Logic

INTRODUCTION TO LOGICINTRODUCTION TO LOGIC A COURSE BASED ON THE “ISAGOGE” A Primer in Classical Logic By Imam Athir al-Din al-Abhari Translation and Notes by Faraz A. Khan Taught by Shaykh Hamza Yusuf  The Ten Foundations of the Art of Logic َْ ْ َُ َ َ ُ ََ (‫)اﻟﻤﺒﺎِدئ اﻟﻌﺸة ﻟ ِِﻌﻠِﻢ اﻟﻤﻨِﻄِﻖ‬ ّ ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ ﻣﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻋ اﻟﺼّﺒﺎن‬ (d. 1207 AH/1792 CE) َ َ V ُ ? ُ ُ 6 ‫اﻟ َــــﺪ َواﻟَﻤــْﻮُﺿﻮع ﺛـ?ﻢ اﻛ?َﻤـــَﺮه‬ ‫ﻦ َﻋﺸــَﺮه‬W‫ِإن َﻣﺒَــﺎِدي ﻛـــﻞ ﻓــــ‬ ْ ? ْ ُ ٌ ُُ ْ َ ‫َواِﻻْﺳـُﻢ اِﻻْﺳِﺘْﻤَﺪاد ُﺣﻜُﻢ اﻟﺸــﺎِرع‬ ْ ‫َوﻓﻀــــﻠﻪ َوﻧ ِﺴــــَﺒﺔ َواﻟــــﻮاِﺿﻊ‬ َ ْ ْ ُ ْ ٌ َ ? َ ‫َوَﻣـْﻦ دَرى اﻟ َِﻤﻴـَﻊ َﺣـﺎَز اﻟﺸـَﺮﻓـــﺎ‬ ‫َﻣَﺴــﺎﺋِﻞ َواَﻛﻌﺾ ﺑِﺎَﻛﻌِﺾ اﻛﺘَﻔــﻰ‬ Each science contains these ten elements The essence, its subject and benefits Its virtue, relations, and source Its name, whence it draws, legal force Add topics, and all is contained With mastery much honor is gained. 1 125 َّ 1. Definition (‫)اﻟﺪ‬ a) Logic may be defined as “the art which directs the very act of reason, that which enables us to advance with order, ease, and correctness in the act of reason itself.” (Jacques Maritain, d. 1973) b) As a science, it regulates the investigation of concepts and propositions in ways that enable one to arrive at a previously unknown proposition. Another definition is “the science that enables us to conclude from something that is known something that was previously unknown.” (al->¥lib ibn al-±¥jj al-F¥sÏ, d. 1273/1856) c) “Logic may be defined as the science that directs our mental operations so that they proceed with order, facility, and consistency toward the attainment of truth. The mental operations referred to in this definition are the three basic acts of the intellect, namely, conception (or simple apprehension), judgment, and reasoning.” (Robert J. Kreyche) 2. Name (‫)اﻻﺳـﻢ‬ In most schools today, what was formerly known as Logic is now called “critical thinking.” In Arabic, Logic is known as man~iq because it contains three meanings: the ability to speak, the ability to comprehend universals, and the power of comprehension. Arabs chose this word (‫)ﻣﻨﻄﻖ‬ because Logic strengthens the first, enables the second to be more accurate, and endows َ? 6 َ perfection on the third. Imam al-Ghaz¥lÏ called it “the touchstone of knowledge” (‫ﺠﻈﺮ‬ ‫ )ِﻣﻚ ا‬and also the “Criterion of knowledge” (‫)ﻣﻌﻴ ﺎر اﻟﻌﻠﻮم‬. It is also called “the key to knowledge” (‫)ﻣﻔﺘﺎح اﻟﻌﻠﻮم‬ and “the balance” (‫ )اﻟﻴان‬because the soundness of speech is measured by it; another name given َ ۡ ۡ ۡ ۡ ْ ُ to it is the “upright scale” based upon this Qur’anic verse (26:182): ﴾8ۚ ِ 7.ِ6/5ُ4‫ِس ٱ‬10َ/.ِ,‫'ا * ِٱ‬%ِ‫ ﴿َوز‬. Aristotle referred to it as Analytics (Prior and Posterior). It is also divided into Major (Material) and Minor (Formal) Logic, depending upon the subject matter. Formal Logic covers the validity or invalidity of the syllogism’s form and structure, while Material Logic covers the actual content of the syllogism. The late Nineteenth Century witnessed the emergence of Symbolic or Mathematical Logic that over time eclipsed the two-thousand-year reign of traditional Logic. Today, Symbolic Logic dominates and is necessary in computer programming and, while useful, it can never replace traditional Logic which is still the basis of our legal system. 3. Subject (‫)اﻟﻮﺿﻮع‬ The subject of Logic covers the three operations of the mind: conceptualization, judgment, and reasoning through argumentation or demonstration. 2 126 Related subjects are Dialectic. 5. he is arguably the founder and first teacher of Logic. Founder (‫)اﻟﻮاﺿﻊ‬ Reasoning is elemental to the human condition. Judgments. the Five Predicables. Its sources and foundations. Hypothetical. These two operations of the mind are how we reason deductively or inductively in the third act of the mind: argument or demonstration. Affirmative and Negative. Concepts. These three mental operations are the sources of Logic. Non-Contradiction. Propositions involve composing or separating concepts in a subject/predicate form upon which judgment is based. some claim hidden. and their varieties. Topics (‫)اﻟﺴﺎﺋﻞ‬ The topics of Minor or Formal Logic consist of Simple Apprehensions. It is the singular introductory science. Logic as a codified science was first developed by the ancients and remained latent.4. and revealed its secrets. are considered the first books on Logic and thus. which enables definition. Cosmology. Reasoning. 6. which is essentially an analytical inquiry into these “acts of the mind. and the one who has not mastered it cannot be relied upon for his knowledge at all. Benefit (‫)اﻛﻤﺮة‬ According to Imam al-Ghaz¥lÏ (d. 7. Logical Fallacies.” Its greatest benefit derives from the clarity of thought and sound reasoning skills it engenders in one trained in its art coupled with more effective oral and written communication. Divisions. and its sources are observation and intuition. the Syllogism and its Divisions. According to Muslim sources. any truth the opposite of which is impossible to conceive. 504/1111). Propositions. and we are all gifted naturally with powers of reason that govern our actions. Terms.” which enable us to reason soundly and avoid the pitfalls common to an untrained mind. Categorical. known collectively as The Organon. Rhetoric. Logic is “an introduction to all knowledge. and Modal. defined its terms. Logic’s basic tools are intuited concepts and the concomitant propositions that stem from them. Material or Major Logic deals with the contents of Syllogisms and involves Categories. and the Excluded Middle are rooted in self-evident truths – that is. and Topics. and Criticism. Definitions. Sources (‫)اﻻﺳﺘﻤﺪاد‬ Logic does not derive its sources from any other science. until Aristotle (d. such as the Laws of Identity. 3 127 . Opposition and Conversion. 322 BCE) recorded its rules. Concepts involve the mind’s abstraction of universals from particulars. the Five Arts. Aristotle’s six books. such as Simple and Compound. and finally Induction. Psychology. is that of most theologians. although categorized among the arts known in the West as “Liberal” and in the Muslim world as “instrumental” (‫)ﻣﻦ ﻋﻠﻮم اﻵﻟﺔ‬. The third opinion is that it is an obligation. 428/1037) attempted to provide for the Muslim world what Aristotle did for the Hellenic civilization: an encyclopedic work covering logic. 350/961). 827/1423).In the Islamic tradition. Ibn SÏn¥ (d. 8. 766/1364) mentioned by al-Ajh‰rÏ (d. natural science. and arguments) is integral to every other science. This is the opinion of al-Qu~ub al-Ta^t¥nÏ (d. This is the opinion of TaqÏ al-DÏn al-SubkÏ (d. Legal Category (‫)ﺣﻜﻢ اﻟﺸﺎرع‬ The opinions of scholars can be categorized as those who consider the study of Logic 1) recommended. became the basis for Arabic Logic. Relationship to Other Sciences (‫)ﻧﺴﺒﺔ‬ Its relation to other sciences is that of a universal to a particular. propositions. The Healing (al-Shif¥’). who is considered the second teacher. Hence. as all other sciences are comprised of concepts. and who have knowledge of the Book and the Sunnah. 3) a collective obligation. The second opinion is that Logic is permissible for those whose intellect is sound. While as ends other sciences surpass Logic in rank. Ibn ¢Arafah (d. and metaphysics. 803/1400). and this is the soundest opinion according to most scholars. including al-Ghaz¥lÏ (according to one narration). legal theorists. 10. 957/1550) and al-Zarq¥nÏ (d. Logic is an overarching science. and many of the jurists. which differs from Aristotelian Logic in some areas. al-Far¥bÏ (d. scholars have always considered it a necessary propaedeutic subject and a means to sound knowledge. recommended. Later. After mastering Ibn SÏn¥’s work. introduced Logic into Islamic civilization. Imam al-Ghaz¥lÏ removed what he deemed any objectionable aspects of it and wrote five works of varying levels of difficulty for students of knowledge. As such. and arguments. or 4) prohibited. 1122/1710) in the chapter on jihad in their commentaries on al-Mukhta|ar. 2) permitted. al-UbbÏ (d. Its subject matter (concepts. 892/1486). its supreme virtue is as a means that insures intellectual rigor in the pursuit of knowledge. 4 128 . propositions. 756/1355). and al-San‰sÏ (d. Logic is sui generis. mathematics (the quadrivium). The first opinion. All five are still in use. 9. The logic section of his book. Virtue and Rank (‫ رﺗﺒﺘﻪ‬، ‫ ﺷﻓﻪ‬، ‫)ﻓﻀﻠﻪ‬ Given its universal benefit vis-á-vis other sciences. a cause cannot be disassociated from an effect in its presence or in its absence‫)اﻟﻌﻠﺔ ﺗﺪور ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﻠﻮل وﺟﻮدا وﻋﺪﻣ (ﺎ‬. and Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 5 129 . al-NawawÏ (d. The fourth opinion. given that the cause of the prohibition was removed. al-ßuy‰~Ï (d. our scholars codified it and purified it of any ungrounded epistemic speculations contained in Philosophical Logic.” and recognizing its great utility in the arsenal of knowledge. and others said it was collective because the religion is made safe by protecting its beliefs. 676/1300). but rather Philosophical Logic. However. This is the opinion of Imam al-Y‰sÏ (d. Furthermore. Logic is none other than the “grammar of thought. On the contrary. held by such formidable scholars as Ibn ßal¥^ (d. our scholars concluded that what they were actually prohibiting was not Logic per se.Some argued that the obligation was individual because sound knowledge of God relies upon sound reasoning. based upon scholastic opinion. is that preoccupation with Logic is prohibited. and that has to be done through the use of reason. 728/1327). 1060/1650) and of Imam al-Ghaz¥lÏ in his I^y¥’. the effect became null and void – the reason being that in a legal ruling. specifically the metaphysical foundations of it and the false conclusions derived from them. 911/1505). 643/1245). َِ‫َِب َُالَ ِصُُِٗ فٍِ اٌزِِِّ٘ٓ ثِب ِالٌْزِضَا‬ light signifying “stop. entire meaning Hence. the MostMerciful. and followers]— all[our of them. and (3) by formulation reddish complexion of one’s face signifying shyness. The third type of signification. or movement of a ship in the sea signifying movement of its passengers. We do so while seeking help from Allāh [Most High]. A verbal example is a word indicating the person that said it. To proceed. as Allāh Most High determines the creation to be. weHigh]. a (ʿaqliyya). that by formulation. school bells signifying class times. the movement of a hand signifying movement of a ring on its finger. signifying physical illness. or nodding one‖s head signifying agreement. Each type can be nonverbal or verbal. the best of later scholars and exemplar The Shaykh. the bybegins with present text complete accord (muṭābaqa). of then. Merciful. A verbal example is the word “ouch” signifying feeling pain. The second type of signification is not logical. words laid not logical. or the Divine. . (taḍammun). a reddish complexion of one‖s face signifying shyness. is a treatise in [the science of] logic. We send Him. Verbal or the fact that he is alive. forWeHispraise enablement of High] Allāh [Most us to for worship Him.” or green light “go”). but rather based on the “natural order” of things out by humans. Khan ًََ‫ َو َعم‬،ُٖ‫ ؼََُّتَ اهللُ صَشَا‬،ٌُِّ‫ لُذِ َوحُ احلُىََّبءِ اٌشَّا ِعخِنيَ أَصُِ ُش اٌذَِّْ ِٓ اٌْأَثِهَش‬،ََِٓ‫لبيَ اٌشَُِّخُ اٌِْئَِبَُ أَ ْفعَ ًُ ادلَُزأَخّْش‬ ًٍََ‫غَأٌُُٗ ِ٘ذَاَخَ ؼَشَِمِِٗ ؤَُصٍٍََّ لًٍََ ُِؾََّّذٍ وَل‬ ِ ََٔ‫ثِغُِِ اهللِ اٌشَّؽِِّٓ اٌشَّؽُُِِِ َٔؾَِّذُ اهللَ لًٍََ رَىِفُِمِِٗ و‬:ُٖ‫اجلََّٕخَ َِضْىَا‬ ٍ‫ؾعَب ُسَ٘ب ٌَِِّٓ َجِزَ ِذاُ فٍِ شٍَء‬ ِ ‫ فَهزِِٖ سِعَبٌَخٌ فٍِ ادلَِٕؽِكِ أَ ِوسَدَِٔب فُِهَب َِب َغِتُ اعِِز‬. signifying physical illness. and Tofollowers]—all proceed. A verbal example is the word of signification refers to something signifying something else “ouch” signifying feeling pain. or heavy rain signifying a fertile season. for verily He is the Giver of goodness and generous gifts. placed therein all of which must be immediately accessible in one’s mind for one who begins to study any of the religious sciences. A verbal example is a word indicating the person that said it. Nonverbal (Ḥabannakaindicates 26–7. based on logic alone. Nonverbal examples are the َّ movement of a ring on its finger. the the MostMost Compassionate.ُ‫ أََِّب َثمِذ‬،َ‫لِزِشَرِِٗ َأعِ َّمِني‬ . and upon his family [Companions. 1 Signification (dalāla) is of three types: (1) solely logical (ʿaqliyya). while is aseeking help treatise in [thefrom Allāh science [Most of] logic. the movement of a hand signifying or laid out. logic A vocable (lafẓ) that signifies [a meaning] by formulation and is hence known empirically instead of logically. a part examples include medical signs and symptoms in a body. blessings upon [our Master] Muḥammad . and is hence known empirically instead of logically. based on its movement.e. Nonverbal examples include medical signs and symptoms in a body. We This. and that which is inextricably bound to it in the mind by concomitance (iltizām). We praise Allāh [Most High] Compassionate. Signification type can be nonverbalby Formulation or verbal. and upon and we ask Him for guidance on His path. as Allāh Most High determines1the creation to be. such as fever. The first type of signification refers to something signifying something else based on logic alone. theMost Allāh.. vomiting or diarrhea. and is the in creation. The second type of signification is signification by formulation deals with language (i.ِ‫ط اٌْخَُِشِ وَاجلُىِد‬ ُ ُِ‫ِ َٓ اٌْمٍُُىَِ ُِغَِزمُِّٕب ثِبهللِ إَُِّٔٗ ُِف‬ The Shaykh. Bājūrīits 31). Imām Athīr al-Dīn al-Abharī. Master] Muḥammad s . them. (2) natural (ṭabīʿiyya or ʿādiyya). Allāh make theplace his resting best pleasant of later and scholars make and exemplar of firmly- rooted logicians (may Paradise his abode) states: Allāh make his resting place pleasant and make Paradise his abode) states: In In thetheName Nameofof Allāh. ًٍََ‫ وَل‬،ٌ‫ وَ لًٍََ عُضِئِِٗ ثِبٌزَّعَُِّّٓ إِْْ وَبَْ ٌَُٗ عُضِء‬،ِ‫اٌٍ ْفؿُ اٌذَّايُّ ثِبٌىَظِكِ َذُيُّ لًٍََ رََّبَِ َِب وُظِكَ ٌَُٗ ثِبٌُّْؽَبَثمَخ‬ by volition signifying life. Nonverbal examples include movement by volition signifying life. and (3) by formulation (waḍʿiyya). (2) natural (ṭabīʿiyya or ʿādiyya). INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC Abharī‖s Īsāgūjī Translation and Notes by Faraz A. to signify meanings). vomiting or diarrhea. things or concepts. as delineated above. «: ٍِ‫»إَِغَبغُىع‬ Īsāgūjī . have for verily He is the Giver of goodness and generous gifts.logicians of firmly-rooted Imām Athīr(may al-Dīn al-Abharī. only type of signification that is dealt with in this science. based on its movement. Nonverbal examples include movement that by formulation. or the fact that he is alive. and His enablement of we us toask Him for worship guidance on His path. This. but rather based on the “natural order” of things in creation. The first (Dalāla type Lafẓiyya Waḍʿiyya) rain signifying a fertile season. is based on how people have formulated. such of its meaning—if a it has discussion ofaitpart—by and its three partial accord subtypes. is based on how people 1 133 . do sothen. we have placed therein all of which must be immediately accessible in one‖s mind for one who begins to study any of the religious sciences. or movement of a ship in the sea meanings signified by traffic lights or traffic signs (such as a red signifying movement of its passengers.A Primer in Classical Logic 1 Signification (dalāla) is of three types: (1) solely logical as fever. The third type of signification. or heavy VerbalEach (waḍʿiyya). We send blessings upon his family [Companions. meaning.” number.” Another example is ifverse. as “creature” so eat more fruits andis part of the vegetables. Allāh commands youpresent text abegins to sacrifice with a which cow” (2:67). “You need Merciful.3 and [the meaning] “receptive to knowledge and the skill of writing” by 1concomitance. basedwhich on a part of 5 how people A vocable (lafẓ) [that signifies meaning] is either singular (mufrad). by partial accord. such for the example. signifying physical illness. Hence.” Every nominal sentence is composed of four taṣawwurs: comprehension of the subject. This. the latter taṣawwur is Anothertoexample “receptive knowledge”is “anoreven “ablenumber. by “human” is “rational creature.by“Itconcomitance is a human.” a remainder. is “an even number. ofone So if fourasks. “Verily.” which by concomitance example that2 well-known animal. namely.َِ‫ِالٌْزِضَا‬of]‫“ ثِب‬aِ‫اٌْىِزَبثَخ‬ For example.” “bear.4 Signification (dalāla) is of three types: (1) solely logical (ʿaqliyya). and so Allāh responded by makingas rhetoric and.e.A Primer in Classical Logic partial accord (taḍammun). overlook and forgive. that it does not designate a part of its meaning. as Another indicates delineated above. signification.ِ‫َال َىُىُْ وَزٌِهَ وَشاٍِِ اٌْؾِغَبسَح‬ instead of logically. it is divisible by two in the sentence without “Zaid is standing.” etc. The firstand typeThe Five Universals of signification refers to something signifying something else based on logic alone. namely. then verily Allāh is All-Forgiving.e. (i. 5 The comprehension of a singular vocable is termed taṣawwur. yet it is implied by Allāh‖s being All-Forgiving and Most Merciful. is a treatise in [the science of] logic. (2) natural (ṭabīʿiyya or ʿādiyya). then.” “bear.” and “the standing asks. forgive with His own mercy and forgiveness (Ḥabannaka 31). Nonverbal examples include medical signs and symptoms in a body. information. or heavy rain signifying a fertile season. The response. or movement of a ship in the sea signifying movement of its passengers. such as comprehending the person “Zaid. or laid out. yet not imbedded within of a singular its complete vocable is termed or partial that those foods naturally contain vitamins (Ḥabannaka 29). “Is that a creature or an inanimate object?” not seeking any other information. like 1“human”.” then “human” that “Allāh will forgive you and have mercy on you if you pardon. but rather based َّ َُُّ‫ص‬ on the “natural order” of things in creation. Allāh difficult forcommands you to sacrifice a cow” (2:67). with the term such as “human. “It is aof the human. Most Merciful” (64:14). used very often in the Qur‖ān. a physician yet it istells his patient. logic (Ḥabannaka 26–7. “Is that All-Forgiving. A verbal A vocable example is the(lafẓ) [that signifying word “ouch” signifiesfeeling meaning] pain. [the vocable] “human” (insān) indicates [its entire meaning “rational” or “creature”] by partial accord. “Then verily a creature or an inanimate Allāh is All-Forgiving. “It is a then human. the opposite. member of that so Allāh species would have responded fulfilling the Childrenthe by making of Israel mattermademorethe matterformore difficult themdifficult for themselves (Ḥabannaka 28). Bājūrī 31). and we respond. a part of its meaning—if it has a3 part—by partial accord For example. 5 namely. creature. by asking for specification. for verily He is the Giver of goodness and generous gifts. 3 For example. which by complete accord indicates that well-known The indication sufficed inof meaning bydivine concomitance mandate. the meaning indicated by “human” is “rational taṣawwur. overlook and forgive. any member of that species indicates that it is divisible by two without a remainder. discussion of it andaccord by complete its three subtypes. and that which is inextricably bound to it in the mind by concomitance (iltizām). then verily Allāh is matter more difficult for them (Ḥabannaka 28). implied “You by Allāh’s need being more vitamins All-Forgiving andinMostyour partial diet. a quality logicallywith associated associated a human with the term of sound “even senses andnumber.” “lion. Most Merciful” indicates by concomitance that “Allāh will forgive you and have mercy on you if you pardon. like “human”.. in the the predicate to the subject. if one seesobject?” a distant notfigure seekingandany other asks.” faculties.َََُِ‫ًٌَْزِ اضَاحل‬ ‫اٌزِّذُِ٘يُِّٓ ثلَِبٍ ِال‬ َ َُّٗٔ‫ف فٍَِئ‬،ُُِِْٗ‫ِوَبَبٌَُْئِِٔالَغِصَب‬ . as Allāh Most High determines the creation to be. So if one the three taṣawwurs are “Zaid. yet not imbedded within its complete able to write?” and we comprehension respond. A verbal example is a ٌِ‫ وَإَِِّب ُِؤٌََّفْ َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّز‬،ِْ‫اٌٍ ْفؿُ إَِِّب ُِفْشَدْ َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ الَ َُشَادُ ثِبجلُضِءِ ُِِِٕٗ دِ َالٌَْٗ لًٍََ عُضِءِ ادلَمًَِٕ وَبإلِِٔغَب‬ word indicating the person that said it.” yet the qualities of being and the affirmation of that ascription. a part of its meaning—if it has a part—by Īsāgūjī . and the affirmation of that ascription. words laid out by humans. Verbal Signification by Formulation (Dalāla Lafẓiyya Waḍʿiyya) ًٍََ‫ وَل‬،ٌ‫ وَ لًٍََ عُضِئِِٗ ثِبٌزَّعَُِّّٓ إِْْ وَبَْ ٌَُٗ عُضِء‬،ِ‫اٌٍ ْفؿُ اٌذَّايُّ ثِبٌىَظِكِ َذُيُّ لًٍََ رََّبَِ َِب وُظِكَ ٌَُٗ ثِبٌُّْؽَبَثمَخ‬ َّ ِ‫ َولًٍََ لبثًِِ َّاٌزمٍَُُِّ وَصَِٕمَخ‬،َُِّّٓ‫ وَلًٍََ َأؽَذَِِّ٘ب ثِبٌزَّع‬،ِ‫ىَاِْ إٌَّبؼِكِ ثِبدلُؽَبَثمَخ‬. to signify which it does by complete accord.which it does by the meaning concomitance. vomiting or diarrhea. The response. such as “human. “Then verily Allāh is All-Forgiving.” “even “lion. a quality would Any name have of a species sufficed indicates in fulfilling the adivine creature of thathowever. therefore. as in our response is used to indicate the meaning “creature” by overlook and forgive”. namely. such as fever.” while the taṣdīq is one’s “affirmation of the standing of ableThe to write?” andofwemeaning respond. and [the meaning] “receptive to of] “a rational (taḍammun). We do so while seeking help from Allāh [Most High].”subject. “Is that creature receptive to knowledge and of Zaid. [the vocable] “human” (insān) indicates [its entire meaning A vocable (lafẓ) that signifies 1 rational [acreature” meaning] by formulation (ḥayawān indicates nāṭiq) by complete its entire accord. the example would be “cow” in the verse. Nonverbal examples include movement by volition signifying life. For example. logically species by complete associated accord. 2 one ofmeaning them [i. indicated comprehension of the ascription of the predicate to the subject. based on its movement. “If you pardon.” uncooked meaning of “human. creature” (ḥayawān nāṭiq)knowledge by complete and theaccord. such as “one who casts stones” (rāmī ’l-ḥijāra). “If you pardon. anyand for specification. so eat more fruits and uncooked vegetables. if one sees a distant figure and asks. and is hence known empirically . this meaning is not explicitly stated in the verse. have formulated. in that would recompense those who pardon and contain vitamins (Ḥabannaka 29). used very often in the Qur’ān. more“Verily. or [it is] ’l-ḥijāra).accord. or nodding one‖s head signifying 2 Any name of a species indicates a creature of that species by agreement. comprehension of the predicate.” “standing. Damanhūrī 6). Vocables Each and type can be The Five nonverbal Universals Vocables or verbal.. the movement of a hand signifying movement of a ring on its finger. therefore.ishowever. or the Divine. or partial those two Forqualities. such as for example. is a human. a powerful thetool in themselves by askinganimal.by either complete accord (muṭābaqa). The second type of signification is not logical. for example.” or green light “go”). Nonverbal examples are the meanings signified by traffic lights or traffic signs (such as a red light signifying “stop. and we“It respond. “Is that creature receptive to knowledge and associated with a word. Most Merciful” indicates by concomitance 3 For example. A Qur’ānic meanings). and that which is inextricably bound to it in the mind by concomitance (iltizām). Most Merciful” (64:14).” etc.” to write” arewhich by concomitance indicates customarily termed taṣdīq. that For example. “human” to indicatemeaning. composite (mu’allaf). and (3) by formulation (waḍʿiyya). in that He would recompense those who pardon and forgive with His own mercy and forgiveness (Ḥabannaka 31). things or concepts.e.” “receptive to knowledge” or “able 4 Concomitance referstotowrite” a qualityare customarily customarily or associated logicallywith a humanEveryofnominal sound sensessentence and is composed faculties. To proceed. mandate. more vitamins in your diet.”suchyetasthe comprehending the person qualities of being “Zaid. or the fact that he is alive. Hence. taṣawwurs: for example. For example. Theisthird either singular type of (mufrad). either4 “rational” or “creature”] by concomitance. school bells signifying “human”class times.” “human” in our response is used to indicate the meaning “creature” by partial accord. Verbal Signification by Formulation (Dalāla Lafẓiyya Waḍʿiyya) «: itsٍِentire A vocable (lafẓ) that signifies1 [a meaning] by formulation indicates ‫»إَِغَبغُىع‬ meaning by complete accord (muṭābaqa).isthat that by formulation. or [it is] composite (mu’allaf). used to indicate those two qualities.” whereby he informs the patient by partial accord 4 Concomitance refers to a quality customarily or logically associated5 The with a comprehension word. 2 . this meaning is not explicitly stated in the “creature” is part of the meaning of “human. example. skill of one 2 writing”of them [i. we have placed therein all of which must be immediately accessible in one‖s mind for one who begins to study any of the religious sciences. and is the only type of signification that is dealt with in this science. Verbal signification by formulation deals with language concomitance. Hence.. comprehension of the ascription of 134the latter taṣawwur is termed taṣdīq. overlook and forgive”.” then Zaid” (Bājūrī 28. a reddish complexion of one‖s face signifying shyness. then comprehension we have used of the predicate. which the opposite. we have tool in rhetoric indication is a powerful and. such as “one whoa part castsofstones” it does not designate (rāmī a part of its meaning. A Qur‖ānic theexample Childrenwould be made of Israel “cow”the in the matterverse.” whereby he informs the patient byHepartial accord that those foods naturally Another example is if a physician tells his patient. if it does not.” “creature” which leads (ḥayawān) is a genus to the comprehension since itwhile of “human”. affirmation (taṣdīq) is either “certain” (jāzim) or “uncertain” (ghayr jāzim). such as the syllogism “The universe is changing.( juz’iyya). and still be what it is. The first is termed “knowledge” (ʿilm) if it cannot be . proper names. logically for example applied to more(Ḥabannaka than one39–40). or • What is said in response to [the question] “What is it?”. the human is one species under the genus “creature.differing the rest in the syllogism its own essential “The not nature. theeach name “Khalid” belief is designated in divine oneness. every member of a group (kulliyya). Jupiter. as they are not creatures but do grow. then.” if more because likely to bein reality.even ifnothe matter how are two names the Or beliefthat thesimilar the what two isissaid individuals universe are. yet there are exceptions as some of them are not. or a particular (juz’ī). a part of thatshared whole exceptions. (kulliyya). a part of that whole (juz’). based solely on “doubt” (shakk) if of equal likelihood (Akhdarī 25). universe is of individually can statement. “creature” syllogism includes ( juz’).” while the taṣdīq is one‖s “affirmation of the standing of Zaid” (Bājūrī 28. and a remote genus is “body” (jism) (Damanhūrī 8). beifdescribed ofand equal as “A(Akhdarī it islikelihood a tangential universal that two and unconsequential ismatter names said in response are identical.” origination. others. that which the very comprehension of its designated meaning does not prevent the occurrence of A singular vocable is either a universal (kullī). would forest. ٌِ‫َوُ٘ َى اٌَّز‬ such as “the one that laughs” in relation to “human.” . such as theone is to distinguish words human. up its reality. or tree. that which the very comprehension that. namely. ‫ َوإَِِّب عُضِئٍِّّ َوُ٘ َى‬،ِْ‫َىسِ َِفْهُى ِِٗ لَ ِٓ وُلُىِقِ اٌشَّشِوَخِ وَبإلِِٔغَب‬ ُّ ‫وَا ُدلفْشَدُ إَِِّب وٍُِّ ًّّ َوُ٘ َى اٌَّزٌِ الَ ََِّٕكُ َٔفْظُ رَص‬ . based solely on shared members. the name “Khalid” is designated to represent only 6). namely. an intermediate genus is “that which grows” (nāmī). be called“The people of Azhar are scholars. member horse. or oneessential or somenature members of aofhuman a group whole (juz’) universe is the thread of a carpet. such as “creature” in relation to “human” or “horse”. or ḥujja) each animal (see below such asfrom as well). and everything that changes yetorigination. therenames. “delusion” or “misgiving” (wahm) if less likely to be true. is termed definiens (qawl shāriḥ). Aand volition. ،ُ‫ِإَِب َِمُىيٌ فٍِ عَىَاةِ َِب ُ٘ىَ ِثؾَغَتِ اٌشَّشِوَخِ ا َدلؾِعَخِ وَبحلََُىَاِْ ثِبٌّْٕغِجَخِ ِإًٌَ اٌْئِِٔغَب ِْ وَاٌْفَشَطِ َوُ٘ىَ اجلِِٕظ‬ Also. allow forsince the complete exceptions. of a group ghazelle. hisasown withThis well would as apply individual is either specificity. (Ḥabannaka their essential reality. “creature” encompasses other animals along with the human. or accidental (ʿaraḍī).” usage in because is with proper reality.6 designated meaning does not prevent the occurrence of commonality therein [by namely. a human being can be logically conceived of without the qualities of walking or laughing. such can be changed. Damanhūrī 6). there are three types of genus (jins): proximate (qarīb).” the horse is another species under it. Finally. like [the proper name] “Zaid. which that changes differs from that of of temporal a ghazelle. this is termed the species even if“thought” the other person’s or name “opinion” is also (ẓann) “Khalid. orto“unsound” represent(only a particular fāsid) like it cannot individual. than individual. are twoFor example.of a carpet.” since as a whole a “creature. is a universal whole that encompasses (kull).” A universal is either essential (dhātī). namely. is the understanding. achieved not in34–5). regardless of whether those traits are inseparable separable that thing. for example. such as Zaid.” (Damanhūrī temporal 8). However.” “Thetherefore. “The thatbetween multiple which leads to anmembers affirmationthat(taṣdīq) differ inistheir termed realities. or theeven would apply tallest tree if the in a person’s other forest.َ‫وََُشِعَُُ ِثأََُّٔٗ وًٍُِّّّ َِمُىيٌ لًٍََ وَضِريََِٓ ُِخِزٍَفِنيَ ثِبٌْؾَمَبئِكِ فٍِ عَىَاةِ َِب ُ٘ى‬ changed. The first is termed “knowledge” (ʿilm) a particular individual.” “standing. It can be described as “A universal that is said in response to ―What is it?‖ termed syllogism (qiyās or ḥujja) (see below as well).” and “the standing of Zaid. and “body” encompasses inanimate objects that do not grow. each distinct and designated distinguished for a different from other persons. Additionally. they are.” meaning the thing can beoflogically understanding. such as “creature” in relation to “human” or “horse”. the two names are the same or “misgiving” word. that theirthe two to ―What primary namespurpose isof it?‖ naming are identical.An their of annatures essential entire entity have aas a whole shared component. refers to its being broader. or “unsound” (fāsid) if it does not. a human cannot be logically conceived of without the qualities of being a creature or having the capacity to think rationally. such as “human” in relation to “Zaid” and “ʿAmr”. An example of an entire entity as a whole (kull) is the statement. yet there are exceptions as some of them are not. suchinasresponse “creature”to in [the question] relation “What to “human” is it?”. such as the definiens “rational differentiated from terms that refer to an entire entity as a 8which allows for exceptions. A specific member of a category is termed a with some or members of afrom group ( juz’iyya) is “Some of the people traits.” is of temporal refers towhich many members leads that differ to the conclusion in their “The universe is ofessential realities. such as “the one that laughs” in relation to “human. The remoteness of a genus. as inthe preeternal. origination” and its affirmation (Damanhūrī 6). such as affirmation of a mountain being A of universal (kullī) is a logical rock or affirmation that acategory. suchit can be applied as “being a creature” and 3 statement dealingwith “being rational” withrespect every member of a group to the human. the proximate genus is “creature” (ḥayawān). every the human. is a member under the genus (jins). still be considered a human being. while still being considered a human being. that theyleads to the are all conclusion “creatures.e. while that which leads to an affirmation (taṣdīq) is genus (jins). and normally which the rest ofdoesthe people of Azhar are scholars. response to role of a proper Uncertain “What name isis affirmation to it?”. like the belief in divine oneness. From the perspective of the human.. singular planet.ٍ‫اٌَّزٌِ ََِّٕكُ َٔفْظُ َرصَىُّسِ َِفْهُى ِِٗ ِِٓ رٌِهَ وَضََِذ‬ A singular vocable is either a universal (kullī).” 7 ّّ ‫ َوإَِِّب لَشَظ‬،ِ‫ٍِ َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ َ ِذخًُُ فٍِ َؽمُِمَخِ عُضِئَُِّبرِِٗ وَبحلََُىَاِْ ثِبٌّْٕغِجَخِ ِإًٌَ اٌْئِِٔغَب ِْ وَاٌْفَشَط‬ ٍِ ّّ ‫وَاٌْىًٍُُِّّ إَِِّب رَار‬ A universal is either essential (dhātī).” which leads to the comprehension of “human”.” :ُّ‫وَاٌزَّايت‬ An essential universal (dhātī) is either: Ansentence essential universal “Zaid (dhātī) is standing. “Every human is capable thing that are not essential are termed “accidental” or “accidents. or a particular ( juz’ī). that differ in number. these of particular ( juz’ī). ThisJupiter. Belief is either “sound” (ṣaḥīḥ) if it corresponds to reality. That is. bothperson singular Each shared entity members fromnamed was all others. that is(qawl said this is shāriḥ) (see below termed in text. or from It can “doubt” other(shakk) persons.” temporal origination” 8 and its affirmation (Damanhūrī Also. be logically designated for aapplied to individual. A statement is dealing with every member of a example group (kulliyya) is “Every human is capable (kull) of differsisfrom changing. for example. Aname particular is also cannot Belief be logically is either . and the ghazelle is a third species under it. namely. A its essential 6 A universal that components (kullī) makeis a logical category. That is. An The question “What is it?” in the definition above is used to ask regarding example theofessential a part ofnature a whole(māhiyya) ( juz’) is the of athread thing.” is either: the three taṣawwurs are “Zaid. i. However. that which applies to the essence of its members.. such as the words human. to be true. specific member is termed of a(iʿtiqād) “belief” categoryif is it termed a particular (juz’ī). Each. like [the proper name] “Zaid. no matter how similar the two individuals are.” which A statement dealing with some members of a group (juz’iyya) is “Some of the people of Azhar are scholars” namely. (kulliyya) Attributes of ais to more than one singular entity. etc. “that which grows” encompasses plants. “uncertain” (ghayr jāzim). ‫َبٌعَّبؽِهِ ث‬ ‫خَبٌِفُُٗ و‬ namely itsَُ contrast.”9 Additionally. is termed that thewhich such genusleads toas a It ( jins). namely. such as affirmation of a mountain being made of rock or affirmation that a human normally moves by volition.َ‫حلمُِمَخِ فٍِ عَىَاةِ َِب ُ٘ى‬ “sound”applied (ṣaḥīḥ) iftoitmore َ ‫ وََُشِعَُُ ِثأََُّٔٗ وًٍُِّّّ َِمُىيٌ لًٍََ وَضِريََِٓ ُِخِزٍَِفِنيَ ثِبٌْمَذَ ِد دُوَْ ا‬،ُ‫إٌَّىِق‬ than onetosingular corresponds entity. as the role of aone singular proper nameentity. include walking A particular cannotor belaughing. like the belief that the universe is preeternal. then. reality. 135 9 The species (nawʿ). or the tallest tree in a Azhar are scholars” (Damanhūrī 8). For the human.purpose of that naming refers to many was achieved members (Ḥabannaka 34–5).” conceived ofA without statement dealing those planet. An example of a part of a animal (qiyās kingdom. like thethe most common “Khalid. Uncertain affirmation is either “thought” or “opinion” (ẓann) if more likely to be true than its counterpart. it cannot be logically applied to another made َ‫خلصُىصَُِّخِ َِمّب وَبٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ثِبٌّْٕغِجَخِ ِإًٌَ صََِذٍ َولَِّشٍو َوُ٘ى‬ if it6 cannot be changed.” since as a whole they are. true there are name two so proper as to benames. which normally does not allow for For example.  What shared is said members.this or “horse”. like “human”. even if “delusion” its counterpart. the most common usage is with proper names. intermediate (wasaṭ). it can bemoves human normally ُ ‫َوإَِِّب َِمُىيٌ فٍِ عَىَاةِ َِب ُ٘ىَ ِثؾَغَتِ اٌشَّشِوَ ِخ وَا‬ appliedbyto more than person. 7 The termsthat which leads universal (kullī)to a comprehension and particular (juz’ī)(taṣawwur) must be differentiated7 The fromterms termsuniversal that refer(kullī) to anand particular entire entity as( juz’ī) a whole must be (kull). thesuch as page ???). and remote (baʿīd). namely its contrast. the definiens “rational creature. different another person. creature. like “human”. that ofand everything a horse. that which the very comprehension of its commonality therein [by instantiation].”7 of its designated meaning does prevent that. Each animal is a species under the genus “creature.ِْ‫غَب‬orِِٔ‫ٌْئ‬accidental ‫(ِبٌّْٕغِجَخِ ِإًٌَ ا‬ʿaraḍī). as Zaid. that which the very comprehension of its designated6meaning does prevent instantiation]. “creature” comprehension can be described in relation (taṣawwur) to “human” as “Ais universal termed definiens or “horse”. whichevery allowsessential nature (māhiyya) for exceptions. that which applies to the essence of its members. while singular entity. and was the primary 25). or one or some members of a group (juz’iyya). affirmation (taṣdīq) is either “certain” ( jāzim) or For example. and is termed “belief” (iʿtiqād) if it can be changed. thebased distinguish sameone on word. (wahm) Each person was if less andnamed it is a with his own tangential andindividual name somatter unconsequential as to bethat distinct their and likely distinguished (nawʿ). entity fromorall tree. essential rationally. as they are not creatures response to ―What thing is it. horse. refers to its being broader. such as “creature” in relation to “human” or “horse”. species in number. which differs from that of a ghazelle. for example. an is “creature” canseparated]. such as “one who can potentially laugh” in relation to “human. For the human.َ‫وََُشِعَُُ ِثأََُّٔٗ وًٍُِّّّ َِمُىيٌ لًٍََ وَضِريََِٓ ُِخِزٍَفِنيَ ثِبٌْؾَمَبئِكِ فٍِ عَىَاةِ َِب ُ٘ى‬  What is said in response to [the question] “What is it?”.. It can beindescribed response to as‘What is it?’ yet refers “A universal to said that is manyinmembers that response todiffer ―What in their is it?‖ essential realities. in its own essential nature. and a remote genus is “body” ( jism) (Damanhūrī 8).” It can be described as “An accidental universal that refers to members of only one essential reality.” “ghazelle. it is differs from thateither that which cannot be separated from its of a ghazelle. “creature” (ḥayawān) is a genus since it is a universal that encompasses every essential nature (māhiyya) shared between multiple members that differ in their realities. in It capacity to is its that essence think [attribute] [i. “creature” encompasses other ask regarding the essential nature (māhiyya) of a thing. namely. one can appreciate that “genus” and “species” are to some degree relative terms.”11 With respect to the discussion of types of genus. regardless of whether those traits are inseparable or separable from that thing. that they are all “creatures.” meaning the thing can be logically conceived of without those traits. a human being genus “creature. For the human. and “body” encompasses inanimate objects that do not grow. their essential natures have a shared component. ghazelle. such as “human” • Or what in relation to “Zaid” is said in response toand “What“ʿAmr”.” Each of the two. for example.” yet each of the two species serves as a genus for each species below it.” intermediate genus is “that which grows” (nāmī). a human being can be logically“What conceivedthing of without • to Or“What not saidisinit?” but response rather to “What said in response is it?” but rather tosaid in response the qualities of walking or laughing. “creature” includes the human. such as “being a creature” and “being rational” with respect to the human. can individually be called a “creature. etc. etc. as they are not creatures but do grow. there are three types of genus (jins): proximate (qarīb). and still be what it is. Each animal isofa without the qualities species under of walking or the genus laughing.. in its essence?’. 136 10 The differentia serves to differentiate each species from other ones within the same genus. is a member under the genus conceived of without those traits.” “horse.” yet refers to many members 8 that differ in their essential realities. is either specific to one essential reality. Attributes of a thing that are not essential are termed َ ِ‫ًُ وَاؽِذٍ ِِِٕهَُّب إَِِّب أَْْ َخِزَصَّ ث‬ ُّ ‫وَو‬ “accidental” or “accidents. namely. this isontermed is it?”. and the 4 being a creature or having the capacity to think rationally. lāzim). therefore. based the species both shared members (nawʿ). is a member under the genus (jins). in its said other in animals along with essence?‖. then. and the ghazelle regardless of whether those traits are inseparable or separable from that thing. the human is one species under the genus “creature. this is termed the genus (jins). of It a genus. while still be considered a human being. human cannot be logically conceived of without the qualities of That is. that they are all “creatures. From the perspective essential reality.َ‫حلمُِمَخِ فٍِ عَىَاةِ َِب ُ٘ى‬ َ ‫ وََُشِعَُُ ِثأََُّٔٗ وًٍُِّّّ َِمُىيٌ لًٍََ وَضِريََِٓ ُِخِزٍَِفِنيَ ثِبٌْمَذَ ِد دُوَْ ا‬،ُ‫إٌَّىِق‬  Or what is said in response to “What is it?”. Therefers (to remoteness something faṣl). these would include walking or is a third species under it. ،ِْ‫ُىحِ ثِبٌّْْٕغِجَخِ ِإًٌَ اٌْئِِٔغَب‬ َّ ‫ؾمُِمَ ٍخ وَاؽِذَ ٍح َوُ٘ىَ اخلَبصَّخُ وَبٌعَّبؽِهِ ثِبٌْم‬ “being a creature” and “being rational” with respect to the human. However. It canthis to “human”. suchthat is said in as “human” in response relation to to ―What “Zaid” andis it?‖ and “ʿAmr”. 9 The species (nawʿ). then. so “rational” is the differentia for . each animal differing from the rest still being considered a human being. That is. From the perspective of the relation to “human”. However. based solely on shared members.e. It can benot in their described as essential reality. for example.. such as plants. ٍِ‫ وََُشِعَُُ ِثأََُّٔٗ وًٍَِّّّ َُمَبيُ لًٍََ اٌشٍَِّءِ ف‬،ًُِ‫َُشَبسِوُُٗ فٍِ اجلِِٕظِ وَبٌَّٕبؼِكِ ثِبٌّْٕغِجَخِ ِإًٌَ اٌْئِٔغَبِْ َوُ٘ىَ اٌْفَص‬ namely.” shared between multiple members that differ in their realities. said can bethen. this that refers to many members that is termed the differ(nawʿ). intermediate (wasaṭ).that thingencompasses refers “creature” toissomething it. for example (Ḥabannaka 39-40). which(ʿaraḍī).”10 but do grow. for example. the horse “creature” is another (ḥayawān) species under it. That is. essential a creature“What or havingreality]?” thing the is it. “that10 which grows” encompasses plants. a member such from other as “rational” members in of its shared Finally. the separable accident (ʿaraḍ mufāriq). their essential natures have a shared intermediate (wasaṭ). Each animal is a species under the laughing.” 8 َ‫خلصُىصَُِّخِ َِمّب وَبٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ثِبٌّْٕغِجَخِ ِإًٌَ صََِذٍ َولَِّشٍو َوُ٘ى‬ ُ ‫َوإَِِّب َِمُىيٌ فٍِ عَىَاةِ َِب ُ٘ىَ ِثؾَغَتِ اٌشَّشِوَ ِخ وَا‬ .. “Creature” is a genus for “human. distinguishes a member from which other members [essentially] of its distinguishes shared genus. i. and remote (baʿīd). and “body” encompasses inanimate objects that do not grow. The remoteness of a genus.” the human.ُ‫ أَوِ ال َِّزَِٕ َك َوُ٘ىَ اٌْمَشَضُ ادلُفَبسِق‬،َُ‫َوأََِّب اٌْمَشَظٍُِّ فَئَِِّب أَْْ َِّزَِٕكَ أِفِىَبوُُٗ لَ ِٓ ادلَبَُِّ٘خِ َوُ٘ َى اٌْمَ َشضُ اٌٍَّب ِص‬ that encompasses every essential nature (māhiyya) “creature. i. which while still being [essentially] reality]?” It is that considered [attribute] a human being. and the rest of the ‫َوإَِِّب غَُِشُ َِمُىيٍ فٍِ عَىَاةِ َِب ُ٘ىَ ثًَْ َِمُىيٌ فٍِ عَىَاةِ أٌَُّ شٍَِءٍ ُ٘ىَ فٍِ رَارِِٗ َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ ََُُّّْضُ اٌشٍَِّءَ لَّّب‬ animal kingdom. the inseparable accidentof(ʿaraḍ component. animals along with the human. The question “What is it?” in the definition above is used to then. “that which grows” encompasses its essential components that make up its reality.” Each.” Each. then. for an human accidental differs from that of universal a horse. based on both shared members as well as specificity.” 8 For example. this issuchtermed the differentia as “rational” in relation(faṣl). without thein its essence qualities of being [i. while still be considered a human being.”9 8 For example. ghazelle. while rest of the animal kingdom. for example in response (Ḥabannaka 39–40). not in their essential reality. and a remote genus is “A universal “body” (jism) (Damanhūrīthat 8). called a “creature. a universal . That is. since the complete essential nature of a human differs from that of a horse. However.” etc. the human is one species under the genus “creature. Attributes of a thing that are not essential are termed “accidental” or “accidents. individually benamely. since the complete essential nature of aAs Finally. horse. since “creature” and “plant” for example are “species” relative to the genus “that which grows. there are three types of genus ( jins): proximate (qarīb). these wouldinclude Or walking not saidor laughing.” The question “What is it?” in the definition above is used to ask regarding the essential nature (māhiyya) of a thing. However.e. be is described termed the asdifferentia human. and still be what it is. It can be described as wellas as “A universal specificity. a human cannot be logically conceived of tois it. the proximate genus is “creature” (ḥayawān).genus. and “plant” is a genus for each type of plant categorized therein (Ḥabannaka 40). the particular accident (khāṣṣa). in toresponse described refers as its “A to ―What universal being broader.e. namely.” “A universal 9 that is said in response to ‘What is it?’ and that refers to many members that differ in number.isand a genus canunder since it isisaa third species the ghazelle be logically conceived it. its essential . .e. .ِِٗ‫عَىَاةِ أٌَُّ شٍَِءٍ ُ٘ىَ فٍِ رَار‬ components that make up its reality. or that genus the proximate which can [be(ḥayawān).‫وَرُشِعَُُ ِثأََّٔهَب وٍَُُِّّخٌ ُرمَبيُ لًٍََ َِب َرؾِذَ َؽمُِمَ ٍخ وَاؽِذَحٍ َفمَػْ لَىِالً لَشَظُِِّب‬ ( jins).” the horse is another species under it. “creature” includes the human. and remote (baʿīd). therefore. each animal differing from the rest in its own essential nature.” meaning the thing can be logically 9 The species (nawʿ). an intermediate genus is “that which grows” (nāmī).. the human. ” “ghazelle. make up the five universals: genus (jins).” type of plant categorized therein (Ḥabannaka 40).” as by it the human is distinguished from all other in relation to “human. in that if they are not met.” “human. one to “human” and can appreciate other that “genus” creatures andIt“species” [as well]. and has is not shared by any that trait. make up the five universals: genus ( jins). These. genus for each encompassing multiple species below it.species under particular the genus accident “creature” (khaṣṣa). or that which can [be separated]. who can potentially breathe” or “who is actually breathing” With respect is actually to the discussion breathing” in relationof types of genus. laughing refer is a particular to the resultant soundaccident or facialof the human. “Creature” is a 12 The common accident is an accident and hence not part of genus for “human. particular accident (khaṣṣa).etc. sincein“creature” relationand to“plant” “human” and other for example creatures are “species” relative[as well].‫ب‬refers ُِِّ‫الً لَشَظ‬toِ‫لَى‬members ‫كَ ُِخِزٍَِفَ ٍخ‬ofِ‫مَبئ‬only ‫ذَ َؽ‬oneِ‫َِب َرؾ‬essential ًٍََ‫مَبيُ ل‬reality.” َُ ًٍُِّّّ‫أََُّٔٗ و‬11‫ وََُشعَُُ ِث‬،ِ‫احلََُىَأَبد‬ With respect to the discussion of types of genus. one can appreciate that “genus” and “species” are to some degree relative terms.‫وَرُشِعَُُ ِثأََّٔهَب وٍَُُِّّخٌ ُرمَبيُ لًٍََ َِب َرؾِذَ َؽمُِمَ ٍخ وَاؽِذَحٍ َفمَػْ لَىِالً لَشَظُِِّب‬ particular accident (khāṣṣa). then. expression.” etc. 11 The particular accident is an accident. such reality.” etc. There are some basic guidelines or rules for proper definiens. and “plant” is a genus for each “human. An example of definiens that is too narrow . such as “one who can potentially breathe” or “who typeaccident (ʿaraḍ of plant categorized therein such ʿāmm). For example. as one can conceive of a it is composed of its proximate genus and other ones within the same genus. universal that refers to something said in response to ―What thing is it. Other examples of particular accidents shared by any other species within the shared genus.” as by it the human is distinguished from all other animals under the genus “creature” (Ḥabbanaka 40). course. as no animal can laugh. 8-9). one can not merely essential refer reality. genus for “human. yet is common in that other species within the shared genus might possess that trait. (Ḥabannaka with the five universals and uses them to arrive at the human that cannot laugh. to psychological wonderTogether.ُ‫ أَوِ ال َِّزَِٕ َك َوُ٘ىَ اٌْمَشَضُ ادلُفَبسِق‬،َُ‫َوأََِّب اٌْمَشَظٍُِّ فَئَِِّب أَْْ َِّزَِٕكَ أِفِىَبوُُٗ لَ ِٓ ادلَبَُِّ٘خِ َوُ٘ َى اٌْمَ َشضُ اٌٍَّب ِص‬ As for an accidental universal (ʿaraḍī).multiple “Creature” differing is a genus foressential realities. namely. Orsince “creature” general. the separable reality. since “creature” and “plant” for example are “species” of the human include being “receptive to knowledge and the skill relative to the genus “that which grows. yet it is particular to it and therefore is not ُ‫اٌْمَىِيُ اٌشَّبسِػ‬ 11 10 The differentia serves to differentiate each species from other ones within the same genus. nor differ from it altogether. essentialso “rational” is the differentia for a universal genus for each that refers species belowtoit. namely.” “horse. cannot walk. reality.universal for an accidental namely. animals under the genus 14“creature” can also walk (Ḥabannaka animals under the genus “creature” (Ḥabbanaka 40). Laughing. they are or enjoyment. then. . ِ‫َوتُ ِِٓ عِِٕظِ اٌشٍَِّ ِء وََفصٍِِ ِٗ اٌْمَشَِجَُِِٓ وَبحلََُىَاِْ إٌَّبؼِك‬ َّ ‫ َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ َزَش‬،ِ‫احلَذُّ لَىِ ٌي دَايٌّ لًٍََ َِبَُِّ٘ ِخ اٌشٍَِّء‬ species serves as a genus for each species below it. the inseparable accident (ʿaraḍ lāzim). and hence not of the These. thegrows. literally. yetto it the resultantto is particular sound ortherefore it and facial expression. In Arabic. apes do not laugh. and hence not of the thing‖s essential reality. (nawʿ). snakes.For common emanates due accident (ʿaraḍ). of what something is and how it is distinguished from other things. theiscommon and “plant” a genus for each common accident (ʿaraḍ ʿāmm). essential reality. is either specific to one essential reality.” “horse. notto just the genus “that which one. its purpose will not be fulfilled. namely. The particular accident is an accident. the . other as no species animal withinLaughing. and eagles. walking is an accident of the human. Together. Definiens (Qawl Shāriḥ) 5 With The particular accident is an accident. yet no other differentia ( faṣl). yet as one canto it is particular conceive of a human that cannot it and therefore laugh.َُّ‫ َوُ٘ىَ احلَذُّ اٌزَّب‬،ِْ‫ثِبٌّْٕغِجخِ ِإًٌَ اٌْئِِٔغَب‬ something’s essential reality. and most arguments occur due to implicitly using different definitions. For example. yet no other species under the genus end points of comprehension (maqāṣid al-taṣawwurāt). so “rational” is the differentia for shared by any other species within the shared genus. namely. namely. “Creature” is a essential realities..” yet each of the two 5 of writing” (Ḥabannaka 41). lāzim).” This is a complete definition (ḥadd tāmm). which is the definiens (qawl shāriḥ). and common accident (ʿaraḍ). and “plant” is a genus for each type of plant categorized therein (Ḥabannaka 40). then. Otherof examples comprehension (mabādi’ of particular al-taṣawwurāt). This section is of the utmost importance in the science of logic. namely. it is either that which cannot be separated from its which can [be separated]. can laugh.” “horse. of The common accident is an accident and hence not part of something‖s the definiens (qawl essential reality.(ʿaraḍī). For example. that which gives you knowledge. can are to some degree relative terms. which cannot or that which can [be be separated separated]. An example of definiens that is too broad is to define a human as “a creature.”10 . is not appreciate that “genus” and “species” are to some degree relative hence.” It can be described as 11 “An accidental universal that refers to members of only one essential reality. or mental conception. the separable accident (ʿaraḍ mufāriq). trait. 13 This section is entitled “Definiens” (qawl shāriḥ) and represents the aim of the five universals. the shared ofgenus. anddeemed does notthemerely example. realities. laughing is a particular accident of the human. it is not from the “human. 137 The first central rule is that the definiens not be broader or narrower than what it seeks to define. such as horses. For example. or misunderstanding them in the first place. species (nawʿ). and “plant”multiple encompassing for example are “species” essential relative realities.within emanates due to psychological the shared wonderthat genus might possess or enjoyment. it is apes do not hence. it is either that which cannot be separated from its Asessential reality. yet it is a common accident as other animals under the genus “creature” can also walk (Ḥabannaka 41). namely.” just one. which is “creature” 12 has that trait. 41). accidents in that of the human not from the human’s include essential reality. the particular accident َِٓ ِٖ‫ُى ِح وَثِبٌْفِمًِِ ٌِإلِِٔغَبِْ َوغَُِ ِش‬ َّ ‫ق وَاؽِذَ ٍح َوُ٘ َى اٌْمَ َشضُ اٌْمَبَُّ وَبدلُزََٕفِّظِ ثِبٌْم‬ (khāṣṣa).ُ‫ أَوِ ال َِّزَِٕ َك َوُ٘ىَ اٌْمَشَضُ ادلُفَبسِق‬،َُ‫َوأََِّب اٌْمَشَظٍُِّ فَئَِِّب أَْْ َِّزَِٕكَ أِفِىَبوُُٗ لَ ِٓ ادلَبَُِّ٘خِ َوُ٘ َى اٌْمَ َشضُ اٌٍَّب ِص‬ . being “receptive as oneand to knowledge can the conceive skill ofofwriting” a one starts41). as most logical fallacies occur due to incorrect or invalid definitions.‫وَرُشِعَُُ ِثأََّٔهَب وٍَُُِّّخٌ ُرمَبيُ لًٍََ َِب َرؾِذَ َؽمُِمَ ٍخ وَاؽِذَحٍ َفمَػْ لَىِالً لَشَظُِِّب‬ ،ِْ‫ُىحِ ثِبٌّْْٕغِجَخِ ِإًٌَ اٌْئِِٔغَب‬ َّ ‫ؾمُِمَ ٍخ وَاؽِذَ ٍح َوُ٘ىَ اخلَبصَّخُ وَبٌعَّبؽِهِ ثِبٌْم‬َ ِ‫ًُ وَاؽِذٍ ِِِٕهَُّب إَِِّب أَْْ َخِزَصَّ ث‬ ُّ ‫وَو‬ Each of the two. yet such it is aas “rational common creature” accident as other for “human. so “rational” is the differentia its proximate human thatdifferentia. as (Ḥabannaka “one 40). such as “one who can potentially laugh” in relation to Each ofIt the “human. in that one starts with the five universals and uses them to arrive at the end points of comprehension (maqāṣid al-taṣawwurāt). is either specific to one essential reality. in its essence?‖. this is also termed muʿarrif. ،ِْ‫ُىحِ ثِبٌّْْٕغِجَخِ ِإًٌَ اٌْئِِٔغَب‬ َّ ‫ؾمُِمَ ٍخ وَاؽِذَ ٍح َوُ٘ىَ اخلَبصَّخُ وَبٌعَّبؽِهِ ثِبٌْم‬َ ِ‫ًُ وَاؽِذٍ ِِِٕهَُّب إَِِّب أَْْ َخِزَصَّ ث‬ ُّ ‫وَو‬ . the separable accident (ʿaraḍ mufāriq). to the genusIt“that canwhich be described grows. isaseither described specificuniversal “An accidental to one essential that refersreality. namely. comprehension and walking (Damanhūrī is an accident of the human.”11 Each of the two. species thing’shuman‖s essentialessential reality. yet Sound shāriḥ). and hence not of the thing‖sdoes 11 respect to the discussion of types of genus.” yet as each“An accidental of the two species serves 10 The differentia beasdescribed serves as “An to differentiate accidental each species universal that from other refers ones within to multiple the same differing genus. namely.” as that causes the listener to envision things outside the scope of “human” in his resulting mental conception.” two. to members of the particular accident only one essential (khāṣṣa). foundations laugh.” as “one who can potentially laugh” in relation to “human.. such as “one who can potentially laugh” in relation to “human.” 12 as by it the human is distinguished from all other animals under the genus “creature” (Ḥabbanaka 40). or that As for an accidental universal (ʿaraḍī). from its essentialnamely. definiens is common then in that leads other to sound species course. Sound definiens then leads to sound comprehension (Damanhūrī 8–9). laughing is a particular accident of the human. they are deemed the foundations of comprehension (mabādi’ al-taṣawwurāt). then.as one can conceive of a human that cannot walk.” 12 “ghazelle.. differentia (faṣl).” It can be described as َ ِ‫َوإَِِّب أَْْ َمَُُّ ؽَمَبئِكَ فَى‬ “An accidental universal that.” not“ghazelle. it is not from the terms. can be then. the inseparable accident it is either that (ʿaraḍ lāzim). as that is the purpose of definiens. 10 The A differentia [formal]serves definition 13 is a statement that indicates to differentiate each species from the essential nature (māhiyya) of something. accident the inseparable (ʿaraḍ(ʿaraḍ accident mufāriq).” yet each of the two species serves as a Or general. or equally is to define a creature as “a rational. are creatures remain thisexcluded. creature” of to define “human. exact particular match such asaccident “one who is cannotrational” be used. (ḥadd ِ‫َوتُ ِِٓ عِِٕظٍ َثمُِذٍ ٌٍِشٍَِّءِ وََفصٍِِِٗ اٌْمَشَِت‬ 14 َّ ‫وَاحلَذُّ إٌَّبلِصُ َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ َزَش‬ human‖s essential reality. This section is of the utmost importance in the science of logic. pl.َُّ‫ َوُ٘ىَ احلَذُّ اٌزَّب‬،ِْ‫ثِبٌّْٕغِجخِ ِإًٌَ اٌْئِِٔغَب‬ A [formal] definition Ais[formal] a statement that13indicates 13 definition the that is a statement essential nature indicates (māhiyya) the essential of something. definition Finally. (rasm.with people. (ḥadd. like defining him as an ocean that is different (Ḥabannaka 59-61). (dawr).” as that causes the listener to envision nothing but the human. ruling.” complete as other and description.e.” as The complete of essential of alluniversals. known” such as defining a scholar asofan definitions. An The second central rule is that the definiens be clearer than what is being defined. or mental such as defining of whatknowledge something as “perceiving is and how itsomething is known.. word for scope of “human” in his resulting mental conception.asad that that(well-known knowing which the gives Arabic wordnot definiens you knowledge. of what something is and how it is distinguished from other things. inseparable particular The first central accidents.ُُِِْ‫َاٌشَّغَبع‬ ‫َّبَُّ َو‬ termed ِِٔ‫اٌْوئ‬ muʿarrif. it is composed of its proximate genus and its proximate differentia. Laughing. One cannot. (dawr). due toother incorrect rules or areinvalid that the definiens not be metaphorical.that broader butisnever gentlewith withthe differentia. 14 A formal definition (ḥadd. and eagles. such and eagles. snakes. namely.e. such as defining the ritual place.e. description differentia. most asAnother is mostexample inclusive “creature” valid complete walkdescription as well.” while a while exactly a description description is meant. as that is the purpose of definiens. as one can conceive of a human that cannot laugh. An incomplete definition (ḥadd nāqiṣ) is composed of a remote genus of something and its.” as differs altogether is to define a stone as “a flowing substance most to least ideal types of definitions is the same as presented all animals are included thereby (Ḥabannaka 64). lest it lead to circular reasoning “knowledge.” These.isBājūrī gentle 45.” sincecentral “something rule isknown” that knowing is assuming the definiens not depend understanding of on exact match of what is being defined.” of what is being (Ḥabannaka 62–3). The second represents central rule is that the definiens be clearer is than also what is being obscure. Anitexample of definiens that accidental universals. example.whatsuchisasbeingdefining knowledge defined. “walking” for “human. is separablethat is. that16 quenches someone’snot thirst. in relation to “human. “or. types of definitions or narrower than what is the same it seeks as presented to define.complete definition. conception. and most arguments of “knowledge. The above most logical serve fallacies as the main occur some rules.” 15 accident and hence not part of something‖s essential reality. definienss differentia a separable is an alone. unless there is something to defining the ritual that14 if they are not met. indicate what “or. lest it leadas “perceiving to circular something reasoning definiens. A third central muʿarrif. pl. definition (ḥadd yet it is a common nāqiṣ) accident as is composed other animals 15of under a the remote genus genus “creature” canof something also walk and (Ḥabannaka and its proximate differentia. is “an a separable eating body particular that grows” accident for cannot “creature. such as horses.”16 “human.” to define then it is not a creature as “a rational. Likewise. Sound definiens then leads to sound comprehension (Damanhūrī 8–9).9).” If a more remote genus is used. Also. what isas being that defined in the first is the purpose of place (Ḥabannaka 59–61).” is valid as it restrictive It would (māniʿ or muṭṭarid). its purpose will not be fulfilled. Together. and does not merely refer to the resultant sound or facial expression. make up the five universals: genus (jins). of course. than more or equally obscure. [i. of all definitions. such complete as defining the 14 A formal description. nature (māhiyya) it is composed of its proximate genus and its proximate differentia. Bājūrī 45. or equally obscure. (Ḥabannaka asAn“rational example 62–3).” A complete 16 There are somedescription basic guidelines(rasm tāmm) or rules of something for proper isifcomposed definiens. A third Thiscentral rule isis that of theknowing the definiensinnot thedepend scienceon knowing (dawr).from nor differ describing] it altogether.defined. with peopleor andmisunderstanding that is precise inthem in the first Also. altogether. meant. or mental conception. word rather for lion). “human. genus as one can of something conceive of a human Anthat incomplete cannot walk. inclusive mental andnamely. yet no other species under the genus “creature” has َّ ‫إٌَّبلِصُ َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ َزَش‬. and common َّ ‫وَاٌشَّعُُِ اٌزَّبَُّ َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ َزَش‬ ِ‫َوتُ ِِٓ عِِٕظٍ لَشَِِتٍ ٌٍِشٍَِّءِ َوخَىَاصّْ ِٗ اٌٍَّبصَِِخِ وَبحلََُىَاِْ اٌعَّبؽِهِ فٍِ َرمِشَِِف‬ accident (ʿaraḍ).” which is what is being defined in the first place “knowledge. sinceDamanhūrī incomplete 9). namely. Finally. exactly is meant. such as “laughing creature” when inseparable particular accidents. serve“or.” its then proximate is not fully differentia restrictive. definiens that isistoo ḥudūd) description composed broad isonly (Ḥabannaka 62–3). An example of definiens that differs altogether is to define a stone as “a for termed example. particular accident (khaṣṣa). like defining such as him as anaocean defining scholar that is as an There are some basic guidelines or rules for proper definiens. describing] “human.ِْ‫اٌْئِِٔغَب‬ A complete fallacies occurdescription due to incorrect(rasm tāmm) or invalid of something definitions. such as ocean that is gentle with people.” while as the main such rules. Finally. as no animal can laugh. in relation such as to “one “human.”universals. in that one starts with the five universals and uses them to arrive at the end points of comprehension (maqāṣid al-taṣawwurāt). snakes. proximate differentia.” as otheridealanimals it under the genusof a 16 includes since cannot could potentially Theso were complete notdefinition for their is impediments. If a more remote Another example genus of asuch is used. and incomplete example pl.15 such as “rational body” in relation to “human. assuch section as defining utmost importance knowledge as “perceiving something known. Other examples of particular accidents of the human include being “receptive to knowledge and the skill of writing” (Ḥabannaka 41). describing] defining [i.” This such as is a complete “rational definition creature” (ḥadd in relation tāmm). as “a in the text above. in that of its they are not met. such as “rational creature” of something. The above serve as the main rules. such as “that are15creatures remain excluded.ِْ‫اٌْوَائِِٔحلغَذَُّب‬ ًٌَ‫َوتُ ِِٓ عِِٕظٍ َثمُِذٍ ٌٍِشٍَِّءِ وََفصٍِِِٗ اٌْمَشَِتِ وَبٌْغِغُِِ إٌَّبؼِكِ ثِبٌّْٕغِجَخِ ِإ‬ that trait. nor differ in the from text it above. which is the definiens (qawl shāriḥ). valid complete description is “an eating body that grows” for “creature.” who actually laughs” for “human.” as that causes the listener to envision things outside the for example. such as “sentient. it is composed the proximate description. as most logical A complete description (rasm tāmm) of something is composed of its proximate .. particular rather than since some(Ḥabannaka accident more orhumans equallyare not able to laugh.” its 41). andsuchtheandas incomplete proximate horses. “one who could potentially laugh. animals under the incomplete genus description neighing 15 “creature”creature. Damanhūrī universals. a formal definition (ḥadd) not The above be have thenot word metaphorical. gentledefinitions. inclusive to and restrictive is composed of the envision is composed of only accidental universals. “body restrictive such that of as “one who grows” all is definitions.“or”complete restrictive(Akhdarī 29. pl.” whileTheaorder of most(rasm) description to least ideal may use types The things of definitions complete outside scopeis of thedefinition the issame mostas “human” inpresented ideal hisasresultingin the it is most text above. prayer A formalas obligatory. they are deemed the foundations of comprehension (mabādi’ al-taṣawwurāt). rusūm) a formal is composed definition (ḥadd)of only accidental a human as “a creature. as thatorcauses of thethe genus and accidental listener to envisionuniversals. (rasm) pl. such as “that definiens that is too which grows” narrow is or “body. literally. like defining rusūm) may him use an“or” isascomposed oceanof The(Akhdarī only 29.” or totodefine a human accident. a formal ḥudūd) definition is composed (ḥadd) onlyshould not have of essential the word universals. that is.14This is a complete definition to “human. being unlessdue definedto implicitly there inisthe somethingusing first place to (Ḥabannaka indicate what 59–61). of complete definition. to of essential ritual define universals. Also.” distinguished from which otheristhings. should not have a ruling. ḥudūd) is composed only The same applies if a more remote differentia is used. such asdo“walking” itfor “human. in gentle with people and that is precise in his explanation. alone.” of“eating” the The second central rule is that the definiens be clearer than whatas an is such is a trait inseparable being is separable defined. genus conception. “one whoand genus could thepotentially proximate laugh. An example of definiens that is too narrow 13 This lion). ِ‫ف‬This َِِ‫َرمِش‬section 13 ٍِ‫هِ ف‬is ِ‫ؽ‬entitled ‫“ اٌعَّب‬Definiens” ِْ‫(وَبحلََُىَا‬qawl ِ‫صَِِخ‬shāriḥ) ‫َاصّْ ِٗ اٌٍَّب‬ and‫ى‬represents َ‫ٍشٍَِّءِ َوخ‬theٌِ aim ٍ‫َِت‬ofِ‫لَش‬theٍ‫ظ‬fiveِِٕ‫ع‬universals. such The as same “one whoapplies if a more is rational” remote differentia in relation to “human.” ًٌَ‫غُِِ إٌَّبؼِكِ ثِبٌّْٕغِجَخِ ِإ‬ ِ‫وَبٌْغ‬tāmm). section is entitled “Definiens” (qawl shāriḥ) and for lion) to a non-Arab as qaswara (a more obscure. as such a traitdefined. people and that The order ofinmost is precise to least ideal his explanation.” is valid differentia.” since since “something “something known” is assumingis assuming understanding understanding of logic. define asad (well-known Arabic word for lion) to a non-Arab as qaswara (a more obscure. proximate while other differentia.definition For example. inclusive (jāmiʿ or munʿakis) knowing and what restrictive is being(māniʿ or muṭṭarid). complete definition.proximate 65). the definiens his explanation.while sinceaitdescription (rasm. lest itor equally lead obscure. then. suchasasit“rational Oneincludes cannot.” Rather. ِِٓ ُ‫َوت‬ َّIn‫ش‬Arabic. its actually proximate since it laughs” is genus. species (nawʿ).” 16 example of definiens that is too broad is to define a human as “a creature. but never with the differentia. such as “sentient. such as “laughing creature” when defining [i. a proper definienss is an lion). and “eating” 7 is an inseparable particular accident (Ḥabannaka 65). It can be described as “An accidental universal that refers to multiple differing essential realities. or of the genus and genus nothing and the but the human. composed forand “human. rather. defined. defined. inclusive since ( jāmiʿ orare some humans munʿakis) not ableand to laugh. apes do not laugh. to circular word for reasoning flowing substance that quenches someone‖s thirst. fordepend lion) to ona non-Arab knowing as qaswara what is being(a more obscure. fully restrictive.” or to define a human A third as “a neighing creature.” ocean that which is gentle is what with isoccur people.”impediments..” as “body that grows” is its proximate genus. rather. The common accident is an such as “rational body” in relation to “human. pl.” is used.(ḥadd nāqiṣ) walking is composed is an accident of a remote of the human. rather than more or equally obscure.” included is most as that thereby ideal as itthe causes (Ḥabannaka is most listener 64). definition. In Arabic.” Or composed Rather.”12 ُ‫اٌْمَىِيُ اٌشَّبسِػ‬ Definiens (Qawl Shāriḥ) Definiens (Qawl Shāriḥ) ِ‫َوتُ ِِٓ عِِٕظِ اٌشٍَِّ ِء وََفصٍِِ ِٗ اٌْمَشَِجَُِِٓ وَبحلََُىَاِْ إٌَّبؼِك‬ َّ ‫ َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ َزَش‬،ِ‫احلَذُّ لَىِ ٌي دَايٌّ لًٍََ َِبَُِّ٘ ِخ اٌشٍَِّء‬ . is that of 9). not bethose valid whoto use a common laughaccident. definitions. alltherefore humans. prayerwhile a description as obligatory. differentia (faṣl). yet is common in that other species 12 within the shared genus mightAn incomplete possess that trait. some other rules areshould that the definiens prayer as obligatory. theordefiniens the genus not be and accidental universals. emanates due to psychological wonder or enjoyment. the definiens should incomplete not have adefinition. Andefinition of(ḥadd.since define thoseasad who cannot laugh (well-known Arabiccould potentially do word so were it creature” tonot for their define “human.all forhumans.proximate rusūm) sentient body that all animals aredefinition can move.ِْ‫اٌْئِِٔغَب‬ proximate differentia. Damanhūrī unless there is something to indicate what exactly definiens not be ismetaphorical. One cannot.” 6known. define rule is literally. genus misunderstanding them in the first place. 138 7 . rule is that the such definiens not as “laughing be broader or narrowercreature” when than what it seeks defining to define. such animals as “rational which creature” to define “human. that which gives you knowledge. such as “rational body” in relation to “human. sentient body that can move. a proper proximate Likewise. َ‫زٌِ َز‬this ٌَّ‫ىَ ا‬isُ٘also ‫اٌز‬.should but never withthe not have theword differentia. The order of which grows” Or composed orof“body. obscure. is composed and most arguments occur due of its proximate to implicitly genus using different and itsor definitions. the definiens should not have a ruling. whilethe aim other of the animals five whichuniversals. Bājūrī firstaccidental central rule 45.” If a more remote genus is used. hence.assome a description defining otheramay (rasm) scholar rules use asthat are“or”an the ocean that (Akhdarī 29. (rasm. in relation to “human” and other creatures [as well]. incomplete It would therefore be valid use a common such as definition. walkofasits well.” and be as used. proximate its purpose will not genus and its be fulfilled.and its inseparable particular accidents. by Allāh Most Hence. resembles wordsthe Zaid. ’l-mithāl).” word for “lion”) (Akhdarī 28. (taʿrīf such to its reality.it not for their impediments. as all oranimals who.. they are true because of the speaker. like “one who could That is. 66-7).”atisthevalidendas points of affirmation(Ḥabannaka it includes (maqāṣid al-63.” ’l-taqsīm). like the example above in the text Messenger s are included. or with its commonAaccidents. thenthose lastsince three lead typeswhotoofsound cannot definingaffirmation laugh (Damanhūrī could something potentially are 9.affirmationpoints of affirmation (maqāṣid al.” A fifth way of defining something is with a more well-known synonym (taʿrīf bi ’l-lafẓ). a statement like “One is half of eight.taṣdīqāt). (Damanhūrī 9.” or of likedefining defining something aanimals are“that “verb” under as considered thewhich general descriptions genusresembles the words (rusūm). A 17 fifthincomplete The way of defining something description is with a more of something can usewell-known either its synonym inseparable (taʿrīf bi ’l-lafẓ). many accidents that together are sun has risen.e. logic. apparent skin. who without consideration is receptive to knowledge givenandto other factors. “If the is a statement that can beits affirmed as beingor true simplyor false. High to arrive atthe HisinMessenger end arewith 18 Propositions and their related rulings are deemed the of affirmation (mabādi’ that one starts “eating” is an inseparable particular accident at the(Ḥabannaka 65). such as the way a “word” is defined in books of Arabic who foris“lion”) rational”as inasad (a well-known relation to “human.iswithout “an eating consideration body that grows” givenforto other factors. then daylight is present. and laughs like our by nature. since (Ḥabannaka 66). like(rasm nāqiṣ) is composed our statement when defining of accidents. not in and of itself as a statement (Damanhūrī 9-10). which are syllogisms (sing.” incomplete17 description (rasm nāqiṣ) is composed of accidents.ِ‫ ظَؾَّبنْ ثِبٌؽَّجِك‬،ِ‫ ُِغَِزمُِ ُُ اٌْمَبَِخ‬،ِ‫ ثَبدٌِ اٌْجَشَشَح‬،ِ‫ط اٌْأَ ْـفَبس‬ ُ َِ‫ لَش‬،َُِِِٗ‫اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ إَُِّٔٗ َِبػٍ لًٍََ لَ َذ‬ ِ‫ؾمُِمَ ٍخ وَاؽِذَحٍ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب فٍِ َرمِشَِف‬ َ ِ‫ص َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ َزَشَوَّتُ ِِٓ لَشَظَُِّبدٍ َرخِزَصُّ عٍَُِّزُهَب ث‬ ُ ِ‫وَاٌشَّعُُِ إٌَّبل‬ An incomplete description (rasm nāqiṣ) is composed of accidents. so were 66–7). like ghaḍanfar “one who (ancould obscure word for “lion”) as potentially asad (a laugh” orwell-known “one who isword for “lion”) receptive (Akhdarīand to knowledge 28. or take. is. defining such as a “noun” defining a as “that “noun” aswhich “that resembles which the words resembles the “sentient.laugh” potentially in andorof“one itself. Forfoundations starts with propositions example. a “noun” namely. or with its 8 true or false for extraneous reasons are deemed propositions common accidents. Likewise. in that one starts definitions with (ḥudūd) propositions rather. that are decisively in that true onefor or false “creature.ُِِٗ‫اٌْ َمعَُِّخُ لَىِيٌ َصِؼُّ أَْْ َُمَبيَ ٌِمَبئٍِِٗ إَِّٔ ُٗ صَبدِقْ فُِِٗ أَوِ وَبرِةْ ف‬ ٌ‫ وَإَِِّب شَشِؼَُِّخٌ ُِِٕ َفصٍَِخ‬،ْ‫ذ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخً فَبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىد‬ ِ َٔ‫ َوإَِِّب شَشؼَُِّخٌ َُِّزصٍَِخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب إِْْ وَب‬،ٍ‫ٌَُِظَ ثِىَبِرت‬ ْ‫ َوٍَِ٘ إَِِّب ؽٍََُِِّّْٗ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب صََِذْ وَبرِتْ أَوِ صََِذ‬. as and verb. heard. all of which being specific to [i. as bi such as ’l-mithāl). and an upright stature.ُِِٗ‫ِٗ إَِّٔ ُٗ صَبدِقْ فُِِٗ أَوِ وَبرِةْ ف‬. such as defining ghaḍanfar (an obscure word 15 Or A composed seventh way ofto is itsdefine proximate differentia something by alone. particular such as defining accidents alone. “creature” walk as well. and in logic. “noun. writing” for “human”. has flat nails. Damanhūrī the skill of8–9).reality. such as the way a “word” is defined in books of Arabic 16 It A sixth wouldwaytherefore is to define notsomething be valid to withuse aan example common (taʿrīf bi ’l-mithāl). has flat nails. Damanhūrī 8–9). statements to other factors. which are syllogisms propositions and uses them to arrive end points of 8 (sing. and an describing] “human”—“He is one who walks on two feet. like “a as “that body which grows” that could or “body. (maqāṣid al. Another example of a 18 Propositions and their related rulings are deemed the 19 valid That is. separable their sincerelated some and verb. rulings humans are are deemed particle.” odd. and an upright stature. ِ‫نْ ثِبٌؽَّجِك‬like ‫ظَؾَّب‬our،ِ‫خ‬statement َِ‫ُِغَِزمُِ ُُ اٌْمَب‬when ،ِ‫شَشَح‬defining َ‫ ثَبدٌِ اٌْج‬،ِ[i. and laughs by Annature. reasoning.or who.ٍِْ‫صَّبِؼُّصَأَوِْْطَُْموََبإِِيََّب ٌِفَمَبشِئد‬ ِِ‫اٌَْوَممَ ِىعٌََُِِّٕبخُ الٌَْمَىِذَيٌدَُ إ‬ ٌ‫ وَإَِِّب شَشِؼَُِّخٌ ُِِٕ َفصٍَِخ‬،ْ‫ذ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخً فَبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىد‬ A proposition 18 is a statement that can be affirmed as being true or false. such as defining ghaḍanfar (an obscure is a proposition in logic despite being obviously false. Sound taṣdīqāt). general descriptions (rusūm). a separable particular accident A seventh cannot be used.”not formal even(rusūm).taṣdīqāt). Likewise. apparent skin. like the example above in the text (Ḥabannaka 66).” or particular to its reality. 66–7). Sound syllogisms then lead to sound affirmation syllogisms 17 The then lead incomplete to sound of description affirmation something(Damanhūrī can use either9. fortypes or who. odd. “one whoand could uses them to arrive potentially laugh.” like defining a “verb” as “that which resembles the words heard..even statements in and of itself. notorformal say. 12). or with its remote genus. verb. Propositions include only declarative statements ( jumla 139 . statements by Allāh and uses orthem Mostal-taṣdīqāt). 19 That Hence. all of which being specific to one essential. like “a A • Conjunctive proposition 18 Conditional (sharṭiyya muttaṣila). such as(taʿrīf categorization “one bi ’l-taqsīm). despite being absolutely true. or simply many accidents that together in logic. 19 body that could potentially laugh” for “human”. man. describing] “human”—“He is one who walks on two feet.” statement 17 ‫عَب‬apparent ‫ََب‬defining ‫[ اٌْ َم‬i. ‫ ْـفَبس‬describing] َ‫ط اٌْأ‬ ُ َِ‫ لَش‬،ِٗ“human”—“He َُِِ‫ُٗ َِبػٍ لًٍََ لَ َذ‬isَِّٔ‫ إ‬one ِْ‫اٌْئِِٔغَب‬ who walks on two feet.” or The incomplete description of something can use either its inseparable particular accidents alone. like our statement. even of affirmation statements(mabādi’ al-taṣdīqāt). like the example above in the text (Ḥabannaka 66). and laughs by Propositions (Qaḍāyā) nature. qiyās). which are syllogisms (sing. all of which being An incomplete specific description to one essential reality.skin. not formal definitions (ḥudūd) (Ḥabannaka considered do 63. ِ‫ؾمُِمَ ٍخ وَاؽِذَحٍ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب فٍِ َرمِشَِف‬ َ ِ‫ص َوُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِ َزَشَوَّتُ ِِٓ لَشَظَُِّبدٍ َرخِزَصُّ عٍَُِّزُهَب ث‬ ُ ِ‫وَاٌشَّعُُِ إٌَّبل‬ . like “one who could 17 potentially laugh” or “one who is receptive to knowledge and the skill of writing” for “human”. wordsman. syllogisms all These humans. last three man. orortake. namely. defining of affirmation general a “number” “either(mabādi’ asdescriptions oral-taṣdīqāt). its 19 inseparable particular accidents alone.”(taʿrīf These such asbi ’l-taqsīm). ْ‫َِِّب فَشِد‬19‫وَإ‬ ْ‫َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌْمَذَدُ إَِِّب صَوِط‬ • Categorical (ḥamliyya).” say. “Zaid is a writer” or “Zaid is not a writer. heard. Damanhūrī 8-9). or with common accidents.false.19 ِ َٔ‫ َوإَِِّب شَشؼَُِّخٌ َُِّزصٍَِخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب إِْْ وَب‬،ٍ‫ٌَُِظَ ثِىَبِرت‬ It is either: A proposition18 is a statement that can be affirmed as being true or. definitions (ḥudūd) (Ḥabannaka such as “walking” “human. 12). sixth way or is to define simply something many withthat accidents an together example (taʿrīf are bi Asame sixthapplies Theparticular way is to if adefine more something remote with differentia an example is used. Sound qiyās).way is toasdefine such “one who something actuallyby categorization laughs” for “human. one essential upright stature.” as other “number” as “either even or take. has when flat nails.e. in description complete and of itself.e. statements by Allāh Most High or His are particular to its reality.” Zaid. since it is word for “lion”) as asad (a well-known word for “lion”) (Akhdarī false due to an extraneous factor in that it contradicts intuitive 28. 12). or with its remote genus. propositions or with its remote in genus.”laugh” potentially then itfor is not “human”.” synonym (taʿrīf bi ’l-lafẓ). “noun. that are decisively without considerationtruegiven or false for theextraneous reasons skill of writing” for are deemed “human”.” which resembles the words or like defining a These Zaid. For likeexample. For example. as thetypes last three way ofa “word” definingis something defined in arebooks of Arabic considered such 18 Propositions a trait isnamely.” or like defining a “number” as “either even or odd.. reality. grammar. the statement itself—as a statement—can be affirmed as false if no consideration is given A fifth way of defining something is with a more well-known to the speaker. such as defining grammar. way is to define something by categorization (taʿrīf bi A seventh grammar. “thatparticle.” orare likeincluded definingthereby a “verb” (Ḥabannaka as “that which 64).”17 Propositions (Qaḍāyā) ‫اٌْ َمعَبََب‬ ْ‫( وَبرِتْ أَوِ صََِذ‬Qaḍāyā) Propositions ْ‫ َوٍَِ٘ إَِِّب ؽٍََُِِّّْٗ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب صََِذ‬. fully restrictive. and particle. accident. High even or His Messenger statements  are that are decisively “a body that could potentially laugh” for “human”.” extraneous as “body reasons that grows” are deemed is itspropositions proximate genus. and“noun.” 63. foundations Hence. like our statement. say.” not likethe orable to foundations laugh. qiyās). since they are true because of the speaker. Negative to be true. and proposition. Thewalk on twoislegs.” despite propositions.” it would hold true if merely some humans were writers. 21 ThetheyThe word next used in discussion inArabic the textisdeals baʿḍ. inshā’iyya) caliphs are the included.ً‫وَاجلُضِ ُء اٌْأَوَّيُ َِٓ احلٍََُِِّّخِ َُغًََّّ َِىِظُىلّب وَاٌضَّبٍِٔ َِؾُِّىال‬ • Disjunctive Conditional (sharṭiyya munfaṣila). Negative universal: Nothing of stone is a human.being obviously 23 false. like our statement. “No human is a writer. namely. “And most people. will not believe” (Qur’ān 12:103). do not show writers. . least possible quantity when gratitude” (Qur’ān 12:38). would not proposition. namely. not affective statements universal:(jumla inshā’iyya) “Everything suchshall therein as commands. is he who. doubtnamely. like our statement. or proposition in logic universal determinate (kulliyya musawwara). “Neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him” (Qur‖ān 2:255). and of them are those who 2223 An indeterminate proposition (muhmala) is effectively Hence. the statement itself—as a statement—can be which suchof elite asthe is commands. “And of mankind are rightly-guided caliphs are the elite of writer.therein” one assumes (Qur‖ān the2:2). the number of individuals or entities the 20Propositions  This aspect proposition include of awith deals only declarative proposition is referred in its ruling statements to as its (Ḥabannaka (jumla khabariyya). were you to entrust him with an entire treasure. with Him. “A number is either ‫ِّب‬even َّ‫ًَّ ُِمَذ‬ orّodd. like “Give me my lunch.” not َ‫ وَإَِِّب عَبٌِجَخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب ص‬،ْ‫وَاٌْ َمعَُِّخُ إَِِّب ُِىعَجَخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب صََِذْ وَبِرت‬ 20 َِٓ َ‫ وَ َال شٍَِء‬،ْ‫َى َسحٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب وًُُّ إِِٔغَبٍْ وَبِرت‬ َّ ‫ َوإَِِّب وٍَُُِّّخٌ ُِغ‬،‫ًُ وَاؽِ َذحٍ ِِٕهَُّب إَِِّب َِخِصُىصَخٌ وََّب رَوَشَِٔب‬ ُّ ‫وَو‬ A ْْpropostion َ‫ وَإَِِّب أ‬،ٍ‫ِىبِرت‬‫ِْ ٌَُِظَ ث‬affirmative is either ‫ط اٌْئِِٔغَب‬ ُ ِ‫(َثم‬mūjaba).. those who crawl on their bellies.or one member more. very wellThebeblack stone brings no benefit nor harm. . there are a total of eight possible categorical you to be very avid. the subject (mawḍūʿ). “Every human is a writer.” or despite being obviously false. Affirmative For example singular: with regards Muḥammad to the proposition is thehuman  “The Messenger is a of Allāh. “If the sun has risen. which in the case of an indeterminate qibla of others” (Qur’ān 2:145). then daylight is present. of a proposition is 9–10). though it is not “some”for necessary is all humans to be writers for the statement to be true. “That is the book—there is no • Negative particular: “Most people. soul is held as collateral for what it earns” (Qur‖ān 74:38). and the second [part is termed] the predicate (maḥmūl). [part is termed] the predicate is termed (maḥmūl). and of them are those who walk on [all] four” (Qur‖ān 24:45).”  Conjunctive Conditional (sharṭiyya muttaṣila). there are a total of eight possible categorical propositions.‫وَاٌضَّبٍِٔ رَبٌُّب‬ ‫ وَاجلُضِ ُء اٌْأَوَّيُ َِٓ اٌشَّشِؼَُِّخِ َُغًََّّ ُِمَذَِّّب‬. “A number is either even or odd.21 like our statement. and the second [part is termed] the consequent (tālī). a statement as of like “One is half weeight. universal: Nothing of stone sinceisone a human. commands. an indeterminate proposition would be its equivalent 9 particular group will be in the Inferno” determinate (Qur’ān 42:7). propositions. second [part is termed] the consequent secondproposition The first part of a categorical (tālī). َ‫ و‬،ْ‫ وَبِرت‬like ِْ‫ِٔغَب‬our ِ‫ط اٌْئ‬ُstatement. a which oneinmember the caseor ofmore.” or negative. “Some khabariyya). refers to one assumes • Affirmative the least possibleparticular: “A group quantity when will bea in assessing Paradise. “And of mankind are some who take besides of much gratitude” (Qur‖ān 34:13).”20 .” affective The four or other statements rightly-guided (jumla than that. since it is false due to an extraneous factor as they cannot be affirmed as true or false in the in that it contradicts intuitive reasoning. ). For example.(makhṣūṣa) [or shakhṣiyya] Likewise. “Zaid is a writer.“Every soul is held as collateral for what it earns” (Qur’ān English implies component (kamm).” is aor “The human proposition in logic • Negative singular: Musaylima is not a messenger. . prohibitions. termed likeaffirmed they cannot “Give indeterminate measmyfalse if no or belunch. singular: even though Musaylima in reality is not amight all humans messenger.“Zaid ٍ‫ِىبرِت‬is‫ظَ ث‬ ٌَُِ aْ‫َِذ‬writer. doubt Hence. entities 20 Thisthe proposition aspect of a deals withisin proposition its ruling referred to (Ḥabannaka as its 69). the first money. the Companions.” eight. with Him. component (kayfand the like. The qualitative 22 • Negative An indeterminate proposition (muhmala) is effectively a particular determinate proposition (juz’iyya). despite being absolutely true.” or “Fools  Affirmative particular: “A group will be in Paradise. and the second [part is termed] the consequent (tālī). despite being absolutely true. • Affirmative qualitative 69). and theand the the subject (mawḍūʿ). “And from among the People of the Book is he who. following a listand of examples: with them are those who walk on [all] a particular determinate proposition ( juz’iyya). The following is a list with examples: • Affirmative indeterminate: This is effectively an affirmative. hereForrefers example to onewith or regards to the proposition “The human is a writer. “So of them are those who crawl on their bellies. since they are true because of the speaker.‫وَاٌضَّبٍِٔ رَبٌُّب‬ The first part of a conditional proposition The first is termed part of a categorical the antecedent proposition is termed(muqaddam). “Nor do some of them follow the assessing a proposition. therein”whether (Qur’ān it is affirmative or negative. like our statement.” 22 statements or “Do not take my money. The four would return it to you” (Qur’ān 3:75). “Every soul shall taste death” (Qur‖ān 21:35). “Every you to entrust him with [even] one gold coin. perish” prohibitions. Hence. the statement “Humans Allāh. statements like.“particularity” in propositions the number of individuals or refers to 9 74:38). like our statement. which70). “So of them are proposition. “That is the book—there is and of itself first Thisasaspect 20 place a statement (Ḥabannaka (Damanhūrī 68). There is no partner with Allāh. first part of a conditional proposition is termed the antecedent (muqaddam). Allāh has no child or spouse whatsoever. “Zaid is not“Zaid is a writer. Imāms Bukhārī and Muslim relate sound narrations. like our statement. “And so it is not necessary for all humans to be writers for the statement few of My servants are of much gratitude” (Qur’ān 34:13). human “One is is halfa ofwriter.” ِ‫ وَإَِِّب عُض‬or ،ٍ‫ت‬negative ‫اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ثِىبِر‬ (sāliba).ً‫وَاجلُضِ ُء اٌْأَوَّيُ َِٓ احلٍََُِِّّخِ َُغًََّّ َِىِظُىلّب وَاٌضَّبٍِٔ َِؾُِّىال‬ The first part of a categorical proposition is termed the subject (mawḍūʿ). which here refers to one or more members of a group (Bājūrī 42). “And from among the People of the Book assumes the least possible quantity indicated (Ḥabbanaka 70). more members if merely someof humans a group (Bājūrī 42). namely.” a writer.” place statement. The black is not a writer. Imāms Bukhārī and Muslim relate sound narrations. (Qur’ānor55:26). our statement. as (Qur’ān 21:35). humans Propositionsnotinclude are only affective writers. partner withthe number Allāh. would return it to 140 Allāh equals” (Qur‖ān 2:165).” 20 or negative (sāliba). and a group will be in the Inferno” (Qur‖ān 42:7).” or A propostion is either affirmative (mūjaba). even though in English realityimplies plurality. consideration not or ismy false take given in like to the our Likewise. is fully measured” (Qur’ān 13:8). eat beef” is akin to saying “Some humans eat beef. and of them are those who walk on two legs. the statement itself—as a statement—can be Each affirmedone of the as false if notwo is theniseither consideration given tosingular the speaker. So even though “some” is cannot be affirmed as true orwith falseitsinquantitative the first place (Ḥabannaka 68). referred to as its qualitative component no(kayf). ofhas Allāh individuals no child or or entities the spouse whatsoever. since it is false due to an extraneous factor in that it contradicts intuitive reasoning. • Affirmative singular: Muḥammad s is the Messenger of particular proposition.ٍ‫ وَإَِِّب عَبٌِجَخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب صََِذْ ٌَُِظَ ثِىبرِت‬،ْ‫وَاٌْ َمعَُِّخُ إَِِّب ُِىعَجَخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب صََِذْ وَبِرت‬ A propostion is either affirmative (mūjaba). not in stone brings no benefit nor harm. So even were writers. “Do not take my “Every soulmoney. like our statement. For example. and the second [part is termed] the predicate The (maḥmūl). even were 23 Hence.” aredeath” shall taste not propositions.” affirmed as true “Do (muhmala). “Everything. some who take besides Allāh equals” (Qur’ān 2:165). component (kayf). were you to entrust him with an entire treasure.” or  Disjunctive Conditional (sharṭiyya munfaṣila). as Companions. “Zaid is not a writer.” . not (Ḥabannaka “Thelike a statement 68). whether it is affirmative or negative. and For the example. 21possible  The word quantity used in indicated Arabic is(Ḥabbanaka baʿḍ. prohibitions.” or particular determinate (juz’iyya musawwara). were proposition  would beuniversal: Affirmative its equivalent particular “Everything determinate therein shall perish” (Qur‖ān 55:26). “And of them is he who. The 2:2).” it would hold true “Neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him” (Qur’ān 2:255). namely. assumesThere is no the least next discussion in the text deals with its quantitative component (kamm). even or odd.” declarative statements ( jumlaorinshā’iyya) “Some statements humans (jumla arenot khabariyya).” َ‫ وَاجلُضِ ُء اٌْأَوَّيُ َِٓ اٌشَّشِؼَُِّخِ َُغ‬. return it to you” (Qur’ān 3:75). and the like. The first part of a conditional proposition is termed the antecedent (muqaddam). For example.” are not propositions. next discussion in the text deals with its quantitative component (kamm). since one four” (Qur’ān 24:45). ِ‫“ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب َثم‬Zaid ٌ‫َى َسح‬ َّ ‫ُِغ‬is ٌ‫خ‬aَُِّ‫ئ‬writer. negative (sāliba).” have is amentioned.ٍ‫ت وَاٌْئِِٔغَبُْ ٌَُِظ ثِىبرِت‬ ْ ِ‫ال َىُىَْ وَزٌِهَ وَرُغًََّّ ُِهٍََِّخً َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌْئِِٔغَبُْ وَبر‬ included. however. “And so few of My servants are you” (Qur‖ān 3:75). all humans might“particularity” in propositions very well be writers. like our likestatement. namely. proposition deals with in its ruling (Ḥabannaka 69). plurality. “Everything. arespeaker. such as not writers. is fully measured” (Qur‖ān 13:8). like our statement. whether statements it is affirmative like “Give me my lunch. not in and of itself as a statement (Damanhūrī 9–10). 22 like our statement. not for applythe to factone of all that theofoptions mankind as no other would havepossibility isexample valid. or universal determinate (kulliyya musawwara). the statement gods besides Allāh. [also called]“Thismutually exclusive thing is either a and totally exhaustive Theordisjunctive stone a tree.” bothwhile(the a coincidental conjunctive conditional proposition means the two are than zero degrees. simultaneously true. “Every human is a writer. of conditional then Bukhārī disjunctive being is termed a ḥadīth “disjunctive” specialist” proposition is only (Damanhūrī (Ḥabannaka 10–11). there been therein For example. it is also totally exhaustive. or less exists. ―Whatever in the sign you bring All-Merciful to us. could existent ascend” • “And when the Qur’an is recited to them. or less than three 11 141 . help then it. not be exhausted” (31:27).. in that the 24 Examples “And were fromitthe notQur’ān for theinclude fact that the allfollowing: of mankind would have been united ruling mustasnecessarily one (evil) community. equal (evil) community. We would to.” “A physical entity is either moving or still.” “The height of a tree is either more than. “A 26 number exclusive is (māniʿat only either even orfaqaṭ). We drowned Examples from the Qur‖ān include the following: them” (Qur’ān 25:37) is father. upon which“Humans the statement they could do ascend” not qibla ride that cows” they were is akinupon to beforehand?’” saying “Some (Qur’ān humans2:142)do notisride cows.” or other than that. akin to “Some humans do not become weary. is mutually we toshall helpnever exclusive it. do not ride cows. then a donkey brays.. or an utter ingrate” (76:3) (Ḥabannaka 25 A mandatory 93–5). (were ink). houses. orhave less than madethree for • “Every 25 time A mandatory they ignite conjunctive the fire of war.. “If the sun has risen.” or “People that can swim do not drown” is akin to “Some people that can swim do not drown. he is then either grateful. is mutually exclusive we shall in it thatnever both believe or all in you. they“Humans ḥadīthand both (the heavens specialist” the earth) (Ḥabannaka would have93-5). then Bukhārī is a ḥadīth specialist” (21:22).” has is This (Ḥabannaka turned them from effectively 83–5). and is akin 26 This to with seven the sea.” then daylight or coincidental is present.” “The prostrate” (84:21). following:people human doeshave not become25 weary from askingconjunctive of good” (Qur‖ān 41:49) proposition is akin to “Some  A mandatory conditional gathered against you” (Qur’ān 3:173) humans do not become weary.conjunctive conditional proposition simply means that the consequent is a logically bound to the antecedent. conditional Allāh puts proposition it out” (5:64). with seven to bewitch Itus more seas thereby. like our statement. in that both or all options cannot be • “And they said. apply to oneWe would of the haveasmade options for no other  “And whoever theydisbelieves said. and For (silver) stairways example.means the two are logically unrelated. is termed literal as it is the most specific of the three more seas to help it..” while a coincidental conjunctive conditional proposition akin to “And some of the people of Nūḥ. Zaid‖s they father. be simultaneously true.”  “Every time they ignite the fire of war. and the sea. bring toand us. coincide. possibly valid equal optionto.become ―What indeterminate: weary..” or “People(43:33) (Ḥabannaka that can swim 88-90).” “And if orall “People the trees thatincan theswim earthdowere not drown” pens. then daylight is present. and (silver) stairways upon which they could ascend”a logically bound to the antecedent. to them. that it is whoever It disbelieves is mutually exclusive in the All-Merciful in that both or all silver roofscannot options for their 11 smaller than be simultaneously true. “If a human is rational. but rather just happen • Negative  “And indeterminate: when the Qur‖an Thisisisrecited effectively a negative. the it isearth also (whichexhaustive.” or “The human types and hence is most deserving of being termed “disjunctive”  not bethere “Had exhausted” been therein(31:27).literal [or it is](ḥaqīqiyya). houses. such types as “If and 27hence Abū  Thisisistype Ḥanīfa most ofdeserving a jurist. “If a human (ittifāqiyya).ْ‫َٔب ِؼمًب فَبٌْؾَِّبسُ َٔبِ٘ك‬ The conjunctive conditional proposition is either mandatory (luzūmiyya)... “And when the or “AndQur‖an theispeople recitedoftoNūḥ—when them. denied 24 the messengers. equal to.”. like our statement. doQur‖ān includeor drown. mutually exclusive.” particularmutually proposition.” or“The the “Verily.. and totally“Humans the statement exhaustive do not ride cows” is akin to saying “Some humans do not ride cows. “Some humans are writers. Allāh puts it out” (5:64). Allāh puts it out” (5:64).roofs silver so asfor to their bewitch possibility us thereby. such as • “And if all the trees in the earth were pens. Examples is “The moon include “A thing is either is either larger than orexistent equal inorsize to the nonexistent. sotheassea. they do not prostrate” to (84:21). been disordered” (21:22).‖” all ofcannot (7:132). 24 our“If the sun “If statement. or less “If Zaid • “Had is Khalid‖s (43:33) there (Ḥabannaka been son.‖” which thing is either they(7:132). totally is true) (Ḥabannaka in that 99).” “A physical entity is either moving or still. like our ‫خ‬ ُ ‫م‬ َ ٔ ِ ‫َب‬ ِ ‫َّب‬ ِِ ‫إ‬‫و‬َ ، ‫ش‬ ْ َ ‫غ‬ ‫ش‬ َ ‫و‬ ِ ‫أ‬ َ 26 ‫ش‬ ْ َ ‫غ‬ ‫ؽ‬ َ ‫َّب‬ ِِ ‫إ‬ ‫ء‬ ُ ٍ ِ َّ ‫اٌش‬ ‫َف َمػْ َومَىٌَِٕب ٘زَا‬ statement. they both (the heavens and the earth) would have been disordered” (21:22).21 like our statement.” or “The human is not a ُْ‫غَب‬23 ِِٔ‫ َوإَِِّب ارّْفَبلَُِّخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب إِْْ وَب َْ اٌْئ‬،ْ‫وَبَٔذِ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخً فبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىد‬ writer. Zaid‖s father.” of water.the particular proposition.” made“Thefor height of a tree earth. than three namely. it is also totally exhaustive. Khalid (were is the ink).. simply means that the consequent is whoever disbelieves in the All-Merciful silver roofs for their houses.” been united as“A one physical entity is either (evil) community. do not ride cows” is akin to saying “Some humans “Every time they ignite the fire of war. the words of Allāh would “Some people that can swim do not drown. “A 26 ournumber  statement. “Verily We have shown logically heavens andunrelated.َ‫َوإَِِّب أَْْ الَ َغِشَق‬ andThe disjunctive totally exhaustive conditional proposition (māniʿat al-jamʿ wal-khuluww is either: maʿan). mutually like our statement. like our statement.” is either as another more than. An must • “And necessarily were (Damanhūrī it10–11). then Khalid is Zaid’s antecedent.” is rational.” or particular determinate ( juz’iyya musawwara).” (Ḥabannaka 83–5).َ‫َوإَِِّب أَْْ الَ َغِشَق‬ ‫ش‬ ِ ‫ؾ‬ ِ ‫ج‬ َ ْ ٌ ‫ا‬ ٍِ ‫ف‬ ْ َ ‫ُى‬ ‫ى‬ َ ْ ْ ‫أ‬ َ ‫َّب‬ ِ ‫إ‬ ِ ‫ذ‬ ْ َ ِ ‫ص‬ َ ‫َب‬ ٕ ِ ٌ‫ى‬ِ َ ‫م‬ ‫و‬ َ ‫ػ‬ ْ ‫م‬ َ ‫ف‬ َ ‫ُى‬ َّ ٍ ‫خ‬ ُ ٌ ْ ‫ا‬ The disjunctive conditional proposition is either: literal (ḥaqīqiyya).justmost happenspecific of the three to coincide.’”cannot options (7:132). “If aahuman donkey brays.” ِْْ‫وَادلَُّزصٍَِخُ إَِِّب ٌُضُوَُِِّخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب إ‬ . Thisais is effectively or is not [also called] negative.”25 ْ ِ‫وَادلُِٕ َفصٍَِخُ إَِِّب َؽمُِمَُِّخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌْمَذَدُ إَِِّب صَو‬ ِ‫ وَ[إَِِّب] َِبِٔمَخُ اجلَِّك‬،‫ َوٍَِ٘ َِبِٔمَخُ اجلَِّ ِك وَاٌْخٍُُىّْ َِمّب‬،ْ‫ط َوإَِِّب فَشِد‬ ِ‫ َوإَِِّب َِبِٔمَخُ اٌْخٍُُىَّ َف َمػْ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب صََِذْ إَِِّب أَْْ َىُىَْ فٍِ اٌَْجؾِش‬،ْ‫َف َمػْ َومَىٌَِٕب ٘زَا اٌشٍَِّءُ إَِِّب َؽغَشْ أَوِ َشغَش‬ ِ‫ وَ[إَِِّب] َِبِٔمَخُ اجلَِّك‬،‫ َوٍَِ٘ َِبِٔمَخُ اجلَِّ ِك وَاٌْخٍُُىّْ َِمّب‬،ْ‫ط َوإَِِّب فَشِد‬ ْ ِ‫وَادلُِٕ َفصٍَِخُ إَِِّب َؽمُِمَُِّخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌْمَذَدُ إَِِّب صَو‬ .” or “Some humans are not writers.” “The temperature is either more than.. faqaṭ). like our statement. options Allāh would be 83-5).is akin to “Some people simply means that the consequent is a logically bound to the have gathered. then sun has daylight risen. such as meters.” This is [also called] mutually exclusive .” (Ḥabannaka  “And if all the they said. “If Zaidmore seven is Khalid‖s seas to son. the earth) but would ratherhave just happen to coincide..” or coincidental(ittifāqiyya).”. with (Ḥabannaka 97-8). does not become weary from asking of good” (Qur’ān 41:49) is (Damanhūrī 10-11).Each one of the two is then either singular (makhṣūṣa) [or shakhṣiyya] as we have mentioned. al-jamʿ odd.  “And were it not for the fact that all of mankind would have been height of a as united tree one is either more than. such as “If Zaid is Khalid’s son. movinghave We would or still. in (were ink). him the way. theythey do not prostrate” (84:21). they do not (43:33) (Ḥabannaka 88–90). which is termed indeterminate (muhmala). such as “If Abū Ḥanīfa is a jurist. yet it is not totally exhaustive. exclusive 28 For example.or believe that both inthe words you. “A number is either even or odd. then therein 88–90). so as to simultaneously true. like is ourrational..trees in the earth ―Whatever sign youwere pens. like . 93–5).”likeThisourisstatement. hastherisen. been disordered” such as “If Abū Ḥanīfa is a jurist. the ruling must necessarily apply to one of the options as no other possibility is valid. or nonexistent.” or “No human is a writer. is valid.” or “The human does not become weary from asking of good” (Qur‖ān 41:49) is akin to “Some among humans peopledo Negative will notsay. 25 then a donkey brays. Examples include “A thing is either existent or nonexistent. like like our statement. termed literal be exhausted” but as it is the rather (31:27). is present.gods besides Allāh. then statement. such that bewitch It us thereby. ―Whatever sign you bring to us. “The human is a writer.ْ‫َٔب ِؼمًب فَبٌْؾَِّبسُ َٔبِ٘ك‬ ُْ‫ َوإَِِّب ارّْفَبلَُِّخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب إِْْ وَب َْ اٌْئِِٔغَب‬،ْ‫وَادلَُّزصٍَِخُ إَِِّب ٌُضُوَُِِّخٌ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب إِْْ وَبَٔذِ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخً فبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىد‬ The conjunctive conditional proposition is either24mandatory (luzūmiyya). equal to.” and from the Qur’ān.”25 The conjunctive conditional proposition24 is either mandatory (luzūmiyya). we shall and (silver) Examples never upon stairways include believe in“Ayou. in that the ruling 26 This is termed literal as is the most specific of the three types and henceoption neither is mostis deserving of being valid but rather termed another “disjunctive” option is valid.” or [itconditional 27 proposition is] totally exhaustive is either:al-khuluww only (māniʿat literal (ḥaqīqiyya). like our statement. gods Khalid besides is Allāh. Negative “Zaid is either is either indeterminate: in even This a body or odd. do not drown” is akin to “Some people akin 24 to Examples that“Some canfromfools swim the amongnot people. drowning.” or coincidental (ittifāqiyya).” words of while a coincidental conjunctive conditional proposition means the two are Allāh 26 This not logically would is unrelated. a negative. then Bukhārī is a particular “Had proposition. of the Both effect aspects were ofcorrespond the throw.ofIftheone reversed throw. writing of English. then both could be true. but rather “Zaid Allāh is a writer.actualitthrowing would become (Ḥabannakathe negative. particular disbelievers say. which must therefore be true. singular. or equal to. the “Everytwo arehuman is a contradictory. Rather. deals universal propositionofthat with the perspective theiseffect false.” either greater than.30 . is valid Himself threw” only if the the negation (Qur’ān two propositions 8:17). namely. potentiality. he is then either grateful.(kayf). and hence would not be contradictory propositions. “By my Lord!” negation. of butArabic. 27 This type of disjunctive conditional proposition is only mutually exclusive.of] types like our statement.a singular and the other false. Allāh killedwhile them. thethe two are second contradictory. and the other must be false For a singular proposition (makhṣūṣa or shakhṣiyya). One32its asproposition both or all options contradictory of these options will (sāliba couldkulliyya) proposition. conditional proposition disjunctive equal in size to the earth. For it will come upon example.” would be contradictory assuming all other aspects were 30 For true. ―The hour will not come upon us. in that both or all options cannot be simultaneously either larger than or equal in size to the earth. “Every creature is a human” is an affirmative. like our statement. predicate. like seller of that our musk—he the statement. exhaustive. like our statement. a negative. or both could be false. you. 156). place. that the in theHour will surely qualitative come upon component them. However. actuality. universal propositions. or it sell keeps some The of the company contradictory options to you. . they “And must the correspond disbelievers you in say. “Verily We have shown . time.” ُ ُ‫اٌزََّٕبل‬ ‫ط‬ Contradiction (Tanāquḍ) ُ‫اٌزََّٕبلُط‬ Contradiction (Tanāquḍ) Contradiction (Tanāquḍ) ‫ة وَاٌغَّ ٍْتِ ِثؾَُِشُ َمَْزعٍِ ٌِزَارِِٗ أَْْ رَىُىَْ إِؽِذَاَُّ٘ب صَبدِلَخً وَاٌْأُخِشَي‬ ِ ‫ف اٌْ َمعَُِّزَنيِ ثِبٌْئِجيَب‬ ُ ‫ال‬ َ ِ‫وَُ٘ َى اخِز‬ ِ‫قأُ وخَِاشَدلَيؾُِّىي‬ ٌِْ‫صَبدلَدِىِلَخًظُىوَا‬ ‫هَ أَإِْْالَّرَثَىمُِىذََّْْارإِفَبؽِلِهِذَاَُّ٘بّفَبٍِ ا‬ ِِٗ‫عَمٍَُِّك ٌِرزٌَِار‬ ‫شُالََ َمَْزَزؾ‬ َ‫ُِ و‬. proposition. if and the the first other must proposition be false referred (Ḥabannaka to the 156). Some humans are creatures. For example. us. such proposition that neither of an isaffirmative.”28 only (māniʿat al-khuluww faqaṭ). and therefore particular proposition “Some creatures are not human.beortrue affirmation 29 like ourthe and negation. as stated above (Ḥabannaka 157).” as another possibly valid option exists. the and therefore reversal of thecannot be the qualitative contradictory component (kayf)proposition alone. like our statement. they must correspond in all other aspects. 158–60). with an yet oath.” “The temperature is either more than.. the same. Qur‖ān (34:3).” would 8:17). component (kayf).30 whole. proposition. rather 29 This principle is the basis of contradiction—both contradictory propositions cannot conceivably be true. universal proposition that is false.” a pleasant scent from least] him.” This does not occur unless they both correspond in subject. He or sell Most High some inhale to you. no other possibility as both or all is valid. wellone(Ḥabannaka 99-100).” The first proposition statement. apply to one example. like our statement. or equal to. “A righteous simultaneously person that true. so as to become the negative.ٍ‫َولَذِ رَىُى ُْ ادلُِٕ َفصِالَدُ رَوَادِ َأعِضَاءٍ صَالصَخٍ [أَوِ أَوْضَشَ] َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌْمَذَدُ إَِِّب صَائِذْ أَوِ َٔبلِصْ أَوِ ُِغَبو‬ . and stipulations.” One also of these emphasizes options its will veracitynecessarily further occur. rather. Rather.must is only simultaneously yettherefore any two be anorFor true.” and from the Qur‖ān. equal to.” and from the Qur‖ān. suchorthat in affirmation in and negation. i. and hence the contradictory proposition of the so as to become the negative.” which is cannot be the contradictory proposition of the first statement. yet thealone same. This differs from the following verse: “So you killed them not. Allāhbe all options could responds immediately simultaneously true. is negative. For then both could be true. perspective all other singular. yet it is the contradictory not totally exhaustive. while the second proposition deals with the act itself itsand qualitative its form. and condition. the second one is affirmative.ِ‫َاٌضَِب ِْ وَادلَىَب ِْ وَاٌْئِظَبفَخِ وَاٌْمُىَّ ِح وَاٌْ ِفمًِِ وَاٌْىًُِّ وَاجلُضِ ِء وَاٌشَّشِغ‬ َّ ‫و‬ .” “The temperature is either more than. 31 With while the second respect one referred to determinate to the writing propositions. alsoby of Arabic. relation.while Hence.He Most Highversus affirmation also emphasizes its veracity further with an oath. time. universal proposition “No creature is human. namely. So(makhṣūṣa proposition after the verse quotes the disbelievers‖itself or shakhṣiyya).e. of that such itselfinone ofisthe It thetwo must beof difference true twoand and the of other itself propositions one [must ofinthe be]must two false. option valid but rather universal another option proposition (mūjaba is valid. must So after the verse necessarily apply quotes to one 28 apply to one of the options as no other possibility of yet28is the not options mutuallyasexclusive. “The number is than.ٍْ‫ط اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ٌَُِظَ ِثؾََُىا‬ ُ ِ‫ ثَم‬،ٌْ‫فََٕمُِطُ ادلُىعَجَ ِخ اٌْىٍَُُِّّخِ إََِّّٔب ُ٘ىَ اٌغَّبٌِجَخُ اجلُضِئَُِّخُ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب وًُُّ إِِٔغَبٍْ ؽََُىَا‬ meters.ٌْ‫ط اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ؽََُىَا‬ ُ ِ‫ َثم‬،ٍْ‫ؤََمُِطُ اٌغَّبٌِجَ ِخ اٌْىٍَُُِّّخِ إََِّّٔب ُ٘ىَ ادلُىعَجَخُ اجلُضِئَُِّخُ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب َال شٍَِءَ ِ َٓ اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ِثؾََُىَا‬ him the way. If one reversed its qualitative component one must reverse its quantitative not bealone. is only one 31 totally must be true.is not valid contradiction false. place. or you will [at creature. exhaustive or is not drowning.ٍ‫ صََِذْ ٌَُِظَ ثِىَبرِت‬،ْ‫ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب صََِذْ وَبِرت‬،ً‫وَبرِثَخ‬ . nor both between of the Messenger‖s throwing  “And component Another (kayf). “Zaid is a writer. singular. equal to. “Zaid is is either a stone oreither in27aor a tree. singular. contradiction here (Ḥabannaka Allāh 156). hour will conditions.” which is a true statement. contradictory propositions.” is valid. namely. contradictory proposition of the first indeed by my Lord. 29one  This 30 alone must principle beis true. in that both or all options cannot be simultaneously true. one alone must be true. proposition deals one withmustthe actbe a writer. qualitative component (kayf). potentiality.” This statement is also false. i.” body oftotally [it is] water. one keepsperson “A righteous company thatwith one is like the seller of musk—he will either allow youHe to then wearfollows some. from the above stated following verse: “So157).”28 . and cannot be used to extrapolate a general rule of contradiction that can be consistently applied to all affirmative. he is then either grateful. they must correspond in all other aspects. example i.” statement. statement. death. For example. or an utter ingrate” (76:3) (Ḥabannaka 97–8). true. true. and condition. 157). Hour will willeither surely “No allow come human you upon to wear them. (kayf). An example is “The moon is 27 This type of disjunctive conditional proposition is only mutually exclusive. false. component (kamm) as well. Zaid is not a writer. or you99–100). or both could be false. (Ḥabannaka (mūjaba company with will [at least] juz’iyya). correspond in subject. “Zaid is a writer. Both This does not preclude the fact that sometimes a reversal of This does not preclude the fact that sometimes a reversal of the qualitative component (kayf) alone might result in one true proposition and one false one. place. This does not occur unless they both correspond in subject. relation. thealone. differing only in the qualitative component namely. likething “This our statement.” of the two must be true and the other [must be] false. “And the a true statement. it will come upon you. “The number is either greater than. or more] equal parts to. Zaid is not a writer. affirmation versus negation. is like the namely. withor you is like will the proposition as no other possibility seller inhale [at least] is valid. or less than zero degrees. is a some. any“By two my or Lord!” even necessarily all three occur. creature. allow evenaffirmative example. relation.of of musk—he yetaisnegative a pleasant not mutually will scent universal eitherfrom him. by theAndreversal of the qualitative you threw not when you component threw. death. and hence would of the first statement. An example kulliyya) is “The moon is 28either (which  Thislarger is true) third (Ḥabannaka type than of or 99). 29 like our itself one Zaid is not a writer. that it is smaller than the earth Hence.” as the first proposition affirmative. valid them. that it is smaller than the earth is onlyistotally onlyexhaustive. like our statement. rather. “Verily We have shown him the way. He then the two follows itdiffer propositions with only its contradictory12 158–60).e. Zaid is not12 in every aspect and perspective. bothand condition. potentiality. Another example is the verse in the Qur’ān (34:3).” The “Zaid firstisproposition a writer. threw all other ―The aspects. propositionwould be contradictory thedeals secondwithonethe assuming is affirmative. nor both false.couldyet anyoccur twoasor well (Ḥabannaka 99–100). not come and upon stipulations. contradiction is valid onlynot” andtwo if the its propositions affirmation “whendiffer youonly threw. or an utter ingrate” (76:3) (Ḥabannaka 97–8).. namely. nor both false. “No!” (balā) toin that the indicate ruling that must theirs necessarily is false. and its form.” in the qualitative first above (Ḥabannaka (Ḥabannaka my Lord. statement. conditions. of three [orless The [aforementioned three types of] disjunctive propositions could be made up than.” Yet this occurs only because the predicate of the first statement is more general than its subject..theAnd second one referred you threw not when to the youwriting threw. true. less than. actuality.‖ Say: No! asindeed stated as theby false. in thatparticular the ruling must proposition necessarily (sāliba juz’iyya). such as “Every human is a creature” and “No human is a creature. whole. “Zaid is a writer. “A youalltothree righteous wearcould particular some.” as another possibly correspond in every aspect and perspective. disjunctive “The number propositions could be is made eitherup greater than. andthe in that theruling other false.with For This third type of disjunctive conditional proposition is only totally exhaustive.” Oneinhale of a pleasant these options scent will from him. meters. other that“Zaid such [must is of be]and in a writer. Hence. There is no contradiction here (kayf) be contradictory between alone. “Zaid is either in a body of water. This third type Some humans of disjunctive are notproposition conditional creatures.30 This does notactuality. options yetcould the disbelievers‖ is notbemutually exclusive.َ‫تِرِ ِثتٍؾ‬ ‫َاٌغَّثٍِْىَب‬ َ‫ةٌَُِوظ‬ ِ ْ‫ئِجيصََبَِذ‬،ٌْْ‫ت‬ ‫نيِ ثِب‬ ‫فَب اٌْصََمَِذْعَُِّزَوَبِر‬ ٌُِٕ‫المَ ِى‬ َ ‫خِزَِو‬،‫وَوَبُ٘رَِىثَخًا‬ ِ‫ؾُّىي‬ِ ‫ق وَا َدل‬ ِ ‫ وَالَ ََزؾَمَّ ُك رٌِهَ إِالَّ َثمِذَ ّْارفَبلِهَِّب فٍِ ادلَىِظُى‬. There is no differ only in contradiction the qualitative contradictory propositions cannot conceivably be true. 31 With respect to determinate propositions. less [rather of three [or more] parts [rather than just two].” This statement is of English.component namely. is affirmation the verse in versus the negation. if the first proposition referred to the writing universal proposition “No creature is human.occur person or sellassome thatproposition well to one keeps you. necessarily be which occur. part. Himself Zaid is not(Qur‖ān threw” a writer. 30 rather. it would become the negative. the and basis the of other must contradiction—both be false For a singular proposition (makhṣūṣa or shakhṣiyya). Zaid is 29not a writer. conditions. must be However. al-khuluww our faqaṭ). the negation of the“Every creaturethrowing Messenger‖s is a human”  “Andis anyou assumingthrew allnot” other andaspects were its affirmation “when you threw. contradiction This differs as and stipulations.ِ‫َاٌضَِب ِْ وَادلَىَب ِْ وَاٌْئِظَبفَخِ وَاٌْمُىَّ ِح وَاٌْ ِفمًِِ وَاٌْىًُِّ وَاجلُضِ ِء وَاٌشَّشِغ‬ َّ ‫و‬ It is the difference of twoIt propositions is the differenceinofaffirmation two propositionsor negation. yet Allāh example.” than just two]. whole. For example.” is negative. 142 as proven by the previous example (in which the reversal of the qualitative component alone did not result in contradiction). (which is true) (Ḥabannaka 99). time. part.”with exclusive.‖ Say: No! proposition “Some creatures are not human.ٍ‫صْ أَوِ ُِغَبو‬three The [aforementioned ِ‫أَوِ َٔبل‬types ْ‫َّب صَائِذ‬of] ِِ‫دُ إ‬disjunctive َ‫ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌْمَذ‬propositions ]َ‫َالصَخٍ [أَوِ أَوْضَش‬could ‫عِضَاءٍ ص‬be‫دِ َأ‬made ‫دُ رَوَا‬upَ‫ال‬ofِ‫ص‬three ‫[ُى ُْ ادلُِٕ َف‬or ‫َولَذِ رَى‬ more] The parts [rather than [aforementioned just three two]. predicate. Allāhnamely. as both orproposition. responds theimmediately actual throwing with “No!” (balā) to (Ḥabannaka indicate is contradiction that theirs valid onlyisiffalse. or less than zero degrees. and hence the first statement.e. one must reverse its quantitative component (kamm) as well. yet it is not totally exhaustive. (Ḥabannaka you For killed is notkilled them not. such that neither option is valid but rather another option is valid. 29 This principle is the basis ofeven all three could contradiction—both occur as contradictory propositions cannot conceivably be true. differing only in the valid option exists. predicate. occur unless they part. example. or is not drowning. ” Likewise. “Every likehuman Two is a writer. particular “Some to affirmative particular “Some creatures are human. and the predicate a subject.”since were Therefore. ُ‫ظ‬Some ْ‫ اٌْمَى‬humans are not writers.” of Muḥammad converts to “No one who denies the message of Muḥammad 32 An indeterminate proposition (muhmala) is effectively ” 14• Affirmative singular “Imām Shāfiʿī is a renowned jurist”is  is Muslim. a creature. both be false. “Some humans are human writers.” relativeness. For example.indeterminate Shāfiʿī.” “The bird is a creature” converts to affirmative particular “Some creatures are birds.” since were resulting in “Some propositions. “Nothing of fornication is disproving a false claim—by affirming the truthfulness of its permissible” converts to “Nothing permissible is from fornication. converts whichto “ʿUmar is AbūofḤafṣ.َ‫ثِىوََبرَِالتٍش‬،ْ‫ت‬ َ‫اإٌِِْٔئِِٔغَبغَبٍِْْوٌََبُِِرظ‬ . like our statement. in one and thehuman predicate a subject. “Every human is a creature.are Nonot human is a writer. of whether “Abū Ḥafṣ original and is quantitative ʿUmar” statement converts is universal. Some humans are not creatures. . particular. such as “Every human is a creature” (sāliba kulliyya) (Damanhūrī 11). Some humans are not writers. the contradictory proposition of an affirmative.” • Affirmative indeterminate “The bird is a creature” converts to contradictory proposition (Ḥabannaka 162–7). while retaining its original negation or affirmation.” If both result the subject and predicate of a proposition are singular. page ???).” Likewise.both (unless Rather. then valid.” and truthfulness Yet this occurs only or falsehood. the conversion is not If both the subject contradiction that can and be predicate of applied consistently a proposition to all are singular. and truthfulness or falsehood. like our statement.33 theIt is for the qualitative subject component to become (kayf) alone mightaresult predicate. “No“Some particular For example. and the predicate a subject.” which is not true like the original statement.” Conversion Conversion (ʿAks) (ʿAks) ُ ْ‫اٌْمَى‬ ‫ظ‬ ِ‫(ذَِِ ِك وَاٌزَّىْزَِِت‬ʿAks) Conversion ِ‫َاٌزص‬ َّ ‫وَُ٘ىَ أَْْ َصِريَ ادلَىِظُىِقُ َِؾُِّىِالً وَادلَؾُِّىِيُ َِىِظُىِلّب َِكَ ثَمَبءِ اٌْئِجيَبةِ وَاٌغَّ ٍْتِ ثِؾَبٌِ ِٗ و‬ َّ ‫ْْ َصِريَ ادلَىِظُىِقُ َِؾُِّىِالً وَادلَؾُِّىِيُ َِىِظُىِلّب َِكَ ثَمَبءِ اٌْئِجيَبةِ وَاٌغَّ ٍْتِ ثِؾَبٌِ ِٗ و‬.Hence. universal. regardless both For itsthe qualitative example. Some humans are creatures. the subject and predicate are singular. both statements indeterminate. Affirmative potentiality.” and two particular propositions could both be true. otherwise. is not Zaid. Zaid. the contradictory proposition of “The Imām Shāfiʿī. converts to affirmative predicate.” particular. and cannot be used to extrapolate a general rule of or falsehood must be retained.”are (kayf is predicate andas singular.” and “Zaid is not ʿAmr” converts theExamples qualitative All affirmative component alone.”31 The contradictory proposition of a negative universal proposition (sāliba kulliyya) is only an affirmative particular proposition (mūjaba juz’iyya). andor“Zaid universal is not proposition singular ʿAmr” (unlesssuch converts as “No both to “ʿAmr the subject and components not Zaid. propositions are as follows: as that convert would to result affirmative in “Every particular to “ʿAmr propositions. one mustAffirmative also reverseuniversal the quantitative component “Every human (kamm). “Nothing of fornication permissible” a particular converts proposition determinate to “Nothing(juz’iyya) permissible(seeisrelated from fornication.32 like our statement.ٍ‫اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ٌَُِظَ ثِىَبرِت‬ TwoTwo determinate determinate propositions propositions [with quantifiers] [with quantifiers] cannot be cannot mutuallybe mutually contradictory unless they contradictory differ unless indiffer they quantity. universal two negative it would be propositions. converts toAll is a creature” affirmative propositions convert to affirmative particular affirmative particular “Some creatures are human. creature is a human. universal while principle retaining propositions. regardless of whether the original statement is Examplesit to are remainascreatures follows: are human.” propositions be mutually and two could both contradictory be true. a writer. indeterminate two particular “The bird propositions. foruniversal two universal propositions propositionscould could both befalse. or singular being false. All while retaining affirmative both its propositions qualitative convert and quantitative to affirmative particularcomponentsalone. then then in contradiction). writers. our determinate statement.” plants.” affirmative particular “Some edible things are plants. nor is a creature” if any aspect converts to affirmative particular “Some creatures are birds. “Some humans are writers. while (kayf andretaining kamm). is ahumans Some writer. or singular (unless both the subject and predicate are singular. creature is a human.” َّ ‫ؾمَّكُ اٌزََّٕبلُطُ ثََُِٕهَُّب إِالَّ ثَمِ َذ اخِزِالَفِهَِّب فٍِ اٌْىََُّّّْخِ ٌِأ‬ َ َ‫ؾصُىِسَرَبِْ الَ َز‬ ِ ‫وَا َدل‬ ُّ ُ‫ط‬ ًُ ‫ِىٌَِثَٕبمِ و‬،َْ‫ط الٌَْئِذِِٔ رَغَبىِْْزِثَبوَِْبِر َوتم‬ َُُِِٓ‫َِْىٌِإٌَْبىَُثٍَُِّّمِز‬ ََّ‫ٍِ اصٌِْذُىَلَبَُِّّّْْخِ ٌَِوأم‬ ‫مِ َذوَااجلُخِزِضِئَُِّالَزَفُِِهَِِّٓبلَذِف َر‬،َ‫طُغثََبَُِِْٕهُ ثَِّبىَبإِرِالَّتٍث‬ ِِٔ‫ؾشَمٍَِّكُءَ اٌِزَََّٕٓبلُاٌْئ‬ َ َ‫ الَوَ ََالز‬،ِْْ‫ؾٍْصُوىَِبسَِررَبت‬ ِ ‫إِؤَِا َدلغَب‬ ُ‫ َثمِط‬،ْ‫ط اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ وَبِرت‬ ُ ِ‫ وَاجلُضِئَُِّزَُِِٓ لَذِ َرصِذُلَبِْ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب َثم‬،ٍ‫ٍِءَ َِٓ اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ثِىَبِرت‬. conversion is valid conversion by switching is valid the subject by switching and and the subject predicate predicate alone.” converts  between differs the two propositions. particular. affirmative “No“Some particular Muslim denies the creatures are message birds. “Abū Ḥafṣ is ʿUmar” just discussed). “Every particular propositions could both be true. original creature” negation and “No human is or affirmation. and truthfulness or falsehood. to “ʿUmar Likewise. place. as just discussed). example.” [with and is quantifiers] No human two particular a cannot writer. as just discussed). “Some humans are writers. kamm).33 33 The underlying principle of conversion is that truthfulness because the predicate of the first statement is more general than or falsehood 33 Themust be retained.” contradiction does not occur by reversing converts to “ʿUmar is Abū Ḥafṣ. For example. etc. as are edible” subject.” 14 143 . retained.” since time.” which is true and hence universal it would be “Every creature is human.” converts to affirmative particular “Of the renowned jurists is note. “Imām Shāfiʿī stipulation.” negative. object.َ‫ِثوَؾَُ٘بىٌَِِٗأ‬ ِ‫َاٌزصِذَِِ ِك وَاٌزَّىْزَِِت‬ It is for the subject to become a predicate. for two in quantity.ٌِِٗ‫ِثؾَب‬ 33 It is for the subject to become a predicate. like our statement.” which is not true like the original statement. like our statement. two“Every creature is human. propositions. universal proposition (mūjaba kulliyya) is only a negative. contradictory to the original false proposition. indeterminate. is a creature” (muhmala while retaining mūjaba) its is a is also “No human true proposition and one false one. Therefore. for aisindeterminate. For otherwise. singular condition. for two universal propositions could both be false. affirmative. Finally. Affirmative partiality. ًُُّ‫َْ اٌْىٍَُُِّّزَُِِٓ لَذِ رَىْزِثَبِْ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب و‬ “No human is a creature. contradiction is not valid between twoedible” converts affirmative to affirmative particular “Some edible it to remain propositions. is a renowned jurist” converts to affirmative particular “Of the renowned jurists is Imām were it to remain universal it would be “Every creature is  wholeness. asboth of itsconversion proven qualitative by is and the previous that truthfulness quantitative example or falsehood (in components must (kayf andbekamm). state. is that truthfulness its subject.” Muḥammad ” converts to “No one who denies the message of Muḥammad  is Muslim.” differ in quantity. principle the conversion of conversion is not valid. “Abūthe conversion is not Ḥafṣ is ʿUmar” valid. contradiction is very useful “Imāmin establishing a proof—by • Affirmative particular Affirmative Negative universalsingular propositions Shāfiʿī convert is toanegative renowned jurist” converts universal to affirmative propositions.” regardless of whether the original statement is universal. human. conversion is valid by switching the subject and predicate 33 The underlying alone. while retaining its original negation or affirmation. Nohuman human propositions “Every is aiswriter. particular proposition (sāliba juz’iyya).  Affirmative particular Affirmative universal “Every “Some human is a creature” plants are converts to affirmative particular “Some creatures thingsare arehuman.” which universal Examplesis not aretrue like the original statement. unless they like our statement.” the reversal and “Zaidcomponent the qualitative is not ʿAmr”aloneconverts to “ʿAmr is not did not If both the subject and predicate of a proposition are singular.” like our statement. plants “Of the Muslim arethe renowned denies edible” converts jurists message to isofImām affirming the falsehood of its contradictory proposition—or in Shāfiʿī. Abū Ḥafṣ. underlying otherwise. Negative universal propositions convert to negative universal propositions.” Affirmative particular “Somesuchplants • Affirmative universal “Every ediblehuman thingsisare a creature” plants. as follows:  Affirmative propositions. e.” is true.e. since our An affirmative universal proposition (mūjaba kulliyya) does not convert to a An affirmative statement. since our statement. For example. as “A human is not a creature.ُُٗ‫لَىْغ‬particular A negative ُ‫وَالَ َصِذُق‬proposition ،ٍْ‫(ظَ ِثئِِٔغَب‬sāliba ٌَُِ ِْ‫حلََُىَا‬juz’iyya) ‫ َثمِطُ ا‬34‫ٌَُٕب‬has ‫قُ لَ ِى‬noُ‫صِذ‬necessary َ ََُّٗٔ‫ ٌِأ‬،‫ُوِّب‬converse.ٍْ‫حلغَشِ ِثئِِٔغَب‬ َ ‫ صَذَقَ لَ ِىٌَُٕب َال شٍَِءَ َِٓ ا‬،ٍ‫ؾغَش‬ َ ‫ثَِٕفْغِِٗ َفئَُِّٔٗ إِرَا صَذَقَ َال شٍَِءَ ِ َٓ اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ِث‬ . samesome humans ruling applies to anare not creatures] indeterminate is proposition propositions. is notsince our true. “Every human is a creature.” as being athe creatures statement human and a“Some creatures creature. and affirmative a negative particular universal proposition proposition (mūjaba (sāliba juz’iyya) kulliyya) converts toconverts to(sāliba a particular particular ( juz’iyya) by this proof.” is true.” is not is a creature. no necessary some humans converse. “A creature is not a human. 15 15 144 . andkulliyya). such that some creatures are humans. human.” cannot be true proposition (Damanhūrī 11–12).kulliyya) does not while “Every convert creature is atohuman.” Likewise. (muhmala). “Khalid is(Qiyās) not a coward” converts to “No coward is Khalid” (Ḥabannaka 178–81). For ُ‫اٌْمُِبط‬ Syllogism example. since if “No human is a stone. Negative“Khalid is not singular a coward”(whose propositions converts to “No coward predicates are notisalso Khalid” (Ḥabannaka singular) 178–81). creature is “Everytohuman it converts a human. as “A human is not a creature. human. Hence. it converts to a particular creature. .. 34 Hence. Hence. as “A human as it is effectively is notdeterminate a particular a creature. is a human.” which can be true. The same “A creature ruling applies toisan notindeterminate a human. ًَْ‫ َوٌَُِ َصِذُقِ وًُُّ ؽََُىَاٍْ إِٔغَبٌْ ث‬. (juz’iyya). such are human.ٌْ‫وَادلُىِعَجَ ُخ اٌْىٍَُُِّّخُ الَ رَِٕمَىِظُ وٍَُُِّّخً إِرْ َصِذُقُ لَ ِىٌَُٕب وًُُّ إِِٔغَبٍْ ؽََُىَا‬ ًَْ‫ َوٌَُِ َصِذُقِ وًُُّ ؽََُىَاٍْ إِٔغَبٌْ ث‬. an proposition (mūjaba juz’iyya) affirmative particular propositionconverts (mūjabatojuz’iyya) a particular converts to a (juz’iyya) Likewise. while 34 conversionhas[i.” is true. “Khalid is not a coward” converts to “No coward is Khalid” (Ḥabannaka 178–81).”since true.” which Muḥammad  is Muslim.ٌْ‫وَادلُىِعَجَ ُخ اٌْىٍَُُِّّخُ الَ رَِٕمَىِظُ وٍَُُِّّخً إِرْ َصِذُقُ لَ ِىٌَُٕب وًُُّ إِِٔغَبٍْ ؽََُىَا‬ ‫ َفئَِّٔب َٔغِ ُذ شَُِئًب َِىِصُىفًب‬،ٌْ‫رَِٕمَىِظُ عُضِئَُِّخً ٌِأََّٔب إِرَا لٍَُْٕب وًُُّ إِِٔغَبٍْ ؽََُىَاٌْ َصِذُقُ ثَمِطُ احلََُىَاِْ إِِٔغَب‬ ‫ َفئَِّٔب َٔغِ ُذ شَُِئًب َِىِصُىفًب‬،ٌْ‫رَِٕمَىِظُ عُضِئَُِّخً ٌِأََّٔب إِرَا لٍَُْٕب وًُُّ إِِٔغَبٍْ ؽََُىَاٌْ َصِذُقُ ثَمِطُ احلََُىَاِْ إِِٔغَب‬ . as it is effectively a particular determinate not true.” proposition (sālibaitsjuz’iyya) is true. This is evident stone.” (mūjaba is true. ( juz’iyya). rather. the rather.byan this proof. universal “Every proposition humanuniversal. as it is effectively a particular determinate proposition (juz’iyya). is a creature. an affirmative particular Likewise.ِ‫وَادلُىِعَجَخُ اجلُضِئَُِّخُ أََِعّب رَِٕمَىِظُ عُضِئَُِّخً ثِهزِِٖ احلُغَّخ‬ َُّْْٓ‫ وَرٌِهَ ث‬،ً‫ وَاٌغَّبٌِجَخُ اٌْىٍَُُِّّخُ رَِٕمَىِظُ [عَبٌِجَخً] وٍَُُِّّخ‬.” is permissible” converts to “Nothing permissible is from cannot be true (Damanhūrī 11–12). forwe are indeed indeed humans. while its conversion Negative universal propositions convert to negative universal 34 The[i.” the statement “Some is describeda creature. 34 The same ruling applies to an indeterminate proposition (muhmala). proposition has no converse. while is not when “Every we say. since if “No human to ain and is kulliyya) converts to a [negative] universal(sāliba (sāliba kulliyya) converts kulliyya). such that some creatures are humans. “No Muslim denies the message of (muhmala). forwhen indeedwe wesay.” cannot be true (Damanhūrī 11–12). This is evident in and of itself. “Every find a human thing since when we say. then our statement “No stone is a human. creatures is true.ِ‫وَادلُىِعَجَخُ اجلُضِئَُِّخُ أََِعّب رَِٕمَىِظُ عُضِئَُِّخً ثِهزِِٖ احلُغَّخ‬ . has no converse.” a universal. then our statement “No stone is a human.‫ثِبٌْئِِٔغَب ِْ وَاحلََُىَاِْ فََُىُىُْ ثَمِطُ احلََُىَاِْ إِِٔغَبّٔب‬ An affirmative universal proposition (mūjaba kulliyya) does not convert to a universal. we find find a thing a thingasdescribed described being a human as being and a a human and a creature. it “Some statement converts to a particular creatures are (juz’iyya). fornication.” a particular true. while “Every statement.” which can be true. and a negative universal proposition a [negative] universal (sāliba (juz’iyya) by this proof. ‫ىْظَ ٌَهَب ٌُض‬for َ‫الَ ل‬indeed ُ‫“جلُضِئَُِّخ‬Some ‫وَاٌغَّبٌِجَخُ ا‬ A negative creatures areparticular not human. “A creature is not a human.. For example.” are that some human.‫ثِبٌْئِِٔغَب ِْ وَاحلََُىَاِْ فََُىُىُْ ثَمِطُ احلََُىَاِْ إِِٔغَبّٔب‬ . has no converse. also convert to negative universal propositions. “Every human is a creature.” is since true. then our statement “No stone is a stone.” ُ‫اٌْمُِبط‬ Negative singular propositions (whose predicates are not also Syllogism singular) (Qiyās) also convert to negative universal propositions. [negative] universal (sāliba kulliyya). “Every human is a rather.ٍْ‫حلغَشِ ِثئِِٔغَب‬ َ ‫ صَذَقَ لَ ِىٌَُٕب َال شٍَِءَ َِٓ ا‬،ٍ‫ؾغَش‬ َ ‫ثَِٕفْغِِٗ َفئَُِّٔٗ إِرَا صَذَقَ َال شٍَِءَ ِ َٓ اٌْئِِٔغَبِْ ِث‬ Likewise.” is true. creature. Negative singular propositions (whose predicates are not also singular) also convert to negative universal propositions. For example. a negativeThis is evident universal in and of proposition itself.” isfortrue. are notforcreatures] indeed “Someis creatures not true. “Nothing of fornication can be true. are not human.” creature is(juz’iyya).” is true. َُّْْٓ‫ وَرٌِهَ ث‬،ً‫ وَاٌغَّبٌِجَخُ اٌْىٍَُُِّّخُ رَِٕمَىِظُ [عَبٌِجَخً] وٍَُُِّّخ‬.ُُٗ‫ وَالَ َصِذُقُ لَىْغ‬،ٍْ‫ ٌِأََُّٔٗ َصِذُقُ لَ ِىٌَُٕب َثمِطُ احلََُىَاِْ ٌَُِظَ ِثئِِٔغَب‬،‫وَاٌغَّبٌِجَخُ اجلُضِئَُِّخُ الَ لَىْظَ ٌَهَب ٌُضُوِّب‬ .” is true. since if “No human is a of itself. Muḥammad ” converts to “No one who denies the message of proposition (juz’iyya). true.” is true.” is true. since it must be more general (aʿamm) than the minor term. if conceded.. rise to a third statement in and of themselves [necessarily] give rise to a third [i. and physical originated. The major term is rightfully called that.” Also.” Also. some humans are not creatures] is not true. Syllogism (Qiyās) ُ‫اٌْمُِبط‬ Syllogism (Qiyās) .e. It is either by coupling (iqtirānī).e.e. “If the sun has risen. has no converse. However. present (see above example). A syllogism by exclusion is distinct The statement that is repeated within the two propositions is called the middle term (ḥadd awsaṭ).. and the proposition that contains the major term is called the major premise (kubrā).. then our statement “No stone is a human.. “Ifsunthehas sunrisen. between its two premises. َ‫َذَِز‬ ّْ ‫َٓ ُِم‬between َُِ‫َشسُ ث‬ َّ ‫وَادلُى‬ its two premises. hence. ‫ْصغِشَي‬ in the conclusion is a definitive assertion (see above example) ُّ ٌ‫ا‬while َٓ ِ itsِ‫ف‬ruling ٌُِِْ‫َّاٌزأ‬ are coupled by the conjunction “and.. then daylight is present.” is true. andby It is either every composed coupling thing is like (iqtirānī). For example.ٍ‫غذِ ثِؽَبٌِمَخ‬ َ ٌَُِ ُ‫ؼَبٌِمَخً فَبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىِدْ ٌىِِٓ إٌَّهَبسُ ٌَُِظَ ثَِّ ِىعُىدٍ فَبٌشَِّّظ‬ Negative singular propositions (whose predicates are not also singular) also convert to negative universal propositions.َ‫ؽَذِّا أَوْجَش‬ exists in actuality within the two premises.” Also.converse. daylight is not present.” or by exclusion then daylight islike (istithnā’ī). comprehended] proposition if conceded. the conclusion].”36 is present. daylight hence. This is evident in and of itself.” is true. a valid syllogism necessarily results in a conclusion ُ ِ‫ىِظُى‬inَِ‫َو‬that. The form of its composition of the minor premise and major premise is called the figure (shakl). 145 16 . a valid syllogism necessarily results in a conclusion due to no extraneous consideration or evidence. but rather in and of itself. based on its form and mood alone (Ḥabannaka 228). the conclusion]. “A creature is not a human.َ‫صغَش‬ ِ َ‫ق ادلَؽٍُْىةِ َُغًََّّ ؽَذِّا أ‬ 35 That is. but not actually (Ḥabannaka 228). its conclusion is potentially embedded within its two premises. its ُ‫َُِ٘ئَخ‬on‫ َو‬its.. creatures are not human. the sun has not risen. “If the sun has risen. statement.” is true. juz’iyya) while its has 34 no necessary conversion [i. hence. “Every physical body is 15 composed. the only difference 36 A syllogism by coupling is distinct in that the two premises being that .e. then daylight is not present. and its predicate is called the major term (ḥadd akbar).ً‫ال‬itsْ‫ى‬ruling َ‫ًَّ ش‬inَّthe ‫ رُغ‬premise ‫ىُجِشَي‬isٌْ‫وَا‬conditional. for some humans are not creatures] is indeed “Some not true. has hence. “however” or “and indeed. for indeed “Some Acreatures negative particular are not proposition human. “Khalid is not a coward” converts to “No coward is Khalid” (Ḥabannaka 178–81). since if “No human is a stone. risen.” 36 ًََّّ‫ؾُّىٌُُِٗ َُغ‬ ِ َِ ‫ َو‬.” is(sāliba true. every our statement. “however” or “and indeed. while its ruling in the conclusion is a definitive assertion (see above example) (Ḥabannaka 228). every physical body is originated. its conclusion (or the contradictory proposition of its conclusion) exists in actuality within the two premises. physical “Every body is body is composed. originated. and a negative universal proposition (sāliba kulliyya) converts to a [negative] universal (sāliba kulliyya). “If the sun has risen.َ‫ػ‬there َ‫وِع‬isَ‫ أ‬a‫َذِّا‬particle ‫ًََّّ ؽ‬of‫غ‬exclusion.e. our And indeed the statement. like our statement. as “A human is not a creature. statement [i. 35 That is. hence. or exception. namely.” then daylight or is present. َُ ِ‫اٌمَُِبط‬orٍِexception. hence. A syllogism by exclusion is distinct in that there is a particle of exclusion.e.37 The proposition that contains the minor term is called the minor premise (ṣughrā). if it is more specific than the 37 minor term. but not actually present (see above example). . every composed thing is originated. Hence. like our statement. its conclusion is potentially embedded within its two premises. (muhmala). 36 A syllogism by coupling is distinct in that the two premises are coupled by the conjunction “and.” Also. in and inference as it of themselves is effectively 35 acomposed of statements particular determinate [necessarily] [i. due to no extraneous consideration or evidence. but rather in and of itself. propositions] or mentally to an indeterminate that. The subject of the conclusion is called the minor term (ḥadd aṣghar). the sun has not risen.” which can be true.daylight is present.” cannot be true givepropositions] that. However. namely. based form ٌَّ‫َذَِخُ ا‬ ّْ ‫ وَادلُم‬،conclusion ‫صغِشَي‬ ُ ًَّ(orَّ‫غ‬theُ‫ ر‬contradictory ُ‫صغَش‬ ِ َ‫فُِهَب اٌْأ‬proposition ٍِ‫َذَِ ُخ اٌَّز‬ّْ of‫ُدلم‬its‫وَا‬conclusion) . the syllogism will not be valid (Ḥabannaka 230).” or like our statement. ‫ش‬ ُ َ ‫خ‬ ‫آ‬ ‫ي‬ ٌ ِ ‫ى‬ َ ‫ل‬ ‫َب‬ ‫ه‬ ِ ‫ر‬ ‫َا‬ ‫ز‬ ٌ ِ ‫َب‬ ‫ه‬ ِ ٕ َ ‫ل‬ َ ‫ض‬ ِ َ ٌ ِ ‫ذ‬ ٍَُِّّ‫ُ٘ىَ لَىِيٌ [َِ ٍْفُىِؾٌ أَوِ َِ ِممُىِيٌ] ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ أَلْىَايٍ َِزًَ ع‬ ‫ وَإَِِّب اعِزِضَْٕبئٍِّّ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب‬،ٌ‫ف وَوًُُّ ُِؤٌََّفٍ ُِؾِذَسٌ فَىًُُّ عِغٍُِ ُِؾِذَس‬ ْ ٌََّ‫َوُ٘ىَ إَِِّب الْزِشَأٍِّّ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب وًُُّ عِغٍُِ ُِؤ‬ ُ‫ذ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخً فَبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىِدْ ٌىِِٓ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخٌ فَبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىِدْ وَ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب إِْْ وَبَٔذِ اٌشَِّّظ‬ِ َٔ‫إِْْ وَب‬ .‫َي‬ ‫وُجِش‬andًَّmood َّ‫رُغ‬alone ُ‫(وْجَش‬Ḥabannaka َ‫زٍِ فُِهَب اٌْأ‬228).ُُٗ‫ وَالَ َصِذُقُ لَىْغ‬،ٍْ‫ ٌِأََُّٔٗ َصِذُقُ لَ ِىٌَُٕب َثمِطُ احلََُىَاِْ ٌَُِظَ ِثئِِٔغَب‬،‫وَاٌغَّبٌِجَخُ اجلُضِئَُِّخُ الَ لَىْظَ ٌَهَب ٌُضُوِّب‬ A negative particular proposition (sāliba juz’iyya)34 has no necessary converse.” or by exclusion (istithnā’ī). while its conversion [i. the only difference being that its ruling in the premise is conditional. 35 (Damanhūrī 11–12). It is a [verbally uttered or mentally comprehended] inference composed of 34 ItTheissame statements a [verbally ruling uttered applies [i. daylight is present. (juz’iyya) by this proof. proposition (juz’iyya). And indeed the sun likehas ourrisen. present. middle and major terms. creature. etc. These.ً‫ْصغِشَي وَاٌْىُجِشَي رُغًََّّ شَىْال‬ ُّ ٌ‫َّاٌزأٌُِِْفِ ِ َٓ ا‬ The statement The statement that is repeated withinthattheistwo repeated within theistwo propositions propositions called is called the middle the(ḥadd term middle term (ḥadd awsaṭ). if thepredicate is the namely. are the the minor term.” Although this syllogism is composed of a major and minor premise.. then daylight is present. either conclusion is invalid 230).‫َذَِخُ اٌَّزٍِ فُِهَب اٌْأَوْجَشُ رُغًََّّ وُجِشَي‬ ّْ ‫ وَادلُم‬،‫صغِشَي‬ ُ ًََّّ‫صغَشُ رُغ‬ ّْ ‫ وَا ُدلم‬. the form is the second (shakl predicate 37 The majorof both. premises. if it is more specific this syllogism is composed of a major and minor premise. hence. is only the thethe first figure opposite difference (shakl being is awwal). the form is the third (shakl thālith). minor term. and the minor. The premise (kubrā). and ٌَُِِٗ‫ وَاٌشَّاثِكُ َشِرَذُّ ِإ‬. and its predicateminor term (ḥadd is aṣghar). based on its form and mood alone (Ḥabannaka 228). its conclusion is potentially 36 embedded within its two premises. i. 236). second it must (shakl be morethānī). yet only some of them are 39 The four figures are numbered in order of excellence. The perfect type of syllogism. . some humans are not creatures. but is found in another copy of the text (Mutūn al-Mantiq wa ’l- Ḥikma) and was taken from there.َ‫َذَِزٍَِ اٌمَُِبطِ َُغًََّّ ؽَذِّا أَوِعَػ‬ ّْ ‫َشسُ ثََُِٓ ُِم‬ َّ ‫وَادلُى‬ ُ‫ َوَُِ٘ئَخ‬.39 syllogism in logic. hence. A syllogism that their accompanying conditions. “No human is a stone.َ‫صغَش‬ ِ َ‫ق ادلَؽٍُْىةِ َُغًََّّ ؽَذِّا أ‬ ُ ِ‫ َوَِىِظُى‬.” Also. is the first figure. even if it has all the components of a syllogism. middle and major terms. since it must be a creature” or “Hence. a valid syllogism necessarily results in a conclusion due to no extraneous consideration or evidence. which yields its conclusion for all types of propositions. forbetween or exception. are the four figures of a syllogism in logic. (shakl). such as. and37its predicate is called the major term (ḥadd akbar)..‫َذَِزَُِِٓ عَُِِّمّب‬ 38 Logically there can only be four figures. [figure] (shakl rābiʿ). etc. either conclusion is invalid because the syllogism does not fulfill the conditions of a valid mood. term the form is rightfully calledis thesince that. thānī). The form of its composition of the minor premise and major premise is called form of its composition of the minor premise and major premise is called the figure the figure (shakl). the syllogism (Ḥabannaka 16 37 The major term is rightfully called that. the minor and(or its conclusion thepremise the subject of the contradictory major premise. with their accompanying conditions. like our statement. fourth turns into it (the first) by converting human is a stone. The proposition 37 called the major term (ḥadd akbar). The subject of the conclusion is called the minor term (ḥadd aṣghar). Logically.” or like our statement. followed by the second.40] ًٌَ‫ واٌَّزٌِ ٌَُٗ َلمًٌْ عٍَُُِِْ وَؼَجِكْ ُِغَِزمُُِِْ الَ َؾِزَبطُ إًٌَِ سَدّْ اٌضَّبٍِِٔ ِإ‬. but rather in and of itself. hence. while opposite its ruling inisthe theconclusion fourth [figure] (shaklassertion is a definitive rābiʿ). because the syllogism does not fulfill the conditions of a valid ]. daylight is not present.”36 ًََّّ‫ َو َِؾُِّىٌُُِٗ َُغ‬.than general (aʿamm) then.e. 146 40 This paragraph is not present in the text used for this translation.” Although more general (aʿamm) than the minor term. even if it has all the components of a syllogism. However. is a creature. For example. the valid. exclusion. and the proposition that contains the major term is called the major proposition that contains the major term is called the major premise (kubrā).َ‫ؽَذِّا أَوْجَش‬ ِ َ‫َذَِ ُخ اٌَّزٍِ فُِهَب اٌْأ‬ . no human is a creature” or “Hence. followed by the second. every composed thing is originated. premises) no humanoris by converting both premises. figure can have sixteen moods. i. are essential in the study of syllogisms.ِ‫ة وَاٌغَّ ٍْت‬ِ ‫َذَِزَُِِٗ ثِبٌْئَِِغَب‬ ّْ ‫الفِ ُِم‬ َ ِ‫ َوإََِّّٔب َُِِٕزظُ اٌضَّبٍِِٔ لِِٕذَ اخِز‬. .the order and no stone (of the twohence.ِ‫اٌْأَوَّي‬ 38 Logically there can only be four figures.” or by exclusion (istithnā’ī). The valid moods. as explicated below (Ḥabannaka 233. and the minor premise (ṣughrā).ُ‫ وَاٌْىَب ِ ًُ اٌْجَُُّْٓ اٌْئِِٔزَبطِ ُ٘ َى اٌْأَوَّي‬. and no stone is a creature. since not every syllogism yields a valid conclusion.” Also. andand the every third horse turns neighs” (Damanhūrī into it (the first) by converting the minor premise. ًُ ْ‫اٌصغِشَي وََِىِظُىلّب فٍِ اٌْىُجِشَي فَهُىَ اٌشَّى‬ ُّ ٍِ‫َذ اٌْأَوِ َعػَ إِْْ وَبَْ َِؾُِّىِالً ف‬ َّ ‫ ٌِأََّْ احل‬،ٌ‫وَاٌْأَشِىَبيُ َأسِثَمَخ‬ َ‫ َوإِْْ َِؾُِّىِالً فُِِهَِّب فَهُى‬،ُ‫ وَإِْْ وَبَْ َِىِظُىِلّب فُِِهَِّب فَهُىَ اٌضَّبٌِش‬،ُ‫ َوإِْْ وَبَْ ثِبٌْمَىْظِ فَهُىَ اٌشَّاثِك‬،ُ‫اٌْأَوَّي‬ 35 That is. 38 Therebut not areactually present38(see four figures. are essential in the study of is not based on one of these four figures is not sound. If it is (see theexample) above subject of both. thehuman “Every majoris apremise. since not every syllogism yields a valid conclusion. If it is the subject of both. yet only some of them are valid. the first being the best. each figure can have sixteen moods. the that fourth its ruling the in the premise is conditional. “If the sun has risen.‫اٌصغِشَي‬ ُّ ِ‫ وَاٌضَّبٌِشُ َشِرَذُّ ِإٌَُِِٗ ِثمَىْظ‬. every physical body is originated. proposition and thethesubject of its conclusion) forminis exists ofactuality the major the first withinpremise. some humans are not creatures. then daylight is present.230). hence. each ّْ ‫ِثمَىْظِ اٌزَشِرُِِتِ أَوِ ِثمَىْظِ ادلُم‬ mood. and every horse neighs” (Damanhūrī 13). 39 The four figures are numbered in order of excellence. result in sound conclusions.‫ظ اٌْىُجِشَي‬ than the minor term. The valid moods. then. And indeed the sun has risen.ِ‫فَه ِزِٖ ِ٘ ٍَ اٌْأَشِىَب ُي اٌَْأسَِثمَخُ اٌَّْزْوُ ِىسَحُ فٍِ إٌَِّْؽِك‬. if the middle term for its two premises. and if it is the third (shakl thālith). such as.‫وَاٌشَّىًُْ اٌشَّاثِكُ ِِِٕهَب َثمُِِذْ لَِٓ اٌؽَّجِكِ عِذِّا‬ . the syllogism will not be valid (Ḥabannaka ِ ْ‫[وَاٌشَّىًُْ اٌضَّبٍِِٔ ِِِٕهَب َشِرَذُّ ِإًٌَ اٌْأَوَّيِ ثِمَى‬ the minor. the sun has not risen. For example. above example). “Every human is a creature. as explicated below (Ḥabannaka 233.e.ٍِٔ‫اٌضَّب‬ A syllogism by coupling is distinct in that the two premises are coupled by the conjunction “and. the (Ḥabannaka form is the 228). [The second figure turns into the first by converting syllogisms. The proposition that contains the minor term is called the that contains the minor term is called the minor premise (ṣughrā). middle term “however” orof “and is theminor the premise indeed. figure the form the two(shakl awwal). 236). The subject of the conclusion is called the awsaṭ). daylight is present. A syllogism bypredicate exclusion is ofdistinct in that there is There areof four a particle figures. and if it is the predicate of both. A syllogism that is not based on one of these four figures is not sound. Logically.four if it isfigures of athan the more specific 39 will not be validThese. “If the sun has risen. with first being the best. result in sound conclusions. “No The 13). ٌ‫وَظُشُوثُ ُٗ ادلُِِٕزغَخُ َأسَِثمَخ‬ The first figure corresponds most to natural sequence of thought. premises. is the first figure. As for singular conclusions.39 syllogism in logic. which type The perfect yields its conclusion of syllogism. and no stone is a creature. Logically.. middle and major terms. and the third turns into third it (the turns intofirst) it (theby converting first) thethe by converting minor minorpremise. result 38 yieldsLogically a there canwhen conclusion only be four the figures. textof in and itself ofused forgives itself this rise gives to all types of conclusions. affirmative particular. they are effectively universal.” . are essential in the study of syllogisms. no human is a creature” or “Hence. The valid moods. “No human is a stone. “No human is a stone. namely.The fourthturns The fourth turnsintointo it (the first) by into it (the first) by converting the minor premise. The perfect type of syllogism. hence. The valid moods. and if it is the predicate of both.40] propositions. negative universal. they are effectively particular (Ḥabannaka 236). various fields ofand every horse neighs” (Damanhūrī 13). For example. A syllogism that is not 39 based The firstonfigure one of is these thefour onefigures that isisconsidered not sound.. the major the and the third turns [The second figure turns into the first by converting the major premise.‫اٌصغِشَي وَوٍَُُِّّخُ اٌْىُجِشَي‬ ُّ ‫ة‬ُ ‫إِِٔزَبعِِٗ إِجيَب‬ The four figures are numbered in order of excellence. particular (Ḥabannaka 236).. hence. i. are the four figures of a predicate of both. since not every syllogism yields a valid conclusion. for the major premise to be complete. conclusion for all types is of the first figure. and as for indeterminate conclusions.but translation. either conclusion is invalid because the syllogism does not fulfill the conditions of a valid mood. the following is implied therein “Of all sinners.‫ِذِّاِّا‬ ‫اٌشَّاَّاثِثِكُكُ ِِِِِِٕٕههَبَب ََثثمِمُُِِِذْذْ لَلَِِٓٓ اٌاٌؽؽََّّجِجِكِكِ ععِذ‬ ‫َاٌشََّّىىًًُُْْ اٌش‬ ‫ووَاٌش‬ .ِ‫ت‬ ِ‫َاٌغَّ ٍٍْْت‬ َّ‫ة ووَاٌغ‬ ‫ة‬ ِِ ‫غَبَب‬ ‫َذََِِززََُُِِِِٗٗ ثثِبِبٌٌْْئئََِِِِغ‬ ‫َذ‬ ّّْْ ‫فِِ ُُِِمم‬ ‫الف‬ ‫ال‬ ََ ِِ‫ ََووإإَََِِّّّّٔٔبَب ََُُِِِِٕٕززظُظُ اٌضاٌضَّبَّبٍٍِِِِٔٔ لِلِِِٕٕذَذَ ااخخِِزز‬..ٍ‫فَالَ شَ ٍِءَ ِ َٓ اٌْغِغُِِ ثِمَذمي‬17،ٍ‫ف وَالَ شٍَِءَ ِ َٓ ادلُؤٌََّفِ ِثمَذِمي‬ as the mind naturally moves from the minor term to the middle term to the major term. Other examples are as follows: Every fish is a creature. yet only some of them are valid.39 ٌٌََُُِِِِٗٗ‫َذُّ ِِإإ‬ ُّ‫َاٌشَّاَّاثِثِكُكُ ََششِِررَذ‬ ‫ ووَاٌش‬. affirmative universal. The conclusion is affirmative universal (Damanhūrī 13). the first being the best.ٍ‫ط اٌْغِغُِِ ٌَُِظَ ثِمَذِمي‬ ُ ِ‫ِ َٓ ادلُؤٌََّفِ ثِمَذِميٍ فََجم‬ (Ḥabannaka 236). The First Valid Mood42 is for example: Every physical body is composed. If it is the subject of both. every fish moves by its own volition. the best of sinners are the oft-repentant. as the mind naturally moves from the minor term to the middle 40term  This term toparagraph the major term.e. does not fulfill the conditions of a valid mood. is found in and of another copy negative the textparticular. 42 Both premises are affirmative universal.40] syllogism.ُ‫غمَ ًَ دُعِزُىسّا وََُغِزََِٕزظَ ُِِٕٗ اٌَّْؽٍُْىِة‬ no stone is a creature. even if it has all the components of a syllogism.Ḥikma) and was taken indeterminate conclusions. [The there.] corresponds most to natural sequence of thought. A syllogism that is not 39 The four figures are numbered in order of excellence. they are effectively universal. and every horse neighs” (Damanhūrī 13). in and in the Moreover. are essential in the study of syllogisms. the form is the third (shakl thālith).ٌ‫ف وَوًٌُ ُِؤٌََّفٍ ُِؾِذَسٌ فَىًُُّ عِغٍُِ ُِؾِ َذس‬ al-Mantiq wa ’l. no human is a creature” or “Hence. etc. and the best of sinners are the 147oft-repentant” (Tirmidhī. based on one of these four figures is not sound.and negation. then. The intellect second and onlyanyields a conclusion when the upright naturediffer premises does not need to turn the in affirmation second into the first. “Every human is a creature. some humans are not creatures. The second only 38 Logically there can only be four figures. and negative particular. in and of itself gives rise to ْ ٌََّ‫َومَ ِىٌَِٕب وًُُّ عِغٍُِ ُِؤ‬ َ‫ط اٌْغِغُِِ ُِؤٌََّفْ وَ َال شٍَِء‬ ُ ِ‫ وَاٌشَّاثِكُ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب َثم‬. The fourth turns into it (the first) by converting it (the the orderthe first) by converting (oforder the two premises) (of the or byorconverting two premises) by convertingboth bothpremises. and the minor. hence. and the minor. then. such as. namely. but is found in another copy of the text (Mutūn al-Mantiq wa ’l- This paragraph is not present in the text used for this translation.. not present term. yet only some of them are valid. 17 ُ‫ وَاٌضَّبٌِشُ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب َثمِط‬.. “Everyfor a standard human is a creature. as explicated below (Ḥabannaka 233.e. they are effectively universal. negative universal. hence. but is found in another copy of the text (Mutūn al-Mantiq wa ’l- Ḥikma) and was taken from there. [figure] (shakl rābiʿ). ].” Although this syllogism is ِ ٌُِ ‫ فَُٕىِسِ ُدُٖ َُٕ٘ب‬. since not in sound conclusions. ٍِٔ‫ وَاٌضَّب‬. study. 40] ًٌٌَ‫َدّْ اٌاٌضضَّبَّبٍٍِِِِٔٔ ِِإإ‬ ًَ ّْ‫ًَ سسَد‬ ًٌٌَِ‫طُ إِإ‬ ُ‫ؾِِززَبَبط‬ ‫غََِِززممُُُُِِِِْْ الَالَ ََؾ‬ ‫ٌ ٌٌََُُٗٗ ََللممًًٌٌْْ عَعٍٍَُُُُِِِِْْ وَوَؼَؼَجِجِككْْ ُُِِغ‬ ٌِ‫واٌَّزِز‬ ٌَّ‫ وا‬. which for allits yields types of propositions. so 40we will explain it here for it to serve as a template and so the aim may be derived The first figure is the one that is considered a standard for various fields of study. either conclusion is invalid because the syllogism composed of a major and minor premise. followed by the second.‫َي‬ ‫ظ ااٌٌْْىىُُججِِششَي‬ ‫ظ‬ِِ ْ‫َوََّّيِيِ ثِثِممََىْى‬ ‫ًَ ااٌٌْْأأَو‬ ًٌٌَ‫َذُّ ِِإإ‬ ُّ‫َاٌشََّّىىًًُُْْ اٌضاٌضَّبَّبٍٍِِِِٔٔ ِِِِِِٕٕهَهَبب ََششِِررَذ‬ ‫[[ووَاٌش‬ ]].” Of course. affirmative particular. turn the secondThe one intowho thehas a sound first. negative rise to all types of conclusions. every physical body is originated.‫َذََِِززََُُِِِِٓٓ عَعَُُِِِِّّممّبّب‬ ّّْْ ‫ظِ اادلُدلُمم‬ ‫َذ‬ ِ‫تِ أأََوِوِ ِِثثمَمَىْىْظ‬ ِ‫ظِ اٌاٌززََششِِررُُِِِِت‬ ِ‫ِِثثممََىىْْظ‬ [The second [The figure second turnsturns figure into the firstthe into by converting the major premise.ِ‫َوَّيِي‬ َّ‫ااٌٌْْأأَو‬ The fourth figure is very unnatural.. and negative particular. such as. Logically. From prophetic speech: “Every son of Ādam  is a sinner. As ُ ِ‫ف وَوًُُّ ُِؤٌََّفٍ ؽَبدِسٌ فََجم‬ ْ ٌََّ‫اٌْغِغُِِ ُِؤ‬ for singular conclusions. and every creature moves by its own volition.‫َي‬ ‫اٌصغغِِششَي‬ ‫اٌص‬ ُُّّ ِ‫ظ‬ ِ‫َذُّ ِِإإٌٌََُُِِِِٗٗ ِِثثممََىىْْظ‬ ُّ‫شُ ََششِِررَذ‬ ُ‫َاٌضَّبَّبٌٌِِش‬ ‫ ووَاٌض‬. with their accompanying conditions. premise. to the major is Moreover. is the first figure. they are effectively particular . as the mind naturally moves from the minor term to the middle the major The first figurepremise. and every composed thing is originated. each figure can have sixteen moods. namely. Moreover. premises differ in each figure can and affirmation have negation. 41 This sentence is not present in the text used for this translation..َِ‫وَاٌشَّىْ ًُ اٌْأَوَّيُ ُ٘ىَ اٌَّزٌِِ عُمًَِ ِمَُِبسّا ٌِ ٍْمٍُُى‬ ُ‫ [وَشَشِغ‬.” Although this syllogism is composed of a major and minor premise. with their accompanying conditions. result in sound conclusions. 236). but is found in another copy of the text (Mutūn al-Mantiq wa ’l- 40 explain Ḥikma) andit here was Ḥikma) and was takenfor itthere. are the four figures of a syllogism in logic. affirmative particular. These. For example. ْ ٌََّ‫ اٌْأَوَّيُ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب وًَُّ عِغٍُِ ُِؤ‬. 236).. conditions for it to yield a conclusion are affirmation of the minor premise and universality of The first figure corresponds41most to natural sequence of thought. The perfect type of converting the order (of the two premises) or by converting both premises. Its valid moods (ḍurūb) that yield a conclusion are four: 1. and as for indeterminate conclusions. affirmative universal. followed by the second. the form is the second (shakl thānī). etc. from taken from to serve as a template and so the aim may be derived thereby.ُ‫َوَّيُي‬ َّ‫طِ ُُ٘٘ ََىى ااٌٌْْأأَو‬ ِ‫ ووَاَاٌٌْْىَىَبب ِِ ًًُُ ااٌٌْْججََُُُُّّْْٓٓ ااٌٌْْئئِِِِٔٔززَبَبط‬. Ibn Mājā with slight variation in wording) which yields the conclusion “The best of the children of Ādam  are the oft-repentant. The one who has a sound intellect and an upright nature The fourth does notfigure needistovery unnatural. even if it has all the components of a syllogism. sixteen moods. affirmative universal. the form is the second (shakl thānī). they arefrom effectively there. as explicated below (Ḥabannaka 233. and every syllogism yields a valid conclusion. These. so we will This paragraph is not present in the text used for this translation. (Mutūn As for singular conclusions. middle and major terms. first by converting andpremise.ٌ‫ط اٌْغِغُِِ ؽَبدِس‬ all types of conclusions. i. the first being the best. some humans are not creatures. and as for universal. which yields its conclusion for all types of propositions. example: Every physical body is composed. The Fourth Valid Mood45 is for example: Some physical bodies are composed. Day” while lying is a hypocrite. [The conditions for it to yield a conclusion are affirmation of the minor premise and universality of the major premise. The conclusion is negative particular (Damanhūrī 14). there is no soul that earns except that it has translation. sells himself seeking the good pleasure of Allāh is granted 43 Both premises are universal.]41 Its valid moods (ḍurūb) that yield a conclusion are four: 1. The First Valid Mood42 is for example: Every physical body is composed. the minor premise is “Every son of Ādam is a sinner. for the major premise to be complete. “And of mankind is he who sells himself seeking which yields the conclusion “Each of you is responsible for his the good pleasure of Allāh” (Qur’ān 2:207). ―We believe in Allāh “Of all sinners. and the best of sinners are the particular. and the face of your yields the conclusion “Each of you is responsible for his flock” (Ḥabannaka 239–40). The Firstphysical body Valid Mood 42 is is fororiginated.ٍ‫ فَالَ شٍَِءَ ِ َٓ اٌْغِغُِِ ثِمَذمي‬،ٍ‫ف وَالَ شٍَِءَ ِ َٓ ادلُؤٌََّفِ ِثمَذِمي‬ْ ٌََّ‫َومَ ِىٌَِٕب وًُُّ عِغٍُِ ُِؤ‬ َ‫ط اٌْغِغُِِ ُِؤٌََّفْ وَ َال شٍَِء‬ ُ ِ‫ وَاٌشَّاثِكُ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب َثم‬. Every fish is a creature. and every composed thing is originated. Lord remains forever” (Qur’ān 55:26–7). and every shepherd is responsible for every trangressor is misguided.Ḥikma) and was taken from there. the best of sinners are the oft-repentant. Other examples are as follows: 4.ٌ‫ف وَوًٌُ ُِؤٌََّفٍ ُِؾِذَسٌ فَىًُُّ عِغٍُِ ُِؾِذَس‬ ْ ٌََّ‫ اٌْأَوَّيُ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب وًَُّ عِغٍُِ ُِؤ‬. 45 The minor premise is affirmative particular. preeternal. nothing therein [earth] is affirmative universal (Damanhūrī 13). [The conditions for it to yield a conclusion are affirmation of the minor premise Its valid moods (ḍurūb) that yieldand universality of a conclusion arethefour: major premise. The Third Valid Mood44 is for example: Some physical bodies are composed. “Everything therein [the earth] shall perish.” 41 This sentence is not present in the text used for this free will. for the major premise to be complete. hence. 46 From prophetic speech: “Every son of Ādam  is a sinner. and 41 This sentence is not present in nothing thatforisthis the text used composed is preeternal. hence. the following is implied therein “Of all sinners. From life (Ḥabannaka 242-3).” Of course.” and the Last Day‖ yet they are not really believers” (Qur’ān 2:8).” “And indeed. but is found in another copy of the text (Mutūn free will.” “Each of you is from Ādam . and 42 Both premises are affirmative universal. Other examples are as follows: and no one is held as collateral for what it earns unless it has 148 . Muslim with slight variation in wording) misguided. and the best of sinners are the oft-repentant” (Tirmidhī.ishence. in wording) which yields the conclusion “The best of the Other examples are as follows: children of Ādam are the oft-repentant. The conclusion is oft-repentant” (Tirmidhī. every fish movessome by its physical bodies are not own volition. hence. conclusion “Each of you is from dust. of mankind is a group granted Paradise affirmative. The first figure is the one that is considered a standard for various fields of study. and anyone who says. many people are trangressors” (Qur’ān 5:49). The conclusion is affirmative universal (Damanhūrī 13).]41 ٍِٔ‫ وَاٌضَّب‬. prophetic speech: 44 Both premises are affirmative. there is no soul except that it has volition. the minor premise is Paradise. every physical body is originated. 3. some physical bodies are temporal. The conclusion is (Ḥabannaka 244). many people are his flock” (Bukhārī. The Second Valid Mood43 is for example: Every physical body is composed. hence. Ibn Mājā with slight variation affirmative particular (Damanhūrī 13). negative universal (Damanhūrī 13). and “Each of you is a shepherd. and the major premise is universal. the following is implied therein “And of mankind are those who say. every 1.ٍ‫ط اٌْغِغُِِ ٌَُِظَ ثِمَذِمي‬ ُ ِ‫ِ َٓ ادلُؤٌََّفِ ثِمَذِميٍ فََجم‬ thereby.” Of course. hence. and every creature moves by its own except that it has life. and every shepherd is responsible for his flock” (Bukhārī. and Ādam is from dust” (Abū Dāwūd. hence. but is found inhence. The conclusion is will perish is preeternal. and Ādam  is from dust” (Abū Dāwūd. and nothing dies Every fish is a creature. and anyone who flock” (Ḥabannaka 239-40). Other examples are as follows: “Every soul shall taste death” (Qur’ān 21:35).ٌ‫ط اٌْغِغُِِ ؽَبدِس‬ ُ ِ‫ف وَوًُُّ ُِؤٌََّفٍ ؽَبدِسٌ فََجم‬ ْ ٌََّ‫اٌْغِغُِِ ُِؤ‬ . hence. and the Other examples are as follows: major premise is negative universal. and every composed thing is originated. and nothing that 42 Both premises are affirmative universal. hence. every composed thing is temporal. and the major premise is negative. hence. “I believe in Allāh and the Last “Each of you is from Ādam. so we will explain it here for it to serve as a template and so the aim may be derived thereby. hence. nocopy another physical body of the text is preeternal. the best of sinners are the oft-repentant. “Each of you is a shepherd. “Every soul is held as collateral for what it earns” (Qur’ān 74:38). (Mutūn al-Mantiq wa ’l- Ḥikma) and was taken from there. and everyand nothing creature movesthat is composed by its own volition. translation. 2. Muslim with slight variation in wording) which al-Mantiq wa ’l. hence.ٌ‫وَظُشُوثُ ُٗ ادلُِِٕزغَخُ َأسَِثمَخ‬ ُ‫ وَاٌضَّبٌِشُ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب َثمِط‬. every fish moves by its own volition. among mankind are Tirmidhī with slight variation in wording) which yields the hypocrites. preeternal. Tirmidhī with slight variation in wording) which yields the conclusion “Each of you is from dust. 18 preeternal. Ibn Mājā with slight variation in wording) which yields the conclusion “The best of the children of Ādam  are the oft-repentant. ٌ‫ذ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخً فَبٌَْأسِضُ ُِعُِئَخ‬ ِ َٔ‫ُِعُِِئَخٌ َُِِٕزظُ إِْْ وَب‬ Or of two conjunctive conditional propositions.”47 “If the sun has risen. a sound yield soundand conclusions for all four is hence invalid figures.” sun has 47 risen. which yields from these two propositions. then OrOr of two daylight of two isconjunctive present. hence. is daylight the then sun present. the following serves as a presentation of the valid moods for the remaining three figures. people are not of this description. the earth “If the is illuminated.” which oraapair odd. timemajor Every time they premise they the ignite is negative.” a conjunctive works are not a creature. and every human is a creature. “Every number is either odd. lower states referring to negation In addition. like ournumbers statement.puts it out” its evil stops(Qur‖ān 5:64).” whoour which statement. andpeople every time Allāh puts out the fire of in Paradise.” َْ ‫ وٍَُّّب وَب‬:ُ‫ َُِٕزِظ‬،ُِْ‫ وَوًُُّ ؽََُىَاٍْ عِغ‬،ٌْ‫َوإَِِّب ِِٓ ؽٍََُِِّّخٍ وَُِزَّصٍَِخٍ وَمَىٌَِِٕب وٍََُّّب وَبَْ ٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ ؽََُىَا‬ َْ‫ وٍَُّّب وَب‬:ُ‫ َُِٕزِظ‬،ُِْ‫ وَوًُُّ ؽََُىَاٍْ عِغ‬،ٌْ‫َوإَِِّب ِِٓ ؽٍََُِِّّخٍ وَُِزَّصٍَِخٍ وَمَىٌَِِٕب وٍََُّّب وَبَْ ٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ ؽََُىَا‬ َْ‫ وٍَُّّب وَب‬:ُ‫ َُِٕزِظ‬،ُِْ‫ وَوًُُّ ؽََُىَاٍْ عِغ‬،ٌْ‫خٍ وَمَىٌَِِٕب وٍََُّّب وَبَْ ٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ ؽََُىَا‬. while most of the examples were taken 3. and all good is in Paradise.” risen. as A syllogism by coupling is either composed of two categorical propositions. that any other conceivable mood for are as follows: Thisany figure Infigure hasdoes addition. like our statement. earth earthisisilluminated.is conditional and every creature proposition. stops. conclusion 47 Or its war.” numbers.by coupling is either composed of two categorical propositions. he is a creature. “If the sun has risen. and every human is a creature. hence. all valid moods always follows the lower state of each premise. the above order was taken from Imām apply also There to Damanhūrī‖s conditional is someĪḍāḥ propositions. even numbers. a pair of even numbers.” Or of two disjunctive conditional propositions. 240). of even numbers of even “Every number or a pairor a pair is either of odd numbers. Some stones are not creatures. Akhdarī‖s for figures commentary someofthree his and are Sullam humans four. time Everythey timeignite they the ignitefirethe of war. valid moods moods. its Other examples are as follows: 23evil “Andstops (Ḥabannaka of mankind is he240). “As long(Ḥabannaka miserable as this is246). Every living 2:204).ِ‫َذَِزَُِِٓ وًُُّ لَذَدٍ فَهُىَ إَِِّب فَشِدْ أَوِ صَ ِوطُ اٌضَّ ِوطِ أَوِ صَ ِوطُ اٌْفَشِد‬ ّْ ‫اٌْفَشِدِ َِٕزُظُ ِِٓ َ٘برَُِِٓ اٌُّْم‬ . order and nowas taken stone is afrom Imām creature. “Every number is either even which of odd oryields odd. and the stops. “If the sunwhich illuminated. propositions. daylight is present. and (2) the major premise universal. “Every number “Every is number is either Or even either of two or or even disjunctive odd. odd. is a body. thatmust yieldbesound and is hence invalid conclusions (Damanhūrī for all four figures. the earth is illuminated. and the negative universal. figure. propositions. daylight andiswhenever earth is present. No horse “Asand is a human. al-Maʿrifa conclusion: (1) particular. lower some state people of each are notlower premise. conclusions for all four figures. hence. ،َّ‫وَاالِلْزِشَأٍُِّ إَِِّب ُِشَوَّتْ ِِٓ ؽٍََُِِّّزَُِِٓ وََّب َِش‬ ،َّ‫وَاالِلْزِشَأٍُِّ إَِِّب ُِشَوَّتْ ِِٓ ؽٍََُِِّّزَُِِٓ وََّب َِش‬ ،َّ‫وَاالِلْزِشَأٍُِّ إَِِّب ُِشَوَّتْ ِِٓ ؽٍََُِِّّزَُِِٓ وََّب َِش‬ A syllogism by coupling is either composed of two categorical propositions.ٌ‫ذ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخً فَبٌَْأسِضُ ُِعُِئَخ‬ ِ َٔ‫ُِعُِِئَخٌ َُِِٕزظُ إِْْ وَب‬ . no sad personisactually a body. creature No sad person is aand happy.major whilepremise most ofisthe examples were taken from There areImām Ḥabannaka‖s two conditions forḌawābit it to yield a sound(247–63). lower states referring to negation andaddition.ٌ‫اٌشٌََّْأِّسِظُضُؼَبٌُِِمَعخًُِئَفخ‬ ‫اٌشَّإِِّْْظُوَبَٔؼَبٌِذِمَخً فَب‬ ‫ذ ِىٌَِٕب‬ َِ‫صٍَِْْزَُِِٓوَبَٔ َوم‬ ِ‫عَِّبُِئَخٌِ َُِِِٕٓزَُِّزظُ إ‬ ِِ‫َُِوإ‬ . There is some discrepancy the order some of the moods for figures three and four. hence. like our statement. There is some from Imām Damanhūrī‖s discrepancy Ḥabannaka‖s Īḍāḥ al-Mubham in (14–15) the al-Maʿrifa Ḍawābit orderandofImām some of the moods (247–63). َ‫ِٔغَبٔبً فَهُى‬The ِ‫٘زَا إ‬ cheated. “If the sun has risen. 4. hence. and four. No stone is a creature. no horse laughs. Other (Damanhūrī one understands examples 15). nothing vain is good. yet he is the most contentious of adversaries” (Qur’ān happy. like our statement. no living person is an idol. hence. like our is present. 1. Or of two conjunctive conditional propositions.” which yields. some stones are not human. or a pair of odd numbers.” which yields.”like whichouryields. no one who actually laughs is sad. yields. as explained above. whose speech about the life of this world 23 pleases you. “As as hence. 47 is affirmative. and no idol eats. the minor righteous works is cheated. isand has risen. of war. follows hence. Both premises are . is either is either like a pair a pair our statement. some person eats. and numbers. unlettered. one conclusion is understands negative that any other conceivable mood for particular. ignitefirethe The fire of war. recompensed and hewell is aAllāh conjunctive abycreature.ofhetheis a body. (Ḥabannaka and every time Allāh puts out the fire of war. some of proposition as this this is a is athose human. as explained above.and andeveryconditional evennumber every even numberpropositions. 240). of even number “Every is numbers numbereither or aa pair odd. either a pair “Every propositions. the minor and major premises must differ in affirmation and anyunderstanding By figure does notthe yield a sound moods conclusion.puts Allāh its evil stops it out” (Ḥabannaka (Qur‖ān 5:64). daylight propositions. and no unlettered person can write. he ishea and is body. A syllogism A syllogism by coupling is either composed of two categorical propositions. then daylight has“If risen. is either pair of of even odd numbers. a stone. “As Or longoflong a categorical miserable. long as this is a human. and the major premise. Allāh fire of war. is forevil negative example. the earth47 is illuminated.”48 48 and every creature hence. areignite they universal. hence. Some are the above creatures. no 47 human and forisexample. the notofyield fouravalid conclusion a total sound for all conclusion.‫طًُِأَُّوِصَصَِو ِوطٍطُفَ اهٌُْىَفَشِإدَِِِّب‬ ‫ًُُّذَلَدٍذَفَدٍهُ فَىَهُإىََِِّبإ فََِِّبشِدْصَ أَوِوِطْصَأَ ِووِطُفَشِ ْداٌضَّ ِووَو‬ َ‫َذَِزَوَُِمَِِٓىٌَِٕبوًُُّول‬ ِّْٓ‫صٌٍَِْزَُُِّم‬ ‫اٌَْوإفَِِشَِّبدَُِِِٕشزَُوَّظُتَِِِِْٓٓ٘برَُُِِِٕ َفِٓ ا‬ .” valid moods for the first anyone who laughs is a human. thewhenever present. conjunctive andconditional whenever conditional propositions. although the fourinfigures andoftheir valid moods hence. universal. as explained above. Every human the is a conclusion creature. for and all no valid stone moods is a always creature. al-Mubham discrepancy in (14–15) the order andofImām some Akhdarī‖s commentary of the moods for figures ofthree hishumans Sullam (34). a pair of even numbers. yields pairofof from these oddnumbers. conclusion is negative universal.” two propositions. “Every Hence. ُ‫َوإَِِّب ِِٓ َُِّزصٍَِزَُِِٓ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب إِْْ وَبَٔذِ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخً فَبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُى ْد وَوٍََُّّب وَبَْ إٌَّهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىدّا فبٌْأَ ِسض‬ ُ ‫َوإَِِّب ِِٓ َُِّزصٍَِزَُِِٓ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب إِْْ وَبَٔذِ اٌشَِّّظُ ؼَبٌِمَخً فَبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُى ْد وَوٍََُّّب وَبَْ إٌَّهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىدّا فبٌْأَ ِس‬ ‫ض‬ ُ‫َبٌَّٕهَبسُ َِ ِىعُى ْد وَوٍََُّّب وَبَْ إٌَّهَبسُ َِ ِىعُىدّا فبٌْأَ ِسض‬ . Orofofthose Some a categorical proposition who perform works and a conjunctive will be recompensed well conditional proposition.ُِْ‫٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ عِغ‬ universal. particularity (Damanhūrī Some people can write. statement. like our statement. or a pair of odd numbers.ِ‫َذَِزَُِِٓ وًُُّ لَذَدٍ فَهُىَ إَِِّب فَشِدْ أَوِ صَ ِوطُ اٌضَّ ِوطِ أَوِ صَ ِوطُ اٌْفَشِد‬ ّْ ‫اٌْفَشِدِ َِٕزُظُ ِِٓ َ٘برَُِِٓ اٌُّْم‬ OrOr of two of two disjunctive disjunctive conditional conditional propositions. “Every Hence. categorical asnothis is aisproposition one who human. In the conclusion for15).ُِْ‫عِغ‬is affirmative. yields. its evil stops. All examples are of categorical There is nothing vain in Paradise. like our statement. The minor premise is 149 .” or a pair of odd numbers. and whenever daylight is present. and every time Allāh puts out the fire of A group of people will be in Paradise. and no one who performs no stone is a human. some are not disbelievers. state of each premise. who perform human. yields. and no sad person is 23 his heart. 15).” thethe is present. states referring to negation and particularity (Damanhūrī 15). Every time they ignite the fire of war. By anyunderstanding figure does notthe moods yield thatconclusion. actually “As laughs is happy. anyonelike body. one understands that any other conceivable mood for negation. which then yields.47 like our statement. hence. statement. 2. and no disbeliever will be premise war. Allāh puts it out” (Qur‖ān 5:64). order The of was the minor taken from examples premise were is Imām taken affirmative Figure Two: Damanhūrī‖s Īḍāḥ al-Mubham (14–15) and Imām Akhdarī‖s commentary of his Sullam (34). (34). and as follows: is hence always invalid follows (Damanhūrī the lower 15). Other examples are as follows: Or “As oflong a and by Allāh.the not above while most stones. The from By Imām Ḥabannaka‖s understanding the moodsḌawābit thatal-Maʿrifa yield sound (247–63). (Damanhūrī Orparticularity Both “Every premises time15). 46long  Afterasthe this ispresentation above a human. even or odd. hence. explained above.” ُ ِ‫َوإَِِّب ُِشَوَّتْ ِِٓ ُِِٕ َفصٍَِزَُِِٓ وَمَ ِىٌَِٕب وًُُّ لَذَدٍ فَهُىَ إَِِّب صَوِطْ أَوِ فَشِ ْد وَوًُُّ صَ ِوطٍ فَهُىَ إَِِّب صَ ِوطُ اٌضَّوِطِ أَوِ صَو‬ ‫ط‬ ُ‫َوإَِِّب ُِشَوَّتْ ِِٓ ُِِٕ َفصٍَِزَُِِٓ وَمَ ِىٌَِٕب وًُُّ لَذَدٍ فَهُىَ إَِِّب صَوِطْ أَوِ فَشِ ْد وَوًُُّ صَ ِوطٍ فَهُىَ إَِِّب صَ ِوطُ اٌضَّوِطِ أَوِ صَوِط‬ ُ‫ صَ ِوطُ اٌضَّوِطِ أَوِ صَوِط‬.ٍَِ‫ص‬ ُِْ‫غَبٔبًؽَ فٍَِِّهَُُّىَخٍ وَعُِِزَّغ‬ ِِِِٓٔ‫َو٘إزَِِاَّب إ‬ Some people perform righteous works. the earth is illuminated. the “If earth “If the sun has the sunis illuminated. the hence. he is a body. daylight illuminated.” has risen. a human. Hence. and he calls Allāh to witness as to that which is in Everyone who actually laughs is happy.”“Every number is either odd. Or its for evil example. and no pious believer is of this description. the firetheofminor war.” which laughs. 48 conditional and every is proposition. some people are not premise is negative. and every even number is either a pair of even numbers or a pair of odd numbers.” fromevery which yieldseven these two number from these twois propositions. and some people who can The conclusions for all four moods are negative. and no human is a stone. Every human is a creature. The conclusion is affirmative particular. Both premises are affirmative. Every human is a creature. Some people are poets. some people who lack rational thinking are not legally responsible. the minor premise is universal. some creatures are not stones. some fruits are not from the colocynth plant. some brackish things are not oil. and no insane examples are as follows: person is legally responsible. and the major premise is minor premise must be affirmative. and every piece of gold is not affected by acidity. and some architects are artists. some creatures are rational. some of those who are proficient in designing buildings are not blind. hence. some of those who are proficient in Some people will not enter Paradise. the minor premise is particular. affected by acidity. and the major premise is negative plant. 150 . hence. and every human is rational. and the major premise is affirmative 3. Both premises are affirmative universal. Every human is a creature. some people who lose 1. and every human is rational. some things from mines are not 5. Some humans are creatures. hence.negative particular. hence. Some water is brackish. Every architect is proficient in designing buildings. Some humans are creatures. external senses are not legally responsible. The conclusion is affirmative particular. and no sleeping person is legally responsible. Some fruits are not bitter. Other Every insane person lacks rational thinking. are human. Every piece of gold is from a mine. and some humans are rational. Both premises are affirmative. and no human is a stone. and every creature moves by volition. some creatures are rational. 4. Every human is a creature. some poets breathe with their lungs. and every believer will enter designing buildings are artists. and (2) one of the premises negative. Every human is a creature. as follows: Every sleeping person loses his external senses. The conclusion is negative particular. hence. some red things are plants. are as follows: This figure has a total of six valid moods. Some roses are red. The conclusion is negative particular. hence. hence. some creatures are not stones. hence. and some humans are not stones. The conclusion is negative particular. hence. and the major premise is negative universal. and no rose is blood. There are two conditions for it to yield a sound conclusion: (1) the the minor premise is affirmative. Paradise. hence. and every rose is a is affirmative universal. architect is blind. some hence. Both premises are universal. Everyone who can draw is an artist. hence. some artists are crazy. hence. Some roses are red. and every human is receptive to knowledge and the skill of writing. and the major Other examples are as follows: premise is particular. and no receptive to knowledge and the skill of writing. some red things Other examples are as follows: are not blood. and the major Other examples are as follows: premise is universal. and all people breathe with their lungs. hence. some creatures are Every architect is proficient in designing buildings. and no water is oil. universal. The conclusion is affirmative particular. particular. hence. and every fruit from the colocynth Other examples are as follows: plant is bitter. Other examples must be universal. conclusion is negative particular. universal in the draw are crazy. some creatures are rational. first two. The minor premise humans move by volition. particular in the last two. hence. Figure Three some creatures are not stones. The 2. Some creatures 6. hence. hence. some people are not believers. hence. hence. The minor premise is affirmative particular. and every rational entity is a human. [Note: The invalidity of hence.” hence. and the major premise is affirmative. The conclusion is affirmative particular.Other examples are as follows: Every egg has a shell. the Every star adorns the sky. no stone is rational. except in one case. and every ancestor is a “parent. no fish can laugh. some things with shells break. the minor premise is affirmative. hence. everyone who completely adheres to the rulings of the religion truly fears Allāh. Other examples are as follows: Some meat is licit to eat.] The conclusion is negative universal. and some edible things are white. some of the adornment of the sky is an effulgent of this figure. and no stone is a human. no ancestor can avail for any offspring on the Day of Arising. and ignorant person are not bulls. some of those of a higher rank than the Everyone who truly fears Allāh has knowledge of Him. some white things are edible. the minor premise is universal. and the major premise is negative universal. namely. and some rational entities are Other examples are as follows: human. hence. hence. and anyone who can laugh is a human. Both premises are affirmative. Both premises are universal. Every human is a creature. the lack of both lower states being present (lower states 4. some creatures are rational. Any water that remains of its original nature is pure. and no bull is a scholar. hence. referring to negation and particularity). The minor premise is affirmative particular. hence. and no cucumber is meat. figure has a total of five valid moods. The conclusion is affirmative particular. affirmative universal. and negative in last three No parent can avail aught for his son on the Day of Arising (see moods. hence. This is the exception to the rule a star. the above order was taken from Imām 151 . Every minor is absolved from legal responsibility. legal responsibility have invalid prayers. are present in the figure. some of those who know Allāh 5. hence. Both premises are Every camel has a long neck. hence. hence. the the prayers is the negative component of both the major premise minor premise is negative. some creatures are not stones. and the major premise is negative. and nothing with a hoof is a camel. Other examples are as follows: Every scholar is of a higher rank than the ignorant person. then. some pure water is not free from impurities. This figure. some creatures are rational. Every human is a creature. hence. Figure Four Qur’ān 31:33). some of those absolved from 3. as follows: Other examples are as follows: 1. and every rational [entity] is a human. This rule applies to four valid moods. completely adhere to the rulings of the religion. yields only particular conclusions— affirmative in the first three moods. hence. some of what is licit to eat is not cucumber. some premise is particular. hence. All milk is white. some things with long necks do not have hoofs. and no angel is a human. and some Other examples are as follows: water that remains of its original nature is not water free from impurities. some creatures are not stones. hence. There is one condition for the fourth figure to yield a conclusion. No human is a stone. hence. hence. Every human is a creature. and the conclusion. Some humans are creatures. believers are not angels. No human is a fish. as both lower states—negation and particularity— heavenly body. and the major Some people are believers. and no stone is a human. and with the exception this The conclusion is negative particular. and some minors have invalid prayers. There is some discrepancy in the order of some of the moods for figures three and four. Both premises are universal. and every effulgent heavenly body is conclusion is negative particular. 2. and some things that break are eggs. our Or of a conjunctive conditional statement. (Muslim. every person goes out in the morning and then sells his soul.” is either 49odd or divisible by equal which yields. and every time Allāh puts out the fire of war. thegift. one and every understands that like byeven any our equal statement. a pair of even numbers. then it is a creature. “As long as this proposition is acreature human. is divisible even or odd. they are not disordered.like and our everystatement.” which yields. “Every number is either odd. it is a creature. . Tirmidhī). theTirmidhī). or a pair of odd numbers. likeand he is a creature. its evil stops. a human. like Or of a categorical proposition and a conjunctive our statement. either freeing it or 21:22). likeproposition. and whoever sells his soul either frees it by selling it to the All- Every person Merciful.ُِْ‫٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ عِغ‬ Or of a categorical proposition and a conjunctive conditional proposition.ً‫غَبٔب‬either ِِٔ‫َىُىُِْ إ‬ invalid (Damanhūrī 15). For example. and exclusion of the .” is49either odd or divisible by equal halves. of the consequent itself does not yield a conclusion. hence. “Every time they ignite the fire of war. And indeed.prophetic Hence. the conclusion for all valid moods always follows the lower state of each premise. And indeed. “Asislong a human.” In addition. he statement. (Damanhūrī 16). “Every number halves.” which yields.” 49 by equal halves. ََُ‫ؽ‬Merciful. “As long as this iswhite or a human. like our statement. nor does . he is and eitherevery white creature or is black. Hence. creature is a “As long as this is a human.you put forth whatever forput you yourselves forth for of good. Hence. whatever then you put forth for it is a creature. heproposition. the All-freeing Merciful. lower ُ‫ظ‬ ِ٘conclusion ‫طِ أَؽَ ِذ‬for ُِِ‫َٔم‬allُ‫بء‬valid َْٕ‫عِزِض‬moods ‫ وَا‬،ِ‫خَش‬always ِ‫طَ ا‬ ُِِ‫ظُ َٔم‬theِ‫لَُِِٓ أَؽَذِ اٌْغُضِءََِِٓ َُِٕز‬theُ‫َٕبء‬syllogism follows ْ‫ؽَمُِِمَُِّخً فَبعِزِض‬a ً‫خ‬conclusion ٍَِ‫ وَبَٔذِ ُِِٕفَص‬two ِْْ‫وَإ‬ ِ‫ؽَ ِذَِّ٘ب َُِٕز‬premise. “Asand long every as this creature is a human. Hence. cases—exclusion of the antecedent itself. ََُِٓ‫ ل‬every ُ‫َُِٕزِظ‬ taken from Imām Ḥabannaka‖s Ḍawābit al-Maʿrifa (24763). whatever you put ḥadīth “Every forthgoes person for yourselvesheavens of good. and is either isand every hence halves. which can be presented in the following syllogism: Every person goes out in the morning and then sells his soul. beautiful“Whatever gift. “If this beautiful gift.and then sells his soul. and every good with 48 Or for Allāh is aexample. then exclusion  Or for example.” َِ ‫وَبَٔذِ ُِزَّصٍَِخً [ُِىِعَجَخً ٌُضُوِ َُِّخً] فَبعِزِضَْٕبءُ لَُِ ِٓ ادلُمَ َّذ‬Every ‫ِٗ إِرَا‬person ُِِ‫ىِلَخُ ف‬goes ُ‫ىِظ‬outٌَّْin‫خُ ا‬theَُِّ‫ؼ‬morning ِ‫ٍُّ فَبٌشَّش‬andِ‫َٕبئ‬then ْ‫بِعِزِض‬sells ٌْ‫ط ا‬ ُ his‫مَُِب‬soul. evil a syllogism stops (Ḥabannaka by240). contradictory of the consequent—as presented above. by number “Every is divisible equal halves. “As long as thisconditional is a human. divisible 15). as this is he a is a human. and a disjunctive like our statement. prophetic can ḥadīth “Everyinperson be presented goes outsyllogism: the following in the morning and then sells his soul. 24 24 152 . and is hence . moods that yield and even or odd. if the conditional or statment were a of [mandatory] conjunctive [affirmative] 48[affirmative] proposition. “As long as conditional proposition. to be besides a and every beautiful Allāh.ِ‫خَش‬Exclusion ِ‫لََُِٓ ا‬ 47 Or for example. Allāh puts it out” (Qur‖ān 5:64). “Every time they ignite the fire of war. Hence. Every time they ignite the fire of in the syllogism “If this is a human. our statement.” is a creature. he is either white or black. there like good. sound a disjunctive and “Every everyiseven number conclusions for all conditional eithernumber four proposition. Hence. ِ‫َُّخً فَبعِزِضَْٕبءُ لَُِِٓ أَؽَذ‬yields ِ‫ذِ ُِِٕفَصٍَِخً ؽَمُِِم‬in َٔonly ‫وَإِْْ وَب‬ and particularity (Damanhūrī 15). “Every number is either even or odd. figures.ِٓ َُِِ‫و‬four. “If(Qur’ān find it with Allāh” this is2:110). and a he is awhite disjunctive creature. there are no gods destroying 49 Or for it” (Muslim. while most of the examples were taken from Imām Ḥabannaka‖s Ḍawābit al-Maʿrifa (247–63).” yields.ishe a body.it to the devil.” either white or either white or black.like our Or By of a categorical understanding the proposition “Every number is either statement. is either like our every is either or black.ِ‫لََُِٓ اِخَش‬ Allāh puts it out” (Qur’ān 5:64). and every even number is either a pair of even numbers or a pair of odd numbers. it to the then sells hisevery Hence. its major premise (kubrā) is a conditional proposition. and every time Allāh puts out the exclusion of the contradictory of the antecedent.” َْ‫ وٍَُّّب وَب‬:ُ‫ َُِٕزِظ‬،ُِْ‫ وَوًُُّ ؽََُىَاٍْ عِغ‬،ٌْ‫َوإَِِّب ِِٓ ؽٍََُِِّّخٍ وَُِزَّصٍَِخٍ وَمَىٌَِِٕب وٍََُّّب وَبَْ ٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ ؽََُىَا‬ .ُ‫ وٍََُّّب وَبَْ ٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ إَِِّب أَثَُِطُ أَوِ أَعِىَد‬:ُ‫َُِٕزِظ‬ 23 . and whoever person goes outsells inhis thesoul eitherand morning frees it by then selling sells it to either his soul. conjunctive or disjunctive.ٌْ‫ىَاٌْ ٌىَُِّٕٗ إِِٔغَبٌْ َفهُىَ ؽََُىَا‬person ََُ‫هُىَ ؽ‬goes َ‫بٔبً ف‬outَ‫غ‬inِِٔ‫ إ‬the‫٘زَا‬morningَْ‫ وَب‬and ِْْ‫ب إ‬then ٌَِِٕ‫مَى‬sells َ‫ٍِ و‬hisٌِ‫ب‬soul. َ‫بٔبً فَهُى‬orَ‫غ‬destroys ِِٔ‫َْ ٘زَا إ‬it ‫ب‬byَ‫و‬selling ِْْ‫َٕب إ‬itٌِِ‫ى‬toَ‫وَم‬theٍِdevil.andyouthewill find its earth) reward would havetobeen be adisordered” beautiful gift (Qur’ān out(Ḥabannaka in the morning240). either freeing it or destroying it” (Muslim. youour will statement.ٌِ‫وَاعِزِضَْٕبءُ َٔمُِِطِ اٌزَّب‬ four figures. soul. is a human. two valid moods it is moods and two invalid a human. and then sells his soul. hewhich body. it or destroys or destroying it by selling it (Ḥabannaka 241). is a creature. (Ḥabannaka 240).” which yields from these two propositions. lower states referring to negation and particularity (Damanhūrī 15). ‫ىَاٍْ فَال‬understands ََُ‫ ٌَُِظَ ثِؾ‬thatَُِّٕٗ‫ى‬any ٌ ٌْ‫ؽََُىَا‬conceivable َ‫ط ادلُمَذََِّ وَمَىٌَِِٕب إِْْ وَبَْ ٘زا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُى‬ َ ُِِ‫وَاعِزِضَْٕبءُ َٔمُِِطِ اٌزَّبٌٍِِ َُِٕزِظُ َٔم‬ 50 The syllogism by exclusion is always conditional in that for any figure does not yield a sound conclusion. َ‫ُِطِ أ‬lower ِ‫َٕبءُ َٔم‬states ْ‫وَاعِزِض‬referring ،ِ‫ِخَش‬to‫ ا‬negation َ‫ءََِِٓ َُِٕزِظُ َٔمُِِط‬Ifِ‫ض‬itُ‫غ‬isٌْ‫ا‬conjunctive. Every time they ignite the fire of war. hence. the Hence consequent for such a syllogism.” yieldsitself yields no conclusion. there it with been will Allāh” find therein its(Qur‖ān reward gods 2:110). odd. you yourselves ofwill “Had findyou good. while most of the examples were . example. . yields. if the conditional exclusion statment were of the a [mandatory] consequent conjunctive itself “And indeed.َّ‫َٓ اٌز‬eitherَُِ‫َُِٕزِظُ ل‬ By understanding‫فَال‬one ٍْ‫ىَا‬theََُ‫ثِؾ‬moods َ‫ٌَُِظ‬that َُِّٕٗ‫ى‬yieldٌ ٌْother ‫ ؽََُىَا‬conclusions sound َ‫غَبٔبً فَهُى‬moodِٔfor ِ‫٘زا إ‬ all َْ‫وَب‬freeing ِْْ‫ٌَِٕب إ‬itِ‫ى‬orَ‫وَم‬destroying ََِّ‫ط ادلُمَذ‬ َit (Ḥabannaka ُِِ‫ٍِ َُِٕزِظُ َٔم‬241). you will find it with Allāh” (Qur‖ān 2:110). ٌْ‫وَأََِّب ا‬ َِ‫وَبَٔذِ ُِزَّصٍَِخً [ُِىِعَجَخً ٌُضُوِ َُِّخً] فَبعِزِضَْٕبءُ لَُِ ِٓ ادلُمَ َّذ‬and Damanhūrī’s Īḍāḥ al-Mubham (14–15) and Imām Akhdarī’s ‫إِرَا‬whoever ُِِِٗ‫لَخُ ف‬sells ِ‫ىِظُى‬his ٌَّْsoul ‫َُّخُ ا‬either ِ‫بٌشَّشِؼ‬frees َ‫ٍُّ ف‬itِ‫ئ‬by‫ضَْٕب‬selling ِ‫ط اٌْبِعِز‬ ُit to‫َُب‬the ِ‫وَأََِّب اٌْم‬ commentary of his Sullam (34). halves. its evil stops (Ḥabannaka 240). “Every number even equalor conclusion. the which Tirmidhī). and everythen good it is a are creature. creature. itself. Hence. is not a proposition. “As long as this is black.ً‫َىُىُِْ إِِٔغَبٔب‬ ُ‫ظ‬state ِ‫ َُِٕز‬of‫ب‬theَّeach In addition. Or of two disjunctive conditional propositions. either freeing it or destroying it (Ḥabannaka 241).” number other is divisible conceivable mood for “Every any figurenumber is does not yieldeither a soundby which yields. (Ḥabannaka beautiful 240). “As long as this is a human. it is a human. however. “As is a body. Or of a categorical proposition Or of a categorical proposition and a disjunctive and a disjunctive conditional conditional proposition. and ‫زَغَب‬the ُِّ‫ ث‬above ُِْ‫ِٕمَغ‬order ُِ ِ‫أَو‬was ْ‫فَشِد‬taken ‫ إَِِّب‬from َ‫ فَهُى‬Imām ٍ‫وًُُّ لَذَد‬ Damanhūrī‖s Īḍāḥ al-Mubham (14–15) and Imām Akhdarī‖s commentary of his Sullam (34).” which yields. “Whatever you put forth for yourselves of of the antecedent of the itself contradictory yields the the consequent antecedent “However. they good gift both (thewith 49Allāh  Or isfora example. propheticwhich ḥadīthcan be presented “Every in the person goes out in thebesides morning Allāh.” the Asitsfor war. ititself.ُ‫ وٍََُّّب وَبَْ ٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ إَِِّب أَثَُِطُ أَوِ أَعِىَد‬:ُ‫َُِٕزِظ‬ Or of a conjunctive conditional proposition and a disjunctive conditional Or of a conjunctive conditional proposition proposition.”48 :ُ‫ َُِٕزِظ‬،َُِِِٓ‫ وَوًُُّ صَوِطٍ فَهُىَ ُِِٕمَغُِْ ثُِّزَغَبو‬،ْ‫َوإَِِّب ِِٓ ؽٍََُِِّّخٍ وَُِِٕ َفصٍَِخٍ وَمَىٌَِِٕب وًُُّ لَذَدٍ إَِِّب صَوِطْ وَإَِِّب فَشِد‬ :ُ‫ َُِٕزِظ‬،َُِِِٓ‫ وَوًُُّ صَوِطٍ فَهُىَ ُِِٕمَغُِْ ثُِّزَغَبو‬،ْ‫َوإَِِّب ِِٓ ؽٍََُِِّّخٍ وَُِِٕ َفصٍَِخٍ وَمَىٌَِِٕب وًُُّ لَذَدٍ إَِِّب صَوِطْ وَإَِِّب فَشِد‬ .َُِِِٓ‫وًُُّ لَذَدٍ فَهُىَ إَِِّب فَشِدْ أَوِ ُِِٕمَغُِْ ثُِّزَغَبو‬ There is some discrepancy in the order of some of the moods for figures three. “Whatever you put forth for yourselves of good. he is a body. ،ُ‫ وَوًُُّ ؽََُىَاٍْ إَِِّب أَثَُِطُ وَإَِِّب أَعِىَد‬،ٌْ‫َوإَِِّب ِِٓ ُِزَّصٍَِخٍ وَُِِٕ َفصٍَِخٍ وَمَىٌَِِٕب وٍََُّّب وَبَْ ٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ ؽََُىَا‬ 47 ،ُ‫ وَوًُُّ ؽََُىَاٍْ إَِِّب أَثَُِطُ وَإَِِّب أَعِىَد‬،ٌْ‫َوإَِِّب ِِٓ ُِزَّصٍَِخٍ وَُِِٕ َفصٍَِخٍ وَمَىٌَِِٕب وٍََُّّب وَبَْ ٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ ؽََُىَا‬ Or for example. exclusion.ٌْ‫ىَاٌْ ٌىَُِّٕٗ إِِٔغَبٌْ َفهُىَ ؽََُىَا‬All. goes outitinbythe or destroys morning selling anddevil. conditional andwhich every creature proposition. you will find its reward to be a beautiful gift Examples of its valid moods are as follows: 48 Or for example. either freeing it or destroying following it”Or 49 forsyllogism: example. it yourselves of good. .”48 long as this is a human. this is a human. then exclusion of the antecedent human.” black. fire of war.”odd whichinvalid even number (Damanhūrī or yields. ٌِ‫اٌزَّب‬Hence. its evil stops.” As for a syllogism by exclusion. it like with our Allāh is astatement. Hence.statment then it is a were a [mandatory] conjunctive creature. he is a creature. it is not glorify (Allāh).ِ‫لََُِٓ اِخَش‬ As for a syllogism by exclusion. if the major premise is totally exhaustive only. and exclusion of the contradictory 49 Or for example. however. or totally exhaustive only.” preceded us to it.” Exclusion of [affirmative] proposition. as exclusion of one of the two parts itself major premise is not true. “This thing is “Were he to invent words regarding Us. “Whatever you put forth for yourselves of good. preceding them in faith. is invalid.” or “However. In addition. it is not even.” exclusion of either part yields the contradictory of the in its belly until that Day. “A number is either even they are resurrected” (Qur’ān 37:143–4).” exclusion of or “and indeed”) must be universal. which can be presented in the following syllogism: Every person goes out in the morning and then sells his soul. and effective universal) (Ḥabannaka 278). it has four valid (Allāh). exclusion of the contradictory of either part yields the other part “Had it [faith in this religion] been good.” exclusion of white “However. For example in the statement.” yield no conclusions (Damanhūrī 16–17). it is even. whatever you put forth for yourselves of good. Hence. This is the statement of the polytheists regarding the religion and the believers‖ The second type. like exclusion. it is not a human. you will find its reward to be a beautiful gift If it(Ḥabannaka were a literal 240). Tirmidhī).” yields “Hence.ٌْ‫َُِٕزِظُ لََُِٓ اٌزَّبٌٍِِ وَمَىٌَِِٕب إِْْ وَبَْ ٘زَا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ ؽََُىَاٌْ ٌىَُِّٕٗ إِِٔغَبٌْ َفهُىَ ؽََُىَا‬ ‫ط ادلُمَذََِّ وَمَىٌَِِٕب إِْْ وَبَْ ٘زا إِِٔغَبٔبً فَهُىَ ؽََُىَاٌْ ٌىَُِّٕٗ ٌَُِظَ ثِؾََُىَاٍْ فَال‬ َ ُِِ‫وَاعِزِضَْٕبءُ َٔمُِِطِ اٌزَّبٌٍِِ َُِٕزِظُ َٔم‬ . he is not drowning. contradictory of the antecedent. he is either white or black.” yields “Hence. and whoever sells his soul either frees it by selling it to the All- Merciful. it is not good. he is not mutually exclusive only. you will find it with Allāh” (Qur‖ān 2:110). hence. it is even. that is. “However. proposition as its major premise. that is.ً‫َىُىُِْ إِِٔغَبٔب‬ ُ‫ وَاعِزِضَْٕبءُ َٔمُِِطِ أَؽَ ِذَِّ٘ب َُِٕزِظ‬،ِ‫وَإِْْ وَبَٔذِ ُِِٕفَصٍَِخً ؽَمُِِمَُِّخً فَبعِزِضَْٕبءُ لَُِِٓ أَؽَذِ اٌْغُضِءََِِٓ َُِٕزِظُ َٔمُِِطَ اِخَش‬ . or destroys it by selling it to the devil.” yields “Hence. if the major premise is mutually exclusive only. We did not take him by the right vice-versa.” and (Qur’ān 69:44–6). “As long as this is a human. the prophetic ḥadīth “Every person goes out in the morning and then sells his soul.” Also. if “If thethis conditional is a human. and two invalid no way indicates that the religion is not good.” َِ‫ط اٌْبِعِزِضَْٕبئٍُِّ فَبٌشَّشِؼَُِّخُ اٌَّْىِظُىِلَخُ فُِِِٗ إِرَا وَبَٔذِ ُِزَّصٍَِخً [ُِىِعَجَخً ٌُضُوِ َُِّخً] فَبعِزِضَْٕبءُ لَُِ ِٓ ادلُمَ َّذ‬ ُ ‫وَأََِّب اٌْمَُِب‬ . And indeed. statement. as exclusion of the contradictory of one part does not yield anything. thelike consequent yields the“If our statement. disjunctive proposition.” and “However. “However. of course. as its has two valid moods. “However. odd. For example in the syllogism. however. the exact affirmative. then exclusion of the antecedent itself yields theAs for a syllogism consequent byour itself. either the major premise or the minor opposite of the above. 24 “Had he [Prophet Yūnus] not been amongst those who glorify The first type is discussed above in the text. it is a human.51 it” (Muslim. that premise must be also has two valid moods and two invalid moods. he would have tarried in its belly until the Day in which moods.” would not have preceded us to it” (Qur’ān 46:11). it is either mutually exclusive and totally exhaustive (or literal). he is not in a body of water” yields “Hence. Hence. then exclusion of one of the two parts itself yields the contradictory of the other part. 51 For a syllogism of exclusion with a disjunctive conditional The third type. they [the believers] itself. it is odd. then it is a creature. vice-versa. it is a creature. like our statement. either freeing it or destroying of one of the two parts yields the other part itself. they and “However. “However. if the conditional statment were a [mandatory] conjunctive [affirmative] proposition. he was amongst those who other part. Hence.” and If the major premise of a syllogism of exclusion is disjunctive. or singular (since it is the contradictory of one part yields the other part itself. then it is alike our statement. he did not invent any words it is not white” or the contradictory of black “However. moods. it is not a creature. “If And indeed. “Zaid premise (which begins with the particle of exclusion “however” is either in a body of water. it is not regarding Us (Ḥabannaka 274–5). Yet exclusion of the contradictory of white “However. and every good with Allāh is a beautiful gift. We would surely have either white or black. Hence.” which yields. black” yields nothing. “As long as this is a human. however. every person goes out in the morning and then sells his soul.” 48 50 Or for example. creature. or is not drowning. and then severed his very aorta” yields the contradictory of black “Hence. he is in a body of water. hand and sever his aorta. it is not odd” yields “Hence. hence. and every creature is either white or black. For example in the statement. this is a human. it is odd. Or of a conjunctive conditional proposition and a disjunctive conditional proposition. he did not tarry or odd. then exclusion of the antecedent itself yieldsthe contradictory of the consequent itself. it this is a human. hence. it is a human. it is white” taken him by the right hand. drowning. However. either freeing it or destroying it (Ḥabannaka 241). 153 . it is not black. the syllogism. it is not even. since their preceding them in faith in yields the contradictory of the second part. termed He treat those is able who submit to recreate as [We anything as do] wellcriminals? (Ḥabannaka What 298). Inherent. of reflection (Damanhūrī 18). Conjectural our statement. (Mutūn al-Mantiq wa ’l-Ḥikma).” yellow bile.53 like our statement.” He who is able to create something from nothing is able to We deem the following things as evil and repulsive: harming recreate it after its death and annihilation. ]‫[اٌصَّْٕبلَبد اٌْخَِّظ‬ [The Five Skills] [The Five Skills] ُ‫َوٌَُِّبدْ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌىَاؽِذ‬ َّ ‫ أ‬:ٍَ‫ وَاٌَُْمَُُِِّٕبدُ عِزَّخُ أَلْغَب‬. Allāh Most High is able to create things returning a favor with ingratitude and trangression.َ‫ُىحَ وَأَـْهَ َش ادلُ ِمغِضَح‬ َّ ‫ ادَّلً إٌُّج‬ ْ‫َوُِزَىَارِشَادْ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب ُِؾََّّذ‬ . “One is half of two. Hence. as the two are one‖s fellow man. convince someone who is incapable of understanding an thereby rendering the Creator unjust.  This statement was taken such as hunger. from nothing.” or “The fire is burning. Hence. Empirical premises (mujarrabāt). “The light of the moon is derived from the light of the sun. “Seammony is a laxative of or “The fire is burning. Qur’ān is based on verses as the two are such as: “Should equivalent.” 52 An example of an absolute proof found in the Qur’ān is We deem the following things as good and beautiful: spreading that5. and performed initimable miracles. he is in a body of water.“Seammony is a laxative like our statement. or should We treat the pious as 54 Some also included in this category what are termed wujdāniyyāt. and having laws based on justice. thirst. spreading calumny. like our statement. Perceived premises [with the senses] (mushāhadāt). feeding the hungry. however. Hence. “The sun is shining. they are rendered premises of certainty. wujdāniyyāt. like our statement. Empirical premises (mujarrabāt).” 2.54 like our statement.” the moon is derived from the light of the sun.َ‫ٌصفْشَاء‬ َّ ‫َومَ ِىٌَِٕب شُشِةُ اٌغَّمَُّىَُِٔب َُغَهًُّْ ا‬ ْ‫ وََلعَبََب لَُِبعَبرُهَب َِمَهَب َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌَْأسَِثمَخُ صَ ِوط‬. Yet these premises are not at the level of certainty only if we 52 An example of an absolute proof found in the Qur‖ān is that of recreation of created do not consider things.” 2. without anyor pain should We need of reflection treat those (Damanhūrī 18).who believe and perform righteous acts as (Damanhūrī 18). he is in a body of water. aofpremise thought.ِ‫صفُ االِصَُِْٕ ِٓ وَاٌْىًُُّ َألِفَُُ َِٓ اجلُضِء‬ ِ ِٔ . grasps thirst. that is.” or “A whole is larger than its part. premises (ḥadsiyyāt). their presented origins in the from divine following ifsyllogism legislation. Other examples are as of justice is an affirmed reality. a priori premises (awwaliyyāt).” 4. another or copy of (Damanhūrī pain the text 18).52 certainty.ِ‫ط اٌَُْمِني‬ ِ ‫َذَِبدٍ َمَُُِِّٕخٍ ٌِئِِٔزَب‬ ّْ ‫اٌْجُ ِشَ٘بُْ ُ٘ىَ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ ُِم‬ ْ‫ َو ُِغَشَّثَبد‬.ofUninterrupted recreation of createdpremises peace. hence.ِ‫ َوؽَذِعَُِّبدْ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب ُٔىسُ اٌمََّشِ ُِغَِزفَبدْ ِِٓ ُٔىسِ اٌشَِّّظ‬.alsoAllāh MostinHigh included this is able to what category createare things We then from nothing.” 3. syllogism by exclusion: statement. “Muḥammad  claimed prophecy.” or “A whole 53 is larger than its part. that [We is. he is drowning” yields “Hence. He is able to recreate anything as well (Ḥabannaka 298). there must 154 . 54and  Someindeed. “However.52 There are six types of premises of certainty: There are six types of premises of certainty: 1. presented in the following chains of narration] (mutawātirāt). “One is half of two. speaking [transmitted by multiple things. like our truthfully.” 1. perceived by internal senses without need of 55thought. Perceived premises [with the senses] (mushāhadāt). premises perceived by internal senses is the matter with you? How do you judge?” (68:35–6). like our statement.ٌ‫ َوُِشَبَ٘ذَادْ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌشَِّّظُ ُِشِشِلَ ٌخ وَإٌَّبسُ ُِؾِشِلَخ‬. killing animals. a priori premises (awwaliyyāt). a premise that the intellect grasps without any need consider their origins. there cannot be equal follows: treatment of those who submit and criminals. do]premises the corrupt?” (38:28). Conjectural premises (ḥadsiyyāt).” However. and “Or without 53 Thatneed is.” 3. and indeed. [We do] trangressors in the earth. Inherent. This argument can be presented as follows: If a Day of Recompense and Accounting were not a reality. He who is able to create something from nothing is able to recreate it Anafter example fromand its death theannihilation. such that theasintellect hunger. he is not drowning. then this life The goal of disputation is to overcome one’s adversary or to 26 would entail equal treatment of those who submit and criminals. “The lightofofyellow bile. equivalent.54 like our statement. maintaining kinship ties. like 4. frompleasure. His attribute absolute proof (burhān) (Damanhūrī 18). pleasure.” yield no conclusions (Damanhūrī 16–17). “The sun is shining.” or “However. and “However. we do 53by exclusion:  That is.َُِِِٓ‫ت وَ َعػٍ ؽَبظِشٍ فٍِ اٌزِِّ٘ ِٓ َوُ٘ىَ االِِٔمِغَبَُ ثُِّزَغَبو‬ ِ ‫ثِغََج‬ Absolute Proof (burhān): a syllogism composed of premises of certainty to yield a Absolute Proof (burhān): a syllogism composed of premises of certainty to yield a conclusion of conclusion of certainty. exclusion of one part itself is an invalid mood. conceding to their partnership with you? . 55 premises [but not conceded to. this person is arrogant. (Damanhūrī rendered or of ofdelusionary. . court rulings based on Many Qur‖ānic examples of presumed premises are often centered around proving divine oneness. hence. whose syllogisms are implicitly present. a someone (khaṭāba): aorsyllogism composed of presumed of either premises that are accepted from a someone premises. with respect to the slaves that you own? Would be content with your slaves being partners with you in that which you own. matter dueThe with you? How do you judge?” (68:35–6). court rulings the pious such as:as [We “Should do]Wethe corrupt?” then treat (38:28). These include laws of a nation-state. would you be content is arrogant. then this life would entail (38:28). they arepremises.56 trustworthy. of anofintermediary exclusion one part itself isthat is present an invalid mood.” The goal of oration is to incite the listener to that which will benefit him. is andoes not interact affirmed (Ḥabannaka reality with people. like our statement. killing with respect animals. such evenwhereby scientificthey that you are theories equal therein? due consideration can be(that reliedformupontheinfoundation day-to-dayoflife.” right hands possess. feeding the hungry. and whoever does not interact with people is 299–300). “Four is even.ُ‫مَجِط‬56َِٕ‫غػُ ِِِٕهَب َّإٌفْظُ أَوِ ر‬ ِ َ‫َذَِبدٍ رَِٕج‬ This statement was taken from another copy of the text (Mutūn al-Mantiq wa ’l-Ḥikma). aofsyllogism benefit level him. those treatise The submit inDay. be aWe Other Daydeem the following examples of Recompense are asand things follows: as good The Accounting. is peace.]ْ‫ؽَغَ ْٓ وَاٌفٍُُُّْ لَجُِِؼ‬ Disputation ( jadal): Disputation a syllogism (jadal): composedcomposed a syllogism of well-knownof premises [but notpremises [but not conceded to. Provocation expanded or (shiʿr):. like our statement. from His own servants.whose syllogisms he is drowning” are “Hence.55 .” by premises. would you be content with the same for yourselves. according to people or according to the two according to people or according to the two adversaries. and oppression is55repulsive”]. if we do consider presumed partnership with you? such as: “Should We then treat those who submit as [We do] criminals? What is the certainty. We deem the following things as good and beautiful: spreading peace.modern Thesemedicine include lawsand technology). if wetodobe being partners true with you consider or lifewell-known thistheir or the next origins. matters are based on presumed premises. ofthere presumed cannot premises be equal are often of those who treatment based primarily submit on emotion. own creation. based on presumed27 premises.”premises.same for yourselves. a flowing a reaction His inthen attribute ruby. and criminals. and whoever does not interact with people is “He strikes for you a parable from your own selves—do you have. That is. as the following person then. division into two equal statement. andthere hence. from His own servants. something Creator 299–300). (Damanhūrī His attribute 18). like our statement. of a nation-state.in the mind. 55 or of presumed premises. premise is “This person does not interact with people. yields implicitly he ispresent. such that you are equal therein? Do you fear them as you fear each other? Such do We explain [Our] signs for people of intellect” (Qur‖ān 30:28). division into two equal parts. those who submit as [We do] criminals? your rank being lowered in your estimation. “Justice is Disputation (jadal): a syllogism composed of well-known statement. Instinctive initimable miracles. . then. whom yourthis person is arrogant. whether in this Most life or worldy the affairs next and personal (Damanhūrī 18).ِ‫َوٌَُْىُِٓ ٘زا آخِشُ اٌشّْعَبٌَخِ يف إٌَِّْؽِك‬  unjust. or of presumed premises. among those whom your right hands possess. vying with them in those possessions? Do you fear them as you do yourselves. medicine andas or should follows: We treatIf the technology). Other proof (burhān) 57 examples(Damanhūrī are as follows: 18).ٍ‫َذَِبدٍ َِمْجُىٌَخٍ ِ ِٓ شَخِصٍ ُِمِزَمَذٍ فُِِٗ أَوِ َِفُْٕىَٔخ‬ Oration (khaṭāba): a syllogism composed of either premises that are accepted from ّْ ‫وَاخلَؽَبثَخُ َوٍَِ٘ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ ُِم‬ Orationtrustworthy.ُ‫وَاٌْمُِّ َذحُ ُ٘ َى اٌْجُ ِشَ٘بُْ الَ غَُِش‬ if we do not consider their origins from divine legislation. is an criminals. and even if criminals. aasDay of of Recompense pious all as [We do] the these and Accounting corrupt?” were not a reality. according to people or according to the two adversaries. and “Or should We treat youthose who believe andthat. Dofeeding you fearthe themhungry. and performed 6. spreadingto Allāh calumny. “However. ‫َذَِبدٍ َِشِهُىسَحٍ [الَ ُِغٍَََّّخٍ لِِٕذَ إٌَّبطِ أَوِ لِِٕذَ اخلَصَُِِِّٓ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌْمَذِ ُي‬ ّْ ‫وَاجلَذَيُ َوُ٘ىَ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ ُِم‬ ُ‫َذَِبدٍ َِشِهُىسَحٍ [الَ ُِغٍَََّّخٍ لِِٕذَ إٌَّبطِ أَوِ لِِٕذَ اخلَصَُِِِّٓ َومَ ِىٌَِٕب اٌْمَذِي‬ّْ ‫ؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ ُِم‬. It is is an of justice Many Qur’ānic affirmed examples reality.types] is IfAbsolute are not Proof content (burhān). verse: arrogant. 6. namely.” things as evil andThe goal of oration repulsive: harming with the is one‖s fellow man. towere cause however. then are you content What is the matter based with you?and on evidence. areequal treatment very much basedofonthose who submit presumption. Thistreatment Recompense equal concludes andof thewho Accounting. and having laws based on justice.” the of justice The goal soulbetoaincite of is an affirmed This certainty. spreading to theand calumny. reality. whether certainty onlycomposed of either ifinwe do not own? Would consider theirfalse be originspremises content from yourthat withdivine slaves appear legislation. whether in this lifeAnorexample 56 the nextof(Damanhūrī a presumed 18). such as the following verse: 27 “He strikes for you a parable from your own selves—do you have. Instinctive means ofwhose an intermediary syllogisms arethat is present implicitly inlike present. We deemhence. “Four is parts.” water.ٍ‫د َوَُِِّّ٘خٍ وَبرِثَخ‬ affirmed reality ٍ ‫َذَِبدٍ وَبرِثَ ٍخ شَجُِهَخٍ ثِبٌْؾَكّْ أَوِ ثِبٌَّْشِهُىسِ أَوِ ِِٓ ُِمَذَِّْب‬ (Ḥabannaka 299–300). . the Qur‖ānor should is based We on treat verses to-day life. vying with them in those possessions? Do you 155fear them as you do yourselves. strong andthereby close to rendering 57 For the Creator provocation example. and Last beautiful: spreading Day. Such dospeaking We explain an truthfully. speaking 56We An example deem truthfully. O polytheists man. well-known conceded to.ٍ‫َذَِبدٍ َِمْجُىٌَخٍ ِ ِٓ شَخِصٍ ُِمِزَمَذٍ فُِِٗ أَوِ َِفُْٕىَٔخ‬ ّْ ‫وَاخلَؽَبثَخُ َوٍَِ٘ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ ُِم‬ . presumed oneness. 55 Provocation (shiʿr): a syllogism composed of premises by which the soul is either proof (burhān) (Damanhūrī 18). Lastand logic. false premises. “Four is even. theories (thatand form “Ortheshould We treat those with the samewhoforbelieve and perform your Creator? righteous (Ḥabannaka acts as [We do] 301–2).as allcourt of these are very rulings based much on basedworldy Most on presumption. that are not absolutely certain yet still given enough due consideration whereby they can be relied upon in day-to-day life. 18). and oppression is repulsive”]. this person the following is arrogant. division into two equal 6. would of trangressors An example in fromthe earth. perform torighteous acts asentail [We do] only reliable consideration whereby syllogism they can be relied [of these upon in five day. from.from they andare the are not at the personal Qur‖ān rendered level are matters is based of certainty based on only on verses premises of premises. and from partners His a returning interact favor with with people. even.5. with due nothing what it else. the of a presumed andfollowing having things laws premise as evil based is “This and personharming repulsive: on justice. slaves that you returning a Logical to incite Yet favor these Fallacy the listener withpremises ingratitude (mughālaṭa): toare that and which not at thewill trangression. that are not absolutely certain yet still given enough . adversaries. must this life Day ofitentail would towards. is commonly must be used a Dayinofpoetry centered 56 Recompensearoundand An example proving divine premise of aAccounting. and oppression is repulsive”]. any partners in that which We provide for you. beautiful. Instinctive premises. affairs andeven if strong personal and are matters close to certainty.  however. This argument trangressors foundation in can of modernthe be presented earth. parts. O polytheists who ascribe to Allāh partners from His own creation. ّْ ‫وَا ُدلغَبٌَؽَخُ َوٍَِ٘ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ َِم‬ [Our] signs for people of intellect” (Qur’ān 30:28). that are not absolutely certain yet still given enough thatevidence. “Wine is is criminals. then.ُِ]ْ‫َاٌفٍُُّْ٘ىَُُلُِلََبجُِِطؼ‬ ‫جلَذَْٓيُو َو‬ ‫وؽََاغ‬ . does notone‖s fellowThat is. ّْ ‫َاٌشمِشُ َوُ٘ىَ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ ُِم‬ ّْ ‫و‬ The goal of disputation is to overcome one‖s adversary or to convince someone who is incapable of understanding an absolute This statement was taken from another copy of the text (Mutūn al-Mantiq wa ’l-Ḥikma). namely. like ourlike our statement. there a reality. namely. How do scientific even you judge?” (68:35–6). in a bodylike of our statement. “Justice is beautiful.56 Oration (khaṭāba): a syllogism composed of either premises that are accepted from a someone trustworthy. who ascribe killing animals. Uninterrupted premises [transmitted by multiple chains of narration] (mutawātirāt). maintaining kinship ties. theour mind. (Ḥabannaka 302). The Lastissuch “This Day. “Justice is beautiful.57a syllogism composed of premises by which the soul is either expanded or constricted The goal of disputation is to overcome one‖s adversary or to convince someone who is incapable of understanding an absolute constricted. as youmaintaining fear each other?kinship ties. arrogant. which Weand provide for you. in that which 58you own. ingratitudeand whoever does not interact with people and trangression. These include laws of a nation-state.premises certainty.can argument Hence. there cannot be presented be equal as follows: If atreatment of those who Day of Recompense and submit and Accounting not hence. conceding to their MostYetworldy these affairs An example their premises origins.” by means However. “Muḥammad claimed prophecy.” by means of an intermediary that is present in the mind. Hence. affirmed thereby or to reality rendering discourage (Ḥabannaka the it unjust. among those hence.The any goal of oration partners in is to incite the listener to that which will benefit him. as to 58 Suchfallacy discourage unrelated as the statement it from. and(mushāghaba). evidence. 28 28 28 156 .goal of provocation is to cause a reaction in the soul to incite time. “This discord) khārijiyya). necessity issuch the as illnessesit (Damanhūrī rather. . ‫ش‬ ُ ِ ُ َ ‫غ‬ The only reliable syllogism [of these five types] is Absolute Proof (burhān). by which then. must likebepoison. andtype This inofthe is commonly soulused syllogism. such (Qur‖ān that you 30:28). vying with them in those possessions? Do you fear them as you do yourselves. its“Wine types.” This in all of its 18). a type or quarrelling (to create discord) (mushāghaba). or well-known premises. then. as all of these are very much Many on based Qur‖ānic examples presumption. . every horse except for theneighs. disbeliever.itrather. which he covers then are upyou his content own 57 Forthe with example. from His own servants. is a flowing something ruby. among centered aroundthose whom proving youroneness. Do youamong thoseaswhom fear them your you fear right each hands other? possess.ِ‫َوٌَُْىُِٓ ٘زا آخِشُ اٌشّْعَبٌَخِ يف إٌَِّْؽِك‬ This concludes the treatise in logic. from His own servants. own which which for theconfuses This is debater him—suchhas noas common who vulgar inunderstanding our time.ُ‫غػُ ِِِٕهَب َّإٌفْظُ أَوِ رَِٕمَجِط‬ ِ َ‫َذَِبدٍ رَِٕج‬ ّْ ‫َاٌشمِشُ َوُ٘ىَ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ ُِم‬ ّْ ‫و‬ Provocation (shiʿr): a syllogism composed of premises by which the soul is either expanded or Provocation57(shiʿr): a syllogism composed of premises by which the soul is either expanded or constricted. “This quarrelling is ato (toiscreate not horse. nothing else. based on presumption. like neighs. in that it is not to be used except for the vilest of illnesses (Damanhūrī 18). This is common in our 57 For example. such intellect” a parable that (Qur‖ān from your you areselves—do 30:28). evidence. of hisheadversary by(mughālaṭa which covers upwith khārijiyya). “This debater on is aan repel horse.ِ‫َوٌَُْىُِٓ ٘زا آخِشُ اٌشّْعَبٌَخِ يف إٌَِّْؽِك‬ This concludes the treatise in logic.ٍ‫د َوَُِِّّ٘خٍ وَبرِثَخ‬ ّْ ‫وَا ُدلغَبٌَؽَخُ َوٍَِ٘ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ َِم‬ ٍ ‫َذَِبدٍ وَبرِثَ ٍخ شَجُِهَخٍ ثِبٌْؾَكّْ أَوِ ثِبٌَّْشِهُىسِ أَوِ ِِٓ ُِمَذَِّْب‬ . is a horse. divine right handssuchpossess. own. either false or ofpremises delusionary.composed of either58false premises that appear to be true false premises. to whathence. not to be used but not except for the for use. of rather. signs forOpeople polytheists who ascribe of intellect” (Qur‖ān to Allāh 30:28). situation.” worst of 18). neighs. itvilest ofhence.partners from His own creation. andandis every obstinate commonly horseused disbeliever. such as the following verse: Many Qur‖ānic examples of presumed premises are often centered around proving divine oneness. This concludes the treatise in logic.57 . ٌْ‫وَاٌْمُِّ َذحُ ُ٘ َى ا‬ . vilest except outofof illnesses (Damanhūrī necessity such as to repel 18). and even scientific theories (that form the foundation of modern medicine and technology). That is. except is common except for the ourout in vilest ofof time. whotype 58 Such has noas of the statement syllogism understanding is also andregarding termed a picture sophistry no willingness toofsubmit a horse (safsaṭa) or to on a wall. This typedisbeliever. in poetry then. emotion. must or to (Ḥabannaka be learnt as 302). it would entail of your rank being lowered inasyour estimation. conceding to their partnership with which If you are not content with that.” The301–2). often centered around proving divine oneness. like learntup covers in that as his a typeitofisignorance. who hence. would you be content with the slaves being conceding partners to their with you partnershipin that with which you? for same you own. learnt inas that a typeitofisprotection. has(ḥarām) in all of no neighs. and Creator? everythat. false premises. such as the following verse: “He strikes Many Qur‖ānic for examples you a parable from yourpremises of presumed own selves—do are oftenyou have. regarding something (mughālaṭa a picture (Damanhūrī khārijiyya).” inThis that it 302). (Ḥabannaka due horse neighs. due to what it would entail of your rank being lowered in your estimation.ٍ‫د َوَُِِّّ٘خٍ وَبرِثَخ‬ ٍ ‫َذَِبدٍ وَبرِثَ ٍخ شَجُِهَخٍ ثِبٌْؾَكّْ أَوِ ثِبٌَّْشِهُىسِ أَوِ ِِٓ ُِمَذَِّْب‬ ّْ ‫وَا ُدلغَبٌَؽَخُ َوٍَِ٘ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ َِم‬ . the focus hishebe must of covers learntup adversary his aswith own a type of ignorance.It is therefore then. .ُ‫غَُِش‬nothing َ‫جُ ِشَ٘بُْ ال‬else. as all of these are very much evidence. of necessity or to such302). his thatisignorance. or of delusionary.57(shiʿr): a syllogism composed of premises by which the soul is either expanded or constricted. own equal therein? Do you you have. Thisnot but which confuses is common in vulgar for use. from with be content His own yourservants. discord) be usedand(mushāghaba). is unlawful this(Damanhūrī (ḥarām) illnesses neighs. is therefore must by which hebepoison. well-known (mughālaṭa): or aofsyllogism delusionary. even iftheories strong and (thatclose formtothe foundation of modern medicine and technology). withrespect them in tothose possessions? the slaves that youDo own? youWould fear them as you do be content withyourselves. your slaves conceding being partnersto theirwith partnership you in that with you? you own.(Ḥabannaka therefore poetry this poison. Thisnot for use. it would this entail of your rank that hebeing has lowered overcome inhim.noAmong speech—so willingness as the to show to submit worst of its to people thehe that types truth is has to distractfallacy overcome an unrelated the focus him. yourby estimation. (Ḥabannaka Creator? due to what301–2). any partners as the following verse:in that “He which strikes for youfor We provide a parable you. or aofsyllogism composed delusionary. anyexplain [Our] partners in that signs for which Wepeople provide of for intellect” you.something is a flowing Among (Damanhūrī the ruby. foundation of modern medicine and technology). Logical Fallacy (mughālaṭa): or well-known premises. cause a protection. then asare you content 58 Such with the as the statement regarding a picture of a horse on confuses him—such vulgar speech—so to show people If a wall. of either58false premises that appear to be true false premises. to repel current an obstinate 18). fear them among thoseaswhomyou fear your each other? right handsSuch do We possess. and reactionis but commonly in not the for soul use. Such do We any partners explain [Our]in that which Wepeople signsstrikes “He for provide for youof for you. and even scientific even iftheories strong and (thatclose formtothe certainty. people thatThis an obstinate he has type of syllogism. own but not to be used protection. it is unlawful discourage 57 For (ḥarām) example.it isor thetocurrent neighs. create which with discord) thatiswhich for the (mushāghaba). . to be 58 true Logical or Fallacy premises. that protection.ِ‫َوٌَُْىُِٓ ٘زا آخِشُ اٌشّْعَبٌَخِ يف إٌَِّْؽِك‬ This concludes the treatise in logic. nothing else.” this understanding its This types. of syllogism.of isItafor horse is based the onprimarily a wall. and no type ofAmong willingness syllogism theisworst to also of itsto submit termed types is an unrelated the truth sophistry to distract (safsaṭa) fallacy or the (mughālaṭa focus quarrelling of his (to adversary khārijiyya). necessity speech—so it is suchthetoas as current to repel show situation. distract him.58 . that appear false premises. the58 Such truth oftosyllogism Among as isworst thethe the statement distract also focus termed of itshis regarding of sophistry types aispicture adversary (safsaṭa) an unrelated of a that with or horse quarrelling fallacy which (to create on a(mughālaṭa wall. which18). It is in hence. Provocation constricted. type types. else.situation. slaves beingwould you be with partners content youwith the in that same which for youyourselves. . as all of these are very much certainty. towards. would you be content with the That sameis.goal It isof provocation based primarilyison to cause a reaction emotion. and even scientific based on presumption. ‫ال‬ َ ْ ُ ‫َب‬ ٘ ‫ش‬ ِ ُ ‫ج‬ ْ ٌ ‫وَاٌْمُِّ َذحُ ُ٘ َى ا‬ The [of The only reliable syllogism onlythese reliable syllogism five [ofAbsolute types] is these five Proof types] (burhān). except him—such as ourout time. used to except in incitepoetry outit (Ḥabannaka towards. discourage “Wine it from. polytheistswith who respect ascribe to the Allāh partners slaves that from you own? His own Would creation. Theits It goal types is based of is an primarily provocation is on to of emotion. vyingwith yourselves. It is therefore like poison. which everyis forhorse it is unlawful the debater neighs. speech—so rather. 301–2). vying with with respect them to in the those slaves that possessions? you own? Do youWould fear be them content as you with do your yourselves. and it is asthetocurrent no willingness show people to submit that situation. forOyourselves. O polytheists who ascribe to Allāh partners from His own creation.ٍ‫د َوَُِِّّ٘خٍ وَبرِثَخ‬ ٍ ‫َذَِبدٍ وَبرِثَ ٍخ شَجُِهَخٍ ثِبٌْؾَكّْ أَوِ ثِبٌَّْشِهُىسِ أَوِ ِِٓ ُِمَذَِّْب‬ ّْ ‫وَا ُدلغَبٌَؽَخُ َوٍَِ٘ لَُِبطْ ُِؤٌََّفْ ِِٓ َِم‬ Logical Fallacy (mughālaṭa): a syllogism composed of either false premises that Logical Fallacy (mughālaṭa): a syllogism appear composed to be true or well-knownof premises. in all it of from. to the he This has truth overcome type toof syllogism.ُ‫وَاٌْمُِّ َذحُ ُ٘ َى اٌْجُ ِشَ٘بُْ الَ غَُِش‬ The only reliable syllogism [of these five types] is Absolute Proof (burhān). debater confuses who has him—such it is unlawful noasunderstanding (ḥarām) vulgar in all of its and types. then are you content you? If youthe with aresamenot content for yourwith that. an obstinate disbeliever. overcome Ithim.you aresame “This isnota for yourwith content horse. of presumed even if strong and premises close to arecertainty.” Thissametype of syllogism is also(Ḥabannaka termed sophistry (safsaṭa) ignorance.” The (Damanhūrī 18).for “Wine yourisCreator? a flowing ruby. such fromthatyour youown are selves—do equal therein? you have. is Absolutenothing Proof (burhān).to incite it towards. are equal therein? Do you fear them as you fear each other? Such do We explain [Our] That is.