Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 89 Kohi Script from Gandhāra Discovery of Another Ancient Indian Writing System M. Nasim Khan While looking for ancient documents to establish the missing links between the Middle Indo Aryan and the Dardic languages of northern Pakistan, different sorts of epigraphical specimens were documented during the process of screening the three main valleys of northern Pakistan, Dir, Swat and the Upper Indus, including the discovery of dozens of ancient Indian inscriptions. All but one group of these are written in already familiar scripts and somewhat known languages. The aberrant script was mainly found in Dir, Swat, Buner and in the Peshawar valley and since its discovery it has remained a puzzling job for the epigraphist to determine the nature of its writing and its language. In 1999 a person from Swat informed one of my students, who was working on Chail dialect of Swat Kohistani, that a strange script is to be seen engraved on the surface of a rock close to Bahrain, Swat. After getting this information we visited the area to see the inscription, but unfortunately we were not able to find it in the absence of the person who had brought it to our attention, instead we were compensated by discovering another such inscription, which was lying in a private collection in Manglawar, Swat1. Since this discovery the author has been trying to document all such inscriptions situated in situ or lying in different museums and private collections. These inscriptions, written in a strange script hereafter called ‘Kohi Script’2, are engraved mostly on stone slabs of different types: schist, granite, marble, etc. It seems that reference to this strange script was first made by M. Senart and Sir Thomas Holdich in 1910 while referring to a large number of such strange inscriptions collected by Col. Deane in the area of Swat. Sir Thomas Holdich writes: But along with these Buddhist relics there have been lately unearthed certain strange inscriptions, which have been submitted by their discoverer, Major Deane, to a congress of Orientalists, who can only pronounce them to be in an unknown tongue. They have been found in the Indus valley east of Swat, most of them being engraved on stone slabs which have been built into towers, now in ruins. The towers are comparatively modern, but it by no means follows that these inscriptions are so. It is the common practice of Pathan builders to preserve any engraved or sculptured relic that they may find, by utilizing them as ornamental features in their buildings. It has probably been a custom from time immemorial. In 1895 I observed evidences of this propensity in the graveyard at Chagan Sarai, in the Kunar valley, where many elaborately carved Buddhist fragments were left into the sides of their roughly built “chabutras”, or sepulchres, with the obvious purpose of gaining effect thereby. No one would say where those Buddhist fragments came from. The Kunnar valley appears at first sight to be absolutely free from Buddhist remains, although it would naturally be selected as a most likely field for research. These undeciphered inscriptions may possibly be found to be vastly more ancient than the towers they adorned. It is, at any rate, a notable fact about them that some of them “recall a Greek alphabet of archaic type”. So great an authority as M. Senart inclines to the opinion that their authors must be referred to the Skythic or Mongolian invaders of India; but he refers at the same time to a sculptured and inscribed monument in the Louvre, of unknown origin, the characters on which resemble those of the new script. (Colonel, Sir Thomas Holdich: 1910: 129-129-130) 1 Thanks to its owner I could study the inscription on the spot. 2 Due to discovery of these inscriptions in the mountainous regions of northern Pakistaqn, the name ‘Kohi Script’ is here purely geographical rather than associated with any historical accounts. As a result of my first communiqué with scholars in the relevant field, I had the impression that these inscriptions were forgeries. The controversy of the fake nature of these inscriptions has continued for a long period with a sole argument being that there is no parallel for such inscriptions. Moreover Col. Deane, a British army Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 90 officer during the 1880s, was collecting and buying inscriptions in Swat and Buner areas and it is generally believed that people from the region were making fake inscriptions for him. But these arguments did not convince me and I had to look for parallels by visiting different collections, museums, societies in Pakistan and abroad, especially the British Museum and the Royal Asiatic Society. I could not find any parallel in the mentioned institutions except for the Lahore Museum, where quite a good number of inscriptions are stored in the reserve and one is on display. Those in the reserve collection are mostly published in the Royal Asiatic Society Journal but they are very fragmentary and keep very little similarity with the Kohi Script. But the efforts continued that resulted in the discovery of some more slabs which are lying in different private collections coming from different parts of the region. At least one slab is confirmed coming from Dir and one from Hund, Gandhara. The rest supposedly come from Swat. When I was on an academic visit to the Institute of Sanskrit and Indian Philology, Freie University, Prof. Harry Falk drew my attention to the publication on inscribed or painted potsherds found during excavation at Kara Tepe, Khalchayan, etc. After a close examination it was found that these different signs of an undeciphered script fall under the same category as the Kohi script. In the area of Dasht-e-Nawar in Afghanistan, a boulder was discovered having Kharoshthi inscriptions that were published by Prof. G. Fussman (Fussman 1974). However on the same boulder another inscription is engraved having the same characteristic as the Kohi scripts. Similarly some other inscriptions were discovered during excavations in Afghanistan and in Central Asian, while others are engraved on vessels of different kinds (Akishev 1978: 71; Bernard, P. 1992: 140. Harmatta 1999: 417). Although the number of inscriptions discovered during the last few years is quite impressive, the present study is based on selected inscriptions found in northern Pakistan. Detailed study and analysis is under progress and the results will hopefully be available soon. The present paper mainly deals with the paleography of the selected inscriptions and comparison is made with those found in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Granite Slab Inscription Material: Granite Condition: Complete (line no 4 is partially defaced) Size: 24x15 (max) 22x14 (min) The slab is rectangular in shape and has two small holes one on its left and the other on its right side. These holes might have been used for fixing the slab on to a wall with the help of nails and rust of an iron object is still discernible inside the holes. The reverse side of the slab is undressed. It is engraved with four lines inscription accommodating in total 42 signs covering an area of 22x12 cm. Each of these signs is unique in this slab except for one which occurs twice. Schist Slab Inscription from Gandhara Material: schist Condition: complete Size: 23x9.5 Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 91 The slab is rectangular in shape with two holes on the right side. These holes might indicate the same function as it is the case with the granite slab inscription. The slab was basically square in shape but half of it is lost. It is engraved with a nine line inscription. These lines contain in total 78 signs that are arranged in 45 different groups. The inscription is engraved within a frame with flowers and birds figures. To the right and left part of the inscription are the floral designs while the upper part shows twenty-two squares arrange in two rows with a bird figure, one in each square. The reverse side of the slab is partially broken and flaked off; it contains some geometrical designs covering an area of about 23x7.9 cm. The designs on the back are composed of different circles executed with dotted techniques. Each circle having a dot in its centre. Schist Slab Inscription from Swat Material: Schist Condition: Partially broken from the right Size: Not available The slab is rectangular in shape but it is broken on its top or its right side. The surface of the slab is properly dressed and divided into two main areas by two parallel lines. The upper or right part is further divided by a single line into two parts. Apart from the inscriptions to be found Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 92 in each of these sections there is probably a figure of a Buddha executed in the left lower corner of the slab. The figure is shown in profile facing right. He is depicted with a round top chignon and probably straight hair combed back wards. The upper left side of the slab contains eleven lines, the upper right shows six lines, while the lower part is engraved with seven lines inscription. The right upper part of the slab is broken and it seems that part of the inscription is missing. Lines six, seven and eight of the lower right part of the inscription are completely gone. Total numbers of the existing lines are about 23 which accommodate approximately 104 signs that are arranged under 76 different groups. Marble Slab Inscription Material: Marble Condition: Compete Size 14.5x7.5 (max) 14x6.8 (min) The slab supposedly comes from Hund area. It is rectangular in shape and is properly dressed on its engraved surface. The obverse is divided into two parts by an incised horizontal line, the upper part covers almost two third of the total surface and contains a four line inscription. The inscription contains about 138 signs arranged under 90 different groups. The lower part of the slab is plain but has two holes with residue of the iron nails. occurs in the similar inscriptions found in Afghanistan and Central Asia and those that are the non Indian scripts found elsewhere. Further comparison is made between the Kohi script and the ancient Indian scripts like Kharoshthi, Brahmi and Indus script. Paleography of the Inscriptions: A detailed study of the symbols in the four inscriptions included in this paper has shown that they can be re-grouped or classified under 160 different groups starting from Serial No. 1-160. This number can be reduced if the study is only based on the basic form of the symbols or could be increased if minor details are considered. Comparison of the symbols in the present inscriptions is made with those that Serial No: 1 This sign is composed of a vertical line with three horizontal strokes added to the right side of the vertical arranged in a parallel manner: top, middle and lower end. The sign is very similar to the Brhm letter ‘ja’. It can also be compared with a certain sign of the Indus script (Fig. 7, No. 32) and the Roman capital ‘E’. We have six examples in this group almost having similar shapes. They are sometime added with different strokes or additional marks that could be used for diacritical marks. Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 93 Serial No: 2 The sign of this group has close similarity with the previous group. The main difference being the direction of the strokes. In the present examples the strokes are added to the left side of the vertical. It can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘ha’ (Fig. 7, No. 7). Similar symbol is also present in the Indus script (Fig. 7, No.7). the same level as the vertical line. The other two horizontal lines are drawn towards the right Serial No: 8 We have only one example of this sign but it is similar to Serial No: 5. The only difference is made by the lower horizontal line which slants downward and then bends inward two times giving a triangular shape to the lower part. Serial No: 9 There are three signs in total under this group. One of these sign is composed of a vertical and two horizontal lines; one attached to the top and the other to the middle part- both are drawn towards the right. In one example, a hook is attached to the top opening leftward; it has the same shape as the Brhm medial vowel ‘i’. The other two signs of the same group are added with an additional horizontal stroke attached to the bottom towards the right. Two hooks are attached to the lower part of the sign. Serial No: 10 We have three signs in this group; all of these occur in the marble slab inscription. The basic shape of the sign is similar to Serial No. 1 but the present examples are added with different minor symbols attached to the figures or placed in the left field. Serial No: 11 There are only two examples. The signs are composed of different lines; each has an oblique line with three slanting strokes attached parallel to the main line. One of the signs shows a stroke that passes through the middle of the oblique line and slants downward with a foot mark to the right. Serial No: 12 All the three examples in this group are found in the Schist Slab Inscription from Swat. They are very similar to Serial No. 6. The basic sign consists of a straight vertical line with two horizontals strokes one at the bottom and one at the middle to the right. One of these is added with a hook and the other one with trident like symbol without the vertical bar. Serial No. 3 These signs have almost the same shape as those come under Serial No. 1. The difference is the middle horizontal line which has a loop on its end. Serial No: 4 There are three examples in this group; one from each slab except the schist slab from Gandhra. The formation of the sign is the same as it is the case for Serial No. 1 except for the loop which is attached to the horizontal line. Serial No: 5 They are exactly the same as those that come under Serial No. 4 except for the loop at the lower end instead of attaching to the upper body of the vertical. One of the signs has a heart shaped design at the bottom and to the right in place of a semicircle. In one example the upper horizontal is not attached to the tip of the vertical but is shown a little below. Serial No: 6 We have two examples of this sign; both are from the schist slab inscription from Gandhra. The sign has close similarity with the signs of the previous groups. In the present two examples, the main body consists of a vertical line with three horizontal lines attached to the right of the vertical; the upper horizontal line makes a loop while joining the vertical. In one of these examples, the upper horizontal line shows a symbols similar to a trident. Serial No: 7 There is only one example in this group. It is composed of one vertical and three horizontal lines. The upper horizontal stroke to the right is bent inward making a loop when passes through the vertical; it is extended downwards and stays at Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 94 Serial No: 13 There are nine signs in this group but they occur on two slabs: the schist slab from Gandhara and the marble slab from Hund. The signs are very similar to the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘ti’ or ‘pha’ (Fig. 7, No. 19). Serial No: 14 The two examples occurring in this group seem to be a cursive form of the sign of Serial No. 13 or it might be the same but with additional signs. Serial No: 15 This group contains six signs; five occur in the marble slab inscription and one on the schist slab from Swat. They have exactly the same form as that of the Serial No. 13. An additional stroke in the form of a horizontal line is added to the right bottom of the vertical giving the impression of a Kharoshthi ‘phra’. Minor signs are also added to some of these symbols. Serial No: 16 There are five signs in this group. They can be compared with symbols of Serial No. 1 except for a loop attached to the top of each of the letter. Minor symbols are also added. Serial No: 17 We have only one sign in this group that occurs in the marble slab inscription. It is comparable to the previous group of signs. Minor symbol is added to the left of the sign. Serial No: 18 There are two examples in total; both signs occur in the schist slab inscription from Swat. The basic body of the sign consists of a straight vertical line with a horizontal stroke at the bottom attached to the right. One of the examples shows a semicircle attached to the middle of the vertical toward the right. But in the second case, one limb of the sign is attached to the vertical and the other to the horizontal line. In the later case a short stroke is also added to the top left of the vertical. It can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘sra’ (Fig. 7, No. 27). Serial No: 19 There are three signs in this group two occurs on the schist slab from Swat and the other on the marble slab inscription. The symbols are very similar to one of those placed in Serial No. 18 except for the semicircle added to the top of the vertical in the present examples. Serial No: 20 The only symbol we have in this group occurs in the granite slab inscription. It is similar to Serial No. 18 except for the top of the vertical that is broken to the right; the top is bent to the right in shape of a hook. Serial No: 21 We have four sign in this group; two occur in the schist slab inscription from Gandhra and the other two in the marble slab inscription. They are comparable to Serial No. 19 except for the vertical in the present example that goes through the middle of the semicircle giving a trident shape to the upper body. Additional marks can be seen to the left of one of the signs on the marble slab inscription. Serial No: 22 There is only one sign in this group, which is on the marble slab inscription. The main body of the sign is similar to the previous group except for the lower limb of the semicircle that goes through the vertical. Additional marks are added to the left of the sign. Serial No: 23 There are two examples, both occur on the marble slab inscription. It is comparable to Serial No. 22; here the minor symbols are missing. Serial No: 24 There are five sign in this group. The main body of the sign is similar to the sign of Serial No: 21 except for the semicircle, which is absent here. Two of these examples have a horizontal stroke which passes through the middle of the vertical; the horizontal is broken on both of its end. Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 95 Serial No: 25 The signs in this group are of the same shapes as those that occurred in the previous group; the little difference that can be seen is in the tip of the horizontal stroke, which is either bent or in a heart shape design in the present examples. Serial No: 26 We have four signs in this group. They can be compared with Serial No. 24. Serial No: 27 The main body of the sign is composed of a straight vertical line and a horizontal stroke, with a trident shape left end, which passes through the middle of the upper half of the vertical. Serial No: 28 The sign is similar to a trident symbol in upside down position. Serial No: 33 The symbol is very similar to the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘tha’ (Fig. 7: No.13); the lower end of the vertical shows a hook to its left. Serial No: 34 Most probably belongs to Serial No. 32; in the present examples an additional mark is added to the left and the lower body of the vertical has a spiraled hook to the left. Serial No: 35 We have four examples in this group. The main body of the sign is composed of a straight vertical line and an angular hook, which is attached to the lower half of the vertical to the right. It is very similar to the Brhm letter ‘ta’ (Fig. 7: No. 34). Serial No: 36 The main body of the sign is similar to the previous group. The top of one of the signs has three dents added. The other symbol of the same group is similar to the Kharoh letter ‘ka’ (Fig. 7, No. 2). Serial No: 37 There is only one specimen. The lower body is comparable to the Brhm letter ‘ta’ or Kharoh ‘bha’. The upper part is a semi circle presented in outline. Serial No: 38 This group contains three examples. It has close similarity with the Kharoh letter ‘gha’ (Fig. 7, No. 4). Serial No: 39 We have eight signs in this group. The symbol is comparable to Serial No. 35. Serial No: 40 The main body of the sign is composed of a straight vertical line and a small semicircular opening downward, attached to the bottom of the vertical. Additional minor signs can be seen. It can be compared with the Brhm letter ‘ta’ of the later period. Serial No: 29 The basic shape of the symbol is very similar to Serial No. 28. An additional mark is added to the top or middle body of the symbol. This type of sign can also be found in the Indus script (Fig. 7: No. 3). Serial No: 30 The formation of the symbol is the same as Serial No. 29. In the present example the three dents are added to the top of the vertical. The lower tip of the symbol is either added with a minor sign or is shown in a very cursive manner. Serial No: 31 There is only one example. It is composed of a trident shaped symbol (Serial No. 30) and a kind of semi circle with tail that goes through the middle of the vertical of the trident. Serial No: 32 We have two examples in this group. Both are shaped on the model of a trident symbol. In one of the examples a curved line goes through the middle part of the vertical. Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 96 Serial No: 41 There is only one example. It is similar to the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘kṣa’ (Fig. 7, No. 28). Serial No: 42 All the three examples in this group come from the marble slab inscription. The upper body of the letter is similar to the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘ja’ (Fig. 7, No. 6). The lower body shows dents, hooks or short lines. The symbol can also be compared with one of the symbol in the Indus script (Fig. 7, No. 6). Serial No: 43 This group contains only two examples of the sign; both are from the schist slab inscription from Swat. The main body of the sign is similar to the Roman letter ‘D’ or Brahmi ‘dha’ (Fig. 7: 36). The vertical is extended upwards. Serial No: 44 We have four examples in this group. It has almost the same shape as Serial No. 43 can be compared to the Brahmi letter ‘ca’ (Fig. 7, No. 30). Serial No: 45 The sign is very similar to Serial No. 43 except for the curved or horizontal line added to the upper part of the vertical in the present case. Serial No: 52 There is only one example in this group. This sign has a close similarity with the previous group. In the present example the loop is towards the left side. Two parallel slanting strokes pass through the upper half of the vertical. Serial No: 53 This group contains six examples. The basic shape of the symbol is a semicircle added with a cross, hook, vertical stroke, etc. either placed in the curve of the symbol or below. The sign can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘ma’ (Fig. 7, No. 20). Serial No: 54 We have only one sign in this group. The main body of the symbol is similar to Serial No. 53. The right limb is extended upwards and a small horizontal stroke has been placed on its top. The semi circle is placed on top of a fish hook symbol whereas its vertical is crossed by a slanting stroke. Serial No: 55 This group equally contains only one symbol. The upper body of the sign is comparable to the main body of the symbol in Serial No. 53. In the present example, the ends of the limb are broken towards the left. A vertical line that makes an angle with a horizontal line is drawn downwards from the outer surface of the semicircle. Serial No: 56 The group contains a total of six examples. The symbol is very similar to the late Brahmi letter ‘sa’ (Fig. 7: 46). The tip of the limbs are broken either inwards or outwards. This type of sign can also be found in the Indus script. Serial No: 57 We have only one sign in this group which occurs in the schist slab inscription from Swat. Except for the left hook which is missing in the present example, the symbol has similarity with Serial No. 56. Serial No: 46 The symbol can be compared with Serial No. 45. Here the top of the vertical shows a hook to the right. An additional mark is placed on the right side of one of the example. Serial Nos.: 47-50 Signs belong to Serial Nos. 47-50 might come under the same group and can be compared with Serial Nos. 43-46. Serial No: 51 This group contains four examples. The main body of the sign is composed of a vertical line which bends towards the right at its lower end and then crosses the vertical making a loop at the bottom and towards the right. An additional mark is added in one of the examples. Sometimes a vertical or a curved line is added to the upper part of the vertical. The sign has resemblance with the Brāhmī letter ‘cha’ (Fig. 7, No. 31). Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 97 Serial No: 58 This group contains only one example and is comparable in shape to Serial No. 56 but it is represented here in upside down position. Serial No: 59 The symbol of this group can be compared with the Brahmi letter ‘pha’ (Fig. 7, No. 39). The top of the vertical is added with a horizontal stroke. Serial No: 60 There is only one example. The sign is composed of a victory sign with round top, shown in upside down position, and a trident shaped symbol that goes through the right limb of the symbol. Serial No: 61 We have only one example in this group, from the schist slab inscription from Swat. The shape of the sign is very close to the Brāhmī letter ‘pu’. Serial No: 62 This group contains five examples. It is similar to the Roman letter ‘v’ some times with a horizontal line in the middle like Roman letter ‘A’ in upside down position. Serial No: 63 There are six examples in this group. The basic form of the symbol is similar to the Roman capital letter ‘W’. Minor symbols are added or placed near to the symbols. Serial No: 64 The only sign that we have in this group is that which is composed of a similar symbol explained under Serial No. 63 and a ‘L’ shaped symbol on top of which is placed the first component of the symbol. Minor strokes are added to both sides of the sign. Serial No: 65 We have only one sign in this group. It can be compared with the Roman capital letter ‘M’. Such signs can be found in the Indus script (Fig. 7, No. 52). Serial No: 66 This group contains only one sign that is taken from the schist slab inscription from Swat. The sign has close similarity with Serial No: 63 except for the loop in the middle dent. Serial No: 67 There are two examples. The symbol can be compared with the Brahmi letter ‘ja’ or Kharoṣṭhī ‘dra’ (Fig. 7, No. 16). In one case a slanting stroke is added to the upper bar. Serial No: 68 The sign is similar to Serial No. 67 but it is represented in the present case in reverse direction. It can also be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘dha’ (Fig. 7, No. 17). Serial No: 69 The only example that we have in this group comes from the granite slab inscription. It has close similarity with the Kharoṣṭhī symbol for the sound ‘tve’ (Fig. 7, No. 9) or can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī symbol for ‘re’. Serial No: 70 This group is composed of only one example which can be compared with italic form of the Gupta Brāhmī letter ‘a’ (Fig. 7: 37). Serial No: 71 This group contains two examples both of which occurred in the granite slab inscription. The symbols can be compared with Serial Nos. 31 and 34 but in the present case they are represented in upside down position. Serial No: 72 The main body of the symbol is similar to a fish hook which is crossed by a curved line in its middle. Serial No: 73 All the three examples in this group are recorded in the marble slab inscription. The main body of the symbol is comparable to Serial No. 72. The top hook is either pointed, round in form or angular in shape. Apart for the horizontal stroke that goes through the middle of the vertical, other minor symbols can be seen close to the symbol. The sign can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘i’ (Fig. 7, No. 1). Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 98 Serial No: 74 We have three symbols in this group, all these are taken from the marble slab inscription. The main body of the sign is composed of a straight vertical line with a hook at its lower end towards the left. Another stroke is added to the top in a horizontal manner with a short vertical stroke attached to the tip of the main stroke. Serial No: 75 The straight line can be compared with the Brahmi letter ‘ra’ (Fig. 7, No. 42). Sometime the top of the vertical has an additional mark. Such type of sign is also fond in the Indus script. Serial No: 76 Very similar to the symbol of the previous group. The sign can also be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘tha’ or ‘ha’ (Fig. 7, No. 10) or Brāhmī letter ‘ka’. Serial No: 77 We have three examples of this symbol. It is composed of a vertical line crossed by a single or two parallel horizontal lines. Serial No: 78 The main body of the letter can be compared with Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘naṃ’. Two minor strokes are drawn to the left of the symbol. Serial No: 81 The sign can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘sa’. Signs in this shape can also be found in the Indus script. Serial No: 82 This symbol is composed of a vertical and two strokes attached to the middle body of the vertical towards the right. Additional marks are also added to the symbol. Serial No: 83 This group contains three symbols. It is a vertical line with a bend at its lower end either to the right or to the left side. Additional mark is added in one example. The symbol is similar to the reverse of the Brāhmī initial vowel ‘u’. Serial No: 84 Very similar to the Serial No. 83 except for the additional stroke that is added either to the top or it crosses the middle of the vertical. The symbol can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘tha’. Serial No: 85 This group contains three signs whereas the main body is comparable to the Brhm letter ‘pa”. Some times one or two horizontal lines are added to the top or upper body of the vertical. Serial No: 86 We have only two examples; both are recorded in the schist slab inscription from Gandhara. One is composed of a vertical line with its lower end bent towards the left. Another line almost vertical and parallel is drawn towards the left. The second symbol is similar to the reverse of the first symbol; additional mark is added to the right. Serial No: 87 The sign is similar to the Brāhmī letter ‘ha’. The additional marks are hooks or a slanting line. They are either attached to the letter or placed below. Serial No: 88 There is only one example of this letter. It is formed on a semicircle with a miniature loop and Serial No: 79 This group contains only one sign which is seen on the marble slab inscription. The basic form of the letter is similar to the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘sa’ whereas the upper part of the vertical is crossed by a slanting stroke or the upper limb of the loop. Serial No: 80 This group contains five signs. All symbols in this group are different from each other in one way or another. The basic form of the symbol can be compared with the cursive form of the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘bha’. Additional signs can be seen either attached to the symbol or placed nearby. Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 99 a horizontal line in its curve. This type of sign can also be found in the Indus script (Fig. 7, 49). Serial No: 89 It is formed of a semicircle or a square opening towards the right, whereas the right bar is missing, and a vertical line that crosses the upper limb. The lower end of the vertical inclines to the right. Minor strokes are added to the symbol. The additional signs are either two pairs of two parallels slanting strokes, one pair in the right field and the other in the left field, or stroke attached to the top of the vertical. Serial No: 90 This group contains two examples. It can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘da’ or Roman ‘S’. Serial No: 91 The symbol can be compared with Serial No. 90. In the present case a vertical line crosses the figure creating a symbol like ‘$’. Minor symbols are added to the sign. Serial No: 92 We have only one example in this group. The main body is composed of a symbol comparable to Serial Nos. 90, 91 and a trident shaped figure presented in upside down position. Serial No: 93 It is composed of a vertical line and a triangle on its top left side; similar to the reverse of the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘sa’. Serial No: 94 Having close similarity with Serial No. 94; the loop in the present symbol is more rounded. Additional marks are also added. Serial No: 95 A compound of the previous group of symbol and a trident shaped drawing facing left. Serial No: 96 The symbol can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘na’ or ‘a’ with a rounded top. Additional signs can be seen. Serial no: 97 There is only one example of this symbol. It is a vertical line having two loops, one on each end towards the right. The tip of the upper hook is extended leftwards and trifurcated into three strokes giving the impression of a trident. Serial No: 98 The symbol can be compared to a plus ‘+’ or cross sign ‘x’. In one example it is placed on the top of a fish hook shaped symbol. The symbol can also be compared with the letter ‘tha’ or the digit for 4 in Kharoṣṭhī. Serial No: 99 This group contains only one sign. It is similar to the previous group of signs except for the broken ends of the lines in the present example. Serial No: 100 A cross sign shadowed by a semicircle. Below the symbol there is a wavy line. Serial Nos.: 101, 102 The symbol is composed of two parallel vertical and two parallel horizontal lines that cross each other at its right angle. Some times a loop can be seen at its top. Serial No: 103 There is only one sign in this group. It is similar to the drawing of double ‘ta’ in Brāhmī placed side by side. The verticals are crossed by a victory shaped symbol opening leftwards. Serial No: 104 A rectangle crossed by a vertical in its centre. Such symbol can be found in the Indus script (Fig. 7, 57). Serial No: 105 We have only one example in this group. The main body of the sign is composed of a rectangle placed vertically. The top is surmounted with an approximate semicircle wherein a small stroke is placed vertically. A similar symbol is also available in the Indus script (Fig. 7, 56). Serial Nos.: 106, 107 The signs can be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 100 letter ‘ca’. Serial No: 108 The symbol is comparable to the Brāhmī letter ‘dha’. Serial No: 109 This group contains seven example of the symbol whereas its shape is similar to the Brāhmī letter ‘ha’. Serial No: 110 It can be compared with the Brāhmī letter ‘tha’. Serial No: 111 A round body added with two victory shaped symbols; one attached to the top and one to the bottom of the main symbol. Serial No: 112 The sign is oval in shape with a notch at the lower end. Serial No: 113 The symbol can be compared with the Brāhmī letter ‘va’. Such symbol can also be found in the Indus script. Serial No: 114 The same type of sign as serial No. 113 but it is in upside down position. In one example three dashes are added to the top of the circle. It can also be compared with the Brāhmī letter ‘hu’. This shape of the sign is also found in the Indus script. Serial No: 115 May be of the same type of symbol as Serial No. 113 except for the bend in the vertical to be seen in the present example. It can also be compared with the Kharoṣṭhī letter ‘yo’. Serial No: 116 The sign is very similar to the Brāhmī letter ‘ca’. Serial No: 117 A slanting stroke with a loop at its lower end towards the right. Two parallel horizontal lines are added to the right of the vertical. Serial No: 118 The symbol can be compared with the Brāhmī letter ‘pha’ or ‘ha’ . Serial No: 119 Comparable to the Brāhmī letter ‘ma’. Similar sign also occurs in the Indus script. Serial No: 120 Same as the previous group of symbol. In the present example a trident shaped symbol is added either to the right limb or to the left limb. Serial Nos.: 121, 122 See Serial No. 119. Serial No: 123 Comparable to Serial No. 119 but represented in upside down position. Serial Nos.: 124, 125 Probably cursive form of Serial No. 123. Serial Nos.: 126-160 They are very complex symbols and hardly comparable to any letter of any ancient Indian scripts. In Serial No: 142, the symbols are partially comparable to the Gupta Brhm letter ‘ṣa’. Some of these symbols can be compared with signs in the Indus script. Conclusion Although all these inscriptions are written in the same script, the palaeography shows a very clear development in the shape of the letters. This suggests that the inscriptions do not belong to the same period but may belong to different periods. Most probably the script was in use somewhere between the 1st - 7th /8th centuries AD. The granite slab inscription might belong to the early phase of writing while the Hund slab inscription which shows a more developed and complex form of writing system might belong to the 7th/8th centuries AD or even later. Like Kharoṣṭhī, the direction of writing is most probably from right towards the left. It has long been assumed that these inscriptions were fakes. However, the number of inscriptions recorded in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia, including bilingual inscriptions found in Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 101 situ, examples recovered during excavation and several from unknown provenance lying in different museums and private collection indicate that Kohi should be added to the list of ancient Indian scripts: Kharoṣṭhī, Brāhmī, Indus as it was another popular script that was in use in the Northern regions of Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia. Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 102 References Akishev, K.A. 1978. Kurgan Issyk. Iskusstvo Sakov Kazakhstana. Moscow. Bernard, P. 1980. Campagne de fouilles 1978 à Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan). CRAI: 29-30. Bernard, P. and Rapin, Claude. 1980. Campagne de fouilles 1978 à Aï Khanoum : III. Le Palais. La Trésorerie. BEFEO 68: 10-38. Bhattacharyya, H.K. 1959. The Language and Scripts of Ancient India. Calcutta. Curiel, R. 1954. Inscriptions de Surkh Kotal. Journal Asiatique 242: 189-205 Daniels, Peter, T. 1996. The World’s Writing Systems. New York Fussman, G. 1974. Documents pigraphiques kouchans I. BEFEO 61: 1-66. Gnoli, Gherardo 1964: Le Iscrizioni GidudeoPersiane del Gur (Afghanistan). Serie Oriental Roma XXX. Rome Harmatta, J. 1999 (Indian Edition). Languages and Scripts in Graeco-Bactria and the Saka Kingdoms. History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. II (Harmatta, J., Puri, B.N., Etemadi, G.F. Edition): 397-416. Dehli. Harmatta, J. 1999 (Indian Edition). Languages and Literature in the Kushan Empire. History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. II (Harmatta, J., Puri, B.N., Etemadi, G.F. Edition): 417-440. Dehli. Holdich, S.T. 1910. The Gates of India. An Historical Narrative. London. Livshits, V.A. 1976. Nadpisi iz Dil’berdzhina. Drevniaia Baktriia 1: 165, n.4 Livshits, V.A. 1979. Dva ostraka iz Dil’berdzhina. Drevniaia Baktriia 2: 95, n. 3: inscription en écriture qualifiée de”bactrienne-araméenne”. Livshits, V.A.; Kruglikova, I.T. 1979. Fragmenty baktriiskoi monumental’noi nadpisi iz Dil’berdzhina. Drevniaia Baktriia 2: 98112. Oranskij, Iosif, M. 1997. Les Langues Iraniennes. Translated by Joyce Blau. Paris. Pugachenkova, G.A. 1966. Khalchayan. K. probleme khudozhestvennoi kul’tury Severnoi Bakctri. Tashkent. Pugachenkova, G.A. 1979. Dzhiga-tepe. Drevniaia Baktriia 2: 63-94. Rapin, Claude. 1992. Fouilles d’Aï Khanoum VIII. La Trsorerie du Palais Hellnistique d’Aï Khanoum. Paris Robinson, A. 1999. The Story of Writing. New York Sahni, R.B.D.R. 1932. Six Inscriptions in the Lahore Museum. Epigraphia Indica. Vol. XXI (1931-32): 293-301 Stavinskij, B.Ja. La Bactriane sous les Kushans. Stavinskij, B. 1975. Novye nakhodki na Kara-tepe v starom Termeze (1972-1973 gg.). Moscow. Stein, M.A. 1898 (?). Notes on New Inscriptions Discovered by Major Deane. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1898: 1-19. Stein, A. 1972. On Alexander’s Track to the Indus. Personal Narrative of Explorations on the North-West Frontier of India.New York Vertogradova, V.V. 1982. Nakhodka nadpisi neizvestnym pis’mon na Kara-tepe. Buddiiskie pamiatniki Kara-tepe v starom Termeze (Kara tepe V).: 160-167. Moscow. Vertogradova, V.V. 1987. Some Study Problems of Indian Inscriptions in Kara-tepe. In: Information Bulletin 13. International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia: 17-33. Moscow Vertogradova, V.V. 1995. Indiiskaya Epigrafika iz Kara-Tepe v Starom Termeze. Problemy Deshivrovki i interpretacii. Akademia Nauk, Moscow. Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 103 Fig. 1 Kohī Script from Gandhāra (Table of concordance) Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 104 Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 105 Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 106 Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 107 Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 108 Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 109 Fig. 2 Inscriptions from Afghanistan (Comparative Table) Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 110 Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 111 Fig. 3 Inscriptions from Central Asia (Table of concordance) Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 112 Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 113 Fig. 4 Inscriptions from Afghanistan and Central Asia (Table of concordance) Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 114 Fig. 5 Inscriptions from Gandhāra, Afghanistan and Central Asia (Table of concordance) Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 115 Fig. 6 Kohī and non Ancient Indian scripts (Table of concordance) Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 116 Fig. 7 Kohī and Ancient Indian Scripts (Table of concordance) Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 117 Gandhāran Studies, Vol.1 118
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