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iINDIAN HISTORY no tt © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h PART II ed THEMES IN ed © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h tt no ii . iii Textbook in History for Class XII INDIAN HISTORY no tt © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h PART II ed THEMES IN . recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. electronic.T. NCERT NCERT Campus Sri Aurobindo Marg New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708 108. q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page. Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable. photocopying.O. Dhankal Bus Stop Panihati Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454 CWC Complex Maligaon Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869 ` 85. Shahdara.00 Publication Team Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT watermark no tt Published at the Publication Division by the Secretary. be lent.iv ALL RIGHTS RESERVED q No part of this publication may be reproduced. mechanical. National Council of Educational Research and Training. by way of trade. Publication Division : Ashok Srivastava Chief Production Officer : Kalyan Banerjee Chief Business Manager : Gautam Ganguly Chief Editor : Naresh Yadav (Contractual Service) Production Assistant : Rajesh Pippal Cover and Layout Arrt Creations. in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published. re-sold. 556. stored in a retrieval system or transmitted. New Delhi Cartography K. ed First Edition May 2007 Vaisakha 1929 Reprinted December 2007 Pausa 1929 January 2009 Magha 1930 January 2010 Magha 1931 November 2010 Kartika 1932 March 2013 Phalguna 1934 November 2013 Kartika 1935 ISBN 81-7450-651-9 (Part I) 81-7450-753-3 (Part II) PD 45T MJ © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h © National Council of Educational Research and Training. 2007 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION DIVISION. G. New Delhi 110 016 and printed at Laxmi Print India.Navjivan Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446 CWC Campus Opp. Delhi 110 032 Head. hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent. Road. 100 Feet Road Hosdakere Halli Extension Banashankari III Stage Bangalore 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740 Navjivan Trust Building P. Sri Aurobindo Marg.Varghese . in any form or by any means. q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in Social Sciences. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook. Jawaharlal Nehru University. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning. The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. given space. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience. Centre for Historical Studies. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering. Professor Hari Vasudevan. and activities requiring hands-on experience. children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986). We must recognise that. and the Chief Advisor for this book. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. New Delhi for guiding the work of this committee. not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their ed FOREWORD . Professor Neeladri Bhattacharya.v no tt © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h The National Curriculum Framework (NCF). time and freedom. discussion in small groups. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. recommends that children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. 2005. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. home and community. rather than a source of stress or boredom. we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement. for their valuable time and contribution. . Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee. material and personnel. appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education.P. Deshpande.vi Director National Council of Educational Research and Training no tt © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h New Delhi 20 November 2006 ed resources. Archaeologists may unexpectedly come across seals and mounds that provide clues to the existence of a site of an ancient civilisation. to see how different people in different places have played their part in the making of the modern world. the frame of reference changed. We moved beyond territorial boundaries. What it offers is not a general survey of five millennia. This is what makes history exciting. but selecting only a set of themes for serious exploration. The book begins with Harappa and ends with the framing of the Indian Constitution. and the way they function and change. We looked at a shorter period of time. expanding our chronological focus. with a focus on one chronological period in each year. and engage with them in new ways. about the working of economies. but a close study of select themes. Sometimes these could be chance discoveries. cultural. and make them speak. looking at the vast span of years from the beginning of human life to the present. But historians do not only re-examine old records. others explore the way societies are organised. The history books in earlier years have already acquainted you with Indian history. social. still others tell us about religious life and ritual practices. interpret them.vii no tt © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h What defines the focus of this book? What does it seek to do? How is it linked to what has been studied in earlier classes? In Classes VI to VIII we looked at Indian history from early beginnings to modern times. So we need to see how historians read sources. Rummaging through the dusty records of a district collectorate a ed DEFINING THE FOCUS OF STUDY . But sources do not just reveal the past. focusing specifically on a close study of the contemporary world. and the changes within rural and urban societies. They discover new ones. To retrieve the past. Subsequently in Class XI we studied Themes in World History. and how they discover new things in old sources. political. In choosing the themes we have tried to ensure that we learn about developments in different spheres – economic. The same sources can tell us new things if we ask new questions. Each of these themes will also allow you to have a closer look at the historians’ craft. The history of India became connected to a wider inter-linked history. Then in the books for Classes IX and X. Some themes in the book will introduce you to the politics of the times and the nature of authority and power. and religious – even as we attempt to break the boundaries between them. historians have to grapple with sources. This year we will study Themes in Indian History. It is time we explored some themes in greater detail. beyond the limits of nation states. historians have to find sources that make the past accessible. he could make no sense of it. and listen to the voices of the past. excavate archaeological sites. of Themes in Indian History. NEELADRI BHA TTACHARYA Chief Advisor. cited. the conception of what constitutes a source itself changes. accompany them in their search for new clues. History . The physical discovery of a record does not simply open up the past. official sources can reveal only a partial picture. but oral evidence has been innovatively used to uncover experiences that no other record could reveal. There was a time when only written records were acknowledged as authentic. Yet are such discoveries only accidents? You may bump into a bundle of old records in an archive. searching for new clues to understand the past. and these may open up a new world of village life several centuries back. In fact when historians begin to ask new questions. make sense of beads and bones. You have to track the source. historians begin tracking new sources. If we wish to know about revolutionaries and rebels. What was written could be verified. their personal letters. follow the clues. open it up and see it. explore new themes. The source may mean nothing to you unless you have relevant questions in mind. Through the book this year. You will witness the way they tease out meaning out of records. And these are not always easy to come by. and cross-checked. Part III will follow. When Alexander Cunningham first saw a Harappan seal. look at the stupas and buildings. Oral evidence was never considered a valid source: who was to guarantee its authenticity and verifiability? This mistrust of oral sources has not yet disappeared. interpret police reports and revenue records. examine paintings and photographs. they have to often search for new types of sources. And when that happens. without discovering the significance of the source. and see how they carry on their dialogues with the past. then oral sources might reveal more than written sources. and make the inter-connections before you can reconstruct the past. interpret the epics. Only much later was the significance of the seals discovered. We need to look for other sources – diaries of rebels. It will discuss what a source can tell and what it cannot. If we have to understand experiences of people who suffered the trauma of partition.viii no tt © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h ed historian may trip over a bundle of records that contain legal cases of local disputes. As the vision of history broadens. one that will be shaped by official censure and prejudice. their writings and pronouncements. Each theme will explore the peculiarities and possibilities of one particular type of source. read inscriptions. read the text. This is Part II. you will enter the world of historians. Kothi Bazar. Chicago. Professor. Centre for Historical Studies. Aligarh. Associate Professor. Viennna. UP (Theme 1) Kumkum Roy (Theme 2) Kunal Chakrabarti. Bangalore (Theme 13) Anil Sethi (Theme 14) Sumit Sarkar. Lectur er. University of Calcutta. Delhi (Theme 6) Vijaya Ramaswamy. anthropologist and historian. New Delhi . UP Smita Sahay Bhattacharya. History. New Delhi (Theme 3) Uma Chakravarti. Kendriya Vidyalaya. Department of History. Delhi (Theme 12) Ramachandra Guha. Eklavya. Professor. University of Delhi. The Telegraph. freelance writer. Kothi Bazar. New Delhi TEAM MEMBERS no tt Jaya Menon. Delhi (Theme 4) Farhat Hassan.G. Old Cantt. Allahabad. Jawaharlal Nehru University. Indraprastha College. Jawaharlal Nehru University. Department of History. Department of History. DESSH. Aligarh Muslim University. University of Chicago. Kailash Colony. Centre for Historical Studies. Blue Bells School. Hoshangabad Rashmi Paliwal. Institut Furgeschichte. Executive Editor. P. Hoshangabad Prabha Singh. ADVISORY COMMITTEE Hari Vasudevan. Subramaniam. Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi (Theme 9) Neeladri Bhattacharya (Theme 10) Rudrangshu Mukherjee. Barakhamba Road. Professor. Reader.T. New Delhi (Theme 7) Rajat Datta. UP (Theme 5) Meenakshi Khanna. New Delhi Beeba Sobti. P. Kolkata CHIEF ADVISOR ADVISORS © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h Kumkum Roy. Jawaharlal Nehru University.G. University of Delhi. Centre for Historical Studies. University of Delhi. Professor. Formerly Reader in History. Delhi (Theme 15) Muzaffar Alam. New Delhi Seema Shukla Ojha. P. Telliarganj. University of Delhi. Aligarh Muslim University. Reader. Miranda House. Aligarh. Department of History. Modern School. Reader in History. Eklavya. Zakir Hussain College (Evening Classes). History. NCER T. Jawaharlal Nehru University. NCERT. Centre for Historical Studies. Jawaharlal Nehru University. For merly Professor of History.G. Guest Pr ofessor. Associate Professor. Centre for Historical Studies.ix TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE CHAIRPERSON. New Delhi Monica Juneja. Kolkata (Theme 11) Partho Dutta. USA C.T. Austria ed Neeladri Bhattacharya. Professor of South Asian History.T. Professor. Centre for Historical Studies. Reader. New Delhi (Theme 8) Najaf Haider. Professor. History. New Delhi MEMBER-COORDINATORS Anil Sethi.. DESSH.N. benefited from the enthusiastic participation and help of many people and institutions. New Delhi. For careful copy-editing and reading of proofs we gratefully acknowledge the efforts of Shyama Warner. Part II has. Thanks are equally due to Ritu Topa and Animesh Roy of Arrt Creations. J.x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS no tt © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h ed Themes in Indian History. Above all we wish to thank George Michell and John Fritz for their generosity in allowing us to draw upon their rich pool of resources on Vijayanagara. Finally. Bharati Jagannathan and Nandita Prasad Sahai for their prompt help in clarifying issues. For valuable and extensive comments on draft chapters we are immensely grateful to John Fritz. we look forward to feedback from the users of the book. who designed the book with patience and skill. Sunil Kumar and Supriya Varma. K. Varghese of Jawaharlal Nehru University provided the maps. not least by remaining cheerful throughout. whom it is a pleasure to thank. Ranjeeta Datta. like Part I. The suggestions made by the members of the Monitoring Committee. Samira Varma has been a help in many valuable ways. Prof. Albinus Tirkey and Manoj Haldar offered technical support. . S. Grewal and Shobha Bajpai have been very useful. which will help us improve it in subsequent editions. Ranabir Chakravarti. We would also like to thank Meena Bhargava. Visual material for the book was provided by different individuals and institutions. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries) 224 no tt PART III* THEME TEN COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE Exploring Official Archives THEME E LEVEN REBELS AND THE RAJ 1857 Revolt and Its Representations * Part III will follow .xi ed CONTENTS PART II © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h T HEME FIVE THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS Perceptions of Society (c. ZAMINDARS AND THE STATE Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire (c. fourteenth to sixteenth century) 170 T HEME EIGHT PEASANTS. eighth to eighteenth century) 140 T HEME SEVEN AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL: VIJAYANAGARA (c. tenth to seventeenth century) 115 T HEME SIX BHAKTI-SUFI TRADITIONS Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries) 196 T HEME NINE KINGS AND CHRONICLES The Mughal Courts (c. Experiences T HEME FIFTEEN FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION The Beginning of a New Era PART I (Pages 1-114) T HEME ONE BRICKS. BEADS AND BONES The Harappan Civilisation T HEME T WO no tt KINGS. BELIEFS AND BUILDINGS Cultural Developments (c. Memories. FARMERS AND TOWNS Early States and Economies (c.xii xii ed T HEME TWELVE © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h COLONIAL CITIES Urbanisation. 600 BCE -600 CE) T HEME F OUR THINKERS. Planning and Architecture T HEME THIRTEEN MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT Civil Disobedience and Beyond T HEME FOURTEEN UNDERSTANDING PARTITION Politics.600 CE) T HEME T HREE KINSHIP. 600 BC E -600 CE) . CASTE AND CLASS Early Societies (c. 600 BC E . plans and photographs of people and places. R Each chapter ends with a set of timelines.xiii How to use this book R You will also find other material enclosed in boxes. R Each chapter is divided into numbered sections and subsections to facilitate learning. paintings. © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h These contain: ed This is Part II of Themes in Indian History. and not for evaluation. providing you with an opportunity to handle these. Both visual and textual sources will help you acquire a feel for the clues that historians use. ornaments etc. The final examination can include excerpts from and/or illustrations of identical/similar material. You will also see how historians analyse these clues. (a) Figures include illustrations of artefacts such as tools. buildings. Short meanings Additional information More elaborate definitions These are meant to assist and enrich the learning process. R There are figures. seals. sculptures. archaeological sites. (b) Some chapters have maps. (c) Sources are enclosed within separate boxes: these contain excerpts from a wide variety of texts and inscriptions. pottery. but are not intended for evaluation. visual material that historians use as sources. Part III will follow. no tt Sources . maps and sources numbered sequentially through each chapter. coins. This is to be treated as background information. as well as of inscriptions. . R There are four types of assignments at the end of each chapter: These include: short essays © o N be C E re R pu T bl is h short questions ed (b) those with the caption Ü Discuss. which are not for evaluation map work projects These are meant to provide practice for the final assessment and evaluation.. no tt Hope you enjoy using this book. which may be used for practice for evaluation..xiv xiv R There are two categories of intext questions: (a) those within a yellow box.