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Public Speaking: The Virtual Textintroduction to public speaking Public Speaking: The Virtual Text chapter 1 By Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft Millersville University, Millersville, PA introduction Humans’ ability to communicate chapter objectives chapter outline using formalized systems of language After reading this chapter, you should be  Introduction sets us apart from other living creatures able to:  Benefits of Public Speaking on the Earth. Whether these language o Personal conventions make us superior to other 1. Articulate at least three o Professional reasons why public o Public creatures is debatable, but there is no speaking skills are  Models of Communication question that overall, the most important. o Linear successful and most powerful people o Transactional 2. Describe the difference over the centuries have mastered the  Elements of the Communication between the linear and ability to communicate effectively. In the transactional model of Process fact, the skill of speaking is so communication. o Encoding and Decoding important that it has been formally 3. List, define, and give an o Communicator taught for thousands of years (see example of each of the o Message Chapter 2 “The Origins of Public components of o Channel Speaking” by DeCaro). communication. o Noise 4. Differentiate between the o Worldview The ironic feature of public speaking major types of speeches o Context is that while we recognize that it is an 5. Identify the eleven core  Types of Speeches important skill to have, many of us do public speaking  Speaking Competencies not like or want to give speeches. You competencies. o Useful Topic may be reading this book because it 6. Apply chapter concepts in o Engaging Introduction was assigned to you in a class, or you final questions and o Clear Organization may be reading it because you have to activities. o Well-Supported Ideas o Closure in Conclusion give a speech in your personal or o Clear and Vivid Language professional life. If you are reading o Suitable Vocal Expression this book because you like public o Corresponding Nonverbals speaking or you have a burning desire The purpose of this chapter is to o Adapted to the Audience to learn more about it, you’re in the familiarize readers with the basic o Adept Use of Visual Aids minority. concepts of communication and public o Convincing Persuasion speaking. The chapter begins with a  Conclusion The good news about public description of the personal,  Review Questions and Activities speaking is that although it may not be professional, and public benefits of  Glossary on the top of the list of our favorite learning more about public speaking.  References activities, anyone can learn to give Then the transactional model of effective presentations. You don’t have communication is introduced along to look like a Hollywood star and you with the fundamental components of don’t have to use fancy words to be a the communication process. Next, successful speaker. What is important readers will learn about different types Wherever I go meeting the is that the audience understands you of speeches and the occasions for public... spreading a message and remembers what you have to say. which they would be presented. The By learning and using the techniques of human values, spreading a chapter ends with an overview of provided in this book, you will discover eleven primary public speaking message of harmony, is the how to create engaging speeches and competencies. most important thing. present them using your own delivery style. ~Dalai Lama ©2013 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. PDF documents prepared by Lisa Schreiber. Document layout by Donna Painter Graphics. Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org fulfill essential roles in our family and But before you even start a career, community. you have to get a job. Effective Another great personal benefit of speaking skills make you more public speaking is that it builds self- attractive to employers, enhancing your confidence. It’s no surprise that chances of securing employment and speaking in public is scary, but by later advancing within your career. engaging in the activity you will build Employers, career counselors, and the self-confidence through the experience. National Association of Colleges and Chapter 11, “Speaking with Employers (NACE) all list good Confidence” by Grapsy ( in this book) communication skills at the top of the will give you advice on how to list of qualities sought in potential minimize speech apprehension, and the employees. According to NACE’s advice can be used in many other social executive director, Marilyn Mackes, the situations as well. Job Outlook 2013 Report found that employers are looking for people who benefits of public speaking can communicate effectively (Koncz & According to the Association of Allen, 2012). Monster.com advises, American Colleges and Universities, Action is a great restorer and “articulating thoughts clearly and there are a core set of skills that are builder of confidence. concisely will make a difference in necessary “both for a globally engaged both a job interview and subsequent job democracy and for a dynamic- Inaction is not only the result, performance” (McKay, 2005). innovation fueled economy” (Rhodes, but the cause, of fear. 2010, p. 10). In the category of public Perhaps the action you take Learning about public speaking will “Intellectual and practical skills” public speaking is listed as one of will be successful; perhaps allow you to participate in democracy these core skills. This is not different action or at its most basic level. Public speaking particularly surprising given that is important in creating and sustaining a adjustments will have to society, which includes informed, communication skills are critical for intellectual development, career follow. But any action is active participants. Even if you do not trajectory, and civic engagement. better than no action at all. plan to run for office, learning about Public speaking is universally public speaking helps you to listen ~ Norman Vincent Peale more carefully to and critically evaluate applicable to all types of majors and occupations and is seen by U.S. other’s speeches. In fact the “Listening employers as a critical employability professional Effectively” and “Critical Thinking and skill for job seekers (Rockler-Gladen, TV announcers, teachers, lawyers, Reasoning” chapters in this book by 2009; U.S. Department of Labor, and entertainers must be able to speak Goddu and Russ will help you to 2000). No matter what your ambitions well, but most other professions require develop those skills. Listening and and interests are, developing speaking or at the very least can benefit from the critical thinking allow you to skills will benefit your personal, skills found in public speaking. understand public dilemmas, form an professional, and public life. opinion about them, and participate in It is believed 70% of jobs today resolving them. The progress of the personal involve some form of public speaking past century involving segregation, People don’t just give presentations (Aras, 2012). With the recent on the job and in classes. At times we economic shift from manufacturing to are called upon to give speeches in our service careers, the ability to personal lives. It may be for a special communicate with others has become event, such as a toast at a wedding. We crucial. Top CEOs advise that great may be asked to give a eulogy at a leaders must be able to communicate funeral for a friend or loved one. As a ideas effectively, they must be able to part of volunteer work, one may have persuade, build support, negotiate and to introduce a guest speaker at an event speak effectively in public (Farrell, or present or accept an award for 2011). The chapters on “Informative service. Chapter 17, “Special Occasion Speaking” and “Persuasive Speaking” Speaking” by Scholl will help you to can help readers understand how to prepare for these brief but important write presentations that enhance their speeches. Developing the skill to give leadership skills. these types of speeches can help us to 1-2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org women’s rights and environmental protection are the result of people advancing new ideas and speaking out to others to persuade them to adopt changes. models of communication It should be clear by now that public speaking happens all around us in many segments of our lives. However, to truly understand what is happening within these presentations, we need to take a step back and look at some of the key components of the communication process. linear model of communication The first theoretical model of communication was proposed in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver for Bell Laboratories (Shannon & Weaver, transactional model of 1949). This three-part model was communication your new apartment, you would picture intended to capture the radio and Models of communication have in your mind the landscape, streets and television transmission process. evolved significantly since Shannon buildings, and then you would select However it was later adapted to human and Weaver first proposed their well- the best words that describe the route communication and is now known as known conceptual model over sixty so your aunt could find you. the linear model of communication. years ago. One of the most useful Decoding is the reverse process of The first part of the model is the models for understanding public listening to words, thinking about sender, and this is the person who is speaking is Barnlund’s (2008) them, and turning those words into speaking. The second part of the model transactional model of communication. mental images. If your aunt were is the channel, which is the apparatus In the transactional model, trying to find her way to your for carrying the message (i.e., the communication is seen as an ongoing, apartment, she would listen to your phone or T.V.). The third part of the circular process. We are constantly words, associate these words with model is the receiver, and this is the affecting and are affected by those we streets and landmarks that she knows, person who picks up the message. In communicate with. The transactional and then she would form a mental map this model, communication is seen as a model has a number of interdependent of the way to get to you. Ramsey’s one-way process of transmitting a processes and components, including “Using Language Well” (Chapter 10) message from one person to another the encoding and decoding processes, provides additional insight into the person. This model can be found in the communicator, the message, the encoding and decoding process. Figure 1.1. channel and noise. Although not communicator If you think about situations when directly addressed in Barnlund’s (2008) The term communicator refers to all you communicate with another person original transactional model, of the people in the interaction or face-to-face or when you give a speech, participants’ worldviews and the speech setting. It is used instead of you probably realize that this model is context also play an important role in sender and receiver, because when we inadequate – communication is much the communication process. See Figure are communicating with other people more complicated than firing off a 1.2 on the next page for an illustration. we are not only sending a message, we message to others. are receiving messages from others simultaneously. When we speak, we elements of the observe others’ nonverbal behavior to He who would learn to fly communication process see if they understand us and we gauge encoding and decoding their emotional state. The information one day must first learn to Encoding refers to the process of we gain from these observations is stand and walk and run and taking an idea or mental image, known as feedback. Over the climb and dance; one cannot associating that image with words, and telephone, we listen to paralinguistic then speaking those words in order to cues, such as pitch, tone, volume and fly into flying. convey a message. So, if you wanted fillers (i.e., “um,” “uh,” “er,” “like,” ~ Friedrich Nietzsche to explain to your aunt the directions to and so on). This means that 1-3 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org communication is not a one-way message same speech but speaks with a solemn process. Even in a public speaking The message involves those verbal tone of voice. If there is ever a conflict situation, we watch and listen to and nonverbal behaviors, enacted by between the verbal and the non-verbal audience members’ responses. If communicators, that are interpreted aspects of a message, people will audience members are interested, agree, with meaning by others. The verbal generally believe the nonverbal portion and understand us, they may lean portion of the message refers to the of the message. To test this, tighten forward in their seats, nod their heads, words that we speak, while the your muscles, clench your fists at your have positive or neutral facial nonverbal portion includes our tone of sides, pull your eye brows together, expressions, and provide favorable voice and other non-vocal components purse your lips, and tell someone in a vocal cues (such as laughter, “That’s such as personal appearance, posture, harsh voice, “NO, I’m NOT angry!” right,” “Uh huh,” or “Amen!”). If gestures and body movements, eye See if they believe your words or your audience members are bored, disagree, behavior, the way we use space, and nonverbal behavior. or are confused by our message, they even the way that we smell. For The message can also be intentional may be texting or looking away from instance, the person who gets up to or unintentional. When the message is us, shake their heads, have unhappy or speak wearing a nice suit will be intentional, this means that we have an confused expressions on their faces, or interpreted more positively than a image in our mind that we wish to present oppositional vocal cues (like person giving the exact same speech communicate to an audience or a groans, “I don’t think so,” “That wearing sweats and a graphic t-shirt. person in a conversation, and we can doesn’t make sense,” or “You’re Or if a speaker tries to convince others successfully convey the image from our crazy!”). Thus, communication is to donate to a charity that builds wells mind to others’ minds with relative always a transactional process – a give in poor African villages using a accuracy. An unintentional message is and take of messages. monotone voice, she will not be as sent when the message that we wish to effective as the speaker who gives the convey is not the same as the message 1-4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org first type of noise is physiological noise, and this refers to bodily processes and states that interfere with a message. For instance, if a speaker has a headache or the flu, or if audience members are hot or they're hungry, these conditions may interfere with message accuracy. The second type of noise is psychological noise. Psychological noise refers to mental states or emotional states that impede message transmission or reception. For example, if someone has just broken up with a significant other, or if they're worried about their grandmother who is in the hospital, or if they are thinking about their shopping list, this may interfere with communication processes as well. The third type of noise is actual physical noise, and this would be simply the actual sound level in a room. Loud music playing at a party, a the other person receives. Let’s say person on television. One famous number of voices of people talking you are returning from an outing with example of this is the 1960 televised excitedly, a lawnmower right outside your significant other and she or he presidential debate between John F. the window, or anything that is overly asks, “Did you have a good time?” Kennedy and Richard Nixon. loud will interfere with communication. You did have a good time but are According to History.com (2012), on The last type of noise is cultural noise. distracted by a T.V. commercial when camera, Nixon looked away from the Cultural noise refers to message asked, so you reply in a neutral tone, camera at the reporters asking him interference that results from “Sure, I had fun.” Your significant questions, he was sweating and pale, he differences in peoples’ worldviews. other may interpret your apathetic tone had facial hair stubble, and he wore a Worldview is discussed in more detail of voice and lack of eye contact to grey suit that faded into the set below, but suffice it to say that the mean that you did not enjoy the background. “Chicago mayor Richard greater the difference in worldview, the evening, when in fact you actually did. J. Daley reportedly said [of Nixon], more difficult it is to understand one Thus as communicators, we cannot ‘My God, they've embalmed him another and communicate effectively. always be sure that the message we before he even died” (History.com, worldview wish to communicate is interpreted as 2012). Kennedy, on the other hand, Most people don’t give a lot of we intended. looked into the camera, was tanned, thought to the communication process. wore a dark suit that made him stand In the majority of our interactions with channel The channel is very simply the out from the background, and appeared others, we are operating on automatic means through which the message to be calm after spending the entire pilot. Although the encoding and travels. In face-to-face communication weekend with aides practicing in a decoding process may appear to be hotel room. Most of those who the channel involves all of our senses, so the channel is what we see, hear, listened to the radio broadcast of the touch, smell and perhaps what we taste. debate felt that it was a tie or that When we're communicating with Nixon had won, while 70% of those someone online, the channel is the watching the televised debate felt that Kennedy was the winner. computer; when texting the channel is the cell phone; and when watching a noise movie on cable, the channel is the TV. The next aspect of the model of The channel can have a profound communication is noise. Noise refers impact on the way a message is to anything that interferes with interpreted. Listening to a recording of message transmission or reception a speaker does not have the same (i.e., getting the image from your psychological impact as listening to the head into others’ heads). There are same speech in person or watching that several different types of noise. The 1-5 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org fairly straightforward, it is actually One of the ways that you can tell what much more complicated than it seems. people value is to ask them what their The reason for this is because we all goals are, or to ask them what qualities have different worldviews. Worldview they look for in a life partner. Our is the overall framework through which values represent the things that we hope an individual sees, thinks about, and for --they do not represent reality. interprets the world and interacts with Values can have an impact on multiple it. There are five core components to levels of the public speaking process, our worldview. but in particular values impact speaker 1. Epistemology is the way that we credibility and effectiveness in acquire knowledge and/or what counts persuasion. For instance, some cultures as knowledge. Think about the process value modest dress in women, so a of conducting research. Thirty years female speaker wearing a sleeveless ago, to find a series of facts one had to blouse while speaking could cause her use a card catalogue and scour the to lose credibility with some audience library stacks for books. Now members. Or if audience members researchers can access thousands of value the freedom to bear arms over the 5. Praxeology denotes our preferred pages of information via their computer benefits of government regulation, a method of completing everyday tasks from the comfort of their own home. speaker will have a difficult time or our approach to solving problems. Epistemology is linked to public convincing these audience members to Some speech writers may begin speaking because it governs audience vote for stricter gun control legislation. working on their outlines as soon as members’ preferred learning styles and they know they will need to give a who or what they consider to be speech, while others may wait until a credible sources. It is always good to explore few days before their speech to begin preparing (we do not recommend this 2. Ontology refers to our belief the stuff you don't agree with, approach). Praxeology may also have system, how we see the nature of to try and understand a an impact on a speaker’s preference of reality or what we see as true or false. delivery style, methods of arranging We may (or may not) believe in aliens different lifestyle or foreign main points, and choice of slideware from outer space, that butter is bad for worldview. I like to be (i.e., Power Point versus Prezi). you, that the Steelers will win the challenged in that way, and Superbowl, or that humans will be It is important to understand extinct in 200 years. Speech writers always end up learning worldview because it has a profound should be careful not to presume that something I didn't know. impact on the encoding and decoding audience members share the same process, and consequently on our ~ Laura Linney ability to be understood by others. Try beliefs. If a speaker claims that illness can be aided with prayer, but several this simple experiment. Ask two or people in the audience are atheists, at 4. Cosmology signifies the way that three people to silently imagine a dog best the speaker has lost credibility and we see our relationship to the universe while you imagine a dog at the same at worst these audience members could and to other people. Cosmology time. “Dog” is a very concrete word be offended. dictates our view of power (a word that describes a tangible object relationships and may involve our that can be perceived through the 3. Axiology represents our value religious or spiritual beliefs. senses), and it is one of the first words system, or what we see as right or Controversial speech topics (like children in the United States learn in wrong, good or bad, and fair or unfair. universal health care and the death school. Wait a few seconds and then penalty) are often related to this aspect ask each person what type of dog they of worldview as we must consider our were thinking of. Was it a Chihuahua? responsibilities to other human beings A greyhound? Golden retriever? and our power to influence them. Rottweiler? Or some other dog? Most Interestingly, cosmology would also likely each person you asked had a play a role in such logistical points as different image in his or her mind than who is allowed to speak, the order of you had in yours. This is our worldview speakers on a schedule (e.g., from most at work. to least important), the amount of time To further illustrate, you may tell a a speaker has to speak, the seating co-worker, “I can’t wait to go home arrangement on the dais, and who gets this weekend – we are having lasagna!” the front seats in the audience. Seems like a fairly clear-cut statement, 1-6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org assume your listener will understand you. It takes hard work to make yourself understood by an audience. Context is worth 80 IQ points. ~ Alan Kay context The last element of the communication process is the context in which the speech or interaction takes place. In the 1980’s context was taught as the actual physical setting where doesn’t it? Unfortunately, it is not. communication occurred, such as in a While “lasagna” is also a concrete types of speeches and place of worship, an apartment, a word, our worldviews cause us to interpret each word in the statement workplace, a noisy restaurant, or a speaking occasions grocery store. People communicate There are three general purposes for differently. Where is “home?” Who is differently in each one of these places speaking in public. The general making the meal? What ingredients as there are unwritten rules of purpose of a speech is usually will be used in the lasagna? Is this dish communication (called norms) that determined by the occasion in which eaten as a regular meal or for a special govern these settings. More recently the speech will be presented. The first occasion? Will there be leftovers? Are the concept of context has evolved and general purpose is to inform your friends invited? Since everyone who expanded to include the type of audience. In an informative speech, the has eaten lasagna has had a different relationships we have with others and presenter will share information about a experience of the cuisine, we all the communicative rules that govern particular person, place, object, acquire a different image in our mind those relationships. So you do not process, concept, or issue by defining, when we hear the statement “…we are speak the same way to your best friend describing, or explaining. Occasions having lasagna!” as you do to a small child, your parent, for which an informative speech would Complicating matters is the fact that your boss, your doctor or a police be presented include a report presented the more abstract the word becomes, officer. And you may speak to your to coworkers, a teacher presenting the more room there is for best friend differently in your information to his or her class, and a interpretation. Abstract words (words apartment than you do in your parents’ training session for a job. The second that refer to ideas or concepts that are home, and your communication may purpose for public speaking is to removed from material reality) like also change when you are both out with persuade. In a persuasive speech, the “peace,” “love,” “immoral,” “justice,” friends on the weekend. In sum, the presenter will attempt to reinforce or “freedom,” “success,” and “honor” can context refers to the norms that govern change their audiences’ beliefs, have a number of different meanings; communication in different situations attitudes, feelings, or values. Several each of which is predicated on one’s and relationships. occasions where persuasion is used worldview. Communicators have their include a sales pitch to potential own unique worldviews that shape both customers, a politician’s campaign the encoding and decoding processes, speech, or a debate during a public which means that we can never be forum. The last general purpose is to completely understood by another commemorate or entertain. These types person. People from the Midwest may of speeches often strengthen the bonds call carbonated beverages “pop,” while between audience members from those from the east coast may say recalling a shared experience or intend “soda,” and those from Georgia may to amuse audiences through humor, say “coke.” Even when simple terms stories, or illustrations. Examples of are used like “oak tree” or “fire this purpose include a toast, such as a hydrant,” each listener will form a best man’s speech at a wedding different mental image when decoding reception; a eulogy to praise the dead; a the message. Never take commencement speech at graduation; communication for granted, and never or presenting an award. It is important 1-7 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org to note that these general purposes may 2. engaging introduction are somewhat organized, but the overlap one another. One might wish to To formulate an introduction that content of these points may overlap. use some forms of entertainment while orients the audience to the topic and Transitions may also be present in his informing or persuading his or her the speaker is the second speaking speech, but they are not particularly audience. competency. An advanced speaker effective. In the ineffective speaker’s writes an introduction that contains an speech, there is no clear organizational excellent attention-getter. She firmly pattern, there are no transitions, and it A desire presupposes the establishes her credibility. She sounds as if the information is provides a sound orientation to the randomly presented. possibility of action to topic, states her thesis clearly, and achieve it; action previews her points in a cogent and presupposes a goal which is memorable way. For the beginning Don't leave inferences to be speaker, her attention-getter is drawn when evidence can be worth achieving. mundane and she somewhat develops ~ Ayn Rand her credibility. Her thesis is presented. awkwardly composed and she provides ~ Richard Wright little direction for the audience. The speaking competencies ineffective speaker has no opening 4. well-supported ideas We assume you are reading this technique, no credibility statement and Fourth on the list of speaking book or chapter because you wish to provides no background on the topic. competencies is to locate, synthesize, improve your speaking skills – a In addition she has no thesis statement and employ compelling supporting worthy goal. As Ayn Rand alludes to and no preview of her points. materials. In the advanced speaker’s in her quote, a desire to succeed is the speech, her key points are well first step in achieving this objective. supported with a variety of credible Nevertheless, you cannot hit a target materials, and her sources provide unless you know what it is. Thus, the excellent support for her thesis. In final portion of this chapter is devoted addition, all of her sources are clearly to an overview of eleven speaking cited. A beginning speaker has points competencies which we consider to be that are generally supported with a fair the standards for evaluating a variety of mix of materials. Only some of her presentations at every level of mastery. evidence supports her thesis, and her These are based on the Public Speaking source citations need to be clarified. Competence Rubric [PSCR] (Schreiber, An ineffective speaker gives a speech Paul & Shibley, 2012). A complete with no supporting materials or no copy of the rubric can be found at source citations. http://www.publicspeakingproject.org/ activities.html. 5. closure in conclusion The fifth speaking competency is to 1. useful topic develop a conclusion that reinforces The first speaking competency is to the thesis and provides psychological select a topic that is appropriate to the closure. The advanced speaker audience and the occasion. An provides a clear and memorable advanced speaker selects a worthwhile summary of his points, and he refers topic that engages the audience. His back to the thesis or big picture. His topic also presents the audience with speech also ends with a strong clincher new information that they did not know 3. clear organization or call to action. A beginning speaker before the speech. A beginning Competency three is to use an provides some summary of his points, speaker selects a topic that lacks effective organizational pattern. An but there is no clear reference back to originality or is out of date. His topic advanced speaker is very well his thesis. The closing technique of his provides no new information to the organized and delivers a speech with speech can also be strengthened. In an audience. An ineffective speaker may clear main points. His points are ineffective speaker’s speech, there is no give a speech in which a single topic mutually exclusive and directly related conclusion. His speech ends abruptly cannot be deduced by the audience. to the thesis. Further, he employs and without closure. effective transitions and signposts to help the speech flow well. The beginning speaker has main points that 1-8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 8. corresponding nonverbals shows how information is important to Eighth on the list of competencies is audience members, and his speech is to demonstrate nonverbal behavior that tailored to their beliefs, values and supports the verbal message. An attitudes. He may also make allusions advanced speaker has posture, gestures, to culturally shared experiences. A facial expression and eye contact that beginning speaker assumes but does are natural, well developed, and display not articulate the importance of the high levels of poise and confidence. topic. His presentation is minimally Some reliance on notes is seen with the adapted to the audience, and some of beginning speaker, but she has the ideas presented in the speech are adequate eye contact. She also removed from the audience’s frame of generally avoids distracting reference or experiences. An mannerisms. The ineffective speaker ineffective speaker’s speech is contrary usually looks down and avoids eye to the audience’s beliefs, values and contact. She has nervous gestures and attitudes. His message may be generic other nonverbal behaviors that distract or canned and no attempt is made to from or contradict the message. establish common ground. 6. clear and vivid language 10. adept use of visual aids To demonstrate a careful choice of Body language is a very To skillfully make use of visual aids words is the sixth speaking is the tenth competency. Exceptional competency. An advanced speaker’s powerful tool. We had body explanation and presentation of visual language is exceptionally clear, language before we had aids is characteristic of the advanced imaginative and vivid. Her language is speech, and apparently, 80% speaker. Her speech has visuals that also completely free from bias, of what you understand in a provide powerful insight into the grammatical errors and inappropriate speech topic, and her visuals are of usage. The beginning speaker selects conversation is read through high professional quality. The language that is adequate to make her the body, not the words. beginning speaker’s visual aids are point. She has some errors in grammar generally well developed and and occasionally uses slang, jargon or ~ Deborah Bull explained, although there may be minor awkward sentence structure. The errors present in the visuals. An ineffective speaker has many errors in 9. adapted to the audience ineffective speaker uses visual aids that her grammar and syntax. She also The ninth speaking competency is to distract from her speech. Her visuals mispronounces words and extensively successfully adapt the presentation to may not be relevant, or her visuals may uses slang, jargon, and/or sexist or the audience. The advanced speaker be of poor professional quality. racist terms. 7. suitable vocal expression Competency number seven is to effectively use vocal expression and paralanguage to engage the audience. Excellent use of vocal variation, intensity and pacing are characteristics of the advanced speaker. His vocal expression is also natural and enthusiastic, and he avoids fillers. Some vocal variation is evident in the beginning speaker’s speech. He also enunciates clearly, speaks audibly, and generally avoids fillers (e.g., “um,” “uh,” “like,” etc.). An ineffective speaker is inaudible, enunciates poorly, and speaks in a monotone voice. His speech also has poor pacing, and he distracts listeners with fillers. 1-9 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org 11. convincing persuasion The eleventh and final speaking competency is to construct an effectual persuasive message with credible evidence and sound reasoning. An advanced speaker articulates the problem and solution in a clear, compelling manner. He supports his claims with powerful and credible evidence while completely avoiding reasoning fallacies. His speech also contains a memorable call to action. In the beginning speaker’s speech, the problem and solution are evident, and most claims are supported with evidence. He also has generally sound reasoning and a recognizable call to action. For the ineffective speaker, the problem and/or solution are not defined. His claims are not supported with evidence, his speech contains poor reasoning, and there is no call to action. Readers should note that the competencies listed above are not all The speeches you present will be Each one of the competencies just inclusive. Ultimately one must adjust, given in a particular context. In your listed is covered in depth in one or expand, and apply these competencies role as communicator, you will encode more chapters in this book. as best fits the requirements of the and deliver a message which will then The authors of this textbook hope speaking situation. But they do provide be decoded by audience members (also that readers will find the chapters a starting point for new or less communicators). At the same time you useful in developing their own experienced speakers to begin to are speaking, you will be receiving communication competence. Whether understand all of the interrelated verbal and nonverbal feedback from the you are new to giving presentations, or components of a speech. audience. The way that the message is a more experienced speaker, it is decoded will depend entirely on the important to remember that the best amount of noise interfering with the way to improve your public speaking message as well as the worldviews of skills is through preparation and Being ignorant is not so audience members. practice. Although it may take time to much a shame, as being Every new speaker should work to learn effective speaking skills, the unwilling to learn. become skilled at the eleven core effort is well worth the benefits you ~ Benjamin Franklin public speaking competencies. These will reap in your personal, professional, competencies include: selecting a and public life. useful topic, writing an engaging conclusion introduction, organizing the points of Our capacity to communicate the speech, finding effective supporting through systems of language An effective speaker knows materials for the points, adding a differentiates us from other species, but conclusion that provides closure, using that the success or failure of the use of that language to clear and vivid language, making sure his talk is not for him to communicate effectively is actually that one’s vocal expression corresponds harder than anticipated, particularly in decide -- it will be decided in to the goals of the speech, using front of an audience. Fortunately, by nonverbals that complement the the minds and hearts of his reading this book, you can learn the message, adapting the message to one’s hearers. skills required to communicate more audience, using visual aids effectively, effectively one-on-one and in a ~Dale Carnegie and using credible evidence and sound speaking situation. . reasoning in persuasive messages. 1-10 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org review questions and activities review questions 1. What are the personal, professional and public benefits of enhancing your public speaking skills? 2. What is the difference between the linear and transactional model of communication? 3. Define and give an original example of each of the elements of the communication process. 4. Which of the elements of the communication process do you think has the greatest impact on the way a message is interpreted. Explain. 5. What are the three types of speeches? For each of the three types of speeches, give two examples of an occasion or situation in which that type of speech might be given. 6. List the eleven speaking competencies. For each competency listed, describe the differences between the advanced speaker and the inexperienced speaker. activities 1. Working in groups of 3 – 5, generate a list of the characteristics of ineffective speakers you have seen. Next, generate a list of the characteristics of the effective speakers you have seen. What three qualities do you believe are most important to be a successful speaker? Explain. 2. Locate a speech on YouTube. While watching the speech, identify the strengths and weaknesses of the speaker’s content and delivery? What three things could the speaker improve on? What three things did you like about the speaker? If you were to deliver the speech, how would you do things differently? 3. Locate a copy of the Public Speaking Competence Rubric at http://www.publicspeakingproject.org/activities.html. Read through each of the levels of each of the competencies, and try to determine what your level of skill is for each of the speaking competencies. If you are able, have a friend or colleague watch one of your speeches and ask him or her to evaluate your level of skill for each of the competencies. Compare your responses to see how much correspondence there is between your responses and the evaluator’s responses. In what areas are you strongest? What do you need to improve upon? glossary Abstract Word Context Encoding Words that refer to ideas or The communication rules that The process of taking a mental concepts that are removed from govern different physical settings image, associating the image with material reality. and/or different types of words, and then speaking those Axiology relationships. words. A part of worldview; refers to an Cosmology Epistemology individual or group’s value A part of worldview; refers to the A part of worldview; refers to the system. way individuals and groups see way an individual or group Channel themselves in relation to other acquires knowledge or what The means through which the people and their view of their counts as knowledge. message travels. place in the universe. Listening Communicator Cultural Noise The psychological process of The people in the interaction or Differences in worldview that interpreting and making sense of speech setting who encode and cause message interference. the messages we receive. decode messages simultaneously. Decoding Message Concrete Word The process of listening to words The words, nonverbal behavior, A word that describes a tangible and interpreting the words so they or other signals transmitted from object that can be perceived are associated with a mental one person to another. through the senses. image. 1-11 Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org Noise Ontology Physical Noise Any thing that interferes with the A part of worldview; refers to an Message interference that results message transmission or the individual’s or group’s belief when the noise level (as encoding and decoding process. system. measured in decibels) makes it Nonverbal Behavior Praxeology difficult to hear a message. All of the messages we send --- A part of worldview; refers to the Public Speaking except for the words we say. Can way an individual or group goes The act of delivering a speech in include appearance, eye behavior, about tasks or solving problems. front of a live audience. kinesics (body movement), Psychological Noise Worldview proxemics (use of space), touch, Message interference that results The overall framework through time, and smell. from disturbed or excited mental which an individual sees, thinks Norms states. about, and interprets the world The verbal and nonverbal rules Physiological Noise and interacts with it. (usually unspoken) that govern Message interference that results communicative behavior. from bodily discomfort. references Aras, K. (2012). The nuts and bolts of http://www.history.com/topics/kenne knowledge. Suite 101.com. public speaking: Practical tools for dy-nixon-debates Retrieved from powerful presentations. Retrieved http://studyskills.suite101.com/articl Koncz, A. and Allen, C. (2012). from http://www.thecommuni e.cfm/job_skills_that_every_college Employers look for communication cationfactory.com/seminars/skills/Pu skills, ability to work in a team in _student_needs blicSpeaking.php new college grads. Schreiber, L., Paul, G. & Shibley, L. R. Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional www.naceweb.org/pressreleases/. (2012). The development and test of model of communication. In. C. D. the Public Speaking Competence McKay, J. (2005). Employers complain Mortensen (Eds.), Communication about communication skills. Rubric. Communication Education, theory (2nd Ed), pp. 47-57. New Pittsburgh Post Gazette. 61 (3), 205 – 233. Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction. Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). Rhodes, T. (Ed.) (2010). Assessing Farrell, R. (2011). Soft skills all great outcomes and improving The mathematical theory of leaders should have. CareerBuilder. achievement: Tips and tools for communication. Urbana: University http://www. of Illinois Press using rubrics. Washington D. C.: careerbuilder.com/Article/CB-2335- Association of American Colleges U. S. Department of Labor (2000). Skills Leadership-Management-Soft-skills- and Universities. and tasks for jobs: A SCANS report all-great-leaders-should-have/ Rockler-Gladen, N. (2009, March 21). for America 2000. The Secretary’s History.com. (2012). The Kennedy- Commission on Achieving Job skills that every college student Nixon Debates. History.com. Necessary Skills. Washington, D.C. needs: Writing, speaking, Retrieved from professionalism, and other important photo credits p. 1 The Dali Lama p. 6 FEMA worker talking to woman p. 9 Reasons not to like public speaking http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co http://www.flickr.com/photos/codepo8/4 Dalai-Lama-talking-to-KD.jpg By mmons/1/17/FEMA_-_32747_- 348896264/ Wakan Foundation for the Arts _FEMA_Community_Relations_worker_ by Christian Heilmann p. 2 Ronsenbaum talking to woman talking_to_a_Ohio_resident.jpg By John p. 9 Woman drawing http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: Ficara / FEMA http://www.flickr.com/photos/jonnygolds Michael_Rosenbaum_(4995506953).jpg p. 6 Superfans tein/3958940167/sizes/m/in/photostream/ By Vagueonthehow http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: by Jonny Goldstein p. 2 Alice Walker NFL_Superfans.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: By HMJD02 Alice_Walker_(cropped)1.jpg By p. 7 Hand cyclists at Warrior Games Virginia Debolt http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: p. 5 The Kennedy / Nixon Debate 1960 Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army_- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kenned _Talking_technique.jpg By U.S. Army y_Nixon_Debat_(1960).jpg By the National Park Service 1-12