. . - - - Is a set of methods used to collect information about phenomena in a particular area of interest and build a reliable base of knowledge about them. Involves developing theories to help better describe. explain. and organize scientific information Information is obtained through observation and measurement of phenomena . and theories are always open to modification and perhaps even abandonment as new evidence is discovered.- - Requires that any explanations for phenomena can be modified and corrected if new information becomes available (Nothing in Science is taken as an absolute truth) All scientific observations. conclusions. . - Is someone who does science A person who adopts the methods of science in his or her quest for knowledge Engaged in a wide range of activities designed to acquire knowledge in their fields . Is a way of thinking and of viewing the world A scientist approaches a problem by carefully defining its parameters. and subjecting proposed solutions to rigorous testing An individual with a scientific outlook does not accept everything at face value . seeking out relevant information. Use a wide variety of techniques. each suited to a particular purpose .. with little emphasis placed on applications to real.BASIC RESEARCH . Harrison.Harari.Major goal is to acquire general information about a phenomenon. 1982) .world examples of the phenomenon (Yaremko. & Lynn.Is conducted to investigate issues relevant to the confirmation or disconfirmation of theoretical or empirical positions . world problem.APPLIED RESEARCH .Investigate a problem based in the real world . .Primary goal is to generate information that can be applied directly to a real. Serious conflicts of interest. minimized. Idiosyncratic findings and blunders provide the only identifiable phenomena. Ideas never discarded. Scientists convince others based on evidence and research findings. Experiments must be precisely described and be reproducible. Failures are ignored. Over time and continued research. are vaguely defined and cannot be reproduced easily. Belief encouraged in spit of facts. Idiosyncratic findings and blunders “average out” and do not affect the actual phenomenon under study. Results cannot be reproduced. No underlying mechanisms are identified and no new research is done. Attempts to convince based on belief and faith rather than facts. making the best case permitted by existing data. PSEUDOSCIENCE Findings disseminated to general public via sources that are not peer reviewed. Pseudoscieintist makes his or her living off of pseudoscientific products or services. more and more is learned about scientific phenomena. if any. not because of them. rationalized or hidden.SCIENCE Findings published in peer reviewed publications using standards for honesty and accuracy aimed at scientists. regardless of the evidence. No progress is made and nothing concrete is learned. No prepublication review for precision or accuracy. Reliable results are demanded. . Scientist has no personal stake in a specific outcome of the study. Studies. Scientific failures are carefully scrutinized and studied for reasons for failure. explained away. Old ideas discarded in the light of new evidence. or unverified source of information Adopt an approach that has proven its ability to find explanations of great power and generality = SCIENTIFIC METHOD . with little attention given to ensuring their accuracy.• • • In most cases. We often base our thinking on hearsay. anecdotal evidence. the explanations for everyday events are made on the spot. conjecture. based on objective observation and logic that can be empirically tested.- Is an explanation based on the application of accepted scientific methods. . A scientific explanation for a phenomenon is a tentative explanation. Rational .observable events and conditions must be capable of verification by others 2.Empirical . .follows the rules of logic and is consistent with known facts 1.based on the evidence of the senses . verifiable through direct observation or lead to specific predictions about what should occur under conditions not yet observed . Testable .3.explains behavior with the fewest number of assumptions (often more than one explanation is offered for an observed behavior) . Parsimonious .should be able to imagine outcomes that would disprove the explanation 4. explanations of broad explanatory power over those that “work” only within a limited set of circumstances 6.willing to entertain the possibility that the explanation is faulty . General . Tentative .5. more parsimonious. Rigorously Evaluated .Even accepted explanations may be overthrown in favor of views that are more general. or more consistent with observation .7. Scientific Explanations .Commonsense Explanations vs. Scientific Explanations Belief – Based Explanations vs.
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