THE FALL OF HOUSE OF USHER/Plot summary An unnamed narrator approaches the house of Usher on a ³dull, dark, andsoundless day.´ This house²the estate of his boyhood friend, Roderick Usher²is gloomy and mysterious. The narrator observes that the house seems to have absorbed an evil and diseased atmosphere from the decaying trees and murky ponds around it. He notes that although the house is decaying in places²individual stones are disintegrating, for example²the structure itself is fairly solid. There is only a small crack from the roof to the ground in the front of the building. He has come to the house because his friend Roderick sent him a letter earnestly requesting his company. Roderick wrote that he was feeling physically and emotionally ill, so the narrator is rushing to his assistance. The narrator mentions that the Usher family, though an ancient clan, has never flourished. Only one member of the Usher family has survived from generation to generation, thereby forming a direct line of descent without any outside branches. The Usher family has become so identified with its estate that the peasantry confuses the inhabitants with their home. The narrator finds the inside of the house just as spooky as the outside. He makes his way through the long passages to the room where Roderick is waiting. He notes that Roderick is paler and less energetic than he once was. Roderick tells the narrator that he suffers from nerves and fear and that his senses are heightened. The narrator also notes that Roderick seems afraid of his own house. Roderick¶s sister, Madeline, has taken ill with a mysterious sickness²perhaps catalepsy, the loss of control of one¶s limbs²that the doctors cannot reverse. The narrator spends several days trying to cheer up Roderick. He listens to Roderick play the guitar and make up words for his songs, and he reads him stories, but he cannot lift Roderick¶s spirit. Soon, Roderick posits his theory that the house itself is unhealthy, just as the narrator supposes at the beginning of the story. Madeline soon dies, and Roderick decides to bury her temporarily in the tombs below the house. He wants to keep her in the house because he fears that the doctors might dig up her body for scientific examination, since her disease was so strange to them. The narrator helps Roderick put the body in the tomb, and he notes that Madeline has rosy cheeks, as some do after death. The narrator also realizes suddenly that Roderick and Madeline were twins. Over the next few days, Roderick becomes even more uneasy. One night, the narrator cannot sleep either. Roderick knocks on his door, apparently hysterical. He leads the narrator to the window, from which they see a bright-looking gas surrounding the house. The narrator tells Roderick that the gas is a natural phenomenon, not altogether uncommon. The narrator decides to read to Roderick in order to pass the night away. He reads ³Mad Trist´ by Sir Launcelot Canning, a medieval romance. As he reads, he hears noises that correspond to the descriptions in the story. At first, he ignores these sounds as the vagaries of his imagination. Soon, however, they become more distinct and he can no longer ignore them. He also notices that Roderick has slumped over in his chair and is muttering to himself. The narrator approaches Roderick and listens to what he is saying. Roderick reveals that he has been hearing these sounds for days, and believes that they have buried Madeline alive and that she is trying to escape. He yells that she is standing behind the door. The wind blows open the door and confirms Roderick¶s fears: Madeline stands in white robes bloodied from her struggle. She attacks Roderick as the life drains from her, and he dies of fear. The narrator flees the house. As he escapes, the entire house cracks along the break in the frame and crumbles to the ground. Analysis ³The Fall of the House of Usher´ possesses the quintessential -features of the Gothic tale: a haunted house, dreary landscape, mysterious sickness, and doubled personality. For all its easily identifiable Gothic elements, however, part of the terror of this story is its vagueness. We cannot say for sure where in the world or exactly when the story takes place. Instead of standard narrative markers of place and time, Poe uses traditional Gothic elements such as inclement weather and a barren landscape. We are alone with the narrator in this haunted space, and neither we nor the -narrator know why. Although he is Roderick¶s most intimate boyhood friend, the narrator apparently does not know much about him²like the basic fact that Roderick has a twin sister. Poe asks us to question the reasons both for Roderick¶s decision to contact the narrator in this time of need and the bizarre tenacity of narrator¶s response. While Poe provides the recognizable building blocks of the Gothic tale, he contrasts this standard form with a plot that is inexplicable, sudden, and full of unexpected disruptions. The story begins without complete explanation of the narrator¶s motives for arriving at the house of Usher, and this ambiguity sets the tone for a plot that continually blurs the real and the fantastic. Poe creates a sensation of claustrophobia in this story. The narrator is mysteriously trapped by the lure of Roderick¶s attraction, and he cannot escape until the house of Usher collapses completely. Characters cannot move and act freely in the house because of its structure, so it assumes a monstrous character of its own²the Gothic mastermind that controls the fate of its inhabitants. Poe, creates confusion between the living things and inanimate objects by doubling the physical house of Usher with the genetic family line of the Usher family, which he refers to as the house of Usher. Poe employs the word ³house´ metaphorically, but he also describes a real house. Not only does the narrator get trapped inside the mansion, but we learn also that this confinement describes the biological fate of the Usher family. The family has no enduring branches, so all genetic transmission has occurred incestuously within the domain of the house. The peasantry confuses the mansion with the family because the physical structure has effectively dictated the genetic patterns of the family. The claustrophobia of the mansion affects the relations among characters. For example, the narrator realizes late in the game that Roderick and Madeline are twins, and this realization occurs as the two men prepare to entomb Madeline. The cramped and confined setting of the burial tomb metaphorically spreads to the features of the characters. Because the twins are so similar, they cannot develop as free individuals. Madeline is buried before she has actually died because her similarity to Roderick is like a coffin that holds her identity. Madeline also suffers from problems typical for women in -nineteenth--century literature. She invests all of her identity in her body, whereas Roderick possesses the powers of intellect. In spite of this disadvantage, Madeline possesses the power in the story, almost superhuman at times, as when she breaks out of her tomb. She thus counteracts Roderick¶s weak, nervous, and immobile disposition. Some scholars have argued that Madeline does not even exist, reducing her to a shared figment Roderick¶s and the narrator¶s imaginations. But Madeline proves central to the symmetrical and claustrophobic logic of the tale. Madeline stifles Contacted by Roderick during his emotional distress. The narrator. progress. Roderick Usher's illness is "a constitutional and family evil . clues in the story suggest that the evil infecting the House of Usher is incest.´ or meeting. the narrator unwittingly brings down the whole structure. as though Roderick¶s obsession with these poems ushers their narratives into his own domain and brings them to life. He represents the mind to her body and suffers from the mental counterpart of her physical illness. the narrator implies there has been marriage between relatives: I had learned. that the entire family lay in the direct line of descent. too. . first witnesses the mansion as a reflection in the tarn.´ ³Mad Trist. The first two lines of Stanza V are as follows: But evil things. and had always. Roderick functions as a doppelganger. the House of Usher falls to ruin for the reasons listed under "Other Themes". She completes this attack when she kills him at the end of the story. sick unto their souls for lack of contact with the outside world. the puns that garnered him popularity in America¶s magazines. ³Mad Trist´ spookily crosses literary borders. she signals the narrator¶s outsider relationship to the house of Usher. We know from Poe¶s experience in the magazine industry that he was obsessed with codes and word games. a symbol of the family. Roderick¶s letter ushers the narrator into a world he does not know. Characters Roderick Usher . Both poems parallel and thus predict the plot line of ³The Fall of the House of Usher. any enduring branch. Other Themes Evil Evil has been at work in the House of Usher for generations. had put forth.´ He also notes that Roderick Usher's illness "displayed itself in a host of unnatural sensations. uncomplicated circumstance but from a collision and intermingling of manifold. The crossing of borders pertains vitally to the Gothic horror of the tale. for example. the very remarkable fact. of death. Poe composed them himself and then fictitiously attributed them to other sources.Roderick¶s twin sister and victim of catalepsy. They have become musty and mildewed. Poe thus buries. with very trifling and very temporary variation. In Poe¶s story. but upside down²an inversely symmetrical relationship that also characterizes the relationship between Roderick and Madeline. so lain.Roderick¶s best boyhood friend. the narrator describes Madeline Usher as her brother¶s ³tenderly beloved sister±his sole companion for long years. including the poems ³The Haunted Palace´ and ³Mad Trist´ by Sir Launcelot Canning." Isolation Roderick and Madeline Usher seal themselves inside their mansion. in robes of sorrow.The owner of the mansion and last male in the Usher line. for his twin sister. in other words. Madeline. Dreadful. a fear that accentuates the claustrophobic nature of the tale. Doubling spreads throughout the story. By undermining this fear of the outside. or character double. horrifying events result not from a single. Later. Assailed the monarch's high estate. but also to the act of crossing a -threshold that brings the narrator into the perverse world of Roderick and Madeline." a ballad he sings to the accompaniment of his guitar music. complex circumstances. and the presence of this outsider might be the factor that destroys the house. The mirror image in the tarn doubles the house.Roderick by preventing him from seeing himself as essentially different from her. and this story amplifies his obsessive interest in naming. Main Theme The central theme of "The Fall of the House of Usher" is terror that arises from the complexity and multiplicity of forces that shape human destiny. or character double. one for which he despaired to find a remedy. ³Usher´ refers not only to the mansion and the family. or shallow pool. Because the narrator is surprised to discover that Madeline is a twin." the narrator reports. mirrors the simultaneous escape of Madeline from her tomb. The narrator is the lone exception to the Ushers¶ fear of outsiders. at no period. Madeline Usher . A similar.´ which is about the forceful entrance of Ethelred into the dwelling of a hermit. Early in the story. that the stem of the Usher race. The interior continues to display coats-of-arms and other paraphernalia from the age of kings . The palace in the ballad represents the House of Usher. and portrays doubling in inanimate structures and literary forms. Failure to Adapt The Usher family has become obsolete because it failed to throw off the vestiges of outmoded tradition. However. a mysterious incapacitating illness. Unnamed narrator . though strangely playful crossing of a boundary transpires both in ³Mad Trist´ and during the climactic burial escape. that abuts the front of the house. The tale highlights the Gothic feature of the doppelganger. the narrator knows little about the house of Usher and is the first outsider to visit the mansion in many years. a failing reflected by the mansion itself. befouling the residents of the mansion. . Neither of these references identifies the exact nature of the evil. cutting themselves off from friends. ideas. Usher himself later refers to this evil in Stanza V of "The Haunted Palace. in the fictitious gravity of a medieval romance. when Madeline breaks out from death to meet her mad brother in a ³tryst. The story features numerous allusions to other works of literature. all time-honored as it was. a victim of catalepsy was sometimes pronounced dead by a doctor unfamiliar with the condition. Generally. would be a kind of narcissism. can trigger a cataleptic episode. more than a day. Apparently. Madeline±refusing to allow Roderick to dissever their relationship± summons unearthly strength to break out of her coffin and the vault. as Madeline¶s twin. cadaverous eyes of Roderick Usher. The Bridge Over the Tarn: The narrator as Roderick Usher¶s only link to the outside world. she breaks free of her confines. (2) Madeline Usher¶s cataleptic gaze.´ Symbolism The Fungus-Ridden Mansion: Decline of the Usher family. He also says Roderick Usher ³was enchained by certain superstitious impressions in regard to the dwelling which he tenanted. epilepsy. hysteria. Foreshadowing The narrator's reference to catalepsy±describing Madeline Usher as having ³affections of a partially cataleptical character´± foreshadows her burial while she is still alive. and. hearten him. too. the next question that arises is why. they go to their doom as a single. ³Its principal feature seemed to be that of an excessive antiquity. Furthermore. hanging in a fine tangled web-work from the eaves. that they are attempting to commit murder. that Roderick and the narrator are aware that Madeline is still alive when they close her coffin and.´ Their bodies locked." Madness Roger and Madeline suffer from mental illness characterized by anxiety. Catalepsy. Also. it is not an illness in itself but a symptom of an illness. Then.and castles. She and her brother then die together. that he wants to rid himself of the illness Madeline passes on to him via the ³sympathies´ described above. pitiful lump of humanity. a Small Lake Encircling the Mansion and Reflecting Its Image: (1) Madeline as the twin of Roderick. alcoholism or a brain tumor. and other symptoms. pointing out that ³sympathies of a scarcely intelligible nature had always existed between them. incest. instead. depression. such as schizophrenia. all of the events he describes could be viewed as manifestations of his sick mind±illusions. then. If he is insane. In this sense. she is in a state of catalepsy. therefore. even painful stimuli such as a pinch on the skin. and help him dispose of Madeline while she is in the throes of a cataleptic trance. several hours. is a condition that causes muscle rigidity and temporary loss of consciousness and feeling for several minutes. This information means that both Roderick and the narrator are aware that Madeline occasionally enters trances resembling rigor mortis. (3) the vacuity of life in the Usher mansion. bore him to the floor a corpse. After awakening from the trance. the narrator himself may suffer from mental instability. or self-love. they recognize ³transient´ catalepsy as one of its symptoms. Madeline as Target of Murder Plot Although physicians are incapable of curing Madeline¶s illness. she thrusts herself upon him ³and in her violent and now final death-agonies. enters her brother's chamber. The ³Vacant eye-like´ Windows of the Mansion: (1) Hollow. "What was it±I paused to think±what was it that so unnerved me in the contemplation of the House of Usher ? It was a mystery all insoluble. a symptom of Madeline¶s illness. The narrator even suggests that they communicate through extrasensory perception. (See Other Themes. Besides Roger and Madeline. hallucinations. (2) the image of reality which Roderick and the narrator perceive. Now to the motives: It may be that Roderick is longing for independence. Mystery From the very beginning. He summons his friend (the narrator) to commiserate with him. As to the outside. Roderick Usher opens the door to a frightening world for the narrator. and a victim to the terrors he had anticipated. the narrator reports that Madeline has ³the mockery of a faint blush upon the bosom and the face´ before he and Roderick screw down the coffin lid. after entering her brother¶s chamber. the narrator reports. he does not want to be simply a mirror image or alter ego of his sister. When she awakens from her trance. He observes. though the water of the tarn reflects details exactly. One may theorize. dreams. that they are partners in incest±which. If that is what they are doing. In the past. Certain drugs. is united to her in looks and personality. the image is upside down. The Storm: The turbulent emotions experienced by the characters." Strange Phenomena The narrator describes the mansion as having a ³pestilent and mystic´ vapor enveloping it. . given his reaction to the depressing scene he describes in the opening paragraphs. in some cases. Here is a possible scenario: Roderick. Evil. he may wish to end the oppressive guilt he suffers under the burden of the family evil.) It may be. and falls on him. too.´ There is a possibility. the narrator realizes that he is entering a world of mystery when he crosses the tarn bridge. The Collapsing Mansion: Fall of the Usher family. too. (3) the desire of the Ushers to isolate themselves from the outside world. The discoloration of ages had been great. reflecting his image and personality. So he decides to eliminate her. Minute fungi overspread the whole exterior. Madeline is not dead when her brother and the narrator entomb her. leaving open the possibility that Roderick and the narrator see a false reality. because they would be making love to their own image. The victim does not respond to external stimuli. The name Usher: An usher is a doorkeeper. The Tarn. in their case. The author established a good length for his poems: one hundred lines (³The Raven´ has a hundred and eight lines). As the author says. Should not those two last stanzas have been conceived first. This assertion counters his claim in "The Philosophy of Composition" that writers who claim "ecstatic intuition" as the means of production are deluding themselves and others (p." it is no wonder that Poe chose this poem as the concrete example for explicating his "modus operandi" (p. Granted. To bring the lover and the bird together. a place in which all memories of the lover would take place. 208). it ³invariably excites the sensitive soul to tears´. is related to that concept of beauty he mentioned before. but his aesthetic principles went far beyond a mere desire to please the populace and earn a living. According to the author. Poe chose the sonority of the vowel ³o´ in connection with the consonant ³r´. 194). The bird sat on the bust of Pallas (the bust was chosen because of the sonority of the word ³Pallas´ and because the author wanted to reinforce the scholarship of the lover) and started answering the queries of the lover. Another important object in poetry is the real province of the poem. as if it is best to please the mob. such as truth and passion. However. According the writer. If it requires two sittings. province. the biggest objective is originality. or defy our capacity of expression" (p. Poe looked for a melancholy topic. Yet. Combined with beauty. The first thing to be determined about a poem is the effect. He realized that death is the most melancholy topic. It can be constructed by incident. and Poe's pupil can nowhere find the rule for creating this "suggestiveness" in Poe's "Philosophy." he says he chose it above all other devices because "no one had been so universally applied as that of the refrain" (p. He affirms that a poem is a result of hard work in which the author has to advance step by step. damaging the essence of poetry. In 1848. the repetition of ³nevermore´ by a person would seem tedious in the poem. it is not limited to lyric verse. and the death of a beautiful woman. Once he selected a sonorous sound. Consequently. "to those who feel rather than to those who think²to the dreamers and those who put faith in dreams as in the only realities" (Poe. Poe considers beauty as the heart of poetry. ³a bird of ill-omen´ to say ³nevermore´ at the end of each stanza of his composition. Poe wanted to be remembered as a poet even though most of his career was spent as a critic and magazine writer. tone and refrain contributes to the construction of a good poem. 5). 195). "Holding these opinions. to sell. Careful readers of Poe's essay would be confounded by what they find in the penultimate paragraph. Poe affirms that ³some amount of complexity. 201)²as if universality is most important. This is not a matter of impulse or intuition. In this essay Poe analyses how effect. but he combined novel effects and the principles of rhyme and alliteration in each stanza to find originality. Here Poe states. The next important point in poetry is the refrain. Poe defines intuition as "the conviction arising from those inductions or deductions of which the processes are so shadowy as to escape our consciousness. who is self-torturing himself by insisting to ask the Raven. p. In the case of ³The Raven. adaptation´ and ³some amount of suggestiveness of meaning´ are required to an artist. the most genuine of all the poetical tones is melancholy. Poe declares that a good work has to be short enough to be read in one sitting. 199). when he explains how he chose the refrain as the pivot of "The Raven. according to what Poe says in his . more importantly. Yet Poe valued most an "under-current" of meaning in a poem or narrative. the work he considered the culmination of his writing career. Poe disagrees with some authors who consider a poem as accident or product of frenzy. Poe claims. a year before his death. ³the most poetical topic in the world´. Poe had the idea ³of a non-reasoning creature capable of speech´ to repeat the word. According to Poe." the two aspects of writing that cannot be taught (p.Summary of ³The Philosophy of Composition´ ³The Philosophy of Composition´ was published in 1846. I added the two concluding stanzas of the poem²their suggestiveness being thus made to pervade all the narrative which has preceded them" (p. the most intense pleasure is ³found in the contemplation of the beautiful´. the author must choose an effect that touches ³the heart. brevity is linked to the intensity of the effect. tone or a combination of events. The author introduced the bird flapping its wings against the shutter inducing the lover to think someone is tapping at his door. Finally. the unity of impression is damaged. In Eureka. 207). Poe often advises the writer to do what is ordinarily done. for example. it is a result of hard work." Poems or narratives produced in this way. Thus. a long poem can produce no effect at all ± it¶s only ³a succession of brief poetical effects´. considering that "The Raven" accomplished its goal of pleasing both "the popular and the critical taste. According to him. The second essential point to poetry is length. But anyone who knows Poe's work knows a concern for universality would not be utmost in his mind at all times. Keeping originality in view. INTERPRETATION Clues to whether or not Poe actually revealed his writing method in "The Philosophy of Composition" can be found in the essay itself. Other objects. 22). elude our reason. he chose a raven. would "repel the artistical eye" because they lack "adaptation" and "suggestiveness. length. He examines his poem ³The Raven´ and establishes what is important in poetry. or more properly. are completely opponent to beauty because they require a certain extent in poetry. Eureka. Poe thought about the lover¶s chamber. In order to achieve perfection." Such "suggestiveness" more often than not is created by a process akin to the definition of intuition found in Eureka. The fourth point answered by Poe is about the tone. A poem is as complex as a ³mathematical problem´. The author imagined the Raven pronouncing the word ³nevermore´ to answer the questions of the lover. he should find a word that embodies this sound. he did wish his poetry and fiction to be read and. Poe dedicated his prose poem Eureka. Those who follow the steps outlined in "The Philosophy of Composition" would be remiss were they to think that that would be all they need to do to create an "art product. Repetition combined with monotone creates a sense of identity to the poem. the intellect and the soul´. but it depends on the force of monotone (words pronounced with the same volume and tone). He pretended not to be original in rhythm or metre in ³The Raven´. In conclusion. He decided to pick up the word ³nevermore´ to be part of the refrain of his composition. He further advises a writer to rely on themes that are "universally appreciable" and tones that allow for "universal understanding" (p. Stanza 6 Analysis: Like the narrator. "Night's Plutonian (the Roman underworld) shore. and a fascination with death and perversity." "ghost upon the floor. He asks the raven its name and he replies. Stanza 7: The narrator opens the shutter and a raven flies in. Poe's insistence on "universality" as a primary consideration for many compositional decisions is suspect. This glaring but subtle contradiction makes the reader question Poe's "sincerity" and purpose in writing "The Philosophy of Composition. Does he actually hear a response or is he hallucinating? Stanza 6: The narrator returns to his chamber and soon hears a louder tapping. Stanza 3 Analysis: The opening line of the stanza contains the greatest example of consonance. Greek goddess of wisdom. Poe's essay holds the clues to its project: to purport to reveal all the "modus operandi" while withholding the essential components that transform technical prowess into art.introduction? How could he "add" these two stanzas to make the rest resonate with "suggestiveness. "grave and stern decorum". somewhat startled. Poe's "Philosophy of Composition" illuminates many of the principles that make Poe's writing so engaging: unity of effect. Stanza 7 Analysis: The mystery has been solved. ." Stanza 9: The narrator marvels at this strange bird who has entered his room." when Poe ostensibly holds to the rule of having "the end always in view"? Like the Prefect in Poe's short story "The Purloined Letter. He knows something is there. Stanza 8: The narrator is relieved and somewhat amused by the bird's appearance. It's just a bird! Something tells me this bird is no ordinary feathered friend. reading an old collection of folklore (note that Ravens are prevalent in folklore). suggestiveness. "The Purloined Letter. Stanza 4 Analysis: Things are getting stranger by the stanza." Stanza 8 Analysis: We are presented with symbols of night and death in stanza 8: the "ebony" bird. but refuses to acknowledge it. It could be a demonic movement of the curtains. . Finally. desperately hoping for a response. telling himself it is merely the wind. you're probably wondering when something's going to happen." Stanza 1 Analysis: The ambiguity of the narrator's mental state is introduced in the first stanza and becomes a topic of debate throughout the entire poem. his direct statement that "from out my heart" is "the first metaphorical expression in the poem" is outright dissembling (p." Other hints throughout are not quite so obvious but persistent nonetheless. Nobody answers." Stanza 5: The narrator stares into the darkness. Lenore. alliteration." and a bevvy of alliterative phrases and words with Anglo-Saxon roots. Stanza 2: We are told this incident takes place in December and that the narrator had been reading in order to forget about his lost love. or the speaker could be crazy. "Nevermore. As he's about to fall asleep. Why the speaker is so frightened by the curtains fluttering in the wind is unclear. He opens the door and sees only darkness. It's quite possible he dreams the entire episode. The narrator is in denial. He so longs for his lost love that he begins whispering her name. The poem's speaker is tired and weak. He starts dreaming about the impossible and finally whispers "Lenore. Stanza 2 Analysis: Stanza 2 provides background information." becomes entrenched as Poe includes details such as "bleak December. For example. and internal rhyme in the history of poetry. careful attention to form as a reflection of content. Keep in mind that it's late and the narrator is extremely tired. this time at his window. Nonetheless. which would cause even the most stalwart individual to mutter to himself." do readers overlook what is "in plain view"? Do they overlook evidence "by dint of [its] being excessively obvious"? (Poe. 990). consoles himself by muttering "tis some visitor" and "nothing more. Stanza 5 Analysis: We begin to sense the heartbreak experienced by the narrator. Stanza 4: The narrator musters the courage to speak to the "visitor" at his door." dying ember. somewhat established in Stanza 1 with "midnight dreary" and "forgotten lore." p. Poe builds suspense by delaying the unveiling of the "visitor. The mood. He stares. 208). the narrator repeats that the commotion is merely a visitor at the door. The incident takes place in December and the narrator suffers from depression. The speaker." sorrow. Summary of Edgar Allan Poe's The Raven: Stanza 1: It's late. Summary of Edgar Allan Poe's The Raven: Stanzas: 3-5 Stanza 3: To combat the fear caused by the wind blown curtains. He is searching desperately to end his sorrow. He stares some more." "Lenore" is echoed back. "nightly shore". He ignores the occupant and perches himself on a statue of Pallas Athena. he hears something tapping at his door. He decides to explore the noise. adaptation of complexity. Stanza 13 Analysis: There's a raven in the living room with fiery eyes staring at the narrator and all he can think about is some girl! Stanza 14: The narrator senses the arrival of angels who burn incense. the narrator holds on to the slim hope that the raven can help him forget his sorrows. Stanza 18 Analysis: Boo! Hoo! Get a gun and shoot that freaking bird already! The raven's shadow most likely symbolizes sadness." At this point I'm getting really annoyed with the narrator. yet elusive." Stanza 16 Analysis: The narrator isn't the smartest guy alive. "nevermore. fortune. The shadow remains on the floor and It's the narrator's soul that will never climb out from under the shadow of sadness. He then asks the raven if he has brought healing. an angelic description. It covers the narrator's soul. "nevermore. and health. Stanza 12 Analysis: Although the narrator draws no explicit conclusion. We do not know what she looks like or what exactly the relationship between Lenore and the narrator is. The raven answered "nevermore. nature haunts the narrative. . He believes the raven is pouring out his soul with each utterance of the word. "nevermore. whose eyes appear to be on fire and burn the narrator's heart. descriptive words such as "grim. He unreasonably believes the raven is some bad omen. yet he purposely asks questions that will justify him feeling sorry for himself. Stanza 13: The narrator stares at the bird. Stanza 11: The narrator rationalizes that the raven's repetition of "nevermore" has nothing to do with his own hopeless state. Symbolism Lenore: The narrator gives no description of Lenore. The lack of details regarding Lenore makes her a likely symbol. All we know is that the narrator really misses her." Stanza 17 Analysis: The narrator is once again surprised by the raven's negative response. a little spooked by the entire episode mutters the bird will probably just leave tomorrow.A. The narrator hopes that he will be spared despair and sorrow. If you're teacher tells you he died. Some claim the last stanza relates the narrator's death. nepenthe is a drug used in ancient times to make people forget their sorrows. beauty. He overshadows the narrator. omens being nothing more than a negative psychological interpretation of an otherwise neutral event. Poe with stanza summaries. He creates a plausible story about the bird probably having escaped from his master who met an ill fate at sea. It's time to move on. The narrator's nuts. similar to the pouring out of the narrator's soul as he longs for the return of Lenore. or hope in a better world. gaunt" displays the narrator's negative attitude toward the strange visitor. "nevermore. The allusion to "balm in Gilead" in line 89 is an allusion to the Book of Job in the Old Testament. He asks to drink a magic potion for that purpose. friends. He's wallowing in self pity and enjoying every second of it. and that the word is the only one the bird knows. which it then becomes. Stanza 10 Analysis: There is something in the word "nevermore" that brings despair to the narrator. He ponders how he will nevermore see his lost Lenore. The raven answers. Stanza 12: The narrator wheels his chair around.Stanza 9 Analysis: Our bewildered narrator has no idea what to make of this bird. The bird says. and her ubiquitous. He knows what the raven's answer will be. She may represent idealized love. Key words in this stanza: quaff means to drink. followed by a complete negation with an implausible explanation. Stanza 10: The Raven just sits there and says "nevermore. whose soul will never see happiness again. I'm not. symbolic of the narrator never being happy again.A. Poe with stanza summaries. He suspects the raven's purpose is to help the narrator forget about his sorrows. perhaps symbolic of heaven. Stanza 11 Analysis: The narrator experiences the paranoia/denial cycle. much like I'm not sure what to say about this stanza." Stanza 14 Analysis: Angels arrive." Stanza 15 Analysis: Despite several declarations by the raven himself that he is not there for good. He again asks the raven if he will be relieved of his suffering and at least be able to see Lenore in paradise. She is "rare and radiant" we are told several times. ask him how a dead man can narrate a poem. truth. ungainly. Stanza 15: The narrator asks the raven if he is evil. The raven replies. They're wrong. Stanza 18: The raven remains sitting. tell him he's wrong." The narrator. The raven replies. Summary of Edgar Allan Poe's The Raven: Stanzas: 16-18 Enjoy this analysis of "The Raven" by E. ghastly. Stanza 17: The narrator commands the bird to leave. He's wrong. Enjoy this analysis of "The Raven" by E. Stanza 16: The narrator asks the raven if he will ever see Lenore in heaven. stares at the bird. It is the same questioned asked by Job after losing his family. If he disagrees. and attempts to figure out what this all means. Lenore may symbolize truth: the narrator cannot help but think of her. an ancient drug used to help one relieve sorrows. she starts a conversation with her husband George. I like chocolate. b)Only two Americans are in the hotel. This is symbolized by Nepenthe. like a baby. She goes back upstairs feeling sad. This description creates an atmosphere that is sad. by looking at the relationship of the two Americans. Why? Because it gives her the feeling to be grown up. for it is the narrator that gives the bird such wisdom. at the request of the hotel operator. it is gone. If you're ever in Europe. like the fact that she likes him because of his big hands. It is upon this wisdom that the raven settles. . It is about an American couple that spends their holidays in an Italian hotel. She had a momentary feeling of being of great importance. to be treated like a lady. The raven enters the room imperiously and holds dominion over the narrator. Nepenthe: The narrator desperately searches for something that will remove his pain and suffering. A casual observer would assume the bird sits there because it seems like a logical resting place. Summary a)The short story "Cat in the Rain" was written by Ernest Hemingway in the 1920 s. which is mentioned three times. December symbolizes death. When she goes outside. It is the maid. Only a moron would assume a bird takes on the character of a statue on which he perches. for instance her own silver to eat with. Her husband seems to be annoyed by that and not interested at all. his shore would be the underworld. But on the other hand she acts like a little child by having this wish for a cat. It is no accident that Poe chooses this as the time for the bird's arrival. because a grown-up knows that rain does not do any harm to animals living on the street." a common symbol for death and nothingness. The bird's darkness symbolizes death. I like bubble-gum "and so on. She does not find the cat. he sends a maid after her with an umbrella. Just then. the woman in her feels flattered by the way he cares for her.. He says that he likes it the way that it is. which is more the behaviour of an adult. She likes the way he wants to serve her. it is raining. representative of the vast ocean and all its mysterious inhabitants. From that point on you can find an interpretation which is quite complex and not that easy to explain: On the one hand the woman wants to protect that little cat. It is a rainy day and the American woman sees a cat in the rain. and a cat to stroke. The next sentence that seems to be important to me is:" The padrone made her feel very small and at the same time very important. who is reading all the time. which is kept by an old Italian who really seems to do everything to please that woman. Later on. a reoccurring theme in Poe's short works. death becomes a constant reminder. To underline this childish behaviour. an imperious intruder. She asks her husband if she should grow her hair out. at least according to the narrator. Midnight: Traditionally referred to as the witching hour and the darkest part of night--midnight is more than a number on the clock. The sequence in which we get to know that she likes the hotelkeeper a lot is next. cold and unfriendly. Their room faces the sea. still being a child and now slowly noticing the woman inside her. someone knocks at the door. She says that she still wants a cat. and shore. The child in her feels very timid because of the presence of this tall. whose seriousness and willingness to please she adores. Plutonian takes on an enhanced meaning. which now stands for something innocent and vulnerable. and the American wife is looking out the window. After returning to the hotel room. adding credence. First there is a description of the environment in good weather. serious man. hence. and a war monument. and now there is only rain. old. note how the pigeons perch themselves on statues in the center of town. When she talks about the cat in this situation. So she wants to protect that vulnerable thing. all sentences in this part begin with "She liked. She decides that she wants a bun at the back of her neck.". December: Nothing lives in the winter. Peculiarities of the introduction The first thing that caught my eyes was the long description at the beginning. Many Italians come from far away to see the monument. At the end of the story there is a knock on the door and the maid stands there holding a cat for the American woman in her hands. she does not say "cat" but "kitty". a public garden. you can see that this description was a foreshadowing of the state of the couple s relationship: First it was nice. and some new clothing.The Raven: The most obvious symbol is contained in the poem's title. then a description of the momentary situation in the rain. hence. the spring-time of their love. This maybe is done to tell us that a conflict is to be expected. Another hint for that is that the woman is referred to as "girl" in the following paragraph. which is the typical way of a child to want something: "I like cats. to its utterances. their relationship got cold and unfriendly. and a table with her own silver. She has brought up a cat. Pluto is the Roman god of the underworld. From girl to wife The next thing I wondered about was the spontaneous reaction of the woman after she saw that cat. Combined with "night. The bust of Pallas and the raven's subsequent perch on it may be ironic. Usually only children want to protect cats or dogs from the rain. and wants to get the cat. for example. But the other reasons for fancying him originate from a more childish thinking." At this point we can see again the two parts of her personality. Another symbolic hint in this introduction is the war monument. She seems to be like a girl of about fourteen. To create this atmosphere Hemingway uses words such as "empty" or "the motorcars were gone". not as "wife" like before. telling him how much she wants to have a cat and other things. Downstairs. I don't think. that a bird resting on Napoleon's shoulder suddenly becomes a ruthless general. December is in the winter. The Bust of Pallas: Pallas Athena was the Greek goddess of wisdom. He tells her to shut up and to find a book to read. She tells her husband that she is going to get it. If taken in a broader context. When she goes out of the hotel. He tells her not to get wet. the poem may be about the inability of man to escape his ultimate fate. That day. which is usually a childish expression as well. Night's Plutonian Shore: The phrase "Night's Plutonian Shore" incorporates all the negative aspects associated with death. which she wants to protect from the raindrops. she is greeted by the hotel operator. which means spring or summer. She sees a cat under a table that is trying to keep dry. Goodman Brown takes final leave of Faith. saying that she feels scared when she is by herself and free to think troubling thoughts. I am sure that her new clothes would be very female. He looks around. He soon comes upon a man in the road who greets Goodman Brown as though he had been expecting him. Goodman Brown grabs the staff. thinking that there might be Indians or the devil himself lurking there. She tells him that she does not know why she wanted that cat so much. brought by the maid on request of the padrone. she will come to no harm. because he already is grown up. Soon he hears the voices of the minister of the church and Deacon Gookin.as quickly as possible. and a pink ribbon from her cap flutters down from the sky. But George does not understand the problem of his wife and therefore of their relationship. The sentence that she wants it to be spring again stands for her huge wish for a new spring in her relationship. thinking to himself that she might have guessed the evil purpose of his trip and promising to be a better person after this one night. George does not need all that anymore. which pulls him quickly through the forest toward the ceremony. he gives Goodman Brown his staff. as well as other members of churches in New England. As he sits and gathers himself. And that is why she is now referred to as "wife" again. when one partner becomes dominant or repressive and the other is trying to change and improve the situation. When he reaches the clearing where the ceremony is taking place. He says that he showed up for their meeting because he promised to do so but does not wish to touch the staff and wants to return to the village. but we know it: She feels the need for something to care for. respected woman from the village. Faith. her husband is still reading. without really recognizing it herself. but if they do not recognize that their relationship will become more and more like the depressive weather in this short story. But her wish for longer hair is only the beginning. He reassures her that if she does this. because when she talks about letting her hair grow to make her become more female. However. that makes her grow up. who are also apparently on their way to the ceremony. Goodman Brown tells her that he must travel for one night only and reminds her to say her prayers and go to bed early. he just tells her with disinterest that he likes it the way it is. It is not important if it is the same cat she saw on the street or not. wearing pink ribbons in her cap. Conclusion Altogether I would say that the theme of the story are the problems that a relationship has. the trees around it are on fire. The man says that Goodman Brown should rest. Certain that there is no good in the world because Faith has turned to evil. So she utters. the only thing that matters is that she finally gets something to take responsibility for and that symbolizes the first step in the direction of a grown-up life. which is shown by his serious behaviour and that he treats his wife like a child. asks him to stay with her. and Goodman Brown recognizes Goody Cloyse. for Faith¶s sake he will stay true to God. Goodman Brown swears that even though everyone else in the world has gone to the devil. But he doesn¶t see Faith. Before disappearing. and the man taps Goody Cloyse on the shoulder. and he can see in the firelight the faces of various respected members of the community. Shocked. The man is dressed in regular clothing and looks normal except for a walking stick he carries. to be responsible for. . outside of his house in Salem Village. she is still a girl. He hides. Despite this revelation. saying that it might help him walk faster. telling him that he can use it for transport to the ceremony if he changes his mind. he wants to return to the village for Faith¶s sake. In the end she gets a cat. but Goodman Brown refuses. for Faith¶s sake. now that the process of her growing up has started and she might attempt to find a way to be level with her husband. The man¶s words confuse Goodman Brown. Goodman Brown sets off on a road through a gloomy forest. the two come upon an old woman hobbling through the woods. and he starts to hope once again that she might not be there. afraid of what might be behind each tree.Marriage problems When she comes back to the hotel room. which maybe will help them to finally find a mutual basis.because they are on different levels: He already is a man. They cannot find a mutual base for their relationship and that makes her bored by him and him annoyed by her. standing again for something to be responsible for and new clothes. Faith. who says that even if this is so. Goodman Brown tells the man that he still intends to turn back. He screams her name. And now we understand why why they are having problems with their marriage . and even the governor of the state. until there will be winter when their love will die. Goodman Brown hears horses traveling along the road and hides once again. Goodman Brown tells the man that his family members have been Christians and good people for generations and that he feels ashamed to associate with him. She tells him that she wants her own silver to eat with and candles and that cat. on her way to the devil¶s evil forest ceremony. If they are aware of their problems they might be able to save their marriage. The man replies that he knew Goodman Brown¶s father and grandfather. for example having a baby. who he knows to be a pious. She identifies him as the devil and reveals herself to be a witch. along with more disreputable men and women and Indian priests. the immense wish to be an adult at last . because all these things stand for the world of a grown-ups. he soon hears voices coming from the ceremony and thinks he recognizes Faith¶s voice. At that moment. This walking stick features a carved serpent. Plot Overview/Young Goodman brown Goodman Brown says goodbye to his wife. The man offers Goodman Brown the staff. which is so lifelike it seems to move. embarrassed to be seen with the man. Instead of being corrupted by some outside force. It¶s unclear whether the encounter in the forest was a dream. and the devil only facilitates Goodman Brown¶s fall. then presides over the ceremony. The Inevitable Loss of Innocence Goodman Brown loses his innocence because of his inherent corruptibility. He sees through the Salem villagers¶ charade of Christian piety and prides himself on the godly men he has been able to turn to evil.A citizen of Salem Village who reveals herself to be a witch. Goody Cloyse. the figure tells them to show themselves to each other. He sees the minister. Goodman Brown¶s loss of innocence was inevitable. Goody Cloyse . The next morning Goodman Brown returns to Salem Village. the minister. The Minister . and Faith are all in league with the devil. Goody Cloyse was the name of an actual woman who was tried and convicted of witchcraft during the historical Salem Witch Trials of 1692. whether the events of the night were real or a dream. Deacon Gookin. Faith . possibly the devil.A young resident of Salem and the story¶s protagonist. He lives the remainder of his life in gloom and fear. Character List Goodman Brown . which suggests that whether the events in the forest were a dream or reality. Goodman Brown thinks he sees his father beckoning him forward and his mother trying to hold him back. and Symbols Themes The Weakness of Public Morality In ³Young Goodman Brown. but for the rest of his life. Although Goodman Brown initially ignores Faith¶s claims to have had disturbing nightmares. who blesses him. the loss of his innocence was inevitable. He sees Goody Cloyse quizzing a young girl on Bible verses and snatches the girl away. If they are a dream. This kind of faith. Faith is young. If they are real. After telling the two that they have made a decision that will reveal all the wickedness of the world to them. When they copy the beliefs of the people around them. He seems more concerned with how his faith appears to other people than with the fact that he has decided to meet with the devil. which often weakens private religious faith. Goodman Brown makes a personal choice to go into the forest and meet with the devil. is easily weakened. Goodman Brown¶s religious convictions are rooted in his belief that those around him are also religious. Before he can rethink his decision. Goodman Brown voices his fear of the wilderness. the choice was the true danger. but it does not matter. however. Although Goodman Brown has decided to come into the forest and meet with the devil. Deacon Gookin . His curiosity. who tempts Goodman Brown into attending the ceremony in the forest. then suddenly finds himself alone in the forest. Goodman Brown tells Faith to look up to heaven and resist the devil. Goody Cloyse is a Christian woman who helps young people learn the Bible. Goodman Brown sees that the other convert is Faith. and he brought this realization upon himself through his excessive curiosity. can¶t believe the words of the minister. Goodman Brown is never certain whether the evil events of the night are real. their faith becomes weak and rootless. and Goodman Brown thinks of him as very religious. beautiful. he sees Faith at his own house and refuses to greet her. then Goodman Brown has truly seen that everyone around him is corrupt. Goody Cloyse and Martha Carrier bring forth another person. He takes pride in his family¶s history of piety and their reputation in the community as godly men. and Goodman Brown sees her as the embodiment of virtue. but in secret she performs magic ceremonies and attends witch meetings in the forest. seeing the forest as a place where no . grandfather. then they come completely from Goodman Brown¶s head²a clear indication of his inherent dark side. and doesn¶t fully love his wife. The man intercepts Goodman Brown in the middle of the dark road. Goodman Brown quickly decides that he might as well do the same. He doesn¶t trust anyone in his village. seeing her at the evil ceremony in the forest prompts him to question his wife¶s righteousness.The man. the minister and Deacon Gookin drag him forward.The minister of Salem. one that shocks and disillusions him. Finally. The Fear of the Wilderness From the moment he steps into the forest. and every person he passes seems evil to him. Goodman Brown is changed. Motifs. robed and covered so that her identity is unknown. which depends so much on other people¶s views.Goodman Brown¶s wife. but he refuses to accept the blessing and calls Deacon Gookin a wizard. appears to be a follower of the devil. Goodman Brown is a good Christian who has recently married Faith.A figure appears on a rock and tells the congregation to present the converts. Themes. The minister. he still hides when he sees Goody Cloyse and hears the minister and Deacon Gookin. Hawthorne borrows her name for this character.´ Hawthorne reveals what he sees as the corruptibility that results from Puritan society¶s emphasis on public morality. The Old Man/Devil . a respectable pillar of the community. and trusting. leads him to accept an invitation from a mysterious traveler to observe an evil ceremony in middle of the forest. The deacon is an important man in the church of Salem.A member of the clergy in Salem who appears to be a follower of the devil. Hawthorne seems to suggest that the danger of basing a society on moral principles and religious faith lies in the fact that members of the society do not arrive at their own moral decisions. When Goodman Brown discovers that his father. and hears Deacon Gookin praying. and other reasons that had little to do with perceived witchcraft. which leads her into that temptation. hoping to find religious freedom and start their own colonies where they could believe what they wanted to. took place from 1675 to 1676 and was actually a series of small skirmishes between Indians and colonists. swearing that as long as Faith remains holy. Goodman Brown¶s decision to come into the forest is motivated by curiosity. that a man¶s wife or mother will redeem him and do the work of true religious belief for the whole family. one of the most nightmarish episodes in Puritan history. The devil refers to seeing Goodman Brown¶s grandfather whipping a Quaker in the streets and handing Goodman Brown¶s father a flaming torch so that he could set fire to an Indian village during King Philip¶s War. The Puritan intolerance of Quakers occurred during the second half of the seventeenth century. Faith¶s Pink Ribbons The pink ribbons that Faith puts in her cap represent her purity. At the end of the story. Hawthorne appropriates the names of Goody Cloyse and Martha Carrier. the villagers of Salem killed twenty-five innocent people who were accused of being witches. The color pink is associated with innocence and gaiety. taking away his strength and ability to resist. Symbols The Staff The devil¶s staff. During the Salem Witch Trials. the minister. like other Puritans. For example. Motifs Female Purity Female purity. he swears that after this one night of evildoing. botched child delivery. The Dark Romantics In the nineteenth century. By including these references. In the Book of Genesis.´ Hawthorne references three dark events from the Puritans¶ history: the Salem Witch Trials of 1692. and Goodman Brown is comfortable in it only after he has given in to evil. Besides representing Eve¶s temptation. and ribbons themselves are a modest. The witch hunts often involved accusations based on revenge. innocent decoration. The forest is characterized as devilish. he can find it in himself to resist the devil. and he is upset when the devil tells him that this was not the case. suggesting her return to the figure of innocence she presented at the beginning of the story and casting doubts on the veracity of Goodman Brown¶s experiences. including Nathaniel Hawthorne. which is encircled by a carved serpent. is the steadying force for Goodman Brown as he wonders whether to renounce his religion and join the devil. their intolerance soon led to imprisonments and hangings. he will hold onto her skirts and ascend to heaven. is ultimately condemned for his weakness by losing his innocence. When the colonists won the war. frightening. He believes that the devil could easily be present in such a place²and he eventually sees the devil himself. imbuing her character with youthfulness and happiness. and Deacon Gookin pass. Goodman Brown. for townspeople in his story. as was Eve¶s decision to eat the forbidden fruit. Hawthorne reminds the reader of the dubious history of Salem Village and the legacy of the Puritans and emphasizes the historical roots of Goodman Brown¶s fascination with the devil and the dark side. the serpent tempts Eve to taste the fruit from the forbidden tree. she is wearing her pink ribbons again. These historical events are not at the center of ³Young Goodman Brown. Puritans and Quakers both settled in America. but they do inform the action. the Puritan intolerance of the Quakers. who believed that the wild New World was something to fear and then dominate. He himself is ashamed to be seen walking in the forest and hides when Goody Cloyse. the balance of power in the colonies finally tipped completely toward the Puritans. The staff makes clear that the old man is more demon than human and that Goodman Brown. were influenced by the European Romantic movement . Goodman Brown perceives it as a sign that Faith has definitely fallen into the realm of the devil²she has shed this sign of her purity and innocence. When he takes leave of Faith at the beginning of the story. Historical Context In ³Young Goodman Brown. Puritans began forbidding Quakers from settling in their towns and made it illegal to be a Quaker. it changes all his ideas about what is good or bad in the world. when Faith greets Goodman Brown as he returns from the forest. Goodman Brown loses any chance to resist the devil and redeem his faith. Goodman Brown takes him up on the offer and. draws from the biblical symbol of the serpent as an evil demon. Female purity was such a powerful idea in Puritan New England that men relied on women¶s faith to shore up their own. was popular during Hawthorne¶s time. jealousy. However. King Philip¶s War. He considers it a matter of family honor that his forefathers would never have walked in the forest for pleasure. Hawthorne mentions Faith¶s pink ribbons several times at the beginning of the story. defying God¶s will and bringing his wrath upon humanity. struggling with his doubts about the goodness of the people he knows. is on the path toward evil as well. a favorite concept of Americans in the nineteenth century. When the pink ribbon flutters down from the sky. when he takes the staff for himself. American writers. Indians attacked colonists at frontier towns in western Massachusetts. Goodman Brown clings to the idea of Faith¶s purity throughout his trials in the forest. the final event referenced in Hawthorne¶s story. like Eve. When the devil tells Goodman Brown to use the staff to travel faster. When even Faith¶s purity dissolves. the serpent represents her curiosity. He reintroduces the ribbons when Goodman Brown is in the forest. two of the ³witches´ killed at Salem. and King Philip¶s War. When Goodman Brown finds that Faith is present at the ceremony. associates the forest with the wild ³Indians´ and sees one hiding behind every tree.good is possible. In this he echoes the dominant point of view of seventeenth-century Puritans. just as he had expected.´ which takes place after they occur. and dark. and colonists retaliated by raiding Indian villages. This idea. mistake. FORM The poem consists of four (almost) identically constructed stanzas. the first. ³Young Goodman Brown´ fits into a subgenre of American Romanticism: the gothic or dark romance. The careless ease with which the poem is read is vital to the poem as a whole. an interest in nature and natural landscapes. where the only other sounds a wind and snow. and year all rhyme. The final stanza of the poem brings all the sentiments of the poem together. Also this is my favorite poem. There stillness also contrasts with the need of the repeated closing lines And miles to go before I sleep/ And miles to go before I sleep. second. the words of the first stanza are not overtly somber. and Goodman Brown returns from the forest to find that the joy in life has been taken away from him. who often lived alone in the wilderness. from which Hawthorne draws to illustrate what he sees as the inherent fallibility and hypocrisy in American religion. including fear. who wrote ³The Fall of the House of Usher´ (1839) and ³The TellTale Heart´ (1843). they do however through their order and the way they were chosen create a rather pensive mood. The pensive. an obsession with extreme experiences. having plenty of time to simply watch the falling snow. As I think about them. It mentions the woods and implies that they are located away from town and civilization his house is in the village though. a never ending patience and some unknown task or problem that robs the speaker of rest. American Romantics in the early nineteenth century tended to celebrate the American landscape and emphasize the idea of the sublime. with four stressed syllables: Within the four lines of each stanza. queer. Goodman Brown is rewarded for his curiosity with information that changes his life for the worse. which adds to the tranquility of the piece. The dark Romantics joined the Romantic movement¶s emphasis on emotion and extremity with a gothic sensibility. included an interest in the power of the individual.but added their own nationalistic twist. and horror. and the transcendentalists Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. He is so still that he can here the soft fall of the downy flake and hear the movement of the easy wind. close to the land. Every aspect of the poem builds off the others to put the mind into the calm of a winter evening. I didn't have to open the book to remember it. only to see its format again. was probably the most famous of the writers to work in the American dark Romantic genre. where the third line rhymes with the previous two and is repeated as the fourth line. . The poem as a whole. And like Eve. it also provides a more definite time and location. Like Eve in the book of Genesis. which began in Germany at the beginning of the eighteenth century. but it sets up the rhymes for the next stanza. and fourth lines rhyme. Goodman Brown¶s encounter with the devil and battle with the evil within himself are both classic elements of a dark Romance. but is important enough to demand attention. and watching the snow slowly fall. such as Cooper¶s Leatherstocking or Thoreau himself at Walden Pond. The characteristics of the movement. It reminds me of the moods I feel on snowy nights or early mornings. These final lines represent the problem that has plagued the speaker and that is most likely responsible for his dark mood. or it can be taken as the night of the darkest emotions. Hawthorne sets up a story of a man who is tempted by the devil and succumbs because of his curiosity and the weakness of his faith. In the course of the ceremony in the forest. The noise from the inquisitive harness bells provide contrast to the quiet of the scene. I think that Frost intended to make that line rather ambiguous The darkest evening of the year. The Fall of Man ³Young Goodman Brown´ functions as an allegory of the fall of man. Adam and Eve were exiled from the Garden of Eden and forced to undergo all the trials and tribulations of being human. Washington Irving. The only other living being in this cold lonely landscape. Edgar Allen Poe. near. The third line does not. a dark moonless winter night in which the speaker experiences some form of depression or loneliness. and an emphasis on the importance of everyday events. coupled with emotional or psychological torment. an intense love and awe of nature. It also shows the easy pace that speaker is taking. is a simple effigy of a quiet thoughtful night. It can either be taken literally as the most lightless night. The second stanza provides a more in depth view of the imagery sketched out in the first. I live in the woods and before I drove. the devil tells Goodman Brown and Faith that their eyes will now be opened to the wickedness of themselves and those around them. It is something that is undefined that does not demand a rush to deal with. The most famous European Romantics included William Wordsworth. and flake in the following stanza. I often walked through them as a shortcut to visit friends. and William Blake. This also shows a great calm and patience that the speaker must posses. The first two lines of this stanza firmly place the reader rather deep in the woods and away from any dwelling. The third stanza of the poem brings the strangeness of the situation to a head. I can easily relate to the poem. Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Goodman Brown cannot help himself from wanting to know what lies behind the mystery of the forest. He has become suspicious of those around him. Novels and stories of this type feature vivid descriptions of morbid or gloomy events. SUMMARY Robert Frost's Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening is by far one of my favorite works of modern poetry. it seems to be a rather quiet and lonely place. They also created the concept of an American Romantic hero. either emotionally or actually. even the woman he once loved. his dark emotion and depth of character. The notable exception to this pattern comes in the final stanza. The dark and deep woods seem to reflect the speaker. Some writers in America who drew from the Romantic tradition were James Fenimore Cooper. which glorified their beautiful home country. I think that it is a combination of the two. in the third stanza. The next line gives a better image of the scene Between the woods and frozen lake. love. the emotions it describes and the way that the images are presented. The next line then provides that it is night and very dark. the speaker's horse takes action to find the reason for the odd stopping. The simple words and rhyme scheme of the poem give it an easy flow. The first stanza of the poem is rather simple and provides the basis for the imagery. unhurried mood of the poem is reflected with a calm rich imagery that creates a vivid mental picture. Each line is iambic. hoping to create stories that would move readers to fear and question their surroundings. For example. so I have many memories of stopping by a neighbors wood on an easy walk home. but lake rhymes with shake. The descriptions of the sounds provide a little insight to the speaker's mindset and position. He is so far out in fact that his horse is puzzled by his actions. the last ³sleep´ now seems like death. in this case. That is where the division seems to lie. The last two lines are the true culprits. They make a strong claim to be the most celebrated instance of repetition in English poetry. the train is a foreign country to the newlyweds. like oblivion. One is the regard for beauty (often flying in the face of practical concern or the survival instinct).´ And we must read the verses again and again and offer trenchant remarks and explain the ³Ahhh´ in words far inferior to the poem. this is a very difficult form to achieve in English without debilitating a poem¶s content with forced rhymes. ³Society´ would condemn stopping here in the dark.´ ³sensibility. To rest too long while snow falls could be to lose one¶s way. which may seem. One is tempted to read it. in the snow²it is ill advised.´ ³responsibility´) and the woods (that which is beyond the borders of the village and all it represents).´ ³duty. the poem has gone by so fast. it is the nearest thing to society¶s agent at this place and time. At the climax of the story. it just came to him. but we can¶t insist on it. we point to the dangers of reading poetry in this way. But these woods do not seem particularly wild. of suicide. is averted. a bit odd." primarily because he knows that he has committed an "extraordinary crime" by going "headlong over all the social hedges" and ignoring his . the stereotypical and seemingly inevitable gunfight. The line ³And miles to go before I sleep´ need not imply burden alone. shape and meaning. dark²with all the varied connotations of darkness. the poem is lovely but entices us with dark depths²of interpretation. The basic conflict in the poem. at first. they still possess the seed of the irrational. too. in which form and content. the account of a man stopping by woods on a snowy evening. But the horse is a domesticated part of the civilized order of things. Frost claimed that he wrote it in a single nighttime sitting. however it was forged it seems that. we make apologies. Then comes the second ³And miles to go before I sleep. nod quietly in recognition of its splendor and multivalent meaning. and just move on. The couple are so self-conscious and intimidated by their surroundings that the black porter "bullies" them.´ like a soft yet penetrating gong. its good sense). are alloyed inextricably. the dark mystery. Like the woods it describes. to lose the path. she is important only because she represents marriage as a civilized institution. sustained burst is the only way to cast such a complete object. We may suspect. at night." and his bride is "embarrassed" by her puff sleeves. at a time when the Old West is being slowly but inevitably civilized. and seemed so straightforward. seductive. Crane describes the progress of the "great Pullman" train across Texas. Snow falls in downy flakes. to freeze and die. the unknown. It stands alone and beautiful. Perhaps one hot. (Jack¶s wife is not an individualized person with a name. like a blanket to lie under and be covered by. but unlike the speaker of the poem. They are someone¶s woods. resolved in the last stanza. once made.) In part 1. madness.Do not be fooled by the simple words and the easiness of the rhymes. like a body of water. Is allowing oneself to be lulled akin to giving up the struggle of prudence and self-preservation? Or does the poem merely describe the temptation to sit and watch beauty while responsibilities are forgotten²to succumb to a mood for a while? The woods sit on the edge of civilization. it can be neither ignored nor forgotten." and generally "oppresses" them. Indeed. Jack becomes "commensurately restless. We protest. the pre-rational. is between an attraction toward the woods and the pull of responsibility outside of the woods. a sufficient protection against her seduction is an unwillingness to give up on society despite the responsibilities it imposes. but gives us a come-hither look that begs us to load it with a full inventory of possible meanings. They are restful. whom Crane portrays as self-conscious aliens: Jack¶s hands "perform" in a "most conscious fashion. that the poem implies more than it says outright. a staple feature of Westerns. lovely. COMMENTARY This is a poem to be marveled at and taken for granted. Or study guides. it has always been there." Crane¶s four-part story concerns man¶s interaction with his environment. and the reader senses that all such gunplay is a thing of the past. With its luxurious appointments ("the dazzling fittings of the coach"). The first ³And miles to go before I sleep´ stays within the boundaries of literalness set forth by the rest of the poem. someone¶s in particular²the owner lives in the village.´ ³civilization. they draw the speaker away from it (and its promises. regards them with "an amused and superior grin. the looming irrational. Does this poem express a death wish. considered and then discarded? Do the woods sing a siren¶s song? To be lulled to sleep could be truly dangerous. Beauty alone is a sufficient siren. The speaker ascribes society¶s reproach to the horse. And having the horse reprove the speaker (even if only in the speaker¶s imagination) helps highlight several uniquely human features of the speaker¶s dilemma. dark. we cannot resist. Like a big stone. The sound it makes is ³Ahhh. And here is where many readers hear dark undertones to this lyric. Part of what is irrational about the woods is their attraction. treatment that they also receive from the black waiter. If the woods are not particularly wicked. the darkest evening of the year²so would any sensible person be. another is the attraction to danger. that in fact Crane is describing the "end of an era. between the village (or ³society. and deep²like deep sleep. who "patronizes them. But that owner is in the village on this. one way or another. and the third²perhaps related but distinct²is the possibility of the death wish. and they are. as we have up to this point. perhaps the ride home will be lovely. the line could be read as referring to Frost¶s career as a poet. like a strong economy. The Story "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky" concerns the efforts of a town marshal bringing his new bride to the "frontier" town of Yellow Sky Texas. For the last ³miles to go´ now seems like life. and at this time he had plenty of good poems left in him. What do woods represent? Something good? Something bad? Woods are sometimes a symbol for wildness. But one must write essays. Not that we must return too often to that darkest interpretation of the poem." As the train nears Yellow Sky. Jack and his bride are the innocent Adam and Eve." Just as marriage is a foreign condition to Scratchy. which completes the preparation for the "show down. replaces the twilight of the Old West. While Yellow Sky is located in western Texas. There he chants "Apache scalp music" and howls challenges. much too seriously. Crane describes Jack "as one announcing death" and compares his mouth to a "grave for his tongue. dragging his feet and making "funnel-shaped tracks. goes to Jack¶s house and howls challenges and epithets at the empty house. accuses him of trying to sneak up on him. suggesting that perhaps he has been to "Sunday-school." a man with ties to the Old West. however. the stillness forms the "arch of a tomb over him. and his questions reveal not only his fear." In fact." thereby indicating that Scratchy is a "holdover. Surely. which is described as a "toy for him. The townspeople strike the appropriate balance."duty to his friends." When Jack tells him that he has no gun. remembering his traditional opponent. where he demands a drink. (In fact." the anticipated gunfight of part 4. Yellow Sky has already been civilized. By the end of the story. Scratchy issues unanswered challenges. including the Eastern "drummer. Jack has assumed a different role in a new ritual." Man¶s presumption is such that he believes he can disturb the "immobility of a house." is told that there will be some shooting. but also that he is a "simple child." is a part of this High Noon drama. In fact. who had thought of his "ancient antagonist" ("ancient" is also mock-heroic). and that Scratchy is "the last one of the old gang that used to hang out along the river here. who "goes out and fights Scratchy when he gets on one of these tears. is the drunken Scratchy Wilson. "Don¶t take me for no kid. he takes himself. Scratchy¶s clothes reveal the extent to which even he has been "Easternized": He wears a "maroon-coloured flannel shirt" made by "some Jewish women on the East Side of New York." as Crane defines it. it is accessible by train. When Jack tells him that he has no gun." The passengers and the black porter are not impressed." they "slink" away from the train station and walk rapidly to his home. he uses the saloon door for target practice and then. Jack has broken with the traditions of the Old West and also become a civilized man. In part 4." Scratchy supposes that "it¶s all off now" and walks away." the satanic force which introduces evil into the new Edenic estate." and Jack himself seems to understand the importance of being treated as an adult for he assures Scratchy. the last vestiges of the Old West are "foreign" to the drummer." Jack¶s response is to Scratchy almost as unlikely: "I¶m married. as Scratchy walks the streets. His perceptions of himself and his situation are not shared by the other characters or by Crane¶s readers. one who has truly "put away childish things. goes to Jack¶s house." Crane elevates the meeting of Jack and his bride with Scratchy to myth: The "apparitional snake. Style and Technique Although Jack believes that he is guilty of a crime and has been a traitor to the community. which concerns the conflict between the East and West and the passing of an era. Themes and Meanings Crane¶s frontier setting is essential to his theme. where six men. Crane builds his story to its anticlimactic scene." The mock-heroic style is epitomized in the bride¶s reaction to the meeting with Scratchy: "She was a slave to hideous rites. the "rite" is the fall from grace. but who have to assert their own lack of fear while simultaneously not provoking their opponent. that Scratchy and Jack are old adversaries. While the drummer tells a story. however. gazing at the apparitional snake." sit drinking at the bar. Scratchy is concerned that he not be taken "for no kid. however." Unable to deal with "this foreign condition. an adult who refuses to "grow up. While Jack and his bride make their way to his house. which acts as a "vehicle" to bring Eastern civilization to the West. whom Crane describes as a "foreigner. To Jack. for they see the bride¶s "under-class countenance." Part of the incongruity between man¶s illusions and reality is reflected in the death imagery which pervades the story. but Crane writes that the house "regarded him as might a great stone god." and the groom¶s self-consciousness and lack of sophistication. a worn-out ritual prompted by alcohol. Jack¶s decision to marry must have followed his subconscious awareness that it was "safe" to marry. Because Jack and his bride sense their "mutual guilt. and warns him about trying to draw his gun. a "safe citadel" from which Jack can later emerge to make his peace with the community. As Scratchy walks away. In Crane¶s fiction. their surroundings reflected the glory of their marriage." Marshals in frontier towns apparently do not marry because they need to be free of domestic entanglements. Jack and his bride encounter Scratchy near Jack¶s house. Scratchy." Unfortunately. "I ain¶t takin¶ you for no kid. but it does not reflect Jack¶s centrality" in the community. Scratchy is "livid" and tells him. Jack. shoots at a dog." Through the use of such figurative language. The drummer is "innocent" of the implications of Scratchy¶s drinking. another man appears at the door to announce that Scratchy Wilson is drunk and "has turned loose with both hands. and then approaches the saloon. who seems determined to preserve the "good old days." members of an "innocent and unsuspecting community. but also his astonishment that someone might be killed in this "civilized" town. nothing could be further from reality. despite the anachronistic presence of Scratchy Wilson." Scratchy makes his appearance in part 3. and he "plays" with the town. insignificant man perceives himself as the center of the universe." In the story Crane depicts Scratchy not as a mature adult. but as a child-man." His boots are related to children." The remainder of part 2 is exposition: The "innocent" drummer. "In the presence of this foreign condition he was a simple child of the earlier plains. In taking a bride." the new era arrives: "Yellow Sky. for they accept Scratchy¶s behavior as a remnant of the past. as do many Crane protagonists. ." Jack answers that he is not lying. but Scratchy presses him for a reason. the confrontation between Jack and Scratchy resembles the "show downs" between young boys who cannot back down.) The gap between perception and reality is apparent on the train: "To the minds of the pair." her "shy and clumsy coquetry. Crane cuts to the Weary Gentleman saloon. but the universe seems indifferent to his posturings and pretensions." At the end of the story Crane writes of Scratchy. When he is ignored. The saloon conversation indicates that Jack is useful in containing Scratchy." "the hour of daylight. his house is his "citadel" and his marriage is his new "estate. who has apparently ignored the possibility that men like Scratchy might still exist. Scratchy gets the "drop" on Jack." and his red-topped boots have gilded imprints beloved by "little sledding boys on the hillsides of New England. anthologized poems in American poetry. In this poem. they think that the sigh is one of nostalgic relief. because in life one thing leads to another and time is short. not following where others have led. because he has not lived the ³difference´ yet. Which one is it? If it is the relief sigh. Thomas would always fret wondering what they might have missed by not taking the other path. but as he thinks about it. There is the ³oh. But a close reading of the poem proves otherwise. with whom he had walked many times in the woods near London. dear´ kind of sigh. The second one that he took seems less traveled. About the poem. he realizes that they were ³really about the same. but you never know what your choice will mean until you have lived it. and he stands looking as far down each one as he can see. seize-the-future puffery. the speaker describes his position. but doubts he could to that. In the first stanza. The poem has been and continues to be used as an inspirational poem. correct. so therefore he continues to look down the roads for a long time trying to make his decision about which road to take. The speaker could not offer such information. and the words "sigh" and "difference. it simply says that choice is inevitable. But the plain fact is that the poem does not identify the nature of that sigh. "You have to be careful of that one.´ Third Stanza ± Continues Description of Roads The third stanza continues with the cogitation about the possible differences between the two roads. he reports that he decided to take the other path. Frost has said that while walking they would come to different paths and after choosing one.very tricky. because that sigh and his evaluation of the difference his choice will make are still in the future." Robert Frost¶s ³The Road Not Taken´ has been one of the most analyzed. he clearly states that he cannot assign meaning to ³sigh´ and ³difference´ yet.Frost said his poem "The Road Not Taken" was tricky-very tricky. Commentary This has got to be among the best-known. A widespread interpretation claims that the speaker in the poem is promoting individualism and non-conformity. but he doubted he would be able to. And that has made all the difference. a sigh can also mean regret. until after he has lived it. The other word that leads readers astray is the word ³sigh. He has been out walking the woods and comes to two roads. because he cannot know how his choice will affect his future. Frost asserted. Several generations of careless readers have turned it into a piece of Hallmark happy-graduation-son. one that to the undiscerning eye seems to be encouraging selfreliance. It is a truism that any choice an indiviual make is going to make ³all the difference´ in how our future turns out. if it is the regret sigh. Those who interpret this poem as suggesting non-conformity take the word ³difference´ to be a positive difference. and the speaker would be sighing in regret. First Stanza ± Describes Situation The poem consists of four stanzas. of course. Three things make his poem tricky-the time frame. A Tricky Poem Frost claims that he wrote this poem about his friend Edward Thomas." And he is. It does not moralize about choice. then the difference would not be good. The speaker of the poem does not even know the nature of that sigh. and I² I took the one less traveled by. it's a tricky poem . He would like to try out both.´ and in the second stanza. Cursed with a perfect marriage of form and . most-often-misunderstood poems on the planet. but then again claims that maybe he would come back and also walk the first one sometime. his poem is tricky²very tricky. He had noticed that the leaves were both fresh fallen on them both and had not been walked on. Fourth Stanza ± Two Tricky Words The fourth stanza holds the key to the trickiness of the poem: I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood.´ Not exactly that same but only ³about the same. however.´ By taking ³difference´ to mean a positive difference. then the difference means the speaker is glad he took the road he did. But there is nothing in the poem that suggests that this difference signals a positive outcome. quoted. When the speaker says he will be reporting sometime in the future how his road choice turned out. Second Stanza ± Decides to Take Less-Traveled Road The speaker had looked down the first one ³to where it bent in the undergrowth. but also the ³what a relief´ kind of sigh. But then he goes on to say that they actually were very similarly worn. Careful Readers Won¶t Be Tricked So Frost was absolutely correct. it is important to be careful with the time frame. because it seemed to have less traffic than the first. Of the two roads the speaker says ³the passing there / Had worn them really about the same. both roads ³that morning lay / In leaves no step had trodden black. and it is impossible to separate the two. we cannot justifiably ignore the reverberations they send through the easy aphorisms of the last two stanzas. Yet he knows it is unlikely that he will have the opportunity to do so. and it is impossible to separate the two. as Yogi Berra enigmatically quipped. both roads ³that morning lay / In leaves no step had trodden black. Identical forks. ³When you come to a fork in the road. It does not say. For this it has died the cliché¶s un-death of trivial immortality. thus. One of the attractions of the poem is its archetypal dilemma. grassy roads covered in fallen leaves) will look from a future vantage point. we cannot justifiably ignore the reverberations they send through the easy aphorisms of the last two stanzas. varying on an iambic tetrameter base. in particular. it seems as if ³The Road Not Taken´ gets memorized without really being read. The rhyme scheme is ABAAB. Of the two roads the speaker says ³the passing there / Had worn them really about the same. Paths in the woods and forks in roads are ancient and deep-seated metaphors for the lifeline. telling himself that he will take the other another day. with the notable exception of the last line (we do not usually stress the -ence of difference). This poem does not advise. both literally and figuratively. Paths in the woods and forks in roads are ancient and deep-seated metaphors for the lifeline. First. ³When you come to a fork in the road. Frost¶s focus is more complicated. The speaker chooses one. study the footprints and take the road less traveled by´ (or even. but simply with accuracy. but we do not really know beforehand what we are choosing between.´ In fact. there is no less-traveled road in this poem. even. symbolize for us the nexus of free will and fate: We are free to choose. thus. the rhymes are strict and masculine. Cursed with a perfect marriage of form and content. it seems as if ³The Road Not Taken´ gets memorized without really being read. the poem seems more concerned with the question of how the concrete present (yellow woods. Our route is. one that we instantly recognize because each of us encounters it innumerable times. even. This poem does not advise. Next. determined by an accretion of choice and chance.´ Meaning: Neither of the roads is less traveled by. determined by an accretion of choice and chance. take it´). Next. And he admits that someday in the future he will recreate the scene with a slight twist: He will claim that he took the less-traveled road. Identical forks. First. Several generations of careless readers have turned it into a piece of Hallmark happy-graduation-son. Our route is.´ In fact. but simply with accuracy. But you yourself can resurrect it from zombie-hood by reading it²not with imagination. seize-the-future puffery. One of the attractions of the poem is its archetypal dilemma. in particular. take it´). arresting phrase wrought from simple words. the poem seems more concerned with the question of how the concrete present (yellow woods. its crises and decisions.´ Meaning: Neither of the roads is less traveled by. it isn¶t even an option. Commentary This has got to be among the best-known. These are the facts. arresting phrase wrought from simple words. But you yourself can resurrect it from zombie-hood by reading it²not with imagination. it isn¶t even an option. These are the facts. Frost¶s focus is more complicated. one that we instantly recognize because each of us encounters it innumerable times. and resonant metaphor. considering a fork in the road. ³When you come to a fork in the road. its crises and decisions. grassy roads covered in fallen leaves) will look from a future vantage point. Summary The speaker stands in the woods. ³When you come to a fork in the road. For this it has died the cliché¶s un-death of trivial immortality. there is no less-traveled road in this poem. . but we do not really know beforehand what we are choosing between. and resonant metaphor.content. as Yogi Berra enigmatically quipped. symbolize for us the nexus of free will and fate: We are free to choose. Form ³The Road Not Taken´ consists of four stanzas of five lines. Both ways are equally worn and equally overlaid with un-trodden leaves. most-often-misunderstood poems on the planet. It does not say. study the footprints and take the road less traveled by´ (or even. There are four stressed syllables per line. both literally and figuratively.