Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas

O’Neill et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:21 DOI 10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9

REVIEW

Open Access

Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas Alexander R. O’Neill1,2, Hemant K. Badola2, Pitamber P. Dhyani3 and Santosh K. Rana4* Abstract Biocultural knowledge provides valuable insight into ecological processes, and can guide conservation practitioners in local contexts. In many regions, however, such knowledge is underutilized due to its often-fragmented record in disparate sources. In this article, we review and apply ethnobiological knowledge to biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. Using Sikkim, India as a case study, we: (i) traced the history and trends of ethnobiological documentation; (ii) identified priority species and habitat types; and, (iii) analyzed within and among community differences pertaining to species use and management. Our results revealed that Sikkim is a biocultural hotspot, where six ethnic communities and 1128 species engage in biocultural relationships. Since the mid-1800s, the number of ethnobiological publications from Sikkim has exponentially increased; however, our results also indicate that much of this knowledge is both unwritten and partitioned within an aging, gendered, and caste or ethnic group-specific stratum of society. Reviewed species were primarily wild or wild cultivated, native to subtropical and temperate forests, and pend IUCN Red List of Threatened Species assessment. Our results demonstrate the value of engaging local knowledge holders as active participants in conservation, and suggest the need for further ethnobiological research in the Eastern Himalayas. Our interdisciplinary approach, which included rank indices and geospatial modelling, can help integrate diverse datasets into evidence-based policy. Keywords: Biocultural diversity, Ethnobotany, Local ecological knowledge, Traditional knowledge, Sikkim, India

Background Conservation practitioners have historically considered the role of human communities only or primarily in terms of the threats that extractive and transformative activities pose on the environment [1–3]. As a theoretical consequence, people-free or ‘fortress conservation’ strategies have become the dominant means of protecting ‘natural’ systems from anthropogenic influence [4, 5]. However, over the past two decades, a paradigm shift among conservationists has challenged this convention [6–8]. Termed biocultural approaches to conservation [9], recent programs have integrated the innovations, practices, and worldviews of Indigenous and local communities into policies addressing the rapid attrition of Earth’s biological and cultural diversity, hereafter termed biocultural diversity [9–12]. * Correspondence: [email protected] 4 Central Department of Botany, Plant Systematics and Biodiversity, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu 44618, Nepal Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

Thematically, biocultural approaches to conservation emphasize the dynamic, multi-scalar feedback loops that link social and ecological processes [9]. They synthesize biodiversity science and ethnographic fieldwork to discern processes that shape extant Earth systems [13]. In doing so, they help deconstruct the dualism separating ‘nature’ from society, and place local people back in parks as conservation agents [14–16]. Worldwide, such projects have had a variety of reported successes, including heightened spiritual connection and increased environmental literacy [16, 17]. However, debates continue as to the verity of reported claims and the extent to which conservation programs should serve human welfare [9]. ‘Landscape’ initiatives in the Eastern Himalayas evidence the successful utilization of biocultural principles for conservation purposes [18]. In 1997, an International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)-led collective petitioned for the designation of Mt. Khangchendzonga as a dynamic complex of

© The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

O’Neill et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:21

socio-ecological interaction [19, 20]—a biocultural hotspot. The transboundary Khangchendzonga Landscape (KL) is situated within the Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot [21, 22], and includes Bhutan, India, and Nepal. It incorporates 7.2-million people belonging to diverse ethnic communities, including Indigenous groups like the Lepchas of Sikkim and Darjeeling, the Lhop (Doya) of Amu Mo Chhu Valley, and Walungpas of Walangchung Gola of Taplejung [22]. Because of this complexity, biocultural approaches to conservation facilitated environmental management in the KL. Co-management, communitybased conservation, and integrated conservation and development, for example, have empowered Indigenous and local peoples through non-government organizations (NGOs), and promoted international cooperation along sensitive geopolitical boundaries [21–24]. Since its original delineation, the India-led Khangchendzonga Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative and Feasibility Assessment has committed 14,061 km2 of land, with a population of 6,325,457 people, into KL conservation policies [25]. KL-India’s network is comprised of 16 protected areas (PAs), including a biosphere reserve (n = 1), national parks (n = 4), and national wildlife sanctuaries (n = 11). Within the Indian landscape, the Government of Sikkim’s (GoS) efforts in the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR) are perhaps the greatest testament to claims regarding efficacy of biocultural principles for achieving local and international conservation objectives. Sikkim occupies a 7096-km2 zone of the Indian Eastern Himalayas, and has 37% of its total area, excluding transition zones of the KBR, designated for conservation purposes. The Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) encompasses over 80% of all protected lands in Sikkim (Table 1); six additional sanctuaries can be found within the borders of these PAs [25]. For maintaining tribal sanctity and for cultural conservation purposes, the GoS demarcated Dzongu Territory for the exclusive use of the Indigenous Lepcha

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people [26]. On 17 July 2016, the KNP was inscribed India’s first mixed-criteria UNESCO World Heritage Site based on the region’s biocultural heritage. Traditional and community knowledge buttresses conservation policies in Sikkim and is heralded for its adaptive capacity. However, at the same time, Sikkim’s biocultural heritage is threatened by ‘modernizing’ forces associated with globalization and rapid climatic change. As noted in the Sikkim Biodiversity Action Plan, the state lacks formalized and collated records of its biodiversity, which extends into ethnobiological documentation [27]. Even among existing studies, including ethnobiological datasets, records are strictly qualitative, and exist as repetitive, fragmentary notes that lack a consolidated attempt for strengthening policy [28, 29]. Mobilizing this knowledge and associated datasets into environmental management programs remains a challenge. In this review, we explore the application of ethnobiological knowledge for biodiversity conservation in Sikkim. Specifically, we ask: (i) What is the spatio-temporal pattern of ethnobiological knowledge documentation?; (ii) How is ethnobiological knowledge partitioned within and among ethnic communities?; (iii) What species are priority targets for conservation, and are these species found within protected areas? In asking these questions, we hope to reframe discourses that focus on the Eastern Himalayas as only or primarily a reservoir of biological and genetic diversity. To our knowledge, our manuscript serves as the first ethnobiological review of the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas.

Methods The Sikkim Eastern Himalayas

Sikkim is divided into four districts, and situated between Bhutan, Nepal, the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China (TARC), and the Indian State of West Bengal. In the 17th Century, Lepcha and Bhutia communities established Sikkim as a Buddhist monarchy under kings termed Chogyals. Chogyals ruled for approximately 350 years until

Table 1 Protected areas (PAs) in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas, and the potential number of species with ethnobiological records found in each based on reviewed altitudinal range data Area (km2) IUCN Altitudinal Range (m) Estimated Species with Category Ethnobiological Records

Map ID Protected Area

Year Established District(s) Covered

1

Khangchendzonga National Park

2007

North, West 1784

IV

1400–8598

920

2

Shingba Rhododendron Sanctuary 1992

North

43

IV

3048–4575

280

3

Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary

1987

South

35.34

IV

2000–3263

609

4

Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary

1984

East

51.76

IV

1524–2749

848

5

Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary

1992

East

31

IV

3292–4116

223

6

Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary

1996

West

104

IV

2110–4100

560

7

Kitam Bird Sanctuary

2005

East

6

-

320–875

635

8

Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary

2000

East

128

IV

1760–4390

759

Reference Fig. 3 for geographical location of detailed PAs

O’Neill et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:21

multi-directional process of change resulted in Sikkim’s protectorate status and eventual integration into India as its 22nd state in 1975 [30]. Prior to integration, major socioecological changes followed contact with the British East India Company in the mid-1880s. During this period, Nepali migration, here a generic term that includes many castes and ethnicities, was incentivized to promote colonial agricultural development in the Eastern Himalayas [31]. These progressive changes resulted in a rich admixture of ethnobiological traditions from the Greater Himalayas. Demographic records from Sikkim have varied in quality since the first census in 1891; notwithstanding, Sikkim’s population appears to have increased from 30,458 to 607,688 people between 1891 and 2011 [32, 33]. The Anthropological Survey of India identified 25 ethnic communities in the state during its first ethnographic survey between 1988 and 1990 [34]. These communities are generally grouped as: (i) Bhutias (Lhopos, including Denjongpas, Lachenpas, and Lachungpas) and Lepchas, the autochthons of Sikkim who represent less than 20% of the total population; (ii) People of Nepalese origin, mainly Limbus and Rais, who began migrating to Sikkim from the 1870s and represent more than 75% of the population; and, (iii) People from the plains of India, including Bengalis, Biharis, and Marwaris [35]. In June 1978, Lepcha, Bhutia, Chumbipa, Dopthapa, Drokpa, Kagate, Sherpa, Tibetan, Tromopa, and Yolmo communities were recognized as Scheduled Tribes in Sikkim; the Kami, Damai, Lobar, Majhi and Sarki were classified as Scheduled Castes. The Government of India considers some ‘Nepali’ identifying or identified groups in Sikkim as ‘backward castes’: Gurung, Magar, Newars, Limbu/Subba, Rai, Sunwar, and Tamang. Bengali, Bihari, Deswali, Marwari, and Punjabi -identifying communities, all recent migrants who are diverse both within and among respective communities, are well-established in modern Sikkim [36]. In total, our study recognizes 32 ethnic communities, 17 languages, and 9 religions in Sikkim [34, 36–38]. Sikkim’s landscape is a well-recognized biodiversity hotspot, with habitat types broadly categorized into six categories that are correlated elevation (Table 2) [21]. However, extreme topographic variations and Sikkim’s horseshoe-shaped geography complicate these generalizations [27]. Some Global 200 Ecoregions found in Sikkim include Himalayan Alpine Meadows and Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf and Coniferous Forests [39]. Diverse assemblages of human communities living within and (re)producing these ecosystems have facilitated the region’s rich, biocultural heritage. Data collection and standardization

From October 2015 through February 2016, we conducted a systematic review of publically available and accessible literature pertaining to ethnobiological

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knowledge in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas. For this study, we defined ethnobiological knowledge as traditional and community knowledge—Indigenous and non-Indigenous—related to socio-ecological interactions between identified or identifiable taxa and the people of Sikkim. Using search terms Darjeeling/Kalimpong/Sikkim/Eastern Himalaya AND Ethno/Indigenous/Traditional, we searched four digital databases: (i) ENVIS [40]; (ii) Google Scholar; (iii) NELUMBO [41]; and, (iv) Project Muse [42]. We included Darjeeling and Kalimpong (West Bengal, India) as place-based keywords due to their historical association with the Kingdom of Sikkim. After analysis, we omitted data published in the ENVIS Medicinal Plants of Sikkim database due to its primary reference of non-Sikkimese user groups and medical traditions. We then conducted archival research at six institutions in Gangtok, Sikkim using the same criteria: (i) The Botanical Survey of India; (ii) The G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Sikkim Unit; (iii) The Namgyal Institute of Tibetology; (iv) Home Department, Government of Sikkim Central Library; (v) Sikkim University Central Library; and, (vii) Sikkim State Bioinformatics Institute. Once collected, each source was reviewed for the following subsets of data: study site name, including the names of sacred landscapes, cities, villages, panchyats, samitis, blocks, districts, and subdivisions; bio-physical characteristics of site-specific studies; publication date; Indigenous and local castes, clans, and groups surveyed; and, species diversity. These sources are provided as an additional file [see Additional file 1]. We transcribed species data from each reviewed record into a working database [see Additional file 2]. After all sources were reviewed, we then standardized species to current taxonomic designations using international databases and field guides [43–48]. Concurrently, we tabulated the relative citation frequency for each species, and partitioned uses into one of 19 accepted categories (Table 2) [49, 50]. Relative citation frequency was calculated by dividing each citation value by the value of the most frequently cited species [see Additional file 2]. Regarding ecological data, we detailed Sikkim-specific altitudinal range data when possible [51–58]; data from the region were used as a proxy in the absence of Sikkim-specific records [45–47, 59–61]. Finally, we collected the following data: the conservation status of species from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [62] and Government of Sikkim [63]; and, naturalization, cultivation, or domestication status [47, 64]. Our study assumes that the number of use categories reported for a given species corresponds with the amount of attention it receives from communities in Sikkim. It is important to note that the number of uses might not correspond to current and active applications of those uses.

O’Neill et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:21

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Table 2 Habitat zones in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas, and some characteristic woody taxa with ethnobotanical records found within associated habitat zones (Adapted from [21, 53]) Habitat Zone

Forest Type

Some characteristic taxa with ethnobotanical records

Tropical (4000 m)

(iii)

Subtropical Moist Mixed Forest

(iv)

Subtropical Dry Evergreen/Deciduous Forest

(i)

Warm Temperate Riverine Evergreen/Deciduous Forest

Alnus nepalensis, Castanopsis tribuloides, Engelhardia spicata,

(ii)

Warm Temperate Moist Evergreen/Deciduous Forest

Evodia fraxinifolia, Ilex dipyrena, Juglans regia,

(iii)

Warm Temperate Moist Mixed Forest

(iv)

Warm Temperate Dry Evergreen/Deciduous Forest

Lithocarpus pachyphyllus, Quercus lamellosa, Zanthoxylum acanthopodium

(i)

Cool Temperate Riverine Deciduous Forest

Acer caudatum, Betula utilis, Cinnamomum impressinervium

(ii)

Cool Temperate Moist Evergreen Forest

Cryptomeria japonica, Magnolia lanuginosa, Mahonia sikkimensis,

(iii)

Cool Temperate Moist Mixed Forest

Rhododenron arboreum, Quercus lineata

(iv)

Cool Temperate Dry Evergreen Forest

(i)

Subalpine Riverine Evergreen Forest

Abies densa, Abies spectabilis, Berberis insignis, Juniperus recurva,

(ii)

Subalpine Moist Evergreen Forest

Larix griffithiana, Rhododenron barbatum, Rhododendron campanulatum, Taxus wallichiana

(iii)

Subalpine Moist Deciduous Forest

(iv)

Subalpine Dry Evergreen Forest

(i)

Alpine Riverine

(ii)

Alpine Meadow

(iii)

Alpine Scrub

Juniperus indica, Rhododendron fulgens, Rhododendron nivium

Data analysis

We geo-referenced reported study sites and conducted spatio-temporal analyses of reviewed data in ArcGIS [11, 65, 66]. Specifically, we performed the following assessments: (i) identification of administrative districts with the highest representation of ethnobiological records; (ii) temporal analysis of ethnobiological knowledge documentation; and, (iii) identification of surveyed communities and their knowledge documentation through time. We calculated two conservation ranks for reviewed species based on accepted methods for categorical data (Tables 3 & 4): Harvest Rank (HR) and Sensitivity Rank (SR) (see [67, 68]). From this point, however, we could not carry out further statistics as our rank assignation was based on qualitative criteria in which numerical ranks represent other categories rather than quantities. The HR value incorporated harvest and provenance data (Table 4): wild and native (WN) = 5; wild-cultivated and native (WCN) = 4; wild and non-native (WNN) = 3; wild-cultivated and nonnative (CNN) = 2; and cultivated (C) = 1 [60, 67, 69]. We believe that wild and native species are of higher conservation priority because on their provenance in the Sikkim

Table 3 Criteria for ranking species for Sensitivity Rank (SR) of reviewed species Attribute

Attribute Criteria

Species Engagement High Relative Intensity (D) Harvesting/utilizing either (i) whole animal or animal part in a manner that reduces animal’s lifespan (i.e. bones, ivory, meat, etc.); or (ii) whole plant, rootstock, rhizome, fungal body, etc. Low Relative Intensity (N)

Species engagement excluding the above

Altitudinal Range Restricted (R)

Range limited to one habitat zone

Wide (W)

Range extending to two or more habitat zones (Refer to Table 2 for habitat zones)

Population Status Threatened (T)

IUCN or Government of Sikkimrecommended Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), or Vulnerable (VU)

Not Threatened (U)

IUCN or Government of Sikkimrecommended Near Threatened (NT), Least Concern (LC), or Not Assessed (NA)

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Table 4 The structure of our sensitivity matrix used to rank reviewed species [60, 67–69]

Results

Sensitivity Rank (SR)

Extraction

Occurrence

Population status

8

D

R

T

7

D

R

U

6

D

W

T

5

D

W

U

4

N

R

T

3

N

R

U

2

N

W

T

1

N

W

U

Our review resulted in 176 ethnobiological records from the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas [see Additional file 1]. These records include 42 site-specific surveys, 18 of which were multi-site studies (total geo-referenced locations: 119), 94 contained methodological or instructional content on species use, 15 contained folk tales or cultural information beyond medical or material utility, and ten were biodiversity-related records with ethnobiological footnotes (Fig. 1). Based on site-specific records, North District received the greatest survey effort (37%) followed by West District (33%), East District (16%), and South District (14%). North District’s survey effort was driven by studies in Dzongu Territory (North District), a once-royal land plot now reserved for certain Lepcha families. The average survey altitude across sitespecific records was 1775 m ASL (+/- 712 m SD). Our temporal analysis revealed that biocultural records were first published during the East India Company’s expansion across the Indian Subcontinent during the 1840s [74–76]. Our review specifies that Sir Archibald Campbell, the first British political officer to Sikkim and Darjeeling, authored the first ethnobotanical vignettes from Sikkim as they relate to Lepcha communities [74]. Concurrently, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, a British doctor and an esteemed naturalist, reflected upon the region’s biocultural heritage in his two-volume Himalayan Journals published 1854. For much of the mid-19th Century, naturalist records were the primary sources of biocultural anecdotes, particularly as they relate to Rhododendron spp. (see [21]). We identified no biocultural records dating one century after Hooker’s Journals. A few generalist surveys were conducted during the mid-20th Century in what was termed the Sikkim and Darjeeling Hills [77, 78]. Approximately 14% of all ethnobiological records from Sikkim were published between 1854 and 1990, none of which detailed specific study sites (Fig. 2). The late 20th Century saw an exponential increase in these studies across Sikkim, particularly regarding medicinal plant species. Place and district-specific studies revealed that the earliest documentation began in West District, and moved toward North District during the second decade of the 21st Century (Fig. 1). Approximately, 87% of all reviewed biocultural studies were published between 1990 and 2016, with a significant increase in publication rate during the first decade of the 21st Century (r = 0.863; P < 0.001).

Abbreviations: (i) Extraction: Destructive Harvesting (D) or Non-destructive Harvesting (N); (ii) Occurrence: Rare (R) or Widespread (W); (iii) Population Status: Threatened (T) or Unthreatened (U). Refer to Table 3 for further elaboration

Eastern Himalaya, and their historical role in regional ecology. The SR value accounted for three important factors determining the conservation status of species: mode and extent of harvesting; altitudinal range, or amplitude; and, (iii) species’ population status, based on IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and Government of Sikkim recommendations [60, 63]. Using matrix criteria to account for these attributes, we scored SR in a decreasing order to 8-1 (Table 4) [69]. We also calculated a relative citation frequency (CF), or the number of reviewed citations for species e divided by the maximum number of citations for n surveyed species. These data are provided as an additional file [see Additional file 2]. We hope these ranks, although qualitative, serve as platform for future analyses that integrate social and natural science data with community knowledge to indicate priority targets for biodiversity conservation. Using the altitudinal range of each reviewed species, we modeled biocultural hotspots in Sikkim using a standard methodology at 100 m altitudinal resolution (Fig. 2) (see [70]). Here, we aimed to project a qualitative map that identified priority regions for biodiversity conservation based on the altitudinal range of reviewed species. We acknowledge that modeling procedures often account for GIS-based, site-specific occurrences and bioclimatic variables associated with specific species [70, 71]. However, such data from Sikkim is only available in heterogeneous, fragmented forms that are geographically biased or incorrect. Moreover, Sikkim’s topography, which averages 40° slope, and altitudinal variation, ranging from 284 m to 8586 m, generate a plethora of unpredictable microhabitat and microclimatic conditions that: influence species distributions; limit the practicality of field surveys; and, bias conventional modeling procedures [72]. Therefore, in the absence of data, our model engages altitudinal distribution data as the sole proxy for various methodologies [73].

Spatio-temporal analysis

Surveyed ethnic communities

Six of 32 identified ethnic communities in Sikkim have written ethnobiological records: Bhutia, Lepcha, Limbu, Nepali, Sherpa, and Tibetan communities. However, most reviewed records were not ethnic-group specific and

O’Neill et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:21

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Fig. 1 Spatio-temporal review of site-specific records in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas

reported data and/or knowledge in Sikkim-vernacular Nepali language. Nepali-identified or identifying groups, including non-specific reports detailed in Nepali language, had the greatest number of identified species (732), followed by Lepchas (377), Limbus (298), Tibetans (120), Bhutias (74), and Sherpas (35). Four categories of male specialized users and spiritual healers were reported from four ethnic communities: Bhutia: Lama; Lepcha: Bomthing, Mon-bomthing; Nepali: Bijuwa, Fedangwa, Jhakri; and, Tibetan: Amchis. Species diversity

A total of 1128 species distributed across three kingdoms, 213 families, and 712 genera have ethnobiological records in the Sikkim Eastern Himalaya [see Additional file 2]. Plantae was the most surveyed kingdom (995

species; 625 genera; 160 families), housing 88% of all reviewed species. Animalia (species: 76; genera: 50; families: 28; 7% of reviewed species) and Fungae (species: 57; genera: 37; families: 25; 5% of reviewed species) exhibited a comparative dearth of records [see Additional file 2]. Across kingdoms, 105 species were considered Himalayan or Eastern Himalayan endemic [45, 79]. The average range amplitude of species in Animalia was 1098 m (+/- 1009 m SD), in Fungae 1683 m (+/- 884 m SD), and in Plantae 1329 m (+/- 584 m SD). In Plantae, angiosperms were the most explored discipline, accounting for 96% of all documented plant species (957). Pteridophytes (23), Gymnosperms (10), and Bryophytes (5) received notably less attention in comparison [27]. Five plants were reported as endemic to the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas, namely: Aconitum ferox var. naviculare,

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Fig. 2 Publication of ethnobiological records from 1950 to 2016

Allium sikkimense, Mahonia sikkimensis, Rhododendron sikkimensis, and Swertia pedicellata. The taxonomic designations for these and many of our reported species, however, are pending official revision. In Animalia, fish were the most represented Chordates (37), followed by Mammals (22), Birds (12) and Amphibians (3) [see Additional file 2]. Three invertebrates were cited, two of which were in the Apidae. In Fungae, Basidiomycetes accounted for 77% of reviewed species (44), with approximately 85% of the remaining 13 Ascomycetes being Lichens. Ethnobiological uses

Across kingdoms, species were primarily used as medicine to prevent or manage gastro-intestinal afflictions, dermatological conditions, and respiratory-tract infections (Table 5) [see Additional file 2]. The ten most cited species also occupied the most diverse use categories, respectively: Swertia chirayita (Gentianaceae), Bergenia ciliata (Saxifragaceae), Oroxylum indicum (Bigoniaceae), Uritica dioica (Urticaceae), Acorcus calamus (Acoraceae), Nardostachys jatamansi (Caprifoliaceae), Rhododendron arboretum (Ericaceae), Rumex nepalensis (Polygonaceae), Astilbe rivularis (Saxifragaceae), and Cheilocostus speciosus (Costaceae). Species-wise data are available as an additional file [see Additional file 2]. Conservation ranks

Wild (CR 5 and 3; 922 species; 82% total) and native taxa (CR 5; 817; 72%) were cited more frequently than wildcultivated (CR 4 and 2; 107; 10%) and cultivated species (CR 1; 99; 8%). Most species were harvested, cultivated, or used in a sustainable manner (SR 1-4; 642; 57%) and exhibited altitudinal distributions that crossed multiple habitat types (SR 6-5, 21; 962; 85%). Of 1128 species,

approximately 80 species were both destructively harvested and had restricted ranges. Four of these species also had a threatened status in Sikkim (SR 8), including Cymbidium grandiflorum (Orchidaceae), Flickingeria fimbriata (Orchidaceae), Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ophiocordycipitaceae), and Tor putitora (Cyprinidae). Based on IUCN Red List of Threatened Species assessments [60], three of all species were Critically Endangered (CR), four are Endangered (EN), seven are Vulnerable (0.64; VU), 11 are Near Threatened (1.00% NT), 99 are of Least Concern (9.03% LC), and 972 species have not been assessed (88.69% NA) [see Additional file 2]. An additional 25 species have recommended conservation statuses by the Government of Sikkim based on IUCN-CAMP criteria ([63]; see Additional file 3). These species include exploited medicinal plants such as Swertia chirayita, Nardostachys jatamansi, Picrorhiza kurroa (Plantaginaceae), Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Berberidaceae), and Valeriana jatamansi (Caprifoliaceae). Biocultural hotspots

Our map illustrates areas that have the greatest potential richness of species with biocultural records, termed biocultural hotspots, based on the elevational range of species (Fig. 3). Grid cell values range 7 (low) to 619 (high) species and are presented at 100-m elevational resolution. The highest grid-cell values were located outside of PAs. Richness of culturally important species was highest in subtropical zones across kingdoms, with a sharp decline toward alpine regions.

Discussion Our review indicates that Sikkim has a rich biocultural heritage that includes knowledge pertaining to over 1100 species

DGST URIN HEPT SKEL NEOP

Gastro-intestinal Health

Genito-urinary Health

Hepatic Health

Musculo-skeletal Health

Neoplasm Treatment

Culture-specific Disease, Folktales, Legends, Ritual Ingredients, Spirituality Art, Construction, Dye, Fodder, Handicrafts, Instrument, Utensils

FOOD CULT MTRL VETN

Alimentary Purpose(s)

Cultural or Spiritual Use

Material

Veterinary Medicine

Delivery, Lactation, Menstruation, Pregnancy

Disease and health-related categories were based on criteria outlined by the World Health Organization [61]

Ethno-veterinary Medicine

Edible, Food, Butter, Oil, Flour, Pickle, Dry Fruit, Candies

Allergy, Asthma, Bronchitis, Pneumonia,

PREG RESP

Pregnancy, Childbirth, Perinatal Care

Adnexa, Eye Disease

Epilepsy, Memory, Migraine, Stimulant

Cancer, Growths, Moles, Tumors

Antispasmodic, Body Aches, Sprain, Fracture, Rheumatism/Arthritis

Jaundice, Liver Disorders

Bladder and Renal Infections, Sexually Transmitted Infections, Urinary-tract Infections

Diarrhea/Dysentery, Indigestion, Laxative, Nausea, Parasites, Vomiting

Diabetes, Hormonal Disorder

Earache, Hearing Deficiency, Vertigo

Throat Infection, Toothache, Oral Infection

Abrasions, Burns, Boils, Skin Diseases and Parasites, Hair Problems

Bleeding, Blood Health, Hemorrhage, Lymphatic System

Hysteria, Mental and Nervous Disorders

Treatment for Animal Venom, Fish Stupefying

Affliction(s)/Disorder(s)/Use(s)

Category elaboration

Respiratory Health

NERV

EDCR

Endocrine and Metabolic Health

OPTH

HEAR

Ear and Mastoid Health

Ophthalmic Health

ORAL

Dental and Oral Health

Nervous System Health

CIRC

Behavioral and Mental Health DERM

MENT

Antidote

Antiseptic, Dermatological Health

ANTI

Category

Circulatory Health

Category Abbreviation

Ethnobiological

Table 5 The distribution of reviewed species across 19 ethnobiological categories

105

169

35

452

206

52

48

97

16

105

106

181

409

144

21

99

373

133

24

70

Total

0

7

9

50

11

1

0

0

0

2

1

0

17

3

0

2

11

2

0

2

Animalia

0

0

0

48

9

0

0

1

0

0

2

1

1

2

0

0

0

1

0

0

Fungae

Linnaean Kingdom

105

162

26

354

186

51

48

96

16

103

103

180

391

139

21

97

362

130

24

68

Plantae

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Fig. 3 Biocultural hotspots in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas

of animals, fungi, and plants. Local people not only know about the useful properties of these species, but also the community ecology and life histories of diverse organisms [80]. These aspects of ethnobiological knowledge, which encompass abundance, distribution, and phenology, significantly influence community management practices and can therefore benefit conservation planning in Sikkim [29, 79]. For instance, in previous studies, Lepcha communities were engaged by government researchers to understand the population status of under-surveyed bird species; local communities were found to provide “data” at the accuracy needed to make management decisions [81, 82]. Our reviewed records also implied that faith traditions and community taboos sustain many ethnobiological relationships in Sikkim, and cultivate a sense of stewardship toward critical habitat [35, 83–86]. We conclude that targeting biocultural

knowledge systems, including gaps in ethnobiological research, is a practical way to incorporate local peoples—their knowledge, land, and participation—into multi-scalar conservation directives in the Eastern Himalayas. Our analyses illuminated the dynamic nature of ethnobiological knowledge, and evidenced its ongoing construction amidst changing socio-ecological conditions. We traced a dramatic increase in ethnobiological records published since the 1950s, with a significant spike in the mid-1990s. This trend appears correlated with both the relaxation of permit restrictions into Sikkim, and the 1993 initiation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) following the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The CBD obliged signatory polities, including India, to acknowledge and preserve

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biocultural knowledge as an adaptive resource for conservation initiatives, record and disseminate biocultural knowledge for practical applications, and ensure equitable benefits arising from biocultural knowledge (reviewed by [21]). Our assessment highlighted, however, a stark difference in ethnobiological knowledge within and among ethnic communities. Intra-cultural differences compounded overall knowledge diversity based on age, gender, occupation, and individual strategies and interests [26]. These factors were not quantitatively justified in any of our reviewed studies. The paucity of records from 26 identified ethnic communities further indicates that much of Sikkim’s biocultural heritage remains as unwritten, oral traditions situated within a gendered, caste-specific, and aging stratum of society. In the future, we suggest that researchers begin addressing these gaps through collaborations with nomadic or semi-nomadic peoples at high altitudes, including Bhutia, Chumbipa, Dopthapa, Drokpa, Kagate, Sherpa, Tromopa and Yolmo communities. High-altitude zones are particularly sensitive to climatic changes that may alter community assemblages, ecological processes, and, as an extension, historical ways of relating to the environment [85, 87, 88]. With the participation of these groups, conservationists can craft more holistic and culturally appropriate strategies for both restoration and conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. As previously alluded to, older members of rural communities were the primary user group of reviewed species, namely for medicine. Knowledge of species use, practice, and folklore was reported to decrease in recent generations, as much of the knowledge was documented from collaborators between 50 and 70 years of age [26, 29]. Today, younger generations migrate to urban centers where they are neither exposed to local species nor the traditions that surround them. Both imposed legal structures in the early 21st Century and market liberalization in the mid-1990s have further complicated knowledge transmission and species use, resulting in the attrition of ethnobiological knowledge in Sikkim. For instance, between the 1970s and 1990s, the Sikkim Forest, Environment and Wildlife Management Department permitted commercial exploitation of medicinal plants, including from PAs. However, as of 2001, the government implemented a 5-year ban on medicinal plant collection via Order No. 13/F/Env&W. This order received a 5-year extension in 2006, and will likely be ratified again in the future. Moreover, local access to state healthcare providers and allopathic medicine has reduced local dependency on wild animals, fungi, and plants as medicine. Despite the decreased reported use of medicinal plants, many wild species remain a vital part of Sikkimese cuisine [89–94]. Local communities have regular access to wild edibles at markets in the cities of Gangtok (East District),

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Geyzing (West District), Namchi (South District), and Singtam [91, 93, 95]. Various ferns (Diplazium spp.; Athyriaceae), the Sikkim Cobra Lily (Arisaema utile; Araceae), and Stinging Nettles (Uritica dioica; Urticaceae) were some frequently cited edibles, and were often prepared alongside pickled vegetables, like Nodding Tupistra (Tupistra nutans; Asparagaceae), in traditional Sikkimese cuisine [96–99]. Fruits from Bastard Oleaster (Elaeagnus latifolia; Elaeagnaceae), Burmese Grape (Baccaurea ramiflora; Phyllanthaceae), and Machilus edulis (Lauraceae) were also seasonal favorites with high reported consumption [100–102]. Regarding Fungae, commercial cultivation has increased in lower-altitude zones, particularly of species in the genera Agaricus and Pleurotus [51, 52, 103]. Wild animals were also consumed for medicinal purposes, albeit at low reported frequency and only in rural contexts. The meat of Asian Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus; Ursidae), Bengal Fox (Vulpes bengalensis; Canidae), Central Himalayan Langur (Semnopithecus schistaceus; Cercopithecidae), Himalayan Crestless Porcupine (Hystrix brachyura; Hystricidae), and Hodgson’s Giant Flying Squirrel (Petaurista magnificus; Sciuridae) were reported to treat respiratory diseases, namely Tuberculosis, which are common in Sikkim [87– 104]. Fish are available in most market places, and have high reported consumption; however, their populations likely face threats from hydroelectric dam development in Sikkim [105, 106]. Future studies should quantify the value and quantity of wild edibles sold in marketplaces to better understand anthropogenic pressures on wild populations and expand wild-cultivation practices when possible. Incentivizing and/or commercializing the cultivation of edible and medicinal plants and fungi within agroforestry systems may reduce pressure on wild populations and create habitat corridors for threatened species [29, 107]. To date, most conservation efforts in Sikkim have been directed toward the nominal designation of PAs at mid and high altitudes. Military encampments and agricultural landscapes surround these PAs. Moreover, traditional doctors, spiritual healers, and rural villagers still harvest and collect many reviewed species from these areas despite legal restrictions [104, 108–112]. Conservationists can begin addressing these pressures, without marginalizing local communities, by promoting cooperative agroforestry programs along PA borders. Recent reviews, for example, have suggested integrating edible and medicinal plant cultivation into existing Nepalese Paperbush (Edgeworthia gardneri; Thymelaeaceae) or Black Cardamom (Amomum subulatum; Zingiberaceae) agroforestry systems which already yield high profits [29, 113, 114]. As noted by Charnley et al. [115], such programs must do more than identify the “right” or best model for knowledge application and sharing, and must address existing societal factors that may hinder program implementation or undermine community structures. Organizational

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frameworks could, therefore, draw upon pre-existing dzumsa and dwichi committee structures in Sikkim, which have legacies of conservation impact [116, 117]. Any cooperative, however, must ensure that agroforestry systems produce marketable amounts of edibles that can either be preserved or transported to market before spoilage (as reviewed by [29, 116]). Our conservation rank system and additional files is useful for identifying target species based on criteria of interest, including medicinal use, altitudinal range, and population status [see Additional files 1, 2 and 3]. Incorporating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation is a meaningful way to empower local communities to both monitor and preserve species of biocultural importance [9, 11, 116]. Based on our review, communities have obvious incentive to conserve biodiversity for cultural purposes and practical use. However, our results suggest a literature bias toward medicinal plants, and a paucity of records from the kingdoms Animalia and Fungae. To hone the applicability of our biocultural hotspot concept, we recommend that researchers incorporate new criteria, including species-specific ranges and habitat information, into our model structure. Moreover, we suggest that researchers document ethnobiological relationships that extend beyond medicinal uses of species to include living oral traditions, folklore, art, etc. By combining ethnobiological surveys with biodiversity science, particularly the gaps noted in recent reviews [21, 29], conservationists can better understand the socio-ecological dynamics shaping modern Sikkim.

Conclusion We collated and applied ethnobiological knowledge to promote biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. We began with a spatio-temporal review of biocultural records from Sikkim, India to understand: (i) patterns in biocultural knowledge documentation; (ii) the diversity of species with biocultural records; and (iii) the partitioning of biocultural knowledge within and among ethnic communities. We then galvanized these records into two conservation indices and a biocultural hotspot model that indicate conservation priorities in Sikkim. Additional files Additional file 1: Ethnobiological records reviewed by this manuscript. (PDF 147 kb) Additional file 2: Reviewed species with ethnobiological records, including rank values, distributional data, ethnobiological uses. (XLSX 126 kb) Additional file 3: Some threatened species in the Sikkim Eastern Himalaya. (XLSX 12 kb) Acknowledgement We would like to thank our collaborators at the United States India Education Foundation (USIEF) and the United States William J. Fulbright Commission for

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their support and inspiration under a Fulbright-Nehru Research Fellowship awarded to ARO at the G. B. Pant National Institute for Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development (GBPNIHESD). ARO and HKB are highly grateful to the Director of the Institute for providing necessary facilities and support at the Sikkim Unit. We would also like to extend our gratitude to Jhony Lepcha, a Researcher at the Sikkim Unit (GBPNIHESD), for his help generating our manuscript figures. ARO would like to extend gratitude to L. Lepcha, Sikkim State Council of Science & Technology, and T. Cho Cho and P. Gurung, Sikkim State Home Department, for their assistance during our research period. Funding This research was funded by a Fulbright-Nehru Research Scholarship granted to ARO by the United States-India Education Foundation (USIEF) and the Institute for International Education (IIE). Funding agencies did not participate in any aspect of project design, study implementation, data interpretation, or manuscript preparation. Availability of data and materials All data and material is available as our Additional files 1, 2, and 3, which is clearly noted throughout our manuscript. Authors’ contributions ARO, HKB, PPD, and SKR participated in study design and implementation. ARO and HKB conceived the study, and ARO prepared the manuscript. ARO, HKB, PPD, SKR collected and standardized data for analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Consent for publication The authors of this manuscript consent for publication. Ethics approval and consent to participate Our study is exempt from IRB approval because it is a review of literature. As such, there was no need to request consent for participation in our study. Author details 1 Fulbright-Nehru Research Scholar, United States-India Education Foundation (USIEF) and the United States Fulbright Commission, Washington, DC, USA. 2 G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Sikkim Unit, Pangthang, Gangtok, East Sikkim, Sikkim 737 102, India. 3G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand 263 643, India. 4Central Department of Botany, Plant Systematics and Biodiversity, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu 44618, Nepal. Received: 30 December 2016 Accepted: 21 February 2017

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Additional File I Bibliography of reviewed biocultural records from Sikkim 1. Acharjee M, Roy D. 2013. Rong ichthyological knowledge: a leeway. King Gaeboo Aachyok. 2013;4:25-34. 2. Acharya BK, Chettri B, Vijayan L. Indigenous knowledge of Lepcha community for monitoring and conservation of birds. Ind J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8(1):65-9. 3. Agrawala DK, Purohit CS, Das K. A review of ethno-medicinal orchids in Sikkim Himalaya. In: Kumar S, editor. Ethnobotanical studies in India. New Delhi: Deep Publications; 2014. p. 201-10. 4. Agarwal S, Thapa R, Srivastava T. Some industrially important aromatic plants of Sikkim Himalayas. Ind Perf. 1987;31(2):113-5. 5. Ansari AA, Panda AK, Brahma KK. Medicinal uses of flowering plants by the local people of Samdong. JDRAS. 2009;30(3-4):41-8. 6. Avasthe RK, Kumar A, Rahman H. Edible horticultural crop diversity in Sikkim Himalaya. In: Sikkim biodiversity: significance and sustainability. Gangtok: Sikkim State Council of Science and Technology; 2012. p. 20-32. 7. Badola HK, Pradhan BK. Plants used in healthcare practices by Limboo tribe in south-west of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim, India. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2013;12(3):355-69. 8. Badola HK, Pradhan BK. Economic viability of cultivation of Swertia chirayita, a high value endangered medicinal herb in Himalaya. ZAG. 2007;16(3):118-24. 9. Badola HK, Pradhan BK, Subba S, Rai, LK, Rai YK. Sikkim Himalayan Screw-pine, Pandanus nepalensis: a much neglected and underexploited NTFP. On-wood News. 2009;18:44-5. 10. Bam J, Rai S, Bhattacharya D, Maiti S, Pathak P, Bera AK, et al. Indigenous curative and prophylactic traditional practices used against hematophagous leeches in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2015;14(3):493-7. URL: http://14.139.47.15/handle/123456789/32108. 11. Basnett H, Mohanty J, Shrestha B, Pal P. Ethnomedicinal plants used for the treatment of sprains and fractures by the Nepalese community of East Sikkim. Uni J Pharma Sci Res. 2015;1(1):10-4. 12. Basu K. Common medicinal plants of Darjeeling and Sikkim. Kolkata: West Bengal Press; 1956. 13. Basu P, Mitra B. A note on the lesser-known plant Bischofia javanica (Bischofiaceae) in Sikkim. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1999;15(3):703-4. 14. Bennet SSR. Ethnobotanical studies in Sikkim. Indian Forest. 1983;109(7):477-81. 15. Bennet SSR. Ethnobotanical studies in West Sikkim. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1985;7:317-21. 16. Bharati K. Folk veterinary medicinal plants of Sikkim Himalayas: ethnoveterinary knowledge of Sikkim Himalayas. Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing; 2011. 17. Bharati KA, Sharma BL. Studies on ethnoveterinary uses of plant resources of Sikkim. Indian Forest. 2009;135(5):691-6. 18. Bharati KA, Sharma BL. Some ethnoveterinary plant records for Sikkim Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2010;9(2):344-6. URL: http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/8169. 19. Bharati KA, Sharma BL. Plants used as ethnoveterinary medicines in Sikkim Himalayas. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2012;10:339-56. URL: http://libojs3.lib.sfu.ca:8114/era/index.php/era/article/viewArticle/606. 20. Bhasin V. Ecology, culture, and change: tribals of Sikkim Himalaya. New Delhi: Inter- India Publications; 1989. 21. Bhasin V. Medical anthropology: healing practices in contemporary Sikkim. In: Bhasin V, Bhasin M, editors. Anthropology today: trends, scope and applications. Vol. 3. New Delhi: Kamala-Raj Enterprises; 2007. p. 59-94. 22. Bhasin V. Pastoralists of Himalayas. J Biodivers. 2013;4(2):83-113. 23. Bhasin V, Srivastava VK. Ecology and culture of the Bhutias of North Sikkim. J Human Ecol. 1990;1(3):277-85. 24. Bhutani K. Herbal wealth of North-east India: database and appraisal. Punjab: Department of Natural Products, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research; 2008. 1

Additional File I Bibliography of reviewed biocultural records from Sikkim 25. Biswas K. Common medicinal plants of Darjeeling and the Sikkim Himalayas. Alipore: West Bengal Government Press; 1956. 26. Bole P. Aromatic plants of Sikkim: a preliminary study in utilization. In: Himalaya, Ecologie, Ethnologie. Paris: C.N.R.S; 1977. 27. Borah TR, Avasthe R, Helim R. Large cardamom (Amomum sublatum): a traditional cash crop of Sikkim. Asian Ag Hist. 2012; 16(3): 271-7. 28. Borah TR, Helim R, Gogoi R, Kumar A. Versatile uses of maize in Sikkim. Asian Ag Hist. 2012;16(2):211-5. 29. Borah TR, Rahman H. Mushrooms in biodiversity and food security of Sikkim. In: Arrawatia ML, Tambe S, editors. Biodiversity of Sikkim: exploring and conserving a global hotspot. Gangtok: Department of Information and Public Relations, Government of Sikkim; 2011. p. 29-42. 30. Campbell A. Note on the Lepchas of Sikkim, with a vocabulary of their language. J Asian Soc Bengal. 1840;9:379-93. 31. Chanda R, Mohanty J, Bhuyan N, Kar P, Nath L. Medicinal plants used against gastrointestinal tract disorders by the traditional healers of Sikkim Himalayas. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;6(4):606-10. 32. Chauhan A. Ethnobotanical studies in Sikkim Himalaya. In: Singh G, Singh H, Mukherjee, editors. Ethnomedicine of North-east India. Guwahati: National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources; 2003. p. 199-214. 33. Chettri A, Barik SK. Assessing ethnobotanical value and threat status of Tetrastigma rumicispermum (Lawson) Planch, a lesser known liana species of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim. Ind J Trad Know. 2013; URL: http://14.139.47.15/handle/123456789/16852. 34. Chettri R, Rai B, Khawas DB. Certain medicinal plants in the folklore and folklife of Darjeeling and Sikkim Hills, India used for the treatment of ailments in domestic animals. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1992;10:393-8. 35. Chettri N, Sharma E. A scientific assessment of traditional knowledge on firewood and fodder values in Sikkim, India. Forest Ecol Manage. 2009; doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.02.002. 36. Chettri N, Sharma E. Non-timber forest produce: utilization, distribution, and status in the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim, India. In: Arrawatia ML, Tambe S, editors. Biodiversity of Sikkim: exploring and conserving a global hotspot. Department of Information and Public Relations, Government of Sikkim; 2011. p. 165-83. 37. Chettri N, Sharma E, Lama S. Non-timber forest produces utilization, distribution, and status in a trekking corridor of Sikkim, India. Lyonia. 2005; URL: http://www.lyonia.org/downloadPDF.php?pdfID=143. 38. Chhetri DR. Ethnomedicinal plants of the Khangchendzonga National Park, Sikkim, India. Ethnobot. 2005; URL: http://14.139.206.50:8080/jspui/handle/1/3649. 39. Chhetri DR. Herbal medicinal culture of the Nepalis of Darjeeling and Sikkim. In: Subba TB, Sinha AC, Nepal GS, Nepal DR, editors. Indian Nepalis: issues and perspectives. Gangtok: Concept Publishing; 2009. p. 311-2. 40. Chhetri DR, Parajuli P, Subba G. Anti-diabetic plants used by Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayan tribes, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;99:199-202. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.01.058. 41. Das K. Mushrooms of Sikkim: Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary. Gangtok: Sikkim State Biodiversity Board; 2009. 42. Das K. Promising wild mushrooms from Sikkim Himalaya with ethnomycological significance and potentialities. In: Kumar S, editor. Ethnobotanical Studies in India. New Delhi: Deep Publications; 2014. p. 168-86. 43. Das T, Mishra S, Saha D, Agarwal S. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by ethnic and rural people in Eastern Sikkim Himalayan Region. African J Basic Appl Sci. 2012;4(1):16-20. doi:10.5829/idosi.ajbas.2012.4.1.61133. 2

Additional File I Bibliography of reviewed biocultural records from Sikkim 44. Dash SS. Useful plants of Kabi Sacred Grove, Sikkim. NELUMBO. 2007; doi:10.20324/nelumbo/v49/2007/73992. 45. Dash SS. Traditional herbal remedies used in Sikkim, India. NELUMBO. 2009; 5:123-56. doi:10.20324/nelumbo/v51/2009/58088. 46. Dash SS, Maiti A, Rai SK. Traditional uses of plants among the urban population of Gangtok, Sikkim. J Econ Taxon Bot. 2003;27(1):317-24. 47. Dhakal RD, Sharma G, Basnet K. Study of community dependence on Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary in the Sikkim Himalayas. J Hill Res. 2006;19(1): 24-33. 48. Government of India. Medicinal Plants, NTFP and Bamboos of Sikkim. Gangtok: ENVIS Centre on Conservation of Medicinal Plants; 2015. URL: http://www.sikkimforest.gov.in/medicine_main.htm. 49. Government of Sikkim. Medicinal plant species of conservation concern identified for Sikkim (SK). Gangtok: ENVIS Centre on Conservation of Medicinal Plants. 2014. URL: http://envis.frlht.org/documents/sikkim-medicinal-plants-2014.pdf. 50. Garg S, Patil U, Shrivastava RC. Wound healing potential of Viscum articulatum Burm., an ethmomedicinal plant of Sikkim on rat. Int J Res Phytochem Pharmacol. 2012;2(1):138-42. URL: http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:rjpt&volume=6&issue=6&article=12. 51. Ghosh D, Mitra P, Ghosh T, Gupta S, Basu B, Mitra P. Isolation of emodin from the leaves of Amaranthus spinosis L. (Amaranthaceae). World J Pharma Res. 2014;3(6):1780-90. 52. Gulia BKS. Human ecology of Sikkim. New Delhi: Kalpaz Publications; 2005. 53. Gurung B. The medicinal plants of the Sikkim Himalaya. Chakung: Maples; 2008. 54. Gurung N, Pradhan S, Thapa G, Basistha B. Anti-hypoglycemic plants from western part of Sikkim Himalaya. Translation Med Biotech. 2014;2(5):13-23. 55. Hajra P, Chakravarty P. Medicinal plants of Sikkim and the Eastern Himalayas. Indian Forest. 1981;4(3):217-20. 56. Hooker JD. The Rhododendrons of the Sikkim-Himalaya. London: Bentham and Reeve; 1849. 57. Hooker JD. Himalayan journals: notes of a naturalist in Bengal, the Sikkim and Nepal Himalayas, the Khasia Mountains, etc. London: John Murray; 1855. 58. Hussain S, Hore D. Collection and conservation of major medicinal plants of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;6(2):353-7. URL: http://www.niscair.res.in/sciencecommunication/researchjournals/rejour/ijtk/Fulltextsearch/2007/April %202007/IJTK-Vol%206%282%29-April2007-pp%20352-357.htm. 59. Idrisi M, Badola H, Singh R. Indigenous knowledge and medicinal use of plants by local communities in Rangit Valley, South Sikkim, India. NeBIO. 2010;1(2):34-45. 60. Jana S, Chauhan A. Studies on the Lepcha medico-botany of Dzongu in the Sikkim Himalaya. Himalayan Paryavaran. 1999;1:121-6. 61. Jana S, Chauhan A. Ethnobotanical studies on Lepchas of Dzongu, North Sikkim, India. Annals Forest. 2000;8(1):131-44. 62. Janmeda B, Lokendra S, Vats P. Folk claims on monocotyledonous plants in East Sikkim. Fitoterapia. 2006;70:155-60. 63. Jha V, Jha A. Traditional knowledge on disaster management: a preliminary study of Lepchas of Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2001;10(1):173-82. URL: http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/11078. 64. Jha A, Jha S, Suhag V. Traditional bamboo-based technology: a study of Lepchas of Sikkim. In: Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Chemistry and Environment. Indore. 2005. p. 250-251. 65. Jha A, Rao A, Jha S, Suhag V. A preliminary survey of plants used as food by Lepchas of Dzongu area in Sikkim, India. Crop Res. 2003;28(1):135-7. 66. Joshi V, Rawar MS, Sharma SK, Kumar K, Panda AK. Traditional knowledge of natural disaster mitigation and ethnomedicine practices in Himalaya with special reference to Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2011;10(1):198-206. URL: http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/.../11082/1/IJTK%2010(1)%20198-206.pdf. 3

Additional File I Bibliography of reviewed biocultural records from Sikkim 67. Kapahi BK, Atal CK. Ethno-medico-botanical investigations in Sikkim. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1987;11(2):41321. 68. Kholia BS. Traditional uses of pteridophytes in Sikkim Himalayas. In: Kumar S, editor. Ethnobotanical studies in India. New Delhi: Deep Publications; 2014. p. 291-302. 69. Krishna B, Das BK. Fibre-yielding plants of Sikkim. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1983;4:129-32. 70. Krishna B, Mitra B, Raju DCS. Yams (Dioscorea L.) in Sikkim. J Hill Res. 1988;1(2):67-72. 71. Krishna B, Singh S. Ethnobotanical observations in Sikkim. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1987;9(1):1-7. 72. Kumar A, Avasthe R, Shukla G, Pradhan Y. Ethnobotanical edible plant biodiversity of Lepcha tribes. Indian Forest. 2012;138(9):798-803. 73. Kumar R, Deo C. Biochemical evaluation of different Passion Fruit (Passiflora edulis) cultivars raised in Sikkim. Indian J Ag Sci. 2005;74(9):555-6. 74. Kumar S, Raju DCS. Large Cardamom and its wild relatives in Sikkim Himalayas. J Hill Res. 1998;2(2):3759. 75. Kumar S, Singh P, Singh V. 1994. Ethnobotanical aspects of some arboreal and arborescent taxa of Sikkim. In: Gupta B, editor. Higher plants of the Indian sub-continent. New Delhi: BSMPS; 1994. p. 164-6. 76. Lachungpa U. Indigenous lifestyles and biodiversity conservation issues in North Sikkim. Ind J Tradit Knowl. 2009; URL: http://www.nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/.../IJTK 8(1) 51-55.pdf. 77. Lepcha L, Basistha B, Subba K, Rajdeep G, Sharma N. A reckon on the conservation and sustainability of Abroma augusta L. of Sikkim Himalaya. J Med Sci Res. 2012;3(2):25-9. 78. Lepcha S, Das A. Ethno-medico-botanical exploration along the international borders to Tibet Autonomous Region of China and the kingdom of Bhutan with special reference to the Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, East Sikkim. In: Ghosh C, Das AP, editors. Recent studies in biodiversity and traditional knowledge in India. Malda: Gour College Press; 2011. p. 257-70. 79. Lepcha S, Gurung R, Arrawatia M. Traditional Lepcha craft Sumok-thyaktyk (Lepcha Hat) and its conservation in Dzongu Tribal Reserved Area (DTRA), Sikkim, India. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2012;11(3):537-41. URL: http://www.nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/.../14398/1/IJTK%2011(3)%20537541.pdf. 80. Lepcha L, Roy S, Basistha B, Sharma N, Subba K, Gurung R. Medicinal value and microbial VAM incidence analysis of Bischofia javanica Blume in Sikkim Himalaya, India. Photon. 2013;120:650-5. 81. Lepcha L, Roy S, Sarkar A, Basistha B, Arrawatia M. Documentation of medicinally important plants from the landslide prone areas of East Sikkim, India: a survey report. J Phytol. 2011;3(7):1−7. URL: http://scienceflora.org/journals/index.php/jp/article/view/2313/2291. 82. Lepcha S, Tamang P. Folk medicinal plants: threats and conservation approaches in Sikkim Himalaya. In: Sikkim biodiversity: significance and sustainability. Gangtok: Sikkim State Council of Science and Technology; 2012. p. 199-206. 83. Lobsang K, Jong N. Findings of the Chagpori Tibetan Medical Institute’s herbal exploration excursion in West Sikkim. Darjeeling: Chagpori Tibetan Medical Institute; 1994. 84. Maity D, Chauhan A, Maiti G. Ethnobotanical notes on some unexploited medicinal plants used by Lepchas and Nepalese communities in North Sikkim. J Econ Taxon Bot; 2003:27(2):325-32. 85. Maity D, Jana SK, Mondal MS. Common Foxglove: a promising medicinal plant from Sikkim. In: Research Papers on Bioresources of Sikkim. Vol. 1. Gangtok: Government of Sikkim; 2000. p. 238-9. 86. Maity D, Pradhan N, Chauhan A. Folk uses of some medicinal plants from North Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2004;3(1):66-71. URL: http://www.nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/.../IJTK%203(1)%2066-71.pdf. 87. Manjerkar N. A study of local health traditions of Sikkim. Bangalore: Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions; 2000. 88. Mitra B. Srew-pine (Pandanus nepalensis St. John) in Sikkim Himalaya. J Hill Res. 1999;2(1):66-7. 89. Mudaiya RK, Tiwari RN, Majumdar R. Threatened and rare medicinal plants of Sikkim. Bull Medicoethnobot Res. 1987; 15(1-2):24-6. 4

Additional File I Bibliography of reviewed biocultural records from Sikkim 90. Mukhia B, Mukhopadhyay M. An ethnobotanical study on Limboos of West Sikkim. In: International Seminar on ‘Multidisciplinary Approaches in Angiosperm Systematics’. Kalyani: University of Kalyani; 2012. p. 716-24. 91. Nath BG, Pathak PK, Mohanty AK, Tripathi AK. Management practices and performance of dairy cows in tribal areas of Sikkim. Asian Ag Hist. 2013;17(3):241-50. 92. Pal S, Palit D. Traditional knowledge and bio-resource utilization among Lepcha in North Sikkim. NeBIO. 2011;2(1):13-7. 93. Panda AK. Some folklore claims from the state of Sikkim. In: Biodiversity News Letter. India; 2007. p. 4-6. 94. Panda AK. Medicinal plants of Sikkim in Ayurvedic practice. Gangtok: Regional Research Institute; 2008. 95. Panda AK. Medicinal plants use and primary health care in Sikkim. Int J Ayurveda Herb Med. 2013;2(2):253-9. 96. Panda AK, Mandal D. The folklore medicinal orchids of Sikkim. Ancient Sci Life 2013;33(2):92-6. doi:10.4103/0257-7941.139043. 97. Panda AK, Mishra S. Some belief, practices, and prospects of folk healers of Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2012;11(2):369-73. 98. Panda AK, Mishra S. 2012. Plant biodiversity of Sikkim & Ayurvedic health care system. In: Sikkim biodiversity: significance and sustainability. Gangtok: Sikkim State Council of Science and Technology; 2012. p. 33-7. 99. Panda AK, Mishra S. Health traditions of Sikkim Himalaya. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2010;1(3):183-9. doi:10.4103/0975­9476.72617. 100. Panda AK, Mishra S. Tracing the historical perspective of Cordyceps sinensis: an aphrodisiac of Sikkim Himalaya. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2010;1:190-4. 101. Panda AK, Swain K. Traditional uses and medicinal potential of Cordyceps sinensis of Sikkim. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2011;2: 9-13. URL: http://www.jaim.in/temp/JAyurvedaIntegrMed219-5648516_013408.pdf. 102. Panda S. Notes on ethnobotany of Ericaceae from the Eastern Himalayas and North-Eastern India. NELUMBO. 2008;50:105-10. 103. Pandey VN. Medico-ethno-botanical exploration in Sikkim. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha; 1991. 104. Pradhan BK, Badola HK. Ethnomedicinal plant use by Lepcha tribe of Dzongu Valley, bordering Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, in North Sikkim, India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2008; doi:10.1186/1746-4269-4-22. 105. Pradhan BK, Badola HK. Local knowledge on the use of Swertia chirayta as traditional medicine: conservation challenges in Sikkim Himalaya, India. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2015;14:345-55. doi:10.17348/era.14.0.345-355. 106. Pradhan BK. Caterpillar Mushroom, Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Ascomycetes): a potential bioresource for commercialization in Sikkim Himalaya, India. Int J Med Mushrooms. 2016;18(4):337-46. doi:10.1615/IntJMedMushrooms.v18.i4.70. 107. Pradhan H. Gorkha and other ethnic herbal medicines. New Delhi: Universal Publishers; 1991. 108. Pradhan KC. The Rhododendrons of Sikkim. Kolkata: Sikkim Adventure Botanical Tours and Treks; 2008. 109. Pradhan KC, Lachungpa ST. Sikkim-Himalayan Rhododendrons. Kalimpong: Primulaceae Books; 1990. 110. Pradhan S, Basistha B, Basnett R, Banerjee A. Chromatographic techniques used for investigation of basic bioactive constituents of highly potent species—Hippophae salicifolia from hidden forests of Sikkim. In: Sikkim biodiversity: significance and sustainability. Gangtok: Sikkim State Council of Science and Technology; 2012. p. 80-91. 111. Pradhan S, Tamang J. Ethnobiology of wild leafy vegetable of Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2015;12(2):290-7. URL: http://14.139.47.15/bitstream/123456789/32086/1/IJTK14(2) 290-297.pdf. 112. Puri H, Pandey G. Glimpses into the crude drugs of Sikkim. Bull Medico-ethnobot Res. 1980;1(1):55-71. 113. Purohit CS, Agarwala DK, Das K. Ethno-botanical plants of Sikkim and their status: a review. In: Kumar S, editor. Ethnobotanical Studies in India. New Delhi: Deep Publications; 2014. p. 256-77. 5

Additional File I Bibliography of reviewed biocultural records from Sikkim 114. Rai LK, Sharma E. Medicinal plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: status, uses and potential. Dehra Dun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 1994. 115. Rai LK, Prasad P, Sharma E. Conservation threats to some important medicinal plants of the Sikkim Himalaya. Biol Conserv; 2010. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00116-0. 116. Rai, PC. The practice of traditional healing and the healers of Ribdi-Bhareng. Gangtok: Village Health Association of Sikkim; 2010. 117. Rai P, Sarkar A, Das A. Ethnomedicinal studies in some fringe areas of Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalaya. J Hill Res. 1998;11:12-21. 118. Rai S, Bhujel R. Ethnic uses of some monocotyledonous plants in the Darjeeling Himalayan region. In: Das A, editor. Perspectives of plant biodiversity. Dehra Dun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh; 2002. p. 635-44. 119. Rai B, Khawas DB, Chettri R. Certain plants in the folklore and folklife of Darjeeling and Sikkim hills, India used for treatment of human ailments. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1992;10:193-8. 120. Rai T, Rai LK. Trees of the Sikkim Himalaya. New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company; 1994. 121. Rai YK, Rai LK. Citrus reticulata in the Mamlay watershed, agroforestry practice, and market. J Hill Res. 1994;7(2):157-60. 122. Rai YK, Singh KK, Rai LK. Diversity of edible wild plants in the Sikkim Himalaya. In: Sikkim biodiversity: significance and sustainability. Gangtok: Sikkim State Council of Science and Technology; 2012. p. 3-19. 123. Rajendran, SM. West Sikkim: a treasure house of medicinal plants and their utility by local tribals. J Econ Taxon Bot. 2003;27:311-6. 124. Raju D, Mandal N. Native Kutki (Picorhizza scropularifolia) of Sikkim. J Hill Res. 1990;3:123-6. 125. Raju D, Krishna B. Less known edible plants of Sikkim. In: Porkayastha R, editor. Economic Plants and Microbes. Kolkata: Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers; 1990. 126. Raju D, Sanjapp M, Singh S. Ma Niao Pao in Sikkim. J Hill Res. 1990;3:131-4. 127. Royburman JJ. Tribal medicine: traditional practices and change in Sikkim. New Delhi: Mittal Publications; 2003. 128. Sahoo A, Ansari A. Less known ethnic uses of plants of South Sikkim. NELUMBO. 2009;51: 219-22. 129. Saklani A, Upreti D. Folk uses of some lichens in Sikkim. J Ethnopharmacol. 1992; doi:10.1016/03788741(92)90038-S. 130. Sharma TP, Borthakur SK. 2008. Traditional handloom and handicrafts of Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2008;9(2):375-7. URL: http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/8188/1/IJTK%209(2)%20375 377.pdf?utm_source=The_Journal_Database&trk=right_banner&id=1416745567&ref=a a74080be9b3f3036a13c3678593fb0. 131. Sharma E, Rai L, Lachungpa S, Awasthi R. Status of medicinal plants and their cultivation potential in Sikkim. In: Sundriyal R, Sharama E, editors. Cultivation of medicinal plants and orchids in Sikkim Himalaya. Dehra Dun: G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development; 1995. p. 43-51. 132. Sharma T. Diversity of non-timber forest produce (NTFP) in Sikkim Himalaya: an overview. In: Sikkim biodiversity: significance and sustainability. Gangtok: Sikkim State Council of Science and Technology. p. 92-5. 133. Sharma T, Sharma S. Medicinal plants of Sikkim. Gangtok: Beracah Printing and Stationary; 2010. 134. Sharma BD, Srivastava RC. Medicinal plants of Sikkim. Kolkata: Botanical Survey of India, 1993. 135. Sherpa MT, Mathur A, Das S. Medicinal plants and traditional medicine system of Sikkim: a review. World J Pharma Res. 2015;4(2):161-81. 136. Shrestha B, Basnett H, Prosanta P. Herbal remedies practiced by traditional practitioners of Nepali tribe in Sikkim. Uni J Pharma Sci Res. 2015; http://ujpsr.com/sites/default/files/articles/UJPSRMNSC-1 %281%29.pdf. 137. Singh HB, Sharma BR, Pradhan B. Ethnobotanical observation on the preparation of rokshi (a local drink) in Sikkim, India. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1999;23(2):580-2. 6

Additional File I Bibliography of reviewed biocultural records from Sikkim 138. Singh D. Use of medicinal plants of Sikkim in Ayurvedic medicine. In: Sundriyal R, Sharma E, editors. Cultivation of medicinal plants and orchids in Sikkim Himalaya. Dehra Dun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Singh; 1995. p. 65-8. 139. Singh HB, Jain A. Ethnobotanical observation on the preparation of Millet beer in Sikkim state, India. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1999;23(2): 577-9. 140. Singh H, Prasad P, Rai L. Folk medicinal plants in the Sikkim Himalayas of India. Asian Folklore Studies. 2002;61:295-310. doi:10.2307/1178975. 141. Singh P. Medicinal plants of Sikkim and the Eastern Himalayas: a practical analysis about clinical characters of North East India’s medicinal plants. New Delhi: Spectrum; 2007. 142. Singh V. Lesser known wild edibles of Sikkim Himalaya. J Econ Taxon Bot. 1995;19(2):385-90. 143. Singh VP. Some medicinal ferns of Sikkim Himalayas. JREIM. 1973;8(3):71-3. 144. Sinha G, Chauhan A. Ethnobotanical studies on Lepchas of Sikkim Himalaya. Himalayan Paryavaran. 1997;5(1):60-4. 145. Srivastava RC. High altitude medicinal plants of Sikkim Himalaya. JREIM. 1993;12(1):5-14. 146. Srivastava RC. Wild edible plants of Sikkim Himalaya. NELUMBO. 1994;36:95-126. 147. Srivastava RC. A note on the arrow-poison used by Lepchas of Dzongu (Sikkim) and its antidote. National Academy of Science Letters. 1990;13(11):399-400. 148. Srivastava TN, Kapaki BK. Resource survey of plants of potential economic value of Sikkim Himalayas. Bulletin of Medico-ethnobotanical Research. 1990;12(1-2):1-11. 149. Srivastava TN, Kapaki BK, Atal CK. Ethnomedico-botanical investigations in Sikkim. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany. 1987;11(2):413-21. 150. Subba JR. Biodiversity of the Sikkim Himalaya. New Delhi: Ambica Printers; 2002. 151. Subba JR. Indigenous knowledge on bio-resources management for livelihood of the people of Sikkim. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2009;8(1):56-64. 152. Subba S, Badola H. Ethnobotanical knowledge, populations, and ex-situ conservation trials in Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae) in Sikkim. Pleione. 2011;5(2):304-11. 153. Sundriyal M, Rai LK. Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya. J Hill Res; 1996;9(2):267-78. 154. Sundriyal M, Sundriyal R. Underutilized edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: need for domestication. Cur Sci. 2003; http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/sep252003/731.pdf. 155. Sundriyal M, Sundriyal R. Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: marketing, value addition and implications for management. Econ Bot. 2004; doi:10.1163/0013-0001(2004)058. 156. Sundriyal M, Sundriyal R. Seedling growth and survival of selected wild edible fruit species of the Sikkim Himalaya, India. Acta Oecologica. 2005; doi:10.1016/j.actao.2005.02.003. 157. Sundriyal M, Sundriyal R, Sharma E. Dietary use of wild plant resources in the Sikkim Himalaya, India. Econ Bot. 2004;58(4):626-38. 158. Sundriyal M, Sundriyal R, Sharma E, Purohit A. Wild edibles and other useful plants from the Sikkim Himalaya, India. Oecol Mont. 1998;7(1-2):43-54. 159. Suresh C, Bhutia K, Shukla G, Pradhan K, Chakravarty S. 2014. Wild edible tree fruits of Sikkim Himalayas. J Tree Sci 33(1):43-7. 160. Talukdar D, Talukdar T. 2012. Traditional legumes in Sikkim Himalayas: food preparation, uses, and ethno-medicinal perspectives. Int J Cur Res 4(4):64-73. 161. Tamang B, Tamang J. Traditional knowledge of bio-preservation of perishable vegetable and bamboo shoots in Northeast India as food resources. Ind J of Tradit Knowl. 2009; http://www.niscair.res.in/sciencecommunication/researchjournals/rejour/ijtk/Fulltextsearh/2009/January 2009/IJTK-Vol 8(1)- January 2009- pp 89-95.htm. 162. Tamang JP, Thapa S, Tamang N, Rai B. Indigenous fermented food beverages of Darjeeling hills and Sikkim: process and product characterization. J Hill Res. 1996;9(2):401-11. 163. Tamang K, Yonzone G. Dictionary of flowering plants of Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya. Darjeeling: Goodwill Home; 2004. 7

Additional File I Bibliography of reviewed biocultural records from Sikkim 164. Tamang P. Ichthyo-faunal diversities of Sikkim: Taxonomic list, fisheries trend, and conservation exigencies. In: Sikkim biodiversity: significance and sustainability. Gangtok: Sikkim State Council of Science and Technology; 2012. p. 170-9. 165. Tambe S, Rawat G. Traditional livelihood based on sheep grazing in Khangchendzonga National Park of Sikkim. In: Sikkim biodiversity: significance and sustainability. Gangtok: Sikkim State Council of Science and Technology; 2012. p. 158-66. 166. Tamsang KP. 2004. Glossary of Lepcha medicinal plants. Kalimpong: Mani Printing Press; 2004. 167. Thapa K, Chettri R. Ethnobotanical survey of Darjeeling-Sikkim hills. Bulletin of Cell Research-India. 1993;1(2):1-7. 168. Tripathi KP, Singh B, Jain RK. Characterization of medicinal plants used by different tribes in the Sikkim Himalayas. J NTFP. 2009;16(2):111-8. 169. Tsarong T. Tibetan medicinal plants: an agenda for cultivation. In: Sundriyal R, Sharma E, editors. Cultivation of medicinal plants and orchids in Sikkim Himalaya. Dehra Dun: G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development; 1995. p. 75-9. 170. Uniyal MR. Traditional useful medicinal plants of Sikkim Himalaya. Professional Seminar on Research on Ayurveda and Siddha; 1995: 76. 171. Upadhyaya RC, Patiram RS. Decline status of Mandarin Orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco) in Sikkim. J Hill Res. 1994;7(2):83-9 172. Upadhyaya RS, Patiram. Nutrient status of Mandarin Orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco) in Sikkim. Pages 83−87 in Research Papers on Bioresources of Sikkim. Volume 1. Gangtok: Government of Sikkim; 2000. p. 83-7. 173. Ved DK, Kinhal GA, Haridasan K, Ravikumar K, Ghate U, Sankar RV, et al. Conservation assessment and management prioritization for the medicinal plants of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and Sikkim. Bangalore: Lotus Enterprises, Bangalore; 2003. 174. Yonzan H, Tamang JP. Consumption pattern of traditional fermented foods in the Sikkim Himalaya. J Hill Res. 1998;11(1): 112-5. 175. Yonzone G, Bharati P, Yonzan B, Bhujel R. Ethnomedicinal plants of Darjeeling–Sikkim Himalayas. J Int Hort Soc. 1987;1:193-202.

8

ID #

Linnaean Classification

Linnaean Family

Linnaean Range (M ASL) Citation Kingdom Low High Frequency

Conservation Rank CR SR

IUCN Status

Biocultural Designation

1

Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik.

Malvaceae

Plantae

600

2400

0.222

1

5

NA

FOOD, RESP, URIN

2

Abies densa Griff.

Pinaceae

Plantae

2800

3900

0.500

5

1

LC

CIRC, DERM, DGST, MTRL, ORAL, RESP, URIN, VETN

3

Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb.

Pinaceae

Plantae

2400

3800

0.167

5

1

NA

RESP

4

Abroma augusta (L.) L.f.

Malvaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.306

5

5

NA

CIRC, EDCR, FOOD, SKEL, PREG

5

Abrus precatorius L.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.306

5

5

NA

6 7

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC.

Malvaceae Fabaceae

Plantae Plantae

300 300

1100 1100

0.083 0.083

5 5

1 1

NA NA

8

Acacia pennata (L.) Willd.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.111

5

5

LC

9

Acalypha indica L.

Euphorbiaceae

Plantae

350

1500

0.083

4

5

NA

10 Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCannOrchidaceae 11 Acer caudatum Wall. Sapindaceae 12 Acer oblongum Wall. ex DC. Sapindaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

600 2210 1500

1600 4000 2500

0.056 0.056 0.028

5 5 5

5 5 5

NA NA NA

13 Achyranthes bidentata Blume

Plantae

300

1800

0.306

5

5

NA

14 Acmella calva (DC.) R.K.Jansen Asteraceae 15 Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R. K. JensAsteraceae

Plantae Plantae

1000 800

1900 1900

0.028 0.028

5 5

3 1

NA LC

16 Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. var. naviculare Ranunculaceae

Plantae

3000

5000

0.611

4

5

NA

17 Aconitum palmatum D. Don.

Ranunculaceae

Plantae

2750

4800

0.306

4

5

NA

18 Aconitum spicatum Stapf.

Ranunculaceae

Plantae

1800

4200

0.222

5

5

NA

19 Acorus calamus L.

Acoraceae

Plantae

600

2300

0.778

4

5

LC

20 21 22 23 24 25

Rutaceae Actinidiaceae Actinidiaceae Lauraceae Pteridaceae Pteridaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

600 1200 2400 300 300 300

1200 2700 3000 1400 2800 1500

0.056 0.056 0.028 0.111 0.111 0.111

5 5 5 5 3 5

5 1 3 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA LC LC

Rutaceae

Plantae

300

1000

0.333

5

7

NA

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Fungi Fungi Fungi

300 1200 600 1200 1800 300 1800

1200 2000 1800 2600 2500 3645 2500

0.056 0.139 0.111 0.056 0.111 0.139 0.083

5 5 5 5 1 1 1

5 1 1 1 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. Actinidia callosa Lindl. Actinidia strigosa Hook. f. & Thomson Actinodaphne obovata (Nees) Blume Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adiantum lunulatum Burm. f.

Amaranthaceae

DERM, ORAL, PREG, RESP, URIN EDCR DERM, HEPT ANTI, DERM, FOOD, SKEL FOOD, DGST, SKEL, URIN EDCR, SKEL FOOD, MTRL MTRL DERM, DGST, SKEL, URIN ORAL ORAL ANTI, DERM, DGST, EDCR, RESP, SKEL, URIN EDCR, MTRL ANTI, DGST, HEAR, SKEL, RESP CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, MENT, RESP, VETN

Plantae

300

2200

0.111

2

5

NA

35 Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R. M. King &Asteraceae

Plantae

900

2200

0.111

3

1

NA

36 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.250

5

1

NA

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

Meliaceae Rosaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Ailuridae Asteraceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Cornaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Animalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

700 1000

1800 3200

900 2500 1700 1000 1221 300

2400 3800 3600 2500 3300 2400

0.028 0.083 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.028 0.028 0.056

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5

NT NA NA NA EN NA NA NA NA

DGST FOOD FOOD DERM, MTRL EDCR, URIN EDCR, URIN DERM, DGST, EDCR, URIN DERM DERM CIRC, DERM, SKEL FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD DERM, MTRL, SKEL, URIN DERM, DGST DERM, DGST, NEOP, SKEL FOOD DGST HEPT DERM, EDCR RESP DGST DERM, URIN DERM EDCR, FOOD

26 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Orchidaceae Aerides odoratum Reinw. ex Blume Aeschynanthus parviflorus (D. Don) Spreng. Gesneriaceae Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. Sapindaceae Ericaceae Agapetes serpens (Wight) Sleumer Agaricaceae Agaricus augustus Fr. Agaricus bisporus (J.E.Lange) Emil J. Imbac Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricus campestris L.

34 Agave americana L.

Aglaia edulis (Roxb.) Wall. Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. Agrostophyllum brevipes King & Pantl. Agrostophyllum callosum Rchb.f. Ailurus fulgens F. Cuvier Ainsliaea latifolia (D. Don) Sch. Bip. Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. Ajuga macrosperma Wall ex. Benth. Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms.

Asparagaceae

46 Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr.

Fabaceae

Plantae

400

1500

0.056

2

1

NA

DERM, DGST, MTRL

47 Albizia julibrissin Durazz.

Fabaceae

Plantae

1500

3000

0.028

4

5

NA

OPTH, ORAL

48 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

900

0.167

5

7

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, MTRL, OPTH, RESP

49 Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth.

Fabaceae

Plantae

900

1600

0.056

5

1

NA

MTRL, NERV, RESP

50 Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth.

Fabaceae

Plantae

400

1200

0.111

5

1

NA

DGST, MTRL, SKEL

51 52 53 54 55 56

Malvaceae Pyronemataceae Athyriaceae Athyriaceae Athyriaceae Apocynaceae

Plantae Fungi Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 1800 300 1200 2200 300

850 2500 1200 2200 3000 700

0.056 0.028 0.056 0.139 0.139 0.056

2 5 5 5 5 5

3 1 1 1 1 7

NA NA NA NA NA NA

HEPT, SKEL FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD

Alcea rosea L. Aleuria aurantia (Pers.) Fuckel Allantodia aspera (Blume) Ching. Allantodia maximum (D. Don ) Ching Allantodia succulenta (C.B. Clarke) Ching Allemanda cathartica L.

57 Allium cepa L.

Amaryllidaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.500

1

5

NA

CIRC, EDCR, FOOD

58 Allium hypsistum Stearn.

Amaryllidaceae

Plantae

4500

5500

0.056

5

3

NA

CIRC, FOOD

59 Allium macranthum Baker

Amaryllidaceae

Plantae

2000

3500

0.028

5

5

NA

CIRC, FOOD, VETN

60 Allium prattii C.H. Wright

Amaryllidaceae

Plantae

2400

4500

0.056

5

5

NA

SKEL

61 Allium sativum L.

Amaryllidaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.333

1

5

NA

ANTI, DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, HEAR, NERV, SPRT, VETN

62 Allium sikkimense Baker

Amaryllidaceae

Plantae

2500

4000

0.028

5

5

NA

63 Allium wallichii Kunth

Amaryllidaceae

Plantae

2200

4300

0.389

5

1

NA

64 Alnus nepalensis D. Don

Betulaceae

Plantae

600

2300

0.139

5

5

LC

DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, MTRL, SPRT

65 Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.

Xanthorrhoeaceae Plantae

300

1500

0.389

1

1

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, MTRL, PREG, SKEL, URIN, VET

66 Alpina galanga (L.) Willd.

Zingiberaceae

Plantae

300

1300

0.056

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, SPRT

67 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.

Apocynaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.250

5

1

LC

68 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. 69 Amanita caesarea (Scop.) Pers.

Amaranthaceae Amanitaceae

Plantae Fungi

300 300

2000 2500

0.056 0.056

3 5

5 1

LC NA

70 Amaranthus spinosus L.

Amaranthaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.139

3

5

NA

71 Amaranthus tricolor L.

Amaranthaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.111

2

5

NA

72 Amaranthus viridis L.

Amaranthaceae

Plantae

300

1750

0.111

3

5

NA

DGST, FOOD, URIN

73 74 75 76

Lythraceae Apiaceae Ranidae Zingiberaceae

Plantae Plantae Animalia Plantae

300 300 300

1000 1200 1300

0.056 0.083 0.028 0.139

3 2 5 4

3 1 5 1

LC NA NA

DERM DGST, URIN DERM DGST

Zingiberaceae

Plantae

600

2100

0.528

4

5

NA

ANTI, CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, HEPT, ORAL, RESP, URIN, VETN

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 500 500 300

750 1000 1500 1000

0.056 0.056 0.056 0.083

5 5 5 5

7 3 1 4

NA NA NA NA

MTRL FOOD ORAL, VETN ORAL, VETN

Ammannia baccifera L. Ammi majus L. Amolops spp. Amomum aromaticum Roxb.

77 Amomum subulatum Roxb.

78 79 80 81

Amorphophallus paeoniffolius (Dennst.) NichoAraceae Vitaceae Ampelocissus barbata (Wall.) Planch. Ampelocissus sikkimensis (M.A. Lawson) PlanVitaceae Thelypteridaceae Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel.

EDCR, FOOD DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD

ANTI, DERM, MTRL, PREG, RESP, SKEL, VETN DGST, URIN FOOD DGST, EDCR, PREG, URIN DGST, EDCR, FOOD, PREG

82 Anagallis arvensis L.

Primulaceae

Plantae

500

2700

0.056

5

1

NA

HEPT, MENT, URIN

83 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.

Bromeliaceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.139

2

1

NA

CIRC, DGST, HEPT, ORAL, PREG

84 Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham.) DC.

Asteraceae

Plantae

1500

3600

0.083

3

5

NA

85 Anaphalis contorta (D. Don) Hook. f. Asteraceae 86 Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth. & Hook. Asteraceae 87 Anemone obtusiloba D. Don. var. potentilloide Ranunculaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

1700 1800 3200

4500 3100 4000

0.056 0.028 0.028

3 5 5

5 1 7

NA NA NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, MTRL DERM, RESP CIRC, DGST, MTRL DERM, SKEL

88 Anemone rivularis Buch-Ham. ex DC.

Ranunculaceae

Plantae

2200

3600

0.056

5

5

NA

DERM, SKEL, VETN

89 Anemone vitifolia Buch.-Ham. ex DC.

Ranunculaceae

Plantae

1500

3000

0.056

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR

90 Angelica archangelica L. Apiaceae 91 Angelica cyclocarpa (C. Norman) M. Hiroe Apiaceae

Plantae Plantae

2210 2210

3300 3600

0.056 0.056

3 5

1 1

NA NA

DGST DGST, NERV

92 Angelica indica Pimenov & Kljuykov

Apiaceae

Plantae

2210

3300

0.028

5

1

NA

OPTH, SKEL, PREG

93 Angiopteris evecta (G. Forst.) Hoffm. 94 Anguilla bengalensis J.E. Gray

Marattiaceae Anguillidae

Plantae Animalia

300 300

1200 500

0.083 0.028

5 5

5 7

NA NT

FOOD FOOD

95 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

2400

0.028

5

1

NA

96 Annona squamosa L.

Annonaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.083

2

5

NA

97 Anthogonium gracile Wall. Ex Lindl.

Orchidaceae

Plantae

1200

2500

0.083

5

5

NA

98 Antidesma acidum Retz.

Phyllanthaceae

Plantae

300

1520

0.083

5

1

NA

99 Antidesma montanum Blume

Phyllanthaceae

Plantae

300

1520

0.028

5

1

NA

100 Apis mellifera L.

Apidae

Animalia

300

3500

0.111

3

1

NA

101 Aralia leschenaultii (DC.) J. Wen

Araliaceae

Plantae

1900

3400

0.139

5

5

NA

102 Ardisia crispa (Thunb.) A. DC

Primulaceae

Plantae

1200

2500

0.028

5

1

NA

103 Ardisia macrocarpa Wall.

Primulaceae

Plantae

500

2400

0.083

4

1

NA

104 Areca catechu L.

Arecaceae

Plantae

300

850

0.028

3

7

NA

105 Argemone mexicana L.

Papaveraceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.056

3

5

NA

106 Arisaema intermedium Blume 107 Arisaema nepenthoides (Wall.) Mart. 108 Arisaema speciosum (Wall.) Mart.

Araceae Araceae Araceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

2600 2100 500

3800 3600 2800

0.056 0.028 0.139

5 5 5

5 5 5

NA NA NA

109 Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott

Araceae

Plantae

800

2800

0.083

5

5

NA

Plantae Plantae Fungi Plantae

2700 2100 300 1200

4000 2800 2500 3400

0.111 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5

5 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA

110 111 112 113

Araceae Arisaema utile Hook. f. ex Schott Aristolochia griffithii Hook.f. & Thomson ex Aristolochiaceae Physalacriaceae Armillaria mellea (Vahl.) P. Kumm. Asteraceae Artemisia dubia L. ex B.D. Jacks.

RESP DERM, MENT, NERV, VETN DERM, SKEL DERM, DGST, FOOD, RESP FOOD CULT, DERM, FOOD, ORAL, RESP DERM, FOOD CIRC, DERM, FOOD, OPTH DERM, FOOD, OPTH DERM, DGST, ORAL, URIN DERM, DGST, HEPT, VETN FOOD FOOD DERM ANTI, DERM, DGST, SKEL FOOD CIRC, MTRL FOOD DERM, NERV DERM, DGST, HEPT, NERV DERM, SPRT

114 Artemisia indica Willd.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.194

5

5

NA

115 Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke) Pamp.

Asteraceae

Plantae

1500

2600

0.111

5

5

NA

116 Artemisia vulgaris L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

930

1860

0.583

5

5

NA

CIRC, DERM, FOOD, ORAL, MTRL, RESP, SKEL, SPRT, VETN

117 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.

Moraceae

Plantae

300

500

0.194

2

7

NA

DERM, DGST, FOOD, MTRL, RESP

118 Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham.

Moraceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.306

2

1

NA

119 Arundina graminifolia (D.Don) Hochr.

Orchidaceae

Plantae

400

2800

0.056

5

1

NA

120 Asclepias curassavica L.

Apocynaceae

Plantae

700

1500

0.028

2

5

NA

121 Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Asparagaceae

Plantae

500

1900

0.528

4

5

NA

CIRC, EDCR, HEPT, MENT, SKEL, RESP, URIN, VETN

122 Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Saxifragaceae

Plantae

1800

2700

0.667

5

5

NA

CIRC, DGST, EDCR, ORAL, PREG, SKEL

123 Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) J. Schröt.

Auriculariaceae

Fungi

300

3305

0.056

5

1

NA

FOOD

124 Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Meliaceae

Plantae

300

1380

0.222

4

5

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, ORAL

125 Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.

Phyllanthaceae

Plantae

300

1000

0.167

4

3

NA

FOOD

DERM, DGST, FOOD, MTRL DERM, SKEL DERM, DGST, HEPT, SPRT

126 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst.

Plantaginaceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.083

5

1

LC

CIRC, DGST, EDCR, MENT, RESP, SKEL

127 Bagarius bagarius F. Hamilton 128 Bambusa balcooa Roxb.

Sisoridae Poaceae

Animalia Plantae

300 300

700 1400

0.028 0.083

5 5

7 5

NT NA

FOOD FOOD

129 Bambusa nutans Wall. ex Munro

Poaceae

Plantae

300

1600

0.222

5

1

NA

DERM, FOOD, MTRL, URIN, VETN

130 131 132 133 134 135

Poaceae Cyprinidae Cyprinidae Cyprinidae Cyprinidae Cyprinidae

Plantae Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

800 300 300 300 300 300

1500 700 700 700 700 700

0.139 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5 5 5

1 7 7 7 7 7

NA LC LC LC LC LC

136 Basella alba L.

Basellaceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.056

4

1

NA

137 Bauhinia purpure a L.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.389

5

5

LC

Bambusa tulda Roxb. Barilius barila F. Hamilton Barilius bendelisis bendelisis F. Hamilton Barilius shacra F. Hamilton Barilius tileo F. Hamilton Barilius vagra F. Hamilton

FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD DERM, DGST, SKEL, URIN DGST, EDCR, FOOD, MTRL, URIN

ANTI, CIRC, DERM, URIN CIRC, DGST, FOOD, VETN

138 Bauhinia scanden s L.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.028

5

5

NA

139 Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.250

5

1

NA

140 Bauhinia variegata L.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.500

5

5

LC

DERM, DGST, FOOD, ORAL, MTRL, SKEL, VETN

141 142 143 144

Begoniaceae Begoniaceae Begoniaceae Begoniaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

900 1200 300 1000

2900 1600 1500 1800

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5

5 3 1 3

NA NA NA NA

CIRC FOOD DGST, FOOD DGST

145 Begonia picta Sm.

Begoniaceae

Plantae

750

1800

0.083

5

1

NA

DGST, ORAL, URIN

146 Beilschmiedia sikkimensis King ex Hook. f.

Lauraceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.083

5

5

NA

147 Benincasa hispid a (Thunb.) Cogn.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

300

1870

0.083

4

1

NA

MTRL CIRC, DGST, RESP, URIN

148 Berberis aristata DC.

Berberidaceae

Plantae

1800

3500

0.333

5

5

NA

149 Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC.

Berberidaceae

Plantae

1200

2500

0.194

5

5

NA

150 Berberis insignis Hook. f. & Thomson. 151 Berberis wallichiana DC.

Berberidaceae Berberidaceae

Plantae Plantae

2000 2000

3350 3300

0.083 0.083

5 5

1 1

NA NA

152 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.

Saxifragaceae

Plantae

900

3200

0.944

5

6

NA

153 Bergenia purpurascens (Hook. f. &Thomson) Saxifragaceae

Plantae

3300

4700

0.222

5

5

NA

154 Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Betulaceae

Plantae

1500

2600

0.306

5

5

LC

155 Betula utilis D. Don

Betulaceae

Plantae

2700

4300

0.306

5

1

LC

DERM, MENT, ORAL, MTRL, SKEL, RESP, URIN, VETN

156 Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff

Asteraceae

Plantae

1100

2000

0.083

5

3

NA

DGST, FOOD, SKEL

157 Bidens pilosa L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

2500

0.111

3

1

NA

CIRC, DERM, HEPT, HEAR, OPTH, SKEL

158 Bischofia javanica Blume

Phyllanthaceae

Plantae

400

1500

0.444

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR, ORAL, MTRL, OPTH, SKEL

159 Bistorta affinis (D. Don) Greene

Polygonaceae

Plantae

3500

4800

0.056

5

5

NA

160 Bistorta vivipara (L.) Delabre

Polygonaceae

Plantae

3200

5000

0.056

5

5

NA

161 Bixa orellana L.

Bixaceae

Plantae

300

1000

0.056

3

3

NA

162 Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. 163 Blumea densiflora (Wall.) DC. 164 Blumea fistulosa (Roxb.) Kurz

Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 300 300

1500 2000 1500

0.056 0.028 0.056

5 5 5

1 1 1

NA NA NA

Begonia cathcartii Hook. f. & Thomson Begonia hatacoa Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Begonia longifolia Blume Begonia nepalensis (A. DC.) Warb.

ANTI, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, HEPT, OPTH EDCR, FOOD, OPTH, SKEL FOOD ANTI CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, ORAL, PREG, RESP, SKEL, URIN, VETN DERM, DGST, ORAL, SKEL, URIN ANTI, DERM, HEPT, MTRL, SKEL

DERM DERM, FOOD, ORAL, RESP ANTI, DERM, HEPT, ORAL CIRC, SKEL DGST DGST DERM, DGST, SKEL, URIN DERM DERM, MTRL

165 Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

1300

0.056

3

1

NA

166 Boehmeria nive a (L.) Gaudich. 167 Boehmeria rugulosa Wedd.

Urticaceae Urticaceae

Plantae Plantae

300 300

800 1700

0.056 0.139

2 5

3 1

NA NA

168 Boenninghausenia albiflora (Hook.) Rchb. ex Rutaceae

Plantae

1600

3300

0.194

5

1

NA

DERM, EDCR, ORAL, SKEL, VETN

169 Boerhavia diffusa L.

Nyctaginaceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.111

3

1

NA

CIRC, HEPT, NERV, OPTH, RESP, URIN

170 Boletus edulis Bull.

Boletaceae

Fungi

300

2500

0.056

5

1

NA

FOOD

171 Bombax ceiba L.

Malvaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.333

5

5

NA

CIRC, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, NEOP, RESP

172 Borassus flabellifer L.

Arecaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.056

3

5

NA

DGST, URIN

173 Bos grunniens L.

Bovidae

Animalia

4000

6000

0.167

4

7

NA

FOOD, MTRL, ORAL

174 Bos primigenius indicus L.

Bovidae

Animalia

300

2500

0.333

1

5

NA

DERM, FOOD, RESP

175 Botrychium ternatum W.H. Wagner 176 Brassaiopsis mitis C.B. Clarke

Ophioglossaceae Araliaceae

Plantae Plantae

2400 1800

2800 2500

0.028 0.167

5 5

7 1

NA NA

FOOD DGST

178 Breonia chinensis (Lam.) Capuron

Rubiaceae

Plantae

300

800

0.028

3

7

LC

179 Bridelia retusa (L.) A. Juss.

Phyllanthaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.222

5

5

NA

180 Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. Simaroubaceae 181 Brugmansia suaveolens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex W Solanaceae 182 Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken Crassulaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

1200 400 300

2400 1800 850

0.056 0.139 0.028

5 3 2

1 1 7

NA EX NA

DERM, DGST, FOOD, NERV MTRL DERM, HEPT, MTRL, SKEL MTRL RESP, SKEL DGST

183 Bubalus bubalis L.

Bovidae

Animalia

300

3000

0.083

1

5

NA

DGST, FOOD, MTRL

184 Buddleja asiatica Lour.

Scrophulariaceae

Plantae

300

2200

0.306

5

1

NA

DERM, EDCR, HEPT, NERV, PREG

185 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. 186 Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. 187 Caesulia axillaris Roxb.

Fabaceae Fabaceae Asteraceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 300 350

1200 1000 1800

0.056 0.028 0.028

5 5 5

5 3 1

NA NA LC

EDCR CIRC, EDCR DERM, PREG

188 Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

900

0.056

5

3

NA

DGST, FOOD, HEPT, ORAL, PREG

189 190 191 192 193 194

Arecaceae Arecaceae Arecaceae Arecaceae Arecaceae Orchidaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

800 500 300 300 300 800

2400 1800 1350 1000 1200 2000

0.056 0.028 0.083 0.028 0.083 0.056

5 5 5 5 5 5

2 1 1 3 1 5

NA NA NA NA NA NA

FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD EDCR ORAL, RESP

195 Calendula officinalis L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

400

1800

0.111

2

1

NA

DERM, NERV, SKEL

196 Callicarpa arborea Roxb.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.250

5

1

NA

ANTI, EDCR, FOOD, MTRL, RESP

197 Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

600

0.083

5

7

NA

198 Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand.

Apocynaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.222

3

5

NA

177 Brassica rapa L.

Calamus acanthospathus Griff. Calamus erectus Roxb. Calamus flagellum Griff. ex. Mart. Calamus latifolius Roxb. Calamus rotang L. Calanthe sylvatica (Thouars) Lindl.

Brassicaceae

Plantae

300

4000

0.306

2

1

NA

199 Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand.

Apocynaceae

Plantae

300

600

0.083

3

3

NA

200 Caltha palustris L.

Ranunculaceae

Plantae

2210

4200

0.028

5

5

LC

SKEL, URIN DERM, DGST, SKEL, RESP DERM, ORAL, SKEL, RESP SKEL

201 Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze

Theaceae

Plantae

800

2000

0.167

1

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, URIN

202 Canarium bengalense Roxb. 203 Canarium sikkimense King

Burseraceae Burseraceae

Plantae Plantae

300 300

500 1000

0.056 0.028

5 5

3 3

NA NA

FOOD DERM

204 Canarium strictum Roxb.

Burseraceae

Plantae

300

960

0.056

5

3

NA

DERM, SKEL, URIN

205 Canis lupus familiaris L. 206 Canna indica L.

Canidae Canaceae

Animalia Plantae

300 300

3000 1800

0.028 0.111

1 5

5 5

NA NA

DERM, CULT CIRC, FOOD, URIN

207 Cannabis sativa L.

Cannabaceae

Plantae

300

2400

0.333

5

5

NA

CIRC, DGST, EDCR, SKEL, VETN

208 Cantharellus cibarius Fr.

Cantharellaceae

Fungi

300

2500

0.056

5

1

NA

209 Capra aegagrus hircus L.

Bovidae

Animalia

300

3000

0.028

1

5

NA

210 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.

Brassicaceae

Plantae

1800

4500

0.083

3

1

NA

211 Capsicum annuum L.

Solanaceae

212 213 214 215 216 217

Carapichea ipecacuanha (Brot.) L. Andersson Rubiaceae Brassicaceae Cardamine flexuosa With. Cardamine griffithii Hook. f. & Thomson Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Cardamine hirsuta L. Brassicaceae Cardamine macrophylla Willd. Cyperaceae Carex filicina Nees

Plantae

300

3000

0.139

2

1

NA

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

800 300 3000 700 2100 1200

1300 3200 4000 2500 4100 4000

0.056 0.028 0.028 0.111 0.056 0.028

2 3 5 3 5 5

1 1 3 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA NA LC

FOOD DERM, FOOD, MTRL CIRC, DGST, NERV, VETN DGST, FOOD, SKEL, VETN DGST, HEPT FOOD FOOD CIRC, HEPT, URIN CIRC, HEPT, URIN FOOD ANTI, DGST, FOOD, PREG DGST, EDCR, FOOD, URIN FOOD DERM, EDCR, FOOD, RESP, SKEL, URIN

218 Carica papay a L.

Caricaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.306

1

1

NA

219 Caryota urens L.

Arecaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.139

5

1

LC

220 Casearia glomerata Roxb.

Salicaceae

Plantae

600

1800

0.056

5

1

NA

221 Cassia fistula L.

Fabaceae

Plantae

900

1200

0.250

5

5

NA

222 Cassiope fastigiata (Wall.) D. Don

Ericaceae

Plantae

3000

5000

0.083

3

5

NA

223 Castanopsis hystrix Hook. f. & Thomson ex Fagaceae

Plantae

1800

2500

0.111

5

5

NA

FOOD, MTRL

DERM, MTRL, SPRT

224 Castanopsis indica (Roxb. ex. Lindl.) A. DC. Fagaceae

Plantae

750

1500

0.167

5

5

NA

DFST, EDCR, FOOD MTRL, NEOP, URIN

225 Castanopsis purpurella (Mig) N.P. Balakr.

Plantae

900

2500

0.056

5

5

NA

FOOD, MTRL

Fagaceae

226 Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A. DC.

Fagaceae

Plantae

1200

2400

0.194

5

5

NA

ANTI, FOOD, MTRL

227 Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don

Apocynaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.194

3

5

NA

EDCR, FOOD, HEPT

Rubiaceae Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. Caulokaempferia sikkimensis (King ex Baker) Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae Cautleya gracilis (Sm.) Dandy Zingiberaceae Cautleya spicata (Sm.) Baker Vitaceae Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gagnep. Vitaceae Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don Pinaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1200 1320 1500 1100 800 500 1800

1900 1800 2500 1600 2200 1000 3000

0.056 0.139 0.056 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5 5 5 2

3 7 5 7 6 3 1

NA NA NA NA VU NA LC

Plantae

350

1200

0.306

5

1

NA

DGST DERM DERM, DGST DERM, DGST FOOD FOOD, MTRL VETN DERM, NERV, SKEL, VETN

228 229 230 231 232 233 234

235 Celastrus paniculatus Willd.

Celastraceae

236 Celosia argentea L.

Amaranthaceae

Plantae

500

1600

0.139

2

1

NA

DERM, FOOD, URIN

237 Celtis tetrandra Roxb.

Cannabaceae

Plantae

1500

3000

0.083

5

1

NA

238 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb

Apiaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.500

5

5

LC

239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246

Orchidaceae Poaceae Asteraceae Muscicapidae Channidae Channidae Channidae Rubiaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Plantae

1000 1200 2100 1800 300 300 300 500

3600 1800 4300 4800 400 380 400 2000

0.056 0.056 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

5 3 1 1 7 7 7 1

NA NA NA LC LC NA NA NA

MTRL, SKEL, RESP DERM, EDCR, HEPT, MENT, RESP, URIN, VETN EDCR FOOD, MTRL DERM CULT FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD

247 Cheilocostus speciosus (J. Koenig) C.D. Spech Costaceae

Plantae

400

1500

0.667

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR, URIN, VETN

248 Chenopodium album L.

Plantae

1800

2200

0.306

1

5

NA

CIRC, DGST, FOOD, PREG, URIN

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 400 300 800 300

1500 1500 2900 2900 1000

0.306 0.056 0.083 0.028 0.028

4 3 4 5 5

1 1 1 1 3

NA NA NA NA NA

FOOD DERM NERV, URIN DGST DGST

Meliaceae

Plantae

350

1200

0.056

5

1

LC

DERM, DGST, SKEL

255 Cinchona officinalis L. Rubiaceae 256 Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch.-Ham.) Sweet Lauraceae 257 Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl. Lauraceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

1500 400 350

3000 2000 1500

0.111 0.028 0.111

1 5 2

1 1 1

NA NA NA

258 Cinnamomum impressinervium Meisn.

Lauraceae

Plantae

1220

2500

0.111

5

1

NA

CIRC, EDCR, HEPT DERM DERM, RESP, SKEL DGST, FOOD, SKEL, URIN

259 Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees Lauraceae

Plantae

400

1900

0.472

4

1

NA

ANTI, DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, SKEL, URIN

260 Circaea alpina L. 261 Cirsium wallichii DC.

Onagraceae Asteraceae

Plantae Plantae

2400 1600

3400 2700

0.028 0.056

5 5

1 1

NA NA

DERM DGST, RESP

262 Cissampelos pareira L.

Menispermaceae

Plantae

300

2300

0.306

5

5

NA

ANTI, DERM, DGST, EDCR, HEPT, ORAL, URIN, VETN

263 264 265 266 267

Vitaceae Vitaceae Vitaceae Vitaceae Cucurbitaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

500 300 400 300 1500

1100 1300 1000 1200 2000

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.167

3 5 5 3 3

1 1 3 1 7

NA NA NA NA NA

268 Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle

Rutaceae

Plantae

300

2400

0.167

1

5

NA

269 Citrus indica Yu. Tanaka 270 Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.

Rutaceae Rutaceae

Plantae Plantae

500 300

1190 500

0.222 0.111

5 1

1 1

NA NA

271 Citrus medica L.

Rutaceae

Plantae

700

1200

0.250

1

1

NA

272 Citrus reticulata Blanco

Rutaceae

Plantae

300

1600

0.361

1

1

NA

Fungi Fungi Plantae Plantae

2000 3400 800 500

4000 4500 2100 2400

0.056 0.056 0.028 0.056

5 5 5 5

5 5 1 5

NA NA NA NA

249 250 251 252 253

Cephalanthera longifolia (L.) Fritsch. Cephalostachyum capitatum Munro Chaetoseris cyanea (D. Don) C. Shih Chaimarrornis leucocephalus Vigors Channa gachua F. Hamilton Channa orientalis Bloch & J. G. Schneider Channa punctatus Bloch Chassalia curviflora (Wall.) Thwaites

Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B. L. Burtt &Anacardiaceae Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. RAsteraceae Asteraceae Chrysanthemum indicum L. Poaceae Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. Poaceae Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty

254 Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss.

273 274 275 276

Amaranthaceae

Cissus adnata Roxb. Cissus elongata Roxb. Cissus repanda (Wight & Arn.) Vahl Cissus repens Lam. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.

Cladoniaceae Cladonia mitis Sandst. Cladonia rangiferina (L.) Weber ex F. H. WigCladoniaceae Rutaceae Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roem. Ranunculaceae Clematis acuminata DC.

FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD DGST, FOOD, HEPT, RESP DGST, HEPT, RESP HEPT, RESP ANTI, DERM, DGST, HEPT, SPRT, URIN DGST, FOOD, HEPT, RESP HEPT, RESP RESP FOOD RESP

277 Clematis buchananiana DC.

Ranunculaceae

Plantae

1000

3000

0.583

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, NERV, RESP, SKEL, VETN

278 Clematis montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC.

Ranunculaceae

Plantae

1600

4000

0.083

5

5

NA

MTRL, RESP, VETN

279 Clematis smilacifolia Wall. 280 Clematis wightiana Wall. 281 Cleome gynandra L.

Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Cleomaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

900 800 300

2500 2200 1800

0.028 0.056 0.028

5 5 2

5 5 1

NA NA NA

282 Cleome viscosa L.

Cleomaceae

Plantae

300

1000

0.028

3

3

NA

283 Clerodendrum chinese (Osbeck) Mabb.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.028

3

1

NA

284 285 286 287 288

Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Fabaceae Schilbeidae Schilbeidae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Animalia Animalia

300 300 300 300 300

1700 1500 900 600 600

0.083 0.139 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5 5

5 1 3 7 7

NA NA NA LC LC

RESP, VETN RESP, VETN DERM, SKEL DERM, DGST, PREG, VETN CIRC, DGST, EDCR, ORAL CIRC CIRC OPTH FOOD FOOD

289 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

300

1550

0.111

5

5

NA

EDCR, HEPT, URIN

290 Cocos nucifera L.

Arecaceae

Plantae

300

800

0.111

1

3

NA

291 Codonopsis foetens Hook. f. & Thomson

Campanulaceae

Plantae

3900

5300

0.056

5

3

NA

292 293 294 295

Campanulaceae Campanulaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1800 1200 1200 700

2700 2700 2400 2000

0.028 0.028 0.111 0.167

5 5 5 5

1 1 5 5

NA NA NA NA

CIRC, DGST, FOOD, MTRL DGST, NERV, PREG, RESP DGST, RESP DGST DERM, NERV DGST

296 Coelogyne punctulata Lindl.

Orchidaceae

Plantae

1221

2200

0.056

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, NERV

297 Coffea arabica L. 298 Coix lacryma-jobi L.

Rubiaceae Poaceae

Plantae Plantae

300 400

1000 2100

0.056 0.083

2 1

3 5

NA NA

299 Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.194

5

5

NA

DGST, EDCR DGST, URIN DERM, SKEL, RESP, VETN

Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Clitoria ternatea L. Clupisoma garua F. Hamilton Clupisoma montana Hora

Codonopsis inflata Hook. f. Codonopsis viridis Wall. Coelogyne cristata Lindl. Coelogyne fuscescens Lindl.

300 Colocasia antiquorum Schott

Araceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.194

1

5

NA

DERM, FOOD, RESP

301 Commelina benghalensis L. 302 Coprinus comatus (O. F. Müll.) Pers. 303 Cordia dichotoma G. Forst.

Commelinaceae Agaricaceae Boraginaceae

Plantae Fungi Plantae

900 300 300

1800 2850 1400

0.167 0.028 0.056

5 5 5

1 1 1

LC NA NA

DERM FOOD DERM, RESP

304 Coriandrum sativum L.

Apiaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.250

1

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, RESP

305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312

Coriariaceae Cornaceae Corvidae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Betulaceae Orchidaceae Rosaceae

Plantae Plantae Animalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 1700 300 2100 2400 2000 700 1620

3200 3400 2700 4000 4800 3000 1000 3000

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.056 0.028

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1 1 5 1 1 1 7 1

NA NA LC NA NA NA NA NA

SKEL FOOD DGST DGST DGST FOOD DGST DERM

313 Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. MooreAsteraceae

Plantae

400

1900

0.056

3

1

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR

314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Animalia Plantae Plantae Animalia Animalia

300 300 400 300 300 300 1221 600 1200

1000 1500 2900 2100 360 1500 2600 1700 2700

0.083 0.028 0.056 0.056 0.028 0.056 0.028 0.028 0.028

3 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5

3 1 5 5 7 1 5 1 1

NA NA NA NA LC NA NT LC LC

FOOD, SKEL FOOD, RESP, SKEL ANTI, ORAL CIRC, RESP FOOD PREG MTRL CULT CULT DERM, DGST, FOOD, PREG

Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Cornus capitata Wall. Corvus splendens Viel. Corydalis chaerophylla DC. Corydalis govaniana Wall. Corylus ferox Wall. Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Blume Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. ex. Lindl.

Capparaceae Crateva religiosa G. Forst. Capparaceae Crateva unilocularis Buch.-Ham. Cremastra appendiculata (D.Don) Makino Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Crepidium acuminatum (D.Don) Szlach. Schilbeidae Crossocheilus latius F. Hamilton Euphorbiaceae Croton caudatus Geiseler Cryptomeria japonica (Thunb. ex. L.f.) D. DoCupressaceae Cuculidae Cuculus micropterus Gould. Cuculidae Cuculus saturatus Blyth

323 Cucurbita pepo L.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.194

1

1

NA

324 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

Hypoxidaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.111

5

5

NA

DGST, HEPT, URIN

325 326 327 328

Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

400 300 300 400

1600 1500 1600 1600

0.083 0.083 0.083 0.194

4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5

NA NA NA NA

329 Curcuma longa L.

Zingiberaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.306

1

5

NA

DERM, RESP EDCR, RESP CIRC, DGST, NERV DGST, NEOP DERM, FOOD, SKEL, RESP, VETN

330 Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe

Zingiberaceae

Plantae

400

900

0.194

4

7

NA

331 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Convolvulaceae

Plantae

300

2200

0.361

3

5

NA

332 Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H. Rob.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

2300

0.028

3

1

NA

Curcuma amada Roxb. Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Curcuma caesia Roxb.

DERM, EDCR, RESP DGST, EDCR, HEPT, SKEL, URIN RESP

333 Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook.

Cyatheaceae

Plantae

1200

2000

0.139

5

1

NA

DERM, FOOD, SKEL

334 Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume 335 Cycas pectinata Buch.-Ham. 336 Cydonia oblonga Mill.

Amaranthaceae Cycadaceae Rosaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

900 300 500

1100 1500 1500

0.056 0.056 0.028

5 5 2

5 6 1

NA VU NA

337 Cymbidium eburneum Lindl.

Orchidaceae

Plantae

800

2000

0.056

5

5

NA

338 Cymbidium grandiflorum Sw.

Orchidaceae

Plantae

1500

2100

0.028

5

8

NA

SKEL DGST, FOOD CIRC, NERV DERM, NEOP, NERV FOOD

339 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Poaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.306

3

5

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR, MENT, NERV, OPTH, URIN

Plantae Fungi Plantae Plantae

1200 1800 1221 1600

3660 2500 3000 2500

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5

5 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA

DGST FOOD NERV NERV CIRC, DGST, FOOD, HEPT, SKEL, RESP

340 341 342 343

Boraginaceae Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl) Brand Dacryopinax spathularia (Schwein) G.W. Ma Dacrymycetaceae Papaveraceae Dactylcapnos macrocapnos (Prain) Hutch. Papaveraceae Dactylicapnos scandens (D. Don) Hutch.

344 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo.

Orchidaceae

Plantae

2210

3660

0.306

5

5

NA

345 Dactylorhiza incarnata (L.) Soo

Orchidaceae

Plantae

1400

2800

0.167

5

5

NA

346 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

600

0.056

5

4

VU

347 Dalbergia sissoo DC.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

750

0.111

5

7

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, ORAL, MTRL, OPTH, URIN

348 Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Thymelaeaceae

Plantae

1800

3000

0.139

4

5

NA

ANTI, DGST, EDCR, MTRL, RESP, URIN

349 Daphne papyracea Wall. Ex Steud 350 Dasiphora fruticosa (L.) Rydb. 351 Datura innoxia Mill.

Thymelaeaceae Rosaceae Solanaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

1700 2500 300

3400 3965 600

0.222 0.056 0.028

4 5 2

5 5 7

NA NA NA

ANTI, MTRL CIRC ANTI, ORAL

352 Datura metel L.

Solanaceae

Plantae

1200

2100

0.361

3

1

NA

ANTI, ORAL, NERV, SKEL, VETN

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 1221 1000 1000 300 1500 300 700 500 300 700

2200 2300 2000 2000 800 2700 2100 1300 1300 2200 1800

0.056 0.056 0.056 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.111 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.139 0.306

3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

5 1 3 3 7 1 5 5 5 5 5 6 1

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

ORAL, NERV FOOD FOOD FOOD DERM MTRL SKEL ORAL, RESP CIRC, DGST, OPTH EDCR HEAR, SKEL DERM, RESP FOOD, MTRL

353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365

Solanaceae Datura stramonium L. Urticaceae Debregeasia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd. Urticaceae Debregeasia wallichiana (Wedd.) Wedd. Lardizabalaceae Decaisnea insignis Hook f. & Thomson Dilleniaceae Delima scandens (L.) Burkill Delphinium denudatum Wall ex. Hook f. & TRanunculaceae Orchidaceae Dendrobium densiflorum Lindl. Orchidaceae Dendrobium denudans D.Don Orchidaceae Dendrobium jenkinsii Wall. ex. Lindl. Orchidaceae Dendrobium macraei Lindl. Dendrobium moschatum (Buch.-Ham) Sw. Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex MuPoaceae

366 Dendrocalamus hookeri Munro

DGST, HEPT, SKEL DGST, EDCR, MTRL, PREG

Poaceae

Plantae

600

1750

0.083

5

1

NA

EDCR, FOOD, MTRL

367 Dendrocalamus sikkimensis Gamble ex Oliv. Poaceae 368 Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees Poaceae

Plantae Plantae

1000 900

1800 1800

0.194 0.056

5 5

7 1

NA NA

369 Dendrocnide sinuata (Blume) Chew

Urticaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.056

5

5

NA

FOOD, MTRL MTRL ANTI, DGST, NERV, RESP

370 Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh.

Loranthaceae

Plantae

750

1500

0.056

5

5

NA

DERM, EDCR, SKEL

371 Deparia boryana (Willd.) M. Kato

Athyriaceae

Plantae

600

2700

0.028

5

1

NA

372 Desmodium elegans DC.

Fabaceae

Plantae

1000

3000

0.056

5

5

LC

373 Desmodium oojeinense (Roxb.) H. Ohashi

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.056

5

1

NA

FOOD DGST, OPTH, RESP, URIN DGST, OPTH

374 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf.

Poaceae

Plantae

300

1750

0.056

5

5

LC

ORAL, PREG, URIN

375 Dicentra scandens (D. Don) Walp.

Balsaminaceae

Plantae

1700

2900

0.111

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR

376 Dichroa febrifuga Lour.

Hydrangeaceae

Plantae

900

2400

0.583

5

5

NA

377 Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) Kuntz. 378 Dicrurus paradiseus L.

Asteraceae Dicruridae

Plantae Animalia

300 -

2700 -

0.083 0.056

5 5

1 1

NA LC

379 Didymocarpus pedicellata R. Br

Gesneriaceae

Plantae

1200

1800

0.111

5

3

NA

380 Digitalis purpurea L. 381 Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. 382 Dillenia indica L.

Plantaginaceae Poaceae Dilleniaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

800 300

3450 1200

0.250 0.028 0.222

2 3 5

1 1 1

NA NA NA

383 Dioscorea alata L.

Dioscoreaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.222

1

5

NA

CIRC, EDCR, HEPT, SKEL DERM CULT CIRC, DERM, NERV, SPRT, URIN NERV, RESP MTRL FOOD, RESP DERM, DGST, FOOD, URIN

384 Dioscorea belophylla (Prain) Viogt ex Haines Dioscoreaceae

Plantae

300

1000

0.139

5

7

NA

DERM, FOOD

385 Dioscorea bulbifera L.

Dioscoreaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.472

5

5

NA

CIRC, DGST, FOOD, PREG, RESP

386 Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb.

Dioscoreaceae

Plantae

700

2200

0.306

5

6

NA

387 Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook. f.

Dioscoreaceae

Plantae

1200

1700

0.167

5

7

NA

388 Dioscorea pentaphylla L.

Dioscoreaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.306

5

5

NA

389 Dioscorea sikkimensis Prain & Burkill 390 Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.

Dioscoreaceae Athyriaceae

Plantae Plantae

500 400

1300 1600

0.056 0.139

5 4

5 1

NA NA

391 Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H. J. Lam

Sapotaceae

Plantae

600

1775

0.611

4

1

NA

392 393 394 395

Dipteridaceae Sapindaceae Rosaceae Poaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1000 500 1221 2600

1700 1700 2440 3600

0.083 0.028 0.083 0.028

5 5 5 5

3 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA

396 Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult.

Caryophyllaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.639

5

1

NA

ANTI, DGST, EDCR, NERV, OPTH, RESP, VETN

397 Drymaria villosa Schltdl. & Cham. 398 Dryopteris cochleata (D. Don) C. Chr.

Caryophyllaceae Dryopteridaceae

Plantae Plantae

1000 800

3100 1300

0.056 0.056

5 5

1 1

NA NA

DERM, SKEL, RESP FOOD

399 Duabanga grandiflora (DC.) Walp.

Lythraceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.056

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, MTRL

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1000 300 300 300

2500 1600 600 2600

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.056

5 2 2 3

1 1 3 5

NA NA NA NA

CIRC, DGST MTRL DGST DGST DERM, DGST, ORAL, HEAR DGST, MTRL FOOD CIRC, DERM

400 401 402 403

Dipteris wallichii (R. Br.) T. Moore Dittelasma rarak (DC.) Hiern Docynia indica (Wall.) Decne. Drepanostachyum intermedium (Munro) Keng

Rosaceae Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Verbenaceae Duranta erecta L. Meliaceae Dysoxylum mollissimum Blume Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & ClemAmaranthaceae

FOOD, SKEL, RESP, VETN DERM, FOOD CIRC, DERM, EDCR, FOOD, PREG, SKEL FOOD DGST, FOOD DERM, FOOD, MTRL, SKEL, RESP DERM FOOD DGST MTRL

404 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

1600

0.111

3

5

NA

405 Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall.) Meism. 406 Elaegnus latifolia L. 407 Elaegnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson

Thymelaeaceae Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

1500 700 2100

3000 2300 3600

0.111 0.167 0.028

5 5 5

1 1 1

NA NA NA

408 Elaeocarpus lanceaefolius Roxb.

Elaeocarpaceae

Plantae

1500

2200

0.167

5

5

NA

FOOD, MTRL, NERV

409 Elaeocarpus serratus L.

Elaeocarpaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.111

5

1

NA

NERV

410 Elaeocarpus sikkimensis Mast.

Elaeocarpaceae

Plantae

1500

2000

0.083

5

3

NA

CIRC, FOOD, HEPT

411 Elatostema platyphyllum Wedd.

Urticaceae

Plantae

700

1900

0.056

5

1

NA

DGST, FOOD

412 Elatostema sessile J. R. Forst.

Uritcaceae

Plantae

900

2500

0.139

5

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, VETN

413 Elephantopus scaber L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.083

5

5

NA

DGST, MTRL, PREG DERM DGST, NERV, URIN, VETN ORAL VETN DGST, FOOD DGST, ORAL, MTRL, SKEL DERM, MTRL DERM, DGST, FOOD DERM, EDCR, FOOD FOOD CIRC, DERM, SKEL, RESP DERM, DGST, FOOD, ORAL DERM, DGST, FOOD, ORAL ANTI RESP FOOD, MTRL DERM, EDCR, FOOD, URIN DERM, MTRL, SKEL, VETN VETN VETN DERM, RESP

414 Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.

Poaceae

Plantae

1100

2000

0.250

1

3

NA

415 Elsholtzia balanda (Benth.) Benth.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.167

5

1

NA

416 Embelia frondosa (King ex Gamble) D. G. LPrimulaceae 417 Embelia ribes Burm. f. Primulaceae 418 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex DC. Asteraceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

2700 300 350

2900 2000 1700

0.028 0.083 0.056

5 5 3

3 1 1

NA NA NA

419 Engelhardia spicata Lerch ex. Blume

Plantae

1500

2500

0.167

5

1

NA

420 Enkianthus deflexus (Griff.) C. K. Schneid. Ericaceae

Juglandaceae

Plantae

2221

3600

0.028

5

1

NA

421 Entada gigas (L.) Fawc. & Rendle

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.111

3

1

NA

422 Entada rheedii Spreng.

Fabaceae

Plantae

700

1600

0.306

3

1

NA

423 Entoloma lividoalbum (Kuhner & Romagn.) Entolomataceae

Fungi

1800

2500

0.056

5

1

NA

424 Ephedra gerardiana Wal.l ex Stapf.

Ephedraceae

Plantae

2400

5000

0.306

5

1

NA

425 Equisetum diffusum D. Don

Equisetaceae

Plantae

700

2000

0.222

5

5

NA

426 Equisetum ramosissium Desf.

Equisetaceae

Plantae

300

3200

0.056

5

1

NA

427 Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Wight & Arn. 428 Eriobotrya dubia (Lindley) Decaisne 429 Eriolobus indica Schn.

Poaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300

1000

1200

1800

0.028 0.056 0.167

5 5 5

3 1 3

NA NA NA

430 Eryngium foetidum L.

Apiaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.111

1

1

NA

431 Erythrina arborescens Roxb.

Fabaceae

Plantae

1500

2400

0.139

5

5

NA

432 Erythrina stricta Roxb. 433 Erythrina variegata L. 434 Eucalyptus eudesmioides F. Muell

Fabaceae Fabaceae Myrtaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 300 300

1600 1500 1700

0.083 0.056 0.083

5 5 3

5 5 1

NA LC NA

435 Eugenia bracteata (Willd.) Roxb. 436 Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Hochr. 437 Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) Suresh

Myrtaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

500 1500 660

900 2400 900

0.028 0.056 0.167

5 5 5

3 5 7

NA NA NA

FOOD PREG PREG

438 Eupatorium cannabinum L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

2500

0.611

3

5

NA

DERM, DGST, URIN

439 Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small ex Por Asteraceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.139

3

5

NA

DERM, DGST, RESP, URIN

440 Euphorbia hirta L.

Euphorbiaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.222

5

1

NA

DGST, EDCR, FOOD, OPTH, PREG, RESP, SKEL, URIN

441 Euphorbia luteoviridis D.G. Long

Euphorbiaceae

Plantae

2000

4000

0.056

5

1

NA

DERM

442 Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch

Euphorbiaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.139

2

1

NA

DERM, ORAL, PREG

443 Euphorbia royleana Boiss.

Euphorbiaceae

Plantae

300

2300

0.139

3

1

NA

DERM, HEAR, RESP

444 Eurya acuminata DC.

Pentaphylacaceae

Plantae

700

3000

0.056

5

1

NA

ANTI, FOOD, SKEL

445 Eurya japonica Thunb.

Pentaphylacaceae

Plantae

1300

3500

0.083

5

5

NA

DERM, MTRL, SKEL

446 Eurya nitida Korth. Pentaphylacaceae 447 Everniastrum nepalense (Taylor) Hale ex SipmParmeliaceae

Plantae Fungi

800 1410

2500 3600

0.028 0.056

5 5

1 5

NA NA

448 Evodia fraxinifolia (Hook.) Benth.

Plantae

1200

2450

0.556

5

1

NA

449 Evodia trichotoma (Lour.) Pierre Rutaceae 450 Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. Convolvulaceae 451 Fagopyrum acutatum (Lehm.) Mansf. Ex K. HPolygonaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

1000 300 1500

2000 910 2500

0.028 0.028 0.194

5 3 1

3 3 1

NA NA NA

452 Fagopyrum esculantum (Lehm.) Mansf. ex K. Polygonaceae

Plantae

1500

3000

0.444

1

1

NA

453 Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.

Polygonaceae

Plantae

350

2300

0.056

1

1

NA

MTRL, SKEL RESP DGST, FOOD, HEPT, NERV DGST, SKEL, RESP ORAL DGST DGST, FOOD, RESP, SPRT, VETN DGST

454 Ferula narthex Boiss.

Apiaceae

Plantae

1800

2400

0.139

4

5

NA

MENT, NERV, RESP

Rutaceae

455 Ficus auriculata Lour.

Moraceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.222

5

5

NA

DGST, FOOD, MTRL

456 Ficus benghalensis L.

Moraceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.139

4

1

NA

FOOD, MTRL

457 Ficus benjamina L.

Moraceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.250

4

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, MTRL

458 Ficus cunia Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.

Moraceae

Plantae

1500

2000

0.306

4

7

NA

DERM, MTRL, URIN

459 Ficus drupacea Thunb. 460 Ficus hirta Vahl

Moraceae Moraceae

Plantae Plantae

350 300

1500 1200

0.028 0.139

5 5

1 1

NA NA

MTRL FOOD, MTRL

461 Ficus hispida L. f.

Moraceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.056

5

1

NA

FOOD, MTRL, SPRT

462 Ficus hookeriana Corner

Moraceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.139

4

1

NA

EDCR, FOOD, MTRL

463 Ficus neriifolia Sm.

Moraceae

Plantae

1500

2400

0.056

5

5

NA

MTRL

464 Ficus racemosa L.

Moraceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.194

4

1

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, MTRL

465 Ficus religiosa L.

Moraceae

Plantae

300

500

0.167

4

7

NA

DGST, EDCR, FOOD, MTRL, URIN

466 Ficus sarmentosa Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.

Moraceae

Plantae

1400

2500

0.083

5

1

NA

467 Ficus subincisa Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.

Moraceae

Plantae

1000

1500

0.083

5

3

NA

468 Fistulina hepatica (Schaeff.) With.

Fistulinaceae

Fungi

300

2500

0.083

5

1

NA

469 Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr.

Fabaceae

DERM, FOOD, MTRL, SKEL DGST, EDCR, FOOD, MTRL FOOD DERM, SKEL, SPRT, URIN, VETN DGST, SKEL DERM, SKEL HEAR, OPTH DGST, FOOD, HEPT, PREG ORAL EDCR

Plantae

700

1700

0.139

4

1

NA

470 Flemingia stobilifera (L.) W. T. Aiton Fabaceae 471 Flickingeria fimbriata (Blume) A. D. HawkesOrchidaceae 472 Floscopa scandens Lour. Commelinaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 1100 300

1600 2000 1800

0.083 0.056 0.028

5 5 5

5 8 1

NA LC NA

473 Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Apiaceae

Plantae

1500

2500

0.139

1

5

NA

474 Fragaria indica Wall. Rosaceae 475 Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex Hook. f.) Lacait Rosaceae

Plantae Plantae

2700 1600

3800 3800

0.028 0.056

5 5

1 1

NA NA

476 Fragaria vesca L.

Rosaceae

Plantae

2200

3800

0.139

5

5

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, SKEL, URIN

477 Fraxinus floribunda Wall.

Oleaceae

Plantae

1200

2300

0.389

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, SKEL, VETN

478 Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don

Liliaceae

Plantae

3000

4300

0.222

5

6

NA

DERM, DGST, RESP

479 Galinsoga parviflora Cav.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.139

3

1

NA

ANTI, DERM

480 Gallus gallus domesticus L.

Phasianidae

Animalia

300

3000

0.194

1

5

NA

481 Gamblea ciliata C.B. Clarke

Araliaceae

Plantae

2600

3300

0.028

5

5

NA

482 Garcinia cowa Roxb. ex Choisy

Clusiaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.194

1

1

NA

Plantae Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

300 300 300 300 300 300

1400 1065 1065 1065 1065 1065

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

1 5 5 5 5 5

1 5 5 5 5 5

NA LC LC LC LC LC

483 484 485 486 487 488

Garcinia xanthochymus Hook. f. ex T. AnderClusiaceae Cyprinidae Garra annandalei Hora Cyprinidae Garra gotyla gotyla F. Hamliton Cyprinidae Garra gotyla stenorhynchus Jerdon Cyprinidae Garra lamta F. Hamilton Cyprinidae Garra mullya Sykes

DERM, DGST, FOOD, HEPT, MTRL DERM DGST, FOOD, MENT, NERV FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, OPTH, SKEL, RESP

489 Garuga pinnata Roxb.

Burseraceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.222

5

5

NA

490 Gastrodia elata Blume

Orchidaceae

Plantae

400

3200

0.056

5

6

VU

491 Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall.

Ericaceae

Plantae

1200

2800

0.139

5

1

NA

492 Gaultheria griffithiana Wight

Ericaceae

Plantae

300

2600

0.028

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, FOOD, SKEL, RESP FOOD, VETN

493 Gaultheria hookeri C. B. Clarke

Ericaceae

Plantae

1600

3600

0.056

5

1

NA

FOOD, MTRL, VETN

494 Gaultheria nummularioides D. Don

Ericaceae

Plantae

1000

2000

0.056

5

3

NA

DGST, FOOD, MTRL

495 Gaultheria sinensis J. Anthony

Ericaceae

Plantae

3000

4300

0.028

5

1

NA

RESP

496 Gaultheria trichophylla Royle

Ericaceae

Plantae

3100

4800

0.056

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, SKEL DERM, DGST DERM, DGST, HEPT, URIN DERM, DGST, HEPT, URIN DGST, HEPT DERM

MENT, NERV, RESP

497 Gentiana huxleyi Kusn.

Gentianaceae

Plantae

3800

4000

0.111

5

7

NA

498 Geranium nepalense Sweet

Geraniaceae

Plantae

1400

3000

0.167

5

5

NA

499 Geranium polyanthes Edgew. & Hook. f.

Geraniaceae

Plantae

2400

4500

0.028

5

5

NA

500 Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet 501 Geum elatum Wall. var elatum forma elatum

Geraniaceae Rosaceae

Plantae Plantae

2400 2700

3600 4500

0.028 0.028

5 5

5 1

NA NA

502 Girardinia diversifolia (Link.) Friis

Urticaceae

Plantae

1700

3000

0.333

5

5

NA

CIRC, DERM, EDCR, FOOD, ORAL, RESP

503 Glochidion heyeanum (Wight & Arn.) Wight Phyllanthaceae 504 Glochidion lanceolarium Voigt. Phyllanthaceae

Plantae Plantae

300 600

1800 1500

0.028 0.056

5 5

1 1

NA NA

DGST DERM, DGST

505 Gloriosa superba L.

Colchicaceae

Plantae

300

2200

0.194

1

5

LC

ANTI, CIRC, DERM, DGST, PREG, SKEL, VETN

506 Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Fabaceae

Plantae

1500

2700

0.222

1

5

NA

CIRC, DGST, FOOD

507 Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC.

Rutaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.028

5

5

NA

ANTI, ORAL

508 Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

Fabaceae

Plantae

500

1300

0.139

1

5

NA

DGST, HEPT, URIN

509 510 511 512 513 514

Sisoridae Sisoridae Sisoridae Sisoridae Sisoridae Sisoridae

Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

300 300 300 300 300 300

525 525 525 525 525 525

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5 5 5

7 7 7 7 7 7

LC LC LC LC LC LC

FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD CIRC, DERM, MTRL, URIN SKEL, URIN DERM CIRC, DERM DERM, HEAR, RESP, SKEL MTRL FOOD, MTRL FOOD FOOD, MTRL DGST DERM, DGST, FOOD

Glyptothorax cavia F. Hamilton Glyptothorax conirostris Steindachner Glyptothorax gracilis Gunter Glyptothorax sinense manipurensis Regan Glyptothorax sinense sikkimensis Regan Glyptothorax trilineatus Blyth

515 Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.139

5

5

NA

516 Gonostegia hirta (Blume ex Hassk.) Miq. 517 Goodyera repens (L.) R.Br. 518 Goodyera schlechtendaliana Rchb.f.

Urticaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

500 700 500

3200 3800 2800

0.028 0.056 0.056

5 5 5

5 5 5

NA NA NA

519 Gossypium arboreum L.

Malvaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.083

5

5

NA

520 521 522 523 524

Rhamnaceae Malvaceae Meripilaceae Asteraceae Fabaceae

Plantae Plantae Fungi Plantae Plantae

300 400 300 900 3221

2350 1500 3450 2000 4500

0.056 0.139 0.056 0.083 0.028

5 5 5 1 5

1 1 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA NA

525 Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl.

Orchidaceae

Plantae

2400

3600

0.167

5

6

NA

526 Gynocardia odorata R. Bri.

Achariaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.417

5

1

NA

527 Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsale 528 Hauttuynia cordata Thumb. 529 Hedera nepalensis K. Koch.

Rubiaceae Saururaceae Araliaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 1221 1800

800 2500 2800

0.083 0.028 0.111

5 5 5

3 1 1

NA NA NA

Gouania leptostachya DC. Grewia eriocarpa Juss. Grifola frondosa (Dicks.) Gray Guizotia abyssinica (L. f.) Cass. Guldenstaedtia himalaica Palib.

DERM, EDCR, FOOD, NERV, SKEL, RESP FOOD DGST, FOOD DGST, EDCR

530 Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig

Zingiberaceae

Plantae

900

1900

0.194

5

5

NA

DGST, FOOD, SKEL, RESP

531 Hedychium spicatum Sm.

Zingiberaceae

Plantae

1500

2700

0.222

5

5

NA

CIRC, DGST, MTRL, NERV, RESP

532 Hedyotis scandens Roxb.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

600

2100

0.139

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, HEPT, OPTH, PREG, SKEL

533 Helianthus annus L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.194

1

5

NA

Plantae Plantae

600 2130

1800 3050

0.028 0.028

5 5

1 1

NA NA

534 Helicia nilagirica Bedd. Proteaceae 535 Helwingia himalaica Hook. f. & Thomson exHelwingiaceae

DERM, FOOD, HEPT, MENT, ORAL, RESP, URIN EDCR, RESP EDCR, PREG

536 Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall.

Plantaginaceae

Plantae

1800

3500

0.250

5

5

NA

FOOD, ORAL, RESP

537 Hemitragus jemlahicus Smith 538 Heracleum nepalense D. Don

Bovidae Apiaceae

Animalia Plantae

3700 1550

4200 3500

0.028 0.194

5 5

5 1

NT NA

539 Heracleum wallichii DC.

Apiaceae

Plantae

1500

3300

0.583

5

5

NA

540 Heterodermia diademata (Taylor) Awasthi 541 Heteropanax fragrans (Roxb.) Seem. 542 Heynea trijuga Roxb. ex Sims

Physciaceae Araliaceae Meliaceae

Fungi Plantae Plantae

410 450 500

3807 1200 2400

0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5

1 5 1

NA NA NA

543 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.

Malvaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.111

2

5

NA

544 Hierococcyx varius Vahl Cuculidae 545 Himalayacalamus hookerianus (Munro) StaplePoaceae 546 Hippochaete debilis (Roxb. ex Vaucher) Chin Elaeagnaceae

Animalia Plantae Plantae

300 1800 300

1000 3200 3200

0.028 0.028 0.139

5 5 3

3 1 1

LC NA NA

547 Hippophae salicifolia D. Don

Plantae

2210

4000

0.306

4

1

NA

DGST SKEL, RESP CIRC, DGST, FOOD, RESP, SKEL FOOD DERM DGST DERM, FOOD, RESP, URIN CULT MTRL VETN DERM, FOOD, ORAL, MTRL, RESP

Elaeagnaceae

548 Hippophae tibetana Schltdl.

Elaeagnaceae

Plantae

3221

4500

0.056

4

1

NA

DGST, EDCR, FOOD

549 Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cogn.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.028

5

1

NA

FOOD

550 Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don

Apocynaceae

Plantae

300

600

0.528

5

3

LC

ANTI, CIRC, DERM, DGST, HEPT, NEOP, PREG, SKEL, VETN

551 Holboellia latifolia Wall.

Berberidaceae

Plantae

1000

1800

0.111

5

7

NA

DGST, FOOD, SKEL

552 553 554 555 556

Lamiaceae Euphorbiaceae Dicroglossidae Poaceae Myristicaceae

Plantae Plantae Animalia Plantae Plantae

300 300 300 300

1500 1000 2000 800

0.028 0.056 0.028 0.194 0.028

5 5 5 1 5

1 7 5 1 3

NA LC LC NA NA

NEOP DGST, URIN PREG DGST FOOD

557 Houttuynia cordata Thunb.

Saururaceae

Plantae

1200

2400

0.222

5

5

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, HEPT, NERV, URIN

558 Houveniya dulcis Thunb.

Rhamnaceae

559 560 561 562 563 564

Holmskioldia sanguinea Retz. Homonoia riparia Lour. Hoplobatrachus tigerinus Daudin Hordeum vulgare L. Horsfieldia kingii (Hook. f.) Warb

Apocynaceae Hoya lanceolata Wall. ex D. Don Apocynaceae Hoya linearis Wall. ex D. Don Lycopodiaceae Huperzia phlegmaria (L.) Rothm. Huperzia pulcherrima (Wall. ex Hook. & GreLycopodiaceae Hydnaceae Hydnum repandum L. Hydrangeaceae Hydrangea aspera D. Don

Plantae

300

1500

0.111

5

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, MTRL

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Fungi Plantae

1000 1500 300 1100 1800 1800

2000 2000 2400 1900 2500 2700

0.028 0.028 0.056 0.028 0.056 0.028

5 5 3 5 5 5

7 5 5 7 1 1

NA NA NA NA NA NA

EDCR, RESP RESP VETN DERM FOOD DERM

565 Hydrocotyle himalaica P. K. Mukh.

Araliaceae

Plantae

1500

2500

0.167

5

1

NA

CIRC, DGST, ORAL, OPTH, RESP, URIN

566 Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb.

Araliaceae

Plantae

500

2500

0.083

5

1

LC

FOOD, HEPT, URIN

567 Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.

Araliaceae

Plantae

600

2500

0.028

5

5

LC

568 Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabb.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

300

900

0.222

5

3

NA

569 Hyoscyamus niger L.

Solanaceae

Plantae

2100

3300

0.028

3

1

NA

CIRC, DGST, OPTH, RESP, URIN DERM, DGST, NEOP SKEL ORAL

570 Hypericum choisianum Wall.

Hypericaceae

Plantae

2400

4120

0.028

5

1

NA

ANTI, DGST, NERV

571 Hypericum japonicum Thunb.

Hypericaceae

Plantae

800

2500

0.056

3

1

NA

ANTI, DGST, NERV

572 Hypericum patulum Thunb.

Hypericaceae

Plantae

914

1829

0.111

3

1

NA

ANTI, DGST, NERV

Plantae Animalia

1500 2000

3350 2600

0.056 0.083

3 5

5 7

NA LC

DERM, URIN CIRC, EDCR, RESP

573 Hypericum uralum Buch.-Ham. ex. D. Don Hypericaceae 574 Hystrix brachyura L. Hystricidae

575 Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W. T. Aiton

Apocynaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.028

5

1

NA

576 Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus Hors.

Accipitridae

Animalia

300

1500

0.028

5

5

NA

ANTI, DGST

577 Ilex dipyrena Wall.

Aquifoliaceae

Plantae

1800

2500

0.056

5

1

NA

FOOD, MTRL, URIN

578 Impatiens purpurea Handel-Mazzeti

Balsaminaceae

Plantae

2400

3300

0.028

5

1

NA

DERM, SKEL, URIN

579 Impatiens tripetala Roxb. ex DC.

Balsaminaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.111

5

1

NA

ORAL, NERV, URIN

DERM, MTRL, URIN

580 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch.

Poaceae

Plantae

300

581 Indigofera cassioides DC.

Fabaceae

Plantae

700

3200

0.056

5

1

NA

582 Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam.

Convolvulaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.194

2

5

NA

583 Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth

Convolvulaceae

Plantae

910

2100

0.028

2

5

NA

HEPT, NERV, RESP, URIN, VETN FOOD DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD FOOD, NERV

584 Ipomoea quamoclit L.

Convolvulaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.056

2

5

NA

DERM, DGST, OPTH

585 586 587 588 589 590

Iridaceae Iridaceae Iridaceae Iridaceae Phasianinae Asteraceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Animalia Plantae

2221 1800 1000 1500 2500 750

3500 4000 2300 3300 4500 1800

0.028 0.028 0.111 0.028 0.056 0.028

4 4 1 1 5 5

5 5 5 5 5 1

NA NA NA NA LC NA

591 Ixora coccinea L.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

300

500

0.056

1

3

NA

592 Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andrews

Oleaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.056

4

5

NA

593 Jatropha curcas L.

Euphorbiaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.167

1

1

NA

DERM DERM DERM DERM DERM, DGST DERM CIRC, DGST, NERV, PREG ANTI, CIRC, DGST, FOOD DERM, HEPT

594 Juglans regia L.

Juglandaceae

Plantae

1500

2500

0.611

4

5

NT

DERM, DGST, FOOD, ORAL MTRL, NERV, PREG, VETN

595 Juniperus indica Bertol.

Cupressaceae

Plantae

3822

4660

0.083

5

1

LC

DERM, MTRL, SPRT

596 Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. Ex D. Don

Cupressaceae

Plantae

2900

4200

0.306

5

1

LC

CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, MTRL, SPRT

597 Justica adhatoda L.

Acanthaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.250

5

5

NA

598 Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.

Acanthaceae

599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613

Iris clarkei Baker ex Hook. f. Iris decora Wall. Iris domestica (L.) Goldblatt & Mabb. Iris ensata Thunb. Ithaginis cruentus Hardwicke Ixeris polycephala Cass.

Schisandraceae Kadsura heteroclita (Roxb.) Craib Zingiberaceae Kaempferia galanga L. Zingiberaceae Kaempferia rotunda L. Knema cinerea var. glauca (Blume) Y. H. Li Myristicaceae Kuehneromyces mutabilis (Schaef.) Singer & A Strophariaceae Malvaceae Kydia calycina Roxb. Cyprinidae Labeo dero F. Hamilton Cyprinidae Labeo dyocheilus McClelland Cyprinidae Labeo pangusia F. Hamilton Russulaceae Lactarius volemus (Fr.) Kuntze Russulaceae Lactifluus piperatus (L.) Roussel Asteraceae Lactuca bracteata Wall. Asteraceae Lactuca virosa Habl. Polyporaceae Laetiporus sulphureus (Bull.) Murr. Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.

2400

0.194

3

5

NA

Plantae

700

2500

0.028

1

5

NA

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Fungi Plantae Animalia Animalia Animalia Fungi Fungi Plantae Plantae Fungi Plantae

500 300 900 300 1800 350 300 300 300 300 1800 2200 1000 300 500

2200 1500 1700 1000 2500 1600 525 525 525 3075 2500 3600 2300 2500 2200

0.056 0.028 0.444 0.028 0.028 0.056 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.083 0.083 0.028 0.028 0.056 0.056

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 5 5

1 5 5 3 1 1 7 7 7 1 1 1 1 1 5

NA NA NA NA NA NA LC LC NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

CIRC, DERM, FOOD, SKEL, RESP DERM, HEAR, RESP, URIN FOOD OPTH, SKEL CIRC, DERM, SKEL DGST FOOD CIRC, NERV, SKEL FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD RESP NERV, RESP FOOD ORAL, MTRL DERM, ORAL, SKEL

614 Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.

Anacardiaceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.028

5

1

NA

615 Lantana camara L.

Verbenaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.111

2

5

NA

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1200 1900 300 1800 300 2400

3000 3300 1400 4100 1500 3600

0.056 0.139 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

3 5 5 3 5 5

1 1 5 1 1 1

NA NA LC NA NA NA

Lythraceae

Plantae

300

750

0.056

1

7

NA

623 Lecanthus peduncularis (Wall. ex Royle) WeddUrticaceae

Plantae

1200

3200

0.056

5

1

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, HEPT, ORAL, SKEL, RESP NERV CIRC, FOOD ORAL, VETN MTRL DERM, DGST FOOD DERM, FOOD, HEPT, MTRL, NERV, URIN VETN

624 Leea aequata L.

Plantae

300

1100

0.056

5

5

NA

DERM, MTRL, RESP

616 617 618 619 620 621

Asteraceae Laphangium affine (D. Don) Tzvelev Laportea bulbifera (Siebold & Zucc.) Wedd. Urticaceae Araceae Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites Rubiaceae Lasianthus hirsutus (Roxb.) Merr. Asteraceae Launaea aspleniifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. Laurocerasus undulata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. D Rosaceae

622 Lawsonia inermis L.

Vitaceae

625 Leea macrophylla Roxb. ex Hornem.

Vitaceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.306

5

5

NA

ANTI, DERM, DGST, FOOD, SKEL, VETN

626 Leea sambucina Willd. 627 Lens culinaris Medik.

Vitaceae Fabaceae

Plantae Plantae

300 300

1300 1000

0.056 0.083

5 1

5 3

NA NA

FOOD, VETN FOOD

628 Lepidium didymum L.

Brassicaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.111

3

5

NA

FOOD, SKEL, URIN

629 Lepidoptera spp.

-

Animalia

-

-

0.028

5

5

-

630 Leucosceptrum canum Sm.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

1500

2400

0.111

5

5

NA

631 Ligularia thomsonii (C. B. Clarke) Pojark. Asteraceae 632 Lindenbergia grandiflora (Buch.-Ham ex D. DPlantaginaceae 633 Lindera neesiana (Wall. ex Nees) Kurz Lauraceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

1500 700 1800

3800 2400 2500

0.028 0.028 0.306

5 5 5

1 1 5

NA NA NA

ANTI, RESP DERM, FOOD, NERV CIRC HEPT CIRC, DGST, EDCR

634 Liparis odorata (Willd.) Lindl.

Orchidaceae

Plantae

600

3100

0.056

5

1

NA

DERM, ORAL, NEOP

635 Lithocarpus pachyphyllus (Kurz) Rehder

Fagaceae

Plantae

1800

2500

0.056

5

5

NA

MTRL, SKEL

636 Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.

Lauraceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.583

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, SKEL

637 Litsea elongata (Nees) Hook. f.

Lauraceae

Plantae

1800

2600

0.083

5

5

NA

DERM, FOOD, SKEL

638 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob 639 Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers.

Lauraceae Lauraceae

Plantae Plantae

900 300

1700 1500

0.111 0.139

5 5

5 1

NA NA

DGST, MTRL DGST, MTRL, RESP

640 Litsea salicifolia (J. Roxb. ex Nees) Hook. f. Lauraceae

Plantae

300

1050

0.056

5

1

NA

ANTI, DGST, MTRL

641 Lobelia nicotianifolia Roth ex Schult. 642 Lobelia nummularia Lam. 643 Luculia pinceana Hook.

Campanulaceae Campanulaceae Rubiaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

1100 2000 300

2500 3000 600

0.083 0.083 0.028

5 5 5

1 1 3

NA NA NA

NERV NERV SPRT

644 Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.111

1

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, OPTH

645 Luffa cylindrica (L.) M. Roem.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.111

1

1

NA

FOOD, RESP, URIN

646 Luisia tristis (G. Forst.) Hook. f. 647 Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. 648 Lycoperdon pyriforme Schaeff.

Orchidaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae

Plantae Fungi Fungi

300 1800 1800

1000 2500 4750

0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5

3 1 1

NA NA NA

649 Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

Solanaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.222

1

1

NA

650 Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic. Serm.

Lycopodiaceae

Plantae

300

2300

0.028

5

5

NA

651 Lycopodium clavatum L.

Lycopodiaceae

Plantae

700

2000

0.306

5

5

NA

Ericaceae 652 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude 653 Lyonia villosa (Wall. ex C. B. Clarke) Hand. Ericaceae

Plantae Plantae

600 2500

3000 4000

0.306 0.028

5 5

5 5

NA NA

654 Macaca mulatta Zimm.

Cercopithecidae

Animalia

300

3700

0.083

5

5

LC

655 Macaranga pustulata Wight 656 Machilus edulis King ex Hook. f. 657 Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc.

Euphorbiaceae Lauraceae Fabaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

1200 1220 300

2200 2500 1000

0.083 0.306 0.056

5 4 1

5 1 3

NA NA NA

DERM FOOD FOOD DERM, DGST, FOOD, NERV, SKEL, VETN CIRC, DERM, SKEL CIRC, DERM, DGST, MTRL, SKEL, SPRT, URIN ANTI, DERM DERM CIRC, EDCR, DGST, RESP MTRL FOOD FOOD

658 Maesa chisia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Primulaceae

Plantae

900

2600

0.222

5

5

NA

ANTI, DERM, DGST, FOOD, MTRL, VETN

659 Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre

Magnoliaceae

Plantae

600

1300

0.222

5

1

LC

ANTI, DERM, DGST, ORAL, MTRL, OPTH, SKEL, RESP, URIN

660 Magnolia doltsopa (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Fig Magnoliaceae 661 Magnolia lanuginosa (Wall.) Figlar & Noot. Magnoliaceae

Plantae Plantae

1000 1700

2500 2800

0.139 0.028

5 5

1 1

NA NA

MTRL MTRL

662 Mahonia sikkimensis DC. ex Dippel.

Berberidaceae

Plantae

2000

2900

0.333

5

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, HEPT, OPTH, URIN

663 Maianthemum oleraceum (Baker) LaFrankie Asparagaceae 664 Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) Kuntze Orchidaceae

Plantae Plantae

2210 2000

3400 3700

0.028 0.083

5 5

5 6

NA VU

665 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell. Arg.

Euphorbiaceae

Plantae

300

1600

0.250

5

1

NA

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus repandus (Willd.) Mull. Arg. Malus sikkimensis (Wenz.) Koehne ex C. K Rosaceae Malvaceae Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. Solanaceae Mandragora caulescens C. B. Clarke

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 1800 300 2200

1400 3000 1800 4200

0.028 0.056 0.056 0.028

5 5 1 5

1 1 1 5

NA NA NA NA

670 Mangifera indica L.

Anacardiaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.222

1

5

NA

671 Mangifera sylvatica Roxb.

Anacardiaceae

Plantae

900

1370

0.056

4

1

LC

DERM SKEL DERM, DGST, HEAR, VETN DERM, HEAR FOOD FOOD SPRT CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, HEPT, RESP, URIN DGST, FOOD

672 Marmota bobak Muller

Sciuridae

Animalia

3700

4500

0.028

5

5

LC

CULT, DGST, EDCR

666 667 668 669

673 674 675 676 677 678 679

Apocynaceae Apocynaceae Apocynaceae Phrymaceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Melastomataceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

900 700 400 1200 2210 2210 500

2400 1700 1200 3800 4800 5300 1500

0.222 0.083 0.056 0.056 0.083 0.083 0.167

5 5 5 5 5 5 5

5 5 5 1 1 5 1

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

DGST, URIN DGST, URIN DGST DGST, RESP NERV DERM, RESP, URIN DGST, VETN

680 Melia azedarach L.

Meliaceae

Plantae

300

2320

0.167

4

5

NA

CIRC, DGST, FOOD, HEAR, PREG

681 Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh. f.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

1000

3600

0.056

5

1

NA

682 Mentha arvensis L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

1200

2000

0.111

2

1

NA

683 Mentha longifolia (L.) L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

1500

3800

0.056

3

1

LC

684 Mentha spicata L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.139

1

1

LC

685 Mentha X piperata L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

500

2000

0.194

1

1

NA

686 Meripilus giganteus Karst. Fomitopsidaceae 687 Merrilliopanax alpinus (C. B. Clarke) C. B. S Araliaceae

Fungi Plantae

1800 1800

2500 3100

0.083 0.028

5 5

1 1

NA NA

688 Mesua ferrea L.

Calophyllaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.250

4

1

NA

ANTI, DERM, EDCR, PREG, SKEL

689 Meyna laxiflora Robyns

Rubiaceae

Plantae

2000

3000

0.028

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, SKEL

690 Mikania micrantha Kunth

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.028

3

1

NA

ANTI, DERM, MTRL

691 Mimosa pudica L.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.361

2

5

LC

692 Mirabilis jalapa L. 693 Molineria capitulata (Lour.) Herb.

Nyctaginaceae Hypoxidaceae

Plantae Plantae

400 1800

1800 2000

0.083 0.028

1 5

1 1

NA NA

694 Momordica charantia L.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

300

2100

0.333

1

5

NA

695 Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.139

1

1

NA

696 Momordica dioica Roxb. ex. Willd

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

300

1100

0.028

1

5

NA

697 Monstera deliciosa Liebm. 698 Morinda angustifolia Roxb.

Araceae Rubiaceae

Plantae Plantae

1221 300

2000 800

0.028 0.083

5 5

1 7

NA NA

699 Moringa oleifera Lam.

Moringaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.194

4

5

NA

ANTI, CIRC, DGST, FOOD, HEAR, NERV, OPTH, RESP, URIN

700 Morus australis Poir.

Moraceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.028

4

1

NA

DGST

701 Morus indica L.

Moraceae

Plantae

500

2000

0.167

4

1

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, ORAL, URIN

702 703 704 705 706

Moraceae Moraceae Moschidae Moschidae Fabaceae

Plantae Plantae Animalia Animalia Plantae

1200 300 3700 2500 320

1700 2000 4500 4500 2100

0.167 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.083

4 4 5 5 5

3 1 6 6 1

NA NA EN EN NA

707 Mucuna puriens (L.) DC.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.111

5

1

NA

708 Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan

Commelinaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.028

5

1

NA

709 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.

Rutaceae

Plantae

300

1000

0.139

1

7

NA

ANTI, CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, SKEL

710 Mus musculus L.

Muridae

Animalia

300

3500

0.028

5

5

LC

DGST

711 Musa balbisiana Colla

Musaceae

Plantae

300

1600

0.167

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, FOOD, ORAL, RESP

712 Musa sikkimensis Kurz

Musaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.028

5

5

NA

DGST, FOOD

713 Musa X paradisiaca L.

Musaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.167

1

5

NA

DGST, FOOD, URIN

714 Mussaenda frondosa L.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

1000

2000

0.056

5

7

NA

DERM, HEPT, RESP

715 Mussaenda glabrata (Hook. f.) Hutch. ex GaRubiaceae 716 Mussaenda macrophylla Wall. Rubiaceae

Plantae Plantae

1200 300

2000 1300

0.028 0.028

5 5

7 5

NA NA

717 Mussaenda roxburghii Hook. f.

Plantae

400

2300

0.083

5

5

NA

HEPT, VETN HEPT DERM, FOOD, HEPT, ORAL

Marsdenia roylei Wight Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon Marsdenia tinctoria R. Br Mazus pumilus (Burmam) Steenis Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. & Thomson Meconopsis simplicifolia (D. Don) Walp. Melastoma malabathricum L.

Morus macroura Miq. Morus nigra L. Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson Moschus leucogaster Hodgson Mucuna monosperma Wight

Rubiaceae

ANTI, DERM, MENT, ORAL DGST, NERV DGST, NERV, RESP, SKEL DERM, DGST, NERV DERM, DGST, FOOD, NERV, SKEL, VETN FOOD DGST

CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, HEPT, RESP, URIN EDCR, SKEL DERM CIRC, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, OPTH, SKEL, RESP ANTI, FOOD, HEPT ANTI, CIRC, RESP, URIN DGST, FOOD DGST, MTRL, RESP

EDCR, FOOD DGST, FOOD SKEL, MTRL DGST, MTRL CIRC, DGST ANTI, DERM, DGST, URIN SKEL

718 719 720 721 722 723 724

Mussaenda treutleri Stapf Mycaranthes pannea (Lindl.) S. C. Chen & J. Myophonus caeruleus Scop. Myriactis nepalensis Less. Myrica esculenta Buch-Ham. ex D. Don Myrica gale L. Myristica fragrans Houtt.

Rubiaceae Orchidaceae Muscicapidae Asteraceae Myricaceae Myricaceae Myristicaceae

Plantae Plantae Animalia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

400 600 1500 2400 300 1100 300

1700 1000 2200 3600 2500 2000 700

0.056 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.139 0.056 0.028

5 5 5 5 5 3 1

5 7 5 1 1 3 3

NA NA LC NA NA NA NA

HEPT DERM, SKEL DGST DERM DGST, RESP FOOD FOOD, NERV DERM, DGST, EDCR, HEPT, MENT, ORAL, NERV, RESP, SPRT, URIN

725 Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC.

Caprifoliaceae

Plantae

3200

5000

0.750

4

6

CR

726 Nasturtium officinale R. Br.

Brassicaceae

Plantae

1500

3500

0.444

4

1

LC

Plantae Animalia Animalia Plantae Plantae

300 300 300 2800 300

1000 700 700 4000 2000

0.028 0.028 0.056 0.306 0.056

5 5 5 5 5

3 7 7 5 1

NA NT NT NA NA

727 728 729 730 731

Rubiaceae Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser Cyprinidae Neolissochilus hexagonolepis McClelland Cyprinidae Neolissochilus hexastichus McClelland Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y Plantaginaceae Nephrolepidaceae Nephrolepis cordifolia Trimen

CIRC, FOOD, HEPT, RESP, URIN MTRL FOOD FOOD HEPT, NERV EDCR, RESP

732 Nerium oleander L.

Apocynaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.056

1

5

LC

CIRC, DERM, EDCR, NEOP, URIN

733 Nicotiana tabacum L.

Solanaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.083

1

1

NA

DERM, ORAL, MTRL

734 Nigella sativa L.

Ranunculaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.028

1

1

NA

CIRC, DGST, FOOD

735 Nycatanthes arbortistis L.

Oleaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.222

5

1

NA

ANTI, CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, OPTH

736 Ocimum basilicum L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.222

1

5

NA

737 Ocimum gratissimum L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

400

1200

0.028

1

1

NA

738 Ocimum tenuiflorum L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.194

1

1

NA

739 Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. 740 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. 741 Onosma hookeri C. B. Clarke

Apiaceae Rubiaceae Boraginaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

600 300 2210

3600 2400 3700

0.028 0.028 0.083

3 5 5

1 1 5

LC LC NA

742 Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G. H. Sung, J. Ophiocordyceps

Fungi

4500

7000

0.222

5

8

NA

743 Ophioglossum petiolatum Hook.

Plantae

1500

2700

0.028

5

5

NA

Ophioglossaceae

ANTI, DGST, EDCR, RESP DERM, DGST, EDCR, RESP, URIN DGST, EDCR, FOOD, RESP DGST DGST DERM CIRC, DGST, EDCR, HEPT, NERV, RESP, URIN CIRC, DERM, FOOD, NERV URIN DERM, DGST, FOOD, URIN

744 Ophiorrhiza treutleri Hook. f.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

1700

2700

0.028

5

1

NA

745 Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.

Cactaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.028

2

1

NA

746 Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw.

Cactaceae

Plantae

700

1800

0.083

2

1

LC

DERM, DGST, FOOD, RESP, URIN

747 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz

Bignoniaceae

Plantae

400

1500

0.861

5

2

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, ORAL, NERV, PREG, RESP, SKEL, URIN, VETN

748 Oryza sativa L.

Poaceae

Plantae

300

2500

0.194

1

1

NA

FOOD

749 Osbeckia nepalensis Hook.f.

Melastomataceae

Plantae

450

2300

0.167

5

1

NA

DERM, ORAL, SKEL

750 Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud.

Santalaceae

Plantae

1100

2600

0.167

5

1

NA

751 Oudemansiella mucida (Schrad.) Hohn

Physalacriaceae

Fungi

1800

2500

0.028

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, FOOD, SKEL FOOD

752 Ovis aries L.

Bovidae

Animalia

300

3000

0.139

1

5

NA

DERM, DGST, MTRL

753 Oxalis corniculata L.

Oxalidaceae

Plantae

300

2900

0.389

3

5

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, HEPT, PREG, SKEL, VETN

754 Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill 755 Oxyspora paniculata (D. Don) DC.

Polygonaceae Melastomataceae

Plantae Plantae

2400 700

5000 2300

0.056 0.056

5 5

1 1

NA NA

756 Paederia foetida L.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.306

5

5

NA

757 Paeonia emodi Royle

Paeoniaceae

Plantae

1800

2500

0.028

5

1

NA

758 Panax bipinnatifidus Seem.

Araliaceae

Plantae

2400

5000

0.472

4

6

NA

FOOD SKEL DGST, EDCR, FOOD, ORAL, MTRL, SKEL, SPRT FOOD CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, NEOP, URIN

759 Pandanus furcatus Roxb.

Pandanaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.250

5

1

NA

760 Papilionanthe teres Roxb. Schltr. 761 Paramignya monophylla Wight

Orchidaceae Rutaceae

Plantae Plantae

500 400

900 900

0.056 0.028

5 5

3 3

NA

762 Paris polyphylla Sm.

Melanthiaceae

Plantae

2000

3500

0.194

5

5

NA

763 764 765 766

Parmeliaceae Parmeliaceae Fabaceae Vitaceae

Fungi Fungi Plantae Plantae

1080 1500 900 2000

2800 2500 4300 3800

0.056 0.056 0.028 0.056

5 5 5 5

5 5 1 1

NA NA LC NA

767 Passiflora edulis Sims

Passifloraceae

Plantae

300

1750

0.167

1

1

NA

768 Passiflora nepalensis Walp.

Passifloraceae

Plantae

1200

2000

0.139

4

1

NA

Parmotrema nilgherrense (Nyl.) Haw. Parmotrema reticulatum (Taylor) M. Choisy Parochetus communis D. Don Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch

769 Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex Sm.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.083

5

5

NA

770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777

Orobanchaceae Orobanchaceae Orobanchaceae Anacardiaceae Peltigeraceae Piperaceae Piperaceae Menispermaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Fungi Plantae Plantae Plantae

2200 2500 3800 500 1950 2000 1000 700

3700 5000 4000 1800 2920 3000 2500 1500

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.056 0.028 0.056

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1 1 3 1 5 1 1 5

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

778 Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton

Lamiaceae

Plantae

600

2400

0.111

5

1

NA

779 Persea americana Mill.

Lauraceae

780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789

Pedicularis gracilis Wall. ex Benth. Pedicularis longiflora Rudolph Pedicularis pectinata Wall. ex Benn. Pegia nitida Colebr. Peltigera polydactyla (Neck.) Hoffm. Peperomia hyneana Miq. Peperomia reflexa Kunth Pericampylus glaucus (Lam.) Merr.

Lauraceae Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. Lauraceae Persea odoratissima (Nees) Kosterm. Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex. D. Don) Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Persicaria hydropiper L. Delarbre Polygonaceae Persicaria punctata (Elliott) Small Polygonaceae Persicaria vivipara (L.) Ronse Decr. Sciuridae Petaurista magnificus Hodgson Pezizaceae Peziza badia Pers. Orchidaceae Phaius tankervilleae (Banks) Blume Acanthaceae Phlogacanthus pubinervius T. Anderson

Plantae

500

1500

0.056

2

1

NA

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Animalia Fungi Plantae Plantae

300 1500 600 900 1200 3221 2000 1800 500 300

2000 2100 2500 2300 4100 5000 3000 2500 1100 1700

0.028 0.028 0.056 0.028 0.056 0.083 0.056 0.028 0.056 0.028

2 5 5 3 3 5 5 5 5 5

1 3 1 1 1 1 5 1 3 1

NA NA NA LC NA NA LC NA NA NA

790 Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nees

Acanthaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.111

5

1

NA

791 Phoenix acaulis Roxb. 792 Phoenix rupicola T. Anderson 793 Pholidota imbricata Lindl.

Arecaceae Arecaceae Orchidaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

700 300 800

1400 1450 2700

0.028 0.028 0.056

5 5 5

1 1 5

NA NT

794 Phyllanthus emblica L.

Phyllanthaceae

Plantae

300

1650

0.472

4

1

NA

DERM, FOOD, RESP CIRC, NERV VETN ANTI, DERM, DGST, EDCR RESP RESP DGST FOOD DGST, FOOD, HEPT, MENT, NERV FOOD, NERV DGST, HEPT, SKEL, URIN DERM, URIN DERM, EDCR CIRC, URIN FOOD RESP MTRL, RESP CIRC ANTI, EDCR ANTI, DERM, DGST, RESP CIRC, DERM, DGST, HEPT FOOD FOOD ANTI, DGST EDCR EDCR FOOD DGST, RESP FOOD SKEL FOOD CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, HEPT, RESP FOOD FOOD SKEL DERM, DGST, FOOD, PREG, SKEL, URIN

795 Physalis divaricata D. Don

Solanaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.083

5

1

NA

DGST, HEAR, URIN

796 Physalis minima L.

Solanaceae

Plantae

1000

1800

0.222

3

3

NA

ORAL, VETN

797 Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.

Phytolaccaceae

Plantae

1200

3000

0.472

5

5

NA

ANTI, CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, ORAL, SKEL, URIN

798 Picrorhiza kurroaa Royle ex Benth.

Plantaginaceae

Plantae

2700

4800

0.639

4

6

NA

ANTI, CIRC, DGST, EDCR, NERV, RESP, SKEL, SPRT, URIN, VETN

799 Pieris formosa (Wall.) D. Don

Ericaceae

Plantae

2000

3500

0.056

5

5

NA

DERM, SPRT, VETN

800 801 802 803 804 805

Urticaceae Urticaceae Apiaceae Pinaceae Piperaceae Piperaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1200 1600 300 1000 300 500

3202 2350 3300 2500 1000 2200

0.056 0.028 0.028 0.111 0.083 0.083

5 3 5 5 4 5

1 1 1 1 3 1

NA NA NA LC NA NA

SKEL DERM, SKEL, SPRT DGST DERM, RESP, SKEL DERM, SKEL SKEL

Pilea bracteosa Wedd. Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. Pimpinella diversifolia DC. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Piper betle L. Piper boehmeriifolium (Miq.) Wall. ex C. DC.

806 Piper longum L.

Piperaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.611

4

5

NA

ANTI, DERM, DGST, FOOD, HEPT, ORAL, NEOP, NERV, PREG, RESP, SKEL, URIN, VETN

807 Piper nigrum L. 808 Piper pedicellatum C. DC.

Piperaceae Piperaceae

Plantae Plantae

800 350

1500 2200

0.111 0.028

1 5

1 6

NA VU

DGST, FOOD EDCR, ORAL

809 Piper peepuloides Wall.

Piperaceae

Plantae

350

1600

0.083

5

6

NA

EDCR, ORAL

810 Piper retrofractum Vahl

Piperaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.056

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, RESP

811 Piper suipigua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Piperaceae 812 Pittosporum napaulense (DC.) Rehder & E. HPittosporaceae 813 Plantago asiatica subsp. erosa (Wall.) Z. Yu LPlantaginaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 1000 300

2000 2300 3100

0.028 0.056 0.222

5 5 5

1 1 5

NA NA NA

814 Plantago major L.

Plantae

930

2170

0.250

3

1

NA

Plantae Plantae Plantae Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi

500 500 1500 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

1900 1800 3400 2500 2500 2500 2500 3085 2500 2500

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.111 0.083 0.083

5 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 6 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

FOOD ANTI, SKEL DERM, DGST DERM, DGST, ORAL, VETN DERM DERM, SKEL DERM FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD

Plantae

300

1600

0.083

5

5

NA

DERM, SKEL, URIN

815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824

Plantaginaceae

Platostoma hispidum (L.) A.J. Paton Lamiaceae Pleione maculata (Lindl.) Lindl. & Paxton Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Pleione praecox (Sm.) D. Don Pleurotaceae Pleurotus citrinopileatus Singer Pleurotaceae Pleurotus cornucopiae (Paulet) Rolland Pleurotus flabellatus (Berk. & Broome) Sacc. Pleurotaceae Pleurotaceae Pleurotus florida (Mont.) Singer Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq. ex Fr.) P. Kumm. Pleurotaceae Pleurotaceae Pleurotus sajor-caju Fr. Pleurotaceae Pleurotus sapidus (Schulzer) Sacc.

825 Plumbago indica L.

Plumbaginaceae

826 Plumbago zeylanica L.

Plumbaginaceae

Plantae

300

1600

0.056

5

5

NA

DGST, PREG, SKEL

827 Plumeria rubra L.

Apocynaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.056

1

1

NA

828 Polygala arillata Buch.-Ham. ex. D. Don

Polygalaceae

Plantae

1300

2700

0.222

5

5

NA

829 Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle

Asparagaceae

Plantae

1700

4600

0.056

5

1

NA

HEPT, SKEL, URIN ANTI, DERM, DGST, MTRL, RESP DGST, FOOD, NERV, RESP DGST DERM, DGST, FOOD DGST, FOOD FOOD CULT SKEL

830 Polygonatum oppositifolium (Wall.) Royle

Asparagaceae

Plantae

1800

2200

0.028

5

1

NA

831 Polygonum molle D. Don

Polygonaceae

Plantae

1200

3500

0.250

5

1

NA

832 833 834 835

Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Timaliidae Orchidaceae

Plantae Plantae Animalia Plantae

1200 1200 300 3300

2200 2200 2100 4300

0.056 0.028 0.028 0.056

5 5 5 5

1 1 1 5

NA LC LC NA

836 Portulaca oleracea L.

Portulacaceae

Plantae

320

1500

0.083

3

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, HEPT, NERV, URIN

837 Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Sims

Rosaceae

Plantae

1300

4800

0.222

5

5

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, SKEL, URIN, VETN

838 Potentilla lineata Trevir.

Rosaceae

Plantae

1150

4050

0.111

5

5

NA

DGST, HEPT, ORAL

839 840 841 842

Potentilla saundersiana Royle Pothos scandens L. Pouzolzia hirta Blume ex Hassk. Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn.

Rosaceae Araceae Urticaceae Urticaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

3500 300 465 300

4500 1000 1700 2400

0.056 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5

1 3 1 1

NA NA NA NA

EDCR, RESP DERM VETN VETN

843 Premna barbata Wall. ex Schauer

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.056

5

1

NA

DERM, URIN, VETN

844 Premna mollissima Roth 845 Premna serratifolia L. 846 Prinsepia utilis Royle

Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Rosaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 300 1500

1700 1700 2900

0.083 0.083 0.028

5 5 5

1 1 1

NA NA NA

847 Prunella vulgaris L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

1200

3800

0.056

3

1

NA

URIN, VETN DGST, URIN FOOD ORAL, MTRL, NERV, RESP

848 Prunus cerasoides Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Rosaceae

Plantae

800

2200

0.444

5

5

NA

849 Prunus undulata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Rosaceae

Plantae

900

1900

0.111

5

1

NA

Sisoridae 850 Pseudecheneis sulcata McClelland 851 Pseudocaryopteris bicolor (Roxb. ex Hardw.) P Lamiaceae 852 Pseudohydnum gelatinosum (Scop.) P. Karst incertae sedis

Animalia Plantae Fungi

300 300 1800

1065 2100 2500

0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5

5 1 1

NA NA NA

DERM, DGST, FOOD, ORAL, PREG, SKEL, URIN FOOD DGST FOOD

853 Psidium guajava L.

Plantae

300

1700

0.361

2

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, SKEL

854 Pteridium aquilinum (Desvaux) L. UnderwooDennstaedtiaceae 855 Pteris biaurita L. Pteridaceae 856 Pterocephalus hookeri (C. B. Clarke) E. Pritz. Caprifoliaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 300 3000

1500 1500 4500

0.083 0.194 0.028

5 5 5

1 1 1

NA NA NA

857 Pterospermum acerifolium L. Willd.

Malvaceae

Plantae

400

1900

0.139

5

5

NA

858 Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.028

5

5

NA

DERM DERM DGST, HEPT, SKEL DERM, DGST, MTRL, URIN CIRC, SKEL, URIN

859 Punica granatum L.

Lythraceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.194

1

5

LC

Polygonum perfoliatum L. Polygonum plebeium R. Br. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys Vigors Ponerorchis chusua (D. Don) Soo

Myrtaceae

DERM, FOOD, MENT, ORAL, MTRL, SKEL, URIN

CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, NERV, OPTH, RESP

860 Pyrularia edulis (Wall.) A. DC.

Santalaceae

Plantae

600

2000

0.111

5

1

NA

861 Pyrus hedlundii (C. K. Schneid.) Lacaita

Rosaceae

Plantae

2500

2860

0.111

5

3

NA

DERM, FOOD, VETN FOOD

862 Quercus lamellosa Sm.

Fagaceae

Plantae

1500

2600

0.139

5

5

NA

FOOD, MTRL, VETN

863 Quercus lineata Blume

Fagaceae

Plantae

1000

2800

0.139

5

5

NA

EDCR, FOOD, MTRL

864 Ramaria aurea (Schaeff.) Quel. 865 Ranunculus diffusus DC. 866 Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.

Gomphaceae Ranunculaceae Apocynaceae

Fungi Plantae Plantae

1800 1221 900

3145 1700 1200

0.056 0.028 0.028

5 5 3

1 3 1

NA NA NA

FOOD DERM ANTI

867 Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. Ex Krz.

Apocynaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.250

5

5

NA

ANTI, CIRC, MENT, OPTH, VETN

Linaceae Reinwardtia indica Dumort. Remusatia pumila (D. Don) H. Li & A. Hay Araceae Rhamnus napalensis (Wall.) M. A. Lawson Rhamnaceae Araceae Rhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott Araceae Rhaphidophora glauca (Wall.) Schott Rheum acuminatum Hook. f. & Thomson Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Rheum australe D. Don Polygonaceae Rheum emodi Wall.

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

500 1200 300 1400 1400 2800 3000 2210

2300 2500 1000 2200 2200 3700 4600 4200

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.083 0.056 0.056 0.333 0.139

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4

1 1 7 1 1 5 5 5

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

Plantae

3600

4900

0.306

5

6

NA

877 Rhodiola bupleuroides (Wall. ex. Hook. f. & TCrassulaceae 878 Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Ericaceae

Plantae Plantae

4000 3000

6000 5500

0.111 0.306

5 4

5 2

NA NA

879 Rhododendron arboreum Sm.

Ericaceae

Plantae

1400

3600

0.750

5

1

NA

880 Rhododendron barbatum Wall. ex G. Don

Ericaceae

Plantae

2000

3700

0.111

5

5

NA

868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875

876 Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Thomson

Polygonaceae

DERM DERM SKEL MTRL, SKEL MTRL CIRC, SKEL DGST, SKEL FOOD, SKEL DGST, FOOD, ORAL, SKEL CIRC, EDCR MTRL, RESP, SPRT DGST, FOOD, MTRL, SKEL, VETN MTRL, RESP MTRL, RESP, SKEL, URIN, VETN MTRL MTRL MTRL MTRL MTRL MTRL MTRL, RESP, SKEL, URIN, VETN MTRL, NERV SPRT MTRL DGST, EDCR, FOOD, RESP

881 Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don

Ericaceae

Plantae

3000

3800

0.222

5

7

NA

882 883 884 885 886 887

Rhododendron cinnabarinum Hook. f. Rhododendron dalhousiae Hook. f. Rhododendron falconer i Hook.f. Rhododendron fulgens Hook.f. Rhododendron grande Wight Rhododendron hodgsonii Hook. f.

Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

2500 2100 2500 3300 1600 2700

3500 3200 3200 4200 2900 3600

0.083 0.028 0.083 0.028 0.056 0.083

5 5 5 5 5 5

1 1 5 1 5 5

NA NA NA NA NA NA

888 Rhododendron lepidotum Wall. ex G. Don

Ericaceae

Plantae

2500

5000

0.139

5

5

NA

889 Rhododendron setosum D. Don Ericaceae 890 Rhododendron sikkimensis Pradhan & LachunEricaceae 891 Rhododendron thomsonii Hook.f. Ericaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

3000 3200 2500

5500 4300 4200

0.139 0.028 0.028

5 5 5

1 2 1

NA NA NA

892 Rhus chinensis Mill.

Anacardiaceae

Plantae

900

2700

0.417

3

1

NA

893 Rhus succedanea L.

Anacardiaceae

Plantae

900

3000

0.333

5

1

NA

894 Rhynchostylis retusa L. 895 Ribes takara D. Don

Orchidaceae Grossulariaceae

Plantae Plantae

300 3000

1500 4000

0.056 0.028

5 5

5 3

NA NA

DERM, DGST, FOOD, NEOP, VETN DGST, SKEL DERM, DGST

896 Ricinus communis L.

Euphorbiaceae

Plantae

300

2400

0.167

3

1

NA

DERM, HEPT, URIN

897 Rohdea nepalensis (Raf.) N. Tanaka

Asparagaceae

Plantae

2100

2800

0.056

5

5

NA

EDCR

898 Rosa macrophylla Lindl.

Rosaceae

Plantae

2400

3700

0.083

5

5

NA

DERM, FOOD, RESP

899 Rosa sericea Wall. ex Lindl.

Rosaceae

Plantae

1700

4600

0.139

5

1

NA

900 Roscoea purpurea Smith 901 Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb.

Orchidaceae Lamiaceae

Plantae Plantae

2000 300

2700 1500

0.056 0.028

5 5

1 1

NA NA

902 Rubia cordifolia L.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

1300

2800

0.500

5

5

NA

CIRC, DERM, EDCR, HEAR, MTRL, OPTH, PREG, SKEL, URIN, VETN

903 Rubia manjith Roxb. ex. Flemming

Rubiaceae

Plantae

1200

2700

0.444

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, MTRL, RESP, URIN

904 Rubia wallichiana Decne.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

1800

3500

0.056

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, URIN

DERM, DGST, HEPT, OPTH DERM DGST

905 Rubus barbatus Edgew.

Rosaceae

Plantae

2100

3200

0.028

5

1

NA

FOOD

906 Rubus buergeri Miq.

Rosaceae

Plantae

1550

2900

0.083

5

1

NA

EDCR, FOOD, URIN

907 Rubus calycinus Wall. ex D. Don

Rosaceae

Plantae

2100

3000

0.111

5

5

NA

908 Rubus ellipticus Sm.

Rosaceae

Plantae

1400

2500

0.667

5

5

NA

909 Rubus lineatus Reinw. ex Blume

Rosaceae

Plantae

1800

2700

0.028

5

1

NA

DERM, FOOD DERM, DGST, FOOD, HEPT, PREG, RESP, VETN FOOD

910 911 912 913

Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1221 1500 2200 1800

3000 3200 3300 3000

0.083 0.056 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5

1 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA

FOOD FOOD, RESP, SKEL FOOD FOOD

914 Rumex dentatus L.

Polygonaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.028

3

5

NA

DERM, DGST, HEPT

915 Rumex nepalensis Sreng.

Polygonaceae

Plantae

900

4200

0.722

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, FOOD, HEPT, MTRL, SKEL, URIN, VETN

916 917 918 919 920 921

Russulaceae Russulaceae Russulaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae

Fungi Fungi Fungi Plantae Plantae Plantae

1800 1800 1800 300 300 300

2500 2500 2500 1700 1700 2000

0.056 0.028 0.056 0.056 0.111 0.056

5 5 5 5 1 5

1 1 1 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA NA LC

FOOD FOOD FOOD DGST DGST, HEPT DGST

922 Salix babylonica L.

Salicaceae

Plantae

2700

3800

0.056

4

1

NA

DERM, NERV, SKEL

923 Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Salicaceae

Plantae

350

1400

0.056

5

1

NA

NERV

924 Salvia officinalis L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.083

1

1

LC

EDCR, FOOD, ORAL

925 926 927 928

Lamiaceae Adoxaceae Apiaceae Asparagaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

2000 500 1600 500

3000 2100 3500 1450

0.056 0.056 0.028 0.028

1 5 5 1

1 1 1 5

NA NA NA NA

929 Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.

Sapindaceae

Plantae

350

1300

0.250

5

1

NA

930 931 932 933

Fabaceae Buxaceae Melastomataceae Orchidaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 2100 300 1000

1400 3600 2800 4000

0.083 0.028 0.056 0.056

5 5 5 5

6 1 1 5

VU NA NA NA

EDCR DERM, DGST DERM, DGST RESP, SKEL DERM, DGST, FOOD, HEPT, NERV, SKEL EDCR MTRL DGST, FOOD EDCR, RESP

934 Saurauia napaulensis DC.

Actinidiaceae

Plantae

750

2150

0.194

5

5

NA

DGST, FOOD, MTRL

935 Saurauia roxburghii Wall.

Actinidiaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.056

5

1

NA

FOOD, MTRL

936 Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch.

Asteraceae

Plantae

2000

3300

0.111

5

6

CR

CIRC, HEPT, NERV, OPTH, URIN

937 Saussurea gossipiphora D. Don

Asteraceae

Plantae

3500

5700

0.167

5

5

NA

Rubus niveus Thunb. Rubus paniculatus Sm. Rubus pedunculosus D. Don Rubus rugosus Sm.

Russula puellaris Fr. Russula virescens (Schaeff.) Fr. Russula xerampelina (Schaeff.) Fr. Saccharum bengalense Retz. Saccharum officinarum L. Saccharum spontaneum L.

Salvia splendens Swllow ex Schult. Sambucus javanica Blume Sanicula elata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Sansevieria zeylanica (L.) Willd.

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd. Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. Sarcopyramis nepalensis Wall. Satyrium nepalense D.Don

938 Saussurea simpsoniana (Field & Gard.) Lipsc Asteraceae

Plantae

4400

5600

0.056

5

7

NA

DERM, DGST, NERV, SKEL, RESP DERM

939 Schefflera elata (D. Don.) Harms

Araliaceae

Plantae

900

1750

0.056

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, PREG

940 Schima wallichii Choisy

Theaceae

Plantae

400

2100

0.472

5

5

NA

ANTI, DERM, DGST, MTRL, URIN, VETN

941 942 943 944 945 946

Schisandraceae Nemacheilidae Nemacheilidae Nemacheilidae Cyprinidae Cyprinidae

Plantae Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia

900 300 300 300 300 300

2000 850 850 850 1065 1065

0.194 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5 5 5

1 5 5 5 5 6

NA NT LC LC LC VU

Schisandra neglecta A. C. Sm. Schistura devdevi Hora Schistura rupecula McClelland Schistura scaturigina McClelland Schizothorax progastus McClelland Schizothorax richardsonii J. E. Gray

FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD ANTI, CIRC, DGST, HEAR, RESP SKEL, URIN PREG CIRC, FOOD ANTI DERM, FOOD, MENT, NERV, RESP, SKEL

947 Scindapsus officinalis (Roxb.) Schott

Araceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.083

5

1

NA

948 949 950 951

Planaginaceae Loranthaceae Cucurbitaceae Crassulaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 1700 500 1221

2000 2100 2400 3500

0.056 0.028 0.111 0.056

3 5 1 5

1 5 1 5

NA NA NA NA

952 Selinum wallichianum (DC.) Raizada & H. O Apiaceae

Plantae

2100

5000

0.111

1

1

NA

953 Semecarpus anacardium L. f.

Anacardiaceae

Plantae

300

1200

0.194

5

5

NA

954 Semiplotus semiplotus McClelland 955 Semnopithecus schistaceus Hodgson

Cyprinidae Cercopithecidae

Animalia Animalia

300 300

525 3500

0.028 0.028

5 5

7 5

NA LC

DERM, DGST, MENT, NEOP, SKEL, URIN FOOD CIRC, DGST, RESP

956 Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex. D. Don

Asteraceae

Plantae

1800

3600

0.083

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, HEPT

957 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Fabaceae 958 Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Fabaceae 959 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Fabaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 1000 300

1200 3000 1400

0.028 0.056 0.083

3 3 5

1 1 1

NA NA NA

MTRL MTRL MTRL

960 Sesamum indicum L.

Pedaliaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.083

1

1

NA

DERM, DGST, ORAL, OPTH, URIN

961 Setaria palmifolia (J.Koenig) Stapf

Poaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.028

3

5

NA

MTRL

Scoparia dulcis L. Scurrula parasitica L. Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw. Sedum multicaule Wall. ex Lindl.

962 Shorea robusta Gaertn.

Dipterocarpaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.194

5

5

LC

ANTI, CIRC, DERM, DGST, FOOD, MTRL

963 Sida acuta Burm. f.

Malvaceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.056

3

1

NA

DERM, EDCR, URIN

964 Sida cordifolia L. 965 Sida rhombifolia L.

Malvaceae Malvaceae

Plantae Plantae

300 300

1400 2100

0.083 0.056

5 5

1 1

NA NA

DGST EDCR, RESP

966 Sigesbeckia orientalis L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

2700

0.083

3

1

NA

DERM, DGST, HEPT

967 Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) T. S. YinBerberidaceae

Plantae

2800

4500

0.639

5

6

NA

CIRC, DGST, FOOD, HEPT, URIN, VETN

968 969 970 971 972 973 974

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1300 2400 1200 1800 1800 300 800

2200 3000 3200 3100 2800 1800 1200

0.028 0.028 0.111 0.056 0.028 0.083 0.028

5 4 5 5 5 5 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

DERM SPRT DGST, URIN URIN URIN CIRC, FOOD, URIN CIRC, DGST, URIN

Siphocranion macranthum (Hook. f.) C. Y. W Lamiaceae Rutaceae Skimmia laureola Franch. Smilacaceae Smilax aspera L. Smilacaceae Smilax elegans Wall. ex Kunth Smilacaceae Smilax lanceifolia Roxb. Smilacaceae Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex. D. Don Smilacaceae Smilax perfoliata Lour.

975 Smilax zeylanica L.

Smilacaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.111

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST, URIN

976 Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. 977 Solanum americanum Mill.

Solanaceae Solanaceae

Plantae Plantae

600 900

2300 2900

0.139 0.028

3 3

1 1

NA NA

CIRC DERM

978 Solanum anguivi Lam.

Solanaceae

Plantae

300

2500

0.056

3

1

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST

979 Solanum dulcamara L. 980 Solanum erianthum D. Don 981 Solanum melongena L.

Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

500 300 300

3500 1500 1700

0.056 0.056 0.167

3 3 1

1 1 1

NA NA NA

982 Solanum torvum Sw.

Solanaceae

Plantae

300

1750

0.111

1

1

NA

983 Solanum tuberosum L.

Solanaceae

Plantae

300

2500

0.056

3

5

984 Solanum viarum Dunal

Solanaceae

Plantae

1400

2200

0.111

3

5

NA

DERM DERM FOOD DGST, FOOD, MTRL, URIN FOOD, OPTH DERM, DGST, ORAL, RESP

985 Sonchus oleraceus (L.) L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

1700

3200

0.056

3

1

NA

DGST, HEPT, URIN

986 Sonchus wightianus DC.

Asteraceae

Plantae

1300

2500

0.083

5

5

NA

DGST, HEPT, RESP, URIN

987 Sorbus cuspidata (Spach) Hedl.

Rosaceae

Plantae

2400

3300

0.028

5

1

NA

FOOD, HEPT, ORAL

988 Spermadictyon suaveolens Roxb.

Rubiaceae

Plantae

700

2300

0.028

5

1

NA

MTRL

989 Sphaeranthus indicus L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.056

5

5

LC

DGST, MTRL, NERV

990 Sphaerias blanfordi Thomson 991 Sphagnum squarrosum Crome

Pteropodidae Sphagnaceae

Animalia Plantae

1000 500

1685 2800

0.028 0.056

5 5

7 1

LC NA

992 Spilanthes acmella (L.) L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.083

3

5

NA

993 Spiranthes sinensis (Per.) Ames

Orchidaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.028

5

5

LC

DGST DERM, MTRL DERM, ORAL, NERV, URIN DERM, ORAL, NERV, URIN

994 Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz

Anacardiaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.083

5

5

NA

995 Stellaria chamaejasme L.

Thymelaeaceae

Plantae

2700

4300

0.056

5

5

NA

SKEL

996 Stellaria media (L.) Vill.

Caryophyllaceae

Plantae

900

2800

0.028

3

1

NA

DERM, FOOD, RESP

997 998 999 1000

Caryophyllaceae Blechnaceae Asteraceae Menispermaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1221 300 2000 1200

4000 1000 3700 2130

0.083 0.028 0.028 0.056

5 5 5 5

5 3 1 5

NA NA NA NA

1001 Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers

Menispermaceae

Plantae

300

2200

0.417

5

5

NA

1002 Stephania hernandifolia Walp.

Menispermaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.222

5

5

NA

1003 1004 1005 1006

Menispermaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

500 400 300 300

1000 1500 1100 1000

0.028 0.056 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5

7 1 1 3

NA NA NA NA

DERM FOOD DERM URIN DGST, EDCR, RESP, VETN DERM, DGST, FOOD, URIN DGST FOOD FOOD FOOD

Malvaceae

Stellaria patens D. Don Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. F.) Bedd. Stenoseris graciliflora (Wall. ex DC.) C. Shih Stephania elegan s Hook. f. .& Thomson

Stephania wightii Dunn Sterculia fulgens Wall. Sterculia indica Merr. Sterculia pallens Wall. ex Hochr.

1007 Sterculia villosa Roxb. ex Sm.

CIRC, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, ORAL, HEAR, SKEL

Plantae

300

900

0.083

5

3

NA

EDCR, FOOD, SKEL

1008 Stereocaulon foliolosum var. strictum (Bab.) La Stereocaulaceae 1009 Stereocaulon himalayense Awasthi & Lamb. Stereocaulaceae

Fungi Fungi

2400 2500

3600 5400

0.028 0.028

5 5

1 1

NA NA

FOOD FOOD

1010 Stereospermum chelonoides (L .f) DC

Bignoniaceae

Plantae

300

700

0.056

5

7

NA

DERM, DGST, NERV

1011 Streptolirion volubile Edgew. 1012 Strobilomyces floccopus (Vahl) P. Karst

Commelinaceae Boletaceae

Plantae Fungi

1600 1800

2800 2500

0.028 0.028

5 5

1 1

NA NA

DGST FOOD

1013 Sus scrofa domesticus Erx.

Animalia

300

2500

0.028

1

5

NA

DERM, FOOD, SKEL

1014 Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. ex.D. Don Gentianaceae

Plantae

1600

2600

0.111

5

6

NA

1015 Swertia bimaculata (Siebold & Zucc.) Hook. Gentianaceae

Plantae

1300

3300

0.056

5

5

NA

EDCR CIRC, HEPT, SKEL, URIN

1016 Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex C. Gentianaceae

Plantae

1200

3200

1.000

4

5

NA

Gentianaceae

Plantae

3000

4300

0.056

5

5

NA

1017 Swertia hookeri C.B. Clarke

Suidae

1018 Swertia multicaulis D. Don

Gentianaceae

Plantae

3600

5200

0.111

5

5

NA

1019 1020 1021 1022 1023

Gentianaceae Gentianaceae Symplocaceae Symplocaceae Symplocaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

2200 2700 2000 2000 1200

3000 4350 3500 2500 3500

0.083 0.028 0.139 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5 5

1 5 1 3 1

NA NA NA NA NA

1024 Symplocos ramosissima Wall. ex. G. Don

Symplocaceae

Plantae

1400

2700

0.056

5

2

NA

1025 Syndrella noidflora (L.) Gaertn.

Swertia pedicellata Banerji Swertia thomsonii C .B. Clarke Symploccos theifolia (L. f.) Oken Symplocos glomerata King ex C. B. Clarke Symplocos lucida (Thunb.) Siebold & Zucc.

DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, HEPT, OPTH, RESP, URIN, VETN SKEL DGST, NERV, RESP, SKEL EDCR DGST, HEPT, RESP MTRL MTRL FOOD, MTRL ORAL, MTRL, OPTH, SKEL

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

900

0.083

3

3

NA

DERM, MTRL, SKEL

1026 Syzygium claviflorum (Roxb.) Wall. ex A.M. CMyrtaceae

Plantae

300

1000

0.028

5

3

NA

1027 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

Myrtaceae

Plantae

350

1500

0.139

5

1

NA

1028 1029 1030 1031

Myrtaceae Myrtaceae Myrtaceae Myrtaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

360 300 300 600

1700 1700 1500 1500

0.083 0.028 0.028 0.028

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA

1032 Tagetes erecta L.

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.111

2

1

NA

FOOD EDCR, ORAL, MTRL, RESP FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD DERM, DGST, FOOD, OPTH

1033 Tamarindus indica L.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

900

0.222

4

3

NA

EDCR, FOOD, OPTH, RESP, SKEL, URIN

1034 Taraxacum campylodes G.E. Haglund

Asteraceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.139

3

5

NA

DERM, HEPT, SKEL, URIN CIRC, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, HEPT, MENT, NEOP, NERV, RESP, URIN, VETN

Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston Syzygium kurzii (Duthie) N. P. Balakr. Syzygium nervosum A. Cunn. ex DC. Syzygium tetragonum (Wight) Wall. ex Walp.

1035 Taxus wallichiana Zucc.

Taxaceae

Plantae

1500

3400

0.472

5

6

EN

1036 Tectaria cicutaria (L.) Copel

Tectariaceae

Plantae

500

1300

0.083

5

5

NA

1037 Tectaria gemmifera (Fee) Alston

Tectariaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.083

5

5

NA

1038 Tectaria macrodonta C. Chr.

Tectariaceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.083

5

5

NA

1039 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Combretaceae

Plantae

300

1400

0.500

4

1

NA

CIRC, DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, ORAL, MTRL, OPTH, RESP, SKEL, VETN

1040 Terminalia chebula Retz.

Combretaceae

Plantae

300

1300

0.583

4

1

NA

CIRC, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, ORAL, MTRL, OPTH, SKEL, URIN, VETN

1041 Terminalia myriocarpa Van Heurck & Mull. ACombretaceae

Plantae

400

1500

0.250

5

1

NA

CIRC, DERM, HEPT, MTRL, URIN

1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051

Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi Fungi Animalia Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 1320 1500 950

2500 2500 2500 2500 2954 2500 1500 1500 2250 2900

0.028 0.056 0.028 0.028 0.056 0.028 0.056 0.028 0.056 0.028

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 5 3 1 1

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

Plantae

1221

3400

0.194

5

5

NA

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1800 1500 300 900

2700 2450 1300 2300

0.028 0.056 0.028 0.028

5 5 5 5

5 1 1 1

NA NA NA NA

Lyophyllaceae Termitomyces clypeatus R. Heim Lyophyllaceae Termitomyces eurhizus (Berk.) R. Heim Lyophyllaceae Termitomyces heimii Natarajan Lyophyllaceae Termitomyces mammiformis R. Heim. Lyophyllaceae Termitomyces medius R. Heim & Grasse Termitomyces microcarpus (Berk. & Broome) RLyophyllaceae Apidae Tetragonula iridipennis Smith Vitaceae Tetrastigma bracteolatum (Wall.) Planch. Tetrastigma rumicispermum (M. A. Lawson) PVitaceae Vitaceae Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch.

1052 Thalictrum foliolosum DC. 1053 1054 1055 1056

Ranunculaceae

Theropogon pallidus (Wall. ex. Kunth) MaximAsparagaceae Acanthaceae Thunbergia coccinea Wall. Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottl.) Rox Acanthaceae Acanthaceae Thunbergia lutea T. Anderson

DERM DERM, FOOD, SKEL, URIN DERM, DGST, EDCR, RESP

FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD FOOD DERM FOOD FOOD SKEL DGST, HEPT, ORAL, NERV, OPTH, SKEL, URIN FOOD DGST DGST PREG

1057 Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb, ex. Hornem.) HPoaceae

Plantae

300

2000

0.583

5

5

NA

1058 Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.

Plantae

300

1400

0.111

5

1

NA

Plantae Plantae Plantae Animalia Animalia Plantae Plantae

800 400 300 300 300 1200 1000

1500 2050 1800 525 800 2600 2400

0.028 0.083 0.361 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028

3 5 5 5 5 5 5

1 5 1 8 7 1 1

NA NA LC EN NT NA NA

DERM, EDCR, ORAL, MTRL DERM, HEPT, SKEL, RESP DERM SKEL DGST, MTRL, RESP FOOD FOOD DERM DERM

1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065

Menispermaceae

Asteraceae Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray Rutaceae Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Meliaceae Toona ciliata M. Roem Cyprinidae Tor putitora F. Hamilton Cyprinidae Tor tor F. Hamilton Toxicodendron hookeri (K. C. Sahni & Bahad Anacardiaceae Toxicodendron wallichii (Hook. f.) Kuntze Anacardiaceae

1066 Trachelospermum lucidum (D. Don) K. SchumApocynaceae

Plantae

600

1200

0.111

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR

1067 Tremella mesenterica Retz.

Tremeliaceae

Fungi

1800

2500

0.056

5

1

NA

FOOD

1068 Trichosanthes cucumerina L.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

800

2500

0.139

1

5

NA

ANTI, DERM, DGST, FOOD, URIN

1069 Trichosanthes lepiniana (Naudin.) Cogn.

Cucurbitaceae

Plantae

400

1600

0.139

5

5

NA

1070 Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. 1071 Tridax procumbens (L.) L.

Cucurbitaceae Asteraceae

Plantae Plantae

300 300

1700 1500

0.111 0.056

5 5

5 1

NA NA

1072 Trigonella foenum-graecum L.

Fabaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.250

1

1

NA

1073 Tropidia curcugiloides Lindl. 1074 Tsuga dumosa (D. Don) Eichler

Orchidaceae Pinaceae

Plantae Plantae

300 2400

1000 3600

0.056 0.056

5 5

3 1

NA NA

1075 Tupistra nutans Wall. ex Lindl.

Asparagaceae

Plantae

900

1800

0.528

5

5

NA

1076 Turpinia pomifera (Roxb.) DC.

Staphyleaceae

Plantae

500

1200

0.028

5

1

NA

1077 Urena lobata L.

Malvaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.111

3

1

NA

1078 Urocissa erythrorhyncha Bod. 1079 Ursus thibetanus G. Cuvier

Corvidae Ursidae

Animalia Animalia

1500 2000

2000 4250

0.083 0.111

5 5

7 6

NA VU

DGST, FOOD, PREG, RESP, VETN DGST, ORAL DERM, DGST DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, SKEL DGST MTRL DGST, EDCR, FOOD, NERV, SKEL, URIN FOOD DGST, ORAL, NEOP, RESP DGST, RESP RESP

1080 Urtica dioica L.

Urticaceae

Plantae

1800

2800

0.806

5

5

NA

ANTI, CIRC, DERM, EDCR, FOOD, HEPT, SKEL, URIN, VETN

1081 Urtica parviflora Roxb.

Urticaceae

Plantae

1900

2400

0.306

5

5

NA

CIRC, FOOD, ORAL, PREG, SKEL, URIN

Fungi Fungi Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

1500 2500 2500 2000 2100 1200

2400 3300 3300 3500 2800 3202

0.056 0.083 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.056

5 5 5 5 5 5

5 5 1 5 1 1

NA NA NA NA NA NA

1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087

Parmeliaceae Usnea baileyi (Stirt.) Zahlbr. Parmeliaceae Usnea sikkimensis Biswas Vaccinium glaucoalbum Hook. f. ex C. B. ClaEricaceae Vaccinium nummulari a Hook. f. & ThomsonEricaceae Vaccinium retusum (Griff.) Hook. f. ex C. B Ericaceae Ericaceae Vaccinium vacciniaceum (Roxb.) Sleumer

1088 Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

Caprifoliaceae

Plantae

2300

3600

0.222

5

6

NA

1089 Valeriana jatamansi J ones

Caprifoliaceae

Plantae

1500

3600

0.250

4

6

NA

1090 Vallaris solanacea (Roth) Kuntze 1091 Vanda coerulea Griff. ex. Lindl

Apocynaceae Orchidaceae

Plantae Plantae

300 1000

1400 1600

0.056 0.056

5 5

1 7

NA NA

1092 Vanda cristata Wall. ex Lindl.

Orchidaceae

1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102

Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Rchb. f. Scrophulariaceae Verbascum thapsus L. Verbenaceae Verbena officinalis L. Veronica wyomingensis (A. Nelson) M.M.Mar Plantaginaceae Adoxaceae Viburnum erubescens Wall. Violaceae Viola betonicifolia Sm. Violaceae Viola biflora L. Violaceae Viola diffusa Ging. Violaceae Viola glaucescens Oudem.

RESP RESP FOOD, MTRL FOOD FOOD FOOD DERM, FOOD, HEPT, SKEL, URIN DGST, MENT, MTRL, NERV, SPIRT

Plantae

700

1000

0.139

5

7

NA

Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 500 1800 900 1500 1400 2500 900 2100

1700 2000 4000 2400 2000 2800 4500 2000 2400

0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.111 0.028

5 5 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5

5 5 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3

LC NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

ANTI, DERM DGST DERM, ORAL, SKEL, VETN VETN VETN CIRC, DGST, RESP HEPT, NERV DGST FOOD RESP RESP DERM, RESP DERM, RESP

1103 Viola pilosa Blume

Violaceae

Plantae

1500

3500

0.083

5

1

NA

DERM, DGST, RESP

1104 Viola thomsonii Oudem. 1105 Viscum album L.

Violaceae Viscaceae

Plantae Plantae

800 1221

2400 2700

0.056 0.167

5 3

1 5

NA NA

1106 Viscum articulatum Burm. f.

Viscaceae

Plantae

1000

2200

0.583

5

5

NA

DERM, DGST CIRC, SKEL DERM, DGST, FOOD, SKEL, URIN, VETN

DGST, EDCR, ORAL, HEAR, SKEL, VETN

1107 Vitex negundo L.

Lamiaceae

Plantae

300

1700

0.306

3

1

NA

1108 Vulpes bengalensis Shaw 1109 Wallichia disticha T. Anderson

Canidae Arecaceae

Animalia Plantae

300 300

2000 1300

0.056 0.028

5 5

5 5

LC NA

1110 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz

Lythraceae

Plantae

300

1800

0.250

5

1

LC

1111 Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb.

Apocynaceae

Plantae

400

1000

0.083

5

7

NA

ANTI, DERM, DGST, EDCR, HEPT, ORAL, PREG, URIN

1112 Xanthium strumarium L. 1113 Xenophrys spp. 1114 Xerula radicata (Relhan) Dorfelt

Asteraceae Megophyridae Physalacriaceae

Plantae Animalia Fungi

300 1800

2500 2500

0.056 0.028 0.028

3 5 5

1 5 1

NA NA

DERM, SKEL DERM FOOD

1115 Yushania maling (Gamble) R.B. Majumdar &Poaceae

Plantae

1500

3600

0.222

5

1

NA

FOOD, MTRL, VETN

1116 Yushania microphylla (Munro) R. B. MajumdPoaceae

Plantae

2300

3000

0.083

5

1

NA

MTRL

1117 Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC.

Rutaceae

Plantae

1240

2440

0.583

5

1

NA

DGST, FOOD, MENT, ORAL, HEAR, OPTH, SKEL

1118 Zanthoxylum armatum DC.

Rutaceae

Plantae

300

3500

0.306

5

1

NA

DGST, MENT, ORAL, HEAR, MTRL, OPTH

1119 Zanthoxylum budranga DC.

Rutaceae

Plantae

1000

3000

0.083

5

5

NA

CIRC, DGST, ORAL, MTRL, RESP, SKEL DGST, FOOD, MENT, ORAL, HEAR, MTRL, NERV, OPTH, SKEL

DGST, RESP FOOD DGST, HEPT, URIN, VETN

1120 Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC.

Rutaceae

Plantae

900

2700

0.111

5

1

NA

1121 Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew.

Rutaceae

Plantae

300

1500

0.139

5

1

NA

1122 Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC.

Rutaceae

Plantae

300

930

0.111

5

3

NA

1123 Zea mays L. 1124 Zephyranthes carinata Herb. 1125 Zingiber chrysanthum Roscoe

Poaceae Amaryllidaceae Zingiberaceae

Plantae Plantae Plantae

300 400 500

2500 2400 1800

0.139 0.056 0.056

1 5 5

1 1 5

NA NA NA

1126 Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Zingiberaceae

Plantae

300

1300

0.472

4

5

NA

DERM, DGST, EDCR, FOOD, ORAL, NERV, SKEL, RESP, VETN

1127 Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm.

Zingiberaceae

Plantae

300

700

0.056

5

7

NA

DERM, NERV, RESP

1128 Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

Rhamnaceae

Plantae

300

900

0.083

5

7

LC

DGST, EDCR, FOOD, SKEL

CIRC, DGST CIRC, DGST, FOOD, ORAL DERM, FOOD DERM, DGST DGST, SKEL, RESP

Linnean Classification Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. Ailurus fulgens F. Cuvier Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel. Berberis aristata DC. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Calamus acanthospathus Griff. Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Gagnep. Cycas pectinata Buch.-Ham. Cymbidium grandiflorum Sw. Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Flickingeria fimbriata (Blume) A. D. Hawkes. Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don Gastrodia elata Blume Gymnadenia orchidis Lindl. Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) Kuntze Moschus chrysogaster Hodgson Moschus leucogaster Hodgson Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G. H. Sung, J. M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Panax pseudoginseng Wall. Picrorhiza kurroaa Royle ex Benth. Pinus palustris Mill. Piper pedicellatum C. DC. Piper peepuloides Wall. Pleione maculata (Lindl.) Lindl. & Paxton Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Thomson Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don Rhododendron sikkimensis Pradhan & Lachungpa Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd. Saurauia punduana Wall. Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. Schizothorax richardsonii J. E. Gray Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) T. S. Ying Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex C. B. Clarke Symplocos ramosissima Wall. ex. G. Don Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Tor putitora F. Hamilton Valeriana hardwickii Wall. Valeriana jatamansi J ones

Taxonomic Family Ranunculaceae Ailuridae Thelypteridaceae Berberidaceae Saxifragaceae Arecaceae Vitaceae Cycadaceae Orchidaceae Fabaceae Orchidaceae Dioscoreaceae Orchidaceae Liliaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Moschidae Moschidae Caprifoliaceae Ophiocordyceps Bignoniaceae Araliaceae Plantaginaceae Pinaceae Piperaceae Piperaceae Orchidaceae Polygonaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Fabaceae Actinidiaceae Actinidiaceae Cyprinidae Berberidaceae Gentianaceae Symplocaceae Taxaceae Cyprinidae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae

IUCN Government of REDD+ Status Sikkim Status NA EN EN EN NA VU NA VU NA VU NA VU VU VU VU VU NA VU VU VU NA VU NA VU LC EN NA EN VU NA NA VU VU EN EN EN EN EN CR EN NA EN NA VU NA VU NA VU EN EN VU VU NA VU NA VU NA VU NA EN NA VU VU VU CR CR CR CR VU VU NA CR NA VU NA EN EN EN EN EN NA VU NA VU