This article was downloaded by: [Universidad Nacional Colombia] On: 28 November 2013, At: 22:54 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in Englandand Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Changing English: Studies in Culture and Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ccen20 Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles and English Teaching Fallacies in EFL and ESL Contexts Betsy Hu Xiaoqiong & Jiang Xianxing a a b Foreign Languages College, Three Gorges University , Hubei, China b Shenzhen Polytechnic School , Shenzhen, China Published online: 29 Sep 2011. To cite this article: Betsy Hu Xiaoqiong & Jiang Xianxing (2011) Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles and English Teaching Fallacies in EFL and ESL Contexts, Changing English: Studies in Culture and Education, 18:2, 219-228, DOI: 10.1080/1358684X.2011.575254 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1358684X.2011.575254 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & tandfonline.Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.com/page/termsand-conditions Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 . He says: If we go to the opposite extreme. No.200–1.2011. A ‘middle-of-the-road’ estimate would be 1. 18. English should not be *Corresponding author. the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle. Shenzhen. English teaching fallacies. Email: huxiaoqiong@yahoo. global English or the lingua franca’. EFL and ESL contexts 1.informaworld. which are (1) English learners in the Outer and Expanding Circles learn English essentially to communicate with people from the Inner Circle. Therefore.575254 http://www. where English is their native language. Based on Kachru’s theory. Keywords: Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles. Australia and New Zealand. there are over 2 billion people who can make use of it to varying degrees in their everyday lives. 2.cn ISSN 1358-684X print/ISSN 1469-3585 online Ó 2011 The editors of Changing English DOI: 10. namely. English is now being learned and used worldwide. As English has become ‘world English. international English. It is spoken everywhere. Crystal (1997) contends that a conservative estimate of the number of speakers of English today with a native or native-like command of English would be 670 million. (Crystal 1997. 219–228 Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles and English Teaching Fallacies in EFL and ESL Contexts Betsy Hu Xiaoqionga* and Jiang Xianxingb a Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 Foreign Languages College. it is an established fact that English has become the most important international language today. Canada. and use a criterion of ‘reasonable competence’ rather than ‘native-like fluency’. Introduction The word ‘English’ is always associated with people from America. (4) English is a tool for understanding and teaching American or British cultural values. China This paper attempts to introduce and explain the famous Three Concentric Circles proposed by Kachru.Changing EnglishAquatic Insects Vol.800 million. The number has now surely gone up further as English is increasingly used to communicate across international borders.1080/1358684X. and this is now commonly encountered. bShenzhen Polytechnic School.500 million. Hubei. the Inner Circle. Britain. However. (2) a native speaker model is the only appropriate model for all learners of English. (3) all native speakers of English can go to teach in the Outer and Expanding circles. Three Gorges University. all told. China. 61) Crystal estimated the number of English speakers more than 10 years ago. June 2011. As we can see from the figures given above.com . we shall end up with a grand total of 1. the paper proceeds to discuss four fallacies in EFL and ESL contexts. mother-tongue and other tongue. Xianxing the property of the native speakers any more. We need to rethink some of our traditional aims and objectives of English teaching. the force of English in globalization is beginning to have a deep impact on English language teaching across the globe. its varieties are increasing as well. Undoubtedly. British English and American English. world English has meant all English: standard and non-standard. . Irish English. British English. As McArthur (2004. dialect. the Inner Circle. world English is both shorthand for English as a world language and a superordinate term for Australian English. Instead. Canada. . and the like’. creole. Nigerian English. lingua franca. it should belong to all the people who use it. According to Kachru (1992). New Zealand. Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles As English is being spoken by such a vast number of people. Hu Xiaoqiong and J. are in fact but two World Englishes among many. 5) put it: ‘since 1967. Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles (1992. ‘World Englishes’ fall into three categories (see Figure 1): 1. pidgin.220 B. Britain and America. Figure 1. Ireland. such “anglo-hybrids” as Hindlish and Spanglish. and. 356). where English is the mother tongue and includes countries such as Australia. importantly. which have been traditionally regarded as the only two varieties of ‘standard’ English. . Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 2. . The circles represent the spread. pragmatic contexts and communicative norms. attempts to discuss four fallacies in terms of English teaching and learning in ESL and EFL contexts. Kenya. Singapore. literary traditions. and the functional allocation of English in diverse cultural contexts. the patterns of acquisition. though not a mother tongue – the countries include Bangladesh. which uses English as an additional institutionalized. while the people from the other two circles far outnumber the people from the inner circle. Ghana. Fallacies in English teaching in ESL and EFL contexts Fallacy One: English learners in the Outer and Expanding Circles learn English essentially to communicate with people from the Inner Circle In China. Zambia and Zimbabwe. But the multiple identities of English haven’t caused consequent changes to English teaching in ESL and EFL contexts. the expression ‘go abroad’ is synonymous with ‘going to the WEST’. The Expanding Circle includes the regions where varieties of the language are used essentially in EFL contexts. From the above circles. it undoubtedly means that ‘I want my child to study in a western English-speaking country’. As McArthur put it (2003. official language. Tanzania. Regarding the users and uses of English. 357–8) mentions six fallacies. Russia. which refers to English as a foreign language. Kachru (1992) holds that the current sociolinguistic profile of English may be viewed in terms of these three circles. The wide use of English indicates that the varieties of English have multiplied. with a total population of 350 million. if a parent says ‘I want my child to study abroad’. based on Kachru’s thoughts. Malaysia. it accounts for about 110 million speakers. Kachru (1992. The Inner Circle represents the traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English. The Outer Circle represents the institutionalized non-native varieties (ESL) in the regions that have passed through extended periods of colonization. the Philippines. 3. For many students in the Outer and Expanding Circles. the countries being mainly China. 2): India and China apparently already account for at least half a billion users and learners of English. People in these countries can use English fluently for virtually any type of communication. the Expanding Circle. Nepal. the heaviest ‘consumer’ of English in the world – and even if this is not so at the time of writing. Korea. containing only five countries. Saudi Arabia and several in South America.Changing English 221 2. whereas the term ‘Englishes’ does. Kachru (1992) thinks the term ‘English’ does not capture this sociolinguistic reality. Nigeria. and a number of fallacies are still in existence in ESL and EFL contexts. Those who speak English in the Outer and Expanding Circles have their own local histories. Sri Lanka. Pakistan. The implications of this sociolinguistic reality are not recognized. India. 3. If only 10% of the population in the Outer Circle use English. a total that (before seeking to bring in equally soft statistics from elsewhere in Asia) could make the continent. South Africa. This paper. we can see that the Inner Circle is the smallest. ‘When they were asked about their interest in Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 . in demographic terms. the Outer Circle. it is likely to become so in the not far distant future. and they study there from half a year to one year. How relevant. say. From Table 1. A typical example illustrates this phenomenon well. Country South Korea Denmark Austria France America Total Number of exchange students 58 4 2 7 4 75 . it is clear that much of the world needs and uses English for instrumental reasons.7%) out of the total go to study in the Expanding Circle countries. who. Hu Xiaoqiong and J. in the last five years.222 B. has. Xianxing Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 foreign countries. 436–7). it is after students discuss North American and European countries’ (Matsuda 2002. we can see that 71 (94. African and Central and South American countries are mentioned less often. it was usually the US. then. or the socially acceptable distance for conversation as properties of meaningful communication to Finnish and Italian academicians exchanging ideas in a professional meeting? (Alptekin 2002) Since English is so widely spoken by people from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds. the Inner Circle country. then the norms and standards established by the so-called Received Pronunciation and General American should be questioned. China Three Gorges University (CTGU). Every year. Therefore.3%) go to America. established exchange programmes with a number of countries. are the conventions of British politeness or American informality to the Japanese and Turks. Table 1. So far. western European countries and Canada that were mentioned. is the real native speaker of English who can use it accurately and appropriately? Paikeday (1985) in his book entitled The Native Speaker is Dead! shows native speakership as a linguistic myth. more and more people learn English within the Outer and Expanding Circles to use among themselves. English becomes the main vehicle for interaction among the non-native speakers with distinct linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The first author’s university. then. Asian. Germans with Danish and so on. If people from the Outer and Expanding Circles learn English not necessarily to go to the Englishspeaking countries. But given the lingua franca status of English. Destination of exchange students from China Three Gorges University. and when they are. 75 students have experienced study and life in the exchange universities (see Table 1). whilst only four (5. commercial pursuits and professional contacts. such as academic studies. when doing business in English? How relevant are such culturally-laden discourse samples as British railway timetables or American newspaper advertisements to industrial engineers from Romania and Egypt conducting technical research in English? How relevant is the importance of Anglo-American eye contact. and argues that its true meaning is no more nor less than a proficient user of a language. Chinese with Vietnamese. such as Koreans with Japanese. some CTGU students are sent to these exchange universities. As a matter of fact. No longer the model speaker of World English. the language teaching curriculum must expose students to local cultural content and its English variants in various parts of the world. the educational goal of learning the language is to enable learners to communicate their ideas and culture to others. they may lack respect for such varieties and their users. thereby avoiding stereotypes and prejudices against other English varieties. so that students will not perceive American English and British English as the only two standard varieties.Changing English 223 Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 Fallacy Two: A native speaker model is the only appropriate model for all learners of English This claim has no empirical validity. which have begun to be accepted and recognized. English has become an international language. due to the millions of people in Asia. and b. In defining an international language. they are likely to be monocultural and carry with them prejudices about their own “Anglo” cultures’ (Kirkpatrick 2006). When students are confronted with different types of English users or uses. and the educated varieties of such models have always been used in the classroom. Students may not desire to further explore those parts of the world they are not familiar with. Therefore. ‘Being monolingual. 139–146) suggests that in the acquisition of an international language: a. countries such as India and Singapore have already set up their own models and norms of English. Viewing them as deficient. In the world English context the uniqueness of the native speaker and his/ her mother tongue becomes totally irrelevant when we consider the spread of World English. Confusion or resistance may result from an incomplete presentation of the English language. In the Outer Circle. in various interactive contexts. when students are exposed to a limited section of the world. their awareness and understanding of the world also becomes limited. They should teach their students knowledge of World Englishes. Teachers. As Matsuda (2002) put it. one can imagine the native speaker ’s predicament when the ratio reaches 1:10 in the not-so-distant future. the ownership of an international language becomes ‘denationalized’. We believe it is time for English teachers in the Outer and Expanding Circles to realize the importance and necessity of their own varieties as well as other varieties of English. learners do not need to internalize the cultural norms of native speakers of the language. Given the native/non-native speaker ratio of 1:2. Africa and Latin America eager to learn the language. Kachru (1992) holds that the Inner Circle is only in a very marginal sense a ‘model provider ’. educators and researchers should integrate other Englishes into textbooks and other teaching materials and ensure that the content of English materials is not limited to the American or British cultures. A monolingual speaker of English may actually turn out to be at a disadvantage when attempting to get by in World English. the local model has been institutionalized. the native speaker will probably not retain his/ . The concept ‘native speaker’ is not always a valid yardstick for the global uses of English (Christopherson 1988). they may be shocked by varieties that deviate from Inner Circle English. Smith (cited in McKay 2003a. Hu Xiaoqiong and J. Most professional and experienced teachers from native-speaking countries are not willing to teach in developing countries. Copy of the first page of your passport. The reason most universities or schools hire a ‘foreign face’ is that the university/school will look better or more prestigious. Often they don’t know how to teach and have very little knowledge of Asian culture. Nevertheless. it is often believed that having teachers from Inner Circle countries makes the teaching programme in a university or school appear to be of better quality. Copy of your highest degree and teaching certificates. are better paid and command greater respect than their local colleagues.224 B. One recent colour photo of yours. When will you be available to start teaching. looking for a native speaker: . accommodation. But the reality is that many native-speaking teachers cause a variety of problems for their employers. foreign teachers don’t contribute much to an ESL/EFL programme. so those hired are usually young and have no prior teaching experience. in particular in the Expanding Circle countries. The following two advertisements were posted on the Internet for the recruitment of native speakers of English as teachers in China (www. The following information is all that the school offers: . foreign teachers’ work schedule. In China. Fallacy Three: All native speakers of English can go on to teach in the Outer and Expanding Circles In many ESL and EFL countries. (after introducing the school. etc. In addition to the reasons mentioned above. Being a monolingual speaker may actually turn out to be a hindrance. . native English speakers are still overwhelmingly welcomed in the Outer and Expanding Circles as a result of the rapid and vast expansion of the English language. please provide us the following: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Your resumé. the acquisition of employment qualifications in their own country or an uncertainty about what career to embark on. so a large number of native speakers from the Inner Circle are recruited. at present. looking for native English-speaking English teachers. the English teachers employed to teach English in the Outer and Expanding Circles are mainly from the Inner Circle. Eastern China.com): A school in Hebei. China needs about 100. However. even kindergartens now have English courses. As a practical matter. if any.). The number of Chinese English teachers cannot satisfy this need. The native speakers’ reasons for teaching in ESL and EFL countries may be motivated by the desire to travel. Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 Another school in Weifang city.esl-job-china. Although a large number of them are not professional and not well trained. for example. Xianxing her former privileged status as an EFL professional. native speakers are often believed to be ‘experts’. . China.000 English teachers every year. it is my pleasure to welcome you to teach in our school. However. salary. native speakers of English are frequently given preference in English teaching. non-native English teachers in the Outer and Expanding Circles have more advantages over the native English teachers. Chinese English teachers view their strengths as ‘easier to communicate with students as we share the same culture. view your own strengths and weaknesses in relation to native English-speaking teachers? Do you think it is necessary to introduce native speakers to your university?’ The results show that.’ They view their weaknesses as ‘we can’t speak as accurately. 225 Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 This kind of advertisement looks very attractive to those native speakers who have just graduated from universities and to those who are waiting for job opportunities or hope to travel to Asia and gain some work experience for their future careers. These ‘foreign experts’. away from their families for the first time. spontaneously and fluently as native speakers. Some of them never finish their contracts before fleeing back home. which is impossible for native speakers. One of the questions was ‘how do you. we can make friends with each other and get to know each other ’s cultures. sometimes we can use Chinese in class if something is difficult to explain in English.8%) of the teachers supported the idea. They don’t know how to teach and students complain about their poor teaching competence. saying that ‘a lot of foreign teachers are not professional and not well trained.2%) rejected the idea. introduce alternative teaching methods and provide the necessary insights into English-speaking cultures. foreign teachers can equip students with more up-to-date materials. they know their own cultures.’ The remaining 276 (47. help them to keep in touch with current affairs. have not achieved the distinction . which saves time. As Kachru puts it: ‘In reality. in general. we know English grammar better than native speakers and we can explain it to students more easily.. a total of 309 (52.. having a beautiful dream of ‘going to the east to travel’. we can know more about foreign cultures from them. the native speakers have an insignificant role in the global spread and teaching of English.’ When asked if they think it is necessary to hire native speakers for their country. in the era of World Englishes. we can be bilingual and help students do translations. . as a Chinese English teacher. very soon find themselves in awkward situations due to cultural and language shocks. we can have the chance to learn different teaching styles.Changing English Vacancies: 3 Contract length: 1 year Students: primary schools Classroom hours: 20 hours per week Salary: 4500–6000 RMB per month Free well-furnished apartment offered Round trip airfare provided Requirements: Native English speakers Bachelor degrees finished. They have not passed any examinations to verify their proficiency in the language. The first author of the paper conducted a survey among 589 Chinese English teachers at the tertiary level (Hu Xiaoqiong 2005). students find it less difficult to understand our “China English” and vice versa.’ As a matter of fact. The author ’s university experiences this kind of problem very often. giving as reasons that ‘both Chinese teachers and students can improve our English. and regional and national boundaries. 94) contends that ‘native speakers know the destination. And in its localized variety. appropriate. In many places of the Outer Circle. and effective meanings to the native speakers. Hu Xiaoqiong and J. English is the only language that cuts across languages. this is often perceived as a weakness. this situation is beginning to change. Xianxing Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 of having learned English successfully themselves. tune and cultural values. They will attach more importance to the input of other cultures. 58). conventions and cultural values. particularly the input of their own culture. Fortunately. (2) Content that deals primarily with aspects . Non-native speakers. but also learn how to use these forms in social situations in the target language setting to convey logically consistent. Some people consider target language-based cultures to be essential in order that foreign language learners participate fully in the target language culture. including their body language. Students are required. Moreover. on the other hand. they will not focus only on American and British-oriented cultures. this is due to the non-contextuality of English in relation to the local and national languages and the use of English in multilingual contexts. reflecting those of the target language culture and its speakers. Why does this happen? According to Kachru (1992).226 B. We must value teachers according to their professionalism. In the course of doing so. This is simply a Utopian view of English teaching (Alptekin 2002. More and more people now begin to think that they learn English in the hope that they can have easy access to the outside world and can have more opportunities to introduce their local cultures to the world. by their teachers. their strengths as nonnative speakers. in which one acquires new cultural frames of reference and a new world view. English is the language of higher education. national and international business. as well as respect. 356–362). It is thought that learners not only acquire accurate forms of the target language. McKay (2003b. Unfortunately. but not the terrain that has to be crossed to get there: they themselves have not travelled the same route. and may therefore lack a certain empathy with their learners. McKay (2003a) made a survey of some of the Chilean English teachers about the role that culture played in English language teaching in the Chilean context. not their place of birth. although it should be accepted and used as an important resource. know the target language as a foreign language’. those who have actually studied the language and achieved hard-won excellence in it may provide a far more constructive model for learners to aspire to’ (Kachru 1992. literary creativity and the media. In this manner. If local English teachers know. The target language culture and its native speakers are considered to be elements that are crucial to the success of the teaching model. Fallacy Four: English is a tool for understanding and teaching American or British cultural values In the multilingual Outer Circle. to learn English so that they can use English to ‘perform’ like the native speakers. English is used as an important tool to express and impart local traditions. many linguistic innovations are added to English which reflect the unique local cultures and the ways of thinking of the local people. One of the questions was ‘Which type of cultural content would you prefer to use in your class and why?’ The three choices given were: (1) Content that deals with local Chilean places and people. learning a foreign language becomes a kind of acculturation. . and the answers shared some similarities too. but must adapt to the Outer and Expanding Circle cultures as well. teaching content and teaching methodology in ESL and EFL. China. 30–1) asked the Chinese English teachers similar questions. Three Gorges University. teaching ESP (English for Special Purposes) and cross-cultural communication studies. (3) Content that deals with the life and culture of various countries around the world. These people even take much pride in speaking their ‘deviate English’. Jiang Xianxing is an associate professor of Shenzhen Polytechnic. English can no longer be linked only with the Inner Circle cultures. Instead of using the Inner Circle norms and standards to instruct our teaching syllabus. this kind of change has not yet found its way into the teaching syllabus or the textbooks. Her research interests include English language teaching. Most of the Chinese English teachers attached great importance to multicultural input in their classroom teaching in China.Changing English 227 Downloaded by [Universidad Nacional Colombia] at 22:54 28 November 2013 of United States or British life and culture. She has had more than 20 articles published in different journals in China. and ‘students have a global vision of the world in which they live’. It is regrettable that. It is well worth recalling the fact that since the colonized countries obtained their political independence from Great Britain. 4.’ Notes on contributors Betsy Hu Xiaoqiong is professor of linguistics in the College of Foreign Languages. Conclusion The Three Concentric Circles have illustrated that English has now become an international language. Those who supported the use of various cultures offered reasons like ‘this may help students feel that they can use English everywhere and in any situation’. teaching models and teaching contents to their own varieties of English and to their unique cultures. as a Singaporean messenger announced at the United Nations: ‘I should hope that when I am speaking abroad my countrymen will have no problem recognizing that I am a Singaporean’ (Strevens 1992. people from the Outer and Expanding Circles should adjust their teaching staff. Based on this change of perspective. 39). As Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) have rightly pointed out: ‘an appropriate pedagogy for the teaching of EIL (English as an international language) depends upon local ELT professionals thinking globally but acting locally. second language acquisition and cross-cultural communication studies. with a particular focus on Chinese culture. China. we should abandon the current teaching fallacies. More than 40 of her papers have been published in a variety of Chinese and international journals. at the moment. there were indeed some teachers preferring content that deals with local Chilean places and people by saying that ‘it is important to keep alive the Chilean culture in young people’ and ‘to reinforce the values of our culture’. the first author of this paper (Hu Xiaoqiong 2005. The majority of teachers preferred content that deals with the life and culture of various countries around the world. English in these countries has begun to show its differences from ‘the Received Pronunciation’ and has established its own localized acknowledged varieties which reflect the cultural values. Coincidentally. Her interests include applied linguistics. Therefore. identities and unique ways of thinking of the once colonized people. and to our excitement. Hu. Teaching English as an international language: the Chilean context. 3: 436–7. at home and in the world. 1985. 2nd ed. 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