Adventurers, Foreign Women and Masculinity in the Colombian Wars of Independence Author(s): Matthew Brown Reviewed work(s): Source: Feminist Review, No. 79, Latin America: History, war and independence (2005), pp. 3651 Published by: Palgrave Macmillan Journals Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3874427 . Accessed: 30/05/2012 15:25 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. 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The paper considers women's experiences during war and peace.honour. women in of the and foreign masculinity Wars Colombian Independence Matthew Brown abstract This paper examines changing conceptions of honour and musculinityduring the Colombion Warsof Independence in the early l9th century. and shows howcolonial. and examines their experiences in the light of changing conceptionsof masculinityat home.feminist-review. in the Britishempireand in HispanicAmericain the early nineteenthcentury.t9 adventurers.independence 36 feminist (36-51) i) review 79 2005 2005 Feminist Review. imperialand republican conceptionsof musculinity were affected by the role that women played in these volunteer expeditions and in the wars in general.Thesocial mobilityof the Warsof Independence shifted the groundon whichthese concepts rested for all groups involved.It exploresthe position of the foreign women who accompanied Britishand Irish expeditions to join the war against Spanishrule. keywords war..Bolivar.The participation of foreign women alongside male adventurers was a further ingredient in this disorientatingperiod.Venezuela. Colombia. 1 Many but others served for over a decade in the region when the wars were over. Vowell. Several of these founded families These remain standard sources for historians of the Rafter. Rather than return to Britain. 2002: 293-295).Gene raI of Venezuela. but their number At least 130 foreign women travelled expeditions that joined the Independent with the number of women who accompanied period (Holmes. This left plenty of time for backgrounds to negotiate and their peers: these encounters men and women of lower-. attracted attention officials in across the Atlantic region.g. 1831. period (e.2 This figure is broadly consistent British Army regiments abroad in this Irish. and her husband died of yellow fever within the year. 2003: 545-554). their was one of waiting and the part of the the women who joined the expeditions did a substantial predominant experience of the Wars of Independence to ward off disease. and see the retain their surnames today. and whether this was worse than leaving whole swathes of territory unministered. and were replaced by the 'missionaries from the chaotic circumstances power vacuums (Franco.1810-1825) of the new states. Instead. The vast majority of adventurers served in the territories whose Iibe rat io n fro m Spanish rule was led by Simon Bolivar: the Capta incy. Only one Mary £nglish left with woman has merited any attention she was the wife of General James Towers English. The Haitian government provided support to the rebels in Venezuela. al I translations from Spanish language documents are my own. and the women who travelled out to Venezuela and Colombia. while others returned home and wrote narratives of the events they had witnessed. 1999: 139). included English. bibliography in Thibaud.and upper-class and honour granted them by the state repeatedly produced conflict and tension (Brown. who sought new trading opportunities fanned across the Caribbean. settled the departure from its shores and of over 6. Britain tolerated 1 The expeditions are discussed at Ie ngth in Lam bert (1983) and Brown ( 20 04a) . eventually dying on Matthew Brown fe m i n i st revi ew 79 2005 37 . Historians now refer to this entity as 'Gran Colombia' to differentiate it from New Granada. Unless otherwise noted. Chesterton. and the Presidency of Quito. to Colombia. attempting status neither They were predominantly Welsh. which assumed the name Colombia in 1863. to the organization of the expeditions in Dublin and The women who contributed neglected by historians' London. the o ppos ing s ides in this conflict are referred to as ' Independents' and 'Loyalists'. have been close focus on military and political and principally because history. middle. While none of appear to have taken active part in any men.000 adventurers to fight in the rebels' army and navy in Colombia.The Wars of Independence merits of diplomatic in Spanish America (c. hunger and boredom. 1820. Politicians in London. a centre of social activity for the foreign officers. Like the soldiers. Scottish. 1994). German and Portuguese women. 2004a). she remarried (to an English merchant) and remained in Colombia. The Republic formed from this region was called Colombia until its disintegration in 1830. making up around 3% of the army. the Viceroyalty of New Granada. fighting. comprehensive 1820. while Russia organized £xiles from the warfare of capitalism' and regional a task force to restore order in the Spanish colonies. She became and corresponded important leaders such as Simon Bolivar. due to its official support of Spain as a £uropean ally and unwillingness to do anything that might encourage French expansionism in the Western Hemisphere (Lynch. Paris and Washington debated the recognition £cclesiastical Madrid and the Vatican agonized over whether appointing new bishops in Spanish America would amount to tacit support of rebellious regimes. whose archive she preserved. 2 For clarity. These terms reflect both contemporary usage and avoid the potential confusion arising from the fact that both sides believed themselves died of fevers in the tropical climate. London in 1819. The British government adopted an ambiguous position. in both cases.g. Most studies of the Wars see 'Independents' as synonymous with 'patriots'. 1991). Owing to their relatively privileged position as whites with perceived links to men of political or economic influence. although not necessari Iy total. In to be ' patri ots'. commitment It is beyond the capacity of the sources available to suggest whether British and Irish women joined the conflict based on an emotional that meant that their lives 'were irrevocably altered both in personal and political terms'. and the ' Loyalists' were loyal to Spanish rule and the pre-war state of affairs. Essential Iy. Blanchard. It is possible that and imaginative as a set of new test to freedoms to assert withheld at home. the ' Indepe ndents' sought more. as has been argued for the British women who served in the Spanish Civil War (Jackson. for many of the men involved. The Napoleonic Warswitnessed the final curtain call for the 'adventurous masculinities' that had 38 feminist review 79 2005 foreignwomenand musculinity in the Colombian Wurs of Independence . In Britain and Ireland in the early 19th century. unsettling experiences should be understood human will and [to] of a world that remains deeply uncertain' however. The sources consulted show that. 'rebels' and 'republicans'. towns. concepts of masculinity based upon domestic fulfilment were still in their infancy (Tosh. pattern yet Mary English has been of male adventuring. the petitions of foreign women were more likely to be preserved in the remaining archives than those of local women. basing themselves on different understandings of the term 'patria'. That these are vague and not necessari Iy mutual Iy exclusive terms reflects the ambiguity and shared roots of much of the thinking behind these events. by the limited and fragmentary nature of the sources relating to the experiences and diaries accounts of other women. 1998). 1972. 1999: 6). southern part of the continent By using a combination of official correspondence. In this sense. can cast new light onto a key period of history. women were involved in warfare in practical. presence and participation of women in these adventurous expeditions of these women against the background of changing conceptions masculinity in the early 19th century at home. some insights can be gained neglect of women's involvement in the expeditions. circumstances capubilities (Dawson. as in broadly contemporaneous changes conflicts elsewhere in the Atlantic world. in the British empire and in Hispanic America. This can partially be accounted for. (English there are no published women's for the of travel in Colombia in this period similar to those available (Hahner. physical compaigning. is that the was rather of the of an exploration 1994: 53). Indeed. expeditions The which exception a general historiography is extremely similar to that of the volunteer travelled to assist Garibaldi in Italy three decades a few prominent women have obscured later. What does appear from the sources. 1978). classes. and the question of whether they is beyond the scope of this paper.her cacuo portrayed hacienda as the in the 1840s to (Scott. court documentation which explain the conventional newspaper articles and criminal from both sides of the Atlantic. HA157/11/10). While Mary English left personal correspondence Papers. involvement in these far away wars (for away in both geographical gave British and Irish women access adventure that against provided 'a challenge the vicissitudes Graham Dawson's assessment. inde pendence from Spa in. and 'Loyalists' with 'royalists' and 'Spaniords' . ethnic groups and individuals often changed 'sides' according to perceived advantage and political circumstance . Daniels. by military see Hoganson. in which regions. 2002: 207). and also in the profound conceptual mobilization and conflict (e. in which the adventures of the wider picture of more generalized involvement (e. that were catalysed 1998: 125-127).g. any discussion were 'female terms) of changing notions of 'femininity' adventurers' with relation to these women would be complicated by the scarcity of sources. imperial concepts male adventurers. and peace and happiness crownyour efforts. his sister complimented (£. Kerry. In the metropole status based on demonstrations force in the army and and imperial wars of the ideas of honour and society (Kelly. and of women. f. M. The manly attributes debated in the contemporary press-their negotiated in the eyes of other men. 19 July 1819) Adventurers continued South America. Matthew Brown fe m i n i st rev i e w 79 2 0 0 5 39 . In the 1840s. and for your you' its standard before departure from Dublin for South America. the masculinity of adventurers was always understood as being judged not only by their fellow adventurers but also at home. Dublin. 27 March 1820. a term also used to describe Simon Bolivar. This. Conceptions of musculinity among groups adventuring overseas came to be very different from those valued at home (Dawson. gentlemen.3 When Morgan returned from Colombia less than two years later. in whose armies Morgan O'Connel I served. which campaigned for Catholic £mancipation. died 1847 in Genoa) the prominent Irish Catholic lawyer who founded the Catholic Association in 1823.occupied such importance during the regular international 18th century. As such. AGNV GDG.shall be my sincere prayer. and a prelude to domestic fulfilment upon return to what one adventurer. 1972: 248). 92). Although in many ways in contrust to adventure abroad came to be valued as a necessary part of the journey to manhood. of Ireland look upon [you] with interest. These and its close surroundings. and was known as 'The Liberator'. of honour were carried out with them to South America by the In the first years of the conflict. who admires and loves those emotions of courage and sentiments of liberty which bear you from your native land. 2001). Mary O'Connell told another group: I have the honourto present you this Flag. O'Connell. (DEP. 1995. glory. 1819: 4). wrote that 'as the time (Mary O'Connell to Daniel O'Connell. sections of plebeian of physical strength began to die out. this new environment (Alexander. Mary O'Connell. victory and glory to attend (Phillips. undated. called 'the bosom of my family in my country' (Carlos Cavendish to the Vice-President 11. Charles Cavendish. Vol. of Colombia. May success and glory attend your steps. 14 December 1820. he founded and led the Repeal Association. 1830: 39). Gentlemen. they often resorted to physical and status in displays of prowess and bravery as they marked out their identities 'domestic' manliness. From my heart I shall pray for honour. 1822: 1622). mothers and sisters who were to stay at home. Legajo 745. my heart fails me and I regret ever having given my consent' 3 Mary O'Connell was the wife of Daniel O'Connell (Born 1775 in Co. Oliver wrote a nostalgic poem which dwelled upon the 'breasts so fair and thighs so white' of an £nglish maiden (AGI Cuba. a Mrs Putland told them that 'I am sure. in the domestic sphere to which they would hopefully return. Presenting one regiment with it will not be indifferent to you that the women anxious for your triumph. in Before his death Lieutenant J. which I am sure you will not cherishthe less for being handed to you by an Irishwoman. 1994: 66-74). passed in 1829. They were sent off with the hopes and good wishes of the wives. Angostura. in him on his new-found maturity and manliness of the adventurers were publicly musculinity was consciously defined and approaches for parting with my fine boy. maintaining in some Shoemaker. O'Connell. to imagine the women at home while they were away in during the occupation of Riohacha in 1819. whose 17-year-old son Morgan joined the Irish Legion in 1819. Hierarchies of masculinities The colonial caste links between and lineage were altered during the transition to republican rule. has argued. domination of dependents. 40 feminist review 79 2005 foreign women and masculinity in the Colombian Wars of Independence . accessibility on 'patriotic virtue'. mother country. especially war period.papers collected from the bodies of soldiers killed in action). in the name of a new 'national Citizenship of the new republic was an honourable values of lineage. I wouldsoon .. Fernando Vll. 1995) gradually became lay more emphasis honourable. Men who had previously exercised social and caste orders (Chambers. masculinity. Robert Parsons described a recurrent day-dream he enjoyed during the breaks from campaigning: there stretched at full length. although these had been re-defined dishonourable and an offence decision to rebel against Spain. 19 June 1820) In Hispanic America. Colombians rose up While a good 'madre patria'. behaviour. Sabato. became an impnr+ant test case for the ability of the Independent honourable government definition. bravery in battle and 'manly bearing'. how wonderfulit is that yesterday I was tossing about in the Atlantic on boardthe Urdaneta and today to be comfortablyat home. mixed race Regular militury service. Subjection to an absolute was now felt by some to be demeaning. altered to (Gutierrez. but it had to be by the against was attacking the 'land of his fathers'. in the region have continuously circumstances. with bravery and courage in militory service were now married. who had come to liberate 'the themselves as the judges national of innocent children of the Sun' (Phillips. and how glad they were at my sudden return. and a touchstone possessiveness'. became much more socially mobile. and Colombians alike had to come to terms with these had to find a way to combine the new realities authority. by rebelling against the rule of Spain he and by extension his liltimate senores: the honour'. musculinities to new social against the conventionally and where discussions developed of gender filtered into every aspect of the Wars of Independence. with the girls questioningme about what I had seen. (FDJ. 'sexual 1991. attribute. backgrounds. In Hispanic America republican virtue and honour were founded on the old blood and purity. based and was therefore integral to the new legitimacy of nascent of the self- in Angostura. the adventurers encountered a world where colonial and republican ideals of masculinity were in conflict. and political As Guttman (2003: 1-23) and adapted man was In this period. fancy myself at KildareStreet. the also held to be a good son. The conduct of foreign adventurers. with the maintenance of the old 1999). leaders to assert monarch. King of Spain and God.. which had in colonial times often been seen as less than was now a source of honour for men of al I social One consequence was that men of such honourable qualities of (Peter N1. Stern. earned. 2003: 233-235). adventurers changes. and say. 1999. 1819: 4). Beattie in Guttman. where non-white been obsessed people Republican citizenship of the increased In the post- in the armed forces. and historions Colombian or else of other from small communitiesJ consider that the widespread looting of villages and towns by British troops included rape of local women (Esdaile. 2001). While the foreigners had travelled out from Britain and Ireland. But what distinguished his adventures in South America from later British imperial activity was that he was not operating in a world that had been 'purged of women through their physical exclusion' from military life (Dawson. padres de familia sla\/es. As in Brazil in the same period. they shared the concerns of Creoles in Colombia to maintain the existing social and caste orders. Contemporaries recognized that women were integral to these conflicts of honour. Legajo 745). 1822: Even when rare members of these groups could be relied upon in military during the Wars of Independence). adventurers emphasized a hierarchy of masculinities. Robert Parsons imagined the reception of his feats by the women at home. although this was always peripheral to of the adventurers during the had which generally referred to men's honour. The women imagined at home by Parsons and Oliver illustrate how national origin and ethnicity intersected the foreign adventurers. 2003: 151). rapes were mentioned. 2004b). and men of mixed-race were less honourable. documents. To a large extent. or 'untrustworthy' and articulated about their 'savagery' with the gendering of the Wars of Independence for service (the principul criteria for masculinity any praise was hedged with concerns nature (Brown. The women imprisoned in Riohacha were a mixture of Britons. The widows. Colombians and Venezuelans.and began to act like colonial taking up the domination title entailed (Pino. They agreed that indigenous men. caste or 'race' prejudices continued to determine the ways that masculinity was conceived by Creoles (Kraay.g. of dependent women and children that this Like those soldiers who returned to Britain from Indicl in the 1860s. A few cases survive in which the attempted the purpose of these Wars of Independence. many local women joined them when the campaigning armies passed through their home towns and villages. (fathers/heads of families). 138-156). seek the approbation but Parsons focused on British women and chose not to to his of the Venezuelan women who were closer witnesses actions. By presenting their courage and manliness for the approval of women at home. who were kept imprisoned in the town after the executions expressions out of their window in an attempt to undermine the established (AGI Cuba. armies often looted conflicts requisitioned food and supplies This was accepted to find provisions. old and foreign conceptions Spanish authorities and order. reliable and loyal than themselves (e. Portuguese. In 1819. Looking back on the sexual activities Colonel Thomas Manby implied that many relationships MatthewBrown feminist review 79 2005 41 . masculinity between new. 1994: 76). were accused of 'shouting subversive order' widows of Independent soldiers. not that of women. 2000). black men. practice. Hundreds of women were part of the Independent forces. Robinson. the in the coastal town of Riohacha launched a lawsuit against the of their husbands. Irishwomen. bread. DbO734). every night. who in 1820 was granted temporary license to leave the Albion Battalion to spend time with his new wife at Altagracia on the Venezuelan coast. Bogota. arriving at Caracas in September 1822. pork. get out of your tent in the morning. Dr Julian Viso Papers. There is little evidence to suggest that for were 'not only fields butchery. 5 September 1822. foreign women alongside the endurance gender-defining the Independent and manliness of the officers troops throughout this campaign and soldiers presence has been generally ignored by commentators. 8 May 1836. around 100 foreign adventurers settled the foreign adventurers. More often. 1. mutton. In an extract often cited by historians to demonstrate women to the Daniel O'Leary described an unnamed British woman giving up the Paromo de Pisba mountain pass in of female endurance were common to birth to a child in the snow half-way 1819 (O'Leary. we have rations of beef. ff. But this document stressed that it included only the 'legitimate women' who had accompanied and 'illegitimate' the buttalion from £ngland-implying that there were also 'illegitimate' both 'legitimate' women who had come from £ngland. the company of women was portrayed as the and enduring soldier. Only the first group was The continued presence of cast into relief. of the best description. 42 feminist review 79 2005 foreign women and masculinity in the Colombian Wars of Independence . but also of the painful separation suffering of absence'. 6 April1820) During the Wars of Independence very few adventurers chose to marry local women. he commented that 'some of our friends are now legitimate fathers. Manby's own emphasis). 1952: 568). and abundanceof all kinds of wines.and pull any kindyou may wish for. as for fruit. Spanish dancers. such opportunities were a great delight: he described how we live like the 'sons of kings' here. the port on and where they awaited the the troops on their the most famous Many of the foreign women from the expeditions army's return from campaigning marches across Venezuela. 2003: 152).. reward of the patient during the £nglish Papers. Once the wars were over.and. and an almost identical story was told relating to the British retreat from La Coruna in 1808-1809 (£sdaile. stayed in Angostura. 326-327).. appears to have been the exception (BLAACM DbO010.some of whomare very handsome . and Fandangoes. Vol. the River Orinoco where they arrived in 1818-1820 Others accompanied Independent cause. Private Francisco (Francis) Kean. Lieutenant James Nangle called the in which he danced with local women.and we have. HA157/3/215. 1984). (DEP. and others in a fair way of being so in due time' (Manby to Mary Greenup. Writing in 1836. Clair..resulted in the birth of children.with the Native Girls. the devotion of these adventurer/chronicler duties. Six women were listed as having survived the British Legion's march across Venezuela. of men and women exposed to the as they were for many Colombions (Tovar. the Wars of Independence into society and of married local women across Colombia. For island of Margarita 'this miserable isle'. AGNV. Such stories contemporary accounts of warfare. but fondly recalled his 'great fundangoing' Christmas festivities Lieutenant M. as well as women from Venezuela. yet this listed and formally awarded rations (Testimony of Colonel Ashdown. and in that they came from women of all social groups-widows as well as private soldiers. 2000). 1992. with a cultural tradition applied to public authorities. AGNVGDG. AGNVGDG. ff. however. Vol. and her small son (Zea to Governor of Angostura. a small allowance. can receive-more He reported that they had requested that no other group receives-or 'as they find themselves that 'I am well aware rather than any clear attempt They disorientated the surviving evidence of petitions indicates that they the local authorities were triggered by hunger and desperation. Angostura. so that they may have a secure subsistence until my return' (Maynard to Governor of Angostura. Angostura. that the women themselves petitions were consistent women who persistently to such representations frequency. Manuel Bota wrote to a MtitthewBrown feminist review 79 2005 43 . colleague that The obligation In May 1820. 9. 1995. Vol. Socolow. of the Church or of officers to resist Crown. Colombian Vice-President 11). these of middleand high-status who in turn often responded were growing in (Oldfield. Sergeant Thomas Maynard requested that he 'make the seven months of back pay I am owed. the McGowans 3 April 1819. there is no meat' (Lecuna to Governor of Angostura. out of fear of shame (Bermudez. 255-257). played on the minds of senior officials. 326). f. as In Hispanic America. 23 April 1819. A fortnight later. in Angostura. rather than a representative Nevertheless. Vol. 22 April 1819. AGNV GDG. March that same year. Lecuna noted wryly that 'unfortunately this means that he will treat them even worse when he doesn't give them any: since today. available to my wife and child . 10. 9. petitions demonstrated Midgley. The petitions studied here were unique in that they were directed to political authorities in a republic. by meeting their request' (Manrique. Manrique continued than their strict rations. f. were included in a list of 14 women and children receiving rations at Angostura (Vicente Lecuna. 'Relacion de los ingleses'. Angostura. wife of a soldier serving in the Bajo Apure.. In from women to public authorities in the Anti-Slavery campaigns Britain and Ireland. petitioned the authorities. the Independent authorities to feed them eventually yielded to the foreign women's petitions. 10. AGNV GDG. Francisco Antonio Zea ordered the Governor of Angostura to provide lodgings and two rations daily for Ana McGowan. but In the poverty of these women has convinced me to avoid further pain. the same women lodged a formal complaint with Angostura's Governor. 23 January 1819. In January 1819. Vol. Vol. 295). their gender subordination. Manuel Manrique reported on a petition presented to him by the British women who stayed in Angostura while their men were campaigning. 2000). f. without means in a strange country'. Vicente Lecuna passed on the message that 'the English women complain that the butcher treats them very badly when he gives them their meat rations'. AGNV GDG. Despite the straitened financial circumstances. 24 March 1819. On 3 April.Some non-commissioned officers petitioned the Governor of Angostura on behalf of their wives. It was more common. Angostura. 10.. 258). f. 190) But as their partners increasingly died or left the Independent service. Miss 44 feministreview79 2005 foreign women and masculinity in the Colombian Wars of Independence . there were still 18 foreign women resident in Angostura Catalina Peterson and Isubel Negard were certainly widows of their present occupation as 'trader'. which awarded them an ambiguous counterparts. Vol. British and Irish women found that they could no longer rely on the goodwill of the new republic. f. f. 926).3. Martha McCarroll wrote to the Vice-President Myhusband.. Peterson and Negard both described others were listed as servants or 'domestics'. of militury campaigning and then. I therefore request that you grant me a passport so that we can travel to a BritishColony that will be able to accommodate us. (ManuelBota to Directorof Rents. suffered status in comparison to their male In of Venezuela: illness or lost children and husbands. please tell me how we are going to give them their small allowance.AGNV GDG. Several women remained long after the Colombian Army had moved away from the region. and this was probably the case for others too. She militury officer. 64. is now called) reveals that in May 1823. has recently died.AGNV GDG. 11. f. and spoke and wrote fluent Spanish. as they come to the office everyday. cryingabout the things they need.. Angostura. A rare list of foreigners preserved in the Archivo Historico de Guayana in Ciudad Bolivar (as Angostura (Sig. government to provide them with sustenance.4. October 1820. which on 13 November 1819 news of 'Women's Society £stablished the otherwise incongruous Stockport' across its front page. and I find myself without means to maintain my family of five children in this country. 17 May 1820. 11. There were others like her. Ann Hodgkins was another example. 9 October 1820.1. she was 19-years and received women like Mary £nglish. two of the principal towns in the republic.. Many had died. to South America with the expeditions. The possport was granted the same day) The presence government splashed of literate newspaper foreign the women in Angostura was recognized by the in Correo del Orinoco. Faced with the reluctance of the foreign women either left the region Mary £nglish. survived the climactic settle. (MarthaMcCarroll to the Vice-President.the Majorin charge of the MusicalBandin this capital. when we are already overworked and understaffed . moved up to Bogot& to old.. extremes Circumstantial resilience were in line with many of the other British and Irish women who travelled evidence indicates that she in similar had travelled to South America with her parents in the Irish Legion back in 1820. Vol. although she denied in court that she had had 'any social contact intimacy' with him (AGNC R AC. and members of the British Legion. interruptingour work.as we hctveno funds to give them . Captain Henry or travelled regularly between Bogota and Mompox.103. money from a foreign Macmanus. may appear at first to be the exception. contacts or discovered new ways of supporting themselves. Legajo 60.. with her high-level but her tenacity and and personal audiences with Colombian leaders such as Simon Bolivar and Antonio Narino.5). fashion to older and higher-status In 1825. Angostura. O'Hara. While her celebrity of female may make Manuela Saenz appear. Female involvement in the Wars of Independence that women could take a greater part in society subordinate position within the family' these (£arle. Murray. nor 221). like Mary £nglish. and having taken some aversion to tea meal with a pretty stiff screw of brandy The wife of Dr William Breen him on back to and water' (young. 1978: position. Male politicians order to defend themselves 2001. the niece of an adventurer Colonel. may have been 'tangential improvement in their and economic involvement of women in the conflict meant that women occupied presented seat at the revolutionary banquet' in the immediate post-war period (£arle. hoped for. her retired husband and their down dead while standing at young child in Bogota until 1831. 2001. historians) exceptional consequently figures in order to forge a path for women like herself into adapted their language and actions in (and subsequent interest to from the threat they felt posed by Saenz (Chambers. in the Bogota. 'James Malone'. therefore took care to ensure that 'women were to relate to the republic via their women were able to escape principal political boundaries. 1820: 22-38. disguised campaign. 2000: 137). the Colombian President Simon Bolivar in 1830. to await the rewards that they had been promised would come Their inactivity. the widow of a member of the Irish Legion. remained in Bogota and ran her own shop (£nglish Papers HA157/3/201). in peacetime. After the death of her lover. when she 'drop[ed] the table washing' (English Papers. Women like Mary Lawless continued negotiating political expected identities Independence any to play an important and active part in in the post-war period. in order to accompany half way across the Atlantic. and involvement of foreign and local With the wars in Colombia largely over. This final section caused considers two cases where what at first appear to be disputes and 'sexual possessiveness' were in fact changes that emerged from the social and geopolitical by colonial ideas of masculinity based upon new concepts women in the process. 2000: 142). HA157/1/382). and escorted £ngland (Morning Chronicle. with Independence. But the 'a contested the possibility and male elites Some high-profile with status' (Cherpak. brought about by Independence from Spain. the petitions considered in this paper reveal enough exceptions to cast some doubt on the rule. and one observer commented that her experiences in South America had changed the previously 'mild' woman: 'Her breakfasts and coffee. high consumption of alcohol and the fact that in 'expatriate' groups. Mrs Nowlum supported herself. 2003). to have been an figure in a general scenario insignificance. [she] concluded her delicate herself as his assistant. her appetite was most voracious. many foreign adventurers settled capital. often led to conflicts and they tended to stick together Matthew Brown fe m i n i st revi ew 79 20 0 5 45 . Mary Helen Lawless. but was discovered were the astonishment of us all. and they neither championed. Women's involvement in the Wars of to any improvement in their own legal. 9 March 1820). returned from Colombia to £ngland two years later. original emphasis). Manuela Saenz used her contacts national life. between the two men. and Teeson agreed to this 'in the spirit of friendship'. claiming returned to had been recently promoted to his position as a commissioned Battle of Jenoy. previous year. During the eight-month imprisonment he suffered while the trial come to court. The control of women was at the heart of the dispute Jane Teeson (nee £pringhom). Jacob Teeson worried that Macmanus would seek to take advantage house. One such dispute Corporal Jacob and Legajo 96. Such behaviour was believed to lead inevitably to order. When the two men entered £pringham put herself between the two men and insulted Macmanus by 'slapping him in the face'. had played in the dispute. Macmanus had recently been accused of trying to rape Teeson's wife. where they scuffled Macmanus followed home. which turned out to be a Teeson said that he could not understand why Macmanus officer. bravery and subordination. 20-year-old an Irishwoman who he had married in Bogota the her house and drew their weapons. told the court that the altercation 'history' of relations conflict of musculinities. 890-972 812-819). however. Two of Teeson's criadas (female servants). But Macmanus and Teeson were also noted to was even more Despite the between soldiers as have been 'like brothers'. burst through the door and pointed his gun at Teeson's chest. ff. and him was triggered when Captain Henry Macmanus drunkenly accused Teeson of cheating at cards (AGNC R AC. this case shows how political order based upon new forms of 46 feminist review 79 2005 foreignwomenand masculinity in the Colombian Wars of Independence . ff.tensions. Salvadora Roboya. When Macmanus' girifriend. in Bogota made no mention at all of the roles that women was interpreted only in terms Macmanus was of his own physical security and musculinity. the root of the trouble was found in Macmanus' overfamiliarity with his subordinates. process of being overtaken by new republican considerations of Colonial concerns remained. the confrontation seen to have abused his authority by insulting Teeson by entering uninvited into the house where Teeson 'lived happily with his wife and family'. another that Macmanus had hidden behind a rocky outcrop 'like a coward' during the 1821 Irishwoman. Bogota. unprotected The local authorities of Teeson's defence of his 'wife [who] lived in an empty from thieves and other dangers'. problems in the social colonial conceptions deplorable. Teeson refused to be arrested by his superior officer. role played by women in the Wars of Independence. and military elites masculinity sought to cement a social and fraternal bonds between men. Legajo 60. and (more rarely) lengthy legal disputes (Deas. The new elite preferred to interpret the conflicts founded on disputes over physical strength. and such a verdict was entirely consistent and the lack of fraternity exhibited of masculinity. 1996). The event took place in August 1825 in a bar owned by a local woman. Macmanus made Teeson promise not to say anything about the attempted rape. Just as in Lope de Vega's Golden drinking with them. Instead. mixing with their women and with Age honour play Peribanez. even picking fights with them. had its roots in the between Teeson and Macmanus. 'Sexual possessiveness' was in the citizenship. She threw them out into the street. Juana de la Cruz Salgar and Maria Seferina Herrera. 1990: 131-133). The former wanted the British to be treated in Colombia as Colombions would be in Britain. £nglish Papers. subsequently told Devereux that his 'chivalry' meant that 'you have indeed proved Narino rejected those was of Colombia. He A friend requires and honour demands' from Narino deriding him as an 'officer without command' (Devereux to Narino. At a private interview. demands completely because his understanding of justice. and thus endanger 'the patria made so many sacrifices 1990: 165-168). Rosario. Narino honour is completely yourself worthy of your spurs and of your country' (Richard Jaffray to Devereux. Santander. Ivlatthew Brown fe m i n i st re v i e w 79 2005 47 . the Irish position to grant her any favours. £nglish Papers. Narino. In Rosario de Cucuta in mid-1821. 30 May 1821. treat their subjects so that these adventurers will stop coming here and treating us like they in the £ast Indies' (Narino to Bolivar. He attacked Bolivar. and he for having challenged Narino to a duel (Villaveces. demanded 'the response that justice 1932: 130). Those hoping to influence proceedings in their favour made their way to the town. 26 June 1821. Cucuta. who replied that the Government was in no When informed of this interchange. Restrepo Canal.A second example is more illuminating of the general trends at play. London. Antonio Narino himself complained Devereux's claims to be (Narino to that 'the foreigners here are driving me mad'. and that he must 'continue satisfied. both Narino and Devereux were exercised by notions of equality. A duel was avoided because we have for' (Narino to Congress. supporting him. treated as an equal. reason perhaps. she requested special consideration from Vice-President Antonio Narino.. HA157/6/27). 19 November 1821. whereas Devereux hoped to assure his own individual honour by challenging Narino as an equal. 1932. Narino wished to avoid a duel so as not to cause a negative impression to be carried back to £urope. and among them was the recently widowed Mary £nglish. 31 May 1821. in Narino. July 1821. most male commentators Bolivar described Devereux's challenge as 'madness . at odds with that of Devereux. Valencia. Conversely then.. HA157/6/97). a stupidity and the Congress which is that compromises the Government and its functionaries. 10 1988: 199). Devereux saw himself as a noble knight intervening to defend the slighted honour of an abused maiden in 'a case of life and honour' (Villaveces. 1959). Narino. Cucuta. 1990: 169). In the interpretation offered by £nglish's biographer. was subsequently arrested General John Devereux interpreted it as a slight on Mary £nglish's honour. the episode honour-bound fools manipulated by a savvy woman (Scott. and for this in other terms. The case should have remained personal' (Bolivar to Santander. As Vice-President with this case until the government's honour and masculinity felt that his personal honour was bound up with the dignity of his office. 28 June 1821. Narino was able to secure his own and eventually by sending honour by the physical imprisonment of his challenger. discussed Narino and Devereux were 1991: 90). the deputies elected to the Colombian Congress met to decide upon a Constitution for the new state. Cucuta. a real disgrace. On occasions. 1994: ix).M. in the Colombian musculinity in a of The participation disorientating male adventurers Independence period. like Mary £nglish and Ann Hodgkins. Sanchez to D. O'Leary. different complicated and participated petitioned and negotiated with the political British and physical and social men and women of presence further of those who crossed in disputes over honour and identity. Cucuta. 877). Colombia in this period. and protecting women's honour was no longer as important a constituent of masculinity as it had been in the colonial period. f. Cucuta. During the colonial period. 'over a hundred local women turned out to her funeral' and lamented her passing (J. women were seen as an essential domination Independence Wars of and 'sexual possessiveness'. rudiments and apply at all the extremities of liberty and justice of the globe?' (G. The foreign women who came to basis. nor intended to offend the honour of the Vice-President misunderstanding protested immutable. AGNC R MG. Devereux had backtracked considerably. of course. 166. Foreign women employed local criadas to work in their of trust and affection with homes. The translator. He repeatedly stressed that he had never proposed a duel. 48 fe m i n i st re v i e w 79 2005 foreignwomenand mascul inity in the Colombian Wars of Independence . foreigners authorities.him for judicial trial in Caracas. was caste or 'race'. entered a society that was undergoing profound change in its conceptual The subtext to all of the foreigners' relations with Hispanic Americans. between Irish women arrived in Colombia at a period of increased which led to unprecedented social. This did not always involve looking down upon 'inferior' peoplesJ although it often did (Brown. When Mary £nglish died in 1846 in Cucuta. caste and national a conflict that emphasized encounters backgrounds. the masculinity Their the Atlantic to serve the Republic against the Spanish armies. The muss mobilization entailed by the Wars of Independence social Spanish arrangements imperialism' 'set into motion both short and long-term changes in which would have been impossible under and relationships (Kinsbruner. Political independence from Spain brought many changes in the way that society was governed in Hispanic America. part of establishing The social masculinity through of the Wars of mobility shifted the ground on which these concepts of foreign women alongside further destabilized concepts rested for all involved. 2004b). f. they formed lasting relations local women. Lowe to Congress. £nglish Papers. Legajo 78. Some sources suggest working and emotional relationships. 2 June 1821. HA157/11/2). Since the very day of the Mary £nglish's claims for 'justice' from the Colombian government had been forgotten. are eternal and (AGNC R AC. challenge. Vol. Like Colombian women. that or the Republic. 1 October 1846. 34). He blamed his translator's when he translated subsequently 'essential of the concepts 'surely the from £nglish to Spanish' forced into exile. mobility. Devereux's translator had hit upon the heart of the matter. Newyork:Delta/ Seymour Lawrence. Archival research in Venezuela and Colombia was carried out with the support of the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. Colombia. Suffolk County Record Office. clase. Miscelanea General. Secci on Gobernacion de Guayana. (2004b) '£sclavitud. (1992)Hijas. FDJ Faulkner's Dublin Journal PROFO Public Record Office. Brown. AG NV GDG Archivo General de la Nacion. (1830)TheLifeof Alexander Alexander. Seccion Republica. M. Foreign Office Papers. Bermudez.acknowledgements I am extremely grateful to Rebecca £arle. Ipswich. author biography Matthew Brownis Teaching Fellow at the Department of Hispanic. MatthewBrown feminist review 79 2005 49 . Sevilla. 10: 109-125. references Alexander. 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