INTRODUCTION TO NATURE OF INDIAN FEDERALISM: DIVISION OFPOWERS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATES UNIT STRUCTURE 1. Learning Objectives 2. Introduction 3. Nature of Indian federalism 1. Federal features 2. Unitary or non-federal features 4. Centre-State Relations:Division of powers between the Union and State governments 1. Legislative Relations 2. Administrative Relations 3. Financial Relations 5. An estimate of Indian federalism 5. Let Us sum Up 6. Further Readings 7. Answers To Check Your Progress 8. Possible Questions the States can not break away from the union. In a true federation. Let us now discuss the federal and the unitary or nonfederal features of the Indian Constitution. the constituting units or the States have the freedom to come out of the union. we will discuss all these in detail. This is an important feature of a federal government.K. Article 1 of the Constitution describes her as a “Union of States. there are some other features as well.LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit.” This means. NATURE OF INDIAN FEDERALISM One important thing. here. Prof. India is not a true federation. Wheare describes it as “a quasi-federal state”. The Indian Union is not destructible. In this way. They do not have the right to secede from the union. Because of this. you will be able to: describe the nature of Indian federalism explain the federal features of the Indian Constitution explain the unitary or non-federal features of the Indian Constitution discuss the division of powers between the Union and State governments present an estimate of Indian federalism INTRODUCTION You have already come to know that India has two sets of government. is to be noted that the Constitution of India has not described India as a federation. Here. On the other hand. Because of this.C. India is regarded as a semi-federal state. India is a union comprising of various States which are integral parts of it. which can prove that India has a federal form of government. But the Indian Constitution has also some non-federal features which are opposite to the features of a federal government. It combines the features of a federal government and the features of a unitary government which can also be called the non-federal features. The Supreme Court of India also describes it as “a federal structure with a strong bias towards the Centre”. . one at the Centre and the other in the States. India is not regarded as a true federation. In this unit. · Written Constitution: The Constitution of India is written.Federal Features Two sets of government: India has two sets of government . The Constitution has also included some unitary or non-federal features which are discussed as below: Unitary or Non-Federal Features . No law can be made which will go against the authority of the Constitution. It is regarded as the guardian of the Constitution. The Constitution is above all and all citizens and organizations within the territory of India must be loyal to the Constitution. The Central government works for the whole country and the State governments look after the States. The Indian Parliament. The Rajya is the upper house of the Parliament representing the States while the Lok Sabha is the lower house representing the people in general. the legislature has two houses .the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. · Bi-cameral legislation : In India. Both the governments have their separate powers and responsibilities. i. · Supreme judiciary: The Supreme Court of India is the highest court of justice in India.the Central or Union government and the State government. It is regarded as one of the longest constitutions of the world which has 395 Articles 22 Parts and 12 Schedules. Every provision of the Constitution is clearly written down and has been discussed in detail. It has been given the responsibility of interpreting the provisions of the Constitution. The areas of activity of both the governments are different. · Supremacy of the Constitution: The Constitution is regarded as the supreme law of the land. the legislature is bi-cameral..e. · Division of Powers: The Constitution of India has divided powers between the Central government and the state governments. The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution contains three lists of subjects which show how division of power is made between the two sets of government. These are some of the features of a federal form of government and the Indian Constitution has included them in it. The boundary of a State can be changed by created out of the existing States. they are the citizens of their respective provinces or States and then they are the citizens of the federation. the Central government has been given has been given more powers and made stronger than the State governments. But in India. But in a true federation. the Rajya Sabha is not properly representative of all the States of Indian union. to establish India. the citizens enjoy single citizenship. There are no separate constitutions for the States. Again. 3. that is. those constitutions are rigid and difficult to amend. The States have to respect the laws made by the central government and can not make any law on matters on which there is already a central law. power are divided equally between the two governments. First. languages. ACTIVITY Find out a country which is regarded as a true federation. Indian citizenship or citizenship of the country as a whole. etc. the Parliament does not need the approval of the State legislatures to amend the Constitution. we find that though India has adopted a federal form of government. the upper house of the legislature has equal representation from the constituting units or the States. Further. The Supreme Court is the highest court of justice in the country and all other subordinate courts are under it. The High Courts which work in the States are under the Supreme Court of India. The unitary features are also called non-federal features because they are the features of a government which is opposite to a fed eral government. In India however. there is only one government which rules the whole country. · Constitution is not strictly rigid : The Constitution of India can be amended by the Indian Parliament very easily. the existence of a State or a federating unit depends upon the authority of the Centre. The state of Jammu and Kashmir has its own separate constitu tion but it also works under the Constitution of India. castes. the Union or Central governments become all powerful and the State governments come under the total control of it. In a true federation. a strong centre was thought to be necessary. Thus. But in our Rajya Sabha. both the Union and the State legislatures take part in the amendment of the Constitution with respect to all matters. · Proclamation of emergency: The Constitution of India has given emergency powers to the President. He can declare emergency in the country under three conditions. The upper house of the Indian Parliament. the States do not have equal representation. · Unified judiciary: India has a unified or integrated judicial system. the central government needed to be powerful. On many subjects. we have only one Constitution. 2. · Single citizenship: In a true federal state. races. · Rajya Sabha does not represent the States equality: In a true federation. When emergency is declared. In order to maintain unity and integrity among them. · Centre’s control over States: The Centre exercises control over the States. · Single Constitution: In India. LET US KNOW 1. a strong centre with sufficient resources and authority was essential.e. Therefore. . yet there are various features of our Constitution which are non-federal or unitary. There are no state governments like that of a federal government. i. The State governments lose their autonomy. In a unitary government.division of power is not equal : In a federation. India is a vast country where the people of different religious. The centre can also give directions to the States which they must carry out. It is applicable to both the Union as a whole and the Stares. are residing. citizens are given dual citizenship. in the international forums. there are separate constitutions for the union and the States. · Existence of States depends on the Centre: In India. to perform the vast responsibility of a modern welfare state and for the economic development of a newly independent country. The framers of the constitution wanted to have a strong central government and therefore. This is against the principles of a federation.. had made every attempt to the make the central government more powerful than the state governments. There are various reasons for this. The populous States have more representatives in the Rajya Sabha than the less populous States. Legislative Relations . social security. Article 257 of the Constitution lays down that the executive authority of every State shall be exercised in such a way that it does not impede or prejudice the exercise of the executive power of the Union. It has not only exclusive contral over the Union list and the residuary powers. In respect of Concurrent list also. It can control the State governments by directing them to take necessary steps for proper running of administration. The States should exercise its executive powers in accordance with the laws made by the Parliament. The State governments have to work under the supervision and control of the Central government. Some subjects of this list are – economic planning. Though the State governments have power to make laws on the subjects of the State list. Some such subjects are defence. public health. working in the States.law and order. These subjects are of great importance for the country and uniform in character. printing and news papers. The Central government can make laws for maintaining good relations between the Centre and the States. the Parliament makes laws on State subjects. . can also make laws on these subjects. LET US KNOW 1. The offices of the All India Services are appointed by the Central government but they serve in different States. Administrative Relations As in legislative maters. For example. yet the laws made by the Central government will prevail over the State laws in case of a conflict between the two. we find that in legislative matters. LET US KNOW 1. etc.So far as the legislative relations between the Central government and the State governments is concerned. The Governor of a State is appointed by the President who acts as a central agent in the State. The Concurrent list has 52 subjects. there are some officials of the Central government. the Union Parliament is very powerful. in administrative matters also. The State governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in the State list. 2. citizenship. The State list has 61 subjects. So. Thus. through which it can have control over the State governments. on certain occasions. The Chief Justice and the Judges of a High Court are appointed by the President and he can also remove them if a resolution is passed by the Parliament in this regard. the Central government has been given exclusive power to make law on the subjects of the Union list. There are some functionaries of the Union government who serve the State governments. yet the Central government. The States have nothing to do in this regard. are included in the Concurrent list. foreign affairs. electricity. On these subjects both the central and the state governments can make laws. etc. these subjects are given to the Union government. the Union government has exclusive power to make laws. it can impose President’s rule there under Article 356 and take over its (the State’s) administration. census. If the State fails to work properly or according to the Constitution. during the period of emergency. currency and coinage. revenue. The Constitution has made it clear that the State governments cannot go against the Central government in administrative matters. In case of residuary powers. education. Some subjects of the State list are . but it has also dominance over the Concurrent list and the State list. etc. the Central government has been made more powerful than the States. Sometimes the Governor of a state can reserve certain bills passed by the state legislature for the consideration of President. The subjects which are of great importance and uniform in character but man require local variations. forests. though both the governments can make laws on the subjects included in the list. The Parliament can make a law on State subjects if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a 2/3 majority that such a law is necessary for national interest. The union list has 96 subjects. 2. Again. sanitation. The subjects which are of local importance and may vary from State to State are included in the State list. . The Comptroller and Auditor General India and the Finance Commission of India which are the central agencies also have control over the State finances.Financial Relations To run the administration properly. toilet preparations. In financial relations between the two governments. There are some other taxes also which are the sources of income of the Union government alone. etc. which are levied and collected by the States. we find the three lists of sub jects? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. which are levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the States. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. both the Central and the State governments need adequate sources of income. (True/False)? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. They are revenue earned from railways. tax on agricultural income. excise on medicine. In financial matters also. posts and telegraphs. Some taxes are there like stamp duty. The Union list has 96 subjects. estate duty. etc. The President of India has the power to make alterations in the distribution of revenues earned from income-tax between the centre and the States. The Centre has also the power to great loans and great-in-aid to the State governments. There are certain taxes like land revenue. In which Schedule of the Constitution. we will discuss how the sources of income are adjusted between the to governments. They are the sources of State revenue. etc. wireless. broadcasting. The income of the government comes mainly from various taxes imposed by it. the central government is more powerful than the States. Discuss the administrative relations between Central and State governments. (within 50 words) AN ESTIMATE OF INDIAN FEDERALISM . No single national political party has been able to secure absolute majority in the Parliament to form the government independently. India has been continuing with a strong Central government. if necessary. The Sarkaria Commission. the Sarkaria Commission was established by the Central government to study the question of the Centre-State relations and to suggest reforms. we have seen an important development in the working of Indian federalism. He again said that the States are sovereign in the field which is left to them by the Constitution as the centre is in the field which is assigned to it. because it is indestructible. The federation is a union. the West Bengal Government Memorandum on Union-State Relations. said that though India was to be a federation. The Planning Commission exercises control over the working of the State governments and thus reduced the position of the States to the units of local administration in a unitary system of government. They wished that States would perform their functions in their allotted spheres freely and both the governments would co-operate rather than confront each other. in its report while accepting the need for a strong Centre also favoured the devolution of more powers to the States in some areas. in the use of Article 356 by the Central government. Dr. it was not the result of an agreement by the States to join a federation which is why no state had the right to secede from it. It is a fact that India has a strong Central government but it should not always try to interfere in the matters of the States. This development to some extent has changed the face of Indian federalism. The role of the Planning Commission has also been contributing to the strength of the Central government in financial matters. But India is not regarded as a true federation. we have discussed that India has various features of federal government. yet they wanted a cooperative federation. Ambedkar. the Centre has also been using Article 356 to have control over the States mostly in a discriminating way. However. The Rajamanner committee. India combines both federal and nonfederal or unitary features with unitary features outweighing the federal features. This commission emphasised co-operative federalism in India. though the Constitution makers made the Central government stronger than the State governments. the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution. But the States are always resenting the stronger position of the centre and demanding autonomy so that they can work independently in their own matters. LET US KNOW In 1983. LET US SUM UP In This unit. The Centre has been changing the boundary of the existing States from time to time in which the consent of the concerned States was not regarded as necessary. But the real working of the Constitution in all these years shows that the Centre has grown stronger day by day and that the States have become just like administrative units of the Centre.The Constitution of India has described India as a “Union of States” and not a federation. Both the governments should respect one another’s power or authority and work harmoniously. These are some of the issues which have been constraining Centre-State relations from the very beginning. Accordingly. So. Various regional and local political parties have been emerging and playing crucial role in the formation of coalition governments at the Centre. They have not been able to work freely and independently. it is hoped that Coalition politics will enable Indian federalism to bring about some positive changes in the Center-State relations. FURTHER READING . Again. role of the Governor in a State and the distribution of financial powers between the two governments. particularly. But. In recent years. The demand for State autonomy has become stronger with the emergence of the regional political parties in different States and with their growing influence in national politics. The Central government has control over the State governments and the State governments are to work under the authority of the Central government although they have a certain degree of autonomy in their respective spheres. while explaining the meaning of the phrase. as it has many nonfederal features as well. the Anandpur Sahib Resolution and the J & K Assembly Autonomy Resolution have all given a call for the grant of more powers to the States. Q. tax on agricultural income. They are the sources of State revenue. The Central government can control the State governments by directing them to take necessary steps for proper running of administration. K. being the pivotal authority of a Federal Union of 29 States and seven Union Territories.Misra 2. Indian Government and Politics – Prakash Chander CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Q. no. all governmental authority is clearly divided between the Central Government and the State Governments. i) two sets of government. They are revenue earned from railways. True Q. in administrative matters also. no. In financial matters also. etc. legislation and jurisdiction are clearly determined by the three listsoutlined in the VIIth Schedule of the Constitution of India. Prof. The current arrangement has two constitutional levels of governance. no. The Constitution envisages a multi-tiered system. The Central Government of India is also known as the Union Government. Some taxes are there like stamp duty. iv) unequal representation of States in the Rajya Sabha CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Q. the Central government has been made more powerful than the States. excise on medicine. i) division of powers is not equal.K. and neither the Centre nor the States can boast of overriding powers above another.V. Both States and the Centre are equal holders of powers of different kinds. the central government is more powerful than the States. The income of the government comes mainly from various taxes imposed by it.Ghai 3.Pylee 4.. no.C.1. no. iii) Constitution is not strictly rigid. There are certain taxes like land revenue. Seventh Schedule Q.K. Constitutional Government in India – M. 3. 4. iii)Written constitution. ii) division of power. True Q. iv) supreme Judiciary Q. which are levied and collected by the States. Wheare Q. 2. 3. Federalism in India The Government of the Union and the Governments of the States Federalism is indicative of a governmental structure where various groups of authorities (federating units such as States) unite together under a single unit (the Union). The State governments have to work under the supervision and control of the Central government. and their areas of governance. etc. no. etc. As in legislative maters. 2. There are some other taxes also which are the sources of income of the Union government alone. ii) single constitution. Indian Government and Politics – K. both the Central and the State governments need adequate sources of income. posts and telegraphs. no. In a federation. 1. . To run the administration properly. 1. Select Constitutions – Anup Chand Kapur and K. no. in which the Constitution of India outlines the subjects on which each tier of government has executive powers. The States should exercise its executive powers in accordance with the laws made by the Parliament. usually demarcated through a written constitution. which are levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the States. as shown in the chart below. 4. The State Governments alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the State List. Further. For this. adoption and succession. any residuary powers are entrusted to the Union Government. So far. This is the first time in India that a state is sought to be divided without the consent of the State legislature. B and C — and there was need to reorganise all states and integrate the 552 princely states. and without a negotiated settlement among stakeholders and regions. More important. in certain circumstances. reorganisation would have become an excruciatingly difficult exercise. banking. India witnessed Partition. While prior consent of the state legislature is not mandatory. bending the balance of powers a little away from the States. agriculture and irrigation. impartial examination by an independent commission. Article 3 India’s Constitution-makers gave much thought to the issue of formation of new states and reorganisation of states. In addition. communications and currency. the law made by the Union Government will prevail. Consequently. bloodshed. The decision to divide Andhra Pradesh raises important questions about federalism and the nation’s future. or to act only on the express request of the state. It is this tendency which has resulted in the Indian structure being referred to as ‘federal in form’ but ‘unitary in spirit’ . such as education. pose a grave danger to federalism and unity. marriage. in practice every state has been formed with prior consent. The Union Government alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the Union List. in practice care has been taken to obtain consent. there were several kinds of States — Parts A. Parliament and governments have acted with restraint and wisdom in dealing with boundary issues and formation of states. There are currently 52 items on the Concurrent List. trade unions. State List:Contains subjects of State and local importance such as police. Union Parliament can also make laws on subjects mentioned in the State List. While prior consent of the state was not necessary under the Constitution. and in the face of public opposition. commerce. and forced mass migration. there was no legislature at the time of dividing the State in 1966. Only in the case of Punjab. foreign affairs. but does display some clear Centralising tendencies. trade. It must be noted here that India does not follow a purely Federal form of government. successive governments have wisely applied Article 3 in dealing with states. This is the essence of federalism. Both the Union as well as the State Governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in this list. If their laws conflict with each other.Union List:Includes subjects of national importance such as defence of the country. The Drafting Committee and the Constituent Assembly were aware of the circumstances prevailing at that time. accompanied by violence. They rejected the notion that anything could be done to alter boundaries. If the consent of every State or Unit was a precondition to altering the boundary. forest. Concurrent List: Includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as well as the State Governments. Union Parliament has to pass a resolution with 2/3rd majority stating that it is appropriate to legislate on the State List in national interest. provided it is not expressly prohibited by the Constitution. However. There are currently 99 items mentioned on the Union List. Our nation-builders were wise in drafting the Constitution to suit our requirements. The 1956 . There are currently 61 items mentioned on the State List. All major federal democracies have in their Constitutions the provision that a state cannot be divided or merged with another state without its prior consent. But there was a broad consensus among stakeholders and no opposition. in most cases after a detailed. the final text of Article 3 as promulgated provided for the President’s recommendation and ascertaining the views of the state concerned both with respect to the proposal to introduce the Bill and with respect to the provisions thereof. challenge to Indian federalism The efforts of the Union government to divide Andhra Pradesh irrespective of the State legislature’s views. Nor did the operation of our Constitution over the past 63 years suggest a de facto unitary state. It is this spirit that informed the actions of the Union government and Parliament over the past six decades. Ambedkar had hoped. Even after 1987. It is on this basis that people migrated on a large scale to the other regions and to the capital. broad consensus or negotiated settlement. in keeping with global trends. There were blemishes in the application of Article 356 earlier. The determined efforts of the Union government and its oft-repeated declarations that Andhra Pradesh will be divided irrespective of the legislature’s views. in every case of state formation. There is one nation and one citizenship. This charge must be admitted. The Constitution did not intend to make India a unitary country with states functioning as municipalities. and a fixed proportion of it is shared with states as decided by the Finance Commission. The procedure was observed in creating Jharkhand. livelihoods and the State’s economy. In fact. in Bommai (1994). But before condemning the Constitution for containing such overriding powers. But over the past two decades Indian federalism has matured a great deal. Uttaranchal and Chhattisgarh in 2000. Ambedkar said in his reply to the debate in the Constituent Assembly on states’ rights: “The… charge is that the Centre has been given the power to override the States. An explicit and implicit compact was made by the Union with the people of Andhra Pradesh to the effect that the State would remain united. However.reorganisation was based on the fundamental principle of language. there has been greater transparency in devolution: most of the tax revenues of the Union are being treated as the divisible pool. made Article 356 more or less a “dead letter” — as Dr. unless overwhelming national interest demands action by Parliament. within that overarching framework. and the nation’s territorial integrity is paramount. The framers of the Constitution did not intend to give Parliament arbitrary powers to redraw boundaries. their survival dependent on the will and whim of the Union government. When two popular movements for the state’s division were launched in the three regions — in Telangana in 1969-70. and the federal spirit informs the operation of the Constitution. The Supreme Court. Since the report of the Tenth Finance Commission. The first is that these overriding powers do not form the normal feature of the Constitution. the consent of the state legislature was obtained. states exercise limited sovereignty. Limited sovereignty This does not mean states can act as they please. there was broad national consensus on the issue. or that their territorial integrity is inviolable. certain considerations must be borne in mind. The broader principle of federalism and the willing consent of constituent units and their people has been deemed to be necessary before a state is formed or a territory merged. Dr. or to settle marginal boundary disputes between states when they are recalcitrant and efforts to reconcile differences and arrive at a settlement fail. Articles 3 & 4 in their present form are enabling provisions empowering Parliament to act in an exceptional situation when national interest warrants it. States are now more in control of their economic future. nor did successive Parliaments and governments act unilaterally or arbitrarily without consent. Their use and operation are expressly confined to emergencies only”. and the Hyderabad State Legislature. Corresponding constitutional provisions were put in place to safeguard the interests of all regions. Andhra Pradesh was formed with the prior consent of the Andhra State Legislature. and in Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema in 1972-73 — the Union government encouraged all regions to arrive at a negotiated settlement. federalism has been deepening in India. those of every Finance Commission in respect of devolution of resources have been accepted and implemented. Though the Finance Commission’s recommendations are not binding on Parliament and government. Hyderabad. In this backdrop. and built their lives. pose a grave danger to federalism and unity. any redrawing of boundaries would need another agreement arrived at by the affected parties . First of all. Constitution has spelt out in detail the legislative. If such an arbitrary decision becomes a precedent. Telangana agitation. Andhra Pradesh politics Cooperative Federalism Although the Constitution of India has nowhere used the term 'federal'. Parliament can act only on the basis of such an agreement. Secondly. The President is elected by members of both Houses as well as members of State Assemblies. and the future of federalism in India. This is therefore a fit case where the President should exercise his constitutional duty independently before recommending introduction of any Bill to divide the State of Andhra Pradesh. it has provided for a structure of governance which is essentially federal in nature. The way the President and Parliament handle the Andhra Pradesh issue will. and with the knowledge that division of a state without its consent and a negotiated settlement among all stake-holders converts the nation effectively into a unitary one. and the way they respond to this challenge will shape the future of our Republic.through patient negotiation. Telangana JAC. Every state will. arbitrary and uneven. The President is not only the head of the Republic. and India into a unitary state. foresight and wisdom. in future. Any other approach would be ham-handed. powers and functions of the Union and the State Governments. administrative and financial relations between the Union and the States. The Union has a seminal role in helping reconcile conflicting interests harmoniously. Leaders of parliamentary parties too should act with clarity and wisdom. In critical moments like this the President and Parliament have to act with restraint. (The writer is president of the Lok Satta Party. the Constitution has given overriding powers to . and run counter to the principles and practice of federalism as they have evolved under Indian conditions. Within this basic framework of federalism. Neither the Constitution-makers nor nation-builders intended such an outcome. shape the future of the Union itself. Constitution has clearly demarcated the jurisdictions. This is a defining moment not for Andhra Pradesh alone. The Constitution. In a fundamental sense the President represents the nation — both Union and states — and is the final defender of the Constitution and federalism along with the Supreme Court. in a fundamental sense. statehood demand. consensus and consent. Samaikyandhra movement. And India’s future will be in peril if such an effort is made to make the nation effectively unitary at this stage. the President. executive and judicial wings of governance. Third. he is also a part of Parliament. but for our federal Constitution and India itself. be vulnerable to unilateral action for short-term electoral expediency. that will effectively convert states into municipalities. and without a negotiated settlement. Constitution has provided separate governments at the Union and the States with separate legislative. He is at [email protected]) Keywords: Andhra Pradesh bifurcation. Parliament and the political parties will be put to a severe test in this case. any and every state could be divided or boundaries altered without consent. Considering the overriding powers given to the Central government. So long as the central and governments were ruled by the same political party. the cooperative framework worked very well. Indian federation has often been described as 'quasi-federation'.the Central government. India is the largest democratic country as also the largest federal and the largest pluralist country of the world. federation ensures that governance is distributed spatially and a strong central government enables that the 'unity amidst diversity' is maintained and the country mobilizes all its resources to maintain its harmony and integrity and marches ahead to progress. States must exercise their executive power in compliance with the laws made by the Central government and must not impede on the executive power of the Union within the States. This is the essence of cooperative federalism. While democracy provides freedom to everybody. Central councils have been set up by various ministries to strengthen cooperation.state and inter-state cooperation to resolve the differences and strengthen the framework of cooperation. discussion and recommendation for better coordination of relation between the Centre and the States. A strong Centre in India is therefore necessary for strong States and vice versa. there are signs of stresses and tensions in intergovernmental relations between the Centre and the States. 'semi-federation'. Besides Chief Ministers. One of the challenges of Indian federation would be how best these mechanisms of cooperative federalism can be strengthened further to promote better coordination and cooperation between the Centre and the States. The Centre can even take over the executive of the States on the issues of national security or breakdown of constitutional machinery of the State. Indian federation should be seen in the context of its democratic system of governance at the national. linguistic. Article 263 of the Constitution has provided for the setting up of an Inter-State Council for investigation. The Zonal Councils set up under the State Reorganization Act 1956 provide another institutional mechanism for centre. The National Development Council and the National Integration Council are the two other important forums that provide opportunities for discussion to resolve differences of opinion. state and local levels and the pluralities of its culture in terms of ethnic. . religious and other diversities which cut through the States. Finance and other Ministers have their annual conferences in addition to the regular meetings and discussions of the officials of the Centre and the States to share mutual concerns on various issues. Governors are appointed by the Central government to oversee the States. 'pragmatic federation' or a 'federation with strong unitary features'. Since the seventies when different political parties are in power in the centre and the states and more recently when coalition governments of national and regional parties are in power in the Centre.
Report "Introduction to Nature of Indian Federalism"