Kushan period Textiles and DyesFor the first time trade with China was directly established through the ancient silk route. Indian traders settled down in Chinese Turkestan, which was annexed by Kanishka, the Kushan King. This included Kashgar, Khotan, and Yarkhand. Buddhists missions too were sent to china. In Rome, Augustus encouraged trade with India and exports increased resulting in a flourishing merchant class. In the northwestern is coarse cotton and wool were used for making tunics and trousers for horsemen, hunters, foreigners, and doorkeepers. In central India textiles were of lightweight cotton, tulapansi. Both indigenous and foreign skills were plentiful but still very expensive. Antariya were very rarely decorated and when they were, they appear to have been either embroidered, woven, or printed in diagonal check designs enclosing small circles. Turban cloth for rich women were often diagonally striped with every third line made of pearls. This bejewelled material was also used to cover beds and seats. Many other geometric patterns of checks, stripes and triangles were also printed and woven. It is only from literary sources that we know of the textiles and dyes available in the earlier period. There is no evidence of actual fabrics being made in India before the twelfth or thirteenth century. But a large variety of fabrics were recovered from the burial grounds along the silk route, which can be dated to between the first century BC and the second century AD (Han Period in China). Based on this evidence we may presume that the dyes and textiles of Chinese origin available along this route would surely have found their way into India. Hence, it is possible to maintain that many of the patterns and colors would be similar, or had influenced indigenous fabrics. We know for a fact that the beautiful ultra-marine and lapis lazuli blue were sent along the trade route from the famous mines at Badakshan in Central Asia. There is, in addition, much literary evidence of sophistication of Indian textiles from the earliest times. In a list compiled of fabrics recovered from the ancient silk route, fabrics in the following color were found: bright blue, light blue, dark blue-copper, dull gold buff, bronze-brown, dark bronze-green, crimson, pink, crimson brown, rich red, yellow, yellow-brown, yellow-green, rich dark yellow-brown. These are all variants and mixtures of the colors in dyes that were available in India in this period. Style The Kushan influence was felt in what developed into the Gandhara art and the art of Mathura which, while retaining the massive scale of Bharut and Sanchi, had carvings more sophisticated and images more flamboyant and sensuous than had been seen before. It is an if in the provocative display of courtesans with their sinuous bodies in the tribhanga pose and the delicate flower-like gesture of the hands, the foreigners had found aspects of the Indian experience that fired their imagination. In the same period, however there are the wall paintings at Kizil in Afghanistan, where the wiry line of the drawing with its flat brilliant colors dominated by lapis-lazuli gives a heraldic appearance, static and frozen, like the group of portrait statues found at Mathura. The latter have the still, formal depiction of the Kushan Kings, showing in complete detail the kind of heavy garments they wore. The Kushans were not originally an artistic people. Of Scythian origin, their only expression had been the metal work displayed in their horse trappings, hunting gear, and in the ornamental plaques, which they stitched on their garments. But they had lived for many years in Bactria before entering India and this prepared them for the role they were to play as great patrons of the arts, as seen in the development of the Gandhara art and the evolution of the indigenous art of Mathura. Later, both these styles fused to create the Renaissance of Gupta Art. COURT LADY [Begram] Antariya : worn extremely short in kaccha style; the end that is passed between the legs has been tucked in at the back; the other piece is looped to mid-thigh in front and the end tucked in a small looped frill at the centre MILK MAID[Mathura] Ghagri : simple narrow calflength skirt stitched at the centre-front border, it has either a drawstring through it to is rolled over a string; this is an example of the earliest form of Kayabandh : there are two : one is a wide sash tied in a loop on both sides to the knees with steamers at each side of the hips hanging to floor length; the other iskakshyabandha, a thick jewelled roll worn aslant which has a large clasp at the left hip a stitched lower garment for women kantha : short flat necklace with decorative design Mekhala : five-stringed pearl or jewelled hip belt, it holds the antariya and cloth kayabandh in place Keyura : armlets of same decorative design as for kantha Hara : necklace of pearls, probably strung on thread or wire and worn between the breasts Valaya : simple ring-type bangles Kundala :simple ring-type earrings Kantha : Short necklace of beads with central pendant and looped chains She rests her pitcher on a head-rest probably of cane, like an inverted basket. Keyura : simple armlets, of looped design in gold or silver Valaya : bracelets of two kinds : the central one consists of a series of rings like a wrist band; on both sides are larger rigid bracelets Kundala : square earrings decorated with a flower motif and with pearls suspended FEMALE GUARD[Gandhara] Tunic : Kushan type with Nupura : anklets-wide rings with an elaborate design long ruched sleeves Anguliya : finger rings of solid gold Antariya : could be chalanaKushan loose trousers Mukuta : bejewelled crown on the head and a head band Kayabandh : twisted sash Hairstyle : small symmetrical curls at the forehead, hair tied in a looped knot projecting vertically at the back Hara : long necklet worn between the breasts YAKSHI: FEMALE DOOR - KEEPER[Gandhara] Antariya : worn in lehnga style, simply wrapped around and tucked in at the left Valaya : three bangles are visible on the right hand Nupura : heavy ring-type anklets Hairstyle : hair at the front is divided into three portions, the central one is made into roll, the two at the side are combed downwards with tassels suspended Uttariya : thrown casually over the shoulders Tunic : with front opening, held at the neck by button; long ruched sleeves have ruching held by jewelled bands or buttons; tunic is form-fitting She carries a long spear and round embossed shield. A mixture of foreign and indigenous costume. FEMALE[Gandhara] Anatriya : sari-like, worn in Mekhala : four-stringed girdle with clasp and decorative leaf at the centre thekachcha style, the other end being taken across the body and over the left shoulder Hara : one long pearl necklace worn between the breasts and one short one with a pendant Kayabandh : simple sash, twisted in parts Kundala : large ring-type earrings Uttariya : worn across the Head-dress : chaplet of leaves or turban with a central flower worn around the top knot of hair back and over both shoulders, the left end is loosely tucked in at the waist Sitara : round ornament on the forehead Valaya : four bangles on left wrist Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume. Hara : pearl necklace worn between the breasts DONOR FIGURE [Mathura] Kundala : simple disc-like earrings Antariya : sari-like, tied in front, while one end is passed between the legs, pleated and tucked in at the back, the other end is partly pleated and tucked in at the front, then wound around and worn over the left shoulder Tunic : Tunic : Kushan style calf-length and heavy Belt : with granulated pattern worn higher than antariya or worn short to waist quilted, with braid at the bottom Valaya : one bangle on each wrist edge Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume. Hairstyle : chaplet of leaves Nupura : heavy double rings on the ankles KING KANISHKA[Mathura] Nupura : simple ring-type anklets Chugha : a coat which Kundala : twisted or suspended disc earrings is longer than the Hairstyle : centre parting with long hair looped on one side tunic, worn open at centre front; it has a decorative braid at the centre Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume. This early form of kachcha-style sari is still used in Maharashtra and parts of South India. front and hem with probably long gathered-up sleeves Belt : of metallic decorative plaques Boots : padded, with straps around ankle and under the boot held together by a decorative clasp; either the boots are calf length or baggy trousers (chalana) have been inserted into short boots This is the dress of Kushan for foreigner of SakaParthian origin. He holds two swords in decorative DONOR FIGURE [Gandhara] Antariya : kachcha style, only the pleated end hanging at the back has been shortened scabbards. KUSHAN KING[Mathura] Chugha : calflength with a wide richly embroidered border down the centre-front opening, hem and edge of long sleeves (probably ruched); the material of the coat has small rosettes and a Vneck and there is a round motif on the right sleeve Uttariya : worn over the left shoulder across the back and under the right arm, then across the chest and taken again over the left shoulder Kantha : short necklace Hairstyle : in a double knot at the centre of the head Purely indigenous style. SOLDIER[Gandhara] Antariya : worn in kachcha style Tunic : Kurta-like undergarment visible at the neck Armour : chain armour made of scale or rhombus-patterned plaques, fastened together with strings (like a Japanese or Tibetan armour); the end of the sleeves, waist and hem are strengthened with cording; the skirt portion is made of parallel rows of rectangular plaques Chalana : baggy trousers tucked into calf-length padded boots; there is a wide band of vine pattern at the centre from toe to top (not visible in drawing); straps around the ankle and instep Kantha : short necklace with pendant Purely foreign costume of Scythic origin. Mauli : turban made of twisted roll of cloth Equipment : round shield and spear This is a mixture of foreign and indigenous costume. The armour is Graeco-Roman. GUARD[Gandhara] Antariya : worn in kachcha style up to the ankles SOLDIER[Gandhara] Antariya : transparent calflength and worn in Tunic : knee-length, a fully quilted garment with thick cording at the waist, neck and hem. the lehnga style Armour : scale armour with Vneck and short sleeves; the skirt portion is of square-linked Quilted upper garments are still worn in north India in winter. Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume. design and of mid-thigh length Tunic : Visible at the hem and sleeves FEMALE COURT ATTENDANT[Mathura] this simple hairstyle is made by parting the hair at the centre, drawing it to the right side and allowing it to hang in a loop at the right shoulder Equipment : sword belt with flat, short sword; strap across the chest, probably for quiver; round shield with patterned design Mauli : turban wound several times and tied at the right side Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume COURT LADY[Mathura] a tuft of hair covers the line of parting; it has been to form a ball; rest of the hair is drawn back, looped and held in position by a clip or brooch COURT LADY[Begram] hair is worn in a tuft at the centr e as in the figure of Court Lady (Mathura), curls frame the face; rest of the hair is drawn into a knot which is vertically placed at back centre; a turban has been twisted and wound casually around the hair COURTIER[Gandhara] Mauli : turban worn simpler than in the previous period: no intertwining of the hair with the cloth; decorated with some clasps in front;there is also a decorative ring at the top through which a string of pearls is passed and attached to the sides EARRING[Taxila] Kundala : of gold 'leech and NECKLACE[Taxila] Kantha : short necklac e of gold in the spearhe ad and drop' design pendant' type; the ring or leech attaches itself to ear and the pendant bud is suspended by a movable ring with granulation's. DONOR FIGURE[Mathura] Mauli : turban of rich material is surmounted by twisted rolls of cloth from the centre of which the pleated end is visible in a decorative fan shape; a band is used crosswise to give shape to the turban Art of Kushana Empire India made rapid progress in the fields of art and sculpture during the Kushana age. Four schools of art namely--Sarnath, Mathura, Amaravati and Gandhara developed during this period. However the most flourishing one was the Gandhara art. It was during the time of Kushana that Buddha for the first time was shown in human form because previously He had been represented either in the form of lotus or footsteps. The trend of assimilating and harmonising the Buddhist and Hellenistic ideas with the native and original indigenous material or concept was considered the principal sculptural idiom of Gandhara art. The headless statue of Kanishka was the epitome of it. Various images of Buddha belonging to the Mathura School of Art, which have been excavated till date, represent the blending of Hellenistic style with Indian concept. rigin and Early History of the Kushana Empire The name Kushan is derived from the Chinese term Guishang, which was used in historical writings to describe one branch of the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi was a loose confederation of IndoEuropean people who had been living in northwestern China until they were driven out in 176160 B.C. The Kushans built a strong territory encompassing huge tracts of land in the foreign region as well. Especially under Kanishka, there was an extensive cultural exchange with foreign countries, not only in terms of language, culture but also religious developments. Myths have it that the Kushana Empire represented a `dystopian` demonic empire. Kushana Emperors Kujula Kadphises (30-80 AD) established the Kushana dynasty in 78 AD by taking advantage of the feud existing between Pahalava (Parthian) and Scytho-Parthians. His origins are pretty obscure, though it is considered that he was a descendant of the Kushan ruler Heraios. He shares his name with some of the last Indo-Scythian rulers, such as Liaka Kusulaka or his son Patika Kusulaka. A family connection might be possible. During Kujula`s reign coins with hellenistic tendencies have been discovered. Representations of Greek demi-god Heracles along with the name of Kujala are pretty common. In the later years, he had been referred to as "Maharajasa― or “Great King in the coins. Some of the Kujala coins can also be traced to the roman origins. There is uncertainty about Kanishka`s rising to power, or accession to the throne. His reign is believed to have lasted 23 years in the Kushana Empire. Kanishka`s kingdom consisted of inheritance and some his own conquests, that extensively covered an area extending from Bukhara in the west to Patna in the Ganges Valley in the east, and from the Pamirs in the north to central India in the south. Kanishka set up his capital at Purusapura. It might be considered that he had crossed the Pamirs and subdued the kings of the city-states of Khotan, Kashgar, and Yarkand who had previously been tributaries of the Han emperors of China. This exchange with the foreign lands precipitated the transference of Buddhism for the first time in China in 2nd century under Kanishka. Kanishka was a devotee and a follower of Lord Buddha and he convened the fourth great Buddhist council in Kashmir that marked the beginnings of Mahayana Buddhism. Here the commentaries on the Buddhist canon were prepared and engraved on copper plates. The coins discovered show the prevalence of Zoroastrian, Greek, and Brahmanic deities along with the Buddha. The Saka era that was a system of dating, is believed to have been initiated by Kanishka. Sculptures of Kushan Empire The religious images of Kushan sculptures are especially known for the Buddha statues. The features of Kushan sculptures were highly influenced by the Greco-Roman architecture. The Kushan period was marked for setting the principles for making sculptural images that continued to influence the art of sculpturing for many years. During the time of Kushans, Buddha was first shown in human form in this region. Earlier to this period, using various symbols like lotus and footsteps represented him. Not only Buddhist art was developed but also other Hindu and Jain deities from India began to be portrayed in human form. It was under the Kushan rulers that the Gandhara School of Art developed. The sculptures of Gandhara are reminiscent of Hellenistic art. The Hellenistic art had originated in the second century and it was seen that it is highly influential in the countries from central and eastern Asia. Ivories and imported glass and lacquerware, seem to add in the cosmopolitan tastes of that time and extensive trade was also identified as the characteristic of this period. Most of artworks like stupas and monasteries were adorned with relief sculptures & often carved in dark schist. With these, figures shown in classical poses with flowing Hellenistic draperies were also found its presence here. While the Gandhara School flourished in South India, North India became popular for the Mathura School of Art. The sculpture in Mathura had more local flavour as these were inspired from local folk deities called Yakshas and Yakshis and other local gods and goddesses and themes from day-to-day life. The representation of the beauty of the female in sculpturing forms of images was the specialty of their art. The artists of Mathura succeeded in creating the ideal Indian beauty, which can be marked by oval faced with ample breasts, slender waist, and broad hips. Apart from these two schools of art stupas and caves were also an integral part of Kushan architecture. The caves of Kushan Period were mainly known for their intricate sculptures. The caves have enhanced the beauty of Indian rock architecture. This form of sculpture also thrived in Mathura. In fact the rock architecture at Mathura throws a considerable light on the then political and cultural scenario. Other than these the other architectural marvels of this period comprise sculpture of Amravati Stupas, sculpture of Jagayyapeta Stupas and sculpture of Nagarjunikonda Stupas. Ideals of Feminine Beauty in Ancient India 'Beauty is in the Eye of the Beholder' is an old cliche: That beauty is a subjective matter which depends on individual prejudices. If beauty were truly subjective, if it depended entirely on our perception it could not be studied. For academic analysis some objective reality needs to at least be assumed. Without that sense of an external reality beyond individual caprice (which modern, trendy philosophers often call a referant) there is no basis for preferring on opinion or interpretation over another. Such an objective reality can be found in the ideals of beauty. Those complex set of rules each individual carries in their head, which allows them to distinguish what is attractive to them from what is not ("I don't know much about art but I know what I like" as it is often expressed), the personal aesthetic, is not formed in a vacuum. Society, culture, past experience, all have a role to play in determining what an individual considers beautiful. And this personal aesthetic does have some coherence, an objective reality, as it is not (though it appears to be) an entirely personal choice. Instead it is conditioned by those around you, your education, the art to which you are exposed, and most importantly the opinion of others. The exchange of opinion on art allows people to both influence and be influenced so that a personal aesthetic is inevitably a result of a negotiation within someone's community. And so many personal aesthetics invariably tend towards a communal aesthetic, a fashion or a trend, a common ideal of what beauty is, or should be. This is the topic under consideration here. In Kushan India what was considered to make a woman beautiful, had that changed from earlier times, did it change after the Kushan period? What were the conceptions of beauty? What alternative ideals or concepts of beauty existed? And how did this affect the lives of women and their perceptions of themselves?