lec_an1_sem2_cerban_2010

ENGLISH MORPHOLOGYTHE NOMINAL PART MĂDĂLINA CERBAN 2 3 CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 - The Noun……………………………… 5 1.1. Formation of Nouns by affixation and compounding 5 1.1.1. Exercises……………………………………… 7 1.2. The Category of number……………………………. 8 1.2.1. Formation of plural nouns……………………. 8 1.2.2. Countability……………………………………. 10 1.2.3. Uncontable/ no-count …………………………. 11 1.2.3.1. Classification of uncountable/no-count nouns.. 11 1.2.3. Exercises……………………………………….. 14 1.3. The Category of Case…………………………………. 15 1.3.1. The Nominative case……………………………15 1.3.2. The Accusative case…………………………… 15 1.3.3. The Dative case………………………………… 16 1.3.4. The Genitive case……………………………… 17 1.3.5. Exercises……………………………………….. 22 1.4. The Category of Gender……………………………… 22 1.4.1. Exercises ……………………………………… 25 CHAPTER 2 – The Article……………………………… 27 2.1. The Definite Article……………………………………27 2.1.1. The functions of the Definite Article……………27 2.2. The Indefinite Article………………………………… 30 2.2.1. The functions of the Indefinite Article…………. 30 2.3. The Zero Article………………………………………. 32 2.3.1. The functions of the Zero Article……………… 32 2.4. The Omission of the article…………………………… 35 3.5. Exercises……………………………………………… 35 CHAPTER 3 – THE ADJECTIVE………………………38 3.1. The form of the adjectives……………………………. 38 3.2. The functions of the adjectives……………………… 40 3.3. The degrees of comparison…………………………… 44 3.3.1. The form of the degrees of comparison…………44 3.4. Exercises……………………………………………… 51 CHAPTER 4 – THE NUMERAL………………………. 53 4.1. Definition…………………………………………… 53 4.2. The Classification of numerals………………………... 53 4.3. Exercises……………………………………………… 56 CHAPTER 5 – THE PRONOUN……………………….. 58 5.1. The definition of pronouns…………………………… 58 5.2. The classification of pronouns…………………………58 5.2.1. Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns……….. 58 5.2.2. Indefinite and negative adjectives and pronouns.. 60 5.2.3. Possessive adjectives and pronouns……………. 67 5.2.4. Interrogative adjectives and pronouns………….. 68 5.2.5. Adverbial adjectives…………………………… 69 4 5.2.6. Relative pronouns……………………………… 70 5.2.7. Personal pronouns……………………………… 72 5.2.8. Reflexive and emphatic pronouns………………73 5.2.9. Reciprocal pronouns……………………………. 74 FINAL EXERCISES…………………………………….. 76 REFERENCES……………………………………………78 5 CHAPTER 1 THE NOUN Unităţi de învăţare : • Formation of nouns by affixation and compounding • The grammatical category of number • The grammatical category of case • The grammatical category of gender Obiectivele temei: • înţelegerea modurilor de formare a substantivelor prin afixare şi compunere • cunoaşterea conceptului de categorie gramaticală a numărului. Diferenţe între limba română şi engleză • înţelegerea categoriei de caz. • înţelegerea categorie de gen Timpul alocat temei : 4 ore 1.1. Formation of nouns by affixation and compounding Nouns have characteristics that set them apart from other word classes or parts of speech. According to the 3 criteria, the most important characteristics of noun are: 1. morphologically , the noun is distinguished from other parts of speech as regards its form and the grammatical categories (of number, case, gender). 2. syntactically, nouns can function as subject, object, predicative, apposition, attribute and adverbial modifier. 3. in point of meaning, the noun denotes objects (beings, things, phenomena, etc). A definition such as “a noun denotes an object” is correct but incomplete since a noun is also characterized by specific morphological traits as well as by syntactic functions – hence the necessity to define this part of speech from various points of view. In the present course we are going to deal with the 2 basic morphological characteristics: their form and their grammatical categories. Form: From the point of view of form, nouns can be divided into: 1. simple nouns, these nouns formed made up of a one word which can not be decomposed anymore, e.g. book, clock. 2. derivative nouns, nouns formed by means of derivational suffixes (some of the most frequent noun-forming suffixes are : - er (agential suffix): writer, driver, thriller - ness: kindness, happiness – unique nouns denoting abstract nouns - hood: childhood, boyhood, denoting abstract qualities - ing: reading – verbal nouns denoting the action - ion: expectation – or state of the respective verbs - ment: development 6 - let: booklet (diminutive suffix) In the case of a number of verbs, mainly of French origin, we can find both a noun derived by means of a suffix and a second noun which is the form in –ing used as noun, e.g. from to develop a) the development of our economy b) the developing of new technologies is the chief target The noun in –ing has more dynamic implications and suggests a continue action. Compare: a) dezvoltarea (static) b) procesul de dezvoltare (dinamic) 3. Compound nouns are made of two or more words representing either homogeneous or non- homogeneous parts of speech. The semantic relation between the elements of the compound noun is of two types: a) endocentric, the meaning of the compound analysed can be deduced from the meaning of its parts; b) exocentric, the meaning of the compound cannot be deduced from the meaning of its parts. Compound nouns appear in three forms: as two separate words as two separate words linked by a hyphene as one word The three orthographies depend on the extent to which the two components are felt to have lost their original meaning or not. That is why dictionaries sometimes differ with regard to the orthography of compound nouns are: a) endocentric: • N + N: post-office, clock-room, classroom (note the three orthographies). In each case the meaning of the compound is deductible from the meaning of its parts. To understand a compound noun, we determine the meaning of the last term (the Head). The preceding term supplying some information about it, classroom means room for classes. Mention should be made that compound noun have the principal stress on the first word, e.g. drug store, post office. • V-ING +N: this pattern is also of the endocentric type. In this compound the V-ing can be originally: - a gerund: a sleeping car, working conditions - a present participle: used as an adjective which can be expended into a relative (attributive clause: the working class = the class who works. • N+N (derived from verb-er): this pattern is usually of the endocentric type, e.g. watch-maker, pencil-sharpener • V+N: watch dog, a rattlesnake • ADJ+N: blackboard b) exocentric: • N + N: ladybird (buburuza), blockhead (netot), butterfly (fluture) • ADJ+N: hotdog, blackleg 4. Nouns formed by means of conversion from other parts of speech. 7 a) from adjective: an adjective may function as a noun if it is preceded by the definite article e.g. the good- binele The supernatural appears in many of Shakespeare’s plays. If the converted adjective refers to people it is plural in meaning and takes a plural verb (it represents a whole class of themes of multitude) the rich, the selfish e.g. The rich are often selfish. The sick are well taken care of in our hospitals. b) from verb in the form of (i). the short infinitive of a simple verb: a try e.g. Let me have a try at it. (ii). the short infinitive of a complex verb. There are 2 different ways in which the elements of complex verbs may be combined: - the verb and particle may simple be joined (sometimes written as one word as hyphenated - a hyphen can meet the nominalized verb and particle): e.g. a breakdown, take off, make-up. - the verb and the particle may be placed in reverse order to form a compound noun: e.g. break-out-outbreak; outcome - the past participle: e.g. the injured, the wounded (nouns of multitude) -the ing form e.g. being, reading, building Sometimes the gerund takes the definite article and it becomes a noun on such cases; it is often followed by the preposition of (the verbal noun) e.g. the swimming Give examples of noun formation: endocentric versus exocentric. 1.1.1. Exercises: 1. Attach the appropriate noun-forming suffix: -dom, -hood, -ship, -ist, -ism, - er, -ful, -ese to each of the following nouns: London, child, Portugal, mouth, brother, friend, Japan, piano, art, hand, behaviour, teenage, star, impression, village, boy, Darwin, owner, spoon, member, cello, king, philosophy. 2. Attach the appropriate noun-forming suffix: -age, -al, -ance/-ence, -ant, - ation, -ee, -er, -ing, -ment to each of the following verbs: develop, use, embody, write, accpt, receive, descend, paint, employ, upheave, marry, produce, arrive, defend, house, describe, clean, form, abolish, train, refuse, happen, enlighten, thrill, inhabit, starve, bathe, cover. 3. Supply a compound nouns in place of the phrase in italics: 1. We have bought a new lamp for reading. 2. You must repair the leg of the chair. 3. Put this basket on the table in the kitchen, please. 4. The surface of the road is wet. 5. I remember that the cover of the book was red. 6. Here is the key of the car. 7. He has just repaired the keyboard of the computer. 8. Not all of us agree to the policy of the party. 9. Have you locked the door of the garage? 10. Margaret was very much interested in what the critic of the film 8 was saying. 11. When we got there the door of the cellar was open. 12. You will have to replace the handle of the suitcase. 13. There were a lot of people at the gate of the factory. 14. I will ring you up from the phone in the office. 4. Translate into English using compound nouns: 1. Pantofii tăi de dans sunt foarte frumoşi. 2. Acesta este un vagon de nefumători. 3. Gara e la o distanţă de 5 minute de aici. 4. Eram în faţa liceului când am văzut curcubeul. 5. Sindicatele au luat atitudine împotriva fumatului. 6. Mi-am scos haina de ploaie când am intrat în seră. 7. Camerista a făcut o depresie nervoasă. 8. Redactorul-şef e plecat în călătorie de afaceri. 9. Zborurile de noapte sunt foarte rare. 10. Am observat urme de paşi pe prag. 1.2. The category of number The English noun has 2 numbers: singular and plural. The singular is that form of the noun which denotes either one object (a book) or an indivisible whole (money). The plural is that form of the noun which indicates more than one object (book). When we are talking of the category of number in nouns, there are 2 aspects that should be taken into account: 1.2.1. Formation of the plural number a) regular plural forms: Nouns generally form their plural in a regular predictable way by adding –s to the simple form, to the singular form, e.g. books, days In adding –s some spelling rules should be observed: - nouns ending in a sibilant sound in the singular (spelt with –s, -ss, -x, - ch, -sh, -zz) add –es, in the plural (pronounced (iz): e.g. class/es, churh/es, box/es, wish/es, watch/es Exceptions: when -ch is pronounced (k) epoch/s, stomack/s, monarch/s - nouns ending in –y follwing a consonant form their plural by dropping the –y and adding –es: e.g. country-countries, duty-duties - nouns ending in –y following a vowel form their plural by adding –s e.g. play-plays, boy-boys - twelve nouns ending in -f(e) add –es with -f changing into –v: e.g. calf/ calves, life, knife, half, leaf, loaf, self, shelf, thief, wife, wolf, elf Exception: roof/s, chief/s, handkerchief/s - nouns ending in –o, add – es e.g. potato/es, tomato/es, hero-/es Exception: piano/s , soprano/s, radio/s, photo/s, zero/s b) Irregular plural forms: there are nouns preserved from Old English which form their plural as they did in Old English by means of internal vowel changes or mutation, e.g. man/men, woman/women, tooth/teeth, goose/geese, foot/feet, mouse/mice, mouse/lice or by adding –en to the singular , e.g. child/children, ox/oxen, brother/brethren (fellow members of a religious society) c) Foreign plurals: a few nouns of Latin or Greek origin retain their original plural forms, they form the plural according to the languages, were borrowed from: - is > -es: 9 e.g. crisis/crises, basis/bases, analysis/analyses, thesis/these, parenthesis/parentheses - um >-a: e.g. symposium/symposia, stratum/strata, medium/media, erratum/errata - on > -a: e.g. criterion/criteria, phenomenon/phenomena - us >- i: e.g. fungus/fungi, nucleus/nuclei, radius/radii, stimulus/stimuli - a >- ae: e.g. formula/formulae, alga/algae, larva/larvae, vertebra/vertebrae - ex >- ices: e.g. index/indices, appendix/appendices, matrix/matrices There is tendency for some foreign nouns adopted in English to develop regular plural forms, without losing the original forms. When both forms are used the foreign one is more formal, which means that formulae occurs in technical and scientific texts while formulas in everyday speech. There is quite a large number of nouns (not necessarily of Latin origin) which have double plural forms implying changes of meaning: e.g. SINGULAR PLURAL arm (braţ) arms (braţe; arme) cloth (material) clothes (stofe, materiale); clothes (haine) colour (culoare) colours (culori; drapel) glass (sticlă, pahar) glasses (pahare, ochelari) d) Plural of compound nouns: compound nouns follow some definite rules of plural formations, depending on the elements that make up of the compound: - in most compound nouns (N + N), the last element assumes the plural form e.g. horse-races, grown-ups, postmen - in compounds composed of N + PREPOSITION + N, the first element assumes the plural form e.g. editor-in-chief/ editors-in-chief, sister-in-law/ sisters-in-law - in compound nouns made up of N+ PARTICLE/PREPOSITION the first element assumes the plural form eg. looker/s-on, passer/s-by - in compounds made up of VERB (without nominal ending) + ADVERBIAL PARTICLE the last element assumes the plural form e.g. take-offs, breaks-in - if the word man or woman forms the first part of the compound, both nouns assume the plural form e.g. man-servant, men-servants, women-doctors - in compounds consisting a N in their structure the last element assumes the plural e.g. merry-go-round/s, forget-me-nots How is the plural of regular nouns formed? State the rules of forming the plural of compound nouns. Give 10 examples of foreign plurals. 10 1.2.2. Countability The most common manifestation of the category of number is reflected in the notion of countability with presupposes the possibility of counting objects. From the point of view of countability, English nouns can be divided into 2 classes: 1. countable nouns are those nouns that can be counted, those nouns that can be distinguished as separate entities. Count nouns have the following characteristics: - they are variable from the point of view of number, they have both numbers in the singular and in the plural, eg. student/s, man/men, criterion/criteria - since they can distinguished one entity from others, they can be individualized by means of determiners who cause quantifiers and/or number; thus they may be preceded by the following determiners: - in the sg: both art. : a(one), the determinatives, each, every, this/that, no, the numeral one; - in the plural: the article: the, the determinatives, these/those, once, any, no, many, a few, several, numbers from 2 onwards - they agree in number both with the verb and with the determiners. Thus, a singular noun requires a singular verb and a singular determiner, while a plural noun requires a plural verb and a plural determiner. Those nouns that meet the 3 conditions mentioned above are countable nouns. a) individual (common) nouns, eg. student/s Such nouns have the 3 characteristics mentioned above, eg. This book is interesting. Those books are interesting. The vast majority of nouns in English follow this pattern. b) collective nouns are those nouns that semantically collect a number of similar objects (usually of persons) into one group. Such nouns are: army, assembly, audience, board, class, committee, family, flack, government, group, jury, party, staff, team. These nouns are variable in form, meaning that they have both numbers singular and plural. In this respect they behave like individual nouns proper. A singular noun may take agree with a singular or a plural verb, a family – several families. - a singular noun takes a singular verb when it refers to the group as a whole as a unit. The noun behaves like an individual noun e.g. The average family which now consists of 4 members at most, is a great deal smaller than it used to be. The committee is preparing its support. Our team is in the second division. Note that in this case the nouns are preferred to by inanimate singular pronoun it, which. - a singular noun may take a plural verb when the speaker or writer is thinking more of the individual members/persons that make up the group (than of the group itself). - when such a noun in the singular refers to the separate members of a collectivity, it behaves like a collective noun, as if it were plural, the consequence being that. 11 Although singular in form the noun agrees with a plural verb and it also referred to by the animate plural, pronouns they, who. e.g. My family are being and supportive; they are always ready to help me. I don’t know any other family who would do so much (the members of my family). The team are playing very well, aren’t they? The government are discussing the new development scheme (reference is made to the individuals that make up the act). c) Some nouns with the same form for the singular and the plural have no special form for the category of number: considering that the basic form is that of the singular, we can say that they receive (unmarked nouns) a zero ending in the plural. In spite of the fact that they are no variable in form, they are considered to be countable nouns because they meet the others 2 conditions, verbs and determiners with such nouns are either singular or plural according to the meaning expressed by the nouns. - some nouns ending in –s : means , series, species (also headquarters, works (factory) e.g. A new means of transport is the hovercraft. The fastest means of transport are not always the most comfortable. This is a rare species. - some nouns denoting animals (sheep , deer, also aircraft) e.g. There is a stray sheep on the road. There are some stray sheep on the road. - some names of nationality : Chinese, Japanese, Swiss. What are countable nouns? Give examples. 1.2.3. Uncountable /no-count nouns They are invariable in form, having only one form either singular or plural. They agree with the verb and determiners only in the singular or only in the plural. 1.2.3.1. Classification of uncountable/no-count/ invariable nouns. The nouns generally treated as uncountable nouns in English can be divided into the following groups: a) singular uncountable nouns They have the following characteristics: - they are invariable in form having one form : singular (they have no plural) - since they don’t express the opposition between singular and plural they cannot be determined by means of quantifiers or numerals. They cannot be used with the indefinite article a or with the determiners each, many, few, these, those. The only determiners that can be used with uncountable nouns are: the, this / that, some/anywhere, much, a little. - they agree with the verb and the determiners only in the singular. In point of meaning the nouns can be divided into: 12 (i). mass/material nouns: they denote concrete things looked upon as a whole, as indivisible entities which can not be counted as: bread, butter, chalk, coffee, fish, gold, oil, salt, snow, steel, water, etc. e.g. Water is pleasant to drink when cold, Steel is much more resistant than copper. He loves to drink wine. Fruit is good to eat. Let’s have some fruit for desert. Some other uncountable nouns denote a whole composed of various units: equipment, furniture, jewellery, luggage, baggage, money, machinery. e.g. Where is your luggage? The money is in the wallet. Note: moneys: fonduri monetare, incasari. (ii). abstract nouns: the class of abstract nouns is more extensive in English than in Romanian, e.g. advice, applause, business, cruelly, evidence, homework, income, information, injustice, knowledge, progress, strength, trouble, thunder (most of them are countable in Romanian). e.g. His advice is always good. He felt his strength was failing. Your information is not reliable. His progress in English is highly satisfactory. Her knowledge of history is poor. Note: Knowledge may take the indefinite article when is used in a particular sense. e.g. He has a good knowledge of mathematics. Businesses – intreprindere, localuri sedii de intreprindere Uncountable nouns (both mass and abstract ones) can be individualized , quantified by means of: 1. partitive expressions like: a piece of, an item of, a bit of, an act of e.g. a piece of chalk, a piece/word of advice, an act of cruelty/ injustice, a piece /stroke of luck 2. by referring to a piece / part of a certain shape or to a container e.g. a loaf of bread, a sheer of paper, a flash of lightning, a bar of soap Some uncountable nouns in –s: news, as well as nouns denoting sciences in –ics, (physics, linguistics, mathematics, athletics); some diseases (measles, mumps, rickets); some games (billiards, darts, dominoes) e.g. Near is the news /BBC announcement. Draughts is an easier game than chess. Some uncountable nouns can become countable ones, and therefore, can be used in the plural or can be preceded by the indefinite article a (one) whom they refer to varieties of things or when they denote a particular kind of things. e.g. The steels of this plant are of very good quality. Many different wines are made in France. Various fruits were on display at the greengrocer’s. The fishes of the Black Sea are good. • glass: 13 - uncountable (the material). e.g. Windows are made of glass. - countable (the container). e.g. Give me a glass of water. • Paper: - uncountable (the material). e.g. The box was wrapped in paper. - countable (test). e.g. He has written a good paper. • Iron: - uncountable (the material). e.g. This tool is made of iron. - countable (tool, implement used for smoothing clothes). e.g. He has got a new iron. • Youth: - uncountable (the state of being young ). e.g. The enthusiasm of youth. - countable (a young person). e.g. Half a dozen of youths were waiting outside. b) Plural Invariable Nouns (Pluralia tantum) They are invariable in form, having only one form, that of plural, they only occur in the plural and are never used at the singular. - they agree with the verb and determiners (the, these/those) only in the plural - in point of meaning, the nouns included in his group refer to... a. summation plural: article of dress or instruments/tools who are composed of similar parts e.g. clothes, jeans, pants, tights, trousers, shorts, binoculars, glasses, scales, scissors, tangs. These trousers are too long for you. Where are the scissors? The nouns can be individualized/ quantified by means of the partitive expression a pair of. Other nouns that only occur in the plural: firewall, goods, dregs, proceedings, wages, annals, outskirts, surroundings. In many cases there are forms without –s, sometimes with a difference of meaning, there are some nouns with have difference meanings when used in the singular and in the plural as invariables Nouns in - s have two meanings in the plural e.g. content-contents; compass-compasses; custom-customs; brain-brains; colour-colours; damage-damages; effect-effects; ground/s c) Nouns of multitude (unmarked plural, zero plural) There are some nouns who with the verb in the plural although they are not marked formally for the plural , they have a form in the singular e.g. cattle, people, police, youth, clergy The cattle are grazing in the field. There are a lot of people in the street. The youth of today do not know what they want. Note: do not confuse the noun of multitude “people” (=human beings) with the countable noun a people (=nation) who is regular. There is also a noun of multitude “youth’ (=young people) with countable noun youth (=young person) d) substantivized adjective and participle (i) adjective and past participle used with the definite article 14 There aren’t very many substantivized adjective of this kind in English, the construction is not productive. Most other adjective can not be used in this way. e.g. we cannot say: the foreign (=the foreign people), but we can say the happy ( = the happy people), the old, the rich, the poor, the sick, the wounded. The rich get richer while the poor get poorer. (ii). also adjective of nationality ending in –sh, -ch,: the British, the English, the Scotch, The Dutch, the Spanish, the French. e.g. The Scots have the reputation of being thrifty. What are uncountable nouns? Give examples. 1.2.3. Exercises: 1. Form the plural of the following nouns: fellow-citizen, passer-by, man- eater, woman doctor, man-of-war, take-off, footstep, cameraman, sister-in- law, potato, echo, leaf, roof, ski, sky. 2. Supply the plural of the following nouns of Greek and Latin origin: bacillus, addendum, series, datum, crisis, schema, stimulus, criterion, phenomenon. 3. Choose the appropriate form of the verb. Note the difference in meaning with the nouns that take both a singular and plural predicate: 1. His phonetics is/are much better. 2. My trousers is/are flared. 3. The scissors is/are lost for ever. 4. Statistics show a great interest in ecology. 5. Youth today is/are turning from church nowadays. 6. What is/are your politics? 7. The acoustics of the National Theatre is/are excellent. 8. What is/are cattle good for? 9. Fresh-water fish include/ includes salmon, trout and eel. 10. The police as/ have made no arrest yet. 11. It is generally accepted that bad news don’t/ doesn’t make us happy. 12. The class was/were warned not to talk during the test. 13. Mumps is/are very painful ailment. 14. A number of cars was/ were involved in the accident. 15. The council was/ were unable to agree. 16. One of the girls has/have lost her umbrella. 17. Fish and chips is/are a very popular meal in England. 18. Either the boys or the girl help/helps the woman. 19. Advice is/are given on all the technical aspects. 20. The Italian clergy was/ were opposed to divorce. 4. Translate into English: 1. Casa lor nu este mare, dar împrejurările sunt încântătoare. 2. Casa lor este lângă o intersecţie aglomerată. 3. Ştirile sunt cu adevărat interesante. 4. Secretara ne+a dat procesul+verbal al şedinţei de ieri. 5. Bărbatul pretindea despăgubiri. 6. Soldaţii au salutat drapelul regimentului. 7. După un zbor de trei ore am ajuns la destinaţie. 8. Biliardul este un joc interesant. 9. Era un spectacol minunat să admiri răsăritul soarelui de pe stânci. 10. Simţeam o durere acută în piept. 11. Avem nevoie de un compass ca să desenăm cercul. 12. Asemenea fenomene sunt greu de explicat. 13. Am cumpărat o pungă de cartoi de trei kilograme. 14. Ipotezele sale s-au dovedit corecte. 15. Toate criteriile de evaluare pot fi îndeplinite cu uşurinţă. 16. Sfaturile lui nu sunt utile. 17. Am o mulţime de teme de făcut până mâine. 18. Progresele realizate 15 de echipă au fost observate de toată lumea. 19. Tocmai am trecut cu bagajele prin vamă. 20. Ochelarii bunicii au fost sparţi de nepotu său din neatenţie. 1.3. The category of Case Case is the grammatical category that indicates the relationship between certain parts of speech (in particular between nouns). The grammatical category of case can be marked, in synthetic languages by inflections and in analytical languages by word –order or prepositions. Old English was characterized by a great number of inflections with the consequence that there were four cases with distinct endings. In the course of its historical development, the English noun has lost its former case system. Thus, case which morphologically is a very complex grammatical category in many European languages such as German, Russian, Romanian and many other languages, is not very significant for the English noun. The morphological structure of the noun is uniform irrespective of its relations and functions. As a result of the general tendency towards analytical instead of synthetic forms, case inflections disappeared. The English noun has, however, the -s ending in the Genitive. The loss of distinct case forms has been compensated by a stricter word order in the sentence and the use of a large number of prepositions. The question that arises is whether the disappearance of case inflections is general among grammarians. Those who pursue a formal approach restrict of number of English cases to two: - the common case (Nominative, Dative, Accusative) - “unmarked” - the possessive case (Genitive) – “marked in –s” Those who pursue a functional approach (besides form, the category of case implicitly entails context and syntax) consider that there are 3 cases in English: - the Nominative – used for subjects - the Genitive – used to indicate possession (This case in frequently termed “possessive” although the purpose of its meaning is wider than possession (in the normal sense of the world). - the Objective – Dative and Accusative – used for objects of a verb or preposition. 1.3.1. The Nominative case is the case of nouns that display the function of a Subject, predicative or apposition in the sentence. 1.3.2. The Accusative Case is used with nouns that express the function of Direct Object or of adverbial modifier. The old distinctive inflections for the Accusative case have disappeared, their function being taken over by strict word order: e.g. The hunter killed the lion. The lion killed the hunter. A noun in the Accusative case is used after: a) transitive verb to denote the objective that undergoes the change. If there is only one object in the sentence, it gets the position immediately after the verb. e.g. I read a book last night. 16 After some ditransitive verbs which may have 2 objects: - the verbs to ask, to envy, to forgive may be followed by 2 objects in the Accusative e.g. The teacher asks the people several questions. I envy John his garden. - V+ objective animate + objective inanimate: the verbs to give, to hand, to offer, to pay, to read, to show, to tell, to throw, to write, to wish are usually followed by an indirect objective in the Dative and a direct object in the Accusative. e.g. I gave John my book. b) some intransitive verbs changing them into transitive ones. e.g. some intransitive verbs having the same root as the noun in the Accusative (a Cognitive Object): to smile a bright smile, to live a bad life, to fight a terrible fight. c) prepositions: most prepositions in English are followed by (pro)nouns in the Accusative. 1.3.3. The Dative Case is used with nouns that display the function of Indirect Object. In present day English, the dative is marked either by prepositions (to, sometimes for) or by strict word-order among the nouns of the sentence. A noun in the Dative case is used after the following parts of speech. a) verbs: - transitive - intransitive - some intransitive verbs followed by an indirect object of person: to happen, to occur, to propose, to submit, to surrender, to yield, e.g. It happened to my brother. An idea occurred to John. - some transitive verbs followed by 2 objects (If the indirect object is placed before the direct objective, the prepositions to is omitted). e.g. I paid the money to the cashier. I paid the cashier the money. I am writing a letter to my friend. I am writing my friend a letter. There is a number of verb obligatory followed by the preposition. In these cases with the preposition to the indirect object is placed before the direct object: to address, to announce, to propose, to relate, to repeat. e.g. I introduced him to my mother. I introduced to my mother all my friends. - V + DO + (FOR). A direct object and an indirect object preceded by the preposition FOR: to buy, to allow, to do, to leave, to make, to order, to reserve, to save, to speak (The preposition FOR is omitted if the indirect object is placed before the direct object) e.g. She brought a present for her mother. / She brought her mother a present. She made a new dress for her daughter. / She made his daughter a new dress. 17 b) some nouns: attitude, cruelty, kindness, help, promise, duty e.g. Her attitude to animals surprised us. He kept his promise to his friend. c) some adjectives of the same semantic field: cruel, kind, good, polite, helpful, grateful, rude e.g. Don’t be cruel to animals. I am grateful to the friends who help me. She advised me to be kind to her. d) Also adjectives involving a comparison: corresponding, equal, equivalent, similar, superior, inferior, prepositional. e.g. The result was not equal to his efforts. Man is superior to animals. 1.3.4. The Genitive Case The noun in the Genitive case expresses the idea of possession and discharges the syntactic function of an attribute. There are 2 forms of Genitive: I. The Synthetic Genitive Form: in English, the genitive is marked by the ending -s preceded by an apostrophe’. In present-day English there are 2 ways of marking the synthetic genitive in writing: - the apostrophe + the ending ‘s are added to the singular form of nouns: e.g. the girl’s name and to unmarked plural noun or irregular in the plural: e.g. the men’s clothing, the children’s toys. - the apostrophe is added to the plural form of regular nouns (the boys’ teacher); to proper names ending in –s (Dickens’ novels). The Group genitive (Possessive): Compounds as well as noun phrases denoting one idea are generally treated as one word and the genitival suffixes are attached to the last elements of the group who may not be known rather than to the head. e.g. the queen England’s throne. The group genitive is not normally acceptable following a clause. e.g. A mum’s son I know has just been arrested. In a group of words made up of a noun apposition the genitive mark is added to the apposition. e.g. Have you seen my brother Jimmy’s car? Two nouns coordinated by and representing the possessors of the same object take ’s after the last word. e.g. Tom and Mary’s parents. (Tom and Mary are the possessors of the same object, are brothers). If they represent the possessors of different object, each noun receives the suffix. e.g. Tom’s and Mary’s parents. 18 Jason’s and Shakespeare’s plays. The position of the noun in the Genitive case a) The noun in the genitive – the determiner usually precedes the determined, the noun in the nominative. e.g. This is Mary’s bag. b) The genitive with ellipsis The noun in the genitive can appear by itself, the noun modified by the ‘s genitive may be omitted. This is possible when: - the determined noun has been mentioned previously and the speaker wants to avoid the repetition (if the context makes its identity clear). e.g. This is Tom’s book. Mary’s is on the table. - the determined noun denotes residence, establishment institutions, buildings, represented by such nouns as shop, office, house, place, cathedral, store. e.g. She went to the chemist’s shop. I went into a stationer’s shop to buy a postcard. I was at the Brown’s yesterday. St Paul’s cathedral is one of the sights. c) N+N Genitive The noun in the syntactic genitive can follow the determiner noun in a Double Genitival Construction. The double genitival is a construction which consists of the two types of genitive: the prepositional Genitive (framed with preposition of) combined with the syntactic Genitive. The double genitive is used with the following values: (i). a partitive meaning e.g. A cousin of his wife’s (one of his wife’s cousins). He is a friend of John’s (one of John’s friends). The determined nouns must have indefinite reference (indefinite article), it must be seen as one of an unspecified member of items attributed to the post-modifier. (ii). The double genitive differs in meaning from the prepositional genitive. - a description of genitive (a description made by some body else about genitive): e.g. A description of Galsworthy’s (one of genitive’s description, a description made by genitive) - a description or emotional implication it expresses various shades of subjective attitude the speaker’s contempt, arrogance, dislike (The noun is determined by the demonstrative). e.g. That child of Ann’s is a nuisance. That remark of John’s was misplaced. The uses of the synthetic genitive The synthetic genitive is generally used in the following categories of nouns. a) animate nouns, mainly with nouns denoting living beings: - nouns denoting persons and proper names: e.g. the boy’s book - collective nouns (who indicate in effect a body of people): 19 e.g. The government’s decision; the company’s officials - indefinite pronouns referring to persons (somebody, nobody, everybody, another, either): e.g. nobody’s fault, everyone’s wish -large animals: eg. the lion’s mouth. b) Some clauses of inanimate nouns: - geographical names (names of continents, countries, cities, looked upon in a political or economic sense. e.g. Europe’s future; London’s museums - nouns denoting institutions: e.g. the school’s program. -natural phenomena: e.g. the sun’s rays, the earth’s atmosphere - nouns denoting units of time (temporal nouns): e.g. New Year’s Eve, a day’s journey - nouns denoting distance, measure, value: e.g. a mile’s distance, a pound’s worth of sugar. - personifications: e.g. Love’s Labour’s Lost; life’s joys. - set phrases: e.g. in my mind’s eyes, at one’s fingers’ end, the one’s heart’s content The meanings of the genitive 1. possessive: this value, most frequently associated with the syntactical genitive e.g. my father’s car = my father has a car. The boy’s book = the boy has a book. 2. subjective (the determiner is a subject while the determined noun is the object): e.g. the girl’s story = the girl told a story. 3. objective (the determiner is an object): e.g. the prisoner’s release = release the prisoner. 4. classifying. The previous examples the genitive (the first name) has a particular meaning e.g. my father’s ca r- my father is a particular individual some genitive expression have a class meaning. It is equivalent to relative adjective. The use of the indefinite article changes the noun in the genitive into a relative adjective. 20 e.g. children’s magazine – a magazine for children a woman’s college – a college for women. II Analytical Genitive (The prepositional genitive) In the middle English, the analytic means of expressing the genitive (the preposition OF +Noun) placed after the determined noun, came to complete with the syntactical form, and today the Accusative has replaced the syntactical genitive in some of its uses. The analytic genitive is used with the following types of nouns: - inanimate nouns: the title of the book, the roof of the house, the bend of the river, the member of the faculty. - some geographical names: - in appositions: the city of London, the golf of Mexico. - when the geographical names are looked upon from a partly geographical point of view: The boundaries of Switzerland are... - animate nouns may take the Analytical Genitive instead of Synthetic Genitive - for the sake of emphasis (when we went to emphasize the animate noun the proper names, much as in titles), the focus of information falls on the last word: Shakespeare’s plays = The complete works of W Shakespeare; The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. - When the determiner (the noun in the genitive) is a part of a complete noun phrases, and it is determined in its turn. - e.g. The name of the man over there, at the table, who came yesterday. The Synthetic Genitive may follow one another in a sentence if both possessors are animate: a syntactic genitive may give another Synthetic Genitive e.g. Mary’s brother’s friend. My cousin’s wife’s first husband. But the use of the Synthetic Genitive with both nouns is rarely found in speech. It is preferred to express to former genitive by a prepositional constructions, the latter by the Synthetic Genitive. In some cases there is a functional similarity between a Synthetic Genitive and an Analytical Genitive (the S.G. and the A.G. are in free variation). Thus, both structures are possible in: The gravity of the Earth / The Earth’s gravity. The S.G. is used in newspapers headlines, perhaps for reasons of space economy: eg. Fire at U.C.L.A. Institute’s roaf damaged. While the subsequent news item begins “The roaf of a science institute on the compres was damaged last night”. III The Implicit genitive Many of the meaning characteristic of the genitive can sometimes rendered by word order alone. The I.G. is rendered by the mere juxte-position of 2 nouns without any formal mark. (without the suffix ‘s or the preposition of) which might be expressing the relation between them. In this simple construction who is nothing that a compound noun, the first noun assumes a determining role, it assumes the value of an attribute, thus preceding the determined noun. The I.G. can replace both syntactic genitive and analytic genitive. 21 In contemporary English, the I.G. appears chiefly in: - titles – names of organization : UNO (The United Nations organization) - newspaper headlines: This kind of structure is extremely common, because it saves place: e.g. Death drug research centre spy drama – expressions like these can be understood by reading when bookwords. The headline is about a drama concerning a spy in a centre for research into a drug that causes death. I. The I.G. may be often replace a Analytical G. (a postdeterminer) by meaning of a predeterminer: N1+(OF+N2) = (N2). N1. e.g. a member of the faculty – a faculty member, the Genitive – a postdeterminer is replaced by a predeterminer such as: the bank of the river, the strings of the violin are transformed into I.G: the river bank, violin strings. As a rule, I.G. issues mostly to describe common, well known kinds of things; compounds are widely used, while for concepts which are not so well known we use prepositional genitive. Compare: mountains top, a tree top, but the top of a loudspeaker. Sometimes, the different structures express different meanings. Compare: A cup of coffee - A coffee cup A box for matches - A match box We use the prepositional structure to express possession, to talk about a container with its contents. e.g. A cup of coffee = a cup containing coffee A coffee cup = a cup for coffee A box of matches = a box with matches in it A match box = (perhaps empty) II. The Implicit Genitive is used instead of the syntactic genitive in expressions of time and distance. In expression of time or distance beginning with a numeral, the S.G. can be used as an adjective. e.g. a five hours’ talk – a five-hours talk; a ten minutes’ break – a ten- minute break. a three miles’ distance – a three-mile distance As a rule the IG is more general than the syntactic genitive (who has a more limited reference). Thus, the syntactic genitive is used when the determiner is a particular individual while the IG is used when the determiner usually refers to a whole class: e.g. That car’s engine is making a funny noise. (The SG is used to refer to). A car engine usually lasts for about 80,000 miles. A Sunday’s paper (a paper that comes out on Sunday) Please, put the dog’s food under the table (the determiner dog’s is a particular individual: the dog’s food is the food that a particular dog is going to eat) Dogfood costs merely as much as a steak, the structure in which the noun is used as adjective: dog refers to a whole class: dog food is food for dogs in general. 22 How many forms of Genitive are there in English? Can you give examples of Implicit Genitive? Name the differences between the Synthetic and the Analytical Genitive 1.3.5. Exercises: 1. Join the two nouns in order to form a genitive. Sometimes you have to use an apostrophe with or without s, sometimes you have to use the analytical genitive: 1. the coat/ Jimmy. 2. the newspaper/ yesterday. 3. the wife/ the man crossinf the street. 4. the neighbours/ my parents. 5. the roof/ house. 6. the mane/ my friend. 7. the name/ that river. 8. the dress/ the girl we met yesterday. 9. the policy/ government. 10. the marks/ the boy and the girl. 2. Write the following sentences inserting the possessive form of the noun given in the brackets at the end of each: 1. The ….. concert was most amusing (babies). 2. They did not see the ... signal (policeman). 3. She stayed five days on her … farm. (friends) 4. Our … welfare should always come first. (country) 5. The clinic has large stocks of … foods. (babies). 6. The … leg was broken in that accident. (tourist). 7. The … meeting was held in the staff room. (teachers) 8. The … face was met with tears. (baby). 3. Translate into English: 1. Casa prietenei lui Nick este foarte frumoasă. 2. Ideile colegului fratelui meu sunt interesante. 3. Câteva dintre jucăriile copilului verişoarei mele au fost recent cumpărate. 4. Caietele colegului lui Dan sunt foarte ordonate. 5. Acestea sunt rezultatele testului de ieri. 6. Din avion am avut o vedere de ansamblu a întregului oraş. 7. După o pauză de zece ore ne-am continuat călătoria. 8. Membrii comitetului se vor întâlni peste trei zile. 9. Sunt sigur că după o vacanţă de două săptămâni de vei simţi mai bine. 10. Maşina directorului liceului este parcată în faţa şcolii. 4. Translate into English using the two forms of the Dative wherever possible: 1. I-am trimis fiului meu nişte bani. 2. Tu i-ai dat fetiţei două jucării. 3. Spuneţi-i secretarei numele dumneavoastră. 4. Doctorului i-a prescris un alt medicament pacientului. 5. În fiecare dimineaţă îi spune la revedere bunicii sale. 6. Le-a explicat băieţilor regulile noului joc. 7. Părinţii îi cumpără un ghiozdan nou surorii mele în fiecare an. 8. I-a scris o scrisoare mamei sale. 9. Vrei să îl prezinţi pe Tom părinţilor tăi_ 10. I-am oferit tânărului absolvent o slujbă foarte bună. 1.4. The category of Gender Jespersen defines gender in the following way”by the term gender we mean any grammatical division (presenting some analogy to the distinction between masculine, feminine and neutral whether that division is) either based on the natural division into the 2 sexes (M and F) or that between animate and inanimate”. 23 Some grammarians make the difference between grammatical gender and natural gender. In most European languages gender, to a large extent, is grammatical. The irrelevance (the arbitrary character) of any kind of meaning to gender can be illustrated by comparing the genders of some inanimate nouns in several languages. Let us compare the gender of the nouns SUN and MOON in some the Romance languages and German. In the Romance languages sun is Masculine and moon is Feminin (R- soare, Fr- soleil, It-sole, Sp-it sol; R- luna, Fr- la luna, It- le luna); but in German, sun is feminine and moon is masculine (die Sonnes, der Mond). In English, gender is to a large extend natural in that the connection between the biological category sex and the grammatical category gender is very close; in so far as sex distinction determine English gender. Thus, nouns denoting beings (persons, sometime animals) are either masculine or feminine (depending on whether they denote male or female beings) while inanimate nouns are neuter. In most European languages gender is a grammatical category, being marked formally – on the one hand the masculine and feminine nouns have distinctive endings, on the other hand, articles and adjectives agree with the noun in gender. Unlike in such languages in English the gender is rarely marked for formally. The grammatical category of gender is marked in 3 ways in English: 1) Lexically; 2) morphologically; 3) using gender markers. 1) Lexically, the masculine and the feminine can be indicated by means of different words: - For personal nouns: man/woman; boy/girl; brother/sister, etc - For animate nouns (higher animate when sex difference is felt to be relevant): stallion/mare; cook/hen. 2) Morphologically: by means of specific derivational suffix which is added to the masculine in order to form the feminine. -ess: prince-princess; host-hostess; actor-actress; duke-duchess -ine: hero-heroine -ette: usher-usherette -ix: administrator-administratrix These derivational suffixes are not productive, however they are not regular, we can not form teacheress, doctoress on the pattern host /hostess. The usual derivational suffix applied to animate nouns in –ess e.g. Lion/lioness; tiger/tigress 3) A number of nouns denoting a person’s stares, function, profession has a single form used both for masculine and feminine (the Common Gender or the Dual gender): e.g. artist, cook, cousin, doctor, enemy, foreigner, friend, guest, librarian, neighbour, pupil, speaker, student, teacher, writer, worker. Take out of the contrast, such nouns can be ambiguous (we do not know whether they are M and F). The gender of such nouns can be identified by means of words that mark gender. (“gender markers”). a) the gender of such nouns is usually identified in a context by means of pronouns with refer to nouns and who have different gender forms in the 3- rd person singular (personal and reflexive pronouns, possessive adjective). 24 e.g. The teacher asked the pupil a few more questions, the sentence is ambiguous to the gender of the 2 nouns, but it can be distinguished if we add… …. as she wanted to give him a better mark When such nouns are used generically (neither gender is relevant), a Masculine reference pronoun may be used (another solution would be to use he or she), e.g. He any student calls, tell him. With nouns denoting large animals the choice of the pronoun can be a matter of sex (he replaces male animals, she-female animal). When used generically, such nouns denoting large animals are usually considered masculine being replaced by the pronoun he. The pronoun it usually replaced small animals and optionally all animals even when sex is known. A bull-can be he, it A cat- can be he, she, it. e.g. The horse was restive at first, but the soon be come manageable. Gender in animals is chiefly observed by people with a special concern (e.g. Fat animals are called she or he when they are thought of as having personality intelligence by their owners, but not always by other people). b) Besides pronouns, disambiguation with respect to gender is also possible by using some words marking gender (gender markers such as boy/girl, man/woman, male/female. e.g. boy friend/girl – friend, salesman/saleswoman, policeman/policewoman. This is not very productive because there are many words in which the distinction do not work. Others, chairman, for instance, do not change: in Great Britain a woman who presides over a committee is still called a chairman “Madam Chairman” although there is a tendency to replace words like this by forms like chairperson. With large animals, he/she, cock/hen can be used as gender workers. e.g. he-goat; she-goat; cock-sparrow/hen-sparrow. 2. The stylistic use of the grammatical category of gender Normally masculine nouns denoting inanimate things, are usually replaced by it. a) Some nouns denoting inanimate things, which are neuter in everyday speech, are sometimes personified in literature. The masculine gender is usually ascribed to nouns denoting strength, violence, harshness; e.g. wind, ocean, sun, while the feminine gender is ascribed to nouns denoting delicacy, tenderness or less violent forces: nature, liberty, moon. Let us compare 2 sentences, one from literature when the moon is personified and the other in a neutral style. e.g. The moon has risen. How pale and ghostly the roofs looked in her silvery light! 25 The moon has no particular importance, except to the earth which it attends as satellite. Sometimes, the distinctions depend on the author’s imagination and intention. In other words, English writers are quite free to refer nouns and lifeless things to any gender when personified. An example in point is “The Nightingale and the Rose” where Oscar Wilde makes the Nightingale of the feminine gender and the Rose tree of the masculine gender. e.g. the rose-three shook his head and said: “My roses are yellow“. b) In everyday speech, there are a number of derivations from the normative pattern. - nouns such : ship, boat, car often used as feminine (are often referred to as her, she) the speaker conveying the fact he regards them with affection, that he considers as close or intimate to him. e.g. The ship struck an iceberg which tore a large hole in her side. - names of countries when looked upon from the political or economic point of view. As geographical units, names of countries are treated as nominate: e.g. Looking at the map we see France. It is one of the largest countries in Europe. As political /economic units, names of countries are often feminine. e.g. France has been able to increase her deports by 10% cent. - the nouns: baby, infant, child can be neuter and referred to by it: e.g. She began nursing her child again. Another is not likely to refer to her baby as it, but it would be quite possible for somebody who is not emotionally connected with the child to replace such nouns by it. How is gender marked in English? Give examples. 1.4.1. Exercises: 1. Form feminine nouns from the following masculine nouns using the following suffixes: -ess, -ix, -a, -ine. Actor, host, shepherd, administrator, sultan, lion, prior, negro, hero, prince, tiger, heir, waiter. 2. Give the corresponding masculine nouns of the following nouns: queen, woman, daughter, nun, lady, sister, goose, bee, duck, grand-daughter. 3. Give the masculine of: bride, girl-friend, maidservant, female candidate, policewoman, lady footballer, woman diplomat, lady speaker, spinster, lady, nurse, female student. 26 4. Translate into English: 1. Ştiai că premiul a fost din nou cucerit de români? 2. Este cea mai modernă poetă a noastră. 3. Sora mea a jucat rolul prinţesei. 4. Ambasadoarea a ţinut un discurs. 5. Este o fată bătrână foarte excentrică. 6. Nu cred că văduva de la parter este acasă. 7. Leoaica pe care ai văzut-o la circ a fost adusă din Africa. 8. A venit lăptăreasa azi? 9. Este plăcut când eşti servit de servitoare aşa de politicoase. 10. Toate miresele sunt frumoase. 11. Prietena fratelui meu are numai 18 ani. 12. Bunica e mândră de copiii şi nepoţii ei. 13. Este foarte dificil să ai de-a face cu astfel de paciente. 14. Toţi membrii juriului, atât juraţii, cât şi juratele, au fost de acord asupra verdictului. 15. Contele şi contesele au rang mai mic decât ducele şi ducesa. REFERENCES Bantaş, A. 1978. English and Contrastive Studies, Bucureşti, Tipografia Universităţii Broughton, G. 1990. The Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced Students, London, Penguin ELT Crystal, David, 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language, CUP Curme, G., 1966. English Grammar, New York, Barnes and Noble Gălăţeanu Fârnoagă, G., Comişel, E., 1992. Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Omegapress, Bucureşti Leech, G. and Svartik, I. 1994. A Communicative Grammar of English, London, Longman House Leviţchi, Leon, 1971. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Leviţchi, Leon, 1970. Limba engleză contemporană - Morfologia, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Murphy, R., 1992. English in use, ELOD Nedelcu, C., 2004, English Grammar, Craiova, Editura Universitaria Palmer F., 1971. Grammar, Penguin Books Pârlog H., 1995. The English Noun Phrase, Timişoara, Hestia Publishing House Quirk, R.S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartik 1976. A Grammar of Contemporary English, London, Longman Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V. 1960, 1997. A Practical English Grammar, OUP ***, 1996, Oxford English Reference Dictionary, OUP ***, 1999. MacMillan, English Dictionary for Advanced Learners 27 CHAPTER 2 THE ARTICLE Unităţi de învăţare : • The Definite article • The Indefinite article • The Zero Article Obiectivele temei: • înţelegerea modurilor de folosire a articlolul hotărât în limba engleză. Diferenţe faţă de limba română • înţelegerea modurilor de folosire a articlolul nehotărât în limba engleză. Diferenţe faţă de limba română • înţelegerea construcţiilor gramaticale în care articolul nu este folosit Timpul alocat temei : 2 ore This class includes article and other parts of speech that can replace the article before a noun, namely the demonstrative, possessive, indefinite, interogative and negative adjective (a/the/this/my/each/what the most important place within the class of determiners. It is used only as a determiner, unlike the other parts of speech which can be used both as determiners (determiner noun and as pronouns (stand for nouns). As the commonest determiner of the noun, the article is used for marking a definite, indefinite or generic reference to a noun (some articles also discharge functions borrowed from other types of determiners to which they are etymologically or grammatically related. The definite article may discharge the same function as the demonstrative adjective, the indefinite article those of the numeral ONE, the zero article may discharge the function of indefinite adjectives such as some. From the point of view of function, there are three articles in English: the definite, the indefinite and the zero articles. 2.1. The Definite Article The definite article developed from the demonstrative this/that. The definite article has the fuction of a demonstrative in those cases in which it is interchangeable with a demonstrative determiner, with no change of meaning. Eg. It is just what I want at this time. Don’t do anything of the /this/that kind. Under the/these circumstances it would be foolish to leave. The definite article also discharges the function of a demonstrative: e.g. John the Great, Richard the Lion-Hearted 28 The definite article is invariable in spelling, but pronounced ătheş in front of words begeinning with a consonant or semivowel and ăthiş before words beginning with a vowel sound. ăthiş is pronounced when it is stressed. eg. Jones is the ăthiş specialist in Kindmy trouble. The definite article can be used with singular and plural nouns. 2.1.1. The functions of the definite article 1. Individual, definite/specific/unique reference (it is a deicitic reference; deictic=pointing to) The function of the definite article is to show that the noun to which it is attached is definite, is known, is particularized in a certain context: - The preceding context (anaphoric reference) - The following context (cataphoric reference) - a) The anaphoric reference (anaphora= the use of a word) as a substitute for a previous word or group of words. The noun to which the definite article is attached by the speaker as being “known” to the interlocutor, which (generally speaking) presupposes a previous occurrence of the respective noun. (i). The antecedent may be found in the same linguistic context ( in the same sentence or in a previous sentence). e.g. I brought a book yesterday. The book seems interesting. The noun to which the definite article is attached is known because it has been introduced previously. (ii). The antecedent may be found in the non-linguistic context. The definite article is used with nouns whose reference is understood, therefore is definite in the situational context (of communication). e.g. a situational context may be: a room. If somebody says: Close the window. although the noun window hasn’t been mentioned previously, it is known by the speaker and by the interlocutor, therefore it is definite /unique in the situational context in which the alternance takes place. e.g. In a town: the townhall, the police station are definite, unique within the town that the speaker and intelocutor are in. On a broader plane, in the world, in the universe, we talk of the sun, the moon, the earth as unique elements known as a whole. b) The cataphoric reference: when the definite determination follows the noun being expressed by a relative clause or a prepositional phrase (again here the definite article is used on the basis of the linguistic context). e.g. The book that I brought yesterday seems quite interesting. The book on the table seems quite interesting. The post determiners (Relative Clauses, Prepositional Phrases) require definite articles. 2. Non-significant reference with proper names Proper names need no articles as they are definite enough in themselves, the individualization of the nouns is denoted by themselves. In other words, having unique or individual reference by themselves, proper 29 names are not expected to be used with the definite article, so the presence of the definite article is logically superfluous. This use of the definite article can be explained historically: Proper names were used as adjectives determining a noun: eg. The Atlantic Ocean Even when the determined noun (the head) was later omitted, but the proper name is still preceded by the definite article, the Atlantic. The other words, the definite article is used with those geographical names which are still felt as adjectives to which the head may be added. The definite article is used with the following classes of proper names: I. geographical names: names of oceans, seas, rivers, mountains ranges, names of countries, (which certain a common noun such as republic, state); names of canals, deserts, gulfs, etc. e.g. The Atlantic (ocean) , The Mediterranean sea, The Danube River, The USA, The Sahara Desert. II. names of institutions: hotels, restaurants, threatres, cinema, museum, libraries. e.g. The Ritz Hotel, The Atheneum , The British Museum. III. names of newspapers e.g. The Times IV. names of ships e.g The Titanic V. Proper names are used with the definite article where they are post- modified by an attribute or a clause. e.g. The England of Queen Elizabeth, but Elizabethan England. I didn’t like The Ophelia in the modern version of the play. The Paris I used to know was more beautiful now than ever. The plural of Proper name preceded by the definite article denotes a whole family. e.g. The Wilsons are going abroad 3. Generic reference when the noun is used in its general sense, as a representative of a class, as a whole. The definite article discharges this use before the singular member of countable nouns. e.g. The horse is an useful animal. Lions are animals of prey. 4. Syntactically, the definite article occurs: - before comparatives and superlatives (adjectives and adverbs) e.g. The richest (people) are not always the happiest. - before ordinal numerals e.g. the fifth lesson. The more they argued, the angrier they become. 30 - set phrases: in the main, on the one/other hand, to take the trouble, on the whole, to tell/speech, to be out of question, to be on the safe side, for the time being in the long run, by the way. What are the functions of the Definite Article? 2.2. The Indefinite Article Developed from the word one, it has 2 forms: - a used before words beginninig with consonnants or semivowels - an used before words beginning with vowel sounds: a man, a university, an egg, an hour. 2.2.1. The functions of the indefinite article It is used with singular countable nouns. 1. The Indefinite (anticipatory) epiphonic reference. The typical use of indefinite article is this epiphonic use: a(n) introduces a new element in the communication when the speaker considers that noun preceded by the indefinite article is not known to the interlocutor. e.g. I brought a book yesterday. I saw a lion at the zoo. Corresponding to indefinite a used with singular countable nouns in the indefinite determiner, some used with plural nouns. e.g. I brought (some) books yesterday. I saw some lions at the zoo. In such indefinite use it is possible to skip some but not a. The nouns that are introduced in the speech by the anticipatory a are later referred to by anaphoric the. 2. The Numeric functions a) The indefinite article as a weak form of the numeral one is used with a clear numerical value before countable nouns in the singular indicating measure or a numerical series. e.g. Wait a minute! She was silent for a (one) moment. A and one are often interchangeable. b) When used distributively, the indefinite article approaches the meaning of each/every in expressions of price, speed, radio. e.g. It costs a penny a pound. He works 8 hours a day. His rent is 100 a mouth. In numeral English, a could be replaced by the prepositions per. e.g. The brewers use barely approximately 100,000 tens per year. 3. The Generic/classifying function 31 The indefinite article can be used with countable nouns in the singular to represent a class, of things as a whole (a representative member of a class). This function is usually formal in definitions e.g. A lion is a beast of prey. or in proverbs e.g. A friend is a friend indeed. When the indefinite article is used generically it may be considered a weaker “any”. The indefinite use and the generic/classifying use of a(n) may be distinguished from each other by their different plurals. Indefinite: I saw a lion - singular I saw some lions - plural Generic: A lion is a wild animal. Lions are wild animals. Some is used with the plural corresponding to the indefinite a, but with the plural of generic a. 4. In certain syntactic constructions a) the indefinite article occurs with nouns in predicative positions (the predicate) denoting a profession, job, nationality) e.g. John was/become a teacher. He is an Englishman. No article is used when the noun designates a unique representative of a profession. e.g. He was elected president of the trade union. b) in oppositions e.g. W. Irving, an American prose writer, was born in 1793. c) after the conjunction as (meaning in the capacity of) . e.g. He worked there for several years as a designer. He was often ill as a child. No article is used if the noun designates a unique profession, rank. e.g. As chairman, I insist that nobody speak out of terms. d) after such, quite, rather, what, too, so, how. e.g. Mary is such a pretty girl! Such a pity! We had quite a party! He is rather a fool. What a pretty girl Mary is! How perfect a view! She is too kind a girl to refuse! We could not do it in so short time. How /so + adj + a +noun, usually used in the literary style are replaced in colloquial speech by what and such. e.g. How astonishing a night – What an astonishing night! So short a time - such a short time. 32 e) The determiner phrase many a followed by a singular noun phrase with singular agreement has plural meaning (it is rather literary in use): Many a+Nsg.+Vsg: e.g. Many a traveller has admired the Danube Delta. But, the determiner phrase a good/great many is followed by a plural N.P.: A good great many +Npl+Vpl: e.g. A good(great) many children were going to the demonstration. f) The indefinite article can be used with a plural construction expressing a measure and regarded as a single whole, as it can be seen from the form of the verb (in the singular). e.g. We spent a pleasant three days in the country. The show was performed for another 3 weeks. 5. In set phrases We have to bear in mind the big difference to Romanian language. In Romanian most of these set phrases have a article: to be in a hurry, take a seat, at a distance, to be a pity, to be in a rage, all of a sudden, have a mind to, take a funny to. What are the functions of the Indefinite Article? 2.3. The Zero Article It occurs with all the categories of nouns, singular and plural, countable and uncountable nouns. 2.3.1. The functions of zero article are: 1. The generic function/ reference It is the typical function of the zero article. The zero article is characteristically a generic determiner in which function it used before: a) uncountable nouns – concrete or abstract nouns The use of the zero article with such nouns viewed in general is in opposition with the use of the zero article when referring to a concrete/definite noun grammatically: when the noun is determined, when it is followed by a post-modifier, a relative clause, a prepositional phrase. e.g. Water is necessary to life. (concrete noun) We have to notice that the use of the zero article before a mass noun: water is viewed in general, as unlimited material. The water in the jug is not fresh. We have to notice that the definite article is required because the post- modifying phrase in this jug makes the fact that the water refers to a definite quantity. e.g. Friendship is a noble feeling. (abstract noun) The friendship between the two writers lasted long. 33 We have to notice that the definite article is required because the post- modifing phrase between two writers makes the friendship to have an unique reference. Other abstract nouns free of articles: nature, society. e.g. We have duties to society as well as to ourselves. b) countable nouns: (i). countable nouns in the plural: plural nouns preceded by the zero article denote an indefinite number: e.g. Books are useful to a scholar. Children like to play. The some opposition can be established here between the use of the zero article with the use of the definite article: when a post modifier construction limits the meaning of the noun to a specify member, the noun is preceded by the definite article. e.g. The books for this course are available to any library. (ii). countable nouns in the singular (man/woman) e.g. Nature has been changed by man. Man is an intelligent being. When the generic use of the articles proves to be syntactically relevant, the general nouns, the concrete nouns are accompanied by the definite article while abstract nouns have the zero article. There is a large category of nouns which are used either with the definite article or with the zero article depending on whether their meaning – is considered as concrete or abstract (A typical example is school: to go to school means attend school, while to go to the school means go to the place where school building is located). (iii). with nouns expressing buildings and places such as: college, school, hospital, prison, jail, town, bed, table, the zero article is used when reference is made to the activity performed, while the definite article is used when they refer to the concrete meaning. e.g. I was late going to bed. (go to sleep) She flung herself down on the bed. Some opposition can be formed with nouns denoting seasons, names of meals. e.g. I like winter. Cricket is played in summer. But where talking about a particular, concrete season, we use the definite article (the definite article has a demonstrative value = this/that) e.g. The autumn was cold. (that autumn) We shall go to the seaside in the summer. (this summer) The first meal of the day is breakfast. The definite article is used when the reference is made to a particular meal. e.g. The breakfast they offered was very good. 2. Individual, definite (or unique) reference (non-significant reference) 34 (i). Proper names No article is necessary, the definite article is not used with proper names, because they are unique names and thus they have unique reference. The zero article is used with: a) names of people (also when accompanied by a close apposition or by an attribute which expresses an intrinsic quality). e.g. Peter, Dr. Brown, King Lears, Joljon, Poor Tom. Note 1: But the titles (doctor, etc.) used without proper names are preceded by the definite article. e.g. The doctor was sent for in the middle in the night. Note 2: the group Adj+Pr. Name takes the definite article when the adjective is defining or contracting. e.g. The brave Admiral Nelson was celebrated by all people. Nouns denoting members of the family (father, mother, aunt) are used with zero article and thus they are treated as proper names. Compare: e.g. Father is out, but mother is in. (the speaker refers to his own mother) But, The father was the completely wrong. (the speaker refers to a strange person) b) geographical names: the zero article is used with names of continents, countries, regions, districts, towns, cities, lakes, peaks. E.g. Europe, Egypt, Moldavia, London, Lake Ontario, Mount Everest Exceptions: The Sudan, The Cong, The Hague. The zero article is also used when the names of continents, countries have a geographical or historical attribute (when the adjective is used only for describing). e.g. Northern America, Western Europe, ancient Egypt, but, the England of Queen Victoria (post-modification). The zero article is also used with names of parks, buildings, streets, in which the proper name is followed by a common name. e.g. Hyde Park, Oxford Street. c) Calendar items: festivals, months and day of the week. e.g. Christmas, Easter, in January, on Monday. But when the nouns are particularized by an attribute they take the definite article. e.g. On the following Monday. 3. The Z.A. in Set Phrases. In parallel/symmetrical constructions: day by day, face to face, from morning till night, from beginning to end. Other set phrases: take offence, give permission, by hand. What are the functions of the Zero Article? 35 2.4. The Omission/ ellipsis of the articles The omission or ellipsis of the article is a stylistically marked form used in telegrams, journalese (newspaper advertisements and headlines) stage directions, colloquial language, usually practised for economy of space. e.g. (A) plane crashes on (the) motorway. George goes (the) table (on the) left. Colloquial language: (It is a ) pity they won’t be there. (Is the) car still not working. The omission of the articles is to be clearly distinguished from the zero article. Compare: a) Salt is necessary in cooking. b) Urgent deliver salt to ASTY retailer. In the first example, we have to do with a special kind of determination- the zero article -with a mass noun for generic reference. In the second example we have to do with the omission of the determiner. The definite article is used with definite, unique reference. In normal circumstances, without omission, the second sentence (the text of a telegram) would be: it is urgent to deliver the salt to the retailer from ASTY. In the second example the article can be inserted in the place from which it has been omitted. State the difference between the Zero Article and the omission of the article. 2.5. Exercises: 1. Insert definite, indefinite and zero articles where necessary in the following sentences: 1. What … man has done, … man can do. 2. He wanted to be … race-horse and win … Derby. 3. … horse has come home. 4. Why not turn … linguist? 5. … books filled shelves. 6. He believes in … woman. 7. He is afraid of nothing, … man or … beast. 8. More and more girls want to become … Nadia Comaneci. 9. He insisted on … nap in … sun. 10. We do not sell … pepper by… weight, we sell it by … box. 11. He was sitting there, … cap in … hand, speaking in … whisper. 12. He is away on … trip to … West Germany, … Netherlands, … United States. 13. He is always in … hurry. 14. Do you think our pattern of … life will have changed a lot by … year 2000? 15. He made them … man and … wife. 16. … plane was on … domestic flight to … Alexandria on … Mediterranean Sea. 17. We have no job for you whether you are … accountant or … builder. 18. They have been … directors of … mine, … father and … son for six years. 19. Johnson, who is … professor of sociology at … University of Essex, is … member of … executive. 20. In … early society, …women were men’s equal and occupied … leading position in … household and in … society. 36 2. Supply the necessary articles in the following sentences: 1. Long before … birth of … Cristopher Columbus … people in Europe believed that … earthly paradise, … land of … plenty, with … perfect climate lay to … west across … Atlantic Ocean. 2. In his letter … Columbus wrote of … Carribean landscape and described … abundance and … fertility of … newly-found islands. 3. In … reply he sent home from … other side of … Atlantic, he wrote “… islands are fertile to … extraordinary degree. There are … trees of … thousand kinds, some in … flower, some with … fruit.” 4. From … West Indies he wrote: “I learnt by … signs that there was … king in … south, who owned many vessels filled with … gold.” 5. When … later explorers reached … Andes and found … gold for … taking, it seemed that their dreams of … paradise on … earth had at last come true. 3. Translate into English: 1. Mi s-a spus că s-a făcut un anunţ special la radio azi dimineaţă. 2. Doctorul Taylor lucrează la un spital londonez lângă teatrul Old Vic. 3. Îi place viaţa, dar nu a avut o viaţă prea interesantă. 4. Ce faceţi voi dacă nu găsiţi banii care vă trebuie? 4. Omenirea a visat întotdeauna la spaţiul cosmic. 5. Organizaţia Naţiunilor Unite militează pentru colaborarea între popoare. 6. Călătoreau ziua. 7. E professor bun? 8. Vă declar soţ şi soţie. 9. Aseară a avut loc o premieră la Operă. 10. Tare aş vrea să am un tablou de Baba. 11. În drum spre casă, domnul Ionescu, preşedintele Asociaţiei apicultorilor, va face o escală la Otopeni. 12. Creangă s-a născut la Humuleşti. 13. Nu scrieţi cu stiloul, scrieţi cu cerneală. 14. Meseria de olar nu este o raritate în România. 15. N sunt în măsură să vă spun dacă metodele au fost introduse pe scară largă. 16. Îl considerăm sportive bun. 17. De regulă li se spune oamenilor să viziteze Galeria Tate şi Muzeul Britanic. 18. Dacă va fi numit director, o să încurajeze tinerii specialişti. 19. Am sa îţi spun altă dată, acum mă grăbesc. 20. E timpul să pui capăt acestei situaţii ridicole. REFERENCES Berry, Roger, 1993. English Guides, Articles, Harper-Collins Publishers, Birmingham Berry, Roger, Page V, Collins/Cobuild, 1993. Articles, The University of Birmingham Broughton, G. 1990. The Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced Students, London, Penguin ELT Crystal, David, 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language, CUP Curme, G., 1966. English Grammar, New York, Barnes and Noble Gălăţeanu Fârnoagă, G., Comişel, E., 1992. Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Omegapress, Bucureşti Jespersen, O. 1965. Essentials of English Grammar. London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 37 Leech, G. and Svartik, I. 1994. A Communicative Grammar of English, London, Longman House Leviţchi, Leon, 1971. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Leviţchi, Leon, 1970. Limba engleză contemporană - Morfologia, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Leviţchi, Leon. 1968, 1993. Sinonime în gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Ed. Ştiinţifică Murphy, R., 1992. English in use, ELOD Nedelcu, C., 2004, English Grammar, Craiova, Editura Universitaria Palmer F., 1971. Grammar, Penguin Books Quirk, R.S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartik 1976. A Grammar of Contemporary English, London, Longman Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V. 1960, 1997. A Practical English Grammar, OUP ***, 1996, Oxford English Reference Dictionary, OUP ***, 1999. MacMillan, English Dictionary for Advanced Learners 38 CHAPTER 3 THE ADJECTIVE Unităţi de învăţare : • The form of the adjective • The functions of adjectives: attributive and predicative • The degrees of comparison Obiectivele temei: • înţelegerea modurilor de formare a adjectivelor prin afixare şi compunere • cunoaşterea conceptului de categorie gramaticală a adjectivului. Diferenţe între limba română şi engleză • însuşirea funcţiilor pe care le poate avea adjectivul în limba engleză • înţelegerea modului de formare a gradelor de comparaţie Timpul alocat temei : 2 ore The adjective is the part of speech that, just like the noun can be defined from the point of view of the 3 criteria (semantic, morphological and syntactic). a) From semantic point of view, the adjective denotes some characteristic of an object. b) From the morphological point of view, the adjective has the grammatical category of comparison. c) From the syntactic point of view, the adjective has the syntactic function of an attribute, predicative, apposition, complement (in Romanian we call it ‘nume predicativ suplimentar’) in the sentence. 3.1. The form of the adjective 1) Apart from those adjectives that have no specific endings (small, long), some adjectives expressing qualities have several specific endings / suffixes. Those are derived from other parts of speech by means, meaning that they can be identified by these suffixes. Derivational suffixes: -ful: useful, handful -ly: friendly, lovely, deadly -ish: childish, greenish -ible/able: valuable, credible -ous: famous, courageous -less: careless, useless -y: rainy, dirty -some: tiresome, troublesome 2) Conversion: The analytical system of Modern English makes it possible not only for adjectives, but for any part of speech, or even word combinations that convey a quality or feature to be used as an attribute in pre- position (before a noun). 39 a) nouns: the great bulk of relative adjectives is supplied by converted nouns e.g. a brick house – denominal adjective When a noun (house) is used as adjective before another noun it is always used in singular, even if its meaning is plural e.g. a horse race - a race of horses. There are some exceptions: some nouns in –s (sports, customs, clothes) as well as some sg nouns ending in –ics (athletics, economics) are used as adjectives without any change. e.g. a sports car, a clothes shop, a mathematics teacher They have to be used in the plural become these words have meaning that are different from the adjectives that end in –ic. Compare: Some converted nouns have corresponding adjectives ending in –en or –y. In each synonymic pair, the converted noun denotes the material a thing is made of while the proper adjective ending in -en/-y has a qualitative meaning, especially a figurative one. b)Verbs: the verbal forms used are participle (present or past participle) (i). The present participle (v-ing form) e.g. an amazing success, a surprising attitude, the coming year, singing birds. Such -ing forms can be used into Relative/Attribute Clauses: e.g. a success that amazed everyone (ii). The Past Participle (v-ed forms) e.g. a tired expression, a broken window, the results obtained A few past participles take the –en suffixes when are used as adjectives, but they take the –ed or the suffix when are used with a verbal function (to form perfective tenses: present/past/perfect) The verbs that have two past participle are: e.g. Sink-sunk-sunken; melt-melted/molten Drink-drunk-drunken; shrink-shrunk-/en swell-swelled-swollen; shave-shaved-shaved e.g. The storm has sunk the ship - sunken eyes For a few others, there is no difference between adjectives and the verbal participle in spelling but there is in pronunciation: in adjectives the suffix –ed is pronounced [id] e.g. a learned man/I have learned this poem; also an aged women c) Compound adjectives - are very frequent in contemporary English. The most frequent patterns in which they occur are: (i). Adj + Past Participle: e.g. hard-boiled egg (ii). N + Adj.: Most of them are derived from implicit or explicit Relative clauses e.g. ice-cold water - water which are as cold as ice world-famous sportsman - a sportsman who are famous all over 40 (iii). N + Past Participle/Present Participle e.g. a hand-made object - an object which is made by hand a peace-loving person - a person who love peace (iv). Numeral + N: The noun in the compound often occurs in the singular form even it is preceded by numerals higher than one: e.g. five pounds - a five pound note; six-pence - a six-penny note a three-week trip - a trip which lasts three weeks (v). Adv + Past Participle: e.g. well-bred person, well-meant remark (vi). Adj + N + -ed: the construction occurs with: - parts of the body: e.g. thin-faced, grey-haired; blue-eyed - also figuratively: e.g. cool-headed; broad-minded - pieces of clothing: e.g. long-sleeved, white-collared - miscellaneous: e.g. thick-leavel, long-shaped (vii). Adv + Adj. e.g. evergreen plants, wide-open window (viii). Verb + Noun e.g. a telltale signal (ix). Verb + Verb e.g. a would-be champion (x). Verb + Adv e.g. a runaway criminal (xi). N + N e.g. a sound-proof room (xii). Prepositional groups: e.g. an out-of-the-way an out-of-the-date theory, a do-it-yourself kit; a stay-at-home-wife Enumerate at least 5 ways of forming adjectives (simple and compound) 3.2. The functions of the adjectives Two factors are generally considered to be characteristics of adjectives: their function and the grammatical category of comparison. I. The functions of adjectives. The most frequent are attribute or predicative function in the sentence. (i). The attributive function 41 The adjective discharges the functions of an attribute when it is placed before or sometimes immediately after the noun to which it refers. a) Adjectives in English are usually placed in front of the noun which they modify or determine. This position is so relevant for adjective that any word or group of words placed in the position has the function of an attribute. When a noun is preceded by 2 or more adjectives, the question of their relative position rises. The adjectives in attributive position come in the following order (although no normal nominal group- NP- is likely to have a representative in each column): b) Another position in English is immediately after the noun 1. This position belongs chiefly to the literary style. e.g. Once upon a midnight dreary 2. It is also found in some set-phrases of French and Latin origin e.g. secretary general, court martial, poet laureate, time immemorial 3. If the adjective is expended (modified, qualified) by a word or phrase; e.g. It was an ugly house - it was a house ugly with decay a clever boy - a boy clever at games 4. If the adjective is part of an expression of measurement (weight, age) e.g. a wall six feet high, ten years old, two miles long 5. Adjectives ending in -able, -ible are placed after the noun (if this is preceded by a superlative or by only) e.g. He was driving at the greatest speed possible. 6. After indefinite pronouns ending in -thing/-body/-one. e.g. She brought some thing nice. He said nothing interesting. 7. A few adjectives are found in both positions with a difference in meaning; e.g. present, proper; The present members After the introduction we started the meaning proper (itself). Proper follows the noun when it means itself /themselves; before the noun it means real, genuine. (ii). The predicative function When an adjective is connected with a noun by means of a link verb it has a predicative function. Some verbs require adjectives instead of adverbs. These verbs are: - verbs of seeming: to seem, to appear - verbs of becoming: to become - verbs of continuing: to go on, to continue - verbs of physical perception: to feel, to hear, to smell, to taste Words like nervous, good, perfect do not show how the action is fulfilled, but how the subject is, having the function of an adjective, not that of an adverb. The same verbs can be accompanied by adverbs which show us how the action is fulfilled; 42 e.g. She taste the food slowly. He sounded the bell furiously. Predicative adjectives with complementation When used in the predicative function some adjectives can be followed by: a) a prepositional phrase in 2 patterns: - Preposition + NP e.g. I was angry to him/at the delay. - Preposition + V-ing e.g. I was angry at seeing such a great disorder. b) an infinitival phrase. Some adjectives such as glad, happy, pleased, sory, difficult, hard, certain, likely. e.g. I was very glad to see him. She is certain to be in. c) a clause e.g. I was glad that you came. (iii). Adjectives used attributively and predicatively In most cases, an adjective can be used both attributively and predicatively. e.g. This is a good book – the book is good. However, some adjectives can only occur in one of these 2 positions. a) Adjectives used only attributively - adjectives ending in -en, derived from nouns (denominal adjective) e.g. a wooden box, a woollen dress. - adjectives denoting material e.g. a stone box These adjectives can’t be used in predicative position. e.g. *The box is wooden. The corresponding concept is expressed predicatevely by OF + Noun e.g. The box is made of wood. The adjectives in -en only when used figuratively can be used both attributive and predicative. e.g. Her face turned ashen at the news. - the adjectives : joint, live, mere, sheer, little, late e.g. sheer luck. We can not say: *Her luck was sheer. - adjectives referring to time (ending in -ly or converted from nouns) e.g. a daily /morning newspaper - adjectives ending in -ie (-el) derived from nouns e.g. atomic energy, a chemical plant, a lyric poet 43 - adjectives denoting cardinal points e.g. Romania lies in Eastern Europe. - the adjectives which are past-participles e.g. drunken-man, sunken-eye - a few adjectives in -er that are not longer recognized as comparatives: former, inner e.g. the former manager. We can not say *The manager is former. b) Adjectives used only predicatively - adjectives derived by means of the prefix -a When used attributively, some of the above mentioned adjectives are replaced by a synonym. e.g. She is afraid of mice./The frightened child. He is alone in the house./ A solitary man. Some of these adjectives may be used attributively when they are preceded by an adverbs. e.g. fully awake person, a very ashamed child - the adjectives: content, drunk, poorly, ready, well, worth e.g. I am feeling quite content. c) Adjectives which can be used in both positions: attributively and predicatively , but with a difference in meaning - glad: is used mainly in a predicative position e.g. I am glad to hear you can come Attributively, the corresponding concept is expressed by happy e.g. She has a happy life. In attributive position, glad occurs chiefly in phrases: glad news (joyful, to give sb the glad eye) - ill: is used mainly in a predicative position e.g. He has been ill. It occurs in an attributive position in certain phrases with the meaning of “bad”, “evil” e.g. ill-fame, ill-luck, ill-temper, to have an ill effect on the mind - sorry: is used chiefly in a predicative position e.g. I fell sorry for you. Where is used attributively , it means “sad”, “pitiful”, “worthless” e.g. a sorry sight, a sorry excuse - sick: used attributively means “awful” e.g. a sick man (with his meaning in American English sick is common in predicative position). Used predicatively sick means “suffering from nausea”, “vomiting”. 44 What are the functions of the adjective? Give at least 5 examples of adjectives whose meaning changes when used attributively / predicatively. 3.3. The degrees of comparison Comparison refers to the forms assumed by an adjective to show that a quality may exist in various degrees with two objects or with one and the same object at various moments. Comparison applies to all those adjectives which refer to values on a scale, to adjectives that are gradable. On the whole, qualitative adjectives of all kinds form degrees of comparison. Some adjectives can not be compared. Some of them are superlative intrinsically, expressing a quality in its highest degree even in their basic form: excellent, perfect, superb, extreme, exceptional, exquisite. Some of them are superlative etymologically: e.g. maximum, optimum, or comparatives: superior, inferior, major, minor; others refer to material: e.g. wooden, woollen; or adjectivized nouns: e.g. iron, glass; and therefore the possibility for grading them is not normally preceded. A further category is that of adjectives of a rather general nature, hardly conceivable in comparison with other elements: e.g. chemical, alternative Like in Romanian, there are three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. I. The Positive degree It is the basic form of the adjective, it does not imply a comparison with another quality. II. The Comparative degree It expresses the comparison between 2 or more objects enjoying the same quality or between the quality of the same object. III. The Superlative degree It shows quality of an object is in the higher degree. 3.3.1. Formation of the degrees of comparison There are 2 regular ways of making the category of comparison, and an irregular one. a) the synthetic (inflectional) comparison: the comparative and superlative are formed by adding the suffix -er or -est to the positive form of the adjective. This type of comparison is used with: - monosyllabic (one-syllable) adjectives; e.g. short/er/est - some disyllabic (two-syllable) adjectives ending in -y/-ow/-le/-er 45 e.g. happy/happier/est; narrow/er/est simple/er/est; clever/er/est Exceptions: proper, hostile, fragile, eager take the analytical comparison. The suffix -most is found as the superlative sign in a number of words, most of which indicate locality, space, position, some are formed with the comparative: inner most, upper most - other with the positive degree of the adjective or adverb: kindmost, foremost, - others again to nouns: rearmost, his innermost thoughts (wide, furthest) b) the analytic (periphrastic) comparison: the comparative and superlative are formed by means of the adverb more and the most with: - polysyllabic adjectives; e.g. interesting/more/the most interesting - adjectives derived from present or past participle e.g. boring/more/the most boring valued/more/the most valued - certain adjectives commonly found only in predicative case, such as afraid, alive, alone. Some monosyllabic adjectives, such as: calm, cross, fit, fond, frank, grave, prompt, right, and some disyllabic adjectives, such as common, eager, pleasant, precise, sincere display both patterns of comparison. When the comparative expresses a comparison of two qualities in the same person or thing, the analytic form is commonly used: e.g. She is more kind than intelligent c) The irregular comparison The irregularly compared adjectives are those adjectives whose forms for comparison are irregular. Some irregularities in the comparative and superlative forms are due to the fact that they come from different bases. - good-better-the best e.g. His marks are good, but they were better, last. Men of few words are the best men. - bad/worse/the worst - little-less/lesser-the least Little has two meanings. (i). having the meaning of the qualitative adjective “small” used with countable nouns, little is not normally compared. The possible comparative is younger, the superlative the youngest. e.g. John is a little boy. He is Mary’s youngest son. (ii). having the meaning of a quantifier determiner used with material and abstract nouns (uncountable nouns), little has the comparative less, the superlative the least. e.g. He gives us a little trouble. Less money is needed now. A differentiation has taken place between less and lesser to that less to quality and it is attached to uncountable nouns while lesser refers to value or 46 importance and it is attached to countable nouns. Lesser is more literary and it is used only attributively. e.g He has less time than I have. Choose the lesser of two evils; to a lesser degree. - much-many/more/the most e.g. He has much money. His father has more. Their grandfather has the most. We have many books, but our school library has even more. Some other adjectives have the comparative and superlative formed by contraction, vowel change and epesithesis. These adjectives have double forms in the comparative and superlative: - far/farther-further/the farthest-the furthest The forms farther- the farthest are used with reference to distance in space. e.g. The village was farther than we had expected. Pluto is he fathest planet. The forms further- the furthest can be used with reference to distance in space. e.g. The isle is a mile further on, but these forms have acquired another meaning as well: “addition”, “besides”, . e.g I need no further bibliography for my paper. The forms of superlative the farthermost and the furthermost express an even higher degree than the corresponding forms farther, furthest, meaning “the most distant”. e.g. Scientific expeditions are studying the furthermost ends of the Antarctic. - near/nearer/the nearest- next The nearest refers to distance, space, “closest” while next refers to time, order, succession, “immediately following”. e.g. The nearest house is 3 miles away. Next time you see your parents remember me to them. - late/later-latter/the latest/last Late and later /the latest are used with the basic meaning of time e.g. Today the evening train is later than usual. The latest means “the most recent”, “the last up to now” e.g. This is the latest fashion. Latter and last are used with reference to order, sequence. Latter is used: (i). in the sense of “the second”. e.g. The latter half of January was cold. (ii). in contrast to former, meaning “the second”. e.g. The Whigs and the Torries are names of political parties in England: the former is no longer used today, but the latter is still common. 47 Last is used as the apposite of “first”. e.g. I spent my last money yesterday. He was the last person to call. - old/older-elder/the oldest/the eldest The regular forms older, the oldest are used to denote age and length of time; they are used with reference to people and things. e.g. When you get a little older, you’ll understand. This is the oldest monument in our city. Elder and the eldest are semantically used only with reference to people. They are chiefly used with reference to persons connected by kinship (members of the same family). Syntactically, they usually occur attributively (before a noun). e.g. His elder sister is 10 years older than he is. I have 3 elder brothers. Elder and the eldest may be used predicatively if they are preceded by a determiner (definite articles, possessive adjectives) . e.g. Here are my children: this is the eldest. Elder and the eldest are also used when we speak of people higher in rank or of authorities; elder is frequently substantivized. e.g. He is the eldest and most respected member of the collectivity. The experience of our leaders is of great help to us. Comparison of compound adjectives Compound adjectives form the degree of comparison in two ways, depending on the fusion of the elements. (i). when the first element is an adjective that presents its meaning, this is changed in the comparative and superlative. e.g. well known/ better known/ the best known intelligent boy/ more intelligent boy/ the most intelligent boy (ii). when the two elements make up a whole from the point of view of meaning, the comparison is achieved by means of more and the most. e.g. heart broken/ more heart broken/ the most heart broken The Uses of the Comparative I. The comparative degree a) Comparison of equality Quality is expresses by means of an adjective in the positive degree placed between the conjunction as … as. e.g. He is as tall as his father. A great number of idioms are based on comparatives of equality (though the idea of superlative is implied): similarities: as black as pitch, as busy as a bee, as sweet as honey, sometimes the first conjuction as which precedes the adjective may be omitted. e.g. The wall is black as pitch. b) Comparison of inferiority can be indicated in two ways: 48 (i). by means of the adverb less placed before the adjective in the positive degree e.g. This book is less interesting than that one. Less is generally not used with one-sylalble adjectives. (ii). by means of the negative form of the comparative of equality not so/as ….as is prefered with short adjectives (the construction not as … as is prefered in spoken English). e.g. This book is not so/as interesting as that one. c) Comparison of superiority is expressed by means of the comparative degree of the adjective. In constructing a sentence in the comparative of superiority, the basic of comparison can be: - implied by the whole context and then the comparative sentence does not contain the basic form of the adjective e.g. the lower classes, the younger generation. She is much better today. - made fully explicit, being introduced by means of the conjuction than. e.g. John is more stupid than Bob (is). He is older than I am. The pronoun in formal English remains in the nominative case because it is still considered to be the subject of the verb, even if the verb is not expressed; however, in informal English, the pronoun is often into the Accusative Case: than me. When the pronoun is used with a verb, only subject pronouns are possible. e.g. Lucy made more mistakes than I did. After a few comparisons taken from Latin: superior, inferior, exterior, posterior, junior, senior, the conjunction than is replaced by the preposition to. e.g. Our team is superior to yours. When only two things or persons are being compared, the comparative (instead of the superlative) is preceded by the definite article. e.g. His two sons look the same age: which is the older? I like Betty and Harry, but I think Betty’s the nicer of the two. The comparative of superiority occurs in same special constructions. (i). gradual increase or continuing change is expressed by two comparatives, joined by means of the conjunction and in the case of monosyllabic adjectives by repeating the comparative form of the respective adjective, and in the case of polysyllabic adjectives by repeating more and more. e.g. The house is bigger and bigger. More and more people are buying cars. (ii). the emphatic, intensifying force can also be rendered by certain words, used before the comparative such as: much, by far, ever, still, a great deal, not at all. e.g. This book is much better than that one. Anne is cleverer by far than her brother. It would be a great deal better for us to go there now. Henry is nice, but his brother is even nicer. 49 (iii). prepositional or parallel increase is expressed by the comparative preceded by the in correlation with a similar comparative: The + Adj in comparative form + Subject + Verb +the +Adjective in comparative + Subject + Verb. The pattern expresses that the degree of one quality or characteristic is dependent upon the degree of another. e.g. The older he gets, the wiser he is. The better you behave, the more popular you will become. The verb to be may be absent from the 2 sentences. e.g. The harder the task, the greater satisfaction. The more hurry, the less speed. b) The superlative degree It shows a quality in its highest degree in comparison with other objects. It is expressed by means of the superlative degree of the adjective. e.g. The adjective in the superlative is usually preceded by the definite article the. The head (the qualified noun) is usually followed by a prepositional phrase (usually introduced by in, sometimes by of) or by a Relative clause. e.g. He is the happiest men in the world. Roses are the most beautiful of flowers. Of is possible after a superlative without a noun phrase. (i). The Relative Superlative The definite article in front of the Relative Superlative is sometimes omitted when the thing spoken of is not compared, but regarded as possessing a certain quality in a very high degree. In other words, it is equivalent to Absolute Superlative. e.g. The sky was palest blue. The Relative Superlative may be intensified by very, much, far. e.g. He is much the most imaginative of them all. The organization was by far the most powerful. This is the very good book. The Relative Superlative may also be intensified by means of adjectives such as imaginable, possible, placed after the determiner noun. e.g. I hope you’ll have the finest weather possible. I have read the worst novel imaginable. (ii). The Absolute Superlative It shows a quality in its highest degree without a comparison with other objects. It is usually formed by means of the adverb very placed before the adjective in the positive degree. e.g. I have read a very nice/interesting book. Numerous adjectives derived from past participles used predicatively form their Absolute Superlative by means of much or very much. They cannot be preceded by very alone. Other adverbs that can be used are: greatly, quite particularly, deeply. e.g. The financial situation seems to be (very) much improved. 50 We are (very) much obliged to you/greatly obliged. I was very much surprised to hear it. When used attributively, adjectives derived from part participle can form the Absolute Superlative with very, but not all of these adjectives can. e.g. He is a very celebrated actor /a well-known writer. There was a very surprised look on his face. Very is not often used with some of the adjectives in predicative position beginning with a; thus, instead of very awake we say widely awake, instead of very alone we say very much alone/all alone/very lonely. Other means of expressing the Absolute Superlative: There are some other adverbs which can fulfill the same function as very, but implying shades of meaning or stylistic changes they are more emphatic than very. - the most + the adjective in the positive degree: the most used without any article or with the indefinite article is synonymous with very (it is a strengthened very). e.g. She is most beautiful (means that she is extremely beautiful, and not that she is more beautiful than all). Everybody was most kind to me. - much/far + too + the adjective in the positive degree e.g. It is far too difficult. - too is also commonly used (especially in American English) as a synonym of very negative sentences. e.g. I don’t feel too good. - we can also achieve an intensifying effect by using the adverbs: extremely, mightily, highly, quite remarkable, awfully, terribly, frightfully, dreadfully, utterly + the adjective in the positive degree e.g. His activity is highly satisfactory. It is awfully kind to you. That’s terribly nice to Ann. I am dreadfully sorry. - quite + an ungradable adjective which are intrinsically superlative expresses the idea of completeness, i.e. full, wrong, right, sure, certain or with a strong adjective such as: perfect, amazing, extraordinary. e.g. You’re quite wrong. It is quite extraordinary. I can’t understand it al all. We can also achieve an intensifying effect by repeating attributive adjectives or degree intensifiers: e.g. an old, old man = a very old man It is very, very good = extremely good. State the differences between the regular and irregular comparison of adjectives. Give at least 5 examples of means of expressing the Absolute Superlative. 51 3.4. Exercises: 1. Form adjectives from the following nouns: accident, winter, faith, grace, influence, economy, autumn, occasion, poison, sympathy, comfort, expression, fire, man, charity, method, hero, danger, custom, affection, skill, ocean, suspicion, melody, volcano, fear, person, boy, nature, mania. 2. Put the adjectives in brackets into the correct form: 1. Bucharest is (far) from Madrid than from Paris. 2. Geroge is (tall) boy in the class. 3. Your homework is (bad) than hers. 4. These books are not (expensive) as the other ones. 5. His car is (good) than mine. 6. You have as (many) pencils as me. 7. Peter is (clever) boy in school. 8. Books are … and … nowadays (expensive). 9. She was kind and gave me (far) information. 10. My (old) sister works in one of the (old) schools in town. 11. Lucy and Peter are in theie room: the (fore) is reading, the (late) is watching TV. 12. Yersterday’s weather was (bad) than today’s. 3. Translate into English: 1. Am admirat peisajele pitoreşti. 2. Cred că a fost bine intenţionat, dar e limpede ca bună ziua că nu a reuşit să găsească cele mai bune soluţii. 3. Călătoriile în spaţiul cosmic devin din ce în ce mai frecvente. 4. Fiul meu este cu trei ani mai mare decât el. 5. Ultimele ştiri sunt încurajatoare. 6. Aceste aspecte ale problemei sunt mai puţin interesante decât cele precedente. 7. Ţie îţi e şi mai frică decât lor că preţurile or sa devină mai mari. 8. Uitându-mă la cei doi copii, nu îmi vine să cred că primul este la fel de mare ca şi al doilea. 9. Cu cât îmbătrânim, cu atât devenim mai înţelepţi. 10. M-am oprit la poştă şi i- am trimis fostului meu profesor o carte poştală. 11. Era foarte mulţumită că putea să îi ajute pe cei săraci. 12. Erau destui oameni care îl puteau ajuta. 13. Au intrat în clasă doi câte doi. 14. Noi mergem la munte o dată la două săptămâni. REFERENCES Bantaş, A. 1978. English and Contrastive Studies, Bucureşti, Tipografia Universităţii Bantaş, A. 1996. Descriptive English Syntax, Iaşi, Institutul European Broughton, G. 1990. The Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced Students, London, Penguin ELT Crystal, David, 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language, CUP Gruia, George, 2002. A Concise English Grammar, Ed. Grupus, Craiova Jespersen, O. 1965. Essentials of English Grammar. London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Leech, G. and Svartik, I. 1994. A Communicative Grammar of English, London, Longman House Leviţchi, Leon, 1971. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Leviţchi, Leon, 1970. Limba engleză contemporană - Morfologia, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică 52 Murphy, R., 1992. English in use, ELOD Nedelcu, C., 2004, English Grammar, Craiova, Editura Universitaria Palmer F., 1971. Grammar, Penguin Books Pârlog H., 1982. More on the Superlatives. AUT, XX, pp. 85-88 Quirk, R.S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartik 1976. A Grammar of Contemporary English, London, Longman Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V. 1960, 1997. A Practical English Grammar, OUP ***, 1996, Oxford English Reference Dictionary, OUP ***, 1999. MacMillan, English Dictionary for Advanced Learners 53 CHAPTER 4 THE NUMERAL Unităţi de învăţare • Definition of numerals • Classification of numerals Obiectivele temei • înţelegerea părţii de vorbire a numeralului • formarea capacităţii de a identifica diferitele tipuri de numerale Timpul alocat temei : 2 ore 4.1. Definition The numeral is a word that denotes an abstract number or the abstract numerical order of objects; it can be a noun, an adjective or a pronoun. The questions they answer are: how many?; how much?; which? Irrespective of their morphological status, numerals are invariable: e.g. Ten multiplied by two is twenty. (noun) Ten books are on the desk. (adjective) The first has been the fastest. (pronoun) 4.2. The Classification of numerals: Numerals can be classified according to various criteria: (i). according to the form: a. simple: one, two, twenty b. compound: sixty five c. by derivation: thirteen, fourteen and all the ordinal numerals (ii). according to content: a. cardinal numerals b. ordinal numerals c. fractional numerals d. multiplicative numerals e. distributive numerals f. adverbial numerals of recurrence ii.a. Cardinal numerals show the number of objects: one, two, ten, three thousand, seven hundred, two million, four billion Notes: - numerals hundred, thousand, million, billion do not get a plural suffix when used with numbers: e.g. 3,000 = three thousand, 4,000,000 = 4 million However, when we use them to show an indefinite number, they can be used in plural: e.g. There are thousands and thousands of people on the streets. There are ten of millions of people in the library. 54 - use and before the tens: e.g. 1,124 = one thousand, one hundred and twenty-four - a comma (,) is used instead of a full stop to separate millions from hundreds of thousands, thousands from hundreds: e.g. 3,125,879 - use a full stop instead of a comma in decimal fractions: e.g. 5.7 - years are read as follows: the first two figures together and the last two together: e.g. 1984 = nineteen eighty-four - the cardinal numeral is also used instead of the ordinal numeral to show the number of a house, bus, flat, chapter, section, volume: e.g. chapter 2, flat eleven - telephone numbers can be read in several ways. They are usually read figure by figure if the figures are different: e.g. 45.25. 35 = forty-five twenty-five thirty-five If the figures are identical we can use the word double: e.g. 45.22.35 = forty-five double two thirty-five - the figure zero is used in the following ways: - zero is used to express temperatures, in mathematics - oh is used when reading long numbers - nil is used to express scores in games - love is used to express scores in tennis - telling the time: the traditional way of telling the time uses prepositions (past and to) and cardinal numerals for hours and minutes, e.g. it is twenty to five. There is a newer form that has been imposed by international use (flights, trains tec) and which consists of the juxtaposition of two cardinal numbers, the first telling the hour and the second telling the minutes, e.g. four twenty (a.m. or p.m.). ii.b. Ordinal numerals When we want to identify or indicate something by indicating where it comes in a series or sequence, the ordinal numbers are used. They are formed with the help of the suffix –th added to their equivalents, except the first three numbers which have irregular forms, and the compound numbers with which only the last figure gets in ordinal form: e.g. the first the second the third the fourth the fifth etc. Except the first three ordinal numerals whose form is different, the others are formed from the cardinal numeral, and all are preceded by the. 55 Uses: telling the date: the date may be written in various ways, but it is read as follows: the + the numeral + of + name of the month and then the year, e.g. June, 4 th , 2000 = the fourth of June, two thousand etc. to show regular intervals, e.g. every third week = o dată la trei săptămâni, twice every second week etc. ii.c. Fractional numerals They express: - common fractions: 2/3 = two thirds; ¼ =one fourth; 4/6 = four sixths; ½ half; 3 ½ = three and a half etc. - decimal fractions: special attention should be paid to the fact that instead of comma in the European system, a full stop/a period is used in the Anglo-Saxon system, e.g. 5.6; 3.56; 2.8765; 1.2 etc. ii.d. Multiplicative numerals Show how many times a quantity or number increases e.g. adjectival use: double - dublu threefold - întreit fourfold - împătrit The form is an ordinal numeral + –fold. adverbial use: twice - dublu, îndoit, de două ori three times, threefold - întreit, de trei ori four times, fourfold - împătrit, de patru ori a hundred times - de o sută de ori ii.e. Distributive numerals These numerals show the distribution and grouping of objects: e.g. (one) by one - (unul) câte unul by twos - câte doi by threes - câte trei ii.f. Adverbial numeral of recurrence Shows how many times an action is repeated or how many times a quantity or number is larger/smaller than another quantity or number e.g. once - o dată twice, two times - de două ori three times, thrice - de trei ori four times - de patru ori once and a half - o dată şi jumătate three times a year - de trei ori pe an many times - de multe ori Give at least 5 examples of the different numerals mentioned in the unit above. (cardinal, ordinal, etc) 56 4.3. Exercises: 1. Answer the following questions using the figures given in brackets. Write the years in letters: 1. When did Marconi invent the radio? (1895) 2. When was the White House built? (1792) 3. When was Australia discovered? (1616) 4. When was the typewriter invented? (1829) 5. When was the Eiffel Tower built? (1889) 6. When were the mountains on the moon discovered? (1609) 7. When did Elisabeth II become Queen of England? (1952) 8. When was Shakespeare born? (1564) 2. Answer the questions: 1. When is the first school-day? 2. When is your birthday? 3. When is Christmas? 4. When is your national holiday? 5. When is the last school-day? 6. When is the last day of the year? 7. When is your mother’s birthday? 8. What’s the date today? 9. What’s the date tomorrow? 10. When was Eminescu born? 3. Translate into English: 1. Copiii au intrat în şcoală doi câte doi. 2. Am citit sute de pagini în ultimele săptămâni. 3. Tocmai am cumpărat două duzini de chibrituri. 4. Cred că maşina are mai mult de o sută de km. pe oră. 5. Biletul tău de clasa a doua este pentru data de 22 iulie. 6. Un sfert din locuitorii acestui orăşel lucrează în mină. 7. Numai după ce am citit problema de trei ori am înţeles-o. 8. Nu ducem la teatru din două în două săptămâni. 9. După strângerea recoltei, anul acesta, ţăranii speră să obţină un câştig întreit. 10. Am întâlnit-o o dată sau de două ori, dar nu am discutat cu ea niciodată. 11. Regele Richard III a fost unul dintre mai sângeroşi regi din istoria Angliei. 12. Capitlolul IX mi s-a părut mai interesant decât capitolul V. 13. Care este răspunsul tău la cea de-a douăzecea întrebare? 14. Nouă ori doi fac optsprezece. 15. Trenul va sosi în jurul orei 14.20. 16. Invenţia lui a adus un profit înzecit fabricii la care lucrează. 17. Trei cincimi plus o cincime fac patru cincimi. REFERENCES Bantaş, A. 1978. English and Contrastive Studies, Bucureşti, Tipografia Universităţii Bantaş, A. 1996. Descriptive English Syntax, Iaşi, Institutul European Broughton, G. 1990. The Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced Students, London, Penguin ELT Crystal, David, 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language, CUP Curme, G., 1966. English Grammar, New York, Barnes and Noble Gălăţeanu Fârnoagă, G., Comişel, E., 1992. Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Omegapress, Bucureşti Gruia, George, 2002. A Concise English Grammar, Ed. Grupus, Craiova Jespersen, O. 1965. Essentials of English Grammar. London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 57 Leech, G. and Svartik, I. 1994. A Communicative Grammar of English, London, Longman House Leviţchi, Leon, 1971. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Leviţchi, Leon, 1970. Limba engleză contemporană - Morfologia, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Nedelcu, C., 2004, English Grammar, Craiova, Editura Universitaria Palmer F., 1971. Grammar, Penguin Books Quirk, R.S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartik 1976. A Grammar of Contemporary English, London, Longman Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V. 1960, 1997. A Practical English Grammar, OUP ***, 1996, Oxford English Reference Dictionary, OUP ***, 1999. MacMillan, English Dictionary for Advanced Learners 58 CHAPTER 5 THE PRONOUN Unităţi de învăţare • Definition of pronouns • Classification of numerals Obiectivele temei: • Înţelegerea categoriei de pronume. Diferenţe faţă de adjectivele pronominale • Folosirea corectă a diferitelor tipuri de pronume. Timpul alocat temei : 4 ore 5.1. The definition of pronouns For practical reasons adjectives and pronouns of the same kind will be considered together; the main difference between an adjective and a pronoun of the same kind lies in the fact that the adjective goes with the noun/noun equivalent while the corresponding pronoun expresses the same thing and also replaces the noun/noun equivalent, e.g. a demonstrative adjective is a word that determines a noun/noun equivalent while a demonstrative pronoun expresses the same meaning as the demonstrative adjective, but unlike the latter it also replaces the noun/noun equivalent: this book is mine (adjective), this is mine (pronoun). Adjectives Pronouns 1. Demonstrative Demonstrative 2. Indefinite + negative Indefinite + negative 3. Possessive Possessive 4. Interrogative Interrogative 5. Relative whose Relative 6. Adverbial ------------ 7. ------------ Personal 8. ------------ Reflexive/emphatic 9. ------------ Reciprocal 5.2. The Classification of pronouns 5.2.1. Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns Demonstrative adjectives Pronouns this/these this/these that/those that/those the same the same another another the other the other(s) other others such such 59 This/these, that/those used as adjectives, agree in number with the nouns/noun equivalents they determine and are the only adjectives to do so, e.g. This book is quite interesting. These children are my nephews. That exhibition closed a month ago. Those pencils are not mine. When used as pronouns the idea of number is still there, referring either to one object or to more than one (= plural), e.g. This is my book and that is Ann's. Those were not here yesterday. These are longer than those (ones). Those can be followed by a defining/restrictive relative clause (atributivă propriu-zisă). e.g. Those who were caught in the fire suffered serious wounds. This/That can replace a previously mentioned noun/phrase or clause, e.g. e.g. The are cleaning the house. They do this every Saturday. When there is some idea of comparison or selection, the pronoun one/ones is often placed after this/these, that/those, but it is not essential except when these demonstratives are followed by an adjective, e.g. This chair is too low. I'll sit on that (one). I like this (one) best. but I like this blue one/these blue ones. In the last example one/ones cannot be left out. The same can be used with all kinds of nouns, countable or mass, singular or plural when it is used as an adjective. e.g. The same person(s) I met yesterday gave me the same advice. As a pronoun the same can represent a previously mentioned noun, phrase or any longer unit e.g. The same was said about his parents. The same here can stand for a word, a sentence or a whole story. Another is singular in meaning and as an adjective takes a singular noun while as a pronoun it replaces a singular countable noun, e.g. Give me another book, I don't like this (one). Another is sometimes opposed to one. e.g. One says “yes”, another says “no”. Other (an adjective) can take plural countable nouns. e.g. She does not know what to say, other things are important now. Don't show yourself, other people may come soon. 60 The other as an adjective takes singular or plural countable nouns. e.g. One man came yesterday, while the other person has just arrived. The other(s) as a pronoun can replace any countable noun in the singular or in the plural. e.g. One said “yes”, the other said “no”. Such (an adjective and a pronoun) “can be a determiner referring back to something that has already been mentioned”; it can take a plural or replace a plural noun, e.g. Such beautiful flowers are very expensive. Such was the problems they have to solve. In the singular such is used with the indefinite article: e.g. She is such a nice girl! Give examples of demonstrative pronouns. 5.2.2. Indefinite and negative adjectives and pronouns Most of them are both adjectives and pronouns and the meaning is the same in either form, therefore the explanation will be one. Adjectives Pronouns a) numerical several several many/more/most many/more/most (a) few (a) few each each every/all - /all both both either either neither neither b) numerical and quantitative some some any any no none lots of a lot enough enough c) quantitative (a) little (a) little much/more/most much/more/most d) only pronouns some/any/no + body/thing/one; the same as above + else a) numerical Several, which can be used as an adjective as well as a pronoun, is not followed by ones, unless there is a qualitative adjective after it. 61 e.g. Several persons told me the same thing. There are several new ones on the table. Many/more/most – more and most can be used quite freely, and so can many with negative verbs. e.g. He didn’t buy many books. He gets a lot of books, but she doesn't get many. The students made more spelling errors than we expected. Most people are not familiar with these notions. But many with affirmative and interrogative verbs has a restricted use, i.e. many is possible with affirmative verbs when preceded by a good/a great, or when modified by so/as/too and very e.g. I saw a good many beautiful houses there. When not modified, many is usually replaced by a lot/lots of (+noun) or by a lot/lots (pronouns). e.g. I saw a lot/lots of important people at the meeting. I expect you saw a lot, too. Compare the following: He hasn't won many races; but you've won a lot/lots of races or You've won a lot/a great many races. The same restrictions of use are applied to much/more/most, i.e. the quantitative indefinite adjective and pronoun that is mentioned under c) above. Examples: We don't have much coffee. They drink too much. but He spends a lot/lots of/a great deal of money on his house. compare with He didn't eat much fruit. She ate a lot/lots of/a great deal of fruit. or She ate a lot/a great deal. Little and few (adjectives and pronouns) denote scarcity or lack and have almost the force of a negative e.g. There was little coffee left. Little has been said about this urgent matter. Few people knew about his tragedy. This use of little and few is mainly confined to written English, probably because in conversation little and few might easily be confused with a little and a few. In conversation, therefore, little and few are normally replaced by hardly any or a negative verb + much/many e.g. We saw little = We saw hardly anything/We didn't see much; Tourists come here but few stay overnight = Tourists come here but hardly any stay overnight. But little and few can be used more freely when they are qualified by so/very/too/extremely/comparatively/relatively etc. e.g. I would like to visit Kenya, a country I know so little about. They have too many technicians, we have too few. 62 There are fewer people living in this building. Only placed before a few means a small number in the speaker's opinion e.g. Only a few students like mathematics. But quite placed before a few increases the number considerably e.g. I have quite a few books on English morphology. (=quite a lot of books). A little/little can be adverbs mainly used with verbs: e.g. They talked a little about their holiday abroad. and with negative adjectives or adverbs: e.g. a little anxious, a little annoyed, a little tired etc. and with comparative adjectives and adverbs: e.g. The cake should be a little sweeter. Can’t you drive a little faster? All /each/every – all means a number of people or things considered as a group, while each/every means a number of people or things considered individually. “Each is an adjective and a pronoun while every is an adjective only; each can be used of two or more persons or things, and is normally used of small numbers; every is not normally used of small numbers, e.g. Every man had a weapon = All the men had weapons; Each man had a weapon = the speaker went to each man in turn and checked that he had a weapon” (Thomson and Martinet 1997: 64). Each can be followed by of + these/those/nouns/pronouns in the accusative e.g. each of these/the boys/them/us. Each can be associated with the personal pronoun e.g. They each understood the problem. All as a pronoun can be followed by of + the…/this/these/that/those/ possessives/proper nouns in the possessive case e.g. all of the students were there; all of his life he has only…; all of these were bought…; all of Tom’s boys were… The preposition of can be omitted in the examples above, but it cannot be left out in the construction all+ of + personal pronoun e.g. all of it; all of us etc. All of it was broken. All of us were upset. All of them left. If, for some reason, the preposition of must be left out, all follows the noun e.g. I want it all. They wanted us all. The manager dismissed us all. 63 Both (an adjective and a pronoun) means ‘one and the other’ and takes a plural verb, e.g. Both (doors) were open. Both (parents) agreed with their son’s teacher. A personal pronoun in the nominative/accusative + both is also possible e.g. We both knew him or Both of us knew him. They called us both or They called both of us. When one of these pronoun + all/both combinations is the subject of a compound tense the auxiliary verb usually precedes all/both e.g. We are all waiting. and not *We all are waiting. You must both help me. Either/neither are both adjectives and pronouns. Either means ‘any one of the two’ and takes a singular verb e.g. I have two oranges; you can take either (of them). Either of you go and buy some bread. Either + a negative verb can be replaced by neither + a positive verb e.g. I haven’t read either of these (books) = I have read neither of these (books). When neither is the subject of a verb it cannot be replaced by either + a negative verb e.g. Neither of them knew the way is possible. Neither means ‘not one and not the other of the two’. It takes a singular verb and can sometimes replace either + a negative verb, except when it is the subject of a construction (see above). Either/neither can take a prepositional phrase: of + the/these/personal pronoun/possessives e.g. I tried both keys but neither of them worked. Neither of them knew the way. Neither elevator was working. Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives associated with either/neither (singular adjectives or pronouns) used of people should technically be he/him, she/her, and his/her, but in colloquial English the plural forms of the personal adjectives or pronouns are generally used e.g. Neither of them were working, were they? Neither of them had brought their passports, hadn’t they? Either …..or/ neither……. nor are double conjunctions e.g. Neither her sisters nor her brothers understood him. They wanted to go either to France or to England. The double conjunctions must connect identical parts of speech or identical constructions (two nouns, two pronouns, two verbal forms etc) b) Numerical and quantitative adjectives and pronouns 64 Some and any are used mainly with plural countable nouns and mass nouns (nişte), e.g. There are some people at the door. There is some time left. SOME: Some is used in affirmative structures (=an affirmative verb) while any is mainly used in interrogative and negative structures e.g. Are there any students there? There aren’t any books on that table. Some is also used • with singular countable nouns e.g. He’s living at some place in Africa. I’ve read that story in some book or other. • with singular countable nouns, with a deprecating meaning or implying the fact that the person or object is unknown to the speaker e.g. The little girl was drawing some flower. There’s some man in the hall. In spoken English the intonation is enough to make the difference; in written English, however, the larger context does the same. • with singular countable nouns, stressed, in familiar English denoting appreciation e.g. This is some dress! • with plural countable nouns to contrast with other + noun/others e.g. Some people learn languages quickly (while others don’t). Some people like their coffee hot (other people like their coffee cold). • with countable or mass nouns to mean ‘a considerable quantity/number’ (it is always stressed) e.g. I will be away for some time (fairly long time). The railway station is at some distance (quite a long way). • in interrogative constructions in form but which are actually invitations or requests e.g. Will you have some coffee? Would you buy me some bread? • in interrogative constructions when they refer to a part of the whole or of a quantity e.g. Could I take some apples, please? Do you have some change about you? • in interrogative sentences if the question does not refer to some (Leviţchi), e.g. Why are there so many people in here? It is true that some people hate watching TV. As pronouns some and any follow the same rules as those mentioned above e.g. Did you buy any stamps? Yes, I bought some/No I did not buy any. 65 ANY: As already mentioned, any is used with countable or mass nouns mainly in negative and interrogative constructions, as an equivalent of some e.g. I haven’t seen any books on the table. There isn’t any coffee left. Any is also used: • with hardly/barely/scarcely (which are almost negative) e.g. I have hardly any spare time; She has hardly any food left. • with without when without any means with no e.g. She can learn almost any foreign language without any difficulty. He is able to swim across the lake without any visible effort/with no effort. • after if and whether and in expressions of doubt e.g. If you need any help, just let me know. I suppose there isn’t any student in the classroom. • in affirmative sentences e.g. Any woman can wear Armani’s dresses. Can I choose a book? Yes, you can have any. No (an adjective) and none (a pronoun) can be used with an affirmative verb to express a negative (as an alternative to any + a negative verb); it can be used with countable or mass nouns e.g. I have no apples = I don’t have any apples; I had some last year, but I have none this year. No changes were made in this department. A lot of/a lot (see above) Enough – is both an adjective and a pronoun on the one hand, and an adverb on the other. As an adjective enough precedes the noun/noun equivalent it determines e.g. She has enough money to buy whatever she wants to. You have enough time to get to the party. As an adverb enough follows the adjective/adverb/verb it modifies e.g. She is smart enough to become a doctor. They worked enough. c) Quantitative adjectives and pronouns For practical reasons quantitative adjectives and pronouns have been dealt with in parallel with other adjectives and adverbs, so, see sections for little and much/more/most. d) Pronouns: some, any and no combine with body, thing and one, the resulting compounds being pronouns. These compounds are: somebody, something, someone, anybody, anything, anyone; nobody, nothing, no 66 one; as compounds of some, any and no they follow the rules for some, any and no (see under some, any and no) e.g. Someone called me on the street. I don’t want to go anywhere. Anyone can tell the truth. These pronouns can be used in the possessive case. e.g. It is nobody’s business. Someone’s passport has been stolen; Is this anyone’s seat? I don’t want to waste anyone’s time. These pronouns have a singular meaning and take a singular verb, so personal pronouns and possessive adjectives should logically be he/him, she/her etc. However, plural forms are more common: e.g. Has anyone left their luggage on the train? No one saw Tom go out, didn’t they? Else can be placed after the pronouns mentioned above as well as after everyone, everybody, everything (pronouns also) and after the adverbs somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, everywhere, e.g. somebody else, anybody else, somewhere else etc. e.g. I’m afraid I can’t help you; you’ll have to ask someone else. There isn’t anyone else to ask. somewhere else etc. - forms can be used in the possessive case e.g. By mistake, I took someone else’s coat; Was anyone else’s luggage opened? Give 10 examples of indefinite adjectives and pronouns. Exercises 1. Suply each, every or all: 1. Wages differ with … job. 2. Write down … item you buy and … penny you spend for a week. 3. … women go in for jewels. 4. One of the effects of higher education should be to develop in … student a greater sense of responsibility. 5. … member union sends delegates to the conference. 6. … warmth is sentimental. 7. It is not easy to find the right job … time. 8. … man has some secret in his life. 9. I enjoyed … minute of it. 10. … leaves had fallen. 2. Fill in the blanks with some, any or no: 1. … person or other has spotted us. 2. I’ll see you … day next week. 3. … morning sun lasts a whole day. 4. She is forbidden to do … washing. 5. Come at … time you like. 6. He might make it ambassador to … remote country. 7. … two men are alike. 8. She is … friend of mine. 9. Can you give me … lunch? 10. I have … hesitation in saying that it was worth it. 11. I don’t owe … man a penny. 12. Let’s have … beer and cakes. 13. I’ll abandon … claim. 14. Did he have … excuse? 15. That’s a town of … importance. 67 3. Supply some, (a) little (a) few, much, many: 1. As she was still hungry, she asked for … more ham and eggs. 2. Last year I spent New Year’s Eve at the seaside; there were … people on the beach. 3. Are there … lions at the Zoo? 4. Did you have … difficulties in translating this text? 5. The tea is too sour, you have too … lemon in it. 6. There are … letters for you today. 7. There are … fine shops on this street. 8. His lectures provide … opportunity for discussion. 9. … of my knowledge was dated. 10. There’s very … accommodation near the colleges. 4. Complete these sentences with (a) little, (a) little of the, (a) few/(a) few of the, much of the, many/ much of the: 1. There is too … flour left for the pancakes. 2. He has looked over … letters. 3. There are still … people waiting for the doctor. 4. Tractors now do … work formerly done by the farmers. 5. People usually have … money left by the end of the holiday. 6. Mrs. Kean has planted … rose-bushes I have sent her. 7. I think we are going to break our journey and stay … days in Paris. 8. May I have … jam, please? 9. There were … unoccupied seats when he arrived. 10. … people I stopped had heard of Half Moon Lane. 5.2.3. Possessive adjectives and pronouns Form: Person Adjectives Pronouns I my mine II your yours III his his her hers its ---- I pl. our ours II pl. your yours III pl. their theirs Possessive adjectives and pronouns in English have only one form which refers to the possessor and not to the thing(s) possessed, and do not agree in number, gender or case with the object(s) possessed e.g. This is my car and the red one is yours. If you need a car you can use mine. Own can be used after possessive adjectives to emphasize the idea of possession e.g. He couldn’t trust his own friends; She didn’t want to see me, her own mother! Parts of one’s body, pieces of clothing or personal belongings are most frequently preceded by a possessive adjective e.g. Put on your coat ! Where are my glasses? He won’t lend me his car! Give examples of possessive pronouns in sentences of your own. 68 Exercises 1. Fill in the blanks with the necessary possessive determinative or the definite article: 1. I was struck with the expression of … face. 2. The waist of the coat was below … hips.3.The dog bit him in … leg. 4. I could not hide … curiosity as to … origin, … life. 5. He struck me on … head. 6. I could hear teeth grinding in … jaws and … faces were so pale that I grew alarmed for … leves. 7. She kissed the baby on … head. 2. Translate intro English: 1. Casa era a lui acum, dar înainte fusese a surorii lui. 2. Cu toate că îşi dorise ca toate cărţile să le fie date elevilor lui, sora lui a decisă să le păstreze pentru ea. 3. Fratele şi sora soţului meu sunt plecaţi din ţară. 4. A noastră e mai nouă decât a voastră. 5. Credeam că tot ce era a lor era mult mai mult. 5.2.4. Interrogative adjectives and pronouns For persons: Nominative case: who (pronoun), dative/accusative cases: whom/who (pronoun), of which whom is the technically correct one, but who is used, especially in spoken English; possessive case: whose (adjective and pronoun); what can also be used for persons and its form is invariable. For things: what (adjective and pronoun) has an invariable form. For persons and things when the choice is restricted: which has an invariable form. Who, whose, which, what, when used as subjects are usually followed by an affirmative verb e.g. Who told you this? Whose words are these? What went wrong? But with who, whose etc. + be + noun or personal/distributive pronoun, an interrogative verb is used e.g. Who is he? Whose is that? What is that noise? What can also be used in other constructions e.g. - what + action + for? meaning why? e.g. What did you do that for? = Why did you do that? or What did you go there for?= Why did you go there? - what + be…..+ like? is a request for description or comment (animate/inanimate) e.g. What was your trip like? (possible answer: It was too long and difficult to enjoy) What was the weather like? (possible answer: It was cold and windy) What is your friend like? (possible answer: He is nice and friendly) 69 - what + do/does/did + they/he/she/it + look like? is a request for description only e.g. What does she look like? (possible answer: She is tall and slender) What does it/the car look like? (possible answer: It is brand new and as quick as one could imagine). - what + be + you/he/she/they? is a question eliciting an answer about one’s profession e.g. What are you? (possible answer: I am a teacher). - what (and how) are used in questions about age and measurements, i.e. depth/height/length/width, although in conversation it would be more usual to say how old/deep/high/ tall/long/wide? Formal English Conversation What age are you? What is your age? How old are you? What height is she? What is his height? How tall is he? What is the weight of the parcel? How heavy is it? Ever can be placed after who/what (as well as after the adverbs where, why, when, how) although it is not necessary; when added, it emphasizes the speaker’s surprise/astonishment/anger/irritation/dismay. It has the same meaning as on earth/in the world and it is not polite e.g. Who ever are you? (it expresses the speaker’s irritation, the other person is probably an intruder); Who ever told you about it? =Who on earth told you about it? Who ever and what ever (two words) are different from whoever (pronoun only) or whatever (pronoun and adjective); whoever means “the one who”, “he/she who” (whoever, whichever and whatever are relative adjectives/pronouns, but it seems logical to mention them here as well) e.g. Whoever gains the most points wins the competition. In order to emphasize the importance of a request or command whatever you do is often placed before or after it e.g. Whatever you do, don’t mention my name. Give examples of interrogative adjectives and pronouns 5.2.5. Adverbial adjectives They are hundreds of words that begin in a- that is usually attached to nouns, adjectives or verbs, e.g. aback, abask, abeam, ablaze, abloom, ablush, aboard, abreast, acock, adrift, afar, afield, afloat, afoot, afore, afresh, agape, agaze, aghast, aglow, agog, aground, ahead, ajar etc. These words are neither pure adjectives nor pure adverbs since they partly show the state of an object and partly its characteristic at a given moment; they are classed as adjectives, however, because of the following reasons: 70 1. ’state’ being a transient quality of something, the general meaning of these words falls under the heading of qualitative adjectives; 2. they are morphologically non-flexional; some may combine with more and the most, e.g. more afraid, more alive etc.; 3. syntactically they combine with other parts of speech, like any other qualitative adjectives: with adverbs, e.g. he was painfully alive to the great universal things (Jack London); with prepositional combinations, e.g. He walked away under a sky of clear steel-blue, alive with stars (Galsworthy); 4. They combine with infinitives, e.g. He is afraid to come back; 5. they are usually predicatives e.g. They are asleep. The door was ajar. Give at least 5 examples of adverbial pronouns in sentences of your own. 5.2.6. Relative pronouns Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses which can be a) defining/ restrictive relative clauses or b) non-defining/non-restrictive relative clauses; a) Defining relative clauses describe the preceding noun in such a way as to distinguish it from the other nouns of the same class. A clause of this kind is essential to the clear understanding of the noun e.g. The man who came yesterday refused to give me his name. The part in parentheses is the relative clause; if we omit it, it is not clear what man we are talking about. Relative pronouns used in defining/restrictive relative clauses: for things: N. who/that, D. and Acc. Who(m)/that, G. whose; for things: N., D., Acc. which/that, G. whose/of which Examples: - for persons, nominative: The man who robbed you has been arrested: that is a possible alternative after all, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody and those; if in doubt, use who, e.g. Everyone who/that knew him liked him; - for persons, accusative: the pronoun changes from the formally correct, whom, to the more usual one, who, then to that or it is left out altogether, e.g. The man whom/who/that/-----I saw told me to come back yesterday; - for persons, genitive: People whose rents have been raised can appeal; - for things, nominative: This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation; that is a possible alternative to which, but when in doubt, use which; - for things, accusative: the pronoun changes from which to that or is left out completely, e.g. The car which/that/----- I hired broke down; 71 - for things, genitive: A house whose walls were made of glass cost a fortune; A defining/restrictive relative clause can be replaced by an infinitive or a participle b) Non-defining/non-restrictive relative clauses are placed after nouns that are definite already, so they do not define the noun, but merely add something to it by giving some more information about it; unlike defining relative clauses, they are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted without causing confusion; the pronouns, however, can never be omitted as they play an important role in the subordinate clause. This construction is fairly formal and more common in written than in spoken English. Relative pronouns in non-defining relative clauses: for persons: N. who, D., Acc. who(m), G. whose for things: N.,D., Acc. which, G. whose, of which Examples: - for persons, nominative: My friend, who doesn’t like fishing at all, went fishing yesterday; - for persons, accusative: Peter, who(m) everyone suspected, turned out to be innocent; --for persons, genitive: Ann, whose children are at school today, is trying to get a job; - for objects, nominative: That block, which cost $2 million to build, has been empty for years; - for objects, accusative: These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the information you need; - for objects, genitive: This house, whose windows were all broken, was a depressive sight. Which can also modify a whole main clause or a longer unit that was reported before e.g. Apart from his talent, he was tall and handsome, which made the jury select him for the main part in the movie. or ……(a longer unit), which left him poor and broke. Both in defining and non-defining relative clauses the preposition, if there is one, should be kept after the verb it belongs to. The preposition may precede the relative pronoun sometimes, but this construction is rather formal and is never used in spoken English, although it may appear in written form: so, it is more usual to say The man I was travelling with was from San Francisco than The man with whom I was travelling was from S.F, in which the preposition precedes the relative pronoun; the same is true for all instances of relative pronouns associated with prepositions. 72 The importance of commas in relative clauses A defining relative clause is written without commas, while a non-defining relative one is always put between commas, or comes after a comma, at the end of the sentence. The presence of commas is very important as the meaning changes when commas are inserted e.g. The students who wanted to go on a trip were disappointed when it started to rain (=not all were disappointed, only those who wanted to go on a trip) and The students, who wanted to go on a trip, were disappointed (all wanted to go on a trip and all were disappointed). Give examples of relative pronouns in sentences of your own. 5.2.7. Personal pronouns Pronouns are words which replace nouns; the personal pronoun has an anaphoric function, i.e. they replace nouns previously mentioned or notions the interlocutor(s) is/are already informed about. The personal pronoun has number (singular and plural), gender (masculine and feminine, and the inanimate it), and case (nominative, and dative/accusative): For the position of the pronoun objects see under noun, the category of the case. Synonyms of personal pronouns: - myself can stand for I e.g. John and myself went on foot. or after as/than/but e.g. No person has ever been more intolerably tortured than myself. - we is sometimes used instead of you in the following cases: - when talking down (doctor to patient) e.g. How are we feeling today? - when talking to children e.g. Are we hungry? The pronoun It has been explained under noun, the category of gender; it has other functions as well: - Demonstrative IT- very much like the demonstrative adjective, when the pronoun could be replaced by a demonstrative e.g. Who is it? It’s all right. - Impersonal IT- used with time, weather, distance etc. e.g. It is late. What time is it? It is 10 miles’ distance away. 73 - Introductory-anticipatory IT - it introduces the sentence and anticipates the logical subject/object, being itself a formal grammatical subject or object; it also introduces passive constructions (for other introductory functions see under adjective of quality), e.g. It is easy to learn English. It is clear that he won’t do it. - Introductory-emphatic IT- sometimes the speaker feels that it is not strong enough to use only the subject and the predicate, he feels the need to emphasize the subject, e.g. The doctor prescribed the medicine (=Doctorul mi- a prescris medicamentul) is not convincing enough, so the speaker says: It is/was the doctor who prescribes/prescribed the medicine (=Doctorul e cel care mi-a prescris medicamentul); or It was only yesterday that I found out the truth; It was the teacher who told me what to do etc. - An emphatic-predicate IT- when it refers to person/thing/situation which is final or ultimate, e.g. This is it! That’s it! - An empty-meaningless IT- because of the compulsory presence of a subject, e.g. It is Monday; It is raining etc, very much like b), the impersonal IT. Make sentences using the different forms of IT. 5.2.8. Reflexive and emphatic pronouns The form of the reflexive pronoun is the same as the emphatic pronoun, the two can be distinguished in use. Person/Number Reflexive/Emphatic/Emphasizing pronoun I singular myself II singular yourself III singular himself herself itself I plural ourselves II plural yourselves III plural themselves The indefinite reflexive/emphasizing pronoun is oneself. 1) as reflexive pronouns they are used as objects of a verb when the action of the verb returns to the doer, i.e. when the subject and the object are the same person; the word order is: subject + verb + reflexive pronoun e.g. I cut myself. He can’t shave himself. Reflexive pronouns can be used after verb + preposition e.g. He spoke to himself. Look after yourself! The preposition by preceding any of these pronouns changes their meaning to alone, not accompanied or without help e.g. He was sitting there by himself =he was sitting there alone. 74 I did it by myself =I did it without any help. 2) as emphatic pronouns, they have a different place, i.e. subject + emphatic pronoun + verb + object OR subject +verb + object + emphatic pronoun e.g. Ann herself opened the door =Ann opened the door herself. The king himself gave her the medal. Give examples of reflexive and emphatic pronouns. 5.2.9. Reciprocal pronouns They are one another and each other; both can be used for two or more, but each other is preferred when there are no more than two e.g. Tom and Ann looked at each other. The reciprocal pronoun can be used in the genitive e.g. The boys whispered in each other’s ears. It was a general fight, people tearing each other’s clothes. In contemporary usage each other is frequently preferred over one another, even when there are more than two people present. State the difference between each other and one another. Give examples. Translate into English: 1. Nu e nici un pic de lapte în casă. 2. Unele cărţi sunt chiar ieftine. 3. Aţi fost obligaţi să închideţi vreun pavilion? 4. Orice colecţie se poate mândri cu acest tablou. 5. A părăsit conferinţa fără nici un motiv. 6. Nu ştiu dacă vreunul din musafirii noştri s-a odihnit puţin înainte de masă. 7. Jocul lui nu are nici o încărcătură emoţională. 8. Nu vrei să te serveşti şi cu prăjitură? 9. Mă îndoiesc că a luat vreo pastilă. 10. Nu mi întâmplă niciodată să trec pe lângă o florărie fără să cumpăr flori. 11. Plouă prea tare ca să plantăm floarea în dimineaţa asta. 12. Toţi banii sunt în monede fără valoare. 13. Amândoi copiii sunt foarte politicoşi. 14. Fiecare dintre cei trei şoferi este vinovat. 15. Majoritatea timpului se poartă cu mine de parcă aş fi sora lui mai mică. 16. Câteva ziare au dat ştirea. 17. Nu prea sunt speranţe să se facă bine. 18. Noi exportăm o cincime din producţia noastră. 19. Nu-i aşa că ţi-am dat bani şi ieri? 20. Fiecare membru al expediţiei s-a odihnit puţin înainte de plecare. 75 REFERENCES Bantaş, A. 1978. English and Contrastive Studies, Bucureşti, Tipografia Universităţii Bantaş, A. 1996. Descriptive English Syntax, Iaşi, Institutul European Broughton, G. 1990. The Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced Students, London, Penguin ELT Crystal, David, 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language, CUP Curme, G., 1966. English Grammar, New York, Barnes and Noble Gălăţeanu Fârnoagă, G., Comişel, E., 1992. Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Omegapress, Bucureşti Gruia, George, 2002. A Concise English Grammar, Ed. Grupus, Craiova Jespersen, O. 1965. Essentials of English Grammar. London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Leech, G. and Svartik, I. 1994. A Communicative Grammar of English, London, Longman House Leviţchi, Leon, 1970. Limba engleză contemporană - Morfologia, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Leviţchi, Leon. 1968, 1993. Sinonime în gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Ed. Ştiinţifică Murphy, R., 1992. English in use, ELOD Nedelcu, C., 2004, English Grammar, Craiova, Editura Universitaria Palmer F., 1971. Grammar, Penguin Books Quirk, R.S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartik 1976. A Grammar of Contemporary English, London, Longman Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V. 1960, 1997. A Practical English Grammar, OUP ***, 1996, Oxford English Reference Dictionary, OUP ***, 1999. MacMillan, English Dictionary for Advanced Learners 76 FINAL EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with the corresponding articles: It was raining hard, but when I went to get….umbrella, I found that out of….umbrellas, we have at….home, there was no one I could use. I decided to take all…umbrellas to….umbrella-maker. So I took them, left them at….umbrellas-maker’s, saying I would call for…umbrellas on my…way home in….evening.When I went to dine in….afternoon, it was still raining very hard. II. Translate into English: 1. L-ai cunoscut pe profesorul de engleză al surorii mele? 2. Blana de pisică e moale. 3. Trebuie să mă tund la coafor. 4. Deşi fratele meu este mai în vârstă cu trei ani pare mult mai tânăr. 5. Ia-o pe poteca mai îngustă. 6. E de departe cel mai bun elev din clasă. 7. El e ultimul, dar nu cel din urmă. 8. Se simşea din ce în ce mai rău. 9. Este adevărat că romanul acesta recent publicat este ultimul dumneavoastră roman? 10. Am nevoie şi de alte amănunte pentru a trage o concluzie. III. Fill in the balnks with the appropriate pronoun: 1. Almost…might have those. 2. …will you take, milk or cream? 3. I don’t know ….fault it is. 4. The boy…you see there is our teacher’s son. 5. They were afraid of…. 6. There is a simple explanation, but it isn’t the onlt…I can give. 7. There is…milk in the fridge; I can’t make the cake. 8. If you have…to do, at least do not disturb me. 9. He tried to save her in spite of… 10. Each of them seem to find…’s silence restful. IV. Use the words in capitals to complete the blanks with the suitable forms: 1. The… of your papers took me a long time. CORRECT 2. Time and space are….. LIMIT 3. I am… about the value of his suggestions. DOUBT 4. The witness gave …..opinions about the accident. CONTRADICT 5. The… of his actionsis questionable. MORAL 6. The police had to make a…entry. FORCE 7. This jewel of yours is…you should keep it in a safe. PRICE 8. She bases her statement on a false…. SUPPOSE 9. This novel is….for his work. REPRESENT 10. The….of the task took his several months. ACCOMPLISH V. Correct the mistakes: 1. The man whom I said would be waiting for you had just left. 2. The most of the people there were strangers. 3. They have agreed to cooperate on numerous matters of mutually interest. 4. There was little flour left and she made some pancakes. 77 5. Who won the race: Fred or Larry? The second. 6. The two friends kept writing to one another all through the holidays. 7. The cattle was taken to market. 8. A reliable friend should be a honest person. 9. As lon you support me, I feel more slef-confident. 10. The audience is asked to take its seats. VI. Translate into English: Ştefan întinse braşul ca să îl acopere mai bine cu pătura. Antim se suci brusc, apucând cu ambele mâini servieta. “D-ta erai?” întrebă el speriat. Şi îl privi cercetător, cu bănuială. Ştefan îi zâmbi şi se ghemui sub pătură. Se simţea aproape îngheţat. Ar fi vrut să adoarmă din nou şi închise ochii. Dar îi redeschise imediat şi întoarse capul. Antim nu se culcase, îi urmărea atent mişcările. Ochii li se întâlniră o clipă. Stânjenit, Ştefan se întoarse cu faţa la perete. 78 REFERENCES Bantaş, A. 1978. English and Contrastive Studies, Bucureşti, Tipografia Universităţii Bantaş, A. 1996. Descriptive English Syntax, Iaşi, Institutul European Berry, Roger, 1993. English Guides, Articles, Harper-Collins Publishers, Birmingham Berry, Roger, Page V, Collins/Cobuild, 1993. Articles, The University of Birmingham Broughton, G. 1990. The Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced Students, London, Penguin ELT Crystal, David, 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language, CUP Curme, G., 1966. English Grammar, New York, Barnes and Noble Gălăţeanu Fârnoagă, G., Comişel, E., 1992. Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Omegapress, Bucureşti Gruia, George, 2002. A Concise English Grammar, Ed. Grupus, Craiova Jespersen, O. 1965. Essentials of English Grammar. London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Leech, G. and Svartik, I. 1994. A Communicative Grammar of English, London, Longman House Leviţchi, Leon, 1971. Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Leviţchi, Leon, 1970. Limba engleză contemporană - Morfologia, Bucureşti, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică Leviţchi, Leon. 1968, 1993. Sinonime în gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti, Ed. Ştiinţifică Murphy, R., 1992. English in use, ELOD Nedelcu, C., 2004, English Grammar, Craiova, Editura Universitaria Palmer F., 1971. Grammar, Penguin Books Pârlog H., 1982. More on the Superlatives. AUT, XX, pp. 85-88 Pârlog H., 1995. The English Noun Phrase, Timişoara, Hestia Publishing House Quirk, R.S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartik 1976. A Grammar of Contemporary English, London, Longman Thomson, A.J. and Martinet, A.V. 1960, 1997. A Practical English Grammar, OUP ***, 1996, Oxford English Reference Dictionary, OUP ***, 1999. MacMillan, English Dictionary for Advanced Learners