More Than Just a Pretty PictureAn intelligent model helps designers predict performance and save design time throughout the lifecycle. The final construction reflects the value of BIM throughout the project. Images Courtesy of Parsons Brinckerhoff and Arup Joint Venture Intelligent Models from Design to Build See the difference. Use 3D models based on proven transportation engineering design with Bentley software. When building the 5.6 billion dollar Airport Link, Northern Busway and Airport Roundabout Upgrade project, the Parsons Brinckerhoff Arup Joint Venture team delivered the design and carried out the construction in record time. Using Bentley’s broad range of road, bridge, tunnel, geotechnical, and collaboration software, the team reduced design time, field errors and construction costs. For more information about Bentley’s civil design solutions, please contact Bentley Systems India Pvt. Ltd., T: +91-11-4902 1100 F: +91-11-4902 1199. Why not use proven Bentley BIM transportation software on your next project? www.bentley.com/OnlyBentley © 2013 Bentley Systems, Incorporated. Bentley, the “B” Bentley logo, ProjectWise, and MicroStation are either registered or unregistered trademarks or service marks of Bentley Systems, Incorporated or one of its direct or indirect wholly owned subsidiaries. Other brands and product names are trademarks of their respective owners. CS4579 12/13 INDIAN HIGHWAYS A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT Volume 42 Number 6 Contents June 2014 ISSN 0376-7256 Page 2-4 From the Editor’s Desk - “Revitalize & Transform Road Sector to Revive Economy” Dawn of New Era - New Hope for Road Infrastructure with Easy Solutions 5 IRC Fraternity Welcomes Hon'ble Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi Ji 6 Announcement 7 IRC Fraternity Welcomes Hon'ble Minister of Road Transport & Highways and Shipping, Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari Ji 8 New IRC Publications Released During 2013 & 2014 9 IRC Fraternity Welcomes Hon'ble Minister of State for Road Transport & Highways and Shipping, Shri Krishan Pal Ji 10 Advertisement Tariff 11 Three Dimensional Nonlinear Finite Element Modeling of Conventional Whitetopping of Asphalt Pavements D.R. Jundhare, K.C. Khare and R.K. Jain 26 Rutting Studies of 100 MM Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix with Plain and Modified Binders at Varying Temperatures Satish. B.K and Ganesh 37 A Laboratory Study on Conventional CBR and DCP Method in the Mould Sunanda Bhattacharjee and Kaushik Bandyopadhyay 43 A Portable Low-Cost System Framework for Automated Road Distress Assessment Huidrom Lokeshwor, Lalit K. Das and Namita Akoijam 56 Rocks Fill Solution for Kasara Ghat - A Success Story “Case Study” K.V. Ghodke, M.S. Nair and Atulesh Sharma 65 Book Review 66 Towards Development of Intelligent Transport System for Control of Traffic Management in Indian Cities Jyotirmaya Behera 78 Change of Scope in BOT/DBFOT Mode S.S. Joshi 82-83 Circular Issued by MORT&H 83 Errata to IRC:112-2011 84 Circular Issued by MORT&H 85 Tender Notice, RO Lucknow The Indian Roads Congress E-mail:
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[email protected] Founded : December 1934 IRC Website: www.irc.org.in Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi - 110 011 Tel : Secretary General: +91 (11) 2338 6486 Sectt. : (11) 2338 5395, 2338 7140, 2338 4543, 2338 6274 Fax : +91 (11) 2338 1649 Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram New Delhi - 110 022 Tel : Secretary General : +91 (11) 2618 5303 Sectt. : (11) 2618 5273, 2617 1548, 2671 6778, 2618 5315, 2618 5319, Fax : +91 (11) 2618 3669 No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC. Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility and liability for any statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC. From the Editor’s Desk Revitalize & Transform Road Sector to Revive Economy Dawn of New Era - New Hope for Road Infrastructure with Easy Solutions Dear Readers, After a long time, people of India have given decisive mandate for a new hope and better living conditions. Every citizen of the nation is entitled for compliments and kudos for the same. A new era may be witnessed for road sector in the country which has been witnessing negative growth rate in term of development especially in the national highways segment catering the bulk of road transport. The cascading negative impact of slowness in the road sector at national level is being felt by almost all segments of economy and, therefore, it appears that steps taken/initiated and contemplated during the last few years were not sufficient to infuse right prescription required to make it vibrant again. The time has come for carrying out serious introspection with a positive mindset to move forward by learning from failures. What are the hurdles and whether they are unsurmountable due to which this economically strategic sector lost its momentum which was witnessed during the initial years of the 21st century. Perhaps the answer may be no. There may be many issues and reasons but mostly are issues of short sightedness, system failure and poor governance. Before dwelling upon some of them on priority basis it may be preferable to understand the strength of the road sector infrastructure’s economy salvation strength. The strategic economic importance of this sector needs a pragmatic approach to harness its true potential for a durable progress and inclusive growth of a society and country. The road sector has the potential for massive job creation not only in its own area but with every passing day it is opening up more and more opportunities for skilled and highly skilled work force in the allied areas also like material conservation, environment conservation & protection, tourism, health care, textiles, capital goods, automobiles, financing, etc. Therefore this sector attains a strategic importance in the social sector of job creation as well. Can we dream of empowering people in the villages or remote areas without providing connectivity with better roads? For empowerment they need connectivity to the education/health care institution as well. The roads are the basic amenity & essentialities, if we have to achieve inclusive growth for every citizen of this country. The realistic empowerment of people at grass root level while simultaneously following the basic principles of food security, health security, right to education to all, etc. perhaps may not be achievable without giving due attention toward efficient road connectivity. “Sabka Saath Sabka Vikas” can perhaps be achieved through a Sustainable Road Development Program implemented in a much faster way. The roads are rarely considered as a means to control food inflation. However the levels of road connectivity do have a bearing on the supply chain management of the food articles. The food commodity is the basic essential need of the mankind and high inflation in this segment severely affects the majority of the population and destabilizes the economic growth, which in turn impacts other activities - some to a major extent and some to minor extent. The road provides the cheapest flexible connectivity between the producing and consuming areas. The farmer can get better price especially in respect of perishable items and other agricultural products which do not require further processing. Therefore, with the help of road sector the issue of food security & price stability as well as strengthening of agricultural/allied industries can be addressed to some extent. The rural economy can be further strengthened with the help of road sector as better, efficient and safe road connectivity promotes tourism related activities besides inspiring the people to empower themselves (promotes traditional manufacturing). It may also help in balanced development of all districts and may help in developing a more vibrant & participatory democracy. Rarely the road sector is considered as savior to environment. However, this perception needs to be changed. Roads can be game changer in environment preservation, conservation and protection efforts. With the help of road sector, 2 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, June 2014 EDITORIAL more ecological friendly process, procedures, techniques & technology can be brought not only to reduce degradation of the eco-system but to create a process of rehabilitation of eco-system that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed. The road sector can help in changing the entire concept of waste management in the country for which a positive & pragmatic approach as well as synergization of efforts from all stakeholders is required duly considering that road sector has maximum possibilities of use of waste material, industrial by-products as well as municipal waste. The positivities of the road infrastructure are many, which if adequately harnessed will not only revive the economy but take the economy towards high growth rate. The dream of “Sashakt Bharat” can be achieved at an early date with the help of robust road sector development programs. To start with, there is a need to bridge the existing gap and to utilize the synergy under different government sponsored programs like MNREGA (under M/o Rural Development), inter-connectivity of rivers/creating water bodies (under M/o Water Resources) & Road Construction (under M/o Road Transport & Highways, M/o Rural Development, etc.). By interlinking such type of programs, the optimization of resources and productivity can be achieved while simultaneously the issue of availability of natural materials (sand/gravels, etc.), manpower availability, etc. will be addressed. Moreover, by doing so more and more people may take pride in getting involved with these national assets creation program in the shape of roads – connectivity to all, inter connectivity of rivers – water for all, etc. like noble programs. The road sector in the current scenario requires strong and effective institutional approach which can be pro-active, pro people and transparent. In today’s scenario a paradigm shift is required towards road sector so as to revitalize and rejuvenate this crucial infrastructure sector. The issues and hurdles which are being witnessed by this sector needs to be addressed at an early date. The solutions are available, visible and within the reach but the same require change in the mindset besides institutional restructuring/strengthening as well. Considering the current state of affairs in the road sector, it may be little surprising to note that the “Eco - financial infrastructure for sustainable road infrastructure” is not in place. The road sector projects are not only capital intensive but are long duration big ticket projects. They require exclusive and dedicated institutional arrangements catering to different aspects in terms of execution and operation as also in terms of resource mobilization including long term low investment finance facilities. It may be little amusing to note that till date road projects of such category do not have a support mechanism for finances over the project life cycle which results in reduced level of confidence among different stakeholders and consequently implications on the other segments of the economy. Considering the prevailing economic uncertainty at global level as well as local level the institutionalized mechanism for this sector is much more needed now than before. Current PPP model needs a revisit to make it people oriented with inclusive people’s participation. Moreover, the diagnosis of problems suggests that time has come for the road sector financial support mechanism to consider some innovative concepts which may allow benefits getting accrued in immediate/short terms:(a) Making the cheaper funds available for road infrastructure considering it a priority sector of economic strategic importance. (b) Debt Bearing Capacity: To ensure quality of debt servicing by the entity. (c) Credit Rating of the road sector project executing organizations including Concessionaires, Contractors & Consultants. (d) Technical Audit of Financial & Administrative decisions (e) Life Cycle Cost of Facility (f) Black Spot Free Roads (g) Rationalizing the toll framework based on the road user cost study and creating transparent toll collection system by connecting every toll booth with NIC Server. (h) Dedicated Freight Expressway Corridors (DEFC) for faster timely and safe freight movement (having flexibility of road connectivity) to provide the robust supply chain mechanism. INDIAN HIGHWAYS, June 2014 3 employment generation. The governance in the road sector is another area which needs immediate attention. In fact the Delhi Metro and the Golden Quadrilateral on Pan India basis having connectivities to ports. In a broader terms if the issue of road safety had been adequately addressed during the last few years. The way our cities are expanding. Considering the fact that vehicle penetration ratio in our county is still not high. 2014 4 Vishnu Shankar Prasad Secretary General INDIAN HIGHWAYS. airports and railway stations were launched under this concept but somehow over the years this concept got diluted and needs to be revived. hope is quite high in this area also. The current economic transition demands for a visionary approach in the road sector by harnessing its true potential. robust agricultural sector. The sooner it is addressed the better it is for the economy. The institutional arrangements needs a thorough revisit to harness optimally the human resources as available in the road sector. new township are getting developed. (j) Capital investment to control inflation & boost investment climate. the more our hearts will be purified. the roads are planned and designed through the shortest possible routes and. inflation & CAD control.EDITORIAL (i) Asset Management Strategy & System (AMSS) to overcome the potential dangers of falling into diffuse and eventually disintegration of road assets on account of inadequate or poor or untimely maintenance (To avoid consequential & colossal financial implication). It has resulted in compromised state of affairs in the area of policy. Along with this is the issue of conflict of interest and unwarranted thin spread of resources while simultaneously choking the established institutional arrangements. research and delivery mechanism. June 2014 . Considering the situation as existing in the road sector. higher savings with lessor taxation. cultural integration. This conflict of interest & activities have created big gap in the governance in the road sector due to which the safety of the road users are compromised to that extent which had drawn attention of the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India (Recently constituted a committee on road safety under its supervision). The institutions and organizations should not go for undesired competition for taking up execution work while ignoring their areas of core competence & strengths. Usually. there is a need to have a robust skilled development programs which unfortunately are not being practiced in the road sector the way it should have been. Another important issue is optimization of existing land resources. The success with which the progress was made or achieved in the first five years of 21st century can be re-achieved in a bigger way by Robust decentralized system in conceiving and planning the road sector projects at national level in line with Indian federalism system and by involving state PWD’s in a bigger way in development and maintenance of national highways network. it may be more appropriate if expressways are constructed along existing alignment on elevated structures which may results in optimized utilization of land resources. any by-pass subsequent to it will result in longer travel distance. “The more we come out and do good to others. Therefore. therefore. and GOD will be in them” His Holiness Swami Vivekanand Ji Place : New Delhi Dated : 20th May. perhaps the India would not have seen such a situation in economic front as the loss in terms of GDP is approximately 3% every year on account of the world highest road accident death rate in our country. Another important area which may help in moving towards concept of “Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat” is the adoption of multi model transport system which will help Indian economy to transform much faster into globally competitive economy. These may induce the much needed confidence among investors while simultaneously protect the public interest. road safety is another area which requires immediate attention from the new government and when the new era has drawn. This concept of multi model transport system is not a new concept. etc. A vibrant road sector may help in economy rebalancing which may include the issue of energy management. there is a need to re-look the concept of by-passes which results into acquisition of fertile land as well as displacement of people. satellite townships getting created. K. Research/Academic Institutions. 011 – 2338 7140 Opportunity available for Registration For further details and enquiry contact Shri D. IRC ____________ 6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Under Secretary. IRC & Shri S. New Delhi Organizers : Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in association with World Road Association (PIARC) & Global Road Safety Facility (The World Bank) Excellent opportunity to learn the best practices from renowned experts across the globe All are benefitted from better Road Safety. 011 – 2338 7140 Opportunity available for Sponsorship For further details and enquiry contact Shri S.V. Sam Singh.ANNOUNCEMENT International Seminar on “Road Safety for Inclusive and Sustainable Development – Current Practice and Perspective” on 24th & 25 th November. 011 – 2618 5273 For submitting Technical Papers (Words limit 3000 only) For further details and enquiry contact Shri R. Under Secretary (I/c). All stakeholders are invited to attend the two days International Seminar to become partner in road safety. IRC (email:
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But.gov. often called as ‘classical or conventional whitetopping’. economic.. this is a rehabilitation alternative for asphalt maintenance and * Executive Engineer. Pimpri. K. Road infrastructure plays a major role in the economic growth of a developing country like India and every year a lion’s share of budget is allocated for the transport sector. Jain*** ABSTRACT In this paper. fatigue and shoving are often observed. it is necessary to model pavement system using 3D Finite Element Method and validate it with available solutions and field test such as Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD). A major portion of Indian road network includes Rural Roads. E-mail : d. This is the case study of 4 years in. Kelly. of India) Traditionally. has been developed. the second largest road network in the world (Source: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.).com *** Professor. Whitetopping is a rehabilitation or structural strengthening alternative on bituminous pavement. Pune. Also Load Transfer Efficiency (LTE) obtained from this model has been compared with Davids (2000) model and LTE obtained from the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) test conducted in the field. corner and edge have been obtained with this model. State Highways (SH) and National Highways (NH). Since the use of a concrete overlay. the deterioration of HMA pavements arises owing to deformation under traffic loading generally associated with heavy commercial vehicles.service arterial road of Mumbai-Pune (NH4) in Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation area. industrial and cultural development of a country. This is particularly evident at urban intersections where rutting.com INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Studies on conventional whitetopping proved that. This separation membrane has been placed between Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) and concrete slab (overlay slab) in the field.Y. The maximum stresses and deflections obtained from this model have been compared with the theoretical values obtained from closed form formulae given by Ioannides et al. Khare** and R. Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation. there is a need for its analysis and performance evaluation. i. E-mail : khare. Govt.THREE DIMENSIONAL NONLINEAR FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF CONVENTIONAL WHITETOPPING OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS D. conventional whitetopping of 320 mm thick overlay on 150 mm thick Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) pavement resting on a well compacted subgrade. D. called as white topping. Vadgaon (Bk. Conventional white topping consists of a PCC overlay of thickness 200 mm or more. Unbonded PCC overlays. which are prone to slow moving traffic and highways. Sinhgad College of Engineering.kanchan@gmail. India has a road network of 4689842 kilometers (2914133 mi) in year 2013. parking areas and bus stops.R. is a relatively new concept in pavement rehabilitation in India.K. busy intersections. The maximum stresses due to the wheel loading and temperature differential along with deflections at three critical positions in plain cement concrete overlay. Dr. a three dimensional (3D) Finite Element (FE) Model has been developed for the structural analysis of unbonded conventional whitetopping. Pad. Patil Institute of Engineering and Technology. This leads to the deterioration of the surface of the asphalt pavements and a need to rehabilitate them before further damage may occur. E-mail : jainrb20@gmail. June 2014 11 . In this 3D Finite Element modeling. 1 INTRODUCTION Roads are the backbone for social. Pickett and ALIZE Model. For making unbonded the separation membrane commonly used in India is an impermeable polythene/plastic sheet of 125 µm thickness (IRC:58-2008).e. Pune.C.in ** Professor. at interior. It is designed and constructed like a new rigid pavement without assuming any bond between the concrete overlay and existing bituminous layer (Cole 1997).jundhare@pcmcindia. Bradbury. Axle loading has been applied on the whitetopping and nonlinear static analysis has been carried out using the ‘ANSYS’ (Analysis System) software. Similar problems are also encountered in exit/access ramps. Pimpri. For analysis and performance evaluation of whitetopping. Jundhare*. most of road pavements in India have been designed and constructed as Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) due to their low initial cost. Major District Roads (MDR). It is defined as a Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) overlay constructed on the top of an existing bituminous pavement. Civil Engineering Department. For these analysis. Moreover. corner and edge of the slab to obtain deflections and stresses of 320 mm thick unbonded conventional white topping overlays laid on existing 150 mm thick HMA in Pimpri Chinchwad. FWD test and with computed values of LTE obtained from an equation referred in book by Papagiannakis and Masad (2007). India. KENSLAB (Haung 1993). (1996) and William and Shoukry (2001) employed the finite element methods in order to analyze the behavior of concrete pavements. KOLA (Kok 1990). Bradbury. Kumara et al. The main objective of this paper is modeling and analysis of the structural behavior of unbonded conventional white topping.. 3D FE modeling has been carried out at interior. whereas Wu et al. The ANSYS software is a general purpose finite element program that has been widely used to solve complex engineering problems. (1948). From this literature review it can be concluded that the modeling of nonlinear static analysis of unbonded white topping using 3D FE model can help to the researchers in better understand the structural behavior of plain cement concrete overlay along with its supporting layers of HMA and subgrade. Kelly (1939). Turkiyyah and Mahoney 1998). The study employed 3D finite element models developed with EVERFE. Japan developed a 3D finite element model that takes into account the viscoelastic behaviour of asphalt and the interaction between the concrete overlay and asphalt base (Nishizawa. The main advantage of these approaches is the evaluation of the critical load transfer phenomena and the stress distributions in the rigid pavements. WESLIQID (Chou 1981). Kelly. (2001) developed models for the study of rigid pavements and its foundation. Various finite element models have been developed for analysing the behaviour of concrete pavement systems. ISLAB2000 (Khazanovich et al. Channakeshava et al. J-SLAB (Tayabji and Colley 1986). A team of investigator from Tokyo. The stresses and deflections obtained from this model have been compared with the theoretical values obtained from equations given by Ioannides et al. There is need for development of 3D finite element model for conventional white topping overlays because the closed form analytical solutions (Westergaard. computer programs were developed by using the finite element method such as ILLI-SLAB (Tabatabaie and Barenberg 1980). This three dimensional (3D) finite element model has several unique features for calculating deflections and stresses and helps to overcome many limitations embedded in the available two-dimensional (2D) analysis programs such as ISLAB2000 (Khazanovich et al. (1997) and Darter et al. Murata and Kokubun 2003). 2000). (1998) and Nishizawa et al. Pickett (1946) and ALIZE Mode (Jeuffroy and Sauterey 1989) and EVERFE by Davids (2000). twin city of Pune. Bradbury (1938). As these theories have number of assumptions such as infinite slab size and representation of homogenous base (Winkler System) by a set of springs. Pickett) resulted in the overestimation of the deflections and stresses. Uddin et al. (1993). 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE From the available literature it has been found that several two dimensional and three dimensional 12 Finite Element (FE) models have been developed by the researchers to analyze the pavement system. utilized the computationally economical eight node solid element. EVERFE (Davids. LTE values of authors’ model have been compared with 3D FE model by Davids (2000). Ioannides et al. Wheel loading and temperature gradient have been studied on the whitetopping and nonlinear static analysis has been carried out using ‘ANSYS’ (version 10) software. In this paper. June 2014 . Zaghloul et al. Maharashtra State. utilized 20 node solid elements to model ultra thin whitetopping pavement layers in their Florida study (2003). Davids (2000) studied the effect of dowel looseness on the structural response of jointed concrete pavements. Using ABAQUS software.TECHNICAL PAPERS repair due to its better performance and durability (McGhee 1994). Masad et al. J-SLAB (Tayabji and Colley 1986). (1994). This study shows the significant effects of the various pavement material properties and design parameters INDIAN HIGHWAYS. FEACONS-IV (Choubane and Tia 1995). 2000) and WESLAYER (Huang 2004). and FEACONS-IV (Choubane and Tia 1995). This can be applicable for multiple slabs. Therefore saw cut of full depth of slab is not possible. 1994). Where possible. 2 Displaced Shape of Top Slab for Wheel Loading (Davids. 1. depth of saw cut has been kept one-third of the slab thickness as shown in Fig. In rigid pavements or conventional white topping dowel bars are placed at mid depth of the slab.nodded quadratic hexahedra elements. In conventional whitetopping. which resulted the similar deflection shape of both the slab as shown in Fig. Cement concrete joints are usually sawed between 4 to 12 hours after placement (Okamoto et al. 2011). only it is assumed that crack is going to propagate to the full depth below the saw cut.TECHNICAL PAPERS on the behavior and performance of whitetopping. The details of transverse joint have been shown in Fig. the depth should be at least one-third of the thickness. a minimum saw cut depth of one–third of PCC overlay thickness is recommended (ACPA 1998. which consumed more time in analysis and need fast computing facility to analyzes the composite and complex model consist spring and contact elements. 3 to simulate actual field conditions in the proposed geometrical model. Also. 3 Model of Three Whitetopping Overlay Slabs with Saw Cut of 1/3 Depth of Overlay Slab (Authors) INDIAN HIGHWAYS. But Davids (2000) developed geometrical model of full depth saw cut of slab as shown in Fig. 4. 2.e. The depth of saw cut for standard joint saws should be between onefourth to one-third of the thickness of the slab (Webb and Delatte 2000). 2000) Fig. To overcome this. Use of first order elements in this proposed model can save computing time by keeping reasonable accuracy and analysis of such complex problems can be done even by using normally available computing tools. 1 Model of Two Adjacent Slabs of Rigid Pavement Fig. higher order (quadratic) elements have been used for modeling pavement. Fig. It shows saw cut upto one-third depth of overlay slab and below saw cut propagated cracks have been shown. Sabrina Garber et al. June 2014 13 . Davids (2000) developed 3 D Finite Element package such as EVERFE for slabs and base with 20. in most of the earlier models second order i. Pa. density = 24 kN/m3 and Co-efficient of thermal expansion. The load is transferred through the dowel bars to the adjacent slab primarily by shear. having 8 nodes with three degrees of freedom per node-translations in the nodal x.5 m from the pavement edge at 50 m interval. It is assumed that. and fck = 40). independent. in Journal of Indian Road congress. Canonsburg. for BC and DBM 80/100 bitumen for a temperature of 40ºC). The asphalt treated base (HMA) is 150 mm thick and has similar dimensions as those of the plain cement concrete overlay slab. 3D brick elements SOLID45.. 4 Fig. Each spring deforms in response to the vertical load applied directly to that spring. All the design details of conventional whitetopping have been given in the paper published by Jundhare et al. are used to model the concrete slab as well as the HMA. These elements have six degree of freedom per node translations in the nodal x. Volume 69(1).TECHNICAL PAPERS BEAM 4 elements. The effective normal stiffness of the element is obtained by multiplying the modulus of subgrade reaction with the influencing area of that element. E = 200 MPa. in staggered manner in both directions. y. dowel bars are modeled as 3D beam element with 14 PARAMETRIC STUDY The sizes of concrete slabs are 4500 mm X 3650 mm with 320 mm in thickness shown in Figs. with the “target” element (TARGE 170) defining the stiffer surface and “contact” element (CONTAC174) defining the deformable surface. and is independent of any shear force transmitted from adjacent areas in the foundation. dowel bars connect the adjacent slab to transfer the loads to the adjoin slab. The subgrade properties are: Modulus of elasticity. 4 Cross Section of the Transverse Joint 3 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING In the present study. μ = 0. y and z directions and rotations about the nodal x.) (Version 10) has been used. the cement concrete overlay slabs are founded on a dense liquid foundation. Poisson’s ratio. E = 800 MPa (as per IRC:37-2001. Each of these “Contact Pairs” is capable of representing contact and sliding between two 3D surfaces. 2008.15.12 MPa /mm (obtained from Benkelman Beam Deflection in the field). The interface between the concrete slab and HMA pavement is represented by contact element namely TARGE 170 and CONTAC174. μ = 0.35. μ = 0. For this. They are placed at the mid depth of the slabs across the transverse joint. The concrete properties are: Modulus of elasticity. y and z axes.0 X 10-5 per ºC (IRC:58-2002). the structural analysis package ‘ANSYS’ (ANSYS Inc. k = 0. Spring elements namely COMBIN14 are used to represent the Winkler foundation which has three degrees of freedom at each node-translations in the nodal x. The properties of the HMA pavement base are: Modulus of elasticity. Benkelman Beam Deflection test was carried out as per the guidelines given by IRC:81-1997 (Indian Road Congress. The modulus of subgrade reaction of HMA. Contacts between two surfaces are modeled in ANSYS by utilizing the surface to surface contact element TARGE 170 and CONTAC174 to simulate unbounded condition. June 2014 .30. The sub-grade is modeled as Winkler foundation that consists of a bed of closely spaced. and z directions. spring elements. y and z directions. α = 1. In this test the deflection measurements were taken at a distance of 1. a three dimensional finite element model for unbonded conventional whitetopping has been developed. E = 5000 f ck = 31625 MPa (Formula as per IS:456-2000. 5 and 6. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. 1997) to obtain the value of modulus of subgrade reaction (k value). In this modeling. In jointed plain cement concrete overlay. The deflection data was analyzed and characteristic deflection calculated after incorporating necessary corrections for temperature and seasonal variations. 9. 7 Real Contact Surface and Equivalent Contact Surface of Tyre Fig. All the values were averaged out to get mean deflection and standard deviation was calculated. Fig. The real contact surface and equivalent contact surface has been shown in Fig. 6 Pavement Configuration for Model Development The characteristic deflection has been calculated for finding modulus of subgrade reaction. June 2014 Pavement configuration for model development has been shown in Fig. so axle load can be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area. 7 and Figs. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Fig.07 mm and then the modulus of subgrade reaction is determined by referring the graph shown in of Fig. IRC:SP:76-2008 15 . The characteristic rebound deflection was worked out as per guidelines given in IRC:81-1997. Fig. USA and Canadian Good Road Association.12 MPa /mm and k = 0. 6. h = 320 mm and two cases of modulus of subgrade reaction of HMA k = 0.TECHNICAL PAPERS The pavement temperature was measured after every one hour interval during the deflection measurements using a digital thermometer. and 11 revealed the finite element mesh of the whitetopping with asphalt treated base supported on Winkler foundation. This graph showing relation between k value and Benkelman Beam Deflection on top of HMA has been given in IRC:SP:76-2008 and same has been used for determine k value. The deflection of existing asphalt pavement has been obtained as 0.15 MPa /mm have been considered to simulate the Indian traffic conditions in terms of legal axle loading as this differs from country to country. 12 revealed dowel bars of 32 mm diameter and 500 mm long having spacing 300 mm at mid depth of slab have been placed and saw cut depth of one–third of PCC overlay thickness at each transverse joint. Single axle load (dual tyres) P = 100 kN. In mechanistic method of design. 10. 8. 8 Relation between BBD and k Value on Top of HMA Source: Corporation of Engineers/PCA. it is necessary to know the contact area between tyre and pavement. 5 Three Slab Model used for Whitetopping Overlay Fig. 771 nodes. Fig. whereas at same location in HMA stress induced is 0. Layer wise analysis by FE model shows that on the edge of cement concrete overlay maximum stress is 0. This finite element model of conventional whitetopping consists of 1. 10 Magnified Image of FE Mesh of Pavement System and Sets of springs at Bottom–Subgrade as rectangular in shape and an equivalent area is calculated and loading it to by a constant pressure of 0. the two surfaces can be considered as rough interface or fully bonded. 942 elements and 1. at interior. 9 Magnified Image of Finite Element Meshing of Whitetopping with Wheel Load at Corner Fig. Fig. Tyre-pavement contact area is simulated 16 Fig. 7 shows real contact surface of tyre and an equivalent contact surface. 11 Model of Three Slabs of Whitetopping on Winkler Foundation with Wheel Load at the Corner of Middle Slab Fig. Sometimes a layer of hot-mix asphalt is also provided as a separation layer between the HMA and plain cement concrete overlay slab.0826MPa and maximum deflection is 0. June 2014 . 13. The analysis has been carried out for unbonded condition.TECHNICAL PAPERS Fig. 14.1156 mm and for other loading positions as shown in Table 1. E = 200000 MPa. Although the actual pressure distribution at the contact area between the tyre and the pavement is non-uniform.832MPa. Figs. with 125 micron thick polythene sheet between HMA and plain cement concrete overlay slab with coefficient of friction is equal to 2. μ = 0. 13 Stress (MPa) in Overlay Slab. 15. Three critical loading locations i. but it was assumed uniform in this model. Wheel at Interior INDIAN HIGHWAYS.e. 12 Dowel Bars at Transverse Joint with Meshing The properties of steel dowel bars are. Without the separation membrane. corner and edge are considered in the present study.30 and Modulus of dowel support (K) has a value of 450 MPa/mm. The separation membrane commonly used in India is an impermeable polythene/plastic sheet of 125 micron thickness (IRC:58-2002) can lead to the formation of smooth interface. Material properties of the pavement material are assumed as linear and elastic. 49. 16.80 MPa. 17 and 18 show the deformed shapes of three jointed plain concrete overlay slabs and Table 1 gives the results of 3D FE model. 70. Wheel Load at Interior Fig. 14 Deflection (mm) in Overlay Slab. 12 MPa/mm and h = 320 mm. LTE values of this model have been compared with 3D FE model by Davids (2000).1115 0.0447 0. June 2014 5. 1987. 16 Deflection (mm) in Overlay Slab. 17 Stress (MPa) s in Overlay Slab. Uddin 1986). Kelly. (2007). 18 Deflection (mm) in Overlay Slab. Pickett and ALIZE – Model (Jeuffroy and Sauterey 1989) also considered for validation of three dimensional finite element model..785 0. Δ (mm) σ ( MPa) 0.1 Hot Mix Asphalt Layer Maximum Stress.TECHNICAL PAPERS Fig. Wheel Load = 50 kN) Loading Position Interior loading Corner loading Edge loading 5 Cement Concrete Overlay Slab Maximum Stress. Wheel Load at Corner Fig. The FWD device applies an impact load on a steel loading plate and measures peak deflections on the pavement surface using seismic velocity transducers at the center and at the several locations away from the loading plate as shown in Figs.0826 0. Bradbury. Deflection.832 0. Deflection. FWD test and with computed values of LTE obtained from an equation referred in book by Papagiannakis and Masad. 17 .129 VALIDATION OF 3D FINITE ELEMENT MODEL WITH AVAILABLE SOLUTIONS In order to validate the 3D Finite Element model. 15 Stress (MPa) in Overlay Slab. Theoretical results of the stresses and deflections obtained from Westergaard’s (1926. Δ (mm) σ ( MPa) 0.01545 0. Wheel Load at Corner Fig.085 0.0468 0. Wheel Load at Edge Fig.056 0. 1948) modified equations given by Ioannides et al. Wheel Load at Edge Table 1 Stresses and Deflections for Three Loading Cases by 3D Modeling for the Both Layers (For k = 0.764 0. INDIAN HIGHWAYS.1156 Validation of 3D Finite Element Model by Using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) Test Impact deflection testing by FWD for pavement nondestructive evaluation (NDE) is widely used testing devices among many nondestructive testing technologies available for pavement condition evaluation (Hudson et al. 19 and 20. 46% when the load is applied at edge of overlay slab and 83. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. load transfer stiffness variable is computed considering the cumulative damage of the Portland concrete supporting the dowels.832 MPa. In order to determine the applicability of utilizing the finite element method to analyze the unbonded conventional whitetopping. The results obtained by this test are given in Table 2 and 3 along with Load Transfer efficiency (LTE). For details of the testing procedure.58% to 87. Also Load Transfer Efficiency in Davids W. LTE is expressed as a percentage of the unloaded slab deflection to the loaded slab deflection. 19 Use of FWD on Whitetopping under Study δul = the surface vertical deflection at the unloaded edges of the joint of approach slab δl = the surface vertical deflection at the loaded edges of the joint of leave slab LTE from dowel action is computed on the basis of the load transfer stiffness variable Jd. LTEdowel = 100 1 + 1. (2) In the subsequent months. The equation 1 is most commonly used for calculating LTE (Papagiannakis and Masad. Initially it is given by.037 MPa whereas in authors’ model it is 0.02 mm) and in the authors’ model it is 99%. Fig. (2000) model is 89. h = slab thickness (inch). June 2014 .47% to 96. Jd = 120d 2 h Where.2 J d −0. LTE from FWD test it is ranging from 80. LTEdowel is computed using equation 2. was used which is trailer mounted and have the capability to apply load of 50 kN and 100 kN. Dynatest 8000 FWD model with 150 mm diameter load plate and nine displacement measuring sensors. Davids (2000) model gives the stresses at the edge ranging from 0.04% when the load is applied at corner of overlay slab as shown in Table 2 and 3..849 .TECHNICAL PAPERS of a joint is generally expressed in terms of its ability to transfer load from one side of the joint/crack to the other side and is termed as LTE.667 MPa to 1. non-destructive field testing of pavement using FWD was performed on 14 locations in June 2008 on existing conventional whitetopping under study. 20 shows schematic showing the arrangement of the sensors of FWD test equipment used in this study. as it is possible to simulate the magnitude and duration of load applied by a fast moving vehicle on highways using this equipment. (2000). 20 Schematic of FWD Deflection Sensors Use of FWD for evaluation of pavements is gaining popularity in many countries. 2007). the LTE due to dowel action. Fig.. G. (1) Where. One transducer is located at the center of the load plate and remaining transducers are placed at varying intervals from the plate. LTE = δul ×100 δl . G. 2003) is referred. construction report (Cable et al. d= dowel diameter (inch). The results of authors’ model have been compared with the results of EVERFE by Davids W. In this study. The efficiency 18 Jd = load transfer stiffness variable.. Fig.. Finally.2% (for a gap of 0. 10 2 0.20 91.0715 0.24 86.0297 51. are adopted to determine the maximum stress and maximum deflection in cement concrete overlay slab under circular load of radius ‘a’.0569 0.0605 0.1115 0. June 2014 bending stresses and maximum slab deflection in unbonded conventional whitetopping.93 85.0378 0.0546 0. Deflection in mm at Distance in mm from Load Point Stress In MPa (Series) 0 -200 -300 450 600 900 1200 1500 Test Load (kN) LTE % 1800 1 0. LTE ranges from 0% for no vertical load transfer to 100% for perfect load transfer between adjacent slabs.0405 0.0655 0.0615 0. (2007).0298 0.0698 0.0690 0.0368 50.0414 0.0699 0.0761 0.90 Validation of 3D Finite Element Model Using Closed Form Formulae Response to Wheel Loading Westergaard’s (1926) modified equations by Ioannides.0551 0.0778 0.0728 0.1183 0.0455 0.0611 0.1195 0.0686 0.0581 0. (Series) 5. In 2D Modeling Westergaard’s (1926 and 1948) equations are used for the calculation of the stresses in the single slab of rigid pavements (Zdiri et al.0832 0.0619 0.0649 0.814 0.0459 0.53 89. between 50% .742 0.1214 0. Westergaard’s equations are applicable for single slab only.1018 0.785 0. Kelly.1 Interior Loading For the interior wheel loading case.0934 0.0695 0.0295 54.78 97.0341 53.0294 53.0273 51.0599 0.0293 51.761 0.0879 0.1187 0.2 Deflection in mm at Distance in mm from Load Point Stress In MPa 0 -200 -300 450 600 900 1200 1500 Test Load LTE (kN) % 1800 1 0.0861 0.0518 0.0609 0.0798 0.0593 0.0794 0.0628 0.0294 51.(1985).0586 0.0498 0. Pickett (1946) and ALIZE method (Jeuffroy and Sauterey 1949) are utilized in present study for calculation of maximum INDIAN HIGHWAYS.0557 0. No.46 4 0.47 5 0.0893 0.39 83.0902 0.0373 0.0384 54.2. hence not used in this study.0548 0.0588 0.1223 0.0350 0.0652 0.84 2 0.0384 0.749 0.0566 0. No.02 88.821 0. 2007).0595 0.0485 0.912 0.0399 0.0365 51.0724 0. authors’ model and FWD field test.0796 0.0981 0.0622 0.18 4 0. (1985).TECHNICAL PAPERS Also if calculated using equations referred in book by Papagiannakis and Masad.773 0.0995 0.04 3 0.0781 0.54 6 0. Kelly (1939).811 0.725 0.0287 52.0875 0.0899 0.0391 0.1004 0.0398 0.0667 0.0794 0. This shows the reasonable agreement among LTE values of 3 D FE model by Davids.70% and below 50% characterize load transfer as good.0616 0. Bradbury (1938).0696 0.84 6 0.0570 0.0857 0.0878 0.0689 0.63 92. Pickett and ALIZE model are used to verify the finite element model.0921 0.0399 0. which is represented by the equation 3 and 4 respectively (Huang 1993.0791 0. Table 4 shows the values of different parameters for input to be used in equations.798 0.0463 0.0236 52.44 87.0502 0. The results are summarized in Table 5.0827 0.85 5 0. modified equations given by Ioannides et al. it is 89.0674 0.0343 51.0872 0.0346 0.74 Table 3 FWD Test Stresses and Deflections Data at Corner of Overlay Slab Sr.1229 0. Stresses and deflection values obtained from these equations are given in Tables 5 and 6. 5.58 7 0.48 86. 2004).40 87.0438 0. Bradbury.91 3 0.0502 0.46 91.0561 0.781 0.0710 0.0699 0.0475 0. 19 .0541 0.0399 0.0615 0.13%.0786 0.0392 51.812 0.1002 0. fair and poor respectively (Papagiannakis and Masad.0896 0.0699 0.93 7 0.1004 0.51 96. LTE values above 70%.0982 0. The equations given by Ioannides et al. Table 2 FWD Test Stresses and Deflections Data at Edge of Overlay Slab Along with LTE Sr.0585 0. 2009).0701 0.0808 0.0333 0.0521 0.32 80.0792 0.0450 0.0544 0.757 0.0851 0.0552 0. 94 213.885 0.2 Edge Loading The equations 5 and 6 given by Ioannides et al.20 211.431P a 1 − 0.004 0.055 0.219 1.125 1.803P a l 4 log a + 0.05 226. radius of relative stiffness (mm) Eh3 l = h = plain cement concrete overlay thickness (mm) k = modulus of subgrade reaction (MPa/mm) b = radius of equivalent distribution of pressure 4 a = tyre pressure (as per IRC:58-2002.964 0.50 926.TECHNICAL PAPERS μ = 2 3P (1 + µ ) 2l 3P (1 + µ ) a + + − In 0 .8521 × P + S qπ π 0.. S = c/c distance of two tyres in dual wheel assembly (As per IRC:58-2002.8 MPa) P = design wheel load = half of the single axle load (kN) radius of load contact areas... (3) 2 2 64h 2πh a l σ= P ∆= 8kl 2 2 a 1 a In .02 882. The maximum tensile stress at bottom fiber of the slab edge is calculated by the model “ALIZE” (Jeuffroy and Sauterey.30 749.096 0.05 226.05 226.148 0.530 0.97 211. (1985) H k = 12 Ioannides et al.075 0. for a/h > 1.82 l 2 kl . S=310 mm) q = 12 (1+ µ 2 )k b = a.572 P l 4 log10 b + 0.004 0. − + 1 0 673 l 2π 2l poisons ratio for concrete..359 2 h .5 – 0.175 1.724 b = (1.72 838..5 P a = 0.067 1.084 280 0. 1989.70 792. (7) Table 5 Results of the Stresses and Deflections for Interior and Edge Loading Interior Loading Edge Loading Ioannides et al..167 0.97 211. The results are given in Table 5.969 300 0.20 211.192 1.675 h 0. (1985) k = 15 k = 12 ALIZE –Model (1989) k = 15 k = 12 k = 15 Σ Δ σ Δ σ Δ Σ Δ σ σ 260 0.060 0. E = modulus of elasticity of concrete (N/mm2) σ = load stress (MPa) Δ = deflection in pavement (mm) .5227 × q Where.813 0.075 1. assumed circular (mm) 0.067 0.143 0.753 0.741 0.64 876.6a2 + h2)0.2.05 226.05 226.083 0.182 0.94 213.034 . 2009) through the equation 7. (5) 2 h ∆= 0.061 0..66 l − 0...658 0..677 0.589 0.763 0. 5 γ . (1985) are used for calculating the maximum stresses and deflections produced by wheel load applied to the edges of a slab.851 0.05 226.05 226. q = 0.14 l 792.55 834. June 2014 .545 0. (4) I = Where. σ= 0.871 320 0.14 210.160 0.782 0.(6) σ= 0.05 b 210.199 0. Zdiri et al.902 0.606 0.04 5.786 20 INDIAN HIGHWAYS.5 Table 4 Values of Different Parameters for Input to be used in Equations Description/ Parameters k = 12 k = 15 h = 260 h = 280 h = 300 h = 320 h = 260 h = 280 h = 300 h = 320 a 226. 568 0.032ºC/mm depth of slab can be adopted for pavement design (Kumar et al.TECHNICAL PAPERS Where c can be taken.386 1.663 0. Fig.11% 99..15 260 280 300 320 260 280 300 320 1 Ioannides et...100 0. suggested by Ioannides et al.042 0.69 l 0.440 0.3 Corner Loading For the wheel loading in the corner.862 0.174 1.850 5 Pickett (1946). 2009). 2006.139 1.931 0. Bradbury (1938) developed a solution for temperature warping stresses in concrete pavement slab with finite length and width based on Westergaard’s modified results. equation 11 given by Kelly (1939). (1985) Stresses (MPa) 0.205 − 0.906 0. June 2014 21 . Total of temperature warping stress and highest axle load stress is compared with flexural strength for finalizing pavement thickness.427 1.450 0.3 Temperature Stresses IRC guidelines (IRC:58-2008) for computation of temperature warping stresses use Bradbury’s equation 13. Description k = 0. Stresses (MPa) 1.418 0. (1985) Déflections (mm) 0. (8) σ = 2 1 − h l P ∆= 2 kl c 1.971 0. 0..130 1.723 0.2 P l 1− σ= 2 a h 0.075 0.881 1.5 a 4.138 1. al.0025 0.15 MPa/mm..047 0.990 5.042 1. the equations 8 and 9. c = 1.12 Cement Concrete Slab thickness = h (mm) k = 0.12 MPa/mm and k = 0. in 1985 (Huang 2004). a value of equivalent temperature gradient of 0.397 3D FEM modeling 0. 21 shows the geometrical model for the temperature warping stresses in overlay slab (0ºC temperature at top and 10ºC temperature at bottom of overlay slab) and Fig.684 0.836 1.016 1. 22 shows the deformed shape of cement concrete overlay slabs. (9) ...806 0.489 0. equation 10 given by Bradbury (1938).477 0. For Indian temperature and moisture conditions. Table 7 Comparison of Temperature Curling Stresses at Different Critical Regions of Concrete Slab Methods Interior Region (MPa) Corner Region (MPa) Edge Region (MPa) Bradbury’s equations 2.6 3P a σ = 2 1 − h l 3P a 2 σ = 2 1 − l h 0.519 0.772 × a 5. Stresses (MPa) 1.230 1.386 3 Bradbury (1938).194 1.815 4 Kelly (1939)...22 l .743 0.934 0. al.2.40% 98.496 0.012 0. Therefore. 14 and 15 which are based on assumptions such as (a ) Linear temperature variation through the depth of slab (b ) slab resting on Winkler foundation. As per IRC guidelines (IRC:58-2002) for computation of temperature warping stresses Bradbury’s equations have been used.265 1. equation 12 given by Pickett (1946) are used.. Stresses (MPa) 1.2 .925 + 0. (10) 1.631 2 Ioannides et.85% INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Maitra et al.. (12) Table 6 Results of the Stresses and Deflections for the Corner Loading Sr.044 % variation 98..788 0. in this study for developing 3D FE model temperature stresses in overlay slab have been obtained by considering 0ºC temperature at top and 10ºC temperature at bottom of overlay slab as a linear variation.030 0. No. The results are summarized in Table 6 for k = 0. (11) . The same equations are used for calculating the temperature warping stresses in cement concrete overlay slab and results are tabulated in Table 7 and comparison have been carried out in this study using proposed 3D FEM model.72 3P c . The maximum temperature curling stresses at the edge region are given by: 22 E α∆t C x or 2 E α∆t C y (whichever is higher).40 % less than Bradbury’s equation values. Kharagpur. 22 Temperature Warping Stresses in Overlay Slab The maximum temperature warping stresses at the interior of the slab are given by: σ int erior = E α∆t C x + µC y 2 1 − µ2 .. (13) The maximum temperature warping stresses at the corner region are given by: σ corner = E α∆t a 3 (1 − µ ) l . 15) may lead to overestimation by over 98 percent of the actual temperature curling stresses in concrete pavements. per ºC ∆t = Maximum temperature differential during day between top and bottom of slab. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. 14.. (15) σ edge = 2 σ edge = Research that has been conducted at Indian Institute of Technology. sometimes may be ignored by some researchers. The overestimation of stresses by Bradbury’s formulae is due to the assumption of linear temperature variation across the depth of slab whereas practically variation is nonlinear and same is considered in this modeling. Temperature curling stresses were analyzed by taking the self–weight of the concrete slab and also taking into account the loss of subgrade support due to linear temperature differential across the depth of the concrete slab. (14) The temperature stresses in the corner region is negligible.. India = 21ºC. 2004).. (Taking case of Pune City. India (Suresh et al. MPa ∝ = Coefficient of thermal expansion of cement concrete. 2004) has indicated that Bradbury’s equations adopted in IRC:58-2002 (equations 13. There is a need to review the results obtained using Bradbury’s equations for the temperature stresses by carrying out an experimental studies on temperature variation across the depth of slab. Fig. σ = temperature curling stress. corner and edge region temperature stresses by FE modeling are 98 to 99... Maharashtra State.TECHNICAL PAPERS Where.. as the corners are relatively free to warp and therefore. N/mm2 E = Modulus of elasticity of concrete. June 2014 . In this study Interior. which is based on Ly/l in desired direction Lx and Ly are the dimensions of the slab considering along X and Y directions along the length and width of slab. which is based on Lx/l in desired direction Cy = Bradbury’s coefficient. The thickness by this method of analysis can bring down the pavement design thickness by 10 percent (Suresh et al. IRC:58-2002 Table 1) Fig. Temperature curling stresses develop in concrete pavements depending upon the temperature differentials between the top and bottom of a slab. 21 Geometrical Model for Temperature Stresses in Overlay Slab Cx = Bradbury’s coefficient. ºC. closed form formulae and compared them with the stresses and deflections obtained by 3D FE model which shows good agreement. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Through the present study following conclusions have been drawn: In the corner loading case. The model in this study is a simple non-linear type developed by applying static wheel loading and temperature gradient.22% and 29.785 0.02% less stress and 29. computed using equations referred in book 23 . For the edge loading case.4 Combination of Stresses As per IRC guidelines (IRC:58-2002) it is required to consider the combination of wheel load and temperature warping stresses for design of white topping. The comparisons of the LTE generated by this 3D FE model. but there is no specific follow-up regarding their performance. When same is compared with Ioannides et al. To simulate actual field conditions in this threedimensional FE model of conventional whitetopping while calculating stresses and deflections. P = 50 kN) Type of Methods 3-D FE Model IRC Guidelines 6 Corner loading stress σ ( MPa) 0.047 1. it gives 15.92% more deflection when compared with 3D FE model results.07 Total Stresses σ ( MPa) 0. the depth of saw cut of slab has been kept one-third of the slab thickness since dowel bars are placed at mid depth of slab and below saw cut cracks get propagated. The temperature stress at the critical edge region may be obtained as per Wester aard’s analysis using Bradbury’s coefficient.49 % more stress. when compared with 3D FE model results ALIZE Method gives stress 2. structural analysis and the performance evaluation of conventional whitetopping has been estimated for Indian traffic and climatic conditions by calculating stresses and deflections using FWD test.951 For the interior loading case.64 % more deflection. Comparison of 3D FE model results with equation given by Kelly and Pickett shows 12.785MPa. may be ignored. corner and edge region temperature stresses by 3D FE modeling are 98 to 99.TECHNICAL PAPERS 5.40 % less than Bradbury’s equation values. Therefore. the maximum tensile stresses obtained by FE model at the interface between plain cement concrete overlay and HMA layer with a maximum magnitude of 0.12 MPa /mm and h = 320 mm.41 % less stress and 417. Interior. Total of temperature warping stress and highest axle load stress is compared with flexural strength for finalizing pavement thickness. unbonded plain cement concrete overlays can be an economical and durable rehabilitation option. June 2014 Temperature Stress σ ( MPa) 0. Table 8 Combination of the Stresses obtained by 3D FE model and IRC guidelines (For k = 0. when the existing pavement is severely deteriorated as compared to construction of conventional rigid pavement or HMA overlay. ultra-thin whitetopping and thin whitetopping have been built in India since 2003. In this paper.881 CONCLUSIONS A three dimensional Finite Element (FE) model was developed using the ‘ANSYS’ finite element program for the nonlinear structural analysis of unbonded conventional whitetopping. The temperature stress in the corner region is negligible. The overestimation of stresses by Bradbury’s formulae is due to the assumption of linear temperature variation across the depth of slab whereas practically variation is nonlinear. gives 6. the equation of Ioannides et al gives 28.66% less stresses and 8. The FE model analysis of the whitetopping shows stresses and deflection induced in the whitetopping within the safe limits.832 1. Conventional whitetopping.42% more stresses respectively.09% less and Ioannides et al. Table 8 shows combination of the stresses obtained by 3D FE model and IRC guidelines.45% more deflection. as the corners are relatively free to warp and therefore. whereas comparison with Bradbury method gives 6. “Analysis and Verification of Thermal-Gradient Effects on Concrete Pavement. (1997). and Tia M. The analysis of such complex problems can be done even by using normally available computing tools.. Davids (2000) model and the LTE results obtained by FWD test conducted on the conventional whitetopping.. Conf. F. B. (2003). ASCE. Orlando. advice and encouragement.. Patil. on Concrete Pavements. 8. USA.. “Reinforced Concrete Pavements.B. Burnham.. India for kind permission and availing the required data. 121(1). “Development and Calibration of a Mechanistic Design Procedure for Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements. Wang. on Concrete Pavements. The authors express their deep gratitude to Prof. Washington.D. Snyder M. Washington D. The 3D FE method using first order elements can save computing time of determining the stresses and deflection for composite pavements by keeping reasonable accuracy.ASCE . Rao S. 9. Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation. Y. It is revealed that.C. 3D FE modeling illustrates location of maximum stress and deflection in the panel which helps in better understanding the variation of stress and defection intensity/pattern for different loading positions. and Hallin J. K. India for his valuable suggestions in developing 3D Finite Element Model. National Research Council. Turkiyyah. Sixth Int.. L. 7th Int. of Transp. Also authors are thankful to respected Shri Rajan P.”J. U. Anthony. M.S. 175-187. M. Indiana. FL. “Effects of Dowel Looseness on Response of Jointed Concrete Pavements” J. S. L W.WESLIQID and WESLAYER”. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. (2000). increasing the modulus of subgrade reaction (k) of HMA resulted in reducing the stresses and deflections in the plain cement concrete overlay. “Structural Analysis Computer Programs for Rigid Multicomponent Pavement Structures with Discontinuities. (2001). Shri Shrikar Pardeshi (IAS) former Commissioner and Shri E. User’s Manual. Conf. Pandey. Davids. B.0 (2008). P. J. ANSYS Release 10.”J. J.. 92-117. 50-57. 75-81.C. 3. (1995). The difference between the values of the stresses and deflections in the conventional whitetopping from this method and the closed form formulas is due to the various assumptions adopted in deriving these theories. Davids.. ASCE. Purdue University. Khazanovich L. W. and Rettner. (2007). Mahoney. G. (2003). D. Inc.. Barzegar F. Channakeshava C.. Eng.. “Evaluation of Composite Pavement Unbonded Overlays: Phases 1 and 2. (1981). Cable. Maharashtra State.. Good correspondence between the values of LTE obtained from 3D FE modeling method using computer code “ANSYS” and field FWD test shows that FE modeling is a reliable method. W. 7.” Ames. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.. Fanous. R. June 2014 . 1853. 5. ANSYS. “Pavement Condition Surveys of UltraThin Whitetopping Projects”. 10. D. Ugile former City Engineer.T. Canonsburg. Z.” Maplewood. show good agreement. West Lafayette. Darter M. (1938). Cole. and Bush. Proc.. The stress and deflection calculated from closed form formulae as per IRC:58-2002 are overestimated resulting into increase in thickness of concrete slab of the pavement in comparison to 3D FE model. of Transp.”Proc. G. This shows flexural rigidity of the cement concrete slab provided as overlay.“Three Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement with Ever FE 2. Volume 2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are grateful to respected Dr.”Transportation Research Record. Pimpri-Pune for his guidance.TECHNICAL PAPERS by Papagiannakis and Masad. Choubane B. Pimpri-Pune. 6. Indian Institute of Technology. 126(1). Chou. Technical Report GL-81-6. Kharagpur. and Voyiadjis G. P. “Nonlinear FE Analysis of Plain Concrete Pavement with Doweled Joints. and Phares. Bradbury. MN: Minnosota Department of Transportation. 763-781.2.”Wire Reinforcement Institute. (2003). 4. IA: Center for Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Technology. Z. Joint City Engineer. 119 (5). Eng. Pimpri Chinchwad Municipal Corporation. 3D FE model can also predict the failure zone in panel of the concrete pavement. T.Mix Asphalt Overlay Treatments for Flexible Pavement. Eng. “Whitetopping and Hot. An analysis by FE model for various layers of the pavement system reveals that the stresses and deflection found in the layer of HMA are less as compared with the plain cement concrete overlay. 2. of Transp. 24 11. G... (1993). D.. PA. REFERENCES 1. Uddin. J. M. E.. Vol. “Mechanistic Design of Concrete Pavement” Journal of the Indian Roads Congress. Zdiri. Publication FHWA-RD-91-079. (2004). “Pavement Analysis and Design. “Finite Element Analysis of Temperature Effects on Plain Jointed Concrete Pavements. 813-821. Annual Meeting (CD-ROM). Yoon-Ho Cho and Han-Mo Koo.86/041. Journal of Transportation Engineering. Wu.I Darter. Ames. Washington..D Tayabji. B..“Performance Evaluation of Jointed Concrete Pavement Using Three-Dimensional Finite-Element Dynamic Analysis. 38.. “Guidelines for the Design of Rigid Pavements for Highways. and Pandey. 13. 1823. (1993). J. June 2014 27. and Delatte N. ERES Consultants. Shats E.D. Suresh.” Upper Saddle River. (2009). “Stresses in Concrete Pavements Computed by Theoretical Analysis. (1986). B. “Pavement Analysis and Design. C. 28. Refai.C.H. and Chung T. NJ: Prentice Hall.M.”FHWA – TS..John Wiley and Sons. Rao S.. 2124. L. Hudson. 388-398. R.. G. Ioannides A. (1996). “Guidelines for Timing Contraction Joint Sawing and Earliest Loading for Concrete Pavements. (1994).“Analysis of Jointed Concrete Pavements.. of Transp.166. Portland Cement Association Research and Development Report No.. Noppakunwijai P. and S. Washington. C.”Federal Highway Administration. Presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board. (1939). Conf.C. 292.T.”Highw. of Transp. S. Taha R. Sabrina Garber.D.” Public Roads. 25. A. IA.. Eng. 20.”Indian Road congress..-L. W.J. Rec. C.. Reddy. Elkins. T.C. A. 135(11). McClean VA. Pickett.”Transportation Research Board. M.... 225–236. (2004). Washington D. “A Behavior Analysis of Concrete Overlay Based on the Characteristics of Asphalt Pavements. S. and Sheehan. 147. and Wang. F. Wu. Huang. Skokie.” Concrete Pavement Design.C. 122 (5). Robert Otto Rasmussen and Dale Harrington (2011) “Guide to Cement –Based Integrated Pavement Solutions” Report by Iowa State University. Paper No. M. M.. ASCE. Report No..H.“Development of Ultra-Thin Whitetopping Design Procedure”. and Choubane. “Performance of Whitetopping Overlays. T..” Vol.“Evaluation of Applicability of Ultra-Thin Whitetopping (UTW) in Florida” Transportation Research Record. Illinois. of Struct. and Ramachandra.“Finite Element Analysis of Concrete Slabs and its Implications on Rigid Pavement Design. (1985).T. C. Webb R.. (1973). Hoboken. 30. 33. Huang. “Modeling of the Stresses and Strains Distribution in RCC Pavement using the Computer Code ABAQUS” Electronic J. IRC:37-2001.R. 34. (1946). III. H.. Kelly. 25 . 73-79. Portland Cement Association.M. Smith. (1994). S.”2nd Edition. 16. 76th Annual Meeting. Tayabji. (2003). Kumara Wasantha. 2000.. Y. 20(6). India. (2007). “Appendix III: A Study of Stresses in Corner Region of Concrete Pavement Slab Under Large Corner Loads.Neji. (1997). Purdue University. S. India.. S. Papagiannakis. New Delhi. “NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 204: Portland Cement Concrete Resurfacing. Wu. Tia.” J. K. Abriak N. and Jones R. Srinivasa.”Indian Roads Congress. 2003.. Transportation Research Board. ASCE. J. M. Huang Y. 32. Westergaard. A. New Delhi.. P. D. 19.87-208.J. Y. K. and Barenberg. Federal Highway Administration. R.” Transportation Research Board. E.. Washington. New Delhi. B.. 001068. Okamoto. K. Maitra. “Evaluation of Pavement Deflection Measuring Equipment. and Muhunthan B. Wilson.L. and Reilly. (1985). Singh S. A.” Preprint No.. 39. 425-444. “Application of the Results of Research to the Structural Design of Concrete Pavement. (2000). 40. Eng. Thompson.E. 3rd Int. T. and Colley B.. “Westergaard Solutions Reconsidered. 13 14. B. West Lafayette. Uddin W.M. M..D.. Westergaard. Nussbaum. Research Record.A. 36. “Innovative Design of Concrete Pavements. Masad. on Concrete Pavement Design and Rehabilitation.. 15. Tarr. Packard.” Transportation Research board. 55-79. 9. R. D. 29. (2009) “Load Transfer Characteristics of Dowel Bar System in Jointed Concrete Pavement”. 1414. M. Res. I: Final Report. ASCE... 466. Yu H. (1998)..C. D. and Pandey. India. “Pavement Design and Materials”. McGhee.. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. W.” Public Roads.23. New Delhi. “ISLAB2000. Transportation Research Board. (1926).” Seminar on Design. P. 21.” Transportation Khazanovich L. and Ben Ouezdou.. FHWA/RD. H. 23 24. New Jersey. 39-46. 25-35. 18. Nagi. K. 26. 1043. 22. Ind. Santosh Kumar. “Guidelines for Strengthening of Flexible Road Pavements using Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique. New Delhi. “New Formulas for Stresses in Concrete Pavements” J. H. Finite Element Analysis Program for Rigid and Composite Pavements.. (2003). IRC:58-2002.T.G. 31.P. E. (2006). E. 37-44. (1948). L. Skokie. Kentucky University USA Prentice Hall.. H. IL: Portland Cement Association. Champaign.” Proc. (2000). 17. Federal Highway Administration.B. M.(1987). and S. D. IRC:81-1997. K. Inc. Galasova K.TECHNICAL PAPERS 12.. 113. S. Construction and Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavements. 67(3).. Masad E. Washington D. “New PCA Thickness Design Procedure for Concrete Highway and Street Pavements. G. “Guidelines for Design of Flexible Road Pavements.”Indian Roads Congress. 35. Tayabji S. 209-215. D. Washington. 37. M. 7(2).. K. Eng.” User’s Guide. 1 General Rutting is a longitudinal depression or groove in the wheel tracks. which may give some indication of the depth of the source of failure. depressions and settlements. located in the tyre road contact surface. Accumulation of water in the impressions can cause skidding. B. Aggregates of surface dressing being pressed into the lower supporting bituminous layer.e. they require maintenance of pavements (flexible pavements).2 kg/cm2 tested using three binders VG-10 grade. Pavement rutting not only decreases the road service life but also creates a danger for the safety of road * Post Graduate Student in Transportation Engineering. ruts. In recent years. of Civil Engineering. 26 Fig. improper gradation of aggregates. analysis of problems and adopting the most suitable maintenance steps. bituminous layers can quickly attain their permanent deformation limit resistance and this phenomenon can lead to a pavement depression. Intrusion of subgrade clay into the sub base course due to shear failure or pumping. 1 to 3. varying Temperature and Plain wheel configuration. lacking in the stability of mix to support the traffic and leading to plastic movement laterally under traffic. Swerving from a rutted wheel path at high speed can be dangerous.RUTTING STUDIES OF 100 MM THICK BITUMINOUS CONCRETE MIX WITH PLAIN AND MODIFIED BINDERS AT VARYING TEMPERATURES Satish. Road maintenance is one of the important components of the entire road system. inadequate binder content and inferior type of binder. Dept. 35ºC. June 2014 . Even if the highways are well designed and constructed. pavement rutting rate has increased significantly due to constant traffic intensity increment. Inadequate compaction of the mix at the surface or in the underlying courses during construction. Rutting may or may not be accompanied by adjacent bulging of the road surface. The causes of rutting are the following : Heavy channelized traffic. The failure of any one or more components of the pavement structure develops the waves and corrugations on the pavements surface or longitudinal ruts and shoving as shown in Figs. users. 40ºC. 1 Rutting on Weak Asphalt Layer BMS College of Engineering. ** Assistant Professor.K and K. Improper mix design. A flexible pavement failure is defined by formation of pot holes. Due to these solicitations. results in a poor bituminous surfacing. The maintenance operations involve the study of road condition. The rut depth values are correlated and analysed with Number of passes at 20 mm max Rut depth. cracks. The ruts are usually of the width of wheel path. 1 INTRODUCTION 1. Weak pavement.. Ganesh** ABSTRACT The present study involves determination of rutting characteristics on 100 mm thick beams of Bituminous Concrete mixes i. CRMB-60 grade and PMB-70 grade with Treaded wheel. Bangalore INDIAN HIGHWAYS. The results are analyzed. PMB-70 grade binder perform better than VG-10 grade and CRMB-60 grade binders under the laboratory induced applied pressures and number of passes. Failure of wearing course are observed due to lack of proper mix design. 45ºC and 50ºC) at a constant Tire Pressure of 7. it is found that modified binders resist rutting compared to conventional binder. Incidence of high contact stress caused by heavy bullock-cart traffic. number of passes of the roller and the maximum Rut depth for varying Temperatures (30ºC. 85 mm.64% and for PMB 70 grade binder.1 Methodology Preparation of Bituminous Concrete beam specimens of size 600 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm in the laboratory with the above graded aggregate mix with Bitumen of VG-10 grade. Ruts are depressions along the wheel path caused by traffic loading.67% and 5. The addition of polyethylene improves also the resistance of bituminous binders. 2.45%.2 kg/cm2 and 25 passes/ minute speed for temperatures of 30ºC. Inadequate compaction of the mix at the surface or in the underlying courses during construction. for CRMB 60 grade binder.2 Solutions to prevent Rutting in Bituminous Pavements Rutting causes due to Heavy channeled traffic. 17. CRMB-60 grade. aggregate and liquid asphalt.75 mm. 1. inadequate binder content and inferior type of binder.38%. Bituminous Concrete mixes with Plain and Modified binders using Graphs 1.77% respectively. 40ºC. improper gradation of aggregates. 2 PRESENT INVESTIGATIONS The present investigation is focused on the rutting characteristics of 100 mm thick bituminous concrete mix with modified binders (PMB-70 & CRMB-60) and normal bitumen (VG-10) for beam specimen using optimum binder content. The BC mix design details obtained like Stability. Adequate drainage. Conducting rutting tests under Immersion Wheel Tracking device at a constant tire pressure of 7. lacking in the stability of mix to support the traffic and leading to plastic movement laterally under traffic. VMA. 18. number of passes. the values obtained were 3515. 5.55%. Researchers have found that when polyethylene is used as additive. 35ºC. room temperature for bituminous concrete mix.71%.60%. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. the values were 3737.5. 18.97 percent. VFB and Vv for VG-10 grade binder are 3010. high temperature. Polymer modified binders have been found to be especially effective. it is highly resistant to oxidation and other forms of environmentally induced distress. different parameters like applied pressure. depending on the type and design of the carriageway surfacing. 2 Rutting Occurs on Pavement Fig.78% and 6. 73. hence in order to prevent rutting following are some of the solutions: The use of quality design. 3 Sketch Above Showing the Permanent Deformation in the Flexible Pavement.TECHNICAL PAPERS Fig.825 mm. etc.5 kg.3 kg. 2. 2.66%. 57. 7. 63. and 5.29% . flow. 45ºC and 50ºC. Similarly. June 2014 27 . PMB70 grade with optimum binder content of 5. 776 33. Table 2 Individual Gradation of Aggregates for Bituminous Concrete Mix Sieve size (mm) Obtained Gradation 20 mm 12 mm 6 mm Dust 26. 20 mm.3 Gradation of Bituminous Concrete Mix The different sizes of aggregates.04 4. June 2014 .07 4.954 35 55 2.0 100 100 100 100 100 21.1 18.06 33. Then by trial and error method.4.4 70. No.623 14.234 28 36. PMB-70 were used for the study and the physical properties of the binders obtained as given in Tables 3 and 4 meeting the requirements of MoRT&H have been selected for the study.75 mm sieve was used as coarse aggregate. the desired gradation for bituminous concrete were Range of Values as per IS/MoRT&H Specifications 2. 2.05 4.2 - 0.7935 52 70 4.06 4. Crusher dust is used as filler.007 20 35 0.8 Max 27% Max 45% Max 30% Max 40% obtained to match the midpoint gradation as shown in Table 2.5 100 100 100 19 75.4 17.5 Desired Gradation Total Middle Limits Lower Limits Upper Limits 20 mm 12 mm 6 mm Dust 29% 20% 23% 28% 100 29 20 23 28 100.15 - 0. Plain bitumen of grade VG-10 and modified bitumen CRMB-60.198 27.569 10 20 0.75 23 28 60.0435 9.928 9.47125 20 23 28 71. that is.TECHNICAL PAPERS and Tables were analysed with Number of passes.7645 20 23 28 92. The gradation obtained for bituminous concrete mix is shown in Fig.2 Materials used in the Study Granite aggregate available near Bangalore were collected for specimen preparation.2 - 0.37 4.02 4. The properties of aggregates used are shown in the Table 1.896 19.15 48.43 5 10 0.462 4.3 - 0. by using the Microsoft excel.1 53.6 99.62 14% 20% 22% 24% 2.7 0.6 - 0.79 60.75 100 100 0.075 - 0. Aggregate fraction passing 4.57 19.95 36.8 100 - 0.056 4. 10 mm.05 100 13. Table 1 Properties of Aggregates Sl.25 20.377 2 8 28 INDIAN HIGHWAYS.47125 59 80 0.18 - 0.064 28 50 1.176 27. 6 mm and dust are selected from the heap and the sieve analysis is done to obtain the individual gradation of these aggregates.3 20.46 24.00 27.301 0.5 mm.43 9.464 15 30 0.6 35.36 - 0.72 8. Aggregate fraction retained on 4.2 - 0.7645 79 100 100 100 100 0.692 19.625 9. Tests Obtained Result 1 2 3 4 5 Specific gravity Aggregate Impact value (%) Aggregate Crushing value (%) Combined Flakiness & Elongation Index Los Angeles Abrasion value 2.2 - 0.761 22.2 19.712 24.4 - 0.2 1.09 5. varying Temperature and Plain wheel configuration for their performance.6-2.45 22. 12.76 92.47 71.75 0 3.7 79.35 20.6 - 0.75 mm sieve and retained on 75 microns sieve were used as fine aggregate. Ganesh (Research Scholar) under the guidance of Dr. A tank with temperature controlled is fitted on the moving platform.07 1.3 Modified Binder Automatic Immersion Equipment Wheel Tracking This equipment has been designed for the research work conducted by Shri K. R.TECHNICAL PAPERS Table 3 Physical Properties of Bitumen Sl.0 1. ºC - 3.29 Penetration of Residue at 25ºC. Satyamurty (Professor Department of Civil Engineering).5 279 & 292 276 & 310 270 & 295 Elastic Recovery of Half Thread in Ductilometer at 15ºC. R&B. The wheel tracking apparatus measures effects of rutting by rolling a rubber wheel on the surface of a Bituminous Concrete (BC) slab.4 0. The wheel is loaded by using cantilever arrangement up to a maximum load of 3925 N.4 Table 4 Properties of Plain and Modified Binders Obtained Properties VG-10 CRMB-60 PMB-70 Penetration (0. The wheel is of 200 mm x 50 mm solid rubber wheel.8 Elastic Recovery of Half Thread in Ductilometer at 25ºC. R&B. % - 60 79 Separation Difference in Softening point. Thin Film Oven test (TFOT) on Residue Loss in Weight. Department of Civil Engineering).% - 58 62 INDIAN HIGHWAYS. 0.1 mm. 4 Gradation obtained for Bituminous Concrete mix Polymer and Rubber Modified Bitumen are abbreviated as Modified Binders. 5 s) IS:1203 – 1978 2 Softening point IS:1205 – 1978 3 Ductility at 25ºC IS:1208 – 1978 4 Specific gravity IS:1202 – 1978 5 Flash and fire point (ºC) IS:1206 – 1978 2. The water bath reciprocates with to and fro motion at a frequency of maximum 40 passes per minute. ºC - 3. 100 g. % - 0.1 mm) 82 42 62 Ductility (cm) 89 65 45 Softening Point (ºC) 48 84 89 Specific Gravity 1. June 2014 The wheel tracking apparatus consists of a loaded rubber wheel mounted on the surface of the bituminous concrete mix slab (specimen to be tested) fitted on a movable table driven from AC motor through crank and pinion. BMS college of Engineering. 2. BMS College of Engineering) and Dr. The specimen in the form of bituminous concrete beam is fitted inside the tank. Modified binders have the ability to offer improved performance over conventional binders. Jagadeesh (Professor.12 Flash & Fire point (ºC) Fig. No. H. which is obtained incorporation of thermoplastic synthetic thermo hardening resins and powdered rubber from scrap truck tires is also called elastomers in ordinary Bitumen.6 1.37 0. A 29 .S. Properties Test Method 1 Penetration (100 g. 25ºC. 5 sec - 24 26 Increase in Softening Point. and dust were selected from the stack and the sieve analysis is done to obtain the individual gradation of these aggregates for each IS sieve individually.TECHNICAL PAPERS screw lever arrangement is provided for adjustment for the slab thickness. Plain bitumen of grade VG-10 and Modified Bitumen of grade CRMB-60 and PMB-70 were used for the study. 12 mm.e. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. The dimension of specimen is 600 mm x100 mm x 100 mm. 7. of passes Vs rut depth. 8. A dedicated software monitors the rut depth and plots the graph for no. Fig. Pour all the weighed aggregates into the pan and heat the aggregates up to 150-170°C. Two LVDT (Linearly Variable Differential Transducer) are fitted on the axel of the rubber wheel to monitor the rut depth. 5 View of Immersion Wheel Tracking Equipment 2. 6 mm. June 2014 . 20 mm. The above bituminous mix is poured in a pre-heated mould when the temperature of the mix is between 100ºC to 145ºC. The water temperature inside the tank is maintained at room temperature.6 Procedure and Operating Instructions Fig.. 5. Weigh the quantities of aggregates (20 mm. Remove the specimen and measure its dimensions as shown in Fig. The mix is compressed at a constant rate of loading using Universal Testing Machine up to a required thickness of 40 mm as shown in Fig. i) Preparation of the Specimen The different size of aggregates i. The test DATA is stored in a text file for further analysis of the data. 6 mm and stone Dust) required for each specimen. 12 mm. Heat to the required temperature of mix which should be between 140ºC to 160ºC. The output of the LVDT is connected to computer through ‘PC ADD ON’ card. 7 Rutting Specimen under Universal Testing Machine Fig. 6 Wheel Tracking Machine 30 Cure the specimen in air for 24 hours. Add binder to the pan (pouring temperature of 150-165ºC) and mix it. The photographic view of Immersion Wheel Tracking Equipment is shown in Fig. Close the drain and fill. Now. Fix the loading pan and apply the required load by the ten kg.TECHNICAL PAPERS switch ‘on’ the heater without water in the tank. Remove the specimen from the mould and keep it in the water tank for required period of soaking and place on the platform for the rut testing. Remove the mould plate and place the specimen on the platform. June 2014 The Bituminous concrete beams of 100 mm thickness were prepared and subjected to rutting at varying pavement temperature (30ºC to 50ºC) using the Immersion Wheel Tracking equipment. Water level should be up to the top of mould plate. Load pads (slot) provided to achieve the required pressure on the wheel. Water drain is provided at the bottom of the tank along with regulated valve as shown in the drawing. The variables considered are the mix characteristics defined by 31 . The steel tank is covered to avoid spillage of water from the tank during to and fro motion of the tank. Steel tank is provided with two heaters (thermostatically controlled).1 General Water from the tap. ensure the following: Make the specimen in the required mould and cool it for minimum twenty four hours. Fig.Pin). Remove the LVDT mounted to the axle of the wheel as shown in Fig. b) Rut depth is being measured through LVDT which is connected to terminals marked LVDT. number of pass counter. Move the lever arm and lock the same at zero position on electronics control panel by using the locking pin (L . proximity switches are connected to the connectors provided on the rear panel of the cycle control cubical. c) Ensure that LVDT are connected to respective LVDT signal conditioners. Fix steel tank firmly. after fixing the mould. 8 Rutting Beam Specimen after De-Molding ii) Procedure for fixing the specimen immersion wheel tracking machine Remove the loading from the Lever arm pan. Do not INDIAN HIGHWAYS. 3 ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS 3. 6. d) All DAS (Data Acquisition System) wires and cables are properly connected to computer port. Fix the support plates and lift the (600 mm x 100 mm x 75 mm) plate and place it in the steel tank platform and lock the same using bolts. in a) Forward/reverse. hold the lever arm and release the locking pin and slowly bring the lever arm downwards till the rubber wheel is touching the top surface of the specimen. Now. Opening at the center of this cover plate will make provision for rutting through wheel. close the steel tank with the lid provided. Before switching on the control panel. Fix the LVDT and see that the LVDT plunger tip touches the rubber wheel axle. place the cover after filling water in the tank. Table 5 shows rut depth versus number of passes for all binders at varying temperatures (from 30ºC to 50ºC).7 4000 18.88 5.49 7.71 12.41 8.72 20(7367) - - - 9000 - - - - - - - - - - 20(8241) - - - - 3.35 3.49 6. The binder used is Plain bitumen of grade VG-10 and Modified binders of grade CRMB-60 and PMB-70.88 13.96 2000 11. number of passes of the roller and applied pressure on the roller.77 12.86 11.77 5. The results of rutting characteristics of Bituminous Concrete mix using Conventional and Modified Binders obtained as shown in Table 5 are summarized and analyzed below.68 19.75 8.00 0.39 8.48 12.42 20(6533) - - 8000 - - - - - 20(7634) - - - - 19.82 19.00 0.12 5. Table 5 Rutting Test Results in Bituminous Concrete Mix at Varying Temperatures Number of Passes VG-10 CRMB-60 PMB-70 Rut Depth (mm) Rut Depth (mm) Rut Depth (mm) 30ºC 35ºC 40ºC 45ºC 50ºC 30ºC 35ºC 40ºC 45ºC 50ºC 30ºC 35ºC 40ºC 45ºC 0 0.11 7. The graphs are plotted for obtained rut depth values which are mentioned in consolidated Table 4.61 3.43 7.88 10. 9 to 11 using the above three binders.81 17.00 0.47 7. 11 Rut Depth Versus Number of Passes at Varying Temperature for PMB-70 Grade Modified Binder in 100 mm Thick BC Mix INDIAN HIGHWAYS.41 11.11 20(3910) 20(3338) - 13.88 5.22 17.57 9.68 15.14 17.1 17.02 9.95 7.55 16.44 20(4630) 13.04 19.13 9.05 11. 35ºC.00 0.07 7.00 500 4.00 0.1 6.06 20(5794) 20(5322) - 15.00 0.01 13. 40ºC.57 20(2800) 12.63 19.96 7.11 12.85 8.2 15. 9 Rut Depth Versus Number of Passes at Varying Temperature for VG-10 Grade Conventional Binder in 100 Thick BC Mix 32 Fig.53 9.02 6.88 17.1 as shown in Figs. The summarized rut depth values for three binders which are VG-10.00 0.07 20(6584) - - - 17.00 0. Fig.92 6.TECHNICAL PAPERS varying temperature and type of Binder.7 10. CRMB-60 and PMB-70 for various temperatures of 30ºC.15 18.31 7.00 50ºC 0.79 18.33 14. 10 Rut Depth Versus Number of Passes at Varying Temperature for CRMB-60 Grade Modified Binder in 100 mm Thick BC Mix Fig.87 14.78 16.00 0.51 13.28 16.00 0.87 13.51 5.62 19.00 0.00 0.92 7.81 1000 6.92 9.23 19.52 13.48 15.82 8.59 - - - 18.00 0.75 15. 45ºC and 50ºC are indicated below.2 Analysis of Rutting Characteristics in 100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix Using Conventional and Modified Binders The analysis of rutting is done for obtained values from laboratory using both Conventional and Modified binders for Bituminous Concrete mix.23 9.57 12.24 3000 14.41 18.88 18.76 14.28 20(5761) 20(5270) 7000 - - - - - 19.81 16.53 5000 6000 20(4734) 20(4300) - - - - - 16.44 5.43 6.38 6. June 2014 . 108 40 0.47 0.067 0.183 50 0.417 0.474 33 . ºC Co-efficient A 30 0. Graphs have been plotted for above binders and are shown in Fig. The results fit an exponential curve of the form Table 7 Rutting Co-efficients A and B for Various Binders in 100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix at Varying Temperatures Fig. Table 6 shows number of passes upto failure (20 mm) rut depth at different temperature for both Treaded wheel and Plain wheel configuration using Conventional and Modified Binders in 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete Mix.493 0.596 0.639 0. June 2014 Rutting Co-efficients A and B Temperature.056 35 0.63 0.333 Binder Co-efficient B 0.562 0.422 0.127 PMB-70 40 45 0.565 30 0.272 0.223 30 0.236 35 0.496 50 0.673 0. 12 and 13.086 35 0.581 0.569 0. ºC Number of Passes at Failure (20 mm) VG-10 CRMB-60 PMB-70 VG-10 CRMB-60 PMB-70 30 4734 7634 8241 30 3997 4942 5832 35 4227 6581 7367 35 3063 4285 5199 40 3783 5794 6533 40 1959 3706 5041 45 3205 5322 5653 45 1480 3414 4754 50 2800 4630 5104 50 1182 3280 4272 3. ºC Number of Passes at Failure (20 mm) Temperature.3 Comparison of Number of Passes at Failure (20 mm) Rut Depth in 100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix at Different Temperature for Treaded Wheel and Plain Wheel Configuration Treaded wheel and Plain wheel configuration were influence on the rutting characteristic in bituminous concrete mix as indicated by number of passes to failure (20 mm).4 Analysis of Rutting Co-efficients A & B for Various Binders in 100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix at Different Temperatures The rutting Coefficients A and B are obtained using the above selected binders for varying temperatures from 30°C to 50°C by fitting an exponential curve as shown in Table 7. Table 6 Number of Passes at Failure of 20 mm Rut Depth for Different Temperature in 100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix for Both Treaded Wheel and Plain Wheel Configuration Treaded Wheel Plain Wheel Temperature. 13 Number of Passes at Failure (20 mm) Versus Varying Temperature for Conventional and Modified Binders Using Plain Wheel Configuration INDIAN HIGHWAYS.479 0.621 0.TECHNICAL PAPERS 3.326 CRMB-60 40 45 0. 12 Number of Passes at Failure (20 mm) Versus Varying Temperature for Conventional and Modified Binders Using Treaded Wheel Configuration Fig.15 VG-10 45 0.483 0.299 50 0. As the temperature increases. the percentage increase compared to VG-10 is 61. for CRMB-60 and 74.3 Effect of Temperature on the 100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix for Rutting Comparing the Rutting characteristics in 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete mixes using Conventional and Modified binders for varying temperatures at 30°C (Room temperature) the Bituminous Concrete with conventional VG-10 binder has failed at 4734 passes.3 for above three types of binder and for different temperatures. CRMB-70 at 4630 passes and PMB-70 at 5270 number of passes. 4. 3.4 percent.2 kg/cm2 tire pressure at varying temperatures from 30°C to 50°C and using three different Binders VG-10.. The Regression analysis was carried out for VG-10. From this table at 30°C VG-10 has Coefficient ‘A’ elastic component is 0.639 for PMB-70 indicating that the plastic deformation is more or less independent of the type of binder. CRMB-60.1 to 3. 4. the mix undergoes Plastic deformation up to failure. 20 mm Rut depth. Similarly increasing trend is observed for other temperatures also. N = Number of Passes A & B are exponential coefficients representing the elastic and plastic components after deformation 4 DISCUSSIONS ON TEST RESULTS 4. June 2014 . Comparing the Rutting Characteristics at 30°C (Room Temperature) in 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete mix with Conventional VG-10 Binder has failed (20 mm Rut depth) at 4734 passes. the resistance to rutting decreases in 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete mixes using Conventional and Modified binder. Similarly ‘B’ plastic component is 0.3 percent.1 and Figs. for CRMB-60 and 88. where as the Bituminous Concrete mix with PMB-70 binder shows maximum resistance to rutting compared to VG-10 and CRMB-70 binders for varying temperatures as indicated by higher number of passes up to failure i.056. This shows that the PMB-70 Binder mix is more resistance to rutting.4. RD = Rut depth. 3.1 to 3. the percentage increase compared to VG-10 is 65.3 percent for CRMB-60 and 74.1 percent for PMB-70. The Rut depth versus Number of passes always follows an exponential trend as shown in Fig. Initially for 1000 passes the mix exhibits its elastic deformation and on further increasing the passes. 4.4 Effect of Wheel Configuration on Rutting Characteristics of 100 mm thick BC Mix Two wheel configuration Plain Wheel (PW) and Treaded Wheel (TW) in the present study has clearly demonstrated that there is considerable influence of wheel configuration on the rutting characteristics as indicated by number of passes to failure and the trend INDIAN HIGHWAYS. At higher temperature of 50°C. CRMB-60 at 7634 and PMB-70 at 8241 number passes. in 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete mix with Conventional VG-10 binder has failed at 2800 passes.TECHNICAL PAPERS RD = ANB Where.2 percent for PMB-70. the percentage increase compared to VG-10 is 61.e.1 percent for PMB-70.1 General The Rutting tests conducted on 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete beams with 7. CRMB-60 and PMB-70 has yielded the data for discussions as given below.3 the Rut Depth and Number of Passes defined on the type of the Binder and Temperature.2 Effect of Binder on the Rutting Characteristics of 100 mm Thick Bituminous Concrete Mix From Table 3. and for PMB-70 is 0.086. Indicating that the VG-10 binder results in more elastic deformation compared to PMB-70.673 for VG-10 and 0. and PMB-70 at 30°C to 50°C yield A & B 34 values as given in Table 4. CRMB-60 at 7634 and PMB-70 at 8241 number of passes. 3. IRC. At lower temperature of 30°C. of number of passes versus temperatures is shown in Figs. the Percent increase compared to Bituminous Concrete mix with Conventional VG-10 grade is 65. whereas plain wheel showed 3997 passes at 30ºC to 1182 passes at 50ºC. Authors would like to thank the reviewers for their constructive comments and their suggestions.3 percent for CRMB-60 and 74.M. the percentage increase compared to Bituminous Concrete mix with Conventional VG-10 grade is 61. E. S. C. Dr. REFERENCES 1. 4. June 2014 At 30°C.4 and 3.5 and tabulated in Table 3. The Treaded wheel has always indicated higher number of passes compared to the Plain wheel the difference is 4734 passes at 30ºC to 2800 passes at 50ºC. College of Engineering.3 percent for CRMB-60 and 74. the rutting co-efficient A which is the elastic component of rutting showed a higher value for VG-10 grade compared to PMB70 and CRMB-60 grades. 2. Dr.TECHNICAL PAPERS wheel configuration which also suggest that Treaded wheel configuration is more resistant to rutting compared to Plain wheel configuration. Special Publications-53 : 2002.5 with Table 3. K. Comparing Figs. 3. A. 3. 2001. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank Department of Civil Engineering B. “Highway Materials and Pavement Testing” Laboratory Manual. Revised Fifth Edition.1 percent for PMB-70. 5 CONCLUSIONS Comparing the three Binders VG-10. Roorkee 247 667. 3. C. “Specfication for Road and Bridge Works”. CRMB60 and PMB-70.2 percent for PMB-70.2. “Highway Engineering” Eighth Edition. Justo. This shows that PMB-70 grade is not very sensitive to the wheel tread configuration compared to the VG-10 grade conventional bitumen. Justo and Dr.4 and 3. the rutting co-efficient B which is the plastic component of rutting showed no substantial deviation for all the selected binders indicating that plastic deformation is more or less independent of the types of binders in bituminous concrete mix. 35 . S. G. indicating that the VG-10 grade binder in Bituminous concrete mix is least resistant to rutting as compared to CRMB-60 and PMB-70 grades modified binders. “Tentative Guidelines On Use Of Polymer and Rubber Modified Bitumen in Road Construction”. Khanna and Dr. Bangalore for providing the facilities and extending the help in different aspects of academia. Dr. K.2 indicated PMB-70 grade in 100 mm thick Bituminous Concrete Mix has with more number of passes at failure of 20 mm. Fourth Revision. This shows that the PMB-70 Binder mix is more resistance to rutting.. G.S. Khanna. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways. At higher temperature of 50°C. This clearly shows that the PMB-70 grade had compensates showed higher number of passes using Treaded wheel configuration than Plain wheel configuration for 100 mm thick bituminous concrete mix using Plain and Modified binders at varying temperature.4 for VG-10 it is seen that the difference in number of passes at 20 mm rut depth (failure) increases with temperature 30ºC to 50ºC. Nem Chand & Bros.4 percent for CRMB-60 and 88. As the temperature increases from 30°C to 50°C. E. The difference in number of passes is observed to be higher in case of Treaded wheel configuration for 100 mm thick BC mix at 20 mm failure rut depth comparing to Plain INDIAN HIGHWAYS. the resistance to rutting decreases for Bituminous Mixes using Conventional and Modified binders.1 percent for PMB-70. the PMB-70 grade modified bitumen showed maximum resistance to rutting. But. the percentage increase compared to VG-10 is 61. MoRT&H. From Fig. India. 2001. Veeraragavan (2009). Su. Srinivasa Reddy and M. of civil engineering. Ganesh. “Evaluation of the Effects of Crumb Rubber and StyreneButadiene Rubber (SBR) on Rutting Resistance of Asphalt Concrete”. Indian Highways “Low Cost device for evaluating rutting characteristics of bituminous mixes” march 2011. Dept. Journal of Indian Highways. Japan. January-June 2010. Highway Research Journal. “Rut Prediction for Semi-rigid Asphalt Pavements” K.J.M. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Dept. K. Suriyanarayan Sadasivam. I. “Evaluation of Rutting on different types of Hot Mix Asphalt Gradation with Modified Bitumen as Binder”. “Evaluation of the effects of compaction methods on the predicted performance of Superpave Mixtures”. “Design of Automatic Immersion Wheel Tracking Equipment to Measure the Rutting Characteristics of Bituminous Mixes with Plain and Modified Binders”.S College of Engineering . 6.S. Raleigh. VTU. (January .Tech report. 8. June 2014 . 12. Chuang-Tsair Shih.S College of Engg . 7. University Technology Malaysia. H. Mang Tia & Byron E. B. Sun and Y. B. of civil engineering. Wong Yee Fung.Tech report. Sathyamurty. July 2004. Amarnath Reddy. Ronald E. Jagadeesh & R. (June 2011). Gainesville. Praveen Mugalkhod “Effect Of Gradation On The Rutting Characteristics Of Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete Mix” M. Airport Research Institute.1998). Hachiya. Faculty of Civil Engineering. Ruth. Department of Civil Engineering University of Florida.M.TECHNICAL PAPERS 5. Manoj Kumar “Effect of soaking on rutting characteristics of bituminous concrete mix with modified binders” M. Yokosuka. L. 10. 11. Nagase. VTU. 36 9. “Polymer Modified Bitumen”. 13. (June 2007). Baker. by which confining pressure inside the CBR mould was accounted. In this study conventional California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test (as per IS Method) and Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) test of fly ash material are carried out in laboratory scale into the CBR mould at unsoaked and four days soaked conditions. 37 . Being less compressible it causes lesser settlement and can be handled and compacted easily. if * Research Scholar. after or before construction. The application of DCP in the laboratory inside a CBR mould has rarely been reported and it may be due to the effect of lateral confinement. Always correctness of the results needs validation.065 Log10 (DCP). proper compaction and choice of suitable material for embankment are main criterion to reduce early distress of service life of pavement. 1 INTRODUCTION The basic advantage of fly ash is its light weight as compared to commonly used fill material (like soil). Fly ash embankment can be compacted over a wide range of moisture contents.A LABORATORY STUDY ON CONVENTIONAL CBR AND DCP METHOD IN THE MOULD Sunanda Bhattacharjee* and Kaushik Bandyopadhyay** ABSTRACT Road connectivity is essential for socio-economic growth of the country. Thirdly. 3 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF WORK The objective and scope of work includes the following: i) To study the unsoaked and four days soaked percent CBR variations between conventional IS:2720 (Part 16)5 and DCP method into the CBR mould (as per ASTM D6951-03)1 in laboratory for 100 and 97 percent degree of compaction of different maximum dry densities and corresponding optimum moisture contents obtained by modified and standard proctor energy levels. it is followed that DCP was mainly designed for field conditions. In most of the cases laboratory DCP CBR is higher than conventional CBR and higher values are also reached in case of dynamic compaction. comparison of laboratory and field values would be more reliable due to use of same equipment compared to laboratory and field CBR by conventional IS method. different degree and mode of compactions and deviation of moisture contents from optimum condition. Nguyen and Mohajerani (2012)8 selected the optimized mass of hammer 2. Department of Construction Engineering. There is little chance of formation of large size lumps which need to be broken down to smaller sizes during compaction. Ese et al (1994)2 used a relationship. Due to this laboratory DCP was another alternative for comparing and checking the results from conventional laboratory CBR method.438-1.jusl. Higher value of California Bearing Ratio as compared to soil provides a more efficient design of road pavement. Besides in rural or remote sites where makeshift laboratories are made with no electricity. laboratory DCP is more helpful method than performing conventional laboratory CBR method.com ** Associate Professor. Tests were carried out for different parameters like maximum dry density and optimum moisture content obtained from different Proctor energy levels.ac. June 2014 CBR is checked by DCP at field and simultaneously laboratory DCP is done.in INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Considerable low compressibility results in negligible subsequent settlement within the fill. E-mail: kb@const. By using trial. Kolkata. Therefore laboratory CBR test by conventional method is checked by DCP method into the mould which is always appreciable and good alternative for practicing engineers and researchers and comparison is made between two methods. E-mail:
[email protected] Kg which eliminates the influence of confining pressure from the sidewall in a CBR mould. ii) To examine the unsoaked and four days soaked percent CBR variations between lab IS and lab DCP methods for static and dynamic mode of compaction. Jadavpur University (2nd Campus). and therefore results in less variation of density with changes in moisture content. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW From different literature review studies. Construction. Log10 CBR = 2. The test programme was carried out by following steps: i) Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) were found out from modified proctor energy level at 100 mm diameter (1000 cc volume) mould as per IS:2720 (Part 8)4. iii) 4 MATERIALS AND METHODS In this work the source of fly ash used in laboratory was procured from Farakka Thermal Power station. Photo 2 Conducting Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) Test in CBR Mould iv) Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) were determined from standard proctor energy level at 100 mm diameter (1000 cc volume) mould as per IS:2720 (Part 7)3. West Bengal. v) Laboratory four days soaked and unsoaked CBR tests were carried out as per IS:2720-(Part 16) by both static and dynamic mode of compaction for 100 and 97 percent of Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) obtained from standard proctor energy level. Photo 1 Conducting Laboratory CBR Test in CBR Mould as per IS Method 38 Similarly. June 2014 . In addition to this the same were carried out at OMC ± 2% variations by only dynamic compaction. vi) Similarly four days soaked and un soaked DCP CBR were carried out at CBR mould in laboratory as per ASTM D6951 INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Besides the same were tested at OMC ± 2% variations by only dynamic compaction. four days soaked and unsoaked DCP CBR were carried out at CBR mould in laboratory (Photo-2) as per ASTM D6951 by both static and dynamic compaction for 100 and 97 MDD & OMC obtained from modified proctor energy level.TECHNICAL PAPERS iii) To investigate the unsoaked and four days soaked percent CBR variations between two methods into the CBR mould at laboratory for ± 2 percent variations from optimum moisture content at dynamic mode of compaction. India. In addition to this the same were carried out at OMC ± 2% variations by only dynamic compaction. ii) Laboratory four days soaked and unsoaked CBR tests were carried out as per IS:2720 (Part 16) method ( Photo-1) by both static and dynamic mode of compaction for 100 and 97 percent of Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) obtained from modified proctor energy level. June 2014 Value Obtained 2.2 Percent 7. The maximum dry densities and optimum moisture contents are obtained as 1. 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Geotechnical properties of fly ash specimen is furnished in Table 1.093 0 Percent 0. Light weight hammer 2. as per IS:2720(Part-8) 4 Maximum Dry Density Optimum Moisture Content Standard Proctor (Light Compaction. Table 1 Geotechnical Properties of Fly Ash Specimen Sl. OMC = 36% from Table 2. laboratory CBR values by IS method and lab DCP by ASTM D6951 method into the mould vary slightly. as per IS:2720(Part-7) 5 Maximum Dry Density Optimum Moisture Content 6 Permeability 7 Drained Friction Angle (Φ’) Fig. Geotechnical Properties 1 Specific Gravity Grain Size Distribution Gravel Coarse Sand Medium Sand Fine Sand 2 Silt Clay As per IS:1498-1970.00% 0.TECHNICAL PAPERS by both static and dynamic compaction for 100 and 97 percent MDD & OMC obtained from standard proctor energy level. Besides the same were tested at OMC ± 2% variations by only dynamic compaction.48-1.1 Percent 52. Fig.0 1.975 gm/cc and 45% at Standard (Light) compaction energy level respectively.1 Percent 36.80% compared to IS method.1 Nil gm/cc 36.3 Percent 4. The variation between lab CBR and DCP method is (-) 4.26% respectively.057 Log10 (DCP). No. Even in case of OMC-2% and OMC + 2% conditions (Table 3) variations observed are (+) 4.54 to (-) 8. Table 2 indicates that almost every cases of 4 days soaked 39 .975 gm/cc 45.Classification Uniformity Co-efficient (Cu) Co-efficient of curvature (Cc) 3 Plasticity Modified Proctor (Heavy Compaction.00% 2.25 Kg (suggested by Nguyen and Mohajerani 2012) is used for avoiding confinement effect of mould instead of 8 Kg hammer suggested by ASTM D6951.145 gm/cc. By this relationship DCP CBR showed almost similar results compared to the results calculated by the relationship of Ese et al(1994) and confining effect inside the CBR mould was accounted. Grain size distribution reveals that fly ash specimen is classified as SM group (Table 1).145 gm/ cc and 36% at Modified (Heavy) compaction energy level and 0. Comparatively flatter curves were observed in dry density and moisture relationships for both energy levels of compaction which indicate that dry density of fly ash is not much sensitive to moisture.76% and (-) 4. 2 indicates grain size distribution of fly ash specimen.3 Percent SM 7.5975 x 10-4 cm/sec 31º In case of unsoaked condition of MDD = 1. 1 shows moisture density relationships at modified and standard proctor energy level of compaction. In this study DCP CBR is calculated using the following equation suggested by TRL9 and ASTM D6951 Log10 CBR = 2. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. 7 15.2 21.8 17.9 13.0 18.0 14.19 to (+) 15.4 14.6 9.3 11.145 gm/cc OMC = 36% MDD = 0. laboratory DCP CBR is higher than laboratory IS method values.2 14.1 DCP 24.0 IS DCP 16.27% and for OMC +2% condition.26% with respect to IS method.8 10.11%. June 2014 .8 20.051% to (-) 19.1 Static Compaction at 97% MDD Un 4 Days Soaked Soaked 19. Fig.975 gm/cc OMC = 45% CBR method in Dynamic Compaction Laboratory at 100% MDD Un Soaked 4 Days Soaked IS 22.8 15. In case of OMC -2% condition from Table 3 variation is (-)13.3 23.0 10.145 gm/cc. variation is (-) 2. OMC = 45% 40 CBR Method in Laboratory IS DCP IS DCP Unsoaked OMC .2% OMC + 2% 17.36% & (+) 16. For both the cases laboratory DCP values are higher compared to laboratory IS method values. variation follows by (-) 8.0 10. Table 2 Unsoaked and 4 Days Soaked CBR at Different Mode of Compaction Description MDD = 1.2 21.0 22.0 INDIAN HIGHWAYS. 3 to 6 shows the variations for different conditions and relations developed between lab CBR by IS method and lab DCP CBR and same is shown in Figs. In case of OMC -2% condition (Table 3).975 gm/cc.0 14.0 17.1 12.2% OMC + 2% 25.0 12.0 16. OMC = 45% from Table 2.0 4 Days Soaked OMC .4 9.0 9.68% with respect to the IS method.5 9.0 17. In case of unsoaked condition of MDD = 0.3 14. (-) 12.0 Dynamic Compaction at 97% MDD Un 4 Days Soaked Soaked 20. laboratory CBR values by IS method and DCP methods vary through a wide range.4 12.TECHNICAL PAPERS condition laboratory DCP values are higher than laboratory IS method values.8 18.1 24.29% compared to IS method.0 Table 3 Unsoaked and 4 Days Soaked CBR for OMC ± 2% Conditions Description MDD =1.0 15.67% variations are followed for OMC .0 14. OMC = 36% MDD = 0.25% compared to IS method. 2 Grain size Distribution of Fly Ash Specimen The variation observed between IS and DCP method is (-) 27.66% to(-)28.2% & OMC + 2% conditions respectively (Table 3).7 10.0 13. The variation between IS and DCP method is (-) 1.7 & 8 for OMC ± 2 percent conditions. Table 2 shows that in case of 4 days soaked condition. Figs.975 gm/cc.0 17.82% and in case of OMC + 2% condition laboratory IS method value is higher than laboratory DCP value where variation follows (+) 14.0 14.0 Static Compaction at 100% MDD Un 4 Days Soaked Soaked 22.6 14. 1 Moisture Density Relationship at Modified (Heavy) and Standard (Light) Proctor Energy Level Fig.7 21. The variation between IS and DCP method is found to be (-) 2.4 12. 7 Relation Between Laboratory CBR by IS Method Versus DCP Method at OMC-2% (By Dynamic Compaction) Fig. 6 Relation Between Laboratory CBR by IS Method Versus DCP Method at 97 % MDD (By Static Compaction) Fig.TECHNICAL PAPERS Fig. 8 Relation Between Laboratory CBR by IS Method Versus DCP Method at OMC+2% (By Dynamic Compaction) 41 . 4 Relation Between Laboratory CBR by IS Method Versus DCP Method at 100% MDD (By Static Compaction) Fig. June 2014 Fig. 3 Relation Between Laboratory CBR by IS Method Versus DCP Method at 100% MDD (By Dynamic Compaction) Fig. 5 Relation Between Laboratory CBR by IS Method Versus DCP Method at 97% MDD (By Dynamic Compaction) INDIAN HIGHWAYS. 2.S. undrained strength versus stiffness is compared from conventional CBR and DCP in the mould at the laboratory. It is observed that CBR values were increased at OMC-2% and decreased at OMC + 2% as compared with OMC condition. REFERENCES 1. 3(1999). of Transport. 4.. It can be seen from CBR curve that peak occurs on the dry side of the OMC.J. moisture content. When moisture content increases from optimum. At OMC . A User Manual for a Program to Analyse Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Data. frictional resistance between the material particles and the cone. 9. 42 6 CONCLUSIONS From present study following conclusions are drawn. DCP is the indirect measure of stiffness of fly ash material. In case of four days soaked condition reduction in CBR is happened due to saturation. Inc. E. At OMC . New York. 7. The general trend of CBR for variation in density and moisture content was depicted by the contours of CBR (Ref: IRC Special Report No. CBR values increases at OMC-2% and decreases at OMC+2% compared with OMC condition. Yoder. For most of the cases laboratory CBR by DCP is higher than conventional laboratory IS method. Jumikis (1962). “A New Lightweight Dynamic Cone Penetrometer for Laboratory and Field Applications. CBR values for the mould prepared at dynamic compaction are slightly higher than mould prepared at static compaction for both the methods. Penetration of a plunger gets easier as the moisture content increases.” Australian Geomechanics Journal. J.. Yoder (1967)10 super imposed test results of CBR of unsaturated specimen showing higher strength at lower moisture content and there is a rapid fall in strength with increased moisture content. it can be noted that (Jumikis7) dry densities are equal and less than maximum and void contents are also equal.” Proc.3).2% moisture content.2. IS:2720 (Part 16)-1979 Methods of Test Forsoils: Part 16 Laboratory Determination of CBR. D Van Nostrand Company. Myre.. reduce strength. pp..” Overseas Road Note 8. 10. Vol. 6.. In conventional CBR plunger is penetrated into the fly ash material. Variations between four days soaked lab DCP CBR and lab IS CBR are much higher in case of MDD = 1. Conf.Noss. The variation of CBR with respect to moisture content and dry density is in the form of parabolic shape (Ref:IRC:Special Report No. Soil Mechanics. 36). “Standard Test Method for use of Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in Shallow Pavement”. D. U. CBR decreases. No. New Delhi. the resistance to penetration depends upon the gradation.. (1959). upon the true and apparent cohesion and possibly other factors. Alternatively.A. State of the Art: Compaction of Earthwork and Subgrades. Dept.145 gm/cc and OMC =36% at different conditions. applied pressure for penetration. density. Laboratory CBR values by IS and DCP method both are higher at modified compaction energy level compared to standard (light) compaction energy level.2% & OMC + 2% condition. 3. Therefore undrained shear strength is measured but in case of DCP the resistance of material is obtained through falling of a hammer. 8. 47. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. IS method is based on gradual penetration of a plunger into the CBR mould at the time of testing but DCP method is followed by free falling of a cone from a particular height. P. For both the methods.(1994) “The Use of Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) for Road Strengthening Design in Norway. India.TECHNICAL PAPERS It is observed that variations between four days soaked lab DCP CBR and lab IS CBR are much higher in case of MDD =1. ASTM D6951-03. and Vaernes. Saturation is expected to remove the suction and therefore. on the Bearing Capacity of Roads and Airfields. Therefore. Ese.IRC Highway Research Board. UK.343-357 IS:2720 (Part 7)-1980 Methods of Test for Soils: Part 7 Determination of Water Content-dry Density Relation Using Light Compaction.145 gm/cc and OMC =36% at different conditions.. June 2014 . (Indian Roads Congress).. IS:2720 (Part 8)-1983 Methods of Test for Soils: Part 8 Determination of Water Content-Dry Density Relation Using Heavy Compaction. “Principles of Pavement Design”. the penetration resistance is high but at OMC + 2% moisture penetration resistance is very low at the same densities in both cases. Laboratory CBR values by IS and DCP method both are always higher at 100% MDD compared to 97% MDD. Inc. IRC: Special Report No. Nguyen and Mohajerani (2012). E. the 4th Int. TRL. “Transport Research Lab. 41-50. 1990. In case of four days soaked condition variations observed between two methods are higher also due to saturation. John Wiley and Sons. 5. pp. Variation between laboratory CBR by IS and DCP method into the mould at laboratory might have occurred due to different procedures. area (sq. However. the evaluation of these distresses are done manually by finding their * Technical Officer. raw video clips of Indian highways are captured without any artificial lighting systems in normal day light conditions. In a road maintenance management system. Today. the assessment of road surface distresses is an essential part for developing repair and maintenance strategies of the existing road networks.7. extent of area (%) and/or classifying their types using traditional field inspection techniques or dedicated road survey vehicles. Indian Institute of Technology (IIT). time consuming and slows down road maintenance management. the collected video clips are processed using a robust algorithm presented earlier by the authors for automated detection and measurement of potholes from road surface video clips.1 million km road networks1. often stretches of the existing road networks deteriorate and fall below the acceptable level.A PORTABLE LOW-COST SYSTEM FRAMEWORK FOR AUTOMATED ROAD DISTRESS ASSESSMENT Huidrom Lokeshwor*. At present. these losses are increasing due to poor maintenance and increasing traffic. the evaluation of these distresses are done manually by finding their location. Betq Data Analytics (BETQ).1 million km road networks.com *** Director. This is very expensive. However. Lalit K.m). Delhi. required to serve the increasing Indian traffic and population. 1 INTRODUCTION India. Thus. a portable low cost system framework that uses omnipresent passenger vehicles. length (m). required to serve the increasing Indian traffic and population.com ** Former Head. number of occurrence per km. it was estimated that more than 50% of the Indian primary road networks (National Highways and State Highways) were in bad shape and needed immediate attention. a quality road network is the foremost requirement for achieving the desired economic growth of a nation because of its various social and economical implications6. In this paper. According to the Indian guidelines. the World Bank asserted that one dollar spent on maintenance will save four dollars spent on rehabilitation5.33 billion) was incurred through increased vehicle operating costs due to the poor road quality4. low end laptop. Das** and Namita Akoijam*** ABSTRACT India. According to the Indian guidelines4. Delhi. cracks. Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-CRRI). Using the proposed framework that is equipped with a webcam and digital camera. This needs to be controlled or minimized by improving their conditions and upgrading the maintenance practices for road networks. cracks. has become the second largest road networked country in the world after United States of America2. At present. has become the second largest road networked country in the world after United States of America. To achieve this goal. IDD Centre. A little improvement in maintaining the physical infrastructure. The results indicate that the proposed framework has a significant capability in detecting and assessing potholes automatically and efficiently. some road studies had revealed that India was losing about Rs. patches and rutting are some types of road surface distresses whose evaluation is essential for developing repair and maintenance strategies to ensure a good and an effective road network. there is an urgent need for quickly assessing critical road surface distresses before they further deteriorate and damage the whole road networks completely. In the year 2004. with over 4.com INDIAN HIGHWAYS. patches and rutting are some types of road surface distresses whose evaluation is essential for developing repair and maintenance strategies to ensure a good and an effective road network. Then. potholes. road transport provision and operation can result in large economical benefits. As early as 1988. with over 4. India. June 2014 43 . The information extracted using the proposed framework can be used for determining maintenance levels for Indian roads and taking further appropriate actions for repair and maintenance related issues in a short duration of time. In the year 1990. one of the important tasks is to develop a sustainable road maintenance management system that can monitor and assess the conditions of road networks objectively and rapidly. E-mail: hlokeshwor@gmail. often stretches of the existing road networks deteriorate and fall below the acceptable level.6000 crores ($1. E-mail: betqdata@gmail. potholes. webcam and digital camera for automated road distress assessment is proposed. An annual loss of approximately over Rs. E-mail: lalitdas@gmail. Further. 60 billion ($2 billion) per year in additional vehicle operation costs because of poor road conditions3. manual. The frequency and magnitude of these forces are measured INDIAN HIGHWAYS. In this paper.10. which is more economical. and imaging based systems9. In analogy to the video recording which “looks” at the surface of the road. webcam and/or digital camera for automated road distress assessment is proposed.1 Manual Systems Generally. a portable low cost system framework that uses omnipresent passenger vehicles. The algorithm applied in the proposed framework has been implemented in a Windows environment with the help of Visual Studio 2008 and Open CV. The evaluation systems currently used in the field can be grouped into three different categories depending upon the techniques or methods employed viz. In the presented algorithm. The information extracted using the proposed framework can be used for determining maintenance levels for Indian roads and taking further appropriate actions for repair and maintenance related issues in a short duration of time. sensor. time consuming and slows down road maintenance management. potholes are automatically detected and assessed from the video clips using various image processing techniques supported by heuristically derived decision logic. This is very expensive. the collected video clips are processed using a robust algorithm presented earlier by the authors for automated detection and measurement of potholes from road surface video clips8. Then.TECHNICAL PAPERS location.1 Current Field Practices in Road Distress Assessment The road condition assessment is reported to be done through distress data collection and processing of the collected raw data. number of occurrence per km. And majority of road authorities in India such as municipalities. area (sq. The imaging techniques capture road surface images either discretely or continuously.1. an open source computer vision library and tested on 7 road surface video clips. June 2014 . 2.1. various video clips of Indian highways are captured without any artificial lighting systems in the normal day light conditions. and then analyze the images to report on the surface distress. for assessing the road surface distresses35. this technique has many limitations such as very low speed of data collection. However. Some of them include vibration based systems.m). 44 2 BACKGROUND 2. disturbances in traffic movements. extent of area (%) and/or classifying their types using traditional field inspection techniques or dedicated road survey vehicles costing crores of rupees on Indian soil. length (m). manual systems use the technique of visual field observation of distress on road surface and record the extent. severity and location of the distress on either paper forms or using some type of data logging systems9. the vibration based system “feels” the ground conditions based on mechanical responses of the testing vehicle11. minimum safety of crews or staffs. This uses various road distress data evaluation systems. The manual techniques are based on visually observing distresses and then recording the data on paper. ultrasonic and infrared profiles with or without accelerometers. Thus. The results indicate that the proposed frame work has a significant capability in detecting and assessing potholes automatically and efficiently. low end laptop. laser. ultrasonic or laser sensors to measure the deformations. Sensor techniques use accelerometer. public works departments and central public works departments may not have enough budgets to procure such costly multifunctional road survey vehicles from abroad. 2. there is a need of developing an automated system. The plus point of such systems is higher accuracy and psychological confidence when measured manually using measuring tapes or accurate data loggers. efficient and accurate. The road surface distresses impose impacting forces on the testing vehicle.2 Sensor Based Systems Sensor based systems use non contact sensors to measure deformations of the road surface from a horizontal plane. Using the proposed framework that is equipped with a webcam and digital camera. The accelerometers provide a horizontal plane of reference. the area of bounding rectangle. manual methods of road distress data processing include those methods in which the road distress images are visually assessed using an image player and computer.e. These have sensors at approximately 100 mm intervals that measure 3 m or more across the pavement.3 Imaging Based Systems Imaging based systems are widely used to collect and analyze road distresses automatically. In the case of ARRB Network Survey vehicle. The useful information is entered manually in a file for future reference. This depends upon the degree of human intervention required to extract useful information from the collected road video images10. the trained staff uses Microsoft Paint. Australia)13. Semi-automated methods of road distress data processing include those methods in which the road video clips or images are assessed at a workstation equipped with image players and computers installed with a specialized program or software for distress rating and location-referencing10. Such software can extract frames out of a road video.1. These systems are commonly used to collect Rutting and Road profiles (roughness). Using this toolkit. semi-automatically or automatically using a toolkit. With the toolkit. Profilers operate by having sensors to record the elevation of a sensor relative to the road surface. a trained staff needs to mark the distress area by drawing a rectangle with the mouse over the distress on each frame of the video and the system measures the influenced area covered by the distress. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. An example of such a system is the Nericell presented by Mohan et al. classification and measurement. Laser Profilometer System (Data Collection Limited. Australia). This involves significant amount of human intervention in regards to distress identification. Examples of such systems include Digital Profiler System (ARRB. The detection and classification of a distress is done manually through visual 45 . transverse profiles are established and the data are then analyzed to determine the extent of distress such as rutting. the video processing toolkit supplied with the vehicle at CSIR-CRRI is semi-automated type. i. An example of such a system is the Phoenix Science ‘Ladar’ which samples a 3.12. every 25 mm along the road9. June 2014 2D-Video Based Imaging Systems 2D-Video based imaging Systems consist of analog or digital cameras used to record road surface images in distance or time mode. Nine hundred and fifty points are sampled across the transverse profile. these record the transverse profile at intervals as close as 10 mm along the road. In the context of this research. to estimate the extent and severity of the visually identified distresses. new high speed ultrasonic systems sample at intervals similar to lasers9. From these. Point lasers give the elevation at a point. the amount of human intervention is being reduced as compared to that of a traditional field inspection technique. While older systems sampled only every 2. Smart Rutbar System (Fugro-Roadware. These systems use 2D-Video. 3D-Stereovision and 3D-Laser Imaging techniques. Adobe Photoshop. The number of laser varies. The processing is done manually. An example of such systems is ARRB Hawkeye Network Survey Vehicle 2000 (ARRB. The process involves a trained staff sitting at a workstation where road surface video or images are systematically examined visually based on the person’s experience. New Zealand) etc.TECHNICAL PAPERS using accelerometers and they are dependent on the extent and magnitude of the road distresses. Laser profilers use point lasers or scanning lasers. ImageJ Software etc.5 – 5 m along the road. This technique is primarily manual since distress analysis is done visually. whereas the sensors (lasers or ultrasonic) measure pavement deviations from a horizontal plane10. Scanning lasers measure almost a continuous profile. with systems such as the Greenwood profilometer having as many as 40 lasers. Ultrasonic sensors are the lowest cost sensors and are used in systems like ARAN and ROMDAS.3 m above the ground. Canada). 2.5 m road width from a single scanning laser mounted 2. Much faster than ultrasonic sensors. In some cases. Canada)14. The Road Crack System from Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization is another automated system. Moreover. Then the pavement images are processed off-line overnight at the office workstation by a unique open architecture process using advanced image recognition software.TECHNICAL PAPERS assessment and video frames extraction. the performance of this toolkit depends upon the quality and resolution of the images captured by Automatic Road Analyzer. Such systems are in development phase and give low resolution as compared to their 2D counterparts. Interactive mode allows the user to review. Transverse. a start-up company called BETQ DATA ANALYTICS36 from India claimed that their automated software tools such as Auto Distress. Crack maps can also be easily produced and printed on a laser printer for hard copy output. Video is recorded as a continuous series of non-overlapping. severity. June 2014 . 3D-Stereovision Based Imaging Systems 3D-Stereovision based imaging systems consist of one or more pairs of digital cameras to reconstruct the 3D pavement surface from a pair of 2D images. The Image processing methods or techniques are company secrets and are not available in literature. they used high intensity synchronized strobe lights. In automated mode. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization claimed this system as the first system in the world to achieve the Road and Traffic Authority standard for an automated. Typically. all the processing is done without human intervention. high contrast images of 1. It is in these automated methods of cracks detection in road images or video clips that the greatest amount of research and development seems to have occurred over past decade. are set. Each pair of cameras covers two meters of road with the image resolution of INDIAN HIGHWAYS. a special reflector system to illuminate pavement surface and an image processing toolkit that can detect and classify cracks. Australia)15. For elimination of shadows from trees. light settings etc. Automated methods of road distress data processing include those methods in which road distresses are identified and quantified through processes that require no or very minimal human intervention. validate and edit the results obtained automatically for quality control purposes.9 ft by 13 ft). Examples of such systems employing automated methods are Automatic Road Analyzer (Fugro-Roadware. Fugro-Roadware has advanced video data processing software called Wise Crax17. distress area measurement and information reporting is done using pre-designed forms. Road Crack System (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. In the IDEA project18. Furgo-Roadware claims that WiseCrax can detect Longitudinal. automated method in the context of crack analysis involves the use of digital recognition software capable of recognizing and quantifying variations in grayscale that relate to distresses on a road surface. tunnels and other overhead objects even in bright sunlight. Auto Pothole and Auto Cracks can detect and analyse road surface distress. objective and accurate crack detection system and it can detect cracks as fine as one millimeter in width. Recently. bridges. specially designed for automated evaluation of cracks. clear images at variable highway speeds up to 80 km/h (50 mph). Digital Highway Data Vehicle (Dynatest and WayLink.5 m by 4 m (4. high speed cameras on retractable booms are used in their vehicle. USA)16 etc. extent and location. It consists of a high speed camera mounted under the floor of the vehicle. camera. These cameras record sharp. while travelling up to 105 km/h. once the initialization 46 parameters of pavement type. researchers used four area scan cameras in two pairs to collect pavement surface across a 4-metre wide pavement. The toolkit takes many hours to analyze road video data of only one kilometer length. However. In the case of Automatic Road Analyzer. Alligator and Block cracks and can recognize cracks as narrow as one millimeter and classify automatically. Reports can be produced describing crack type. This system first collects high resolution images for small sections of pavement and then consolidates into bigger images that cover half-meter intervals of the pavement. it can also operate in night time and in real-time. WiseCrax can be used in automated and interactive modes. For road surface data collection. potholes and cracks automatically on a single mouse click from the 2D-video clips collected by ARRB Hawkeye Network Survey Vehicles and ROMDAS systems with accuracy upto 91%. It includes four steps: calibration. global thresholding (Otsu’s method) and mathematical morphological operations. regions corresponding to the potholes are represented by a matrix of square tiles and the estimate shape of the pothole is determined. 2. a large database of video clips of National Highways have been collected during 20062011 by CSIR-CRRI with the help of a road network survey vehicle under one of such MORTH sponsored projects. algorithms such as morphological closing. a special class of imaging system which uses both laser line projectors and line. The algorithm developed for 3D pavement surface reconstruction is based on the geometrical relation between two 2D image planes and the object space coordinates. distortion adjustment. and 3D reconstruction. For potholes detection.scan cameras with advanced optics called Laser Road Imaging System (LRIS)23 was developed by Pavemetrics Corporation and INO. widths and other general information sets . Later. thinning operations and Hough transformation are applied to the enhanced thresholded images. orientation (angle). processing of the collected video clips for distress analysis has been done manually through visual assessment due to absence of reliable automated video processing toolkits. methods such as projections are used to determine the main types of cracks. Laser power consumption is about 1% of that of xenon bulbs. For classification and analysis of cracks detected from previous steps. matching. Canada to capture the pavement images. transverse. 3D-Laser Based Imaging Systems 3D-Laser based imaging systems consist of scanning laser and reflector/detector to measure the reflecting time of flight across pavement surface and therefore establish a 3D pavement surface after the laser radar moves longitudinally along the travelling direction. This toolkit was designed to detect longitudinal. block and alligator cracks. Canada)20. Moreover. 47 .TECHNICAL PAPERS 1300 X 1024 at a speed of more than 25 frames per second. It uses two high resolution line-scan cameras and lasers that are configured to capture 4 m transverse road sections with 1 mm resolution at speeds that can reach up to 100 km/h. Examples of such systems include 3D-Profile Scanner (Phoenix Scientific)19. fatigue and block cracks. The performance of laser imaging is invariant to the change of weather or shadows. Laser Vision System (GIE Technologies. in real-time with a speed up to 60 mph. Indian highway professionals still assess the road distresses via traditional field inspection or manual visual assessment techniques using road video or still images collected by costly road survey vehicles. the captured images of road surface with laser line patterns are subjected to various image processing techniques such as median filtering. width. the vertical and horizontal distress measure. Due to these advantages. calculate their lengths. CSIR-CRRI had collected road inventory data including road distress data through instrumented vehicle for entire National Highways and analyzed the data manually for developing various pavement deterioration models. such as length. During 1984-87. However.2 State of Research in Indian Conditions In India. Laser Rut Measurement System (LRMS)21 and Laser Crack Measurement System (LCMS)22 from Pavemetrics and INO. For pothole severity and crack type classification. Recently. In current practice.25. Canada. this system has been used by some researchers to detect and measure cracks automatically with the help of a specialized data processing toolkit called Automated Distress Analyzer24. The patented imaging system was designed to increase the contrast and visibility of both longitudinal and lateral road cracks. cracks and rutting data only. June 2014 thresholding algorithms for image enhancement. To determine geometric characteristics of cracks. Recently. Yu24 has also highlighted the uses of road data collected by LRIS for potholes detection. Such systems are found to be useful for measuring roughness. The image processing techniques used in the toolkit include histogram equalization and adaptive INDIAN HIGHWAYS. MORTH has been conducting various R&D projects from time to time through CSIRCRRI and NHAI etc. such as longitudinal and transverse cracks. the total number of distress tiles and the depth index information are calculated and given as input into a three layer feedforward neural network. The lighting system includes a generator and a series of high power xenon lighting bulbs. This may be due to the fact that most of the reported studies have been from the developed countries and the road distress issues in the developed countries are managed at the crack level before these become more critical. For instance. It is claimed that the LCMS fitted in the vehicle can detect and analyze cracks/potholes in Indian conditions31. Rode et al. claimed that their company is the only the consulting firm in India that can provide reliable services for automated processing and analysis of pavement video/image data collected in real-life conditions36. potholes in the centre of a lane are not hit by any of the vehicle’s wheels and thus cannot be recognized using accelerometers30. Therefore. national highways. Mohan et al. several road distress issues get addressed at the pothole level rather than at the crack level. Most recently. The works of Rode et al. of Tamilnadu has procured two road survey vehicles (Mahindra Scorpio SUVs fitted with LCMS and Road Measurement Data Management Systems) from Data Collection Ltd. cracks and patches are darker than that of the background color intensities in a road surface image. However. 29. the uses of accelerometers are only intended for preliminary and rough condition surveys and therefore lack accuracy and reliability11. However. These unique features are needed to be considered while developing methods for automated distress assessment using 2D-video imaging systems. New Zealand to profile 61. some research efforts are needed for effective application of these methods in Indian context.12 proposed a system called Nericell for rich monitoring of road and traffic conditions using mobile smart phones equipped with an array of sensors (GPS. earlier research work30. the real applications of these methods in the field are not seen in India.TECHNICAL PAPERS Although the use of digital image processing methods for automated detection and analysis of road surface distresses was not new to the highway professionals.g.. However.26 proposed an integrated system for vehicle navigation purposes. 32. ii) There are some unique features of Indian road distresses which have not been reflected in the world scientific literature so far.3 Gaps in Literature i) Majority of the reported research have focused on automated detection and classification of cracks only. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. However in India. microphones) and communication radios. 26-28 could be seen in the area of automated distress detection in Indian roads. Moreover. e. when left unattended. 48 2. major district roads and other district roads. bridge expansion joints have been falsely detected as potholes. 30. a start-up company born in India. Govt. Erikson et al. the following gaps are currently seen in Indian context: Recently. as the cracks are the earliest forms of road surface distress and progress to more severe forms of distress like potholes. its performance is neither documented nor validated so far. The work of Dhar28 highlighted the sensing issues involved in the use of analog accelerometers for potholes detection.26 and Vijay27 paid attention to the development of potholes detection and warning system based on the vibration measurement using accelerometer sensor. From the literature survey for the present research.29 found that the use of accelerometers could provide wrong results.500 km of the state’s road network as a part of a project to priorities maintenance and repair of state highways. June 2014 . BETQ DATA ANALYTICS. accelerometers. cracks and potholes are often filled with dust which makes the distress sometimes brighter than that of the background of a road surface image. 33 has reported that the color intensities of the potholes. in the case of Indian roads. Some research initiatives12. TECHNICAL PAPERS iii) Prior to this research work, no method is reported in literature that can identify and quantify potholes, cracks, and patches automatically from Indian road video images. The development of such method is required for automated processing of a large road video clip. This will enable us to save a considerable amount of time and manpower resources while overcoming the limitations of field practices currently employed by highway professionals for assessment of road conditions. Based on the aforementioned gaps in literature and current needs in the road sector, the idea of doing this research was taken up to develop indigenous low-cost solutions for automated road distress assessment. 3 PROPOSED SYSTEM FRAMEWORK The overall objective of this study is to test whether a portable low-cost system framework can detect and measure road surface distresses automatically and accurately using a number of passenger vehicles plying (a) on Indian roads such as passenger vans, buses and trucks etc. The motivation behind the proposed study lies in the deficiencies of current field practices used in assessing Indian road conditions and the potential of using omnipresent passenger vehicles networks for reporting road condition more economically, quickly and accurately. Since the framework doesn’t use any additional costs of distance measuring instrument, vehicle and data acquisition system, this will be able to save considerable time and money in speedy assessment of roads condition. Besides, the system framework can be installed easily in any vehicle as the framework is designed to be modular, portable and sustainable. With regard to this objective, a passenger van (Tata Magic) running on State Highway No.1 of Manipur, India has been chosen as a road survey vehicle and two imaging systems are equipped in the van. First imaging system is a digital camera (Kodak Easy share) held manually in the back door of the van while the second imaging system is a webcam (Logitech) fitted in the back door of the same van (Fig. 1). (b) Fig. 1 Different Views of the Proposed System Framework on State Highway No.1, Manipur, India Using this framework, the road distress assessment has been performed in two stages. In the first stage, raw video clips of road surfaces are captured without any artificial lighting systems in normal day light conditions and stored in a hard drive. In the second stage, the database of video clips INDIAN HIGHWAYS, June 2014 captured with or without distresses is processed using a robust algorithm for automated detection and measurement of potholes from road surface video clips. The methodology for developing the proposed system framework is illustrated in Fig. 2. 49 TECHNICAL PAPERS with a frame rate of 25 frames per second (fps) and resolution of 640 X 480. During recording, speed of the van is kept at 30 km/hr approximately so that there is minimum number of over lapping frames when the video frames are extracted at the rate of 5 fps in workstation. Fig. 2 Methodology for Developing the Proposed Framework 3.1 Distress Data Collection Procedure For field data collection using Kodak Easy share camera, the camera is held manually by sitting in the back seat of a moving passenger van (Tata Magic) plying on State Highway No.1 (Mayailambi Road) of Manipur, India (Fig. 1). Using this van, the km distance surveyed and survey speed is measured using its inbuilt trip meter/odometer and speedometer. In this van, the camera is supported manually on the back door in such a way that each recorded road image covers 2.0 m width by 1.5 m length of a road section approximately with pixel coverage of 3.125 mm X 3.125 mm. This field of coverage is adjusted manually using two measuring tapes of 3 m. Then, the detail of the survey to be started is noted down as a survey reference file in note pad or survey diary. This survey file contains name of the surveyor, highway section, event (km stone) and place (city or town) from where the survey is to be started and stopped along with date and time of the survey as well as km readings of the van. Later, video clips of road surface are recorded in continuous (time) mode 50 For field data collection using the Logitech Webcam, the webcam is fitted in a moving passenger van, Tata Magic plying in State Highway No.1 (Mayailambi, Imphal West) of Manipur, India. In the first case, the webcam with resolution of 640 X 480 pixels is fitted at a height of 1 m from the ground on the back door of the van. In the second case, the webcam with resolution of 1280 X 960 is fitted at a height of 2 m from the ground on the roof of the van, near rear brake signal light (Fig. 1). Then, the webcam is calibrated manually using two measuring tapes to estimate the field of coverage and pixel coverage. The parameters used for calibrating the pixel coverage are the field of coverage at a fixed height and orientation angle of the camera used and the pixels resolution of the camera. In the first case, the webcam (640 X 480) is configured in such a way that each captured road image covers 2.0 m length by 1.5 m width of a road section approximately with pixel coverage of 3.125 mm X 3.125 mm. In the second case, the webcam (1280 X 960) is configured in such a way that each captured road image covers 3.0 m length by 2.5 m width of a road section approximately with pixel coverage of 2.5 mm X 2.5 mm. This configuration is also customizable according to the requirements of the concerned agency/authority. However, based on the various experiments done by the authors, it has found that the two sets of pixels resolutions result the reasonable accuracy in pothole detections. After the successful completion of this configuration and calibration, a reference file is prepared manually. After that, the video of the road surface is recorded by running the vehicle at a speed of 30 km/hr (first case) and 45 km/hr (second case) so that there is minimum numbers of over lapping frames when the video frames are extracted at the rate of 5 fps in workstation. These vehicle speeds can be determined based upon the frame rate at which the video is to be recorded and the field of coverage of the camera. Finally, the captured INDIAN HIGHWAYS, June 2014 TECHNICAL PAPERS video clips stored in the laptop are transferred to an external hard drive and stored in a safe place for future data processing. 3.2 Road Video Data Processing The collected video clips are processed using a robust algorithm presented earlier by the authors8. In this algorithm, a frame was extracted from an input road video clip and selected its blue channel from default 24-bit RGB format for applying image processing techniques more efficiently. The blue channel image was subjected to median filtering, followed by a clipping technique for noise removal. Then, the clipped image was applied to an adaptive thresholding, followed by a chain of morphological operations for image binarization. Later, the binary image was applied to a connected component labeling using contour tracing technique and Freeman chain coding supported by heuristically derived decision logic for the potholes detection and their measurement. The decision logic was developed based on three distinctive visual properties of potholes. The first property is the statistical visual texture as given by standard deviation (STD) of the pixels intensities representing the pothole region. The second property is the shape of pothole as given by circularity (CIRC) while the third property is the dimension of pothole as given by average width (W). According to this decision logic, a critical object is classified into (a) Potholes if STD > = 10.0 & CIRC > = 20.0 & W > = 60 mm (b) Non-Potholes if otherwise. Here, the values of STD, CIRC and W are the minimum threshold values and these values have been determined by experimenting on 120 video images having potholes of various shapes and sizes. This results in two different types of frames category viz. frames without potholes and frames with potholes which are tagged with their respective frame numbers or locations. Besides, frame regions are also tagged with the identified potholes while the extracted information such their size and numbers of occurences are reported in a printable format. 3.3 Maintenance Level Determination using Potholes Information The distress information which is obtained using this algorithm can also be quantified for developing repair and maintenance strategies for the road networks. The INDIAN HIGHWAYS, June 2014 three maximum permissible maintenance levels based on potholes information for Indian highways given in the committee report4, 6 can also be determined using the proposed method by applying Equations (1) to (2). Percentage of frames with potholes (%) = (No. of frames with potholes/TNF)*100; ... (1) Number of potholes per km = Sum of total number of potholes in each frame/RL; ... (2) Where, TNF = Total number of frames in the video clip RL = Total number of frames in one km of the video = 1000 (m)/length of road covered by one frame (m) The determined maintenance levels (one, two or three) will automatically identify roads that require repair while allowing the concerned authority/agency to plan budgets accordingly and judiciously. Besides, the extracted distress information will serve as an input to many platforms such as GIS Platforms (Auto CAD Map, Map Info Map and Arc GIS etc.) and Highway Development & Management System (HDM-4) for developing various deterioration models. 4 IMPLEMENTATION, AND RESULTS EXPERIMENTS For testing its performance, a sequence of 7 video clips has been selected randomly from a large database of noisy raw video clips collected using the proposed framework without any artificial lighting systems. Out of 7 video clips, three (webcam 1 to 3) have been captured by using Logitech webcam fitted in the back door of a passenger van running at a constant speed of 45 km/hr. Each video image covers approximately 3 m width by 2.5 m length of the road with a frame resolution of 1280X960 pixels and pixel size of 2.5 mm x 2.5 mm. The remaining four video clips (Camera 1 to 4) have been captured manually by using a Kodak digital camera in the running passenger van on State Highway No.1, Manipur, India. Each color image covers approximately 2.0 m width by 1.5 m length of the road surface with a frame resolution of 640 x 480 pixels and pixel size of 3.125 mm X 51 TECHNICAL PAPERS 3.125 mm. The test samples contain features such as normal roads, distress like potholes, cracks, patches, bleedings, discoloration, dark spots, road marking, and shadows of trees, animals, human beings, and vehicles or their parts. The pothole detectional gorithm has been applied to these video clips in a Windows environment (BENQ Joybook mini-Laptop with Intel Atom CPU 1.60 GHz, 1 GB RAM and OS XP SP3) with the help of Visual Studio 2008 and Open CV library. The test results are compared with a manual method using Image J Software, an open source image analysis software34. The detailed analysis report which has been obtained by implementing the algorithm is listed in Table 1. Table 1 Comparisons of Evaluation Done Using the Proposed Framework and Manual Method Video Clips (Road Length) TNF Proposed Framework Webcam.1 (0.413 km) 165 158 7 11 Webcam.2 (0.418 km) 167 161 6 Webcam.3 (0.410 km) 164 154 Camera.1 (0.338 km) 225 Camera.2 (0.555) No. of Nour Manual Method No. of Time Taken No. of Pour (min) Nm Error Time (%) Saving (min) Time Taken (min) No. of Pm Falses in Nour Falses in Pour 165 0 0 7 330 4.2 330-11 = 319 11 167 0 0 6 334 3.6 334-11 = 323 10 11 164 0 0 10 328 6.0 328-11 = 317 32 193 7 46 179 0 8 431 3.5 431-7 = 424 370 231 139 9 233 137 3 5 701 2.2 701-9 = 692 Camera.3 (0.648 km) 432 377 55 11 374 58 4 1 840 1.2 840-11 = 829 Camera.4 (0.273 km) 182 30 152 5 34 148 0 4 355 2.2 355-5 = 350 Note :- P = Frame with potholes, N = Frame without potholes; Falses = No. of false detections Error(%) = {(No. false detections in Pour + No. false detections in Nour)/ TNF}*100; Based on Table 1, the total processing time taken by the applied algorithm on a sequence of video clips having 164 to 432 frames has been found to be only 5 to 11 minutes depending upon the video frame size and the total number of critical objects in the video. The same sequence when analyzed using the manual method has taken around 324 to 840 minutes. The average processing time taken per frame by the proposed method has been found to be 4.0 seconds, 1.5 seconds for webcam and camera video respectively, while each frame has taken120 seconds approximately when analyzed using the manual method depending upon the number of potholes. Thus, we are able to save considerable time, money and manpower resources in processing of road video clips, using the proposed system. Much more savings can be done if we could afford a higher speed computer with a larger memory at a little extra cost. Further more, the applied algorithm 52 has been able to retrieve frames with potholes with accuracy up to 94%. Examples of video frames without potholes obtained by applying the algorithm are illustrated in Fig. 3 while the examples of video frames with potholes obtained by applying the algorithm are illustrated in Fig. 4. In Fig. 4, images in column (a) are original images; column (b) are processed images with detected potholes with a minimum size of 177cm2 in binary image B where black pixels/regions represents critical potholes (P), dark gray pixels represents non-critical potholes (NP) while bright gray pixels represents noncritical objects (NCO); and column (c) are extracted information reporting all the required measurements with POTHOLE_REPORT representing information of detected potholes, NON-POTHOLE_REPORT representing information of detected non-potholes; INDIAN HIGHWAYS, June 2014 TECHNICAL PAPERS BIGGEST_CO_REPORT representing extracted properties of the Biggest Critical Object (BCO) based on which the decision logic has been developed. This BCO report is just to illustrate the effectiveness of the heuristically derived decision logic used in the algorithm. 3 Examples of Processed Video Frames without Potholes but with Bleedings. (a) (b) (c) (e) (f) (g) Fig. Discoloration Spots and/or Shadows of Vehicle Parts/Trees (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) INDIAN HIGHWAYS. June 2014 53 . 54 In this paper. The findings from this research have the potential to deliver indigenous solutions to the local challenges faced by Indian highway professionals and at the same time contribute an improved methodology of road distress evaluation in highway engineering. Use of low end laptop. digital camera and/or webcam for distress data collection is convenient in the field due to its portability from one location or vehicle to another. there is scope for further development of an automated road distress analyzer with some extra costs of distance measuring instrument and real-time algorithms for automated assessment of cracks. S. particularly Dr. 4 Examples of Processed Video Frames with Potholes 5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK costs and makes it affordable for local agencies. number per km. potholes and patches in one pass/run. the authors presented a portable lowcost system framework using a passenger vehicle for automated road distress assessment. 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of this research by CSIR-CRRI. The road distress data collection was done using a common digital camera and webcam fitted in a passenger vehicle. while saving considerable time. The successful implementation of the presented framework indicates that it has a potential impact and will reduce the overall system development 3. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. money and manpower resources. 2.TECHNICAL PAPERS (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) Fig. 1. when the road maintenance management practice in India becomes more mature and efficient. June 2014 . under real life conditions without any artificial lighting systems. Furthermore. Director (CSIR-CRRI). Based on the above research following conclusions can be drawn. The processing of the collected raw video clips was done using a robust algorithm developed for automated detection and measurement of potholes from road surface video clips. the authors are grateful to referees for their valuable comments and suggestions. Gangopadhyay. The test results were compared with a manual method and found to be highly accurate for potholes assessment. can be used for determining maintenance levels of the road under evaluation. such as potholes locations. area and extent. The information extracted using the algorithm. In future. Road Crack. Palgrave.com/pdf/laser_ road.pavemetrics. USA. Sud. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi.com/. ARRB HAWKEYE NSV 2000. 13. Final INDIAN HIGHWAYS. NCHRP Synthesis 334. Times City. 26. New York.1. Guidelines for Maintenance Management of Primary.P.gov/ij. Shonil Vijay (2006). An improved Method for Automated Evaluation of Critical Road Surface Distresses using Video Image Based Techniques. Koch. Last view on 10-05. Transport Research Wing. Sominihac. 15. Huidrom Lokeshwor (2012). Road Maintenance Management. 35. L. dynatest.Thesis. http://www. Hemalatha (2012). 20.S. S. pp. Battiato. A. Pothole Detection in Asphalt Pavement Images. pp. an Agenda for Reform. Maintenance.1685/CSC 06016. Yu. 2. pp. 28. Hindawi Publishing Corporation. X. 14. Govt. of the Int. 34.nih.au/ solutions/RoadCrack. Indian Institute of Technology. PIB Press Releases. Nericell: Rich Monitoring of Road and Traffic Conditions Using Mobile Smartphones. 30. 16.N.com. Management and Financing of Roads. Brilakis (2011).G. Sitaramanjaneyulu (1994). Sneith (1998). 36.pavemetrics.2. http://www. 9-18. The Times of India Chennai.X. B.pp. and Urban Roads. P. Goyal. http://www.K.html.W. P. Last view on 07-04-2009. V. USA. (1995). 27. Ramjee (2008).2012.C.htm. of India. Chan. W. Sood. Conf.120. LRIS Datasheet. Chamorro.C. New Delhi.M. Washington D. Department of Road Transport and Highways. MORTH.pdf. 275. New Delhi. 10.K. 22. on Applications of Advanced Technology in Transportation (AATT). K. World Bank Technical Paper No. pp. S. Last view on 01-08-2011. Arya. Last view on 07-04-2009. Advanced Engineering Informatics. Vibration–Based System for Pavement Condition Evaluation. MORTH (2010). TRB. http://www. Sharma. B. The World Bank. C. Rasband (2011). http://www. 29. and K. IEEE Computer Society. ARAN. May.com/pdf/laser_ rut. fugroroadware. Moliard (2011). 21. Fugro-Roadware. Last view on 11-06-2012.D.gietech. Yu. I. http://www. Lytton (1994). University of Toledo. Automated Detection and Measurement of Potholes from Road Surface Video Clips.com. Thesis. DOI: 10. 33. http://www. India. 8. Danielson. p. of the 9th Int. http://www. MORTH (2012). 11. Graziano (2007). pp. U. 6. Kulkarni. Highways to Get Hi-Tec Fix SUVs Armed with Sensors to Profile 61. C.. Padmanabhan. USA. 30. Management. V. 55 . Pothole Detection and Warning System: Infrastructure Support and System Design. 3. Cafiso. K.com/pdf/laser_ crack. CSIRO. Chambon. P.com. 9. S. 3-4. and R.pavemetrics. R. Conf. Pavement Surface Distress Detection and Evaluation using Image Processing Technology.H. Vol.pdf. MORTH (2007). MORTH (2008). Phoenix Scientific Inc. Vol. Last view on 14-04-2009. S. Journal of Transportation Engineering.500 km of Road Across by December to Help in Repair. http://www. Vijay. C.D.1. Volume 25. East Asia Pacific Transport Unit. Last view on 16-09. 4. Mohan.2 IST. India. pp. Flintsch (2007). S. K.286-290. Rode.C. S.phnx-sci.com. Kanchan. 14.in/ writereaddata/ sublinkimages/ overview_NH3244795788. Thesis.44P.2011. http://imagej. 25. GIE Technologies. Ramjee (2009). pp. R.3-28. Jehtarnavas.2011. Huidrom Lokeshwor. Communications to SIMAI Congress.betqdata. Traffic and Road Condition Monitoring System. M. Volume 2011. W. Gong (2007). An Overview of Road Network of India. Wise Crax. LRMS Datasheet. 5(2). 3D Pavement Profile Scanner. McGhee (2004). Low Cost – FPGA Based System for Pothole Detection on Indian Roads.1-4.2011. MORTH (2004). New Delhi. pp. p. 52-64. Secondary. X. International Journal of Geophysics. Highway Reearch Journal Journal. Laser Vision. Automated Real-Time Pavement Crack Detection and Classification. 17.2. 5. Indian Road Congress. TRB. 507-515. L. DHDV.. Ashish Dhar (2008). Last view on 01-06. July-December 2012. National Institute of Health. Chen. Indian Institute of Technology.2011. August. Available at CSIR-CRRI. TRB Committee AFD10 on Pavement Management System. H. R. Bennett. 19.TECHNICAL PAPERS REFERENCES 1. Washington D. 24. Fugro-Roadware. Yu (2011). Issue 3. Dynatest and Way Link. 18. 31. No. Stanco. Basic Road Statistics of India. 23 Dec. June.csiro.2011. Version 2. Mumbai.pdf. on Electronic Computer Technology. 07-02. ISSN 1827-9015.2014. Image-Based Expert-System Approach to Distress Detection on CRC Pavement.K. Heggie. Mumbai. Das. http://www. Tsao. SensSys’08. Wang. Australia. Canada. Washington DC: World Bank. 12. http://morth. fugroroadware.R. Last view on 16-09. 23. Pavement Deterioration Modeling in India. Raleigh. April. P. November 5-7. The Report of the Working Group on Roads (2007-2012) for 11th Five Year Plan. Proc. 3rd International Conference on Managing Pavements. Last view on 01-08. Lok Sabha. G. N. K. Adaptive Imaging Techniques for Pavement Surface Distress Analysis. Last view on 16-09. 32. Transportation Research Board. P. June 2014 Report for Highway IDEA Project 111. Indian Roads Congress. May.K.com/related/downloads/WiseCrax/ Brochure. Vol. F. Assessment of Condition of National Highways. Last view on 14-04-2009. LCMS Datasheet. Automatic Road Pavement Assessment with Image Processing: Review and Comparison. ImageJ 1. Robinson. Proc. 7.0. 183-189. Data collection for Road February. Canada.nic. A. Automated Pavement Distress Collection Techniques. New Delhi. J. S. The trunk railway route from Mumbai to Calcutta and north also passes through the same region in close proximity mostly via tunnels to byepass the Kasara Ghat. NHAI therefore. Going to Mumbai from Nashik end the Highway drops its RL from 535.e. NHAI PIU Nashik. Nair** and Atulesh Sharma*** 1 INTRODUCTION 1. Therefore.S. a drop of nearly 333 m in a length of 7. decided to construct a bye pass in this area so as to meet these requirements and avert the causalities.1 Background and History The Kasra Ghat in Nashik/Thane District is traversed through by NH-3 from Km 466.00. Ghodke*.V.5 Km was to cross 11 valleys some of them as deep as 30 m.5 Km. June 2014 .00 to Km 474. M. Rock blasting to the tune of 35 m (Max) has had to be resorted to. This new alignment approximately 7. Vehicles going to central India from Mumbai are also plying through this route. This was a two lane highway and traffic jams for 5-6 hours was the order of the day. Consultant to NHAI PIU Nashik. The terrain was very sparsely inhabited by some tribal community and was mostly free from * Manager Technical. Consultant to NHAI PIU Nashik. Maharashtra ** Sr.102 i. This led to frequent fatal accidents scenario for men and machines as the chasm in some place was nearly 35 m deep. Sheladia Associates INC. the new bye pass of the NH could not be aligned near the existing highway as any blasting near the tunnels was ruled out by railway. Also to maintain grades as per standard. The crossings proposed were mostly Viaducts as the flow through the valleys was only minimal based on rain fall received in the area. lot of commercial and Tourist vehicles carrying heavy loads and people of all sorts have to make use of this highway as there is no other choice. Same is observed after commissioning of Project in December 2009. Sheladia Associates INC. The traffic studies conducted by DPR consultant shows a traffic volume of 26675 PCU in 2002 and anticipated a traffic volume of 42681 PCU during year 2010. As Nashik is one of the Important tourist destination and since NH-3 is the Link to Mumbai Agra highway.809 to 203. NHAI hence decided to go for an entirely a new alignment sufficiently away from existing highway and railway lines through the forest area. Bridge Design Engineer. Maharashtra 56 INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Maharashtra *** Acting Team Leader. In the Existing highway which was built in British period and has a history dating back to the Mughal and Shivaji periods is passing through a mountainous terrain which is winding and having sharp curves in steep gradient. There was no perennial river originating or passing through the proposed inhabited alignment.Rocks fill solution for Kasara Ghat – A success Story “Case Study” K. It was thought that this problem can be resolved beneficially by adopting Rockfill Technology. employing rock fills for purposes of bridges etc has been few and far in between in India. 1.TECHNICAL PAPERS any other habitation or developmental activities. This may probably be due to the stringent restrictions of the IRC or also may be due to space constraints. June 2014 57 . While concrete and steel are versatile materials for constructions of Bridges it would not be proper to ignore the rock fills as a whole where rock is available in plenty and handy. However. The Concessionaire therefore proposed a Rock fill solution for this Kasara Bye pass. Hence Rocks fill technology is nothing new. Rama Setu also called Adam’s Bridge dating back to the BC era is in fact a Rock construction between tip of Peninsular India and Srilanka. 2 Rock Fill Technology The Rock fill structure has to be designed conforming to compliance or requirements of mechanics or static equilibrium. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. irrigation purposes and the like. All these led to a modified mode of crossing. Several Rock fills dams have been built around the globe for reservoir. which may diminish the challenges to at least some reasonable degree. The main Concessionaire on the Project was Gammon India supported by Sadbhav Engineering.2 Instances of Rock Fill From Time immemorial man was used to employing rock as a medium for blocking water or crossing the same. This Paper highlights the salient design and constructional features of this unique solution for a NH bye pass. The terrain was also highly inaccessible and the crossing posed a challenging task. by machines or manually. and creates environmental hazards. upstream cutoff walls (if necessary) shall be taken up first. (Cares hould be taken while loading from rock cutting sides) 7. iii) Proper drainage should be ensured through rock fill media by provision of cross drainage works Typical Rock Fill Cross Sections: Construction Methodology Embankment: 1. The overall stability is achieved in terms of sliding as well as overturning.75 mm should not be more than 15%. shrubs shall be cleared of to their root. 3. 4. so that no appreciable material should fall beyond the toe line. Mix finer material 75 mm down to 4. Construction of Toe walls /retaining walls.75 mm should not be more than 5%. within toe lines. Fills Toe lines as per the cross sections. the internal stresses developed shall be within a allowable limits. Toe Wall – UCR/ stone masonry Cutoff Wall – Concrete 5.e. Toe of all batters should be benched into the natural surface by about 0. June 2014 . Any incidental oversize rock boulder shall be laid in layer such that it does not protrude beyond the thickness of layer. Layers will be leveled by dozers. bushes.TECHNICAL PAPERS i) This means that the strata on which the rock fill is going to be erected will have to bear the superimposed load with sufficient margin of safety ii) The Rock fill itself should be stable i. Any thick plantation. at a location shall be marked and will be ensured to be INDIAN HIGHWAYS. 58 for Rock fixed and should be easily recognized during construction by construction team. 6. Layer thickness of rock dumped shall be restricted to 900 mm Max. And material Finer than 4. and down steam. encroaching unnecessary forest land. 2. Rock dumped shall be free from soil and silt.5 m over 2-3 m width. Boulder size in layer shall be restricted to 2/3 of layer thickness. Any large voids and loose boulders are required to be hand packed. June 2014 As outlined in the Paper . with standard specifications shall be placed over the rock fill. 11. Corrugated steel pipes will be laid at desired level with the methodology finalized separately. by using grouting or stone pitching.rock-fill embankments (dams) were constructed in the United States well over 100 years ago. 17. Proper cascades shall be provided on D/S. 13. batters should be made impermeable by shotcreting or any other acceptable method. to provide neat and uniform good finish appearance. 16. then layer thickness should be restricted to 600 mm max. Concrete crash barriers (new jercy type. These were un-compacted (simply manually placed rock) and placed at batter slopes steeper than 1:1 for heights up to 30 m. The slope of batter should be 1:1 or flatter with 2-3 m berms on every 6 m fill. should match that of the rock fill. Their performance as water retaining structures (with timber facing) up to this height was generally good. 18.T Vibro roller. 12. Rock Fill as applied to Kasara Ghat 10. On the locations where water ponds are created. 15. and shall be compacted by dozer and excavators first and finally by 10. Compaction of each layer will be done by D-9 dozer. on batters and berms. for good bonding.TECHNICAL PAPERS 8. 59 . as designed with friction slab) shall be constructed on both sides for the length of rock fill embankment. The batter slopes for sub grade material above geotextile. 14. Preferably larger size boulders should be used selectively for the outer edges of batter. before doing subsequent pavement layers. Geotextile. Each layer shall be watered just before laying successive layer. 9. and shall be protected for stability and possible rain cuts. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. If D-9 is not possible to be used in any particular location. size and gradation of the rock used. The embankment was built along a ridge top (with no confinement). and the high compaction density expected to be achieved – through use of the latest internationally recognized specification. Because of the difficulty in laboratory strength testing of coarse rock-fill. design of batters for rock-fill structures is generally based on empirical methods – according to successful performance of existing structures. This will ensure very high strength material and ability to use a relatively steep batter slope (and thus retain the structure within the ROW for all but the highest proposed structures). The proposed application for the Kasara Ghat involves embankment heights that have magnitude less than these structures and in fact comparable to the structures built more than a century ago. the Concessionaire has proposed to use maximum batter slopes of 1:1. and without vibratory compaction. The batter slopes are approximately 1:1. the batter slope can be flattened and/or berms included whilst still staying within the ROW. For the new highway embankments. This will cover more than 70% of the proposed rock-fill embankments and allow the structure to be confined within the ROW (with use of toe/culvert headwalls to about 4 m in height). This embankment was built for a spur line more than 30 years ago and later abandoned before the line was commissioned. mentioned use of rock-fill in embankments. Rock-fill embankments have not previously been widely used in India. Since that period up to the present day. Many rockfill structures now in service exceed 100 m in height. Rock-Fill Embankment Design This is also supported by inspection of a previous rock-fill embankment constructed by Indian Railways close to the proposed alignment at the lower end of the ghat section. and the structural capacity of the foundation strata. the height of rock-fill embankments and in particular dams has increased dramatically. This has required an evolution in compaction and placement methodology to minimize post-construction settlement. and rock-fill of good gradation (through controlled blasting techniques). June 2014 . the degree of confinement of the structure. and are not fully covered by a MOSTH specification. the compaction and voids reduction able to be achieved. the voids should also be relatively low. For significantly lower embankment heights. The Project DPR. with consideration of the character. however. and they will be compacted using the latest internationally recognized procedures. The difference in the case of Kasara Ghat is that they will not be water retaining structures. 60 INDIAN HIGHWAYS.TECHNICAL PAPERS With the high quality basalt rock available from the major cuttings within the Kasara Ghat. The use of toe walls will also limit the width of construction and enable most sites to be contained within the current ROW. protection against scour at the worst possible flood discharge condition (recommended to be partial blocking of the culvert with approximately 1m of head at the inlet). 61 . considering the significant effect of surcharge. Design and construction will require careful attention to ensure both stability (under surcharge loading of the rock-fill). the excellent structural performance of the old railway rock-fill embankment. the Concessionaire proposed to use 1:1 batter slopes however. the Concessionaire proposed to use toe walls which will also be incorporated into the pipe culvert head/end walls and outlet cascades where necessary. Considering the high quality nature of the rock. however. as well as good visual appearance and blending with the natural environment. Based on the preliminary geometric design to date. the typically good confinement (in relatively steep sided nullas). the upper 1m should use selected subgrade material over the rock-fill. the high standard of compaction proposed. and the very good foundation strata (either rock or coarse residual soils/weathered basalt). the above batter slopes are considered to be suitable. this will require (grouted) stone pitching both for stability and to prevent possible rain cuts. A conservative design should be adopted. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. PCC at the base of the walls should be provided as well as weep holes at approved diameter and spacing.TECHNICAL PAPERS For the sections within some of the higher embankments where the height exceeds 18 m. the maximum height of rock-fill proposed would be approximately 35 m. Large size boulders will be used and fitted as closely as possible for maximum stability and to reduce voids and grout quantity. June 2014 Toe Walls/Culvert Head-End Walls. Road Formation To provide a suitable foundation for the road formation in the embankment sections. within and adjacent to the stream-bed. The Concessionaire proposed to use grouted masonry walls with a cut-stone masonry façade. an approved geo-textile should be used. Aprons To ensure full protection of the batter toe of the rockfill embankments. It may also be desirable to use grouted dowel bars to connect each lift. To prevent intrusion of this material into the rock-fill. The proposed height will vary with the height of the embankment and the pipe diameter however. with one or more 2 m to 3 m berms depending upon the height. The batter slope of this material should match that of the rock-fill. will typically be in the range of 3 m to 5 m. and are predominantly coarse grained – with a high percentage of boulders. When the batters are completed. The expected maximum post-construction settlement and the associated variation in settlement will require some short-term precautionary measures to allow the new road to be opened soon after the first postconstruction monsoon. If considered to be necessary at some locations. as well as to encourage natural re-growth. Crash Barriers To provide maximum protection to traffic. is settlement. the Concessionaire proposed to use New Jersey concrete crash barriers on both sides of all the rock-fill 62 Embankment Settlement Approximately 3 sites have residual soils/weathered rock to a depth of up to 9 m to bedrock. initially on a monthly basis for at least 18 months. however. June 2014 . Surface Drainage and Slope Protection Besides stability. This type of barrier is considered to be appropriate for this application.TECHNICAL PAPERS Depending upon the bed conditions and the derived inlet and outlet velocities. graded rock should give maximum settlements of about 0. This will require establishment of bench marks adjacent to each embankment. If larger size boulders are selectively used for the outer edges of the batters. The UK TRL Road Note 31 Pavement Design Guide indicates that this should have a service life of at least 3 years for the anticipated traffic loading of the new INDIAN HIGHWAYS. embankments. Added to this is the settlement of the foundation. Most of this settlement should occur in the first 18 months. and in particular dams. regularly taking survey levels. Plantings on the berms of the higher embankments. Maximum settlement (for the higher embankments) is therefore expected to be about 6 cm – a large proportion of which should occur during the first monsoon. Published research advises that the settlement of rock-fill structures. Surface drainage from the road and valley side verge. This. Masonry drains or cascades may also be permissible provided that there is no chance of any significant settlement. From the foundation drilling results to date. in particular will assist in natural regeneration. additional slope protection should not be required. This will need to be monitored Surface settlement monitoring of all rock-fill embankment sites should be commenced immediately after construction and continue. Although the rock-fill is not expected to be adversely effected by rainfall falling on the batters. and/or the natural slopes at all sites. and plotting settlement history. is not expected to be a problem in that these soils are of high bearing strength. the main design consideration of high rock-fill embankments. concentrated discharge down the slope must be avoided. as well as from the valley side drain will result in the requirement to take water down the rock-fill batters. the requirement or otherwise for special slope protection measures will be needed. most of the embankments would be founded on rock which will give negligible settlement.15% of the embankment height. aprons may be required together with training walls. plantings of suitable species could be undertaken. It is recommended that the pavement over the rock-fill embankments be initially surfaced only with 50 mm of (PMB modified) BC instead of the final full thickness DBM and BC layers. This will require use of chute drains from pre-cast concrete segments or half-round galvanized corrugated metal. constructed to modern specifications with vibrating rollers and with high quality. designating survey location points (for example on the proposed crash-barrier). To achieve such material is not expected to be difficult. In terms of the performance at the handover stage to NHAI – in approximately 20 years. but limited to a maximum of about 15%. Rock-fill Material For maximum strength and density. June 2014 The volume is then determined by the measured volume of water. it will require design of the cut blasting to achieve the best possible material in accordance with the above criteria. all settlement will definitely have occurred and there will not be a requirement for any additional maintenance at that time. will provide additional compaction as the loaded trucks traverse the embankment. or be noticeable by traffic. with a layer thickness of 90 cm will be satisfactory. As discussed below. Layer thickness should be limited to a maximum of 1 m. Because of the very coarse nature of the rock-fill. This can be done half-width when traffic volumes are low and there should be minimum disruption to traffic. or preferably less – which is internationally recognized as the limiting thickness over which vibratory rollers of 10 to 12 tones can achieve significant densification. The density itself is not used as an acceptance criterion for compaction. Density testing for rock-fills therefore uses large diameter (36 inch) test excavations. conventional laboratory compaction testing or field density testing is not practical. Moisture conditioning will however. with low labor costs it will also be possible to manually fill any remaining voids before the next layer is placed.TECHNICAL PAPERS carriageway. Procedure and Testing Tipper trucks dump directly onto the embankment as soon as the embankment top can be accessed. The frequency of compaction trials as described in the statement should be based on the variability of the source rock-fill. This INDIAN HIGHWAYS. it is likely that a maximum rock size of approximately 60 cm. Nominal maximum size of rock should be limited to 2/3 of the layer thickness. require a relatively large volume of water which will require planning of suitable sources and transport to the sites. the selection of the most appropriate layer thickness and maximum size of rock should be finalized following both blasting trials and initial embankment compaction trials. During these tests. No significant difficulties are expected in being able to work to this method statement. In India. Any such undulations can then be quickly corrected. In general this is expected to be quite consistent and of the order of five trials should be sufficient covering typical sites over the length of the job. with a plastic liner added. however. This is based on the number of roller passes per layer as derived from the compaction trials. the final surfacing can be constructed over these relatively short sections. Based on preliminary assessment of blasting currently being carried out on sections outside the ghat. Also to be included is reference to the foundation treatment – removal of all alluvial/soft material and benching where rock-fill is to be placed against sloping ground where it is not fully confined. When the measured further settlement has diminished to negligible levels. Testing of the density achieved at a number of representative sites. Subsequent settlement and undulations should be minor and occur at a slow rate which will not result in cracking of this thin (and relatively flexible) surfacing. The density is 63 . rock-fill should be graded and contain sufficient finer material to fill the voids. the gradation of the rock-fill should be checked to ensure compliance with the design requirements. Conclusion The rock fill construction has started in year 2007 and completed in year 2009. As was expected some longitudinal cracks were observed in the first year immediately after rains in rock fills no 2 and 10. flatter slopes are adopted and where cross sectional width was a problem at foundation level. In some of the rock fills the access was a big problem and rock particles had had to be dumped from a height of 35 m using tippers to such a great extent till formation was achieved through the alignment profile somewhere around half the height. Layers of rocks were placed one over the other and dosed over to obtain design densities. While ROW was available and sufficient. The Bye pass was opened in year 2009 and vehicles have been plying ever since. Accidents which were common in Kasara Ghat have been drastically reduced because of this bye pass. Cross drainage works were generally achieved through Armco pipes of required dimensions at appropriate levels. These were repaired and did not surface or reoccur in subsequent years. June 2014 . necessary to check against the unit-weight assumptions used in the structural design of the pipe culverts. toe walls and retaining structures were erected and steeper slope allowed. Natural rock was available while achieving the alignment with reasonable gradient and this blasted rock pieces were made use of the rockfill embankment. The time taken for completion of this project was much less compared to other options. This was precarious exercise sometimes leading to spillage of rocks below the alignment profile level as it could not be helped otherwise. 64 INDIAN HIGHWAYS. 11 numbers of rock fills were erected.000 cum of Rock fill has been put into use and the amount of cement and steel employed was very minimal for a stretch of 7. A total of about 400. The top layers were curtained off with geo-grid materials for prevention of infiltration of water. However. Construction Phase There were all together 11 rocks fills with heights varying from 15 to 35 M. In the initial years this would be predominant and in subsequent years this will dwindle down.5 Km crossing. the settlement characteristic of rock fill embankments is constantly monitored. Settlement history: It was predicted that on account of the massive weight some settlement was prone to occur.5 KM long could be completed in Toto because of this exercise within reasonable time frame. The Project in NH-3 of 99.TECHNICAL PAPERS however. Care was taken to see that some animal crossing was also allowed via this Armco pipes as the terrain was forest area. Being the Member of IRC fraternity. 044-22433791 and 09940514792 (M). D. B4. Opposite Vishnuplace. Sankaralingam. The copies of the book can be had from Shri S.TECHNICAL PAPERS References Acknowledgements Contribution from following personal. 1. Velachery. A complimentary copy as sent by the author is available in IRC Library. OBITUARY The Indian Roads Congress express their profound sorrow on the sad demise of Late Shri Ram Nath Sharma. Mr. NHAI.3. Karnam Street. They were very active members of the Indian Roads Congress. Sankaralingam has authored the Book “Appeal”. Chennai-600 042. Resident of Mitra Vihar-6. An Engineers Poetry. West Boring Canal Road. May their souls rest in peace. departments. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. No. Sathivel Apartments. 3.Control of Compaction and Settlement of Highway Embankment. 2. It will be beneficial to the road sector fraternity. BOOK REVIEW Shri S. 4. Deoghar (Bihar). 2. Sdbahve Engineering Ltd. and institutions is gratefully acknowledged: 1. Gammon India Ltd. June 2014 65 .Spatially Varied Flow Over Rock Fills Embankments.C. Kim Howard. Resident of Nirvikalpa. Phone No. 3. Patna (Bihar) and Late Shri P.Centrifuge Modeling of Rock Fills Embankments on Deep Loose Saturated Sand Deposits. Jeff His & Patrick Macgregor. Das. Breitenbach – “Summary of Rockfill Placement and Compaction Guidelines for Mine Structures”. Members may like to purchase/refer this Book.Kells.A. Morris. Allan J. Tamil Nadu. Williams Tgown. J. 4. The total 4. the social cost attributed to this traffic mismanagement is approximately around Rs. ITS maximize the capacity of infrastructure. New technology such as Loop detectors. major district roads. lack of traffic separation and intelligent transport system. National and state highways together carry approximately 80% of the total passenger and goods traffic in the country[21]. North Mahanadi Vihar. According to the research data released by the road ministry. reducing stops by as much as 40 percent. Cuttack-753004. 1[11.000 billion[2]. 17]. village and other roads[3]. comprising national highways. reducing travel time by 25 percent. But it is reported that 134. which equals one percent of the gross domestic product of the EU-15 countries[7]. the average Indian motorists spend hours in traffic delays in major cities everyday due to lack of urban planning.TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEM FOR CONTROL OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT IN INDIAN CITIES Jyotirmaya Behera* ABSTRACT This paper demonstrates the necessity of ITS infrastructures in different cities in India for traffic control management and to tackle the rising menace of road accidents and fatalities. The same figure reflects higher exposure to risk due to heterogeneous nature of traffic.69 million kilometer length road network is one of the largest in world. the biggest killers on the road every year are trucks only[18]. cutting fuel consumption by 10 percent and thereby reducing the carbon emission. E-mail: jyotirmayabehera@rediffmail. The total vehicles registered during 2011 in the country comparing with the top five states registrations are shown in Fig.com INDIAN HIGHWAYS. state highways. Fig. The literature reviews shows that the cost of traffic congestion just in the United States is $78 billion. Odisha.8 billion gallons of fuel wasted sitting in traffic[1]. 2 shows that with over 140.5 billion hours of travel time and 6. For example. representing the 4. 1 INTRODUCTION Traffic is a growing problem in almost every city in the India[16]. traffic mismanagement. June 2014 . reducing the need to build additional highway capacity. Today India leads the world in road traffic accidents and also has the highest fatality rate due to road traffic accidents in the world. applying realtime traffic data to our traffic signal lights can improve traffic flow significantly. The * 66 UITP assesses the annual costs of traffic congestion in Europe at € 120 billion. The one of national news paper also reported India loses $20 billion due to road accidents annually[6]. As the number of vehicles on roads increased. Fig. and parking control[2]. the average motorists spend hours in traffic jam which leads to billions of rupees wasted every year. red light cameras .000 deaths annually occurred and the alarming figures reveals that 14 people die in every hour of road accidents in India. and parking control system are explained with various beneficial. But in India. Electronic display signs. As the number of vehicles increased everyday on Indian roads. 1 Total Number of Vehicles Registered During 2011 in Top Five States Compared to Total Vehicles Registered in India Former Highway Consultant. 1.000 road crash fatalities and 21 million serious injuries. there was no research how much billion of rupees wasted due to traffic congestion in major cities[13]. the future of transportation lies not only in concrete and steel.to become intelligent by embedding them with microchips and sensors and empowering them to communicate with each other through wireless technologies[12]. including reduced congestion and increased safety and traveler convenience. New Zealand. There are challenges for scientists. Germany. Numbers Injured.. engineers and traffic managers for maintaining the flow traffic on roads. In the leading nations like Australia. Netherlands. Billions more rupees have been spent on road sector but not on IT systems to alleviate this logjam in India. the UK and the US. ITS is still new and not even captured in infrastructure development at the Government level in many states till date.TECHNICAL PAPERS Fig. the author is attempting to make a comprehensive list of ITS literature. June 2014 literature is very widespread with papers appearing in seemingly unrelated venues[19]. Japan. The Intelligent Transport System (ITS) enables elements within the transportation system-vehicles. and Numbers of Fatality in Road Accidents in India The efficiency in movement of traffic is to be scientifically resolved. While many think improving a country’s transportation system solely means building new roads or repairing aging infrastructures. Sweden. etc. 2 Showing Increased Numbers of Accident. Adequate use of centralized traffic-light management systems and advanced parking solutions will improve congestion. 2 INTELLIGENT (ITS) TRANSPORT SYSTEM Transportation systems are networks of information like. roads. message signs. keeping traffic flowing in the cities. France. In this paper. South Korea. So the ITS INDIAN HIGHWAYS. traffic lights. Government transportation agencies are seeking out new and cheaper technology. whether a traffic signal knows there is traffic 67 . In India. Numbers Killed. Singapore. and integrating parked vehicles into normal flowing traffic with least possible disturbances. ITS bring significant improvement in transportation system performance. but also increasingly in using Information Technology[14]. to give an overview of all existing techniques and see how ubiquitous digital devices will aid in easing our traffic woes and also discusses various technologies available for implementation. traffic lights. ITS also represent an emerging new infrastructure platform. urban traffic. whether to take mass transit instead of driving. Advanced Traveler Information Systems: It provide drivers with real-time information. The traffic control management is nothing but traffic planning. emergency vehicle pre-emption system. and traffic management which are essential for interurban traffic. and for parking of vehicles. 68 5. freedom of movement on our roads has become increasingly restricted. or road repair work. such as traffic lights. for example. and toll INDIAN HIGHWAYS. etc. 2) improving operational performance. such as vehicle-to-infrastructure and vehicle-to-vehicle integration. allow trains and buses to report their position so that passengers can be informed of their real-time status (arrival and departure information). 4) delivering environmental benefits. traffic information. and other vehicles. The interurban traffic control includes expressway or highways control systems.TECHNICAL PAPERS waiting to pass through an intersection. 3 shows South Korea is the leading nation in the world for ITS investment compared to USA till date[8. particularly by reducing congestion. weather conditions. such as transit routes and schedules. and vehicle miles traveled usage-based fee systems. actionable information to make better-informed decisions. accidents. what the true cost of operating a roadway is. whether two vehicles are likely to collide at an intersection. how to optimize traffic signals. 3) enhancing mobility and convenience. ITS-Enabled Transportation Pricing Systems include systems such as electronic toll collection. ITS applications can be grouped in five different categories: 1. for example. fee-based express lanes. 9]. further expansion of the road network is meeting natural limits. whether a vehicle is drifting out of its lane. from vehicles to roadside sensors. whether a roadway is congested with traffic. In most cases. ramp meters. many which can barely be imagined. Asian countries like Japan. navigation directions. June 2014 . Advanced Public Transportation Systems. to highway and transit network operators. choosing to take route when to travel. to the actual devices. from which a whole host of new products and services are likely to emerge. 4. enable communication among assets in the transportation system. Better use of the existing road network can be made with traffic control technology. 3. and traffic operations centers. Fig. and information about delays due to congestion. This information can be used both to maximize the operational performance of the transportation network and to move towards performance based funding for transportation systems. Fully integrated intelligent transportation systems. 3 Investment in ITS as a Share of GDP Amongst Selected Countries 3 TRAFFIC CONTROL MANAGEMENT For many years now. tunnel control. South Korea and Singapore stand out as world leaders in ITS[15]. Fig. such as traffic signals. Advanced Transportation Management Systems include traffic control devices. The ITS empower actors in the transportation system-from commuters. congestion pricing. 2. where to build new roadways. Our roads paint a picture of slow moving traffic and congestion over many kilometres. and 5) boosting productivity and expanding economic and employment growth. variable message signs. ITS deliver five key classes of benefits by: 1) increasing safety. Thiruvananthapuram. 5: a) Loop Detectors Placed in the Asphalt Surface to Detect Speed and Movement of Vehicles Pass Over the Loops b) Inductance Loop Detectors Meanwhile. thousands more sign up. Transportation officials in developed nations are now searching for INDIAN HIGHWAYS. and parking management. 4 User Service Logical Flows for Managing Traffic Over the past two decades. 4 depicts user service logical for managing traffic systems. messages can be displayed on electronic signs to warn motorists of congestion ahead and to advise of alternate routes. monitoring. The traditional loops in the road and cameras up on poles and staffs sitting behind desks looking at monitors are too expensive. different states have installed billions of rupees worth of electronics like traffic signs to keep an eye on and manage traffic which are at present insufficient and obsolete technology. It is an intelligent traffic signal control system that use data from loop detectors and optimize traffic signal settings in an area to reduce vehicle delays and stops. These control systems are already in use in very few cities like Chennai. public transport priority. guidance systems. covering a set of roads for an area in a city. Jaipur. Fig. planning tools. Further urban traffic control includes area traffic control systems. 5 (a) & (b)).TECHNICAL PAPERS collections. Parking control includes pay and display machines. 4 FUTURE TRAFFIC TRACKING There are more than 866 million cell-phone users in the India[10]. In the next section. If the detectors sense a slowdown or an increased quantity in traffic. car park systems. Traffic speed can be determined by detecting how quickly cars pass between two sets of loop detectors (See Fig. Fig. which can be monitored by local transportation departments or traffic police headquarters and of public transport control centres. Fig. The radio signals emitted from these devices can reveal 69 . and Ahmedabad respectively. one will learn how a new traffic-management system will utilize communication devices already in place to ease traffic flow. The ATCS is an indigenous solution for Indian Road Traffic which was developed by CDAC. staff can use video cameras to get a better understanding of what’s causing it. cameras and signs is a long process to complete. analysing. Here are the three basic devices used in managing traffic today in leading developed nations: ● Loop detectors ● Video cameras ● Electronic display signs Loop detectors are wires embedded in the road bitumen surface that detect small changes in electrical voltage caused by a passing vehicle and loop detectors also considers as an integral part of Area Traffic Control System (ATCS). Volume and speed data is transmitted to a central server. and will costing billions of rupees for state and central governments to implement. Each day. which optimizes traffic signal. Installing these detectors. emergency vehicle preemption systems. Pune. controlling and visualizing. June 2014 cheaper alternatives for managing traffic. June 2014 . Listening posts are comparable to half a base station: They can detect but not transmit radio signals. Listening posts detect cell-phone transmission. and can warning on fog or traffic jams. This ability to locate cellphone users will become a vital component of future traffic-management systems[4]. Listening posts are placed throughout a city. This system can provide automatically by reliable information taking account of traffic jams and road closures. either next to a cell-phone base station or in independent locations. the computer corrects for this and snaps the location to the road. 7 Technologies Associated with Real-Time Traffic Information Systems 70 INDIAN HIGHWAYS. If the person’s location on the map is shown as off the highway. All of these services amount to a significant victory of innovative communication technology. By analyzing how long it takes the radio wave to reach the listening post from the cell phone. decode it and then time-stamp the arrival of a wave front from the transmission. personalized traffic warnings at cheaper cost per month. Fig. Three listening posts are needed to get a two-dimensional position of a cell-phone user. a computer can calculate almost precisely where someone is located on the highway. Dynamic display panels recommend alternative routes.TECHNICAL PAPERS our location at anytime. which would allow cell-phone users to receive instant. One can receive correct information about our planned route and even the expected time of arrival via the internet. processing and exchanging data (see Fig. 7). 6 shows how cell phone works for traffic management. Fig. and set speed limits. the radio or the telephone. as making this kind of information available involves a large number of technical systems for collecting. Fig. the information is quickly sent to a central server to determine the cell phone’s position on a highway. It is not only supports Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) but also Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) air interfaces. 6 Typical Demonstration of Cell Phone System Work in a City Once three towers have time-stamped a transmission. This technology can be implemented by collaborating with cell-phone service providers. The service. The entire process of detecting a person’s position occurs in seconds. A position is determined by locating the intersection of the hyperbolas from the radio waves detected by the listening posts. new technology to enable fast-flow automatic payment through designated lanes and free-flow automatic payment where space is limited (on expressways or in urban areas). they must be informed of how fast the traffic is flowing. In addition to the conventional pay-at booth tolling systems. Unlike with a toll booth. improve traffic throughput dramatically and assist in the reduction of congestion. As vehicles pass the reader. if it’s congestion or if there is an incident blocking traffic altogether. whose locations are known. They would merely drive past it. can be used to time vehicles between points in an expressway system or National Highways (see Fig. Fig. the accounting processes. Collected information is fed into a large repository that can be accessed via a web site. These tags and the cell-phone tracking systems will make it almost impossible for someone to travel undetected. This is where the cell-phone service provider comes into the picture. 9 View of Toll Gate System on Expressway 6 WARNING SIGN Once information is detected from cell phones. can take place in a completely automated fashion and increase the security of transferring funds into the operator’s account. Fig. A map on the screen would show various roadways in green. 10 Traffic Information Site on the Dash Board of a Car 71 . are sent customized traffic reports based on the road and direction in which they are traveling. 8 Illustration of Application of Radio Tags in Toll Booth INDIAN HIGHWAYS. it has to be disseminated to motorists. already in use in many countries around the world. June 2014 Fig. radio-frequency tags are attached to vehicles. Registered users. drivers would not have to slow down for the reading device. Information is displayed on conventional electronic road signs. transportation agencies are also installing additional electronic toll tag readers along major highways in some of Indian cities. These electronic payment methods. Systems will also advise users of alternate routes around congested areas. slow traffic and congestion respectively (see Fig. and electronic road signs. 8 and 9). In order for drivers to be routed around traffic. which has raised privacy concerns about this new technology.TECHNICAL PAPERS 5 TOLL COLLECTION SYSTEM To supplement cell-phone tracking systems. Thanks to the innovative technology. The provider would send this information out to customers. 10). from issuing a receipt to electronic debiting. By analyzing a particular vehicle’s time between two points. or transponders. In some cities where toll booths are common. There are three different ways to transmit information to motorists namely web site. These radio tags. it detects the tag and subtracts a set amount of money from a prepaid account. a computer can determine the vehicle’s location and speed. cell phones. yellow and red colour to indicate free-flowing traffic. in order to get a shot of the driver’s face. one will look at the basic elements in these systems to find out how they catch drivers redhanded. June 2014 . since the authorities only need a clear view of the rear license plate. If a camera catches speeding vehicle through the intersection. The violators can pay the fine at any e-seva and online payment centres. and a computer. a red-light system has cameras at all four corners of an intersection. the actual driver is responsible for paying the challan. medical bills. In a typical system. 11 Multiple Cameras are Mounted High Above the Intersection to get a Full View of any Traffic Violators Fig. To curb this trend.. total road accident deaths in 2011 was 142. red-light violations have increased day by day. In many areas. Hyderabad and Bangalore have red-light cameras on some busy junctions. it’s typically too late for most commuters to act on the information. every year road accidents kill hundreds of people in India (i. In this paper. we will learn for ourselves whether these new technologies will make our commute to work easier or if our only hope is to find a way to stay home. By the time the radio and TV report an incident. 11). details of violations are entered in the computer at traffic police stations and sent to central server in traffic control centre. but most new systems use digital cameras (see Fig. Very few cities like New Delhi. cameras are positioned at the corners of an intersection on poles a few meters high (see Fig. An e-challan system prints the challans and forward to the postal department in two days 72 and postal department delivers the challan to the respondent in three or four days. 7 RED-LIGHT CAMERAS FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL According to the accident survey report. The e-challan is still sent to the car’s owner. to photograph vehicles going in different directions and get pictures from different angles. Every e-challan is booked with photo evidence and notices are generated in the form of Inland letter.e. the red-light camera only needs to photograph the car from behind. 5]. The system includes only three essential elements such as one or more cameras. but the authorities have the information available if there is any disagreement down the line. developers believe that commuters will have enough time to react to these warnings and find alternative around the congested areas. driver of the vehicle can expect an e-challan. The cameras point inward. which is primarily through radio or television news reports. 12). These fully automated devices collect all of the evidence. one or more triggers. more and more cities are requiring installation of red-light cameras. In this case.485). lost productivity and insurance hikes[3. injured thousands and rack up several hundred millions of rupees in property damage. Fig. This would be an advance compared to how information is released today. 12 Most Modern Red-Light-Camera Systems use Digital Cameras INDIAN HIGHWAYS.TECHNICAL PAPERS By getting information to the customers more quickly. Some systems use film cameras. so they can photograph vehicles driving through the intersection. In the next few years. In some developed countries. no matter who’s actually driving. the system needs a second camera in front of the car. An e-challan is issued to the car’s owner. Generally. In other developed nations. 14). The first picture shows the vehicle just on the edge of the intersection and the second picture shows the vehicle in the middle of the intersection in city roads of Hyderabad (see Fig. Fig. It is wired to the cameras. laser or air-tube sensors. but also the loop itself. 14 Change of the Loop’s Electromagnetic Field when a Car Drives over an Induction Loop Fig. One emerging trigger mechanism is the video loop. An induction-loop trigger is a length of electrical wire buried just under the asphalt. This is the most common trigger mechanism. but they all serve the same purpose: They detect when a vehicle has moved past a particular point in the road. In the next section. it checks for substantial changes at specific points in the image. This significantly alters the flow of current through the circuit. 13 Red-Light Camera Captures the First Picture of a Bus Just on the Edge of the Intersection while Red Traffic Light is on The main trigger technology used in red-light systems is the induction loop. This sort of field affects not only objects around the loop. inductance. The magnetic field induces an electrical voltage in the wire that is counter to the voltage of the circuit as a whole. In this system. amplifies this field. a computer analyzes a video feed from the intersection. we’ll see how a red-light system’s computer puts everything together to construct a case against any traffic violators. changing its inductance. The change of the inductance is possible by introducing additional conductive materials into the loop’s magnetic field. When the inductance changes significantly. 73 . The huge mass of vehicle over an induction loop alters the magnetic field around the loop. Red-light systems typically have two induction-loop triggers positioned under the road near the stop line. the computer recognizes this shift and knows that a car has passed over the loop. 13). Essentially. Some areas have had success with radar. the wire is laid out in a couple of rectangular loops resting on top of each other (see Fig. The computer is programmed to recognize the particular changes that indicate a car moving through the intersection. and the trigger can adjust at any time. it activates the still cameras. but it’s not the only one in use. it is a virtual inductiveloop trigger. changing the layout of the wires or using a different conductive material will change the loop’s INDIAN HIGHWAYS. The intensity of this induction depends on the structure and composition of the loop. Positioning the wire in concentric loops as in any electromagnet. The computer constantly monitors the traffic signal and the triggers. June 2014 The meter in the system constantly monitors the total inductance level of the circuit. the computer takes two pictures to document the violation.TECHNICAL PAPERS 7. This is what happens when a car pulls up to the intersection. If the light is red and the computer recognizes this sort of change. The main advantage of this system is no dig up the road is required to install.1 Role of Triggers There are a number of trigger technologies. the triggers and the traffic-light circuit itself. As the computer receives each new video frame. The trigger mechanism is not worth much if it is not connected to a computer. Usually. If a vehicle sets off a trigger when the light is red. The computer is the brain behind the operation. The computer then hesitates briefly and takes another shot. The computer calculates the length 74 Fig. time. The computer doesn’t “turn on” until it receives a signal that the light is red. the system will not activate the cameras. To fully document the violation. If there is more of a delay. the computer will not activate the cameras if a car is just sitting over the induction loops. To trigger the cameras. systematically catching traffic violators and sending out e-challans that are really hard to contest. When the triggers are both activated in quick succession. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Additionally. This catches the car in the middle of the intersection. the computer knows the car is moving more slowly.2 Functions of Red-Lights As we saw in the previous section. Some systems wait a fraction of a second after the light turn’s red. With all of the information superimposed on the picture. Fig. Featuring a Clear and Unambiguous Image Display 7. speed. they are a good source of government revenue. If one is already in the middle of the intersection when the light turns red. Such systems are designed to increase safety. intersection location. The area traffic control system in Chennai near the new Secretariat complex is now operational with provision of emergency VPS. 15 The Central Control Box Houses the Computer which Activates the Cameras Based on Information it Receives from the Traffic Lights and Triggers In most systems. and it works round the year. The optical emitter activated system and siren activated system are most common use of VPS (see Fig. the police have everything they need to charge the driver by sending the e-challans. and the total time between when the light turned red and the car entered the intersection. 15). It’s important to get two pictures of the car to show that it entered the intersection when the light was red and then proceeded through the intersection (see Fig. of the delay based on the measured speed of the car. 17 (a) & (b)). one has to move over the loops at a particular speed. reduce emergency response times and enhance public transit operations[20]. In most systems. When a car activates both triggers after the light is red. It doesn’t cost much to maintain the system once it’s installed. If the car activates only the first trigger. fire engines and other high priority vehicles and automatically turn green. to give drivers a “grace period”. 16). the computer knows it is stopped at the edge of the intersection.3 Vehicle Pre-emption System The Vehicle Pre-emption System (VPS) in which traffic signals sense an approaching ambulances. the computer superimposes some extra information on these two photos which includes date.TECHNICAL PAPERS 7. there are two loop triggers for each lane of traffic. June 2014 . a red-light-camera system is controlled by a computer (See Fig. 16 The User Interface is Well Structured and SelfExplanatory. the computer automatically captures a picture. This first shot shows the car just as it is entering the intersection. the computer knows a car has moved into the intersection at high speed. own topography and own financial possibilities. These days laser gun cameras are installed in the specified INDIAN HIGHWAYS. wireless connectivity to the e-challan server. Even on the outskirts. E-challans will generate and sent to concerned vehicle owners. 18 PDA with Multiple Facilities for Spot Challan Booking Traffic police can use for spot payment by violators and can trace pending e-challans on entering the vehicle registration numbers. The traffic engineering concept. 75 . it boosts demand and high customer satisfaction and further reduces carbon emissions by minimizing the number of drivers searching for a parking space. June 2014 areas in the identified locations where violations occur. every third driver is looking for a parking space. In the multi-storey car park. 18). which relieves the driver of the chore of finding a parking space. Parking guidance systems provide customized solutions because every city is different (see Fig. Every city has its own traffic structures. Laser gun cameras mounted on the tripod is focused towards vehicles movement directions.TECHNICAL PAPERS Fig. All information is monitored “online” in the management center. instant printout of the pending challans to the violators and equipped with GPS/ GPRS facility and live connection with server through GSM modem. 17 a) Showing Optical Emitter Activated b) Siren Activated Vehicle Pre-emption System 8 PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT The Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) instrument is a hand held and portable instrument (see Fig. This hand held instrument has debit/credit card swiping facility. dynamic displays guide the driver to parking spaces and to multi-storey car parks. Fig. This does not necessarily have anything to do with a shortage of parking spaces. Smart card system facility is used to read driving license. 9 PARKING MANAGEMENT In some cities. violations can be captured and uploaded onto the server to generate e-challans immediately. 19). With in-built cameras. the traffic data and the comprehensive information network are defined in such a way as to match each urban traffic situation. It can replace the old challan books already in use by traffic police in many cities. This guarantees optimum use of multi-storey car park capacities. Laser gun cameras capture the snap shots along with speed details of vehicles violating the speed limits. but with a lack of information about the location and number of available spaces. every space can be monitored by ultrasound sensors. cutting fuel consumption by 10 percent and thereby reducing the carbon emission. For example. June 2014 . and South Korea in ITS deployment in Asia.50 % of accident cases are caused due to driver negligence in India[3]. reducing stops by as much as 40 percent. making ITS the centerpiece of efforts to reform surface transportation systems and hold providers accountable for results. giving transportation planners little incentive to preference investments that can have a maximum impact on optimizing system performance. Final Report. transportation funding is often allocated or planned in different states without consideration of performance. smart cards. The processing and payment of parking fees as well as the display of service information via represent significant innovations and are developing into fascinating future markets. Whereas most developments in transportation safety over the past 50 years were designed to protect passengers in the event of a crash. It is no doubt that ITS is contributing to a fundamental reassessment of vehicle safety. 20 Parking Payment Machine 10 CONCLUSIONS This paper discussed details about the technology associated with ITS environment. 19 Parking Guidance System on Road The pay and display machines particularly. Our transportation system is required to be developed strategically to help grow and diversify the economy and enhance our quality of life. In our country. USA. Research data reveals that 83. Ayman S. Stainless steel housings also offer protection against vandalism (see Fig. the latest generation of is held to be exemplary throughout the world because of their reliability and the fact that they accommodate both customers and operators needs. (2005) “Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) State Wide Plan”. reducing travel time by 25 percent. For the most part. this has been the result of two key factors: a continued lack of adequate funding for ITS and the lack of the right organizational system to drive ITS in the various states of India. This reduces the cost and security of emptying cash boxes because all data is transmitted by radio to a clearing center. North Dakota. and are designed to help motorists avoid the accidents altogether. Prepared for: North Dakota Department of Transportation. We need to arrest the growth of road accidents and reverse the trend is possible by ITS environment only. applying real-time traffic data to our traffic signal lights can improve traffic flow significantly. ITS also enable transportation agencies to collect the real-time data needed to measure and improve the performance of the transportation system. The road side parking machines works in networking via the mobile radio network and permits electronic payment e. REFERENCES Fig. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Prepared by: Advanced Traffic Analysis Center. 20). ITS not only maximizes the capacity of infrastructure but also reducing the need to build additional highway capacity.g. India lags the leading nations particularly Japan.TECHNICAL PAPERS Fig. Unfortunately. and Kate M. 76 1. Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute North Dakota State University Fargo. Singapore. S. January . 3. Munich. 6. http://www. Government of India. The Telegraph. June 12-15. Govt. A. ”Foneastra: Making mobile phones smarter”.L. 2(4). P. Inter Traffic World India. New York. 19. Transport Research Wing. (2011) Synthesis Report of Four Working Groups on Education. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 4. June 2014 __________ 77 . (2012) “India Loses $20bn Annually to Road Accidents” Feb 24. Vol.indiatimes. June 15th. and Aicher. “Intelligent Transport Systems for Indian Cities”. 20. A. Sharma.siemens. “80’s the Limit: in Built Speed Curb Plan for Trucks”. (2012). 17. DC 20590. an Indian Dies in a Road Accident” Hindustan Times. A. (2012). 17 Jan 12. R. 10. New Delhi. 5. Siemens Industrial Solutions and Services. Basic Road Statistics of India. pp. B. M. (2012). August 2012. “How to Get out of the Traffic Logjam”. Munich. Jain.photius.TECHNICAL PAPERS 2. (2012). San Jose. Engineering and Emergency Care Constituted Under the National Road Safety Council. Bhubaneswar. 8. MA. Sen. 15. “Road Traffic Congestion in the Developing World”. 11. Dash D.286-305. and Raman. Opruk. 1-80.. Traffic Signal Preemption for Emergency Vehicles: A Cross-Cutting Study Putting the “First” in “First Response”. “The Future of Traffic – More Mobility in Population Centers” Siemens Industrial Solutions and Services. pp. Sobhana. Road Safety is no Accident. Washington. “ITS and Sustainable Transport”. Zamakona. Global Industry Analysts. (2012). 7. 16.San Francisco. MORTH. P. and Rao. “Explaining International IT Application Leadership: Intelligent Transportation Systems”. December. (2011). and Rautela. http://articles.. Sethi. Siemens Industrial Solutions and Services. The Information Technology and Innovation Foundation.net/auto. “Country on Wheels”. New Delhi.K. V. (2012). Article No. “Measuring Urban Traffic Congestion-A Review”. 627 pages. Integrated Traffic Solutions for all Requirements. Borriello G. Enforcement. Department of Transportation. pp. pp. Rao. Ezell. Thies W. Oct. Inc. R. 2010 . Global Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Industry (2012). K. Baluja.com/rankings/ economy/gdp_purchasing_power_parity_2008_0. Boston. Intelligent Traffic Systems. K. In the Proceedings of 2nd ACM Symposium on Computing for Development. The Times of India. 17 January 2012.M. pp. Das Gupta. 13. 08.html 12. (2012) “Every 3 minutes. In proceeding of 4th ACM Workshop on Networked Systems for Developing Regions. http://knowindia. J. 14. R.html. Oct 2012. U. (2010). ISBN:978-14503-1262-2. India. 21. January. 18. 8.com/2011-10 20/ telecom/30302162_1_subscriber-base-user-base-newusers. BBSR. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways. New Delhi. USA. NSDR’12. July 23.4. International Journal for Traffic & Transport Engineering. In proceedings of 6th USENIX/ ACM Workshop on Networked Systems for Developing Regions. of India. and Subramanian. CA. P.com/traffic.timesofindia. Times of India. Bhubaneswar. www. “GDP–purchasing power parity 2008 country ranks” The 2008 World Factbook. The Times of India. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. Stephen (2010). 9. and Chaudhri. (2006). Munich . Special Issues. L. (2006).11. & D 4. B.0 2. All Contract/Agreements may invariably requires inclusion or exclusion of certain work/(s) and to facilitate such changes without vitiating the contract (with or without reimbursement) appropriate provision in the name and style of “Change of Scope” has been included in the Model Concession Agreement (MCA) for construction of 2/4 laining of highways on PPP modes with its all possible variants. to the extent possible any inclusion of work at post agreement stage. NHAI and IE across the Country. the clarity about COS shall lead to a healthy competition and thus time and other resources shall not be wasted in labyrinthine procedural requirements with eventual rejection or substantial curtailment of the submitted claims of alleged COS. June 2014 .S.0 (Disclaimer) 3. C. the basic idea of adopting BOT/DBFOT (variants of PPP mode) is to avoid.Change of Scope in BOT/DBFOT Mode S. such inclusion may be considered. exact/ rational meaning of the existing clauses of MCA related to COS shall be available to all and shall definitely be of utmost interest to the Concessionaire/ NHAI and IE. At various ongoing Projects. Article – 2.3 of M. Shankar. So also. more so when agreement excludes doctrine of contra proferentem “vide Art.2. There has all along been difference of opinion about the correct interpretation of COS among the Concessionaire. Relevant Articles/Clauses of MCA 1.com. Only certain inevitable ‘addition’ or for ‘Safer’ and ‘improved Services’. bidder at the time of bidding shall be very clear about his expressed and implied Scope of Work. Schedule – A. The rational view demands for the holistic reading of the existing Model Concession Agreement (MCA) precluding any room for diverse opinions about COS. Such situation can be easily avoided by correct understanding of the seemingly cryptic Clauses/ Articles of the MCA. Needless to mention that such situation causes adverse impact on the Project progress as a whole to the detriment of interest of all concerned. Nonetheless. MCA (Albeit it is debatable whether it shall stand to judicial scrutiny). it is noticed that the COS provision as contained in MCA has not been understood properly. 1. After arriving at a general agreement on this ticklish issue. Article – 8.joshi@urs. An attempt has been made to put to rest once and for all such doubt/confusion by bringing out the correct and simplified construction of the term “COS” by taking holistic view of this important issue with * 78 conjoint reading of all other related Clauses/Articles of existing MCA in relation to the Change of Scope (COS). The views of different relevant stake holders vary in this regard. The collateral adverse impact includes all successful bidders/concessionaires feel cheated and carry an impression that their legitimate right is trampled upon while taking recourse to time consuming arbitration path. Article – 16 (Change of Scope) Team Leader. Through this article.com INDIAN HIGHWAYS. The underlying idea is to freeze the ‘Cost’ at the Agreement/Contract stage itself for smooth budget management by the Authority. E-mail: ssjoshi70@rediffmail. the Authority (NHAI) shall also be sure of its budget allocation. the Concessionaires have been pinning hopes to get the COS as per their understanding of the term COS. Apart from effective finance/fund management and specified budget allocations. URS Scott Wilson India Private Limited. But of late. Joshi* The “Change of Scope” (in relation to Projects on PPP modes) generally signifies the legitimate variations required to be executed vis-à-vis total Scope of Works and is akin to ‘deviation/variation’ of BOQ/EPC mode of agreement. Any such change of Scope shall be made in accordance with the provisions of this Article16 and the costs thereof shall be expended by the Concessionaire and reimbursed to it by the Authority in accordance with Clause 16. Hence.1. notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in this Agreement. 2. it shall by notice in writing require the Authority to consider such Change of Scope. But as a matter of fact this is not so as is explained hereunder: In Art 16. 16.1. during the Concession Period: 79 . this power/authority has been vested on the Authority (NHAI). This Article increases the width and amplitude of Authority’s jurisdiction which may go beyond the mere construction of Highway/structures essential for completion of Project Highway with minimum safety requirements. Careful reading of Article 16.1 “The Authority may. either accept such Change of Scope with modifications. within 15 (fifteen) days of receipt of such notice.2 “If the Concessionaire determines at any time that a Change of Scope is necessary for providing safer and improved services to the Users.1 of MCA.16.1 the question arises as to what it means by additional work which are not included in the scope of the project as contemplated by this agreement.1. Art. 16. June 2014 Art.16. the content of this Article (The very first sentence of Art 16. The pertinent words requiring correct interpretation are – “Additional Work” and “Scope of the Project” as contemplated by this Agreement and not as seemingly implied by Art. notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in this agreement. 2 of MCA: INDIAN HIGHWAYS.’2’ which covers the aspect of Scope in inclusive terms. The Authority shall. if any. merely increases power of Authority (NHAI) as mentioned above without vitiating the contract. This implies that even if there is absence of such empowering provisions elsewhere in the entire MCA or the Authority through other Articles/Clauses is made restrained in its power and guided to remain confined within specified ambit Firstly. require the provision of additional works and services which are not included in the Scope of the Project as contemplated by this Agreement (the “Change of Scope”).3 “Any works or services which are provided under and in accordance with this Article 16 shall form part of the Project Highway and provisions of this Agreement shall apply mutatis mutandis to such work or services”.1) does not in any way mean to override the provision/exclusion of ‘COS’ mentioned elsewhere in the MCA including as mentioned in Art. constitutes Additional works. At the Behest of the Authority of Construction of Project Highway by getting the minimum essential works executed.1. 16.1. For avoidance of doubt.1 of MCA. let us see and analyze Art.1. 2 (Scope of the Project) of MCA is mentioned as under: “The scope of the Project (the “Scope of the Project”) shall mean and include. such provision is available and is contained in Art 16.1. if any. If we look at Art.1.0 provides that COS occurs in the following two situations: A.1. yet this Art 16.1. to go beyond mere fulfilling the bare minimum requirement for construction of Project Highway to be through.1.1 overrides all such limitations/restrictions. referring to Art.1 alone then on peripheral reading it appears that the work other than as specified in Schedule ‘B’ & ‘C’ to be executed as per Scheduled ‘D’.3”.TECHNICAL PAPERS The change of Scope is defined under Article 16. Now. When Authority wants some Additional works and services to be provided/executed (which are not included in the Scope of Project) through the Concessionaire or any executing Agency. and initiate proceeding thereof in accordance with this Article 16 or inform the Concessionaire in writing of its reasons for not accepting such Change of Scope”.1 read with Art. 8 of MCA but affords a window to legally and contractually exercise power to add works over and above the essential works of Project Highways by the Authority (NHAI).1 of MCA as under: 16. subsoil and geology.1.4 In the event that either Party becomes aware of any mistake or error relating to any of the matters set forth in Clause 8.1. it is amply clear that “Additional Work” appearing in Art. Request for Proposals.1.3 The Parties agree that any mistake or error in or relating to any of the matters set forth in Clause 8.TECHNICAL PAPERS a) Construction of the Project Highway on the Site set forth in Schedule A and as specified in scheduled-B together with provision of the project Facilities as specified in Schedule-C.4 shall not prejudice the disclaimer of the Authority contained in Clause 8. But if we analyze deeply the import of Art. we realize that the Scope of the Project may cover provisions made elsewhere in the agreement as well. implicit or otherwise. 16. reliability and/or completeness of any assessment.1. traffic volumes and all information provided by the Authority or obtained. and c) Performance and fulfillment of all other obligation of the Concessionaire in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement and matters incidental thereto or necessary for the performance of any or all the obligations of the Concessionaire under this Agreement”. June 2014 .1of MCA which unambiguously states that the IE may at the request INDIAN HIGHWAYS. all risks relating to the Project shall be borne by the Concessionaire and the Authority shall not be liable in any manner for such risks or the consequences thereof. the Concessionaire has. b) Operation and maintenance of the Project Highway in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement. 2 is inclusive and not exhaustive in its expressed amplitude.1. 2 of MCA. that Party shall immediately notify the other Party. Associates or any person claiming through or under any of them.1. specifying the mistake or error. local conditions. however.2 The Concessionaire acknowledges and hereby accepts the risk of inadequacy. Site. Specifications and Standards. and has determined to its satisfaction the accuracy or otherwise thereof and extent of difficulties. made an independent evaluation of the Request for Qualification.3. provided.1 above and hereby acknowledges and agrees that the Authority shall not be liable for the same in any manner whatsoever to the Concessionaire. Here regard may be had to Art 14.1. statement or information provided by it and the Concessionaire confirms that it shall have no claim whatsoever against the Authority in this regard. Now. mistake or error in or relating to any of the matters set forth in Clause 8. Anything (Any work) which is required to complete the Project Highway with at least bare minimum safety requirements shall not come under additional works unless expressly specified so. regarding the accuracy. existing structures.1. express. The Authority makes no representation whatsoever. after a complete and careful examination. Here it is evident that the definition of Scope of the Project under Art. including incidental activities to fulfill all obligations of the Concessionaire in accordance with the provision of this Agreement. assumptions. risks and hazards as are likely to arise or may be faced by it in the course of performance 80 of its obligations hereunder. This necessarily means that the other provisions of MCA are capable to include/add some of the works/items into the Scope of the Project.1.8’ which is reproduced as under: Article – 8 (Disclaimer) 8. physical qualities of ground. 8. or render it voidable.1 signifies any such work which is over and above the general Project Completion requirement.1. and in conformity with the Specifications and Standards set forth in Schedule-D. 8.1.1 above. procured or gathered otherwise. adequacy. 8.5 Except as otherwise provided in this Agreement. 8.1 The Concessionaire acknowledges that prior to the execution of this Agreement. correctness. One such relevant Article mentioned in MCA is ‘Art. that a failure on part of the Authority to give any notice pursuant to this Clause 8. Scope of the Project.1 and shall not in any manner shift to the Authority any risks assumed by the Concessionaire pursuant to this Agreement.1 above shall not vitiate this Agreement. 3 of MCA before actual execution. it is safe for users. Conclusion In BOT/DBFOT Project. In other words the Project Highway shall be taken as “completed” only when INDIAN HIGHWAYS.1.e. By doing so it shall further make the highway safer for users (to avoid conflict of traffic with school going innocent children and other pedestrians crossing the highway). issue a Provisional Certificate of completion substantially in the form set forth in Schedule – J (The Provisional Certificate) if the tests are successful and the Project Highway can be safely and reliably placed in commercial operation…. the example of works. 16. unless a specific contrary provision exists in the agreement. the Concessionaire may also initiate the COS at any time under Art.TECHNICAL PAPERS of the Concessionaire .1 of MCA to be executed by the Concessionaire/Other executing agency without vitiating the contract. when due to external reasons some structures and/or highway works is required to be added to the Project Highway (Here.1.2. which may be initiated/determined by the Concessionaire.if due to local demands/public demands some structure like PUP/VUP/ROB etc. The forgoing analysis of all existing provisions of MCA in relation to COS (Change of Scope) makes it amply clear that the Construction of Safe Project Highway as a whole is the contractual risk and responsibility of the Concessionaire.1.2 of MCA is that it must be for providing ‘Safer’ and ‘Improved services’ to the users.1. Thereafter ‘COS’ may be processed further in accordance with Art. at the behest of the Authority and for providing safer and improved services. Thus. One need to see that any work/structure/activity may be treated as COS under Art. Now questions arise as to when and how such additional work may be required to be undertaken. 16.16. the Project Highway may be taken as completed and may be opened for traffic within normal safe environment) viz. 16.2 if. the Concessionaire may submit such proposal to have ‘safer’ and ‘improved services’ to the users over and above the regulated Zebra Crossing for the pedestrians/Students.. are additionally included on the given alignment or alignment undergoes substantial change on public demand which necessitates additional works of Highways/structures over and above as required on existing/specified alignment then such works may be treated as “Additional Works” and at the behest of Authority such work may be ordered for ‘COS’ under Art 16. Model Concession Agreement (MCA) 2.1. even for Provisional Completion certificate the Project Highway is required to be such that it can be safely and reliably placed in commercial operation. On Project related to BOT/DBFOT or other variants of PPP mode. such provision goes to provide/develop ‘safer’ and ‘improved services’ to the users. It is a common knowledge that the attributes ‘safer’ and ‘improved services’ are generally complementary to each other. For avoidance of doubt. it may be understood that without such additional works as well. for additional work i.16. Such work/works definitely qualifies for COS as indicated in Art 16. This also implies that any work/activity which is under taken or cause to be undertaken by the Concessionaire which is essential for bare minimum safety requirement shall not come within the ambit of even under Art. The short answer is.1. which may qualify for the ‘COS’ under Art. 16.1.2. B. Manual of Specification & Standards: Two Laning Highways through Public Private Partnership. there is absolutely no COS other than two specific situations. The basic requirement under Art. At the behest of the Concessionaire Here. overseeing school on one side of the Project Highway (LHS/RHS) and/or business hub on either side of the Project highway at a particular section. Reference 1.2 at the behest of Concessionaire may be as under : If the Concessionaire determines that a ‘Foot over Bridge’/‘Subway’ may be constructed at a particular location. June 2014 inter-alia. Such clarity in regard of COS shall be in the interest of all the relevant stakeholder. namely. 81 . As a matter of fact that shall be part of the Scope of the Project Highway or incidental thereto.2 and not otherwise. June 2014 . 82 INDIAN HIGHWAYS. φ = φ (t.5 (2) (Page 98) For C Clause No.***** Note : ***** ***** ***** Circular with Annexure-1 is available on Ministry's website (www. Eq. φ = φ (t. 10. 6.12 (Page 46) 4.2/IRC:112-2011/June.morth. 3. & Page No.2. Eq. 2014 To IRC:112-2011 “Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges” 1.9 (Page 42) 3.2 (Page 13) 2. June 2014 83 . No.nic. 6. to) = εci(to) Read New Addition below “z lever arm of internal forces” n = Exponent for strain in concrete stress block.εca VEd ≤ vfcd sin θf cos θf vEd ≤ vfcd sin θf cos θf INDIAN HIGHWAYS. εcc (t) IR Sl.in) and the same is also available in the library of Ministry & IRC Errata to IRC:112-2011 Errata No. to) = εcc ( t ) εci ( t 0 ) εca(t) = βas(t).3.εcw εca(t) = βas(t). June 2014 . 84 INDIAN HIGHWAYS. INDIAN HIGHWAYS. June 2014 85 .