Chandragupta IIFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Chandragupta II The Great (Vikramaditya) Gupta Emperor Coin of the Gupta king Chandragupta II Reign 375–415 CE Predecessor Ramagupta Successor Kumara Gupta I Consort Dhruvuswamini Royal House Gupta dynasty Father Samudragupta Mother Datta Devi Religious beliefs Hinduism Chandragupta II The Great (Sanskrit: चन्द्रगुप्त विक्रमादित्य; chandragupta vikramāditya) was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire in northern India. His rule spanned c. 380–413/415 CE, during which the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith, art, architecture, and sculpture flourished, and the cultural development of ancient Indiareached its climax.[1] The period of prominence of the Gupta dynasty is very often referred to as the Golden Age of India. Chandragupta II was the son of the previous ruler,Samudragupta the Great. He attained success by pursuing both a favorable marital alliance and an aggressive expansionist policy in this which his father and grandfather (Chandragupta I) set the precedent. Samudragupta set the stage for the emergence of classical art, which occurred under the rule of Chandragupta II. Chandragupta II gave great support to the arts. Artists were so highly valued under his rule that they were paid for their work — a rare phenomenon in ancient civilizations.[2] From 388 to 409 he subjugated Gujarat, the region north of Mumbai, Saurashtra, in western India, and Malwa, with its capital at Ujjain.[3] Culturally, the reign of Chandragupta II marked a Golden Age. This is evidenced by later reports of the presence of a circle of poets known as the Nine Gems in his court. The greatest among them was Kalidasa, who authored numerous immortal pieces of literature including Abhijñānaśākuntalam. The others included Sanskrit grammarian Amara Sinha and the astronomermathematicianVarahamihira.[citation needed] Contents [hide] 1 Mentions in literature 2 Biography o 2.1 Early life and coronation o 2.2 Vakataka-Gupta Age o 2.3 Visit of Fa-hein o 2.4 Campaigns against foreign tribes o 2.5 End of Chandragupta II 3 Religion 4 Coinage 5 Iron pillar of Delhi 6 Vikram-Samvat Calendar 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links 10 See also [edit]Mentions in literature Not much is known about the personal details of Chandragupta II. The most widely accepted details have been built upon the plot of the play Devi-chandraguptam by Vishakadatta. The play is now lost, but fragments have been preserved in other works (such as Abhinava-bharati, Sringara-prakasha, Natya-darpana, Nataka-lakshana Ratna-kosha). There even exists an Arabic work, written in Persia near the Indian subcontinent, Mojmal al-tawarikh (12th century CE) which tells a similar tale of a king whose name appears to be a corruption of 'Vikramaditya'. The name 'Vikramaditya' holds a semi-mythical status in India. India has many interesting stories about King Vikramaditya, his guru Manva-Patwa and his queens. It is widely believed that the great poet in Sanskrit, Kalidasa was one of the jewels of Vikramaditya's royal court. [edit]Biography [edit]Early life and coronation Coin of Vikramadytia Chandragupta II with the name of the king in Brahmi script, 380–415 CE. Chandragupta II's mother, Datta Devi, was the chief queen of Samudragupta the Great. After Samudragupta's death his elder son, Ramagupta, took over the throne and married Chandragupta II's fiance Dhruvaswamini by force. The fragment from Vishakadatta's "Natya-darpana" mentions the king Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta II, deciding to surrender his queen Dhruvaswamini to the Saka ruler of the Western KshatrapasRudrasimha III (r. 388 - 395 CE), after a defeat at the Saka ruler's hands. To avoid the ignominy the Guptas decide to send Madhavasena, a courtesan and a beloved of Chandragupta II, disguised as the queen Dhruvaswamini. Chandragupta II changes the plan and himself goes to Rudrasimha III disguised as the queen. He then assassinates Rudrasimha III and later his brother Ramagupta. Dhruvaswamini is then married to Chandragupta II. Historians still don't know what liberties the author Vishakadatta took with the incidents, but Dhruvadevi was indeed Chandragupta II's Chief Queen as seen in the Vaisali Terracotta Seal that calls her "Mahadevi" (Chief Queen) Dhruvasvamini. The Bilsad Pillar Inscription of their son Kumaragupta I (r. 414–455 CE) also refers to her as "Mahadevi Dhruvadevi". Certain "Ramagupta" too is mentioned in inscriptions on Jain figures in the District Archaeological Museum, Vidisha and some copper coins found at Vidisha. The fact that Chandragupta II and Dhruvadevi are the protagonists of Vishakadatta's play indicates that marrying his widowed sister-in-law was not given any significance by the playwright. Later Hindus did not view such a marriage with favour and some [edit]Visit of Fa-hein Fa-hein (337 – c. in search of knowledge. Chandragupta II also started producing silver coins in the Saka tradition. 385-405) ruled the Vakataka kingdom as a regent on behalf of her two sons. Most citizens did not consume onions. the lack of a poll-tax and land tax. manuscripts and relics. Chandragupta II controlled a vast empire. while the one on the right is the obverse of a so-called "Archer" type of Chandragupta II. and wine. [edit]Vakataka-Gupta Age The Allahabad Pillar Inscription mentions the marriage of Chandragupta II with a Naga princess Kuberanaga. by defeating their last rulerRudrasimha III. by his Naga queen Kuberanaga was married to the powerful Vakataka dynasty ruler Rudrasena II (r.380-385 CE). The one on the left is the obverse of a so-called "Chhatra" type of Chandragupta II. [citation needed] . Faxian arrived during the reign of Chandragupta II and gave a general description of North India at that time. Gold coins of Chandragupta II the Great. Among the other things. 814-878 CE) and in the Sangali and Cambay Plates of the Govinda IV (r. garlic. The large number of beautiful gold coins issued by the Gupta dynasty are a testament to the imperial grandeur of that age. Many historians refer to this period as the Vakataka-Gupta Age.[4] Chandragupta II's daughter. The geographical location of the Vakataka kingdom allowed Chandragupta II to take the opportunity to defeat the Western Kshatrapas once for all. following which Queen Prabhavati Gupta (r. His greatest victory was his victory over the Shaka-Kshatrapa dynasty and annexation of their kingdom in Gujarat. meat. Prabhavatigupta. Pataliputra continued to be the capital of his huge empire but Ujjain too became a sort of second capital. During this twenty-year period the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta empire. 930-936 CE). the Vakataka ruler Rudrasena II. Chandragupta II's son-in-law. 422 CE) was the first of three great Chinese pilgrims who visited India from the fifth to the seventh centuries CE. from the mouth of the Gangesto the mouth of the Indus River and from what is now North Pakistandown to the mouth of the Narmada. died fortuitously after a very short reign in 385 CE. he reported about the absence of capital punishment.censure of the act is found in the Sanjan Copper Plate Inscription of Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I (r. A pillar from Mathurareferring to Chandragupta II has recently been dated to 388 CE. etc. credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms. then the Hunasand the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively.[10] [edit]Coinage . and lands into India proper.Tusharas.[5] The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiriwriter Kshmendra states.[6][7][8] [edit]End of Chandragupta II Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I.[edit]Campaigns against foreign tribes Vikramaditya goes forth to war 4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa. the king proceeds across the Himalaya and reduced the Kinnaras. born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Yavanas. Kambojas.[9] [edit]Religion From Chandragupta II kings of Gupta dynasty are known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas. Parasikas. king Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas. Mlecchas. subjugated the Parasikas (Persians). After finishing his campaign in the East and West India. Thereafter. by annihilating these sinful Mlecchascompletely". The Bhagavata Purana entails the fully developed tenets and philosophy of the Bhagavata tradition wherein Krishna gets fused withVasudeva and transcends Vedic Vishnu and cosmic Hari to be turned into the ultimate object of bhakti.Kiratas etc. Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) proceeded northwards. both in and outside India. Hunas. in the style of the Western Satraps. Chandragupta continued issuing most of the gold coin types introduced by his father Samudragupta. the mythic eagle and dynastic symbol of the Guptas. Gold Dinar 7.Silver coin of Chandragupta II the Great. minted in his Western territories.75g Archer Type Gold Dinar 7. both of which were used by his son Kumaragupta I. Chandragupta also issued lead coins based on Kshatrapa prototypes and rare copper coins probably inspired by the coins of another tribe he defeated. Obv:Bust of king. with corrupted Greek legend "OOIHU". and a devotee of Vishnu". "Chandragupta Vikramaditya.[11][12] Rev: Legend in Brahmi. and the Tiger-Slayer type. These coins were intended to replace the silver coinage of the Western Kshatrapas after Chandragupta II defeated them. the Archer type. such as the one illustrated at right. Mitchiner 4821-4823. King of Kings. such as the Sceptre type (rare for Chandragupta II). and were modeled on the Kshatrapa coinage. 2. Further. In addition. However. 15mm.59g Horseman Type Gold Dinar 7. The main difference was to replace the dynastic symbol of the Kshatrapas (the three-arched hill) by the dynastic symbol of the Guptas (the mythic eagleGaruda). the Nagas. Chandragupta II also introduced several new types.8g Chattra (Parasol or Royal Umbrella) Type [edit]Iron pillar of Delhi Main article: Iron pillar of Delhi . Chandragupta II was the first Gupta king to issue silver coins.1 grams. such as the Horseman type and the Lion-slayer type. around Garuda. ^ AUTHOR ushistory.600 years without rusting or decomposing. 2011 COPYRIGHT 2011 . 2. ^ <http://www. an iron pillar. This iron pillar is similar to the pillars of ashoka. [edit]Notes 1. Vikram-Samvat calendar starts from 57 BCE. and in the memory of Chandragupta II (A derivation of "Natya-darpana" by Vishakadata states that the pillar had been put up by Chandragupta II himself after defeating Vahilakas. dating back to 4th century CE. November 10. He was a Hindu king who ruled in first century BCE. The Hindu Vikram-Samvat calendar is celebrated as New Year's Day in Nepal where Vikram Sambat is the official calendar. The pillar also highlights ancient India's achievements in metallurgy. erected by Chandragupta II the Great Close to the Qutub Minar is one of Delhi's most curious structures. which marks the coronation of King Vikramaditya.The iron pillar of Delhi.org/civ/8e. The title 'Vikramaditya' was later used by Gupta king Chandragupta II and 16th century Hindu king Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya as well.asp DATE OF ACCESS Thursday.org TITLE OF PAGE The Gupta Period of India TITLE OF PROGRAM Ancient Civilizations Online Textbook URL OF PAGE http://www. The pillar is made of 98% wrought iron and has stood more than 1. [edit]Vikram-Samvat Calendar Main article: Vikram Samvat The next day after the Hindu festival Diwali is called Padwa or Varshapratipada. And after this great feat.com/EBchecked/topic/92493/Chandra-Gupta-II>.ushistory. The pillar bears an inscription which states that it was erected as a flagstaff in honour of the Hindu god Vishnu. he put up this pillar as a memory of the victory).britannica. 3. ^ <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/92493/Chandra-Gupta-II>. 4. ^ Falk, Harry. (2004) "The Kaniṣka era in Gupta Records." Silk Road Art and Archaeology 10. Kamakura: The Institute of Silk Road Studies, pp. 167-176. 5. ^ Raghu Vamsa v 4.60–75 6. ^ ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah Mlechchana Kamboja. Yavanan neechan Hunan Sabarbran Tushara. Parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate (Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra). 7. ^ Kathasritsagara 18.1.76–78 8. ^ Cf:"In the story contained in Kathasarit-sagara, king Vikarmaditya is said to have destroyed all the barbarous tribes such as the Kambojas, Yavanas, Hunas, Tokharas and the Persians "(See: Ref: Reappraising the Gupta History, 1992, p 169, B. C. Chhabra, Sri Ram; Cf also: Vikrama Volume, 1948, p xxv, Vikramāditya Śakāri; cf: Anatomii a i fiziologiia selʹskokhozia ĭstvennykh zhivotnykh, 1946, p 264, Arthur John Arberry, Louis Renou, B. K. Hindse, A. V. Leontovich, National Council of Teachers of English Committee on Recreational Reading – Sanskrit language. 9. ^ Agarwal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas, Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0592-5, pp.191–200 10. ^ Kalyan Kumar Ganguli: (1988). Sraddh njali, Studies in Ancient Indian History: D.C. Sircar Commemoration: Puranic tradition of Krishna. Sundeep Prakashan. ISBN 81-8506710-4.p.36 11. ^ "The conquest is indicated by the issue of the new Gupta silver coinage modelled on the previous Saka coinage showing on observe the King's head, Greek script, and dates as on Saka coins" in Early history of Jammu region: pre-historic to 6th century A.D. by Raj Kumar p.511 12. ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli. Most people now realize that Rapson was mistaken in identifying the central bird as a peacock; rather, it is the mythic eagle Garuda, the dynastic symbol of the Guptas. For example, A.S. Altekar says: "... the three-arched hill in the cntre is replaced by Garuda, which was the imperial insignia of the Guptas. The view of earlier writers ... that the bird is a peacock is clearly untenable." in Altekar: The Coinage of the Gupta Empire,Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University, 1957, p. 151. [edit]References R. K. Mookerji, The Gupta Empire, 4th edition. Motilal Banarsidass, 1959. R. C. Majumdar, Ancient India, 6th revised edition. Motilal Banarsidass, 1971. Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 2nd edition. Rupa and Co, 1991. [edit]External [edit]See links Coins of Chandragupta II Vikramāditya List of people known as The Great also Regnal titles Preceded by Samudragupta the Great Gupta Emperor 375–414 Categories: 410s deaths Gupta Empire Indian monarchs History of Malwa 4th-century monarchs in Asia 5th-century monarchs in Asia Navigation menu Create account Log in Main page Contents Article Talk Read Edit View history Featured content Current events Succeeded by Kumara Gupta I Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Česky Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული മലയാളം 日本語 Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Alemannisch Español Français 한국어 दिन्द्िी मराठी Polski Português Русский संस्कृतम ् Svenska ไทย Edit links This page was last modified on 12 March 2013 at 21:59. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Ashoka possibly . Patna Died 232 BCE (aged 72) Place of Pataliputra. Amaravati. the free encyclopedia Asoka Maurya Samrat A "Chakravartin" ruler. Preserved at Musee Guimet Reign 268–232 BCE Coronation 268 BCE Born 304 BCE Birthplace Pataliputra.From Wikipedia. Patna death Buried Ashes immersed in the GangesRiver. Andhra Pradesh. 1st century BCE/CE. [2]He conquered Kalinga.[2] He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia . which none of his ancestors starting from Chandragupta Mauryahad conquered. Charumati Religious Buddhism beliefs Ashoka Maurya (304–232 BCE) commonly known as Ashoka and also as Ashoka the Great. which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest.at Varanasi.Cremated 232 BCE. Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar).Kunala. He embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War. was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from ca. His empire stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan to present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east. which reportedly had resulted in more than 100. 269 BCE to 232 BCE. and as far south as northern Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Tivala. In about 260 BCE Ashoka waged a bitterly destructive war against the states of Kalinga (modern Odisha). Sanghamitra. Ujjain and Pataliputra as its capital. less than 24 hours after death Predecessor Bindusara Successor Dasaratha Wives Kaurwaki Devi Padmavati Tishyaraksha Royal House Mauryan dynasty Father Bindusara Mother Maharani Dharma or Shubhadrangi Children Mahendra.000 deportations."[3]Ashoka converted gradually to Buddhism beginning about 263 BCE at the latest.The empire had Taxila. Jaluka.[1] One of India's greatest emperors.000 deaths and 150. "Ashoka reflected on the war in Kalinga. " a part of Divyavadana).2 Rise to power o 1. even unto this day.1 Early life o 1. and as quickly disappeared. his legend is related in the later 2nd-centuryAshokavadana ("Narrative of Asoka. he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good." His name "aśoka" means "painless. H. They shone for a brief moment.1 Buddhist kingship 3 Historical sources 4 Perceptions o 4."[4]Ashoka is often remembered in history as a philanthropic administrator. Ashoka is referred to as Samraat Chakravartin Ashoka – the "Emperor of Emperors Ashoka. Ashoka played a critical role in helping make Buddhism a world religion.1 Buddhist conversion o 2. Along with the Edicts of Ashoka. distress"). In the Kalinga edicts. "Ashoka regarded Buddhism as a doctrine that could serve as a cultural foundation for political unity. and Priyadarśin (PaliPiyadasī or "He who regards everyone with affection")." "Their Majesties.1 Foci of Debate 5 Contributions o 5. without sorrow" inSanskrit (the a privativum and śoka "pain.and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha." and so on. or the "Asoka tree" is also referenced in theAshokavadana. G. In his edicts. he is referred to asDevānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "The Beloved of the Gods").2.G. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star." "Their Exalted Majesties. In the history of India.2 Death and legacy 2.1 Global spread of Buddhism . and in the Sri Lankan textMahavamsa ("Great Chronicle"). His fondness for his name's connection to the Saraca asoca tree.3 Early life as Emperor 2 Conquest of Kalinga o 2. [5] The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. Contents [hide] 1 Biography o 1. Wells wrote of Ashoka in A Short History of the World (H. Wells): In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves "Their Highnesses. Dharmā [or Dhammā]. film and literature 7 See also 8 References 9 Works cited 10 External links [edit]Biography [edit]Early life Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and a relatively lower ranked wife of his. but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī.5 Lion Capital of Asoka (Ashokmudra) o 5. killed a lion with just a wooden rod. and she bore a son. Because of his reputation as a frightening warrior and a heartless general.6 Constructions credited to Ashoka 6 In art.[8][9] Ashoka had several elder siblings. He was very adventurous and a trained fighter.4 Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha) o 5.[7] and was found to be a suitable match for Emperor Bindusara. The Avadana texts mention that his mother was queen Subhadrangī. Though a palace intrigue kept her away from the emperor. and according to a legend.2 As administrator o 5. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. who was known for his skills with the sword. It is from her exclamation "I am now without sorrow. According to Ashokavadana. He had been given the royal military training knowledge which was greatly apparent as he was known as a fearsome hunter. founder of Mauryan dynasty." that Ashoka got his name.3 Ashoka Chakra o 5. he was sent to curb the riots in the Avanti province of the Mauryan empire. this eventually ended. all of whom were his half-brothers from other wives of Bindusara.[10] [edit]Rise to power . The Divyāvadāna tells a similar story. she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of Champa.o 5.[6]:205 Empress Subhadrangī was a Brahmin of the Ajivika sect. The Ashokavadana recounts Radhagupta's offering of an old royal elephant to Ashoka for him to ride to the Garden of the Gold Pavilion where King Bindasura would determine his successor. sparing only one. would later be appointed prime minister by Ashoka once he had gained the throne. destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made himself the master of all territory between the eastern and the western seas. Some historians consider this as an indication of Bindusara's conquest of the Deccan while others consider it as suppression of a revolt. He submitted his ministers to a test of loyalty and had 500 of them killed. four years after his succession to the throne. one of Bindusara's great lords. Taranatha's account states that Chanakya. Radhagupta. according to the Ashokavadana. The Dipavansa and Mahavansa refer to Ashoka's killing 99 of his brothers.[9] although there is no clear proof about this incident (many such accounts are saturated with mythological elements). [9] Bindusara's death in 273 BCE led to a war over succession. Ashoka was stationed at Ujjayini as governor. [edit]Early life as Emperor An imaginary painting of Asoka's Queen by Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951) Buddhist legends state that Ashoka was of a wicked nature and bad temper. The empire stretched from Afghanistan to Bangladesh/Assam and from Central Asia (Afghanistan) to Tamil Nadu/South India. When a few of these women insulted . He also kept a harem of around 500 women. named Tissa.Maurya Empire at the age of Ashoka. Following this. who found Sushim to be arrogant and disrespectful towards them. According to Divyavandana.[11] A minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an important role in Ashoka's rise to the throne. The Buddhist text Divyavadana describes Ashoka putting down a revolt due to activities of wicked ministers. Ashoka later got rid of the legitimate heir to the throne by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. This may have been an incident in Bindusara's times. Bindusara wanted his son Sushim to succeed him but Ashoka was supported by his father's ministers. The coronation happened in 269 BCE. Professor Charles Drekmeier cautions that the Buddhist legends intend to dramatise the change resulting from the Buddhist change. from the present-day boundaries and regions of Burma–Bangladesh and the state of Assam in India in the east to the territory of present-day Iran / Persia and Afghanistan in the west. which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and dharma. Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years. Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers.[14] When he was walking through the grounds of Kalinga after his conquest. exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion. The Kalinga War happened eight years after his coronation." meaning "Ashoka the Fierce" in Sanskrit. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. he became a follower of the Buddha's teachings after his conquest of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day states of Odisha and North Coastal Andhra Pradesh. we come to know that the battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100.[9] [edit]Conquest of Kalinga While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty. Tamil Nadu / Andhra Pradesh). [edit]Buddhist conversion . deemed the "Paradisal Hell" because of its beautiful exterior contrasted with the acts carried out inside by his appointed executioner Girikaa.000 were deported. rejoicing in his victory. from the Pamir Knots in the north almost to the peninsular of southern India (i. over 150.[12] which earned him the name of "çanḍa Ashoka" or "Chandaashoka. the women defiled by plucking off all of the flowers). and therefore. he had the whole lot of them burnt to death.e.him for his "rough skin" after he fondly compared himself with the beauty of the Asoka tree (which according to the Ashokavadana. From his 13th inscription.[13] Ascending the throne. He also built an elaborate torture chamber. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma.000 soldiers and many civilians who rose up in defence. he was moved by the number of bodies strewn there and the wails of the kith and kin of the dead. . . someone an unborn infant. someone else a father. propagating and preaching it within his domain and worldwide from about 250 BCE. Edict 13 on the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions reflect the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga: His Majesty feels remorse on account of the conquest of the Kalingaa because. during the subjugation of a previously unconquered country. wherest His Majesty feels profound sorrow and regret. [15] Legend says that one day after the war was over. slaughter. and he used his position to propagate the relatively new religion to new heights. Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses.. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous monologue: [16][dubious – discuss] What have I done? If this is a victory. eagles the messengers of death or evil? The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt Buddhism and place great emphasis on pietyin his Edicts. someone a child. and taking away captive of the people necesarrily occur. Prominent in this cause were his son Mahinda (Mahendra) and daughter Sanghamitra (whose name means "friend of the Sangha").A similar four "Indian lion" Lion Capital of Ashoka atop an intact Ashoka Pillar at Wat U Mong near Chiang Mai. [17] He can be thus credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist policy. who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). What's this debris of the corpses? Are these marks of victory or defeat? Are these vultures. Thailand showing another larger Dharma Chakra / Ashoka Chakra atop the four lions thought to be missing in the Lion Capital of Ashoka atSarnath Museum which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India. what's a defeat then? Is this a victory or a defeat? Is this justice or injustice? Is it gallantry or a rout? Is it valor to kill innocent children and women? Did I do it to widen the empire and for prosperity or to destroy the other's kingdom and splendor? One has lost her husband. death. crows.. The Edict goes on to address the even greater degree of sorrow and regret garnered by Ashoka's understanding that the lives of the friends and families of deceased would cause great living suffering as well. He made Buddhism his state religion around 260 BCE. as Ashoka perceived the overarching misery that resulted from mass slaughter of the Kalinga people. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion. the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years. It is said that she had got Ashoka's son Kunala. In his old age. the Queen and their people to Buddhism. but many of their names are lost to time. Ashoka hears Kunala's song. Mahindra and Sanghamitra went into Sri Lanka and converted the King. and realises that Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself and condemns Tishyaraksha to death. blinded by a wily stratagem. Devi. restoring Kunala to the . Mahindra and Sanghamitra were twins born by his first wife. more popular across the known and the unknown world. The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years.Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali [edit]Death and legacy Ashoka's Major Rock Edict at Junagadhcontains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka). In Pataliputra. After his death. Buddhism. the regent in Takshashila and the heir presumptive to the throne. he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. Rudradamanna I andSkandagupta. in the city of Ujjain. Ashoka had many wives and children. but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. the king sought to legitimise his rule not through descent from a divine source. an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. funded the construction of stupas. the founder of Jainism). In 2001. Ashoka was ranked No. Ashoka does not respond with the same forgiveness. 53 on Michael H. Asoka was not non-violent after adopting Buddhism. Following Ashoka's example. While he urges Ashoka to forgive her as well.court. would he not have left behind a record of his trials. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom. for instance). about fifty years after Ashoka's death. the last Maurya ruler. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BCE-78 BCE) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of Nirgrantha Jnatiputra (identified with Mahavira. On complaint from a Buddhist . the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty. In 1992. Kunala is portrayed as forgiving Tishyaraksha. In the Ashokavadana. having obtained enlightenment through Buddhist practice. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history.[12]Kunala was succeeded by his son. was assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces.Pusyamitra Sunga. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers always governed the people in a moral manner. the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom. King Ashoka. [edit]Buddhist kingship Main articles: History of Buddhism and History of Buddhism in India Further information: Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Buddhism in Burma One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. The language used for inscription was the then current spoken form called Prakrit. has come to be regarded as one of the most exemplary rulers in world history.Brhadratha. but his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death. Samprati. a semifictionalized portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture under the title Asoka. In one instance. The reign of Ashoka Mauryan could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by. kings established monasteries. In the year 185 BCE. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship'. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia. This development ultimately lead to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy. as evident by a couple of incidents mentioned in the 2nd-century CE textAshokavadana. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha. and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. which include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall. another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture.000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order. Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar. Sarnath. Mahavamsa. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Asoka. a British archaeologist and army engineer and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India. and the Mahabodhi Temple.devotee. but James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. Asoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house. and subsequently. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath besides Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sanchi. the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story of Ashoka'). another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. discovered atKandahar (National Museum of Afghanistan). Around 18. a British archaeologist. his contribution is recognisable in realms of historical sources. who was directorGeneral of the Archaeological Survey of India. Bilingual inscription (in Greek andAramaic) by King Ashoka. as a result of this order. In particular. Patna. Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall. [18] He also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to Ashokavadana. and Dipavamsa Ashoka was almost forgotten by the historians of the early British India. and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka. his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd. Sir Alexander Cunningham. .[6][18] Sometime later. Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. also exposed Ashokan historical sources. written in the 2nd century. Ashokavadana.Mortimer Wheeler. unveiled heritage sites like theBharhut Stupa. Asoka issued an order to arrest him. especially the Taxila.[6] [edit]Historical sources Main articles: Edicts of Ashoka. whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarsi – 'He who regards everyone with affection') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya. thus. Jainism. It is essentially a Hinayana text and its world is that of Mathura and North-west India. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient Odisha) in 543 BCE to the reign of King Mahasena (334–361). In his edicts. and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. Moral precepts. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts. The legend of Veetashoka provides insights into Ashoka’s character that are not available in the widely known Pali records. The most startling feature is that Ashoka’s conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war. (i. in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The legend was translated into Chinese by Fa Hien in 300 CE. and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Equally surprising is the record of his use of state power to spread Buddhism in an uncompromising fashion. Religious precepts. offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism. King Dhatusena (4th century CE) had ordered that the Dipavamsa be recited at the Mahinda (son to Ashoka) festival held annually in Anuradhapura. the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent.. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history. . and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists. this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. which is not even mentioned. It is very important in dating the consecration of the Maurya emperor Ashoka. [edit]Perceptions The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka. Chronicle of the Island. Brahmanism. or "Deepavamsa". The emphasis of this little known text is on exploring the relationship between the king and the community of monks (the Sangha) and setting up an ideal of religious life for the laity (the common man) by telling appealing stories about religious exploits.e. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Pakistan and India. nor is there a word about his belonging to the Maurya dynasty. as well as boulders and cave walls. of the kings of Sri Lanka. As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India. Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism. Social and animal welfare. made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty during his reign from 272 to 231 BCE.Edicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka. as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. and Ajivikaism. The chronicle is believe to be compiled from Atthakatha and other sources around the 3rd or 4th century. early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution.[12] Mahavamsa -The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle") is a historical poem written in the Pali language. Building on traditional accounts. Dipavamsa -The Dipavamsa.[19] Ashokavadana – The Ashokavadana is a 2nd-century CE text related to the legend of the Maurya Emperor Ashoka. in the 3rd century BCE. and they talk of his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighbouring kingdoms holding up his might. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate loving. virtue. Furthermore. and what is referred to in the Inscriptions as dhamma or dharma." or as an Ashokan innovation. [21] These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and encouraged nonviolence and adherence to dharma (duty or proper behaviour). He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites. It thereby illuminates Ashoka as more humanly ambitious and passionate. One also gets some primary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. it has also been interpreted as an essentially political ideology that sought to knit together a vast and . there is strong evidence in the edicts alone that he was a Buddhist. Made of sandstone. Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka". which connotes goodness. a set of politico-moral ideas. Some historians [who?] have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. [edit]Foci of Debate Recently scholarly analysis has determined that the three major foci of debate regarding Ashoka involve the nature of the Maurya empire. and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Instead.[20] Interestingly. It is difficult to determine whether or not some actual events ever happened. he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good. The Ashokavadana shows that the main source of Ashoka's conversion and the acts of welfare that followed are rooted instead in intense personal anguish at its core. Finally. Ashoka's reason for adopting non-violence appears much more personal. with both greatness and flaws. one in which his conversion does not have anything to do with the Kalinga war or about his descent from the Maurya dynasty. from a wellspring inside himself (not so much necessarily spurned by a specific event). the ideals he promotes correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.However. in one. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action.[12] Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. a "sort of universal religion. this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. In the Kalinga rock edits. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of theBuddha. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most notable of the relics left by Ashoka. ThisAshoka is very different from the "shadowy dogooder" of later Pali chronicles. and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices. the extent and impact of Ashoka's pacifism. On the other hand. there are many edicts expressed to Buddhists alone. and charity. the Ashokavadana presents an alternate view of the faimilar Ashoka. but did not do so for the sites of other religions. while others have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated. The dhammaof the Edicts has been understood as concurrently a Buddhist lay ethic. In one edict he belittles rituals. In translating these monuments. but the stone etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered. this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath. Ashoka also helped to organise the Third Buddhist council (c. to various people. He gave donations to viharas and mathas. it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent. 250 BCE) at Pataliputra (today's Patna). viharas. Ashoka also gave donations to non-Buddhists. so he built a number of stupas. As his reign continued his even-handedness was replaced with special inclination towards Buddhism. chaitya. Greece. Ashoka also sent many prominent Buddhist monks (bhikshus) Sthaviras like Madhyamik Sthavira to modern Kashmir and Afghanistan. Persia / Iran. China and Mongolia. Scholars are still attempting to analyse and both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision).[19] [edit]Contributions [edit]Global spread of Buddhism Stupa of Sanchi. Ashoka also helped to develop viharas (intellectual hubs) such as Nalandaand Taxila. and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices. As a Buddhist emperor. and also gave all types of help to that end. He inspired the Buddhist monks to compose the sacred religious texts. It is well-known that Ashoka sent dütas or emissaries to convey messages or letters. Ashoka helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. Bhutan. Laos. Sohn Uttar Sthavira to modern Cambodia. Maharakhhit Sthavira and Yavandhammarakhhita Sthavira to South India. He sent his only daughter Sanghamitra and son Mahindra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (then known as Tamraparni). Italy and Turkey. Mahadhhamarakhhita stahvira to Maharashtra (old name Maharatthha). written or oral (rather both). 3rd century BCE Indian empire. Ashoka also invited Buddhists and non-Buddhists for religious conferences. Nonetheless.diverse empire. Burma (old name Suvarnabhumi for Burma and Thailand). Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as animals and plants. Sangharama. Thailand and Vietnam. It was conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Egypt. and culturally and economically highly variegated. Maharaskshit Sthavira to Syria. and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to . Massim Sthavira to Nepal. and residences for Buddhist monks all over South Asia and Central Asia.[22] Ashoka helped and respected both Sramans (Buddhists monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks). Magas and Alexander rule. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here. Northwest Pakistan. with standing goddess.add oral messages to written ones. the Pitinikas. Dhammika)[24] It is not too farfetched to imagine. and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script. are following it and will continue to do so. the Pandyas. and as far as Tamraparni. the Nabhapamkits. although no Hellenic historical record of this event remain: Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. the Andhras and the Palidas. Antigonos. 3rd century BCE. that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings. — Edicts of Ashoka. the Bhojas. which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). active in spreading Buddhism (theMahavamsa. XII[25]). having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-theGods. and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls. Rock Edict (S. Here in the king's domain among the Greeks. as Achaemenid influence is seem in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. British Museum. however. as some of the emissaries of Ashoka. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures. such as Dharmaraksita. beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy.[23] In his edicts. are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks. and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread hisdhammavijaya. the Nabhakas. even six hundred yojanas away. [edit]As administrator Mauryan ringstone. where the Greek king Antiochos rules. likewise in the south among the Cholas. There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script. given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the dütas sent by Ashoka himself). on the borders. Ashoka mentions some of the people living in Hellenic countries as converts to Buddhism. . the Kambojas. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been. everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. these people too.[23] The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism. the post Alexandrian empire. but after his conversion to Buddhism. . Keralaputra.[21] Ashoka banned the slaughter and eating of the common cattle. the Wheel of Dharma (Sanskrit: Chakra means wheel). where it is rendered in a Navy-blue color on a White background. created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays. His edicts state that he made provisions for medical treatment of humans and animals in his own kingdom as well as in these neighbouring states. by replacing the symbol of Charkha (Spinning wheel) of the pre-independence versions of the flag." [28] [edit]Ashoka Chakra Main article: Ashoka Chakra The Ashoka Chakra. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which also means "cycle" or "selfrepeating process.[27] Because he banned hunting." The process it signifies is the cycle of time. "the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)" The Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashoka) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra (seeDharmacakra) or Dhammachakka in Pali. and also imposed restrictions on fishing and fisheating.Ashoka's military power was strong. The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the National flag of the Republic of India (adopted on 22 July 1947). The Ashoka Chakra can also been seen on the base of Lion Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India. Tamraparni. The Ashoka Chakra was built by Ashoka during his reign. Pandya. he maintained friendly relations with kingdoms in the South like Cholas. The Ashoka Chakra has been widely inscribed on many relics of the Mauryan Emperor. the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents. and Suvarnabhumi. The wheel has 24 spokes which represent the 12 Laws of Dependent Origination and the 12 Laws of Dependent Termination. most prominent among which is the Lion Capital ofSarnath and The Ashoka Pillar.[26] He also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence.as in how the world changes with time. He also had wells dug and trees planted along the roads for the benefit of the common people. The pillar.[29] A flag with three colours. just south of Varanasi and dragged. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. or manji. sometimes hundreds of miles. It was originally placed atop the Aśoka pillar at Sarnath. [edit]Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha) Main article: Pillars of Ashoka The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent. Nepal [edit]Lion Capital of Asoka (Ashokmudra) Main article: Lion Capital of Asoka The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four "Indian lions" standing back to back. The Asokan pillar at Lumbini. while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel "Ashoka Chakra" from its base was placed onto the center of the National Flag of India. the specially formedConstituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities. there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive. but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height. Saffron. India. now in the state of Uttar Pradesh. on the pillars. to where they were erected.A few days before India became independent on August 1947. White and Green with the Ashoka Chakra was selected. and weighing up to fifty tons each. The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law. sometimes called the Aśoka Column is still in its original location. Originally. There is no evidence of a swastika. all the pillars were quarried at Chunar. . and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone. and a lion.The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions). the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India. According to them. the capital was believed to be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the "Ashoka Chakra"). The Elephant represents the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen Maya of a white elephant entering her womb. a bull. a bull. The Lion represents the accomplishment of Buddha. a horse. The Horse represents Buddha's departure from palatial life. separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. The Sarnath pillar bears one of the Edicts of Ashoka. standing back to back. mounted on an abacus. with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant. The four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolise different steps of Lord Buddha's life. a lion). which reads. the four lions symbolise Ashoka's rule over the four directions. an inscription against division within the Buddhist community." The Sarnath pillar is a column surmounted by a capital. which consists of a canopy representing an inverted bell-shaped lotus flower. [edit]Constructions credited to Ashoka . there are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. a galloping horse. The Ashoka Lion capital or the Sarnath lion capital is also known as the national symbol of India. a short cylindrical abacus with four 24-spoked Dharma wheels with four animals (an elephant. Besides the religious interpretations. The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince. "No one shall cause division in the order of monks. Amar Chitra Katha released a graphic novel based on the life of Ashoka. the main character mentions Asoka as a model for administrators to strive for. depicting his redemption. The movie will be directed by Chandraprakash Dwivedi. India Taxila University (Vishwaviddyalaya). the son of the Indian emperor Ashoka. .Weligama Sri Sumangala [citation needed] Sanchi. In 1973. The film ends with Asoka renouncing the sword and embracing Buddhism. Madhya Pradesh.[30][31] In Piers Anthony’s series of space opera novels. Uttar-Priyadarshi (The Final Beatitude) a verse-play written by poet Agyeya. Bihar. Karnataka. Sarnath. The Legend of Kunal is an upcoming film based on the life of Kunal. Swat. constructed by Ashoka the Great. Bihar. approximately 250 BCE. India Barabar Caves. (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and Kunala Stupa). (some portions like Sariputta Stupa). Ratan Thiyam and has since been performed in many parts of the world. It is a largely fictional version of the life of the Indian emperor Ashoka. composedAshoka ki chinta (in English: Anxiety of Ashoka). The poem portrays Ashoka’s heart during the war of Kalinga. Pakistan Bharhut stupa. India Deorkothar Stupa. India Mahabodhi Temple. The final narrative describes how Asoka not only built a large empire. but spread Buddhism and the winds of peace through it. India: The only known sculptural depiction of Ashoka art. Pakistan Sannati Stupa. Taxila. The film was directed by Santosh Sivan and stars Shahrukh Khan as Ashoka and Kareena Kapoor as Kaurwaki. India Dhamek Stupa. Jaishankar Prasad. Uttar Pradesh.restoration by the British and India post independence The British restoration was done by under guidance from Ven. (reconstructed). a princess of Kalinga. film and literature One of the most famous figures in modern Hindi literature. Taxila.Mahabodhi Temple. India Butkara Stupa. Pakistan [edit]In Bhir Mound. Asoka is a 2001 epic Bollywood historical drama. Madhya Pradesh. was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director. Madhya Pradesh. India Nalanda University (Vishwaviddyalaya). Bihar. a famous Hindi verse. 1993). ^ a b c d Upinder Singh (2008). To Uphold The World Author Discussion 6. ^ K. Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press. 1993). 232. ^ a b c John S. 9. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9. Mason Jennings released the song "Emperor Ashoka" on his Living in the Moment EP. 89. ^ Jerry Bentley. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century. Strong (1989). 46. Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press. Sarao (2007). p. [edit]See also Arthashastra Ashoka's Major Rock Edict Ashokavadana Edicts of Ashoka Kalinga War Lion Capital of Ashoka Magadha Maurya Empire Sisupalgarh Buddhism [edit]References 1. University of Delhi. ^ History And Doctrines of the Ajivikas A Vanished Indian Religion By A. Department of Buddhist Studies. ^ Bruce Rich. A text book of the history of Theravāda Buddhism (2 ed. Retrieved 30 October 2012.). It is based on the life of Ashoka. 3. In 2002.. 10. The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna. 51. 1993). 4. S. Pearson Education. ^ Jerry Bentley. Basham 8. 2. ^ Prachin bharoter itihas by Sunil Chatterjee . pp. 5. ISBN 978-81-208-0616-0. p. ^ Thapur (1973). ^ a b Jerry Bentley. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. 7. L. 44. 45. T. Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-81-86700-662. pp. ISBN 978-1-152-74433-2. pp. . ^ Charles Drekmeier (1962). India: From Indus Valley Civlization to Mauryas. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.A. ^ N. Kingship and Community in Early India. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Retrieved 30 November 2012. Univ of Wisconsin Press. "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of As´oka". Universal Religion. S. Vincent A. ^ a b The Edicts of King Ashoka. p. Eat Not This Flesh. Last accessed 01 Sep 2011. Journal of the American Oriental Society(Freiburg) (130. ^ prachin bharater itihas by sunil chattopadhyay 15. 20.11. fifth ed. 130. 18. Draper. pp.com. Wadsworth 2005. Prabhakar. 24. page 24. ^ a b Oskar von Hinüber (2010). General Books. and Thanissaro Bhikkhu. "The Unknown Ashoka". "How Ashoka the Great Gave Brahmins A Song With Which They Conquered India".I. ^ Gyan Swarup Gupta (1 January 1999). ^ The Edicts of King Asoka: an English rendering by Ven. Retrieved 30 October 2012. ^ Buckley. ^ Frederick J. page 59. ISBN 955-24-0104-6. Stanford University Press.2).ISBN 978-90-411-0557-8. Boloji.ISBN 978-0-299-14254-4. Rulers of India: Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India.D. Willard Johnson. Dhammika. The Ajivikas. (1901). Isaeva. 12. 68– 69. 14. ^ a b c d Pradip Bhattacharya (2002). SUNY Press. Dare Draper. Meyer. The University Association. South Asian Studies (Routledge) (28. 268–. 17. ^ a b Beni Madhab Barua (5 May 2010). H. 21. 23. Retrieved on: 2009-02-21 22. 27. Retrieved 30 October 2012. 173–. pp. Obe. McCoubrey (1998).V. 44. "Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to As´oka?".Buddhist Religions. ^ Gerald Irving A. Nirmukta. ^ Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII 26. ^ a b Upinder Singh (2012). 19. S. Retrieved 30 October 2012. Dhammika. 13. 2Nd Edition: Food Avoidances From Prehistory To The Present. ^ Kamath. ISBN 978-81-7022-763-2. ^ Richard Robinson. 108 and 288. Reflections on Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws of War by the Late Professor Colonel G. Retrieved 30 October 2012. Simoons (15 December 1994)..2): 262–265. Edmund. English translation (1993) by Ven. ISBN 978-0-8047-0114-3. 25. Michael A. 16. Concept Publishing Company. Access to Insight: Readings in Theravāda Buddhism. Shankara and Indian philosophy. 1993. pp. Retrieved 30 October 2012. ^ Smith. Munshiram Manoharlal. Richard (1959). G. ^ Margo Jefferson (27 October 2000). A. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of Aśoka. [edit]Works cited Ahir. ballet magazine. 29. Nikam. Will (1935). In Stirring Ritual Steps. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. Balkrishna Govind (1996). M.). Željko (2 July 2006). McKeon. Nilakanta (1967). Calcutta: Calcutta University Press. 1 Grove Pr edition 10 May 2001) ISBN 0-8021-3797-0 Mookerji. Reprint: 1996." South Asian Studies. K. Motilal Banarsidass. Asokan Sites and Artefacts – A Source-book with Bibliography (Mainz : Philipp von Zabern. Origin and Growth of Feudalism in Early India: From the Mauryas to AD 650.New York Times. Radhakumud (1962). C. Aśoka (4th ed. Upinder (2012). ^ Review: Uttarpriyadarshi by Renee Renouf. Delhi. Article stable URL. The Edicts of Aśoka. Gian Chand (2004). Lantern Books. pp. pp. India: A History (Grove Press. ^ Heimer. Swearer. 1981) ISBN 0-89012-023-4 . ^ Phelps. December 2000. Norm (2007). Asoka the Great. D. Delhi. Delhi: B. Retrieved 2006-10-11. 30. [2006]) ISBN 978-3-8053-3712-0 Gokhale. Donald.Archived from the original on 18 October 2006. Our Oriental Heritage. Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia (Chambersburg. 943–951. Past and Present Unfold".. Mauryan India (Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division May 1986) ISBN 0-86590-826-5 Chauhan. John. ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1 Singh. Flags of the World. 31. 28:2 (University of Delhi: 2012). New York: Simon and Schuster. A. Keay. 131–145. Sastri. The Longest Struggle: Animal Advocacy from Pythagoras to Peta. The Date of Asoka. Pennsylvania: Anima Books. Bhandarkar. Eugene (1914). Aśoka (3rd ed. R. 1914).). "Next Wave Festival Review. Publishing. "India". Harry. D.R. Falk.ISBN 1590561066. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Oct. (1995). ISBN 978-81-215-1028-8 Durant. Asoka Maurya (Twayne Publishers) ISBN 9780-8290-1735-9 Hultzsch. Article stable URL. Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Bongard-Levin.28. N. (1969). Romila. von Hinüber. 1980. SBN 19-660379 6. 2nd Edition. [edit]External links Wikisource has the text of the1911 Encyclopædia Britannicaarticle Asoka. Thapar. Ashoka at the Open Directory Project Media related to Ashoka at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Ashoka at Wikiquote International Vegetarian Union: King Asoka of India Reclaiming Ashoka – An Iron Age Interfaith Exemplar The Unknown Ashoka How Ashoka The Great Gave Brahmins A Song With Which They Conquered India Ashoka Mauryan dynasty Born: 304 BCE Died: 232 BCE Preceded by Bindusara Mauryan Emperor Succeeded by 272–232 BCE Dasaratha [show] V T E Buddhism topics Categories: Indian monarchs 304 BC births 232 BC deaths Maurya Empire Converts to Buddhism . Reprint. "Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to Aśoka?" Journal of the American Oriental Society. Oxford University Press. (1973). (2010). Oskar. 261–266. pp. 130:2 (Freiburg: 2010). Aśoka and the decline of the Mauryas. 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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation. a non-profit organization. Contact us Chandragupta Maurya From Wikipedia. [5] Chandragupta succeeded in . gave up his throne and became a Jain monk Chandragupta Maurya (340 BC – 298 BC) was the founder of the Mauryan Empire and the first emperor to unify India into one state. India Died 298 BC Place of death Sravana Belgola. Prior to his consolidation of power.[2][3][4] Chandragupta Maurya is a pivotal figure in the history of India. Karnataka. He ruled from from 322 BC until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favour of his son Bindusara in 298 BC. most of South Asia was ruled by small states. India[1] Predecessor Dhanananda of Nanda Dynasty Successor Bindusara Consort Durdhara Offspring Bindusara Royal House Mauryan dynasty Mother Mura Religious beliefs Hinduism. while the Nanda Dynasty dominated the Gangetic Plains. Bihar.Chandragupta Maurya Samraat (Emperor) Titles Samraat Chakravartin Born 340 BC Birthplace Pataliputra (Patna). The religious reform movements ofBuddhism and Jainism became increasingly prominent. In foreign Greek and Latin accounts. eastern and south-east Iran in the west.2 Conquest of the Nanda Empire o 2. the empire developed a strong economy. Seleucus I Nicator.1 Conquest of Seleucus' eastern territories o 3. Chandragupta and his chief advisor Chanakya passed a series of major economic and political reforms. Mauryan India was characterised by an efficient and highly organised bureaucratic structure with a large civil service. There was a growth in culture which derived its inspiration from the Achaemenids and theHellenistic world. Chandragupta subsequently married Seleucus's daughter to formalize an alliance and established a policy of friendship with the Hellenistic kingdoms. he abdicated his throne to spend his last days at the Shravana Belgola. Contents [hide] 1 Early life 2 Foundation of the Maurya Empire o 2. The Greek diplomat Megasthenes is an important source of Mauryan history.2 Southern conquest . Along with his grandson.[nb 1] His empire extended from Bengaland Assam in the east. Ashoka.[6][7] After unifying India.3 Conquest of Macedonian territories in India 3 Expansion o 3. and has been lionised as a model ruler and as a national hero. who was a Hindu. to Kashmir and Nepal in the north. In both art and architecture. to Afghanistan and Balochistan.conquering and subjugating almost all of the Indian subcontinent by the end of his reign. with internal and external trade thriving and agriculture flourishing. the Mauryan empire constitued a landmark. a famous religious site in southwest India. Chandragupta. It was the largest empire yet seen in Indian history.1 Nanda army o 2. which stimulated India's trade and contact with the western world. in battle. and to the Deccan Plateau in the south. He established a strong central administration patterned after that of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty and after Chanakya’s text on politics. He has played a crucial role in shaping the national identity of modern India. Chandragupta is known as Sandrokottos and Androcottus.[9] He became well known in the Hellenistic world for conquering Alexander the Great's easternmost satrapies. Chandragupta Maurya is one of the most celebrated rulers in the history of India. where he fasted to death. Due its unified structure. was influenced to accept Jainism by the sage Bhadrabahu.[8] Chandragupta's reign was a time of great social and religious reform in India. and for defeating the most powerful of Alexander's successors. Taditionally. theArthashastra. saw Alexander himself. the encounter would have happened around 326 BCE. and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country. Justin describes the humble origins of Chandragupta."[10] Plutarch reports that he met with Alexander the Great. who is considered the first Shudra king of Magadha.1 Notes o 8. What is known is rathered from later classical Sanskrit literature. Mudrarakshasa uses terms like kula-hina and Vrishala for Chandragupta's lineage. since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth. 4 Jainism and Sallekhana 5 Successors 6 In popular culture 7 See also 8 References o 8. as well as classicalGreek and Latin sources which refer to Chandragupta by the names "Sandracottos" or "Andracottus. pseudo-Nanda. Plutarch and other Greco-Roman historians appreciated the gravity of Chandragupta Maurya's conquests.[11] Many Indian literary traditions connect him with the Nanda Dynasty in modern day Bihar in eastern India. Again more than a millennium later. The poets Kshmendra and Somadeva call him Purvananda-suta. suggesting a birth date for Chandragupta around 340 BCE. as opposed to Yoga-Nanda. a commentator of 18th century on Mudrarakshasa states that Chandragupta was the son of the Nanda king Sarvarthasiddhi by a wife named Mura. illustrious. More than half a millennium later. daughter of a Vrishala (Shudra).e. the same play describes the Nandas as of Prathitakula. the descendant of Nanda (Act IV). son of the genuine Nanda.[citation needed] .9 According to this text. —Plutarch.e. The Nanda dynasty was started byMahapadma Nanda. and that he viewed the rulingNanda Empire in a negative light: Androcottus. lineage. The medieval commentator on the Vishnu Purana informs us that Chandragupta was the son of a Nanda prince and a Hindi: dasi (English: maid) named Mura. probably around Takshasila in the northwest.[12][13] On the other hand. when he was a stripling. i. the Sanskrit drama Mudrarakshasa calls him a "Nandanvaya" i. Dhundiraja.2 Footnotes 9 Further reading 10 External links [edit]Early life Very little is known about Chandragupta's youth. i. and explains how he later led a popular uprising against the Nanda king. Parallel Lives: Life of Alexander 62. This reinforces Justin's contention that Chandragupta had a humble origin.e. son of prince Yuvanashva of the solar race. Ambhi (also known as Taxiles). [citation needed] Chandragupta was a student of Chanakya. These traditions indicate that Chandragupt came from a Kshatriya lineage. son of Bindusara. but he was defeated. Chanakya began to persuade his disciple Chandragupta of the need to build an empire that could protect Indian territories from foreign invasion. Chandragupta Maurya. The Mahaparinibbana Sutta states that the Moriyas (Mauryas) belonged to the Kshatriya community of Pippalivana. an anointed Kshatriya. [edit]Foundation of the Maurya Empire Further information: Magadha and Maurya Empire Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire. with the help of Chanakya/kautilya. Parvateshwara (Porus). At the time of Alexander's invasion. today'sAfghanistan. planned to defeat the foreign invasion and sought help from other kings to unite and fight Alexander. is also styled a Kshatriya. After this incident. however. who ruled the vast Nanda Empire which extended from Bihar and Bengal in the east to Punjab and Sindh in the west. a clan which also belongs to the race of Ādityas. son of Chandragupt. [edit]Nanda army .[11] but Dhana Nanda refused to help him. and in the same work King Ashoka. Chanakya was a teacher inTakshasila. the defeated generals of Alexander settled in Gandhara (the Kamboja kingdom). defeated the Magadha king and the army of the Chandravanshi clan. made a peace treaty with Alexander. Following his victory. Chanakya then went further east to Magadha.[citation needed] A medieval inscription represents the Maurya clan as belonging to the solar race of Kshatriyas. was the only local king who was able to challenge Alexander at the Battle of the Hydaspes River. 3rd century BCE. to seek the help of Dhana Nanda. a king of Punjab. TheMahavamshatika connects him with the Shakya clan of the Buddha. Divyāvadāna calls Bindusara. Kshatriya Murdhabhishikata.The Buddhist text the Mahavamsa calls Chandragupt a member of a division of the Khattiya (Kshatriya) clan called the Moriya (Maurya). It is stated that the Maurya line sprang from Suryavamsi Mandhatri. with symbols of wheel and elephant. The king of Takshasila and Gandhara. Chanakya. however.1-4 In order to defeat the powerful Nanda army. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen. Main article: Nanda Dynasty According to Plutarch.000 war elephants. the width of which. as they learned.000 cavalry. And there was no boasting in these reports. "Life of Alexander" 62. at the time of the Battle of the Hydaspes River. Parallel Lives. who reigned there not long afterwards. and 7. its depth a hundred fathoms. 80." ” —Plutarch. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse.000 infantry. Chandragupta needed to raise a formidable army of his own. and with an army of six hundred thousand men overran and subdued all India. [11] [edit]Conquest of the Nanda Empire Further information: Nanda Dynasty Main article: Nanda War .The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BCE. two hundred thousand footmen. they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also. For Androcottus. while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. and six thousand fighting elephants. eight thousand chariots. was thirty-two furlongs. which discouraged Alexander's men and prevented their further progress into India: “ "As for the Macedonians. made a present to Seleucus of five hundred elephants. the Nanda Empire's army numbered 200. 8.000 chariots. their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. [edit]Conquest of Macedonian territories in India Main article: Seleucid–Mauryan war Chandragupta had defeated the remainingMacedonian satrapies in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent by 317 BCE. Regardless.Chandragupta's empire when he founded it c. sometimes identified with Porus. He was eventually able to defeat Bhadrasala and Dhana Nanda in a series of battles. where he defeated the satrapies (described as "prefects" in classical Western sources) left in place by Alexander (according to Justin). ruler in western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE. Chanakya had trained and guided Chandragupta and together they planned the destruction of Dhana Nanda. Nicanor and Philip. in the ensuing war. culminating in the siege of the capital city Pataliputra[11] and the conquest of the Nanda Empire around 321 BCE. ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE.[3][11] The satrapies he fought may have included Eudemus. 320 BCE. After Alexander's death in 323 BCE. and may have assassinated two of his governors. Chandragupta.[14] It is noted in the Chandraguptakatha that Chandragupta and Chanakya were initially rebuffed by the Nanda forces. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jainwork Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka.[11] thus founding the powerful Maurya Empire in Northern India by the time he was about 20 years old. turned his attention to Northwestern India (modern Pakistan). son of Agenor. by the time he was about 20 years old. The Roman historian Justindescribed how Sandrocottus (Greek version of Chandragupta's name) conquered the northwest: . Chandragupta faced off against Bhadrasala. the commander of Dhana Nanda's armies. and Peithon. in which Antigonus was slain. Chandragupta. a wild elephant of great bulk presented itself before him of its own accord. took him on its back. and became his guide in the war. after making a league with him. Sandrocottus.19 [edit]Expansion By the time he was only about 20 years old. who fought Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta extended the borders of his empire towards Seleucid Persia after his conflict with Seleucus c. who. XV. therefore. As soon as the forces. had founded a vast empire that extended from the Bay of Bengal in the east. was in possession of India. who had succeeded in defeating the Macedonian satrapies in India and conquering the Nanda Empire. and his son Demetrius put to flight. having thus acquired a throne. of all the confederates were united. a battle was fought.“ "Some time after. " ” —Justin. 305 BCE. In later years he would expand this empire. [edit]Conquest of Seleucus' eastern territories Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator.4. and conspicuous in fields of battle. and. to the Indus River in the west. and settling his affairs in the east. . as if tamed down to gentleness. and later made an alliance with him. proceeded to join in the war against Antigonus. Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV. when Seleucus was laying the foundations of his future greatness. as he was going to war with the generals of Alexander. 'Seleucid' Cappadocia. the king of the Indians. —Athenaeus of Naucratis. History of Rome. Arabia. concrete indications of Mauryan rule. Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus.15 It is generally thought that Chandragupta married Seleucus's daughter to formalize an alliance. Paropamisadae. is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court. XV. I. and Aria. are known as far as Kandhahar in southern Afghanistan. the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka the Great. And Phylarchus confirms him. He crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya]. Gedrosia. C. reconquered most of Alexander's former empire and put under his own authority the eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian. After having made a treaty with him [Sandrakotos] and put in order the Orient situation. and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara. to Chandragupta. Majumdar and D. Bactria. Due to his defeat. As noted by scholars such as R. Parthia. while some. Seleucus appears to have fared poorly. Persis. Some of these exploits were performed before the death of Antigonus and some afterward. Seleucus dispatched an ambassador.Seleucus I Nicator. at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar state). History of Rome. Hyrcania. The Syrian Wars 55).32 [edit]Southern conquest . having ceded large territories west of the Indus to Chandragupta. The Syrian Wars 55 The exact details of engagement are not known. Deipnosophistae. until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. until in 305 BCE he entered into conflict with Chandragupta: Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations. —Junianus Justinus. king of the Indians.4. Seleucus surrendered Arachosia. as far as the river Indus. Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents. sent to Seleucus. Armenia. Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV.[15][18][19][20][21][22]a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 302 BCE. which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection. so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. —Appian. and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander. Kosambi. such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka. by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus. Chandragupta sent 500 war-elephants. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.[16][17] Archaeologically. Sogdia. In a return gesture. were to banish love. on the contrary. modern day Afghanistan. In addition to this treaty. Seleucos went to war against Antigonus.[15] Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus. he acquired Mesopotamia. Megasthenes.[23] Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty. strong in arms and persuasive in council. Arachosia. a Macedonian satrap of Alexander. D. such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. including the Hindu Kush. and the Balochistanprovince of Pakistan. who dwelt on the banks of that stream. Tapouria. when he was 42 years old. which consisted of 400. Chera. There are two hills in Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa. Chandragupta had succeeded in unifying most of Southern Asia.[11] By the time his conquests were complete. gives even larger numbers of 600.000 cavalry. Chola and Satyaputra) and Kalinga(modern day Odisha).53 On the other hand.1. Natural History VI. —Pliny. their capital Palibothra. Chandragiri (Chikkabetta) and Vindyagiri. was originally built there by Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE. India. are believed to have meditated there. 22. and 9. Geographica.000 cavalry. and 9. though fifth-century inscriptions in the area support the concept of a larger southern migration around that time. Chandragupta had a vast empire extending across the northern parts of Indian Sub-continent. from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea.--nay even the whole tract along the Ganges.After annexing Seleucus' eastern Persian provinces. Chandragupta then began expanding his empire further south beyond the barrier of the Vindhya Range and into the Deccan Plateau except the Tamil regions (Pandya. Their king has in his pay a standing army of 600. The last shruta-kevali.000 elephants: whence may be formed some conjecture as to the vastness of his resources. not far from the cave where he starved himself to death in accordance with Jain beliefs. according to Strabo: Megasthenes was in the camp of Sandrocottus. but one may say in all India.000 soldiers. 30.000 war elephants: But the Prasii surpass in power and glory every other people. Chandragupt gave up his throne in 298 BCE.4 [edit]Jainism and Sallekhana Purportedly the mark of Chandragupta's footprints in Karnataka. a very large and wealthy city. 15. 30.000 infantry. who also drew from Megasthenes' work. which was dedicated to Chandragupta Maurya. migrating south with them and ending his days in "sallekhana" at Śravaṇa Beḷgoḷa in present day Karnataka. and became an ascetic under the Jain saint Acharya Bhadrabahu.000-foot-soldiers. Bhadrabahu and his pupil Chandragupta Maurya. after which some call the people itself the Palibothri. [edit]Successors . Pliny.000 men. —Strabo. not only in this quarter. Chandragupta Basadi. Megasthenes later recorded the size of Chandragupta's army as 400.[24] A small temple marks the cave (Bhadrabahu Cave) where he is said to have died by fasting. [27] [edit]See also History portal India portal Bhagrathi community (Western UP) Ancient Macedonian army Arthashastra Ashoka Bindusara Chanakya Dasaratha Maurya Samprati Greco-Bactrian Gupta Indo-Greek Kingdom List of Indian monarchs List of people known as The Great Mauryan art Sulehria . Mysore N. Prakash. Bindusara. who became the new Mauryan Emperor.[25] Santosh Sivan's 2001 epic Hindi language film Asoka. based on the play "Mudra Rakshasa" (The Signet Ring of "Rakshasa"). Bindusara's son Ashoka the Great became one of the most influential kings in India's history due to his important role in the history of Buddhism. Also there is a television series on Imagine TV called Chandragupt Maurya[26] The Indian Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honoring Chandragupta Maurya in 2001. The television series Chanakya is an account of the life and times of Chanakya.Main article: Maurya Empire Chandragupta Maurya renounced his throne to his son. The sword of Chandragupt plays an important role in the film. [edit]In popular culture Chanakya's role in formation of the Mauryan Empire is the essence of a historical/spiritual novel The Courtesan and the Sadhu by Dr. the United States and Evolving Correlates of Power in Asia". Early India: From the Origins to Ad 1300. "Indian Geopolitics. 2004.0006. 6. p. 81-208-0433-3 2. Chandragupta Maurya And His Times.). 3. The Journal of Military History 67 (1): 9– 37. Geopolitics 9 (2): 440–459 [442]. ^ a b c d e f g Radhakumud Mookerji. ISBN 978-0520242258. ^ William Smith (ed). p. Roger (January 2003).40. ISBN 978-8122411980. 705-6 5. Old Jaina tets report that Chandragupta was a follower of that religion and ended his life in Karnataka by fasting unto death. Either Chandragupta or his son and successor Bindusara established Mauryan rule over southern parts of India. University of California Press.[edit]References [edit]Notes 1. Nilakantha (1967). Rothermund. Hermann. ^ William Smith (ed). doi:10.1080/14650040490442944. Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. doi:10. New Age International. A History of India (Third ed. 26. 1870. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISSN 0899-3718. 8. ISBN 81-208-0405-8. ^ Vaughn. Dietmar (1998) [1986]. Chandragupta must have started the conquest of the south. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.1353/jmh. ^ Shastri. 7. ^ Goetz. ^ a b Boesche. ^ Sen. (1955). S. p. . 4th ed. ^ Romila Thapar. (1999). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. 6. 165. 59-64. 11.2003. Artibus Asiae 18 (1): 61– 74. Vol 3 p. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.2307/3248838. Ancient Indian History And Civilization. 1966. "Early Indian Sculptures from Nepal". ISBN 81-208-0465-1. N. 1966. ^ Chandragupta Maurya and his times By Radha Kumud Mookerji. London: Routledge. H. p. "Kautilya's Arthaśāstra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India". p. 9. 1870. ISBN 978-8120804050. 705-6 10. 4. If this report is true. Bruce (2004). doi:10.ISBN 0-415-15481-2. p. [2] [edit]Footnotes 1. Vol 3 p. ^ a b Kulke. ^ The conquest of the south is a matter of conjecture. 177. Seleucus' 500 Elephants. who afterwards. and became his guide in the war. (Darlington . having thus acquired a throne. a lion of great size having come up to him. (Hunter. Justin actually refers to a name Nandrum. with a cruel tyranny.2307/626263. making himself king. was in possession of India" (Justin "Epitome of the Philippic History" XV-4) 13.167) 20. ^ "He (Seleucus) next made an expedition into India. This man was of mean origin. had shaken. and after gently waking him. doi:10. (1940). a wild elephant of great bulk presented itself before him of its own accord. "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. as if tamed down to gentleness. licked off with his tongue the sweat that was running from him. 2. Ancient India. ^ Walter Eugene.12.223) 21. 18. Clark (1919). ^ a b Ramesh Chandra Majumdar.e. The Journal of Hellenic Studies 60: 84–94. i. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Some time after. after his fatigue. Sandrocottus. which.p. as he was going to war with the generals of Alexander. 17. 16. ^ John Marshall Taxila. Alexander. Tarmita". ^ The Imperial Gazetteer of India. W. he saved himself by swiftness of foot. Asoka. and orders being given to kill him. having offended Alexander by his boldness of speech. the yoke of servitude from its neck. he oppressed the people whom he had delivered from a foreign power. while others say that it refers to Alexandrum.p. and al.. which many scholars believe is reference to Nanda (Dhana Nanda of Magadha). for.1086/360246. ^ There is a controversy about Justin's account. (Kachroo . doi:10. Being first prompted by this prodigy to conceive hopes of royal dignity. 15. It makes some difference which version one believes 14. Classical Philology 14(4): 297–313. turned their semblance of liberty into slavery.196) 19.ISBN 81-206-13031. after the death of Alexander. ^ Tarn. left him. W. however. and put his governors to death. and while he was lying asleep. 18. he drew together a band of robbers. . Asian Educational Services. took him on its back. as it were. Smith (1998). and conspicuous in fields of battle. for. "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology". ^ The evolution of man and society. and solicited the Indians to support his new sovereignty. but was stimulated to aspire to regal power by supernatural encouragement. and. The author of this liberation was Sandrocottus. p. ^ Vincent A.p. 1977. ISBN 81-208-0436-8. ^ Ancient India. P. Chandragupta Maurya aur Uska Kaal (Rajkamal Prakashan.K. 2004. 2001) ISBN 0-8021-3797-0 Radha Kumud Mukherji. 1981) ISBN 0-89012-023-4 Nilakanta Sastri.org article on Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta Maurya by Purushottam Lal Bhargava (BTM format) Chandragupta Maurya mentioned in Bhagavata Purana . 1985 Bhargava. ^ TV. ISBN 1-59240-053-1.. 160 pp. G. Govt.D. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Overview of World Religions. ^ Pliny the Elder. Printworld. Gotham Books. Dharma. ^ The Courtesan and the Sadhu. An Introduction to the Study of Indian History. ^ Digambaras. Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy. Mauryan India: A People's History of India. Dharma Vision LLC. Mauryan India (Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division May 1986) ISBN 0-86590-826-5 Chand Chauhan. Age of the Nandas and Mauryas (Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass. ^ Partha Sarathi Bose (2003). 21 24. Habib. India: A History (Grove Press. 23. "Channel". "The Natural History". Irfan. accessed 9 September 2007 25. A. 2002. Press Information Bureau.L. A Novel about Maya. ISBN 978-0-9818237-0-6. John. Vivekanand. 27. October 2008. and God. Re Print 1990) ISBN-81-7171-088-1 [edit]External links Shepherd boy Chandragupta Maurya 1911encyclopedia. Donald. Imagine. M. [1967] c1952) ISBN 0-89684-167-7 Bongard-Levin. and Jha.22. New Delhi:D. Origin and Growth of Feudalism in Early India: From the Mauryas to AD 650 (Munshiram Manoharlal January 2004) ISBN 81-215-1028-7 Keay. 1 Grove Pr edition May 10. Pennsylvania: Anima Books. TV Channel. Chap.. D. of India [edit]Further reading Kosambi. ^ COMMEMORATIVE POSTAGE STAMP ON CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA. K.New Delhi:Tulika Books. Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia (Chambersburg. Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934274 26. 189pp Swearer. Gian. Chandragupta Maurya. Preceded by Mauryan Emperor 322–298 BC Nanda Dynasty Succeeded by Bindusara airsoftgunsarecool Categories: 298 BC deaths Jain monarchs Indian monarchs 3rd-century BC rulers 4th-century BC rulers 340 BC births Mauryan emperors People from Patna Navigation menu Create account Log in Main page Article Talk Read Edit View history Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages Alemannisch বাাংলা . See Terms of Use for details.. Български Bahasa Indonesia ქართული Nederlands 日本語 پ نجاب ی Slovenčina ไทย Українська اردو Català Česky Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara ف ار سی Français 한국어 दिन्द्िी Italiano ಕನ್ನಡ Latina മലയാളം मराठी Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰ ਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Русский संस्कृतम ् Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last modified on 12 March 2013 at 20:13. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. a non-profit organization. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation. additional terms may apply. . Inc. the free encyclopedia Sultanate of Delhi ← 1206–1526 ← → → ← Delhi Sultanate under various dynasties. Capital Delhi (1206–1327) Daulatabad (1327–1334) Delhi (1334–1506) Agra (1506–1526) Languages Persian (official)[1] Religion Sunni Islam Government Monarchy Sultan . Cont Delhi Sultanate From Wikipedia. Established 1206 .Disestablished 1526 History of the Turks Pre-14th century Turkic Khaganate 552–744 Western Turkic Eastern Turkic Khazar Khaganate 618–1048 Turgesh Khaganate 699–766 Uyghur Khaganate 744–840 Kara-Khanid Khanate 840–1212 Western Kara-Khanid Eastern Kara-Khanid Pecheneg Khanates Kimek Khanate 860–1091 743–1035 Kipchak Khanates 1067–1239 Oghuz Yabgu State 750–1055 .1517–1526 Ibrahim Lodi (last) Historical era Late Medieval ..1206–1210 Qutb-ud-din Aibak (first) . Shatuo Dynasties 923–979 Later Tang Dynasty Later Jin Dynasty Later Han Dynasty (Northern Han) Ghaznavid Empire 963–1186 Seljuq Empire 1037–1194 Khwarezmian Empire 1077–1231 Seljuq Sultanate of Rum 1092–1307 Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526 Mamluk Dynasty Khilji Dynasty Tughlaq Dynasty Cairo Sultanate 1250–1517 Bahri Dynasty Other Turkic Dynasties [show] This box: view talk edit Outline of South Asian history History of Indian subcontinent Stone age (7000–3000 BC)[show] Bronze age (3000–1300 BC)[show] Iron age (1200–26 BC)[show] Classical period (1–1279 AD)[show] Late medieval age (1206–1596 AD)[show] . Razia Sultana (1236–1240). Delhi based kingdoms or sultanates. but both failed to unite the Indian subcontinent. a former slave (Mamluk) of Muhammad of Ghor. religion and clothing.Early modern period (1526–1858 AD)[show] Other states (1102–1947 AD)[show] Colonial period (1505–1961 AD)[show] Kingdoms of Sri Lanka[show] Nation histories[show] Regional histories[show] Specialised histories[show] V T E The Delhi Sultanate is a term used to cover five short-lived dynasties. was the firstsultan of Delhi and his dynasty managed to conquer large areas of northern India. Turkic and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. In 1526 the Delhi Sultanate was absorbed by the emerging Mughal Empire. mostly of Turkic and Pashtun (Afghan) origin in medieval India. The five dynasties were the Mamluk dynasty(1206–90).music. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture. the Khilji dynasty (1290–1320). Contents [hide] 1 Dynasties o 1. literature. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to have enthroned one of the few female rulers in India. The sultanate are also noted for being one of the few states to repeatedly defeat the Mongol Empire. Qutb-ud-din Aibak. when the last was replaced by the Mughal dynasty.1 Mamluk . Afterwards the Khalji dynasty was also able to conquer most of central India.[2] The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. theSayyid dynasty (1414–51). The sultanates ruled from Delhi between 1206 and 1526. It is surmised that the Urdu language (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during this period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic Prakritswith immigrants speaking Persian. and the Afghan Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414). Her rumored relationship with a Sidi adviser. which was completed by Iltutmish. the Mamluk dynasty came to an end in 1290. He was followed by Razia Sultana.[3] His line is therefore known as the Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty on account of his origin. Aibak began the construction of Qutub Minar. [citation needed] Faced with revolts by conquered territories and rival families in the turmoil for succession after his death. After Yaqut was killed and Razia imprisoned. his successor and son-in-law.3 Tughlaq o 1. the Subedar of Badaun. .2 Khilji dynasty o 4. Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut. though only one of them rose to full ascendancy over him. but the nobles preferred Iltutmish. 1206) had extended his state southwards at the expense of the Ghaznavidsas far as Lahore and much of Rajasthan and the Punjab and appointed Qutub-ud-din Aibak asgovernor of this part of his realm. he was a Sufi devotee and highly regarded their Saints. his daughter. A great Sultan.4 Sayyid o 1. A slave of Cuman-Kipchak origin.o 1. she later wedded Altunia (the Governor of Bhatinda). as he continued to rise in rank. but she was killed by her nobles after 3 and half years. Iltutmish was the most able ruler of the Mamluk Sultanate. Balban succeeded her and ruled until 1286 CE. many a Sufi mystic settled in his sultanate.6 Lodi dynasty 5 See also 6 References 7 Notes [edit]Dynasties [edit]Mamluk Main article: Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi) Muhammad Ghori (d.4 Tughlaq dynasty o 4.3 Khusro Khan o 4.1 Mamluk/Slave dynasty o 4. He trebled the exchequer during his reign. forced her nobles to revolt against her. Aibak's legitimate successor was his son Aramshah. he proclaimed independence after the death of his patron and ruled from Delhi.2 Khilji o 1. who was a good administrator and the first female sovereign in India.5 Lodi 2 Monetary system 3 Mongol invasion and the fall of the Sultanate 4 Sultans o 4.5 Sayyid dynasty o 4. He doubled the exchequer and shifted his capital in 1326 from Delhi to Daulatabad. was the first ruler of the dynasty.The last Khilji ruler was Khusrau Malik. the Mongol leader . but he lacked the skill required for putting into pratice.He tried to reform the currency. During this period. he was a weak ruler and adopted a lenient policy towards the Mongols . This created a lot of confussion in the transactions. the Tughluqs captured the throne of Delhi. The first ruler of this dynasty was Jalal-ud-din firoz Khalji . The slave rulers laid a firm foundation to the Delhi Sultanate. He refused to accept the title of Emperor though he expanded his rule to the peninsula. [edit]Sayyid . According to Zia-ud-din Barani.The last few years of his reign witnessed turmoil and rebellions everywhere. He was suceeded by his nephew Ali Gurshap . That was why. jitals. Muhammad-Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah Tughlaq. there was a war of succession amongst his sons .He became the Sultan in AD 1325. He had to take back this scheme. are to be found in the houses of Hindus. who took the title of Ala-ud-din . He was weak and thus. tankas.He brought Gujarat and Malwa under his rule. He ordered that copper coins should be used in place of the gold and silver coins. Therefore. [citation needed] After Ala-ud-din's death. His empire began to disintegrate during his own life-time. He got one of his daughters married to Ulugh Khan . He died in AD 1351 He was succeeded by Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) who was very successful as a reformer.Muhammad made attempts at improving the administration of his vast empire.His Empire covered the regions from Peshwar in the North to Madhurai in the South and from Sindh in the west to Assam in the East. which are the causes of a rebellion . many parts of India. He introduced a free market policy in which he decreased the price of all essential items needed in daily life. they proved unsuccessful. This put a tremendous strain on the govt. [edit]Tughlaq Main article: Tughlaq dynasty The Tughlaq dynasty lasted for close to a hundred years.[edit]Khilji Main article: Khilji dynasty The Khilji dynasty were the second Muslim dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad made arrangements for exchanging gold and silver coins against copper coins. silver. there was no control over the minting of the copper coins. He was succeeded by Jauna Khan. though his ideas were good. such as the states in southern India became independent.He was man of ideas. It produced two powerful Sultans. who was the most able ruler of the Tughluq dynasty. Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq (1320–1325). an efficient military commander. who took the title of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.' They were even deprived of the common luxury of chewing betel. treasury. He was the most able ruler in the Khilji dynasty. on any superflous commodities.He had a firm hold over his administration.However.He became the Sultan of Delhi in AD 1296. a scholar in the sultan's court said that ' no gold. He minted new copper coins. Naturally Muslims from territories bordering to western northern India migrated to join other Muslim settlers. The customs policies of Ala-ud-din Khalji helped double the exchequer. The last ruler of this dynasty. to offer seed to the peasants. It revived briefly under the Lodis before it was conquered by the Mughal emperor Babur in 1526.Main article: Sayyid dynasty The Sayyid dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate in India from 1414 to 1451. which induced Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq(1325–51) to have village wells dug. the invasion of Timur in 1398 significantly weakened the Delhi Sultanate. through which the traditional village economies were both exploited and stimulated to be drawn into the wider culture. However. . Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed by Babur in the first Battle of Panipat on April 20. [edit]Lodi Main article: Lodi dynasty The Lodi Dynasty was a Pashtun dynasty that was the last Delhi Sultanate. and to encourage cash crops like sugarcane. the Sultanate introduced a monetary economy in the provinces (sarkars) and districts (parganas) that had been established and founded a network of market centers. They succeeded the Tughlaq dynasty and ruled the Sultanate until they were displaced by the Lodi dynasty.[4] [edit]Mongol invasion and the fall of the Sultanate Main article: Mongol invasions of India Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Sultanate was its temporary success in insulating the subcontinent from the potential devastation of the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the thirteenth century. 1526. [edit]Monetary system A coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq In the first half of the 14th century. State revenues remained based on a successful agriculture. The dynasty founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi ruled from 1451 to 1526. [edit]Mamluk/Slave dynasty Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210). The last Lodi ruler. After seizing the throne. By way of superior generalship. Ibrahim Lodi. Babur won the first Battle of Panipat (April 1526). in which Ibrahim Lodi was killed on the battlefield. Upon the death of his father Sikander Lodi. appointed Naib us Sultanat by Muhammad of Ghor. by having Jalal Khan murdered. his uncle. the governor of Punjab and Alam Khan. the ruler of Kabul to invade Delhi.Lahore. effective strategy and appropriate use of artillery. sent an invitation to Babur. Subsequently Daulat Khan. was greatly disliked by his court and subjects.The mausoleum of Qutub ud Din Aibak in Anarkali. Pakistan. [edit]Sultans Map of Delhi Sultanate. first Muslim Sultan of India. Babur subsequently occupied Agra and Delhi and the new Mughal dynasty was to rule Delhi until 1857. he never really did succeed in pacifying his nobles. he quashed a brief rebellion led by some of his nobles who wanted his younger brother Jalal Khan to be the Sultan. ruled with Delhi as capital Aram Shah (1210–1211) . vast experience in warfare. grandson of Balban and Nasir-ud-din Jalal ud din Firoz Khilji (1290–1296) Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316) Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah (1316–1320) Khusro Khan (1320) dynasty [edit]Khusro Khan [edit]Tughlaq dynasty Delhi Sultanate under Tughluq dynasty. son of Ruk-nud-din Nasir ud din Mahmud (1246–1266). son of Iltutmish Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266–1286). Shams ud din Iltutmish (1211–1236). son of Iltutmish Raziyyat-ud-din Sultana (1236–1240). son-in-law of Qut-bud-din Aibak Rukn ud din Firuz (1236). Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (1320–1325)[5] Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351) Mahmud Ibn Muhammad (March 1351) Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351–1388) Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II (1388–1389) Abu Bakr Shah (1389–1390) Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III (1390–1393) . ex-slave. daughter of Iltutmish Muiz ud din Bahram (1240–1242). son-in-law of Sultan Nasir ud din Mahmud [edit]Khilji Muiz ud din Qaiqabad (1286–1290). son of Iltutmish Ala ud din Masud (1242–1246). April 1393) Nasir uddin Mahmud Shah (Sultan Mahmud II) at Delhi (1393–1413). Sikander Shah I (March . Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489) Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517) Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526). grandson of Firuz Shah Tughluq. controlled the east from Delhi Nasir uddin Nusrat Shah (1394–1398). controlled the west from Firozabad [edit]Sayyid [edit]Lodi dynasty Khizr Khan (1414–1421) Mubarak Shah (1421–1434) Muhammad Shah (1434–1445) Alam Shah (1445–1451) dynasty Delhi Sultanate during Babur's invasion. 1526 [edit]See also Persianate states History of Delhi Delhi Sultanate literature . son of Nasir uddin Muhammad. killed by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat on April 20. pg.nic. Retrieved 2010-11-14.. pp 96f. ^ "Arabic and Persian Epigraphical Studies .[edit]References 1. ^ Braudel 1984. ^ Bruce R. The History of India. "Nomads of the Steppe".com.in. 2. M. [edit]Notes Elliot. p.raex. The Sultanate Of Delhi 711-1526 A D. Government of Andhra Pradesh. London : Trübner & Co. 4. (Henry Miers). 369. v. [hide] V T E Turkic topics Languages Afshar Altay Äynu Azerbaijani Bashkir . Retrieved 2012-01-20. 512ff 5. of Ziauddin Barani". "15. 29 3. Gold And Silver Coins Of Sultans Of Delhi. Mohd. H. 1909. The Muhammadan Period (Vol 3.Archaeological Survey of India". Sir. Gordon. Ashirvadi Lal (1929). My. ^ The state at war in South Asia By Pradeep Barua. as Told by Its Own Historians. Khan. Adul Wali (1974). ^ Tughlaq Shahi Kings of Delhi: Chart The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Srivastava. John Dowson. 2. Shiva Lal Agarwala & Company.). Táríkh-i Fíroz Sháhí. Asi.. Bulgar Chagatai Chulym Chuvash Crimean Tatar Cuman Dolgan Fuyü Gïrgïs Gagauz Hunnic Ili Turki Karachay-Balkar Karaim Karakalpak Karamanli Turkish Kazakh Khakas Khalaj . Khazar Khorasani Turkic Kipchak Krymchak Kumyk Kypchak group Kyrgyz Nogai Old Turkic Ottoman Turkish Pecheneg Qashqai Sakha Salar Shor Tatar Tofa Turkic Avar . Peoples Turkish Turkmen Tuvan Urum Uyghur Uzbek Ahiska Altays Avars Azerbaijanis Balkars Bashkirs Bulgars Chulyms Chuvashs Crimean Tatars Cumans Dolgans Gagauz . Huns Iraqi Turkmen Karachays Karaites Karakalpaks Karapapak Karluks Kazakhs Khakas Khalajs Khazars Khorasani Turks Kimek Kipchaks Krymchaks Kumandins Kumyks Kyrgyz . Naimans Nogais Oghuz Turks Qashqai Salar Shatuo Syrian Turkmens Tatars Telengit Teleuts Tofalar Turgesh Turkish people Turks in Bulgaria Turkish Cypriots Turks in Kosovo Turks in the Republic of Macedonia Turks of Romania Turks of Western Thrace . Politics Origins Locations Turkmens Tuvans Uyghur Uzbeks Yakuts Yugur Qizilbash Kemalist ideology Pan-Turkism Turanism Turkestan History (Timeline [500-1300] and migration) Nomadic empire Tian Shan and Altai Mountains Ötüken Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Sovereign states . Kyrgyzstan Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus1 Turkey Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Altai Republic Bashkortostan Chuvash Republic Gagauzia Kabardino-Balkaria Karachay-Cherkessia Autonomous areas Karakalpakstan Khakassia Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic Sakha Republic Tatarstan Tuva Xinjiang . Studies Religions Organizations Old Turkic script Proto-Turkic language Turkology Turkic mythology Shamanism Islam Alevism Tengrist movement Turkic Council International Organization of Turkic Culture Organization of the Eurasian Law Enforcement Agencies with Military Status 1 Is a state with limited international recognition Categories: Former monarchies of Asia Former countries in Asia States and territories established in 1206 States and territories disestablished in 1526 Historical Turkic states Turkic dynasties History of the Turkic peoples Turkic peoples Turkic tribes Delhi Sultanate . Empires and kingdoms of India 1526 disestablishments Sultanates Islamic rule in the Indian subcontinent Navigation menu Create account Log in Main page Contents Article Talk Read Edit View history Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Azərbaycanca বাাংলা Català Česky Italiano עברית ქართული Recent changes Contact Wikipedia Toolbox Print/export Languages ال عرب ية Deutsch Español Esperanto Euskara ف ار سی Français 한국어 दिन्द्िी . India Indian Empire Colony of the United Kingdom ← 1858–1947 → . the free encyclopedia "British Empire in India" redirects here. a non-profit organization. Inc. Latina Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाऱी 日本語 Türkçe Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം मराठी Norsk bokmål Occitan پ نجاب ی Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last modified on 16 March 2013 at 11:04. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation.. additional terms may apply. see History of India. For other uses. see British India (disambiguation). Contact us British Raj From Wikipedia. See Terms of Use for details. For other Indian empires. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. "Indian Empire" redirects here. Hindustani andmany local languages Government Constitutional Monarchy Emperor/Empress(1876– 1947) 1 -1858–1901 Victoria -1901–1910 Edward VII .→ ← → → Flag Star of India Anthem God Save the King/Queen The British Indian Empire in 1936 Capital Calcutta (1858–1912) New Delhi (1912–1947) Simla (Summer) Languages English. -1910–1936 George V -1936 Edward VIII -1936–1947 George VI Viceroy 2 -1858–1862 Charles Canning (first) -1947 Louis Mountbatten (last) Legislature Imperial Legislative Council History -Indian Rebellion of 1857 10 May 1857 -Government of India Act 2 August 1858 1858 -Indian Independence Act 15 August 1947 1947 -Partition of India Currency Today part of 15 August 1947 British Indian rupee India Pakistan Bangladesh Burma . 2: Viceroy and Governor-General of India Colonial India Imperial Entities of India Dutch India 1604–1825 Danish India 1620–1869 French India 1759–1954 Portuguese India 1510–1961 Casa da Índia 1434–1833 Portuguese East India Company 1628–1633 British India 1613–1947 East India Company 1612–1757 . before that as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.1: Reigned as Empress of India from 1 May 1876. especially on farmland and on salt. still later. when the rule of the British East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria[6](who in 1876 was proclaimed Empress of India). economic growth at 1% a year was neutralized by population growth of 1%. lit. the eastern half of which.[2] The term can also refer to the period of dominion. and a participating nation in theSummer Olympics in 1900. The region was less commonly also called the Indian Empire by the British. Lower Burma was already a part of British India. became the People's Republic of Bangladesh).[5] As "India". and lasted until 1947. was administered as a province until 1937. included areas directly administered by the United Kingdom[4] (contemporaneously British India). commonly called India in contemporary usage. when it became a separate British colony which gained its own independence in 1948. Burma. 1920.[2][3] The region under British control. At the inception of the Raj in 1858. the Union of India (later the Republic of India) and the Dominion of Pakistan (later the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The system of governance was instituted in 1858. and the Indian Army. It was paid entirely by Indians through taxes. as well as the princely states ruled by individual rulers under the paramountcy of the British Crown. and 1936. The budget of the Raj covered municipal affairs. . 1932. when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign dominion states. and the resulting union. it was afounding member of the League of Nations. the police. well-trained Indian Army played major roles in both World Wars. "reign" in Sanskrit)[1] was British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. the rest of the time it trained to fight off a possible Russian invasion through Afghanistan. 1928. the small but highly trained Indian Civil Service that ran government operations. Upper Burma was added in 1886.Company rule in India 1757–1857 British Raj 1858– 1765–1947/48 Partition of India 1947 V T E The British Raj (rāj. The great majority of the Indian people were very poor farmers. The large. 3 Princely states o 2.1 Aftermath of the Indian rebellion of 1857 o 4.4.4 Organization 3 Timeline of notable events 4 History 1858 to 1914 o 4.2 Legal modernization o 4. Lucknow Pact: 1914–1918 o 5.1 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre o 5. Moderates vs.3 Education o 4.7. Jinnah's fourteen points: 1920s o 5. Khilafat.5 Government of India Act: 1931–1937 o 5.Contents [hide] 1 Geographical extent 2 British India and the Native States o 2.3 Policies o 4. 1860s–1890s o 4.3 Noncooperation. Salt March: 1929–1931 o 5.4.6 World War II. Simon Commission.2.1 First World War.5 New middle class. Indian National Congress. Muslim League's Lahore Resolution: 1938–1941 o 5.1 INA .2 Minor provinces o 2.4 Demand for complete independence. the Extremists: 1870s–1907 o 4. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: 1917–1919 5.1 Major provinces o 2.1 Industry 4.7 Partition of Bengal: 1905–1911 o 4.7 Army expansion 5.6 Social Reformers.2 Satyagraha.9 Minto-Morley Reforms: 1909–1915 5 History 1914–1947 o 5.4.4 Economic history 4.2 Railways 4.8 Muslim League: 1906 o 4. statistics and primary sources [edit]Geographical extent The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India. Quit India Resolution: 1942–1945 o 5. Partition. and public health 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Further reading o 11.8 Cripps Mission. and Singapore (briefly from 1858 to 1867). epidemics. at various times.4 Gazetteers.11 Violence. In addition.2 Specialized topics o 11. Ceylon was a British crown colony but not part of British India. Direct Action Day: 1946 o 5. it includedAden (from 1858 to 1937). subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. Pakistan. with exceptions such as Goa and Puducherry. Upper Burma (from 1886 to 1937).[10] The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965 but not part of British India.o 5. Cabinet Mission. and Bangladesh. Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf were theoretically princely states of British India until 1946 and used therupee as their unit of currency.10 The Plan for Partition: 1947 o 5. the issue of sovereignty was left undefined. Among other countries in the region.1 Surveys o 11. having fought wars with the British. British Somaliland (briefly from 1884 to 1898). Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948.3 Economic history o 11. The kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan. Independence: 1947 6 Ideological impact 7 Economic impact 8 Famines.[7] Lower Burma (from 1858 to 1937).9 Elections. [edit]British India and the Native States Main articles: Presidencies and provinces of British India and Princely state . however.[8][9] The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a princely state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861. [14] The terms "Indian Empire" "Empire of India" (like the term "British Empire") was not used in legislation. or Chief Commissioner (as the case might have been). the British Parliament adopted the following definitions: (4. Lieutenant-Governor.) The expression "British India" shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the Governor-General of India or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India. The passports issued by British India government.[15] In addition.[11] In its Interpretation Act 1889. in contrast. have the words Indian Empire on the cover and on the inside and Empire of India on the inside. or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India. Suzerainty over 175 princely states. some of the largest and most important.[16] A clear distinction between "dominion" and "suzerainty" was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the laws passed by the British Parliament and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India.[16] . (5.[12] In general the term "British India" had been used (and is still used) to also refer to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. both central and local. the courts of the Princely States existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.The British Indian Empire in 1893 India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory: British India and the Native States (or Princely States). The monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victoria's Queen's Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. an order of knighthood the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire was set up in 1878. was exercised (in the name of the British Crown) by the central government of British India under the Viceroy.) The expression "India" shall mean British India together with any territories of any native prince or chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty exercised through the Governor-General of India. the remaining approximately 500 states were dependents of the provincial governments of British India under a Governor.[13] The term has also been used to refer to the "British in India". 000 square miles (440.000 km2) 13 Chief Commissioner 20 Lieutenant- Bengal (including present-day Bangladesh and present-day Indian states of West Bengal.000 km2) 19 Governor-inCouncil 107. Gujarat and Karnataka) United Provinces (including the present-day Indian of Uttar Pradesh andUttarakhand) states Central Provinces (including the present-day Indian states of Madhya Pradesh andChhattisgarh) Punjab (including present-day Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory in Pakistan and the 97.000 square miles (390.000 square miles .000 square miles (370. Pakistan and parts of the present-day Indian states of Maharashtra.000 km2) 48 LieutenantGovernor 104.[edit]Major provinces Main article: Presidencies and provinces of British India At the turn of the 20th century. Kerala and Karnataka) Bombay (including present-day Sindh. The following table lists their areas and populations (but does not include those of the dependent Native States) circa 1907:[17] Population in Chief 1901 (in Administrative millions) Officer Province of British India[17] Area Burma 170. Bihar.000 km2) 75 LieutenantGovernor 142.000 km2) 38 Governor-inCouncil 123. Jharkhand and Orissa) the Madras (including the present-day Indian state of Tamil Nadu and parts of the present-day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh. British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor.000 square miles (320.000 square miles (270.000 square miles (280.000 km2) 9 LieutenantGovernor 151. 000 square miles (7. there were a few minor provinces that were administered by a Chief Commissioner:[18] Population (in thousands of inhabitants) Chief Administrative Officer Minor Province Area North West Frontier Province 16. Bengal.000 square miles (41.000 square miles (120. and the new provinces in the east became: Assam.000 km2) 308 British Political Agent in Baluchistan served asexofficio Chief Commissioner Coorg 1.000 km2) 49.[17] [edit]Minor provinces In addition.000 km2) Assam Governor 6 Chief Commissioner During the partition of Bengal (1905–1911).100 km2) 181 British Resident in Mysore served as ex-officioChief Commissioner Ajmer-Merwara 2.000 km2) 477 British Political Agent in Rajputana served as ex-officio Chief Commissioner Andaman and Nicobar Islands 3. East Bengal was reunited with Bengal. In 1911.present-day Indian states of Punjab.600 square miles (4.700 square miles (7. a new province. Haryana.000 square miles (130. Assam and East Bengal was created as a Lieutenant-Governorship.800 km2) 25 Chief Commissioner [edit]Princely states .125 Chief Commissioner British Baluchistan (British and Administered territory) 46.000 km2) 2. Bihar and Orissa.Chandigarh and the National Capital Territory of Delhi) (250. Himachal Pradesh. as they were not directly under British rule. also called a Native State or an Indian State. in the smaller ones the princes had few rights.e. was a nominally sovereign entity with an indigenous Indian ruler.Main articles: Princely states of India and Princely state 1909 Map of the British Indian Empire. Although there were nearly 600 princely states. the presidencies and provinces). The larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than 25 square kilometres (10 square miles). in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. The princely states did not form a part of British India (i. There were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. Within the princely states external affairs.[19] [edit]Organization . The British also exercised a general influence over the states' internal politics. defence and most communications were under British control. subject to asubsidiary alliance. showing British India in two shades of pink and the princely states in yellow. the great majority were very small and contracted out the business of government to the British. A Princely State. and was Secretary of State for India 1859–66 Lord Salisbury was Lord Canning. he shaped British education policy in India.Sir Charles Wood (1800–1885) was President of the Board of Control of the East India Companyfrom 1852 to 1855. . Secretary of State for India 1874–78 the lastGovernor-General of Indiaunder Company rule and the first Viceroy of India under Crown rule. and Frederick Pethick-Lawrence (1945–1947) (head of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India). twenty seven individuals served as Secretary of State for India and directed the India Office. the Act of 1858 made no major changes in governance. two Indians were appointed to the Council. but especially so in matters relating to spending of Indian revenues. to have spent at least ten years in India and to have done so no more than ten years before.[24] However. but its powers remained unchanged.e. A system of "double government" had already been in place during the Company's rule in India from the time of Pitt's India Act of 1784. and. in the years immediately thereafter. The size of the advisory Council was reduced over the next half-century. the Government of India Act 1858 made changes in the governance of India at three levels: 1. the Secretary of State also had special emergency powers that allowed him to make unilateral decisions. he was. Calcutta. executive orders in Calcutta. and the Governor in a subordinate presidency (Madras or Bombay) was each required to consult his advisory council.John Morley (1905–1910) (initiator of the Minto-Morley Reforms).[21] Although the Secretary of State formulated the policy instructions to be communicated to India. the Governor-General with the advice of the Council). he was required in most instances to consult the Council. 2. these included: Sir Charles Wood (1859– 1866). were issued in the name of "Governor-General-in-Council" (i. and 3. Montagu (1917–1922) (an architect of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms). which were also the years of post-rebellion reconstruction. now responsible to the Secretary of State in London and through him to Parliament. in the imperial government in London. there had been intermittent feuding between the Governor-General and his Council. in the provincial governments in the presidencies (and later in the provinces). Gupta and Syed Hussain Bilgrami. the Governor-General remained head of the Government of India and now was more commonly called the Viceroy on account of his secondary role as the Crown's representative to the nominally sovereign princely states.[23] They were K. E. whose members were required. it provided for a cabinet-level Secretary of State for India and a fifteen-member Council of India. as one prerequisite of membership. for the first time. However. Marquess of Salisbury (1874–1878) (later Prime Minister of Britain). the Viceroy Lord Canning found the collective decision-making of the Council to be too time-consuming for the pressing tasks ahead.G.[20] In London. for example. in reality.[22] From 1858 until 1947. S. In Calcutta. In 1907. still. The Governor-General in the capital. since.Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (usually called the Indian Mutiny by the British). The Act envisaged a system of "double government" in which the Council ideally served both as a check on excesses in imperial policy-making and as a body of up-to-date expertise on India. The Company's system of "double government" had its critics. the Council's expertise was sometimes outdated. from the time of the system's inception. in the central government in Calcutta. so he requested the "portfolio . however. system" of an Executive Council in which the business of each government department (the "portfolio") was assigned to and became the responsibility of a single Council member.[23] Routine departmental decisions were made exclusively by the member; however, important decisions required the consent of the Governor-General and, in the absence of such consent, required discussion by the entire Executive Council. This innovation in Indian governance was promulgated in the Indian Councils Act 1861. If the Government of India needed to enact new laws, the Councils Act allowed for a Legislative Council—an expansion of the Executive Council by up to twelve additional members, each appointed to a two-year term—with half the members consisting of British officials of the government (termed official) and allowed to vote, and the other half, comprising Indians and domiciled Britons in India (termed non-official) and serving only in an advisory capacity.[25] All laws enacted by Legislative Councils in India, whether by the Imperial Legislative Council in Calcutta or by the provincial ones in Madras and Bombay, required the final assent of the Secretary of State in London; this prompted Sir Charles Wood, the second Secretary of State, to describe the Government of India as "a despotism controlled from home".[23] Moreover, although the appointment of Indians to the Legislative Council was a response to calls after the 1857 rebellion, most notably by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, for more consultation with Indians, the Indians so appointed were from the landed aristocracy, often chosen for their loyalty, and far from representative.[26] Even so, the "... tiny advances in the practise of representative government were intended to provide safety valves for the expression of public opinion which had been so badly misjudged before the rebellion".[27] Indian affairs now also came to be more closely examined in the British Parliament and more widely discussed in the British press.[28] [edit]Timeline Viceroy The Viscount Canning[29] of notable events Period of Tenure Events/Accomplishments 1858 reorganisation of British Indian Army (contemporaneously and hereafter Indian Army) 1 Nov Construction begins (1860): University of Bombay, University of Madras, and University of Calcutta 1858 21 Mar Indian Penal Code passed into law in 1860. Upper Doab famine of 1860–1861 1862 Indian Councils Act 1861 Establishment of Archaeological Survey of India in 1861 James Wilson, financial member of Council of India reorganises customs, imposes income tax, createspaper currency. Indian Police Act of 1861, creation of Imperial Police later known as Indian Police Service. The Earl of Elgin 21 Mar 1862 Dies prematurely in Dharamsala 20 Nov 1863 Anglo-Bhutan Duar War (1864–1865) Orissa famine of 1866 Rajputana famine of 1869 Sir John Lawrence, Bt[30] 12 Jan 1864 12 Jan 1869 The Earl of Mayo[31] 12 Jan 1869 8 Feb 1872 Creation of Department of Agriculture (now Ministry of Agriculture) Major extension of railways, roads, and canals Indian Councils Act of 1870 Creation of Andaman and Nicobar Islands as a Chief Commissionership (1872). Assassination of Lord Mayo in the Andamans. The Lord Northbrook[31] 3 May 1872 12 Apr 1876 Mortalities in Bihar famine of 1873–74 prevented by importation of rice from Burma. Gaikwad of Baroda dethroned for misgovernment; dominions continued to a child ruler. Indian Councils Act of 1874 Visit of the Prince of Wales, future Edward VII in 1875–76. The Lord Lytton The Marquess of Ripon[32] 12 Apr 1876 8 Jun 1880 8 Jun 1880 13 Dec Creation of Department of Irrigation. Creation of Imperial Forestry Service in 1867 (now Indian Forest Service). "Nicobar Islands annexed and incorporated into India 1869" Baluchistan established as a Chief Commissionership Queen Victoria (in absentia) proclaimed Empress of India at Delhi Durbar of 1877. Great Famine of 1876–78: 5.25 million dead; reduced relief offered at expense of Rs. 8 crore. Creation of Famine Commission of 1878–80 under Sir Richard Strachey. Indian Forest Act of 1878 Second Anglo-Afghan War. End of Second Anglo-Afghan War. Repeal of Vernacular Press Act of 1878. Compromise on the Ilbert Bill. Local Government Acts extend self-government from towns to country. University of Punjab established in Lahore in 1882 1884 The Earl of Dufferin[33][34] The Marquess of Lansdowne[35] The Earl of Elgin The Lord Curzon of Kedleston[36][37] Famine Code promulgated in 1883 by the Government of India. Creation of the Education Commission. Creation of indigenous schools, especially for Muslims. Repeal of import duties on cotton and of most tariffs. Railway extension. 13 Dec 1884 10 Dec 1888 Passage of Bengal Tenancy Bill Third Anglo-Burmese War. Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission appointed for the Afghan frontier. Russian attack on Afghans at Panjdeh (1885). The Great Game in full play. Report of Public Services Commission of 1886–87, creation of Imperial Civil Service (later Indian Civil Service (ICS), and today Indian Administrative Service) University of Allahabad established in 1887 Queen Victoria's Jubilee, 1887. 10 Dec 1888 11 Oct 1894 Strengthening of NW Frontier defence. Creation of Imperial Service Troops consisting of regiments contributed by the princely states. Gilgit Agency leased in 1899 British Parliament passes Indian Councils Act 1892, opening the Imperial Legislative Council to Indians. Revolution in princely state of Manipur and subsequent reinstatement of ruler. High point of The Great Game. Establishment of the Durand Line between British India and Afghanistan, Railways, roads, and irrigation works begun in Burma. Border between Burma and Siam finalised in 1893. Fall of the Rupee, resulting from the steady depreciation of silver currency worldwide (1873–93). Indian Prisons Act of 1894 11 Oct 1894 6 Jan 1899 Reorganisation of Indian Army (from Presidency System to the four Commands). Pamir agreement Russia, 1895 The Chitral Campaign (1895), the Tirah Campaign (1896–97) Indian famine of 1896–97 beginning in Bundelkhand. Bubonic plague in Bombay (1896), Bubonic plague in Calcutta (1898); riots in wake of plague prevention measures. Establishment of Provincial Legislative Councils in Burma and Punjab; the former a new Lieutenant Governorship. 6 Jan 1899 Creation of the North West Frontier Province) under a Chief Commissioner (1901). Indian famine of 1899–1900. 1912–1929 1916 World War I.[38] About 170. Of those schoolaged. 1914). Death of Queen Victoria (1901). 2 million Sikhs. Indian Army in: Western Front. Mesopotamian Campaign (Battle of Ctesiphon. new province of East Bengal and Assam under a Lieutenant-Governor. and 8. Siege of Kut. 1915– 16). along with 9 million Buddhists (in Burma). 15 million men and 1 million women are literate. Battle of Galliopoli.18 Nov Return of the bubonic plague. art. Gold Reserve Fund created for India. Belgium. 1 million Jains. dedication of the Victoria Memorial Hall. including 62 million in the princely states and 232 million in British India. Edward VII (in absentia) proclaimed Emperor of India.[39] Creation of the Railway Board The Earl of Minto[40] 18 Nov 1905 23 Nov 1910 The Lord Hardinge of Penshurst Visit of King George V and Queen Mary in 1911: commemoration as Emperor and Empress of India at last Delhi Durbar King George V announces creation of new city of New Delhi to replace Calcutta as capital of India. German East Africa (Battle of Tanga. 1 million deaths 1905 Financial Reform Act of 1899. and history. 3 million Christians. 1914.000 are Europeans. 1915. Inauguration of agricultural banking with Cooperative Credit Societies Act of 1904 Partition of Bengal (1905). Francis Younghusband's British expedition to Tibet (1903–04) North-Western Provinces (previously Ceded and Conquered Provinces) and Oudh renamed United Provinces in 1904 Reorganisation of Indian Universities Act (1904). Census of 1901 gives the total population at 294 million. 23 Nov Indian High Courts Act of 1911 1910 Indian Factories Act of 1911 4 Apr Construction of New Delhi. 1915–16 Passage of Defence of India Act 1915 Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 Indian Councils Act 1909 (also Minto-Morley Reforms) Appointment of Indian Factories Commission in 1909. Establishment of Department of Education in 1910 (now Ministry of Education) . 25% of the boys and 3% of the girls attend. There are 207 million Hindus. Systemization of preservation and restoration of ancient monuments by Archaeological Survey of Indiawith Indian Ancient Monument Preservation Act. and 63x million Muslims.4 million who practise animism. Coronation Durbar in Delhi (1903). Calcutta as a national gallery of Indian antiquities. Punjab Land Alienation Act Inauguration of Department (now Ministry) of Commerce and Industry. East African campaign. Battle of Singapore Burma Campaign of World War II begins in 1942. 1919 University of Rangoon established in 1920. 1946 Cabinet Mission to India Indian Elections of 1946. The Viscount Mountbatten of 21 Feb Indian Independence Act 1947 of the British Parliament enacted on 18 July 1947.Indian Army in: Mesopotamian Campaign (Fall of Baghdad. Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran. The Earl of Willingdon The Marquess of Linlithgow 18 Apr 1936 1 Oct 1943 University of Delhi established in 1922. London. 1941. 1931. Indian Army becomes. Sinai and Palestine Campaign(Battle of Megiddo. 1929 Indian Constitutional Round Table Conferences. Indian Military Academy established in 1932. 1931. .5 million men. Indian Workers Compensation Act of 1923 Government of India Act 1935 Creation of Reserve Bank of India Indian Payment of Wages Act of 1936 Burma administered independently after 1937 with creation of new cabinet position Secretary of State for India and Burma. Syria-Lebanon campaign. 1942. Gandhi-Irwin Pact. 1941) Indian Army in Battle of Hong Kong. Indian Workmen's Compensation Act of 1933 Indian Factories Act of 1934 Royal Indian Air Force created in 1932. Battle of Imphal) Bengal famine of 1943 Indian Army in Italian campaign (Battle of Monte Cassino) British Labour Party wins UK General Election of 1945 with Clement Attlee as prime minister. Battle of Malaya. Indian Forest Act. 1919 Government of India Act 1919 (also Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. the largest all-volunteer force in history. 1927 Appointment of Royal Commission of Indian Labour. 1917). The Viscount Wavell 1 Oct 1943 21 Feb 1947 World War II: Burma Campaign. Second Battle of El Alamein. at 2. The Lord Chelmsford 4 Apr 1916 2 Apr 1921 The Earl of Reading 2 Apr 1921 3 Apr 1926 The Lord Irwin 3 Apr 1926 18 Apr 1931 Indian Trade Unions Act of 1926. Anglo-Iraqi War. 1918) Passage of Rowlatt Act. 1940. Indian Army in Mediterranean. 1930–32. Operation Crusader. First Battle of El Alamein. and with the Burma Office separated off from the India Office Indian Provincial Elections of 1937 Cripps' mission to India. Middle East and African theatres of World War II (North African campaign: (Operation Compass. 1919 Third Anglo-Afghan War. 1943–45 (Battle of Kohima. 1941. 18 Apr 1931 18 Apr 1936 New Delhi inaugurated as capital of India. had demonstrated steadfastness. Britain dissolved the East India Company and transferred ruling power over India to the Crown.000 British soldiers. were disbanded. were formed. the British became more circumspect regarding rapid modernisation. The Indian units lost their artillery. though they lost their private armies and were more closely watched. 130.083 European officers and men of the Army. and 350. From then on. August 1947 15 Aug Partition of India India Office and position of Secretary of State for India abolished.[42] The 1861 Census had revealed that the British population in India was 125. The princely states were mostly kept intact.Burma [edit]History 1947 Radcliffe Award. Of these only about 41. it included increasing proportions of Indians.945. Administrative control of India came under the prestigious Indian Civil Service which had administrative control over all districts outside the princely states.000 Natives. At first all-British. They were very well organised. who had formed the core of the rebellion. After the rebellion. Much thought was devoted to the causes of the rebellion. At a more practical level. 1858 to 1914 Main article: History of the British Raj [edit]Aftermath of the Indian rebellion of 1857 Shaken by the events of the Indian rebellion of 1857.[43] In 1880. in British estimation. and totalled about 1000 men. well-educated and professional. the standing Indian Army consisted of 66. ministerial 1947 responsibility within the United Kingdom for British relations with India and Pakistan is transferred to the Commonwealth Relations Office.[41] New regiments. 9 March 1860. and from it three main lessons were drawn.862 were civilians as compared with about 84. like the Sikhs and Baluchis. The all-British units were doubled in number.000 soldiers in the princely armies. composed of Indians who. it was felt that there needed to be more communication and camaraderie between the British and Indians—not just between British army officers and their Indian staff but in civilian life as well. the Indian army was to remain unchanged in its organisation until 1947. The Indian army was completely reorganised: units composed of the Muslims and Brahmins of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. .[44] Viceroy Lord Canning meets MaharajaRanbir Singh of Jammu & Kashmir. [42] [edit]Legal modernization Singha argues that after 1857 the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system.[42] Indeed. even when the British felt very strongly about the issue (as in the instance of the remarriage of Hindu child widows). fighting for their former landlords against the British. caste. by not joining the rebellion. especially not in matters dealing with religion. A woman had to belong to either a father or a husband to have any rights. usable public record and verifiable identities. in many cases. Consequently. They remained tied to the strictures of their religion. no more land reforms were implemented for the next 90 years: Bengal and Bihar were to remain the realms of large land holdings (unlike the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh).[42] At the same time. lepers. There were few new social interventions. had shown disloyalty. prostitutes. but now with an overlay of British Victorian attitudes. deaths. An all-India census was conducted between 1868 and 1871. it was felt that the peasants. for whose benefit the large land-reforms of the United Provinces had been undertaken. The goal was to create a stable.[45] The British decided that both the princes and the large land-holders. However there was opposition from both Muslim and Hindu elements who complained that the new procedures for census-taking and registration threatened to uncover female privacy. Court rulings restricted the rights of second wives and their children regarding inheritance. Select groups which the Raj reformers wanted to monitor statistically included those reputed to practice female infanticide. In the 1860s–1880s the Raj set up compulsory registration of births. as well as adoptions. Murshid argues that women were in some ways more restricted by the modernisation of the laws. property deeds. and wills.[46] Increasingly officials discovered that traditions and customs in India were too strong and too rigid to be changed easily. New legislation merged the Crown and the old East India Company courts and introduced a new penal code as well as new codes of civil and criminal procedure. often using total numbers of females in a household rather than individual names. had proved to be. Their inheritance rights to own and manage property were curtailed. and eunuchs.[41] They too were rewarded in the new British Raj by being officially recognised in the treaties each state now signed with the Crown. "breakwaters in a storm". legal procedures. and customs. and statutes.and avoided the bribes and inside deals that had made for great wealth among the officials of the defunct East India Company. based largely on English law. by. in Lord Canning's words. and marriages. Purdah rules prohibited women from saying their husband's name or having their photograph taken. the new English laws were somewhat harsher.[47] [edit]Education Main article: History of education in the Indian subcontinent#Colonial Era . and the population also grew at 1%. He was inspired by utilitarian ideas and called for "useful learning. the use of English as the medium of instruction. just before the Rebellion. Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in his famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing ideas previously put forward by Lord William Bentinck (the governor general between 1828 and 1835). and 29% by Europeans. compared to the way its riches and trade attracted European and Middle Eastern invaders and traders in 18th century.[54] Fact also remains that India has "third world" status after decolonizing. on average. Extensive irrigation systems were built. Universities in Calcutta. opened 186 universities and colleges of higher education by 1911. By 1887 of 21.[51] [edit]Economic history The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920. often working with local philanthropists. thousands of elementary and secondary schools were opened though they usually had an all-male student body. with the Nationalist school (following Nehru) arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.[53] India's global share of GDP fell drastically from above 20% to less than 5% in the colonial period. Historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history.[55] [edit]Industry The entrepreneur Jamsetji Tata (1839–1904) began his industrial career in 1877 with the Central India Spinning. By 1939 the number of institutions had doubled and enrolment reached 145. and Manufacturing Company in Bombay. Nevertheless by the 1920s the student bodies had become hotbeds of Indian nationalism. though cost of living had grown higher. coffee and tea. especially jute. Bentinck favoured the replacement of Persian by English as the official language. About a third entered public administration. 7% by Muslims. 45% were held by Hindus.000 mid-level civil service appointments. The result was a very well educated professional state bureaucracy. sugarcane. and Madras were established in 1857. Bombay. The curriculum followed classical British standards of the sort set by Oxford and Cambridge and stressed English literature and European history. no long-term change in per capita income levels. Agriculture was still dominant. While other Indian mills produced cheap . Bentinck's proposals were rejected by London officials.[50] The government. Of the 1000 top -level positions. 19% by Eurasians (European father and Indian mother).[48][49] Under Macaulay.During the time of the East India Company. Weaving.000 students (over 90% men). with most peasants at the subsistence level. chiefly in the liberal arts or law. and another third became lawyers.000 Indians had matriculated. typically with an Oxbridge degree. almost all were held by Britons. By 1890 some 60. they enrolled 36. and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers.[52] The result was.000." However. providing an impetus for switching to cash crops for export and for raw materials for Indian industry. cotton. it wanted steel mills in India so it is did promise to purchase any surplus steel Tata could not otherwise sell. Tata did much better by importing expensive longer-stapled cotton from Egypt and buying more complex ring-spindle machinery from the United States to spin finer yarn that could compete with imports from Britain. too socialist. not British[58] and became the leading iron and steel producer in India. he launched plans to move into heavy industry using Indian funding.[59] The Tata family. . and high pay for industrial workers.[57] The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO). with 120. TISCO became India's proud symbol of technical skill. opened its plant at Jamshedpur in Bihar in 1908. entrepreneurial flair.[60] [edit]Railways Main article: History of rail transport in India Extent of Great Indian Peninsular Railwaynetwork in 1870. managerial competence.000 employees in 1945. now headed by his son Dorabji Tata (1859– 1932). and too supportive of trade unions. The Raj did not provide capital.S. It used American technology.coarse yarn (and later cloth) using local short-staple cotton and cheap machinery imported from Britain. but aware of Britain's declining position against the U. The GIPR was one of the largest rail companies at that time.[56] In the 1890s. and Germany in the steel industry. like most of India's big businessmen. were Indian nationalists but did not trust the Congress because it seemed too aggressively hostile to the Raj. Encouraged by the government guarantees.[62] Two new railway companies.495 kilometres (15. Great Indian Peninsular Railway (GIPR) and East Indian Railway (EIR) began in 1853–54 to construct and operate lines near Bombay and Calcutta. Madras. In 1854 Governor-General Lord Dalhousie formulated a plan to construct a network of trunk lines connecting the principal regions of India. engineers and craftsmen.[63] Soon several large princely states built their own rail systems and the network spread to the regions that became the modern-day states of Assam. The first passenger railway line in North India between Allahabad and Kanpur opened in 1859. It was run by British administrators. with the government having the option to buy them earlier. Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.842 mi) in 1880 – mostly radiating inland from the three major port cities of Bombay. and Calcutta.[64] Most of the railway construction was done by Indian companies supervised by British engineers. The railways at first were privately owned and operated. The route mileage of this network increased from 1. The companies were to build and operate the lines under a 99 year lease. The system was .The railway network in 1909. when it was the fourth largest railway network in the world. only the unskilled workers were Indians. investment flowed in and a series of new rail companies were established.349 kilometres (838 mi) in 1860 to 25.[61] The East India Company (and later the colonial government) encouraged new railway companies backed by private investors under a scheme that would provide land and guarantee an annual return of up to five percent during the initial years of operation. leading to rapid expansion of the rail system in India. At first. [65] By the end of the war. civil engineers. the railways had deteriorated for lack of maintenance and were not profitable. both the Raj lines and the private companies hired only European supervisors. but they were rarely allowed to manufacture or repair locomotives. while the company continued to manage it. shutting out most Indian firms. "The most magnificent railway station in the world.heavily built. and even operating personnel. and East Africa. metre and narrow gauge networks. The railway companies purchased most of their hardware and parts in Britain. In 1900 the government took over the GIPR network. There were railway maintenance workshops in India. forty-two separate railway systems. both GIPR and EIR were nationalised. some locomotives and cars were shipped to the Middle East. such as locomotive engineers. critical workers entered the army." Victoria Terminus. The government's Stores Policy required that bids on railway contracts be made to the India Office in London. . In the First World War. including thirty-two lines owned by the former Indian princely states. In 1923. TISCO steel could not obtain orders for rails until the war emergency. the railways were used to transport troops and grains to the ports of Bombay and Karachi en route to Britain. Headrick shows that until the 1930s. sturdy tracks and strong bridges.[66] The Second World War severely crippled the railways as rolling stock was diverted to the Middle East. The railways could barely keep up with the increased demand. operating on broad. Bombay. By 1900 India had a full range of rail services with diverse ownership and management. and the railway workshops were converted into munitions workshops. workshops were converted to making artillery. were amalgamated to form a single nationalised unit named the Indian Railways.[67] After independence in 1947. was completed in 1888. maintenance became much more difficult. Mesopotamia. With shipments of equipment and parts from Britain curtailed. using a wide gauge. such as Bombay. both the direct administration of India by the British crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain. Railway costs could therefore not be tailored to the timely needs of the railways or their passengers. for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets. India too saw rapid development of all those technologies. posing a challenge to the cottage-based home production system based on family labour. capital.[70] Likewise. just as efficiently. Massive railway projects were begun in earnest and government railway jobs and pensions attracted a large number of upper caste Hindus into the civil service for the first time. and with the hope that it would stimulate industry. such as cotton. service.[69] In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. from India's hinterland could be transported more efficiently to ports.[73] . Railways.[72] Industrial production as it developed in European factories was unknown until the 1850s when the first cotton mills were opened in Bombay. for subsequent export to England. finished goods from England. However.[71] Imports of British cotton covered 55% of the Indian market by 1875. local needs. The system was overbuilt and too expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried. but it remained politically neutral.[68] [edit]Policies In the second half of the 19th century.India provides an example of the British Empire pouring its money and expertise into a very well built system designed for military reasons (after the Mutiny of 1857). and bridges were rapidly built in India and telegraph links equally rapidly established in order that raw materials. The Indian Civil Service was prestigious and paid well. He concludes that making the railways a creature of the state hindered success because railway expenses had to go through the same time-consuming and political budgeting process as did all other state expenses. it did capture the imagination of the Indians. were transported back. canals. roads. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological revolution underway in Britain. who saw their railways as the symbol of an industrial modernity—but one that was not realised until after Independence. and private-versus-public interests. Christensen (1996) looks at of colonial purpose. [75]Moreover. 1860s–1890s By 1880 a new middle class had arisen in India and spread thinly across the country. The membership comprised a westernised elite. by 1947[74] [edit]New middle class.[75] It was. that transformed the discontent into political action.[77] Lastly. in the Vernacular Press Act of 1878). Indian National Congress. and by the use of Indian taxes to pay the high salaries of the British civil servants in India.[76] On 28 December 1885. came not just from incidents of racial discrimination at the hands of the British in India."[75] The encouragement felt by this class came from its success in education and its ability to avail itself of the benefits of that education such as employment in the Indian Civil Service. the nationalists claimed. professionals and intellectuals from this middle-class—many educated at the new British-founded universities in Bombay. there was a growing solidarity among its members. on the other hand. Viceroy Lord Ripon's partial reversal of the Ilbert Bill (1883). the Congress primarily debated British policy toward India. its debates created a new Indian outlook that held Great Britain responsible for draining India of its wealth. Britain did this. Womesh Chandra Bonerjee was elected the first president.[78] [edit]Social Reformers. and Madras. with the land tax revenue claiming 15% of India's national income during Mogul times compared with 1% at the end of the colonial period. During its first twenty years. especially the utilitarians assembled in Bombay. who in their works had been presenting ancient India as a great civilisation. the Extremists: 1870s–1907 .g.g.The Queen's Own Madras Sappers and Miners.[75]Irritation."[77] Indians were especially encouraged when Canada was granted dominion status in 1867 and established an autonomous democratic constitution. by the restraint on indigenous Indian industry. by unfair trade. The seventy men founded the Indian National Congress. Calcutta. created by the "joint stimuli of encouragement and irritation. and no effort was made at this time to broaden the base. the encouragement came from the work of contemporaneous Oriental scholars like Monier Monier-Williams and Max Müller. "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligation of duty which bind us to all our other subjects. The percentage of national income for the village economy increased from 44% during Mogul times to 54% by the end of colonial period. Moderates vs. India's per capita GDP decreased from $550 in 1700 to $520 by 1857. 1896 Taxes in India decreased during the colonial period for most of India's population. a legislative measure that had proposed putting Indian judges in the Bengal Presidency on equal footing with British ones. and familiar with the ideas of British political philosophers. but also from governmental actions like the use of Indian troops in imperial campaigns (e.[76] It came too from Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858 in which she had declared. however. in the Second Anglo-Afghan War) and the attempts to control the vernacular press (e. however. although it later increased to $618. Social reform was in the air by the 1880s. Sanskrit scholar. both allies of Tilak. displayed. was elected president of the Indian National Congress in 1905. who attempted to mobilise Indians by appealing to an explicitly Hindu political identity. Congress member Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society.[79] By 1900 reform movements had taken root within the Indian National Congress. Prominent among the extremists was Bal Gangadhar Tilak. a constitutional social reformer and moderate nationalist. led by Gokhale. and a champion of the emancipation of Indian women. in the annual public Ganapati festivals that he inaugurated in western India. later converted to Christianity. for example. and worked among the untouchable community. poet. took up the cause of widow remarriage. who downplayed public agitation. but also regarded the pursuit of social reform as a distraction from nationalism. Seated at the table is Aurobindo Ghosh and to his right (in the chair) is Lala Lajpat Rai. Pandita Ramabai. and whose members took vows of poverty. especially of Brahamin widows. For example. which lobbied for legislative reform (for example.Gopal Krishna Gokhale.[80] Congress "extremist" Bal Gangadhar Tilakspeaking in 1907 as the party split into the Moderates and the Extremists. for a law to permit the remarriage of Hindu child widows). and the new "extremists" who not only advocated agitation.[81] . By 1905 a deep gulf opened between the moderates. speeding up the operations of the secretariat. lowering taxes. among them many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants.[84] . creating an Imperial Cadet Corps.[82] His agenda included the creation of the North-West Frontier Province. reduction of peasant debts. The Hindu elite of Bengal. indeed. sponsoring agricultural research. creating an Agricultural Department. establishing an Imperial Library. creation of a Railway Board.[edit]Partition of Bengal: 1905–1911 The viceroy Lord Curzon (1899–1905) was unusually energetic in pursuit of efficiency and reform. the Bengal Presidency. new famine codes. sowed the seeds of division among Indians and.[83] Viceroy Curzon. (1899–1905). the Partition of Bengal—which some considered administratively felicitous. he promoted many reforms but his partitioning of Bengal into Muslim and Hindu states outraged Hindus Trouble emerged for Curzon when he divided the largest administrative subdivision in British India. irrigation reform. revised land revenue policies. lowering the cost of telegrams. promotion of industry. which had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since the time of Lord William Bentinck. but never acted upon—was to transform nationalist politics as nothing else before it. police reforms. and. upgrading the roles of the Native States. Curzon's act. small changes in the Civil Service. improvements in the universities. and Orissa). archaeological research and the preservation of antiquities.Bihār. protested fervidly. setting up a gold standard to ensure a stable currency. into the Muslim-majority province of East Bengal and Assam and the Hindumajority province ofWest Bengal (present-day Indian states of West Bengal. reducing the smoke nuisance in Calcutta. setting up agricultural banks. communally charged. a new Commerce and Industry Department. [85] Cover of a 1909 issue of the Tamil magazine. Sri . India. felt that Curzon's act was punishment for their political assertiveness.Sir Surendranath Banerjee. which invoked a mother goddess. and involved boycott of British goods. who led the opposition to the partition of Bengal with the Swadeshimovement to buy Indian-made cloth The large Bengali Hindu middle-class (the Bhadralok). a Congress moderate. The pervasive protests against Curzon's decision took the form predominantly of theSwadeshi ("buy Indian") campaign led by two-time Congress president. who stood variously for Bengal. Surendranath Banerjee. upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by Biharis and Oriyas. Vijaya showing "Mother India" with her diverse progeny and the rallying cry "Vande Mataram" The rallying cry for both types of protest was the slogan Bande Mataram ("Hail to the Mother"). and the Hindu goddess Kali. Map of British India.[88] Arnold shows that in the Madras presidency the armed police were divided into the district reserves and the striking forces.[86] The unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when students returned home to their villages and towns. showing the prevailing majority religions based on the Census of 1901 The Hindu protests against the partition of Bengal led the Muslim elite in India to organise in 1906 the All India Muslim League.[90] [edit]Muslim League: 1906 Main article: All-India Muslim League 1909 Prevailing Religions.000 officers and 138.[89] The Swadeshi boycott movement cut imports of British textiles by 25%. Its goal was Passive Resistance.[87] In 1906 the civil police (completely separate from the Army) comprised 29. was worn as a mark of national pride by people all over India. The Presidency General Reserve was established in 1931. The League favoured the partition of Bengal. It was established to handle the Moplah rebellion of 1921 and was used throughout the presidency. Armed with seven-foot metal tipped lathis and smoothbore muskets. 1909. although more expensive and somewhat less comfortable than its Lancashire competitor. armed with Enfield rifles. but the conspiracies generally failed in the face of intense police work. they repressed the disturbances of 1930–33. since it gave them a Muslim .Aurobindo never went beyond the law when he edited the Bande Mataram magazine. it preached freedom but within the bounds of peace as far as possible. Some engaged in robbery to fund terrorist activities such as bombing public buildings.000 men. and tear gas after 1940. The swadeshi cloth. Special striking forces included the Malabar Special Police. when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress. became the president of the Indian National Congress in 1921. a founder of the Muslim League.majority in the eastern half. and the Congress itself rallied around symbolism of Kali.[91] Hakim Ajmal Khan. including Dacca Nawab andKhwaja Salimullah. the Conservative viceroy met with the Muslim delegation in June 1906. In 1905. . expected that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power. [edit]Minto-Morley Reforms: 1909–1915 Lord Minto. Muslim fears increased. TheMinto-Morley Reforms of 1909 called for separate Muslim electorates. The Muslim elite. had to wait until the demise of Tilak's principal moderate opponents. fifty years forward ..[93] India's international profile rose during the 1920s. Their participation had a wider cultural fallout as news spread how bravely soldiers fought and died alongside British soldiers. Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Pherozeshah Mehta. Some 1... "aim and intention . in the Imperial Legislative Council. He announced the capital would be moved from Calcutta to Delhi. Morley was especially vigilant in crushing revolutionary groups[92] [edit]History [edit]First 1914–1947 World War. when Bal Gangadhar Tilak was released from prison and began to sound out other Congress leaders about possible re-unification.. known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India. Municipal Corporations and District Boards were created for local administration. the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act of 1892. the war led to calls for greater self-government for Indians. other such rumblings began to appear in public pronouncements: in 1917.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army took part in the war. Lucknow Pact: 1914–1918 The First World War would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. they included elected Indian members. (The) reforms .. "Les Indes Anglaises" (British India). The goals were quite conservative but they did advance the elective principle. The Moslem community was made a separate electorate and granted double representation. whereupon an agreement was reached for Tilak's ousted group to re-enter the Congress.The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members.[93] After the 1906 split between the moderates and the extremists. under the name.[93] In the 1916 Lucknow session of the Congress. a Moslem stronghold. rich lanndowners and businessmen were favoured.[94] Back in India. in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp.[40] The partition of Bengal was rescinded in 1911 and announced at the Delhi Durbar at which King George V came in person and was crowned Emperor of India. Tilak's supporters were able to push through a more radical resolution which asked for the British to declare that it was their. primarily in Iraq and the Middle East. as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia. to confer self-government on India at an early date. The Indian Councils Act 1909. That."[93] Soon. especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress. "I venture to say that the war has put the clock . in 1915.. Upper class Indians. and Minto was viceroy) — gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures. however. organised political activity by the Congress had remained fragmented until 1914. Madan Mohan Malaviya spoke of the expectations the war had generated in India. as it became a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 and participated. to promote Home Rule among Indians.[95] In the Lucknow Pact. the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey.[96] Mrs. who had embraced the Pan-Islamic cause. Besant. who was later to rise to leadership roles in both the League and the Indian freedom movement. having largely been negotiated by a group of "Young Party" Muslims from the United Provinces (UP). pamphlets. and political-religious songs. a decision that was seen as ill-disposed to Muslims.after the war will have to be such. it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minority élites of provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal. two brothers Mohammad and Shaukat Ali. for her part. in the southern Bombay presidency." was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen so by the British. and later to mass meetings. and lower-level government workers.[95] however. the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. Besant's in the rest of the country. most prominently. students. nonetheless.[96] The two Leagues focused their attention on complementary geographical regions: Tilak's in western India. the pact did not have unanimous backing. as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded.[95] During 1916. Their propaganda also turned to posters. or Khalifah.[96] Although they did not achieve the magnitude or character of a nation-wide mass movement. traders. doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the "religious neutrality" of the British. and since the British and their allies were now in conflict with Turkey. In 1916. the "Lucknow Pact. Muhammad Ali Jinnah. farmers. but especially in the Madras Presidency and in regions like Sind and Gujaratthat had hitherto been considered politically dormant by the Congress. and Mrs. Since the Turkish Sultan. was also keen to demonstrate the superiority of this new form of organised agitation. it did have the support of a young lawyer from Bombay."[93] The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League. and Jerusalem. Medina. . In later years. in the League itself. the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters. had also sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy sites of Mecca. .. respectively. as will satisfy the aspirations of her (India's) people to take their legitimate part in the administration of their own country. at the time. doubts that had already surfaced as a result of the reunification of Bengal in 1911. and also to elevate the stature of the founders within the Congress itself. the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did not yet have its wider following among Indian Muslims of later years. to the political violence that had intermittently plagued the subcontinent during the years 1907–1914. which had achieved some success in theIrish home rule movement.[96] Both leagues rapidly acquired new members – approximately thirty thousand each in a little over a year – and began to publish inexpensive newspapers.. in return. but also entirely new social groups such as non-Brahmins. which not only attracted greater numbers than in earlier Congress sessions. two Home Rule Leagues were founded within the Indian National Congress by Tilak and Annie Besant. by making Indians more self-reliant. in his essay.[96] The year 1915 also saw the return of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to India. Satyagraha was different from "passive resistance". while the last. or "self-rule" for India based on three vital ingredients: solidarity between Indians of different faiths. which he regarded as a practical strategy adopted by the weak in the face of superior force. which. Gandhi followed the advice of his mentor Gopal Krishna Gokhale and chose not to make any public pronouncements during the first year of his return. the removal of untouchability from Indian society. he had created a technique of non-violent resistance. were essential for India to be an egalitarian and tolerant society. and writing. In tackling the challenge of holding this community together and simultaneously confronting the colonial authority. was sufficiently diverse to be a microcosm of India itself. came to represent the twin pillar. but also the British commitment to it. but most of all between Hindus and Muslims.[97] Earlier.[97] The first two. with Truth. it was the inability of Indians to create a modern society. Gandhi tested the technique of Satyagraha in a number of protests on behalf of the Indian community in South Africa against the unjust racial laws. Already known in India as a result of his civil liberties protests on behalf of the Indians in South Africa. observing the country first-hand. but instead spent the year travelling.[97] Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with theMesopotamian Expeditionary Force inMesopotamia duringWorld War I. a lawyer by profession. the British presence itself. by then a familiar technique of social protest. although small. [98] Also. Hind Swaraj. rather. of Gandhi's unorthodox religious outlook on life. during his time in South Africa. was not a stumbling block in Gandhi's conception of swaraj. during his South Africa sojourn. Striving for Truth). and the exercise of swadeshi – the boycott of manufactured foreign goods and the revival of Indiancottage industry."[98] Ahimsa or "non-violence. was for him the "last resort of those strong enough in their commitment to truth to undergo suffering in its cause. (1909)." which formed the underpinning of Satyagraha.[98] During the years 1907–1914. one befitting the principles of Truth and Ahimsa. had represented an Indian community. on the other hand. Gandhi formulated his vision of Swaraj. including shutting out students from meetings and banning the two leaders from travelling to certain provinces. Satyagraha. .[97] At least until 1920.[98] For Gandhi. would break the cycle of dependence that was not only perpetrating the direction and tenor of the British rule in India. Gandhi. The British authorities reacted by imposing restrictions on the Leagues. which he labelledSatyagraha (or. he felt.the Home Rule leagues both deepened and widened organised political agitation for self-rule in India. died in 1971. Punjab. [edit]Satyagraha. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: 1917–1919 Gandhi made his political debut in India in 1917 in Champaran district in Bihar. Rajendra Prasad. ended the three-way rift between the Extremists. including a young Congress leader. third from the left. in 1916.[99] Upon his arrival in the district. he refused on moral grounds. who hailed from Chakwal District. in present-day Pakistan. Khan. was a supporter of the Lucknow Pact. eyes downcast. where he was invited by a group of disgruntled tenant farmers who. Muhammad Ali Jinnah. setting up his refusal as a form of individual Satyagraha. seated. for many years. who would become a become a loyal supporter of Gandhi and go on to play a prominent role in the Indian freedom movement. Soon. near the Nepal border. the British Empire's highest wartime medal for gallantry. under pressure from the Viceroy . which. Sepoy Khudadad Khan. the first Indian to be awarded the Victoria Cross. had been forced into planting indigo (for dyes) on a portion of their land and then selling it at below-market prices to the British planters who had leased them the land. from Bihar. with black flat-top hat) receives a big welcome in Karachi in 1916 after his return to India from South Africa. on the right. When Gandhi was ordered to leave by the local British authorities. Gandhi was joined by other agitators. the Moderates and the League. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (seated in carriage. ."[101] Although the plan envisioned limited self-government at first only in the provinces – with India emphatically within the British Empire – it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony. which eventually led to a settlement. after the disaster in the Mesopotamian campaign. cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion. he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith – in light of the Indian war role – through a number of public actions. responded less than enthusiastically to the concurrent projects of rural empowerment and education that Gandhi had inaugurated in keeping with his ideal of swaraj. the new Liberal Secretary of State for India. although the farmers' cause received publicity from Gandhi's presence. the British planters eventually gave in. and who too would go on to play a leadership role in the Indian freedom movement. In 1916. Lord Chelmsford. the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and Mesopotamia. which consisted of the farmers' collective decision to withhold payment. at the onset of World War I. to worry about the "risks involved in denuding India of troops. although pleased at the resolution. and removal of the much-reviled cotton excise duty. who had organised the farmers. including awards of titles and honours to princes. in August 1917. after discussions with the government in London. Kaira. and Ahmedabad were important milestones in the history of Gandhi's new methods of social protest in India. in contrast. the farmers themselves. as the British authorities refused to back down. The following year Gandhi launched two more Satyagrahas – both in his native Gujarat – one in the rural Kaira district where land-owning farmers were protesting increased land-revenue and the other in the city of Ahmedabad. The satyagraha in Ahmedabad took the form of Gandhi fasting and supporting the workers in a strike. granting of commissions in the army to Indians. they were not won over to the farmers' cause. announced the British aim of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration. the provincial government rescinded Gandhi's expulsion order. had led the previous Viceroy. In Kaira. where workers in an Indian-owned textile mill were distressed about their low wages.[101] Towards the end of the year. but."[93] Revolutionary violence had already been a concern in British India.[100] Champaran. Earlier. The agitation in Kaira gained for Gandhi another lifelong lieutenant in Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. most importantly.in Delhi who was anxious to maintain domestic peace during war-time. After more discussion. and the realisation. Although. and the gradual development of self-governing institutions. in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the Lucknow Pact and the founding of theHome Rule leagues. the new Viceroy. and thereby did not produce the optimal outcome of a Satyagraha that Gandhi had hoped for. was not immediately successful. similarly.Edwin Montagu. and later agreed to an official enquiry into the case. an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire. Lord Harding. that the war would likely last longer. the satyagraha itself. there was also a change in the economic climate. Rowlatt. the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and. in 1917.[104] The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920.[105] and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay. since the Government of India wanted to ensure against any sabotage of the reform process by extremists. However. By year's end 1919. the Bombay presidency. fearing a similar revolution in India. the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two Rowlatt Bills.consequently." with the unstated goal of extending the government's war-time powers. and ordinarily more problematic to imprison. the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its war-time authority. even as Edwin Montagu.[105] and the latter among government officials. a European woman. announced the new constitutional reforms. they were done so unwillingly.5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles. 1.[102] It was under the Defence of India act that the Ali brothers were imprisoned in 1916. a committee chaired by a British judge.[106] To combat what it saw as a coming crisis. exaction of securities from suspects. as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest. governmental overseeing of residences of suspects.[102] Now. in 1917. and Bengal provinces.[101] and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short-term detention facilities and without trial. S.[104] Returning war veterans. it also began to consider how some of its war-time powers could be extended into peace time.[104] The global influenza epidemic and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 added to the general jitters. with the accompanying declaration. the Government of India passed the Defence of India Act. and added to the power it already had – under the 1910 Press Act – both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press.[102] Consequently.[101] The Rowlatt committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency:Bengal. and the Punjab. which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries. the former among the population already experiencing economic woes. "I . A.[101] To combat subversive acts in these regions. how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened.[105] a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918–19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation.[103] With the end of World War I. created a growing unemployment crisis. Mr. simultaneously. was tasked with investigating "revolutionary conspiracies. and Annie Besant.[103] Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu. in 1915. Madras. which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process. especially in the Punjab. T. and since its reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased governmental control. to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability. and India had provided £146 million in revenue for the war. foreign affairs. Montagu and Chelmsford themselves finally presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter. able to use of its "official majority" to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919.[107] After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain. land-revenue. nevertheless. and income-tax were retained by theViceroy and the central government in New Delhi. and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council.[101] However. what it passed. when it was passed. police.loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peace time to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary. generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational.[107] The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new dyarchical system. Anglo-Indians. with seats being reserved for Muslims. prisons.[107] Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins. In particular. land-revenue. infrastructure development. businessmen. and domiciled Europeans. while others like irrigation. but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of "anarchical and revolutionary movements. all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. agriculture. The Government of India was. whereby some areas like education. local selfgovernment were transferred to the provinces. the Government of India Act 1919 (also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919. The principal of "communal representation. education. A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised. although.[107] The new Act enlarged both the provincial and Imperial legislative councils and repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavourable votes. other departments like public health. in deference to the Indian opposition. rural candidates. was reaffirmed. and college graduates. was a lesser version of the first bill.[107] The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps. the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful."[101] In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council.[107] The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant . landowners. criminal law.[103] Meanwhile. they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population.[107] Although departments like defence.[107] In the provincial legislatures. which now allowed extrajudicial powers. and ultimately the Indian electorates. in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact.[101] Even so. many of whom were still illiterate. Indian Christians. and brought Gandhi to the forefront of the nationalist movement. the new Rowlatt Act aroused widespread indignation throughout India. were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Sikhs. and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections. communications. and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures. for voting at the national level." an integral part of the Minto-Morley reforms." dropping entirely the second bill involving modification the Indian Penal Code. that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters. The new policy became minimum force. and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control. however. left.H. whose report. famously expressed by Annie Beasant as something "unworthy of England to offer and India to accept".[112] Gandhi at the time of the Kheda Satyagraha. Edwin Montagu. 1918.100 wounded.[108][citation not found] [edit]Jallianwala Bagh Massacre The Jallianwala Bagh massacre or "Amritsar massacre". women.[109] TheIndian National Congress estimated three times the number of dead. Dyer was removed from duty but he became a celebrated hero in Britain among people with connections to the Raj.[111] Raghaven argues that the massacre caused a reevaluation the Army's role. especially at the provincial level.[110] Historians consider the episode was a decisive step towards the end of British rule in India. with the Government of India reporting 379 dead.[107]Its scope was unsatisfactory to the Indian political leadership. to make it more pragmatic and nuanced rather than rely on brute force to overawe or punish the natives. took place in the Jallianwala Bagh public garden in the predominantly Sikh northern city of Amritsar.opportunity yet for exercising legislative power. After days of unrest Brigadier-General Reginald E. The army was retrained and developed suitable tactics such as crowd control. by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures. Dyer forbade public meetings and on Sunday 13 April 1919 fifty British Indian Army soldiers commanded by Dyer began shooting at an unarmed gathering of thousands of men. Casualty estimates vary widely. and children without warning. theSecretary of State for India. led to theGovernment of India Act 1919. . with 1. also known as the Montford Reforms or the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms. this time in Gujarat. who organised farmers to refuse payment of increased land taxes. transforming it into a mass movement and opening its membership to even the poorest Indians. the movement revived again. [edit]Noncooperation. Khilafat. In addition. and to again boycott British goods. in the mid-1920s. the success of this protest. the Bardoli Satyagraha. resulted in widespread protests throughout the country. to resign from civil service. Gandhi reorganised the Congress. non-violent protests of the Congress had resumed too. prompting many Indians to return British awards and honours. and led by Patel. brought Gandhi back into the fold of active politics. Simon Commission. Although all nonofficial Indians on the Legislative Council voted against the Rowlatt Bills. Although Gandhi halted the noncooperation movement in 1922 after the violent incident at Chauri Chaura. The Jallianwalla Bagh in 1919. Gandhi began his campaign of noncooperation. the government was able to [103] force their passage by using its majority. in 1925. after the British government refused to back down. a few months after the massacre which had occurred on 13 April. The visit.[113] . Headlines about the Rowlatt Bills (1919) from a nationalist newspaper in India. in 1928.[113] Earlier. charged with instituting constitutional reform in India. of the British Simon Commission. Jinnah's fourteen points: 1920s In 1920. Lahore. is future revolutionary Bhagat Singh. the Indian National Congress. 1921. raised the flag of independent India for the first time. and afterwards issued a demand for Purna Swaraj (Sanskrit: "complete independence"). which Nehru was to later refer to as "a tryst with destiny. in which thousands of Indians defied the tax on salt. culminating in 1930 with the Salt Satyagraha. and Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari. Standing.Annie Besant en route to a meeting in Madras in September. founded in 1921 by Lala Lajpat Raifor students preparing for the non-cooperation movement. . Photograph of the staff and students of the National College. Gandhi had adopted the loin-clothfor the first time as a symbol of his identification with India's poor. Earlier." Hindus and Muslims. [edit]Demand for complete independence. An early 1920s poster advertising a Congress non-cooperation "Public Meeting" and a "Bonfire of Foreign Clothes" in Bombay. during its annual session in Lahore. on 21 September 1921. and expressing support for the "Karachi Khilafat Conference. collecting clothes to be later burnt as a part of the non-cooperation movement initiated by Gandhi. fourth from the right. in Madurai. which included Gandhi. Patel. Gandhi subsequently led an expanded movement of civil disobedience.Mahatma Gandhi with Dr. displaying the flags of both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. Salt March: 1929–1931 At midnight on 31 December 1929. under the presidency ofJawaharlal Nehru. Nehru." The declaration was drafted by the Congress Working Committee. by marching to the sea and making their own salt by evaporating seawater. Parliament passed the Government of India Act 1935.Although. A voter could cast a vote only for candidates in his own category.. Europeans. after the Round Table Conferences.[115] [edit]Government of India Act: 1931–1937 British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonaldto the right of Mahatma Gandhi at the Second round Table Conference in London. but it faced growing difficulties." In 1935. Anglo-Indians. Moslems. etc. Depressed Classes. in the face of the Quit India movement the revenue collectors had to rely on military force and by 1946–47 direct British control was rapidly disappearing in much of the countryside. including Gandhi. Commerce and Industry. it divided the electorate into 19 religious and social categories. R. the British government eventually gave in. and the continuing distrust of Indians resulted in a declining base in terms of quality and quantity. representative of the "Depressed Classes. the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states. Ambedkar. B. many. and in 1931 Gandhi travelled to London to negotiate new reform at the Round Table Conferences. Again the outbreak of war strengthened them. Sikhs. each of which was given separate representation in the Provincial Legislative Assemblies.g. e. . The futureConstitution of independent India was based on this act. Fourth from the left in the foreground is Dr. were arrested. Indian Christians. By 1945 Indians were numerically dominant in the ICS and at issue was loyal divided between the Empire and independence. and these became problematic in the 1930s..[114] The finances of the Raj depended on land taxes. and the protection of Muslim minorities. Epstein argues that after 1919 it became harder and harder to collect the land revenue. Landholders. In local terms British control rested on the Indian Civil Service. which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India. Fewer and fewer young men in Britain were interested in joining. The Raj's suppression of civil disobedience after 1934 temporarily increased the power of the revenue agents but after 1937 they were forced by the new Congress-controlled provincial governments to hand back confiscated land.[116] However. October 1931. 000 in 1935 to 4. "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign. Lord Linlithgow. Jinnah repeatedly warned that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. The act provided for a national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government. but the rulers of the princely states managed to block its implementation. "red shirts") in the North West Frontier Province. who previously had seen the Congress as a small elitist body. Fazlul Huq of the leftist Krishak Praja Party in Bengal.[117] In the 1937 elections Congress won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India. declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders. and repeatedly blamed the British for "divide and rule" tactics based on prompting Muslims to think of themselves as alien from Hindus.[121] The Congress was secular and strongly opposed having any religious state. He proclaimed the Two-Nation Theory. were formed in these provinces. Muslim League's Lahore Resolution: 1938–1941 While the Muslim League was a small elite group in 1927 with only 1300 members.[122] stating at Lahore on 22 March 1940: . supported Britain in the war effort and maintained its control of the government in three major provinces.000 members in Bengal in 1944. leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. with wide powers. and influential regional Muslim politicians such as A.[120] With the outbreak of World War II in 1939. with the goal of cooling off nationalist sentiment. On 24 March 1940 in Lahore. It insisted there was a natural unity to India. Sind and the Punjab. K.000 in Punjab. over the next six years. Bengal. 200. reaching 500.[118] Congress governments. and hundreds of thousands elsewhere. with no popular government.[119] [edit]World War II. Sikander Hyat Khan of the landlord-dominated Punjab Unionist Party. Jinnah rejected the notion of a united India. \To prepare for elections Congress built up its grass roots membership from 473.The 1935 Act provided for more autonomy for Indian provinces. These states remained under the full control of their hereditary rulers.5 million in 1939. The Muslim League. in contrast. and Abd al-Ghaffar Khan of the pro-CongressKhudai Khidmatgar (popularly. The widespread voter support for the Indian National Congress surprised Raj officials." Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leader Ab'ul Kalam Azad. Jinnah now was well positioned to negotiate with the British from a position of power. and emphasised that religious communities were more basic than an artificial nationalism. it grew rapidly once it became an organisation that reached out to the masses. demanding that. the League passed the "Lahore Resolution". the British. the viceroy. were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India. social customs. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and. and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality.. in fact. but are. must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state.. one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority. different and distinct social orders. they belong to two different civilisations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. indeed. and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. litterateurs. and Liaquat Ali Khancentre."Islam and Hinduism . Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman(left) seconding the 1940 Lahore Resolution of theMuslim League withJinnah (right) presiding."[123] Mahatma Gandhi andRajendra Prasad (left) on their way to meet the viceroy Lord Linlithgow (13 October 1939) after the outbreak of World War II.. Newly arrived Indian troops on the quayside in Singapore. To yoke together two such nations under a single state.. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies. Their aspect on life and of life are different . are not religions in the strict sense of the word. November 1941 . Over two million Indians volunteered for military service in the British Army. In addition. 255th Indian Tank Brigade. machine-guns. [edit]Army expansion Sherman tank of the 9th Royal Deccan Horse.000 wounded. chemicals (up 30%). with 700. Indian Army Sikh personnel in action during the successful Operation Crusader in Western Desert Campaign in North Africa in December 1941.000 captured at Singapore in 1942. and ammunition) led to a rapid expansion of industrial output. heavy British spending on munitions produced in India (such as uniforms.300 million. steel (up 18%). such as textiles (up 16%). Burma 1945 While the regular Indian army in 1939 included about 220. it expanded tenfold during the war[124] and small naval and air force units were created. and 60.000 killed. which had the effect of erasing India's national debt.000 missing (probably dead).000 native troops. was taxed to the limit as demand for transportation soared. 12.[125] London paid most of the cost of the Indian Army. Small warships were built. The railway system. and an aircraft factory opened in Bangalore. They played a major role in numerous campaigns. It ended the war with a surplus of £1. especially in the Middle East and North Africa. with were 24. 64. field artillery.[126] [edit]INA .000 employees. rifles. Casualties were moderate (in terms of the world war). did not support the Cripps Mission and negotiations with the Congress soon broke down.[128] On some ideological conflict leading to Tripuri Crisis for the election of the Congress President.[133] . Quit India Resolution: 1942–1945 The British government sent the Cripps' mission in 1942 to secure Indian nationalists' cooperation in the war effort in exchange for a promise of independence as soon as the war ended.000 survived the war.[129] Bose resigned from the Congress in 1939 and turned to Germany and Japan to liberate India by force. presided by Bose.[131] and set up several puppet governments in the captured regions. the Japanese secret service had promoted unrest in South east Asia to destabilise the British war effort. For India Japan created the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India). about 10. Most joined the INA coming to a total of 50000 soldiers[127] and fought in Burma. and launched its Burma Campaign.[130] With Japanese sponsorship he organised the Indian National Army. Sir Stafford Cripps [edit]Cripps negotiating with Gandhi March 1942 Mission. most notably Prime Minister Winston Churchill. From the onset of the war.The soldiers captured at Singapore had the option of going to Japanese POW camps or joining the Indian National Army. Top officials in Britain.[132] After early Japanese success in Burma. headed by Subhas Chandra Bose but under Japanese control. the reinforced British Indian Army in 1945 first halted and then reversed the Japanese U Go offensive. 1945 saw England offer India limited autonomy within the British Empire. and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of State for India. Now as the trials began. Madras. followed by others in Calcutta. 1942 Congress in July 1942 launched the "Quit India" movement in demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience.[134] nonetheless. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed. at the end of the war in 1945. the colonial government had announced the public trial of three senior officers of Bose's defeated Indian National Army who stood accused of treason. new elections were called in India.[137] Also in early 1946. Earlier. It did not slow down the British war effort or recruiting for the army. Direct Action Day: 1946 In January 1946. The large war-time British Army presence crushed the movement in a little more than six weeks.[136] [edit]Elections. Bihar. chose to defend the accused officers.[134] In other parts of India. the Congress leadership. although ambivalent towards the INA. and Karachi. a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services. On 8 August the Raj arrested all national. the public outcry against the convictions. who had visited four years before. and the eventual remission of .[138] The subsequent convictions of the officers. The AllIndia Congress debated between September 20 through 23. but they rejected the proposition and demanded that England leave India immediately. The country erupted in violent demonstrations led by students and later by peasant political groups. provincial and local Congress leaders. the movement was less spontaneous and the protest less intensive. holding tens of thousands of them until 1945. especially in Eastern United Provinces. however it lasted sporadically into the summer of 1943. starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. a portion of the movement formed for a time an underground provisional government on the border with Nepal.[135] September 19.[137] The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946.Women's procession in Bombay during the "Quit India" movement. Cabinet Mission. and western Bengal. Lord Pethick Lawrence. they had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action. and includingSir Stafford Cripps. The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout India. Khan Sahib Qazi Zafar Hussain. Sir Stafford Cripps. which only helped in the party's subsequent electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces. Direct Action Day. with the stated goal of highlighting. Dead and wounded after the Direct Action Day which developed into pitched battles as Muslim and Hindu mobs attacked and killed each other across Calcutta in 1946. peacefully. the Labour government in Britain. a Congress-led interim government was installed. the international support. however. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946. and conscious that it had neither the mandate at home. [edit]The Plan for Partition: 1947 Later that year. who during the 1946 Punjab Provincial Assembly Election. the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. in September. stumbled over the issue of the partition.[139] The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events. supported Punjab Muslim League.the sentences.[140] Members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to Indiameeting Muhammad Ali Jinnah. its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II. member of the Muslim rural elite of Punjab. on the extreme right. created positive propaganda for the Congress. with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister. On the extreme left is Lord Pethick Lawrence. nor . Partition. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence. with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General inKarachi. Map of British Indian Empire. Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of the Congress. Louis Mountbatten. Louis Mountbatten. the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of the prime minister. Independence: 1947 On 14 August 1947. India.[143] . 15 August 1947. the new viceroy. R. As independence approached. Percentage of Hindus by district. Jinnah representing the Muslim League. became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi. B. In June 1947. The following day.the reliability of native forces for continuing to control an increasingly restless India. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community. and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs. the nationalist leaders. now a smaller Union of India. 1909.[141][142] decided to end British rule of India. [edit]Violence. staying on as its first Governor General. and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948. Percentage of Muslims by district. including Sardar Patel. and the viceroy. Map of British Indian Empire. advanced the date for the transfer of power. allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being. 1909. the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan. agreed to a partition of the countryalong religious lines in stark opposition to Gandhi's views. The great majority of Indians remained in place with independence, but in border areas millions of people (Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu) relocated across the newly drawn borders. In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, there was much bloodshed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited. In all, somewhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borders, both among the refugee and resident populations of the three faiths, died in the violence.[144] Other estimates of the number of deaths are as high as 1,500,000. Source [edit]Ideological impact At independence and since India has maintained such central British institutions as parliamentary government, one-person, one-vote and the rule of law through nonpartisan courts. They retained as well the institutional arrangements of the Raj such as district administration, universities and stock exchanges. One major change was the rejection of separate princely states. Metcalf shows that over the course of two centuries, British intellectuals and Indian specialists made the highest priority bringing peace, unity and good government to India. They offered many competing methods to reach the goal. For example, Cornwallis recommended turning BengaliZamindar into the sort of English landlords that controlled local affairs in England. Munro proposed to deal directly with the peasants.Sir William Jones and the Orientalists promoted Sanskrit, while Macaulay promoted the English language.[145] Zinkin argues that in the long-run, what matters most about the legacy of the Raj is the British political ideologies which the Indians took over after 1947, especially the belief in unity, democracy, the rule of law and a certain equality beyond caste and creed. Zinkin sees this not just in the Congress party but also among Hindu Nationalists in the Bharatya Janata Party, which specifically emphasises Hindu traditions.[146][147] [edit]Economic impact "A significant fact which stands out is that those parts of India which have been longest under British rule are the poorest today. Indeed some kind of chart might be drawn up to indicate the close connection between length of British rule and progressive growth of poverty." — Jawaharlal Nehru, on the economic effects of the British rule, in his book The Discovery of India[148] In 1780 the conservative British politician Edmund Burke raised the issue of India's position: he vehemently attacked the East India Company, claiming that Warren Hastings and other top officials had ruined the Indian economy and society. Indian historian Rajat Kanta Ray (1998) continues this line of attack, saying the new economy brought by the British in the 18th century was a form of "plunder" and a catastrophe for the traditional economy of Mughal India. Ray accuses the British of depleting the food and money stocks and of imposing high taxes that helped cause the terrible famine of 1770, which killed a third of the people of Bengal.[149] P. J. Marshall shows that recent scholarship has reinterpreted the view that the prosperity of the formerly benign Mughal rule gave way to poverty and anarchy. He argues the British takeover did not make any sharp break with the past, which largely delegated control to regional Mughal rulers and sustained a generally prosperous economy for the rest of the 18th century. Marshall notes the British went into partnership with Indian bankers and raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal rates of taxation.[150]Instead of the Indian nationalist account of the British as alien aggressors, seizing power by brute force and impoverishing all of India, Marshall presents the interpretation (supported by many scholars in India and the West) that the British were not in full control but instead were players in what was primarily an Indian play and in which their rise to power depended upon excellent cooperation with Indian elites. This notion however contradicts the accounts of pilferage and theft of famous diamonds and rare resources forcibly removed from its citizens. Marshall admits that much of his interpretation is still rejected by many historians.[151] [edit]Famines, epidemics, and public health Main articles: Famines, epidemics, and public health in the British Raj and Timeline of major famines in India during British rule (1765 to 1947) See also: Chalisa famine, Doji bara famine, Agra famine of 1837–38, Orissa Famine of 1866, Rajputana famine of 1869, Bihar famine of 1873–74, Great Famine of 1876–78, Indian famine of 1896–97, and Indian famine of 1899– 1900 According to Angus Maddison, "The British contributed to public health by introducing smallpox vaccination, establishing Western medicine and training modern doctors, by killing rats, and establishing quarantine procedures. As a result, the death rate fell and the population of India grew by 1947 to more than two-and-a- half times its size in 1757."[152] ― Population growth worsened the plight of the peasantry. As a result of peace and improved sanitation and health, the Indian population rose from perhaps 100 million in 1700 to 300 million by 1920. While encouraging agricultural productivity, the British also provided economic incentives to have more children to help in the fields. Although a similar population increase occurred in Europe at the same time, the growing numbers could be absorbed by industrialisation or emigration to the Americas and Australia. India enjoyed neither an industrial revolution nor an increase in food growing. Moreover, Indian landlords had a stake in the cash crop system and discouraged innovation. As a result, population numbers far outstripped the amount of available food and land, creating dire poverty and widespread hunger. ‖ —-Craig A. Lockard, Societies, Networks, and Transitions[153] Famines in India (Estimated deaths in millions) Colonial era (1765–1947)[154][155][156] [show]Famine Years Deaths Victims of the Great Famine of 1876–78 in India During the British Raj, India experienced some of the worst famines ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876–1878, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died[166] and the Indian famine of 1899– 1900, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.[167] Recent research, including work by Mike Davis and Amartya Sen,[168] attributes most of the effects of these famines to British policy in India. An El Niño event caused the Indian famine of 1876–1878.[169] Having been criticised for the badly bungled relief-effort during the Orissa famine of 1866,[170] British authorities began to discuss famine policy soon afterwards, and in early 1868 Sir William Muir, Lieutenant-Governor of the North Western Provinces, issued a famous order stating that:[171] "... every District officer would be held personally responsible that no deaths occurred from starvation which could have been avoided by any exertion or arrangement on his part or that of his subordinates." The first cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. 10,000 British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic.[172] Estimated deaths in India between 1817 and 1860 exceeded 15 million persons. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917.[173] The Third Pandemic of plague started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading disease to all on-line edition (September 2011): "spec.[176] In 1881 around 120.[177] Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to propagate smallpox vaccination. rēx.000 leprosy patients existed in India." . In full British Raj. rāj: to reign. In 1925 the Plague Laboratory in Bombay was renamed the Haffkine Institute. which provided legal provision for forcible confinement of leprosy sufferers in India. Deccan College and Government Law College. who mainly worked in India. OIr.[178] Mass vaccination in India resulted in a major decline in smallpox mortality by the end of the 19th century. 1989: from Skr. Direct rule in India by the British (1858–1947).[182] In 1860. working in thePresidency General Hospital in Calcutta. became the firstmicrobiologist to developed and deploy vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague. In 1849 nearly 13% of all Calcutta deaths were due to smallpox. 2nd edition. rīg king (see RICH). Mumbai).7 million deaths from smallpox. there were approximately 4. rī. cognate with L. Fevers ranked as one of the leading causes of death in India in the 19th century. rule. rēgis. The central government passed the Lepers Act of 1898. this period of dominion.[181] [179] Sir Robert Grant directed his attention to establishing a systematic institution in Bombay for imparting medical knowledge to the natives. 3rd edition (June 2008).inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. Grant Medical College became one of the four recognised colleges for teaching courses leading to degrees (alongside Elphinstone College. [edit]See also British Empire portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to: British Raj Company rule in India Indian independence movement Imperialism in Asia [edit]Notes o ^ Oxford English Dictionary.[175] Britain's Sir Ronald Ross.[180] Between 1868 and 1907. o ^ a b Oxford English Dictionary.[174] Waldemar Haffkine. finally proved in 1898 that mosquitoes transmit malaria. "From Empire to Independence: The British Raj in India 1858–1947". ISBN 978-0-226-18488-3 4. existing on the sufferance of the native powers and in rivalry with the merchant companies of Holland and France. 1765-1843. after 1927. Quote: "The history of British India falls. o ^ Marshall (2001). o ^ Kaul. and then follows an era of peace in which India awakens to new life and progress. page 5. 18 o ^ 1. 63). 2008. Ilbert in his Government of India. 288 Sir Stanley Maude had taken command in Mesopotamia. Edney. Hawes. displacing the raj of antique Indian Army commanders. c. Examples: 1955Times 25 Aug 9/7 It was effective against the British raj in India. 1909. p. 2nd edition. o ^ "Sikkim. Patel et al..1770 Page 211 (3) "Save as otherwise expressly provided in this Act. (1997) Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India. s. 1989. Retrieved 24 January 2013.471)" o ^ British Indian Passport of Muhammad Ali Jinnah . . Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 480 pages. Chandrika." Encyclopædia Britannica. Statutes of the Realm . The Statutes: From the Twentieth Year of King Henry the Third to the . which properly begins with the Anglo-French Wars in the Carnatic. 463. 1969 R. 2007." 2." 3.. From the beginning of the seventeenth century to the middle of the eighteenth century the East India Company is a trading corporation.463)" Quote2: "The political history of the British in India begins in the eighteenth century with the French Wars in the Carnatic. o ^ Interpretation Act 1889 (52 & 53 Vict.. shares its sovereignty in increasing proportions with the Crown.Law . o ^ "Bhutan.470 Quote1: "Before passing on to the political history of British India. 2008. o ^ First the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland then. During the next century the Company acquires and consolidates its dominion. P. p. into three periods.. Retrieved 3 March 2011. the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland o ^ The names "Empire of India" and "Federation of India" were also in use. the law of British India and of the several parts thereof existing immediately before the appointed . (p. ISBN 978-0-7007-0425-5. o ^ "India". and gradually loses its mercantile privileges and functions. World Digital Library. ISAACS in H. R. published under the authority of the Secretary of State for India-inCouncil." Encyclopædia Britannica.J. (1996) Poor Relations: The Making of a Eurasian Community in British India. 1975 H. by Robert Harry Drayton. 1773-1833. Imperial Gazetteer of India. (p.com/eb/article-46212>. II 1908. Routledge. Oxford University Press. volume IV. Say not the Struggle Nought Availeth 251 The post-independence régime in all its incarnations since the passing of the British Raj. and the conclusion drawn here is that the British knew that they were wrong. as observed by Sir C.. University of Chicago Press. o ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. M. 5 August 2007 <http://www.britannica. C. 217 pages." Encyclopædia Britannica. 384 o ^ "Nepal. After the mutiny of 1857 the remaining powers of the Company are transferred to the Crown.o ^ Oxford English Dictionary. M. MILLAR Kut xv.E.. o ^ Robin J. 1880–1884. and (Jan 1961) 11#1 pp. 2. Anthem Press. p. Allen and Unwin. 7online o ^ a b Manmath Nath Das (1964). p. Governor-General and Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. India under Morley and Minto: politics behind revolution. Caldwell Lipsett (1903). o ^ William Ford (1887). p. 821–830. "Imperial India. Retrieved 21 February 2012. p. 72–207. p. Everett. 56–64 o ^ Sir Alfred Comyn Lyall (1905). 186–253. o ^ Michael Edwardes. IV 1907. 56 o ^ Markovits. "Clemency" Canning: Charles John. Clair. 72. Retrieved 21 a b Sir William Wilson Hunter (1876). 60 a b c Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. A history of modern India. 104 o ^ Peers 2006. p. G. (Dec 1960) 10#12 pp. Oxford University Press. 76 o ^ Bayly 1990. pp. "Imperial India. 96 o ^ o ^ Moore 2001a. Claude (2004). pp. Lord Curzon in India: 1898-1903. 1856–1862. 181–310. 46 Moore. pp. 1888–1894. p. 147 Spear 1990. fourth viceroy of India. The viceroyalty of Lord Ripon. 1st Earl Canning. "India. o ^ a b o ^ a b c d o ^ European Madness and Gender in Nineteenth-century British India. 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