growth has occurred because of courageous women. and personal lives. . My notion of indigenous/feminism seeks to empower communities. . I see it thru a feminist eye implant. n. 2006).. no. Tex. Director). eds. 2 Beatrice Medicine. “Violence and the American Indian Woman. As well.” in Honoring Native Women’s Voices: A Collection of Stories.” in A Gathering of Spirit: Writing and Art by North American Indian Women. “The Lives of Indian Women: 100 Years of Change. hence..: Firebrand.: Ohoyo Resource Center. although I did not discover them until the mid-1980s: Mona Etienne and Eleanor Leacock. 13 Ibid.indd 51 15 Ibid. 1981). 18 Ohoyo Research Center Staff (Owannah Anderson. 2001).p. Myths of Male Dominance (New York: Monthly Review Press. there is not one truth. Learning to Be an Anthropologist and Remaining “Native” (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Women and Colonization: Anthropological Perspectives (New York: Praeger. For more information on these conferences. Beth Brant (Ithaca. 1986). Julie Cajune (Pablo. 10 Paula Gunn Allen. no. The Native American Woman: A Perspective (Austin. The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (Boston: Beacon Press. ed. 4 (1985): n. N.: Salish Kootenai College. 1984). 1980). 1978). 5 Evelyn Blackwood. 16 Ibid. the following were extremely useful regarding role and status. 8 Ibid. ed. Director). ed. 267–79. Also. 1983).. 12 Paula Gunn Allen. 14 Opal Swaney Cajune. 46. 213–15.” Working Together 5. T W I C A Z O O 51 FALL 20 0 9 N 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM .” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 10. emphasis in original. suggested that I include a slash (/) between indigenous and feminism. “Who Is Your Mother? Red Roots of White Feminism.p. Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine (New York: University Press. 45. “Sexuality and Gender in Certain Native American Tribes: The Case of CrossGender Females. 222. Words of Today’s American Indian Women: Ohoyo Makachi (Wichita Falls. Tex. 215. consequently. properly it is indigenous/feminisms. and Eleanor Leacock. Mont. I also want to thank the students from my class autumn quarter of 2008. Ohoyo Ikhana: A Bibliography of American Indian–Alaska Native Curriculum Materials (Wichita Falls.. 7 Ibid. 17 Ibid. Tex. Reading Native Women’s Lives.” Sinister Wisdom 25 (Winter 1984): 34–46.2 039-052 Ross. Indigenous/feminism is also a personal journey. there is not one feminism.Y. 214.: National Educational Laboratory Publishers. a graduate student in women studies at the University of Washington. 3 Beatrice Medicine..E S 6 Kate Shanley. S A 1 Jaye Sablan. “Thoughts on Indian Feminism. The slash is to denote the various tensions (in theory and practice) between indigenous/feminists and Euroamerican feminists. and Ohoyo Research Center Staff (Owannah Anderson. 1 (1984): 27–43. 11 Ibid.. Director). R E V I E W 4 Beatrice Medicine.. WSR 24. “Warrior Women—Sex Role Alternatives for Plains Indian Women. 1982). see the following publications: Ohoyo Research Center Staff (Owannah Anderson.: Ohoyo Resource Center. for their help in conceptualizing a course on indigenous/feminisms. 9 Paula Gunn Allen.” in The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women. 1981). 44. 26 Deniz Kandiyoti. and Albert Memmi. 2002). What I Keep (Greenfield. Franz Fanon.: Salish Kootenai College. Honoring Native Women’s Voices: A Collection of Stories (Pablo. Indian Women Chiefs (Washington. Community. “Problematics of Transnational Feminism for Asian American Women. Julie Cajune (Arlee. Native Hubs: Culture.” Ethnohistory 12. FALL 20 0 9 52 W I C A Z O S A R E V I E W 21 I used Rayna Green’s essay to further inform my understanding of images: “The Pocahontas Perplex: The Image of Indian Women in American Culture. ed.Y. 14–15. dir. 32. Md. Perma Red (New York: BlueHen Books. 3 (2003): 137. Rosemary Gibbons (Seattle: Native Voices Productions. D.html. 2007). I also used selected chapters from Carolyn Thomas Foreman. Racial Oppression in America (New York: Harper and Row. Guide.. “The Kutenai Female Berdache: Courier. 1999). 1967).: Stanford University Press.C. Mahnaz Afkhami (Syracuse. 1995).indd 52 T E S Smith. Moreover. but informed the Native women’s class: Niels Winther Braroe.: Npustin. see David Wilkins. “Call for Proposals: Difficult Dialogues.” Massachusetts Review 16. The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Weidenfeld.. 2001). 1975). 30 Ibid. 1963). Prophetess. Daughters of the Earth (New York: Touchstone. White Masks (New York: Grove Press. Heart of the Bitterroot. 19 Carolyn Niethammer. N. 14. N. Tex. 29 Renya Ramirez.blogspot. NC: Duke University Press. 31 National Women’s Studies Association. Many of the stories on this CD are written by poet Jennifer Greene (Salish). The Colonizer and the Colonized (New York: Orion Press. 28 For example. 4 (1976): 698–714.” New Centennial Review 3. no. 1999). A Century of Genocide in the Americas: The Boarding School Experience. Mont. and Debra Magpie Earling. 1979). Franz Fanon. Black Skin. 2008). Greene. 3 (Summer 1965): 195–236. Indian and White: Self-Image and Interaction in a Canadian Plains Community (Stanford. 20 Robert Berkhofer. the sociological study on images and image construction by Braroe became a staple in another class that I instructed. 2008): http://vivalafem inista. and Warrior. 1954).: Zenger. Calif.: Syracuse University Press.: Rowman and Littlefield. 22 The following texts were my theoretical guides: Robert Blauner. 2006).” in Faith and Freedom: Women’s Human Rights in the Muslim World. 24 See the excellent documentary on boarding schools. 1977). and Belonging in Silicon Valley and Beyond (Durham. 32 “This Latina Is Still a Feminist” (April 29. Also. no. 1972). 33 Julie Cajune ed.: Greenfield Review Press.” 2009: 2. see Linda Tuhiwai WSR 24. dir. see the ground-breaking compact disc (CD) Heart of the Bitterroot. American Indian Politics and the American Political System (Lanham. Mont. “Reflections on Gender in Muslim Societies: From Nairobi to Beijing. Jennifer K. 1982). The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to Present Day (New York: Vintage Books.N O Ohoyo One Thousand: A Resource Guide of American Indian/Alaska Native Women (Wichita Falls.2 039-052 Ross. 23 For an example of indigenous/ feminism at its best.Y. 9/15/09 10:50:34 AM . 27 Eliza Noh. 3–4. no. 2007). 1965). Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (London: Zed Books. 25 Cajune. An example of an early ethnography is Claude Schaeffer.: Ohoyo Resource Center.com/2008/04/ this-latina-is-still-feminist.