“IBALOI…”The Ibaloi or Nabaloi is an indigenous ethnic group found in the northern Philippines. The Ibaloi are one of the indigenous peoples collectively known as Igorot, who live in the mountains of the Cordillera Central on the island of Luzon. There are approximately 55,000 Ibaloi; most of them can be found in the southern part of the province of Benguet. The Ibaloi are a mostly agricultural people cultivating rice in terraced fields. Many contemporary Ibaloi have integrated into the mainstream Filipino culture and some are employed as miners in the gold and silver mines of Benguet. The Ibaloi traditionally practiced mummification. The process they used involved smoking the corpse for months to completely dehydrate the dead body, which preserved every part of the body including tattoos and internal organs. They would then encase the preserved body within a hollowed out log and placed in caves that are thought to be spiritual by the Ibaloi. MARRIAGE & WEDDING CUSTOMS The native Ibalois practiced parental marriage, that is, parents chose their children's mates. This marriage custom eventually waned, however, due to sad experiences on the part of the children who were not paired off well. The parents of both bride and groom still decide on what to do during the wedding feast and ceremony. The groom's parents who shoulder most of the wedding expenses do most of the decision making. An Ibaloi wedding celebration is held at the bride's house. Although the dowry system is not observed, it is a must that animals like carabaos, cows or pigs be butchered for the wedding celebration which lasts from two to five days or even longer, especially for rich families. It is considered disgraceful for both parties if no animals are butchered or sometimes if only one or two pigs are butchered. ARTS The people of Benguet have certain notedtraditional feasts and rituals, such as the kosdey, a rite for the fertility of the soil that is observed when the rice blooms in the field. This ritual is done when the moon rises in the month of May. Other feast such as the tehungas, a purification rite with a ceremony held to avenge the ghosts of the enemies who killed their people in the past, signifies the purification of those whom they have avenged. Traditional culture is fast transforming in the face of greater contacts with Christian culture. Practices like tribal wars, mummification and body tattooing have all but disappeared. Traditional costumes have also given way to western apparel. Most Benguet residents belong to one of the many Christian churches that have actively proselytized among the Ibalois. Traditional Ibaloi crafts continue to be made by highland craftsmen. Igorot weavers are renowned for their distinctive motifs. They also continue to make ethnic jewelry, which may be simple or complex, each bearing specific names. Igorot woodcraft is also very popular. Living cultural traditions and important relics can also be found in museums in the City of Baguio, Provincial Capitol and in the town of Kabayan, the seat of the Ibaloi culture. In the different municipalities, the mummified remains of the important men have been left in burial caves that dot the mountains surrounding the town. These mummies are considered sacred to the people of Benguet. BELIEFS Cañao or kanyao is simply a"festival" or ceremony or liturgy, or service or rite/ritual, of offering. It is a generic term. "Witchcraft" would be too limited or off the mark to describe it. A "kanyao" may be performed for thanksgiving for the health of the community, there could be a kanyao (petitionary/intercessory) for a bountiful harvest; a family kanyao may be performed for healing such as a very simple ritual of "sedey" with the use of water and prayer; a "grand kanyao" has entertainment, cultural shows and festivities. the focus of In the Cordilleras the term " menkanyao " is widely used, which means "to perform kanyao" or ritual. The main ethnic tribes, Ibaloi and Kankana-ey, are not far apart in their system, except that they are dissimilar in linguistics. Theirbelief system is common to both with little deviation in methods of performance but do not change the intent and purposes. The Benguet people believe in the existence of unseen beings that emanate from the skyworld and the underworld. That these unseen beings are calledspirits thought to have power over man. It is further believed that these unseen beings or spirits can be manipulated by men to his advantage. With this, the people strive to win the favors of the spirits using prayers and material offerings in a ritual. Knowing their attributes and whims is important as a basis to classify said spirits as to heirarchy and generosity. 1. Spirits classified as to heirarchy are: a) The maker of the universe, Adika-ila(Kankana-ey)/ Mengos-oschong(Ibaloi) .This is the highest and powerful of all the spirit and his realm is in the skyworld; b) Diety(gods/goddesses), Kabunyan; c) Spirits of ancestors, Ap-apo(Kn)/ Kaapuan(Ib) and people who just died,Kakading/Kedaring. They are believed to move freely from the skyworld to the underworld and back as they wish; d) Spirits inhabiting the earth collectively called Anito in kankana-ey/ Ikalutaan in Ibaloy. These underworld sipirits when offended, trespassed and brushed aside should be violent thereby inflicting illness, death and misfortune to man. 2. The degree of goodness or badness of the spirits depends on perception of men's action. The degree of offense of man against the spirit is the measure of the degree of his punishment curable only by appeasing the spirit. a) The Benevolent spirit, Maeya (Kn)/ Mapteng (Ib), is offered a thanksgiving ritual consisting of animals, food, ricewine and other materials as gifts. b) The Malevolent, Makedse (Kn)/ Makedsel (Ib), who caused illness could also be appeased by performing a healing ritual to restore the health of the afflicted by offering similar gifts. The Benguet people regard rituals and feasts as a fulfillment of their aspirations as well as a cure to illness. They believe that the good spirits will give the Benguet people favors in the form of good health and material wealth. NATIVE PRIESTS They are consulted in healing the sick. He in turn performs the said ritual and the effectiveness of it is in his hands. In any ritual rice wine. Since there are classes of spirits. and the pig as the traditional animal.) interpretes omens and signs which the Mansip-ok and the Manbunong may not decide. THE RITUALS The spirits are called upon with offerings of animal. Ap-apo/Kaapuan.) chilus(Ibaloy). The Mansip-ok (Kn)/ M ansi'bok (Ib) having been given certain powers to determine the cause of illness. They receive the most ritual for being benevolent to man. Pinten/pinchen. are offered appeasement ritual called the Dilus(Kn. in comforting the victim of misfortune and in the offering of thanks to the deities for fortunes received. 1. it is given to the Manbunong to administer. He uses his own device in determining the cause of the sufferings. The Mankotom is capable of performing the tasks of the other two. the rituals are performed to conform with the spirit's demands. They are categorized according to their calling. spirits that are easily offended and violent. pinad-ing/pinad-eng. prescribes the appropriate ritual cure.) Manchiba (Ib. ”tapey ". When a ritual is prescribed. WEAPONS . In rituals the Mankotom (Kn.The native priests are the chosen spiritual leaders in the community well versed in the belief system. 3. The Kabunyan/Kavunian. death and misfortune. 2. tapey (Kn)/ tafey(Ib) is always used being the traditional wine. like the Tomongaw/Tinmongaw. sorrow and distress. amlag/atoros. food and other desired/prescribed materials of favors received or restored health. Kakading/Kedaringare offered thanksgiving rituals. Likewise. They are therefore the counsels of the people in times of joy. 2 cm. and cattle. There is marked differentiation between the rich and the poor. tubers. the tattoos differed according to individual whims and no common or identifying pattern would be determined. TATTOO Ibaloi – (Southern Benguet) tattooing is usually rare among the menfolk and in few men. horses. and maize.9 inches). generally scattered in fields or on hillsides. A few bands of woven rattan cover either end of the socket/handle. HOUSES Houses. chickens. (13. are raised about two meters on posts and covered with a pyramidal thatched roof. water buffalo. blade and socket: 34. vertical and curved elements). on the other hand. dogs.This hinalung type blade came mounted as a spear point on a pole.5 inches).5 cm. with a . blade length: 35. horizontal. Descent is bilateral. supplemented occasionally with the meat of pigs. Subsistence is based on wet rice. 20th century. Overall length. The double edged leaf shaped blade has an integral socket formed essentially from a wide tang wrapped around to form a flattened cylinder. The women. The diamond shaped hollow seen at the base of the blade is continuous with the socket. (13. beans. adorn their arms from elbow down to their arms from above the elbow down to their knuckles with elaborate and extensive designs (criss-cross. the languages of the Islamic members of the Subanen subgroup are virtually identical with the language of the neighboring non-Islamic group. Subanen houses are built . except that the Islamic groups have a larger amount of Arabic vocabulary that refers to aspects of life that deal with religious concepts. Likewise.considerable concentration of power and influence in the hands of the former. or Maguindanaon. cattle. They were originally found along the river banks or "suba" but now reside primarily in the mountains because of continuous invasions of Muslim groups. The groups that traditionally remained animist call themselves "Subanen". and water buffaloes. The Subanen regularly move from one location to another to clear more forest for fields. They cultivate crops. which is apparently a Spanish version of the native name. “SUBANON…” The Subanen ethnolinguistic groups are native to the Zamboanga Peninsula in the western part of the large southern Philippine island of Mindanao. but they are also known to raise livestock including pigs. Outsiders often call the Subanen "Subano". which is derived from the word "suba" or river. Other groups who are linguistically members of the Subanen language subgroup but adopted Islam call themselves "Kolibugan" in western areas and Kalibugan in the central area. and linguistically. Badjaw. The name Subanen/Subanon means "river people". as well as migrations of Cebuano speakers in the coastal areas of the Zamboanga Peninsula. Although claims are often made that the Kolibugan/Kalibugan are ethnically mixed with Sama. many outsiders call all of the Muslim groups "Kalibugan". Tausug. chickens. or "Subanon" in the area closer to Zamboanga City. with rice as the most important crop. there is no evidence supporting those claims. Their homes are typically rectangular. Men and women work in the fields together. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS . the Subanon have virtually no division of labor based on sex. Occasionally. Families usually arrange marriages. the groom will work for the bride's family for a few years rather than paying a full bride price. and have thatched roofs. Every three or four years the Subanon move to a new location to clear more forest for fields. The Subanon permit polygamy (multiple wives). and men cook and care for the children when necessary.along hillsides and ridges overlooking family fields. raised on stilts. The homes are usually rectangular and rose on stilts with thatched roofs. They have little social stratification. but nearly all marriages involve only one man and one woman. SOCIETY Unlike most of the world's peoples. HOUSES Subanon houses usually have some distance between them. They are generally situated on hillsides or ridges that overlook the family fields. and the groom's family is expected to pay a bride price. Everyone is on an equal level in Subanon society because everyone has the same occupation and has almost the same economic level and lifestyle. Soten (SOH-tehn) This all-male dance dramatizes the strength and stoic character of the Subanon male. Holding a shield in his left hand and shaking dried palm leaves in his right. meat. and ghosts. ARTS The dances and rituals now found among Filipinos in the hinterlands suggest that indigenous drama had begun to evolve from attempts to control the environment. Pangalitawo (pahng-AH-lee-TAH-woh) Tis is a courtship dance. The female holds shredded banana leaves in each hand. or shamans.In sharp contrast to the surrounding peoples who have adopted Christianity or Islam. play a large role in Subanon religion. exhibiting the . Education among these people was limited to instruction by the Timuay or the tribal head. and the other Subanen were traditionally animist also many have since adopted Christianity. the Subanon male calls the attention of the diwatas. The tribe has no religion although it is believed that they had a holy book at one time. The men's dance is accompanied by gongs and drums and by the women who play in syncopation on blue and white Ming dynasty bowls. demons. Those Subanen who adopted Islam is known as the Kolibugan or Kalibugan. The people depend on the shamans to hear and understand the wishes of the gods and ancestral spirits. the most beautiful sound to their gods' ears. Witch doctors. Furthermore. At various times of the year. spirits. However. and wine to the gods and ancestral spirits. in a manner of supplication with the sound of the leaves. which typically performed during harvest time and other social gatherings. the tribe believes in a supreme being they call "Diwata Migbebaya". These supernatural forces are said to have the ability to harm humans. the Subanon cling to their ancient polytheistic religion. or dieties. humans supposedly have the power to harm them as well. the Subanon give offerings of rice. Today the Subanen people were transformed into either Christianity or the Muslim faith. a type of shield. while the male wields a kalasay. They believe that man shares the universe with a variety of gods. For birth spacing she eats 2 herbs. When a couple wants to have only 1 or 2 children the wife. Pregnant women must abide by many regulations including placing a piece of wood across her path before going in a doorway. and if no more children are desired she eats more. MARRIAGE & WEDDING CUSTOMS Marriage. Men wear pants. CLOTHING Subanons. There is a general belief that all human beings should marry . after giving birth. Woman wear bright colored blouses with . which is tight at the knees and loose at the waistline. Various methods are practiced to predetermine a child's sex. Dumadel (dooh-mah-DEHL) A festival dance performed by the Subanons with palaspas (fronds of the buri plant) to celebrate a good harvest. Another type of birth control is practiced by the midwife who "manipulates" the woman after delivery. dress just like anybody but some still wear daily clothes similar to those of the ancestors. either educated or uneducated.Subanon's trade relationship with China and the rest of Southeast Asia. It is considered a blessing to have more daughters than sons because the father will be able to recover the dowry he paid for his wife. Polygamy and polyandry are practiced but separation is not allowed nor is marrying nearest relatives. the parents of the man look for a woman he will marry and both sets of parents set the wedding date. eats an herb called benayan. black and gree.long and very tight sleeves. . During festivals. women adorn themselves with several necklaces. earing and bracelets made of beads and coins. Their favorite colors are red. The term "Badjao" is a Malay-Borneo word which connotes "man of the seas" or Orang Laut in Bahasa Melayu. Their livelihood is totally dependent on the resources of the sea . matobes. They are generally boat dwellers whose religion is ancestor worship mixed with Islamic influences. seaweeds. Basilan and Zamboanga. Sibutu and Semporna(Sabah) while the northern Badjao is located in Siasi.The Badjaos call themselves as Sama Laus(Sea Sama). The Badjaos are an oppressed tribe. and fishing equipment. Badjaos maybe divided into two groups: the southern Badjao and the northern Badjao. which is a dialect of Samal language. The southern Badjao is located on the islands of Tawi-Tawi. . Jolo. The Badjaos speak of the language Sinama. shells and so forth.fishes. materials for boat construction. They are referred to a palao or lumaan (God forsaken) by the Tausugs. either for food or to sell/barter for other necessities such as clothing.“BADJAOS…” The Badjaos are popularly known as the "Sea Gypsies" of the Sulu and Celebes seas. copra (the meat of the coconut from which coconut oil is derived) is the major cash crop. Throughout much of Sulu and eastern Sabah. Other people dive after it to rescue it. that the Badjao were originally of the land-based Samal group but branched off into boat dwellers as a result of their occupation. This ritual is simply an initiation into the reality of the Badjao life which is based on kinship with the sea. seafaring. however. Badjao means "man of the seas. they came from the shores of Johore. and few families own enough palms to support themselves entirely from copra sales." The origins of the Badjao are uncertain." By tradition. This practice might have subsequently spread to the area around Malaysia. where they had already been living in clusters of houseboats. The newly born infant is thrown into the sea. the people are sea nomads. Copra holdings are small. with some farming along the coastal strips. although they are also the least influenced by Islam. and trade. Arlo Nimmo (1968) believes.' both meaning "godforsaken. Indonesia. Another theory is that the Badjao were originally boat dwellers who eventually built stilt houses near fertile fishing grounds. But the Sama Badjao are known to other tribes living in the same area as 'palau' or 'lumaan. and they are itinerant travelers Livelihood Their lives revolve around fishing. Spanish and American influence on Badjao social and cultural development has been virtually nil due to two factors: the Badjao live in the territory of the Muslim Filipinos. traveling by boat from one island to the next in search of a fishing harvest. According to a legend. Anthropologist H. a people nobody wants. History Scattered throughout the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines live the Sama Badjao.A sea ritual makes the Badjaos childbirth practice somewhat peculiar. . or pillow. cradle. incision of interlocking curves.Both men and women share in agricultural labor and engage in trade. building boats. The women’s sablay is a loosed sleeved blouse reaching down to the hips. shoulder bag. The most common is that made from sulau(letter cone) or kima (tidachna gigas). waistband. Another beautician attends the groom and his face is made up the same way. relief hammered from the reverse side. hood. Other pieces of jewelry are the gantung-liug (pendant). Fishing. hammock. Visual Crafts and Arts The traditional attire of the Badjao consists of either everyday wear or elaborately embroidered costumes for special occasions. blanket. Metal craft designs can be classified into three kinds: the repousse. aritis (earing). silver. Black dots are outlined horizontally above the eyebrows and/or beneath the eyes with the pointed end of a coconut midrib. With a razor blade tied with thread to a split bamboo twig. sash. hukut-liug (necklace). singsing (ring). It can serve as putung (headcover). the wedding beautician must be adept at applying the special makeup on the bride and groom. . or brass wires. The patadjung/tadjong has many uses. Women generally weave mats and market pottery. arabesque. pouch. A simpay (band) forms the front opening and extends to the back from a small collar. and working with iron are primarily male occupations. and galungsung (anklet). Among the Badjao it is large enough to fit any person and is worn by both men and women as a skirt or gown tucked at the chest level. the beautician shape’s the bride’s eyebrows into a triangle and carves tiny bangs on her forehead. The gallang (bracelet) is the most popular ornament. Badjao painting and carving are integral to the people’s life cycle. tracing with thin gold. Woman’s accessories are jewelry and colored combs. Lampblack is used to outline a rectangle on her forehead and this is emphasized by yellow ginger juice. and filigree. In wedding ceremonies. or circumcisions. Or it may be that their spoken form of literature is indistinguishable from that of the Samal. The lugu’s lyrics are verses from the Koran. and songs that are addressed to sharks. and incised with lavish floral designs. magical tales. Except for the last two. seems to have been created primarily to be sung. from 7 PM to 1 AM. The hair is preferably pulled back in a bun. numskull tales. the lyrics are improvised and sung to a traditional tune. sometimes with scalloped edges. although it may also be allowed to hung loose. and lugu. A woman sings the lugu at a wedding as the imam or panglima walks with the groom to the bride’s side. It is carved into an animal form. The panulkin is sung only by the imam and has traditional tune and lyrics. it has a traditional and melancholy tune. The dance is accompanied by any drum or a gabbang. a stylized umbrella. and novelistic tales. It is also sung for special occasions like weddings. panulkin. The Badjao dance traditions have much in common with the other ethnic groups of Sulu. especially the Samal. It is a way of keeping awake and of making the community aware that somebody has died. The tenes-tenes is a ballad whose tune changes with the lyrics. A male marker is distinguished by a column topped with a fez. binoa. Literary Arts Badjao literature. but especially by a young man for his sweetheart. It is sung during the vigil of the dead. The melody of a known tenes may be used for a different set of lyrics.A sundok (grave marker) may also be especially fashioned from a separated piece of wood. The basic traditional dance movement is the igal or pangalay performed by the female. Some tenes are love and courting songs. by anyone of any age. . It may carry the same designs as those on the boat. except for their kata-kata (narrative forms) and riddles. tenes. haircuts. The leleng is sung for any occasion. such as a spirit into the afterlife. The female marker is marked by a flat triangle. It may be sung for any occasion and by anyone. The costume for the igal is the allabimbang and the sawwal. or a stylized human face. trickster tales. Performing Arts The Badjao have five types of song: leleng. to whom is attributed such forms of oral literature as animal tales. The binoa is similarly chanted as the leleng. the Badjaos have built houses usually 20 to 30 feet long with a width of 15 feet thereby forming a perfect rectangle. Housing Badjaos can be divided into three types based on their form of residence: the sedentary. Fronting their house is an open platform to serve as boat landing stage. One night a typhoon came and they had to moor by a sandbar. The Badjaos have no permanent dwellings and live on their boats throughout the year. led by their Sultan. Indonesia. The fishers managed to untie their boats. The princess’ retinue. Some turned to piracy and established pirate dens along North Borneo coasts. She preferred the Brunei sultan. mooring only at uninhabited islands. Houses built over the water are connected by small bridges or planks. The people now live in one of three types of dwellings: stilt houses on the coast. who spends periods alternately between their houseboats and village homes. They realized theyhad tied their boats to the nose of a giant manta ray. but by then. "what kind of fish. each side even betting some money on its answers. Houseboats are often double dugout canoes. A Badjao tale says that the ancestors of the Samal ha Laud came from a fishing clan in Johore. she was sailing towards Sulu when a Brunei fleet. who live in houseboats as itinerant fisher folk in search of rich fishing grounds. they had been flung in various directions. A group of boats sailed in search of richer fishing grounds. Typically each boat shelters five or six . Another origin story involves the Princess Ayesha of Johore and the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu. As they were about to rest for the night. with commercial pursuits and permanent homes. which are raised one to three meters above the ground or highest water mark. their boats suddenly started bucking up and down. intercepted them and took the princess away. fearing to go on to Sulu or return to Johore. In some places. Houses. the semisedentary.Badjao riddles collected in the Semporna district of Sbah have a set opening: daing-daing ai. ordinary land houses clustered along protected shorelines or houseboats. Escorted by a fleet of war boats. which had begun to swim round and round in a frantic attempt to unloosen the boats tied to its nose. stayed onn the sea. and the sea gypsies. usually consist of a single rectangular room with an attached kitchen. but was betrothed instead to the Sulu sultan." Sather observed groups of young men playing these guessing games at night. There is a small minority of Christians. to animistic beliefs in spirits and ancestor worship. In Semporna.people . forms of folk Islam. Clothing Bajaus are expert horsemen – this is their main claim to fame in Malaysia. the Bajau groups perform the likely Tausug's dance. Religion can vary from a strict adherence to Sunni Islam.a family and maybe one or two other relatives. due to their nomadic marine lifestyle.08% 4. The Ubian Bajau. known in Islamic terminology as Jinn. and practice more of a syncretic folk hybrid. are much less adherent to orthodox Islam. The Bajau people are also well known for weaving and needlework skills. Some of the Bajau lack mosques and must rely on the shore-based communities such as those of the more Islamized Аrabic or Malay peoples. Demographics and religion Religions of Badjaos Religion Islam Christianity Folk religion / Other religions No religion / Unknown Percent 95. linguistically. and religiously.14% The various Bajau sub-groups vary culturally. Pangalay.52% 0. revering local sea spirits. sharing food and pooling labor and resources. where horse riding has never been widespread anywhere else. Two to six families anchor their boats in a cluster while fishing.26% 0. Malaysia. Claims to religious piety and learning are an important source of individual prestige among the coastal Bajau.'Daling-Daling' . and the title of salip/sarip (descendants of the Prophet Muhammad) are shown special honor in the local community. Sabah. By the year 2000. In Sarawak there are a number of Iban named Bajau (Beransah Bajau. This is helped by the production of Music Videos of the Daling-daling songs and dances. and the vessels are believed to have a spirit (Sumanga'). Among the boat-dwellers in particular. fishing in these areas has led to concern about overfishing[15] and destruction of Bajau vessels. a shaman) and may adhere to taboos concerning the treatment of the sea and other cultural aspects. together with remnants of traditional pre-Islamic beliefs. community spirit mediums are consulted at least once a year for a public séance and nightly trance dancing. They do this by setting a "spirit boat" adrift in the open sea beyond the village or anchorage. The east coast Sabah Bajau are also famous for the annual Semporna Regatta. It has been suggested by some researchers that Bajau people's visits to Arnhem Land gave rise to the accounts of the mysterious Baijini people in the myths of Australia's Yolngu Aboriginals. the God of the Sea. . "Indonesian traditional fishermen" are allowed to fish within the Exclusive Economic Zone of Australia. They also invented their own dance called Igal-igal in Вajau languages. In times of epidemics. Hillary Bajau) Traditional beliefs Many Bajaus of the east coast retain their seaborne lifestyle.e.like the performance dance from Вajaus dance like Іgal-igal. The construction and launch of these craft are ritualized. also simply called Daling-daling. However. whenever a particularly large catch is brought in. Traditional Bajau communities may have a dukun (i. Under a 1974 Memorandum of Understanding. based on the Daling-daling moves and costumes. this dance. the mediums are also called upon to remove illness causing spirits from the community. among the Sama Bajau communities. which includes traditional fishing grounds of Bajau fishers. Maritime technology and fishing Bajau fishers make use of wooden sailing vessels known as perahu lambo for voyages to the Timor and Arafura seas. In fact it has become the dance of choice for wedding ceremonies for native communities in Semporna and has spread to Sandakan. tend to be included with the Joget dances at wedding ceremonies at night. An example of this is the offering of thanks to the Omboh Dilaut. . Many older Bajau are therefore hard of hearing. The Bajau often intentionally rupture their eardrums at an early age in order to facilitate diving and hunting at sea.Bajaus are also noted for their exceptional abilities in free-diving. with physical adaptations that enable them to see better and dive longer underwater. or perchance some star. Cain and Abal travel from place to place. Pandac. The Egoñgut group lives on the Tabayon River. The type measurements of the Ilongots are: stature. Although there is a larhe concentration of villages at the source of the Cagayan River. The men wear long hair with a characteristic hair net over the forehead. on the easterly central part of Luzon Island in the Philippines. two brothers who are the creators and guardian lords of all things. Illongot communities are generally scattered in the Southern Sierra Madre and Carballo mountains. and parts of Nueva Ecija and Quirino. Along the upper waters of the Cagayan River is the Italon group which exhibits some short Mongol mixture. Negritos. These people tend to live near the streams which furnish them much of their livelihood and transportation. or the moon. while the primitive Abaka group inhabits the Conwap River. the salient composite features of the ancient Ilongot culture can be described. 89. RELIGIOUS BELIEF & PRACTICES The gods of the Ilongots are Cain and Abal. especially to be seen among the women. They are benevolent and their particular care is that of the people who live on earth. there are about 2500 of them. However. many different dialects and customs have developed. Numerous rivers and dense tropical rain forests define Ilongot territory. 82. Dalan. 156. They are invincible and live in the sky. Taon. Their messengers are called Binangunan or Cabuligian. covering Nueva Viscaya. On account of long isolation and varied associations with the Ainu. At the present time. forehead. sometimes on the sun. and shape of nose. which divide the Ilongots into three distinct groups. and other peoples.“ILONGGOT…” The Ilongots are Indonesians who inhabit the southern Sierra Madre and Caraballo Mountains. In each of these main groups are localities each having its varied dialect and customs. Elag. Their . In cases of dispute requiring an immediate resolution. There are a few shamans. The individual's spirit. Young men and women select each other as marriage partners and form couples prior to marriage. Warring groups may establish peace through negotiations and exchanges. Until the 1950s. but can orchestrate consensus. In the beginning. Such a . the offended party may require that the alleged offender undergo an ordeal to establish innocence. a death in one's household. and anyone so cured can use a portion of the shaman's spiritual power to cure. bathing. as Abal wanted to live on earth where he could herd his animals. when Protestant proselytizers arrived. spiritual curing power comes from illnesses and visions. it is forced away from habitations by sweeping. the Ilongot had had no contact with major world religions. women claim to be unable to understand.road is called Keat (lightning). Since this spirit is dangerous to the living. which travels at night during his life. Illness is conceived to be caused by supernaturals that lick or urinate on the individual. by deceased ancestors. He was the one who created the lowlanders. Moreover. but they had a quarrel and separated. Abal is stronger and more powerful than Cain and so there are more lowlanders than mountain people. and the obligatory requirement of a young man to kill before marrying. The traditional belief system includes supernatural beings that are both helpful and dangerous. MARIAGGE & WEDDING Young men are expected to engage in a successful headhunt before marriage. The leader cannot apply sanctions. continues on after death. Warfare is practiced in the form of headhunting. who treat disease. who have the use of his carabaos and other animals. especially those with oratorical skills and knowledge of genealogy. or by supernatural guardians of fields and forests who become angered by human destruction of what they guard. SOCIETY There is no formal leadership. A pig is sacrificed when the headhunters return. Kidu (thunder) follows the road. and invocation. Informal leadership resides in sets of brothers. The reasons for headhunting are an unsettled feud. otherwise. Cain and Abal lived together in the sky. smoking. then lie fallow for eight to ten years. Fields made from virgin forest are in use for up to five years. spear. Fields are abandoned after a second use. Men in groups hunt several times a week with the aid of dogs. whereas women weave and sew. The items noted above as destined for trade are exchanged for bullets. Sometimes hunts of three to five days take place. hoes. These discussions are used to settle disputes with the family of the potential spouse. and pigs and chickens for trade. Most trade within Ilongot society occurs during bride-price payments and gift giving. and make rattan baskets. growing maize and manioc among the rice. gift giving. the meat acquired is shared equally among all households and is consumed immediately. personal property belongs to the individual as well. and disputes are usually ended with marriage. They keep domesticated dogs for hunting.relationship includes casual field labor. and picks. ECONOMY The Ilongot depend primarily on dry-rice swidden agriculture and hunting. as well as fishing and gathering. bananas. and fields that are in their last productive service are used to grow sweet potatoes. Men forge their own knives. They burn and plant new fields each year. . married couples may return to the husband's natal village only when bride-price payments are complete. Individuals who hunt keep their meat for trade. ferns. Marriage is monogamous for some years after the wedding. Real property belongs to whoever clears it. or sugarcane. Later. cloth. and salt. Fields that already have produced one rice crop are planted in tobacco and vegetables. Premarital pregnancy causes the marriage process to speed up under threats of violence. traps. there are formal discussions and marital exchanges. and the meat from these trips is dried for trade or for bride-price discussions. liquor. and rattan from the forest. The Ilongot gather fruits. or poison. Fish are taken by nets. Levirate and sororate are common upon the death of a spouse. palm hearts. Marriage with closely related cousins (especially second cousins) is preferred. knives. and sex. because community leadership is held by sets of male siblings. and the group farming them leaves to find new virgin forest. but there are also many Manobo peoples not considered apart from the main group. means "people. of course. Bukidnon)." which. The general orientation is now . The Manobo supergroup includes several of the groups described elsewhere (see Bagobo." The Manobo appear to be a remnant of the very first Austronesian invasion from Taiwan.Hiligaynon.“MANOBO…” "Manobo" is the hispanicized form of "Manuvu. predating peoples like the Ifugao of Luzon. Bukidnon. as they were chased from the valleys by invading Visayans and Spaniards. They speak one of the languages belonging to the Manobo language family. the Bukidnon grow maize and rice as their principal crops. Leadership is achieved by a skilled and socially powerful datu who creates alliances in many ways. This is a procedure in which fields are allowed to remain fallow for certain periods of time so that areas of cultivation may be shifted from place to place. Their origins can be traced back to the early Malay peoples.000. The Manobo cluster includes eight groups: the Cotabato Manobo. Some communities have long houses. the Davao provinces. and Tagabawa Manobo. The Cotabato use a farming system called kaingin. and nuclear households are kin-grouped into widely dispersed communities usually situated on ridges high above mountain drainages. The head of the family is the husband. Some of the farmers have incorporated plowing techniques. or male-dominated. and are found from Sarangani Island to Agusan del Sur.predominantly upland. and North and South Cotabato. which places more emphasis on the young and educated. SOCIETY The most common lifestyle of the Manobo is one of rural agriculture. from rugged highland to coast. including marriage. Polygyny (having more than one wife at a time) is common. The Agusans. with ethnic materials being sold commercially as antiques. Several area datus would be organized under a higher datu. are located in a province of the same name. Sarangani Manobo. The distinctions have resulted from their separation. Social life for the Manobo is patriarchal. But the Manobo have an adaptation to virtually every ecological niche. The eight Manobo groups are all very similar.000 to more than 50. Manobo of Western Bukidnon. Kinship is figured bilaterally. Today. their farming methods are very primitive. This is very inefficient since many plots of land are not being used at one time. differing only in dialect and in some aspects of culture. This structure is gradually giving way to the westernized scheme of provincial government and local councilmen. Unfortunately. The Bukidnons. are named according to their location. The distinctive ethnic costumes have mostly given way to commercial clothing. For example. who live near the Agusan River Valley. The groups are often connected by name with either political divisions or landforms. who came from the surrounding islands of Southeast Asia. united in turn under the Sultanate with a Rajah Muda. Agusan Manobo. and is allowed according . Their populations range from less than 15. while others have continued to use the "slash-and-burn" method. their common cultural language and Malay heritage help to keep them connected. Obo Manobo. for example. The Manobo are several people groups who inhabit the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. Dibabawon Manobo. Matig Salug Manobo. Tabunaway and his group . rather than abandoning their practices and being converted to new religions. According to oral tradition. In the 14th century. Each class is interdependent on the others. or headmen. While the religious practices of the Manobo vary slightly. require political leaders. Each culture believes in one "great spirit. the religious beliefs of other peoples have influenced them somewhat. such as weddings. the Manobo have often incorporated these new practices into their belief system.to a man's wealth. Whenever there is a negotiation for marriage. they decided to part ways. called a sultan. Sharif Kabungsuan. a muslim missionary. History Oral tradition and records about the introduction of Islam into Mindanao give us a clue to the history of pre-Spanish Manobo. arrived from Johore. The only exception is that of the powerful datus. is the head of the group. most marriages are monogamous. to convert the people. Their ancestors inhabited the lowervalley of the Pulangi River in central Mindanao. However. The political structures of the Manobo groups are all quite similar. the Manobo's leaders were two borthers:Tabunaway and Mumalu. What are their beliefs? The religious beliefs of the Manobo are revolved around the concept that there are many unseen spirits who interfere in the lives of humans. there seems to be at least one common thread linking them together. Tabunaway rejected Islam but advised his younger brother to submit to conversion. Banobo . They believe that these spirits can intrude on human activities to accomplish their desires. The political aspects of life are often integrated with the social aspects. both the bride and the groom must use the local datu (headman) to make all of the arrangements. at a certain stop. They lived by a creek. which flowed into the Mindanao River near the present site of Cotabato City. The spirits are also believed to have human characteristics. Many of the groups are struggling with a changing world. Beneath him are the royal and non-royal classes. As the various Manobo groups have been separated. many social events. However. Those belonging to the non-royal classes are under the power and authority of the royal classes. For example. Tabunaway and his followers fled up the Pulangi River to the interior and. A ruler. There is a wide range in the populations of the eight Manobo groups. among the Bukidnon." This "great spirit" is usually viewed as the creator figure. Outside pressures have greatly affected their respective cultures. They are both good and evil in nature and can be evoked to both anger and pleasure. Only those people belonging to the royal classes can aspire to the throne. Mulitaan. and Tenenenen. However. Others became the Kirinteken. Consequently. to live in villages instead of dispersed settlements. joined the program in defiance of their elders. the civil government tried to persuade the people. a rebellion that caused the death of many Spaniards was led by a Manobo chieftain named Dabao. especially those who had been educated. WWII hastened acculturation because lowlanders evacuated to the mountains to escape the Japanese. but these would shortly after be abandoned and razed to the ground bye the converted Manobo themselves. through their datu. and to send their children to school. A Protestant church was built in 1959 and an . especially since the trucks of these companies usually offered them free rides. they retained the name of their original site. A group stayed along the river in Lanuan and built an ilian (fort) and so became the Ilianon. AT the same time. A typical Manobo settlement that underwent rapid change is Barrio Salangsang of the municipality of Lebak. The Kulamanen split into the Pulangian and Metidsalug/Matigsalug. thorugh their council of datu forbade their people from cooperating.who went to Livungan became the Livunganen. since all attempts made by the Spaniards to make Manobo conform to the pueblo or town system was futile. the younger ones. who would then flee to the mountains and revert to their old ways. Cotabato. Records of Christian conversion probably refer to the Visayan lowlanders. Those who went to divava (downriver). government homestead program encouraged families from the northern islands to settle in Mindanao. Branches of the Tenenenen were the Keretanen. a carabao. a historical figure who became a hero of legends recounting his fantastic feats by a giant. logging companies caused roads to be built in the mountains. For generations. Christianized Manobo towns were established bye 1877. Patrols of Philippine Constabulary with American officers in command aimed to put a stop to the intertribal raids and feuding among the Manobo. Kulamanen. Banobo. which eventually became Manobo. and farm implements" (Elken 1966:163). On the other hand. Although the Manobo themselves were offered the same privileges. By 1591 Butuan had become an encomienda and tributes were collected. Furthermore. Lundugbatneg. Spanish garrison towns and forts had to be erected because of Moro and Manobo resistance to colonization. Mamalu's descendant's became the Maguindanao. By 1896. In 1648. But because ali these groups retained their indigenous beliefs and practices. It was during the American colonial period that significant changes occurred in the Manobo way of life. at the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution in other parts of the archipelago. After the war. more or less permanent Manobo barrios began to be established in the lower areas. farming materials. the missionaries and troops had already withdrawn from the hinterlands because the Manobo constantly engaged them in warfare. and this facilitated interaction with the lowlanders. and Rangiranen. Each homesteader was offered "a farm plot of 16 acres for the first year. However. the Manobo way of life was intact here until 1950s. when it was opened to Tiruray setlers. their elders initially ignored the offer and. some of whom branched into the Kidapawanen. Became the Dibabawon. Magellan landed in Butuan in 1521 and planted a cross at the mouth of the Agusan River to commemorate the first mass celebrated there. Bees appear during the season when the tress start to bloom. such as the tree catching fire or the bees attacking him. However. A typical village engaged in swidden farming begins the agricultural cycle in February. Some Manobo groups did not have a fromal system of chieftainship until the present century. hunting.elementary public school in 1951. In times of famine. who take them to the urban centers. bee hunting. The term "datu" was used by the Visayan traders for this chief but not by the Manobo. the other bees raise such a buzzing noise. the Manobo live a seminomadic life. Political System Manobo settlements are either dispersed or relatively compact. for example. In the late 190s. however many Manobo groups shifted to corn culture because of the gradual disappearance of swidden sites. the agricultural system practised. Abaca is raised and sold to Chinese traders or their agents. Rice culture is so central to the Manobo way of life that there are more than 60 different names for rice varieties. some Manobo villages that have established permanent settlements have shifted to the cultivation of coconut for copra export. depending on the terrain. the hunter faces hazards. that a hunter is led to the location of their hive. Because of these occupations. while the people are waiting to harvest these two crops. but dispersed settlements have none. 143 were Tiruray. and trapping. He builds a fire to smoke out the bees and then climbs the tree to get the empty bee hive. other supplementary foods are sweet potatoes and cassava. During the summer. Other major means of subsistence are fishing. did not have a title for chief. nine belonged to the Tiruray. the Agusanon Manobo. An occupation that figures as entertainment for the Manobo is bee hunting. The corn is harvested in July but rice takes longer to grow and is harvested in November. sweet potatoes and cassava are the staple food. Economy The upland Manobo practise swidden or slash-burn farming whereas those inhabiting the valleys practise wet-rice farming. The hunter waits for them along the creek banks and trails them to their hive. out of a total of 510 households. However. When the bee reaches the hive. If he catches a bee. By 1966. Besides corn grit. Compact villages traditionally have three or fourdatu or timuay (chieftains). Out of the barrio's 11 sari-sari stores or corner shops. The Spaniards called him . emergency foods are unripe bananas and wild yam. when rice and corn are planted. the procedure for which the basis of the comic bee-hunting dance. and the degree of acculturation. he ties a fluff of cotton to it and then releases it. He was simplu a bagani (warrior) a title that he shared with other members of the bagani class. all living in the village center. In 1910. and all agricultural rituals center around it. which involves three factors: speaking. The datu/ bai is traditionally also the head of a kinship group. The old datu conferring the position upon them says: "You hold the comb and oil represent the act of smoothing and disentangling and are therefore symbols of peace and order. Makeyvakey. which is formally elected by the village people under the influence of the council of elders. At the installation of the datu and bai. Mensigew. the captain's assistant. . Today this council of elders may still be highly influential in choosing the village datu and the members of the barrio council. fairness in judging or arbitrating disputes. composed of the barrio captain. one western Bukidnon Manobo recounts the elaborate rites that used to be held to install the chosen datu or bai (famale datu). and cut a length of rattan in two. community improvement. : "eastward" (Davao of Matigsalug). Then a series of acts symbolizing the breaking of one's vow is performed: they break an egg. Unluwa. matters concerning civil law. and providing the settlement themselves. and settlement of interfamily quarrels. The barrio council handles law enforcement. The subgroup Manuvu did not develop a datuship system until the middlle of the 20th century. The position of chieftainship ca be passed on to a datu's offspring. However. eloquence. whom they chose by a common agreement called the lantung (literally. the spirits who guide and confer wisdom upon the datu. Reguwen. The barrio council. and questions over land onwership. In olden times. blow out a lamp. Betel chew offering is laid out and prayers are addressed to the gods Likebeb. and Miyugbiyug. The datu was advised by a council of elders composed of datu and family heads. especially the language of trade. whose jurisdiction covers matters involving batasan or adat (custom law). skill in euphemistic language. smash a cooking pot. or water buffalo are given to each datu or bai. penalty for taboo breaking. Actually. Gifts of money and any article such as cloth. The people of these four directions recognized a ruler. the councilor for health and sanitation. however. dagger. the barrio council still defers to the authority of the council of elders. A great number of people would converge at a place called the center of the earth for ceremonies that involved several aspiring datu who represented four directions: the "Upstream direction" (Cotabato of the Maggindanao). negotiating a settlement.masikampo (derived from maestre de campo) and the Moro called him kuyano/kulano. as long as the person has the qualifications necessary for the position: wisdom. and possession of some wealth and property that the person must be willing to share with the whole community. young village member who show promise can be chosen and trained to be chiefs. tear down a fence. is usually composed of young educated people who are familiar with the lowland culture. On the other hand. marriage arrangements. knowledge of traditional lore and mythology. break aplate. they are reminded to be good judges. gradually earning the status of datu/bai as they prove their ability to settle disputes. the datu must also have proven his bravery and leadership in battle as a bagani. and "westward" (Lanao Lake of the Maranao). the councilor for education. a wooden beam that functions as a divider at the center of the house). All the groom's relatives. The ginsa ("asking") begins with the girl's representative offering betel chew. commoner. which the boy's representative politely refuses until negotiations for the kagun (bridewealth) begin. Village members could also become enslaved if they could not pay the penalty for a crime they had committed. usually belonging to kinship group or groups allied by marriage. preferably a datu or bai. clothing. another pile represents the tugenan (viand). expect assistance from each other in matters of subsistent labor. consisting of rice. One who did so was committing tempela. or payment of their debt through servitude. adultery. one pile represents the purangan (to keep awake at night). A high datu was chosen to act as a mediator between the various cultural groups. is a male or female priest and healer. who can still be found. faithfulness to their master. These items are distributed to . belonged to the ruler and were usually given away as part of the bridewealth. Then the groom's family presents the items of the kagun which may consist of a house. the groom . ridiculing someone for their low status physical handicap. or verbal offense. to display the symbols for the bride's value. defense. defended the community and went to battle. the baylan. especially the datu/bai related to the groom's family. For example. Village members.In September 1959 the Bukidnon datu revived the lantung in an attempt to keep the Manobo culture intact. Intervillage relationship is based on upakat or reciprocity. who had been seized in raids. such as thievery. After the feast. and rice wine. The baylan. now gone. who is known for eloquence and knowledge of custom law. The commoners were farmers. the elders sit on a large mat for the edteltagan he rirey. and animals. meat.wearing a white handkerchief . Slaves. Wedding and Marriage Marriage is traditionally by parental arrangement. and support in crises. Slaves who were treated like members of the family although still in servitude are bilew. fish. the bride's relatives are preparing the apa (wedding feast). and it was considered an insult if they were referred to as slaves. the nourishment they have given her. such as clothing or money. The bagani class. a piece of land. however could win their freedom through diligence in the fulfillment of their duties. The wedding date is determined by the length of the groom's family will need to raise the kagun. will contribute to the kagun. The groom's party knocked at the doorway y the ed-ipal. In the meantime. money. On the wedding day. destruction of property. and the slaves. especially for the younger generation. two or more of the bride's relatives who may ask the groom's party for a gift. which begins when each of two families chooses a spokesperson. brass. articles made of iron. The bride is kept hidden behind a curtain in another room with someone guarding her.and his party walk to the bride's home. Ten piles of corn kernels each are laid out in rows. and slave. Social Customs The traditional social structure consists of four classes: the bagani. the sleepless nights the parents spent over her. Each pile symbolizes remuneration for the pains taken by the bride's family in rearing her. and a chip from a sharpening . to ward off harmful intentions. he should stop and forego the search for another day. The bride's mother prepares betel chew and hands it to her daughter. If the cry of the limokon (omen bird/dove) is heard while he is clearing the site. Initially. The ladder should be made of indelugung wood. and gives it to the couple. Each of the spokespersons takes a fistful of rice. for these will cause many deaths in the house. Several wives allowed for more fields that could be cultivated. molds it into a ball. whose approval of the marriage is sought. he must look for another site. the young couple stay with the wife's family. However. was allowed. The fist wife remained the head wife. If he sneezes while looking for a site. Incest taboo is strictly followed up to a common great-great-great grandparent on both the mother's and father's side. He does not stay away too long from his bride's home because.members of the bride's extended family. Marriage is an alliance system in which reciprocity and mutual obligation between the groom's and bride's kinship groups are expected. Under the ladder should be buried a leaf of the pegul tree. no vines wrapped around them because this means that the owner will die by hanging. a leaf of indelugung tree. Polygamy. The groom goes home with his parents to call his gimukod in case it stayed there while he was away. since the Manobo women did all the work in the fields. who feed each other. who offers it to the groom. The posts must have no disfigurements because these will cause deaths in the family. It is. to establish a reputation for peace and happiness. he must gift his in-laws with an article of clothing. as their family grows. Polygyny also multiplied one's alliances and expanded them to several communities. usually for economic and political reasons. so that the residents will have a reputation for virtue " that will echo abroad like thunder". However. When he digs holes for the posts. which symbolizes that the arrangements must be wrapped up tightly to ensure a happy life for the young couple. certain taboos must be observed. Then the guests join in the eating. the man could take another wife only if the first wife and her parents consented. therefore. especially her aunts and uncles and those who contributed to the bridewealth given by her father when he married the bride's mother. termites. a piece of small bamboo called belekayu to frustrate harmful intentions on the family. The seru ritual follows: the bride and groom sit before a dish of rice. the groom's family presents the tenges (headcloth). close to the parents of either one. The groom's parents stay for three more days. he must avoid unearthing earthworms. The negotiations over. with much revelry. The couple are then given advice by the elders while the guests leave for home. for the Manobo's practice of retaliation does not extend to one's kindred or allies. or beetles. This gesture symbolizes her tasks and duties as a wife. The roof's gable should face east so that the occupants' life "will be like the shining of the sun" (Polenda 1989:79). and no broken parts because this means that the wife will die. a means of maintaining peace and oder. they build their own house. which rimes with rugung (thunder). during which a purification ritual of chickens and rice is performed for the couple's gimukod (soul-spirit). for every day that he is gone. When the husband builds a house. although rarely practised. A datu might resort to it. the mourners go to an unfrequented part to wash themselves and the tools used to dig the grave. The container is placed on patient's head. all turn their backs to avoid temptation of accompanying the dead person. Everyone present gives the patient a gift to encourage him/her to live longer. Objects. The strand is cut to signify the cutting of ties of affection between the family and the dead. Or. dressed in best clothes of the deceased. As the dirt is thrown back into the pit. Tree cuttings are stuck around the grave. such as a bolo sword that the dead must take with it on its journey to the afterlife. Chickens and pig are slaughtered. A sick person is made to sit facing the east. and the agung (gong) is constantly beaten to announce the death to everyone within the hearing distance. When death occurs. and their blood is smeared on the ladder. Death and Burial Illness may be caused by the person's gimukod (soul) wandering away from the body. The body is washed. Blood is mixed with items representing the members of the family so that the busaw will take these in place of the people. When the construction is finished. the gimukod of the sick person has been captured by the gimukod of the dead person and carried away to the latter's new home. A man is buried facing the east so that the sunrise will signal to him that it is time to work. and the clothes of the family or the dead person's personal possessions are hung there. The posts are painted with lampblack so that the busaw will not see the people in the darkness. are placed near the body. through which a threaded needle and a fishhook with a long line are stuck. The sick person's gimukod is captured and imprisoned in this container. and completely covered with a blanket. and the main parts of the house. posts. someone stands guard by the pit to keep the busaw away. The grave marker is a low wooden frame. his/her head covered with black cloth. laid on mat at the exact center of the floor directly underneath the peak of the rooftop. status and social position. This blackened end is held by the family while the white end is tied to the corpse. A clothesline is strung parallel to the body. Burial rites begin in the house with the "cutting the strand" ritual: an elder blackens half of a strand of manila hemp. death messengers. After the grave has been dug. they spit on a burning woo or a fire by . a house warming ritual is held to keep the busaw away. After the burial. A dish for the patient and another for the gimukod are set before them. it is then opened and the patient eats the bit of food that has been placed inside it. Coconut oil is poured on the same spot to ensure good health and happiness. A bit of cooked chicken and rice from the dish is placed in a betel chew container. The number of beats indicates the dead person's age.stone to induce sharp thinking. A woman is buried facing the west so that the sunset will remind her that it is time to cook. lapuy. are sent to inform relatives and friends. There is much wailing and shouting. When they return to the house. Ginuwatan are inwoven representational designs such as flowers. big floral designs are preferred. Traditional costume most extensively described by researchers are those of the Agusanon Manobo. so that the sogoy or gimukod can wander in and out of the body. depending on the stature of the dead person. the Manobo wore bark cloth to cover their genitalia. Traditional fabric for clothes was abaca or hemp. and the keleluza plant. If the ashes bear footprints. a datu. Manobo ancestors had blankets of abaca fiber which were linetungan if these had multicolored design. Clothing Before the Spanish colonial period. There is singing and dancing but no instrumental music is allowed. Everyone. Everyone in the house stays still so as not to frighten the soul away. For a widow or widower of marriageable age. A baby is mourned only for one day. Early in the morning. In Salangsang. Cotabato. seven days. this means that the gimukod has come. for the . to discuss the prospect of a new spouse for the new widow/widower. Dyes were acquired from plants and trees: the tagum plant and the bark of the lamud treee produced lack. If cotton trade cloth is bought. and the western Bukidnon. blue and white. including the soul of the dead. black. The last person coming in takes the glowing piece of wood and the meal out of the house and throws it in the direction of the grave. The coffin is then half buried about 10 m away from the house. Typical colors are red. yellow. yellow. weaved by the ikat process. The coffin is made of a hollowed-out tree trunk. A mourning period of 8 to 12 days is set. the Bukidnon/Higaonon. a meal is placed at the threshold and ashes are sprinkled at the foot of the ladder. and lime to contain the odor. this costume was introduced only in the early part of this century or a little earlier. which is split lengthwise and it's edges sealed with a mixture of wood ashes. trousers and sports shirt for men. The gimukod is entitled to attend and it is persuaded to journey on to the afterworld without taking anyone with it. The betuung feast is held within a year after the burial. the mourning period may last 1 to 10 years.the doorway. According the Manuel (1973). The heavily embroidered traditional Manobo costume is now worn only on special occasions. red. sweet potato leaves. but is now cotto cloth obatained through trade. some hold it on the third day. Today they wear Western clothes: the skirt and blouse or dress for the women. the betuung feast is an occasion for the parents and parents-in-law. Everyone takes a small bite from the small meal that has been placed on the mat where the corpse had lain in state. the turmeric root. during which time the coffin stays at one side of the room. together with the datu/bai. and bayas if plain white. is invited to eat. green. The top of the jacket's back is covered with an embroidered band. The Agusanon Umpak o Illianon Kumbala. The color of the body of the jacket with it's matching skirt or trousers identifies the tribal groups to which the wearer belongs. Based on the type of decoration used. and long sleeved. yellow. yellow. For most groups. white. which is at the waist level. embroidery colors are red. sides. moderately close fitting. The trousers are kept in place with a drawstring. The working trousers are close fitting and plain. The chief of the bagani had a special attire.e. squares. neckline. the cuffs. blue. navy blue. It was during the 19th century that contact with other groups acquainted the Manuvu with abaca cloth. to both ends of which are attached tassels in the typical colors. the typical Manobo jacket. The festive trousers are square cut. Among the Tigwahanon. with red and white as the favorite embroidery or patch work colors. it is surrounded by tassels and covered with beads and embroidery. the women wear the pakabu. a blouse with flared sleeves: the men wear the binukad. which was predominantly red. horizontal lines and zigzags. tinedtezan (geometrical patchwork patterns). western Bukidnon women's blouses are called linebian (zigzag) kinulingtan ( striped patchwork). and representational figures such as a dancing man. with contrasting colors for the sleeves and embroidery thread. Bands of embroidery is . so that it is pulled over the head. His red headkerchief was embroidered with white. blue. and triangles. The woman's blouse is a lavishly adorned as the man's jacket. trousers: one for working and the other for festive occasions. Embroidery is profuse on the front of the blouse. It is worn with the arms passing under two strings attached to both sides. white. usually decorated only by a fringe of multicolored yarn that is attached around the seam. and crocodiles. stars. and the Matigsalug. such as diamonds. is closed. the men's jacket is short. Binain or decorative patterns are geometric. The men carry their betel quid in a kamuyot.Manuvu did not know weaving. The Tigwahanon call this type of trousers the bandira. yellow. and black cloth. If elaborately decorated. A fringe of cotton yarn is sewn between all the seams except at the waist. Most Manobo men have two kinds of sawa/sawal. and blue. The costume style varies with each tribal group. The red jacket and trousers were embroidered in the same colors and designs as the ordinary man's attire. A strip of cloth of a different color from the jacket is sewn between the sleeves and the body of the jacket. white. leaves.. rectangles. Patchwork consists of red. It is embroidered on all the seams. the hemline.. the seams of the jacket are covered with cotton tuffs of red. square cut. shoulders. and embroidered in the typical colors and designs on the sides and cuffs. the jacket for both men and women. and green. 4-6 cm wide. and yellow cotton yarn at the corners. The Umayamnon Manobo wear royal blue. The color of the cuffs matches that of the body. black. Besides being embroidered. Typical decorative colors are red. The Agusanon Manobo usually wear red. i. and dark blue. Both types reach to just below the knees. a square abaca knapsack. baggy. halfway between the top of his head and his nape. It comes in a combination of colors. additional strings of beads. There are two kinds of skirts: the saya and the malong. a headdress of club mosses. Tigwahanon women sometimes tie teir bangs back and wear the lambong.alternating colors cover the seams and the oval-shaped neckline. squares. Some Manobo tribes never wear the malong. in western Bukidnon. It is shaped like a long barrel and is folded over so that one half is inside the other. whereas the man's bun is lower. the western Bukidnon women wear the pelupandung. Attached to each end are multicolored strands of yarn and strings of white seed beads. with feathers. and are wrapped with multicolored yarn. with white stripes in between. The men's headgear is the tengkulu. on the right side. mosquito bar. are pendants which hold hawk bells. A less spectacular headpiece is one that hangs straight down from the bun. the equivalent of the pelupandung is adorned with large plumes. No embroidery is done on the hemline. the common turban. eagle. The tubao. During social or religious gatherings. and dyed in different colors. red. roots. which fans out from the head "like a giant radial comb" (Polenda 1989:144). and triangles. On the back near the shoulders is a band of intricate embroidery 5-6 cm wide. it is almost always red. the favorite being white. It is embroidered and is flanked by two large tassels of yarn each hanging in front of the ear. The Tigwahanon also have the ampit. It is made of wooden rods tied together with multicolored yarn. The skirt is held in place with a waistband consisting of braided nito or human hair. In western Bukidnon. Hanging from the waistband. . and grass. and. black. The saya is wide and kneelenght. seashells. Tigwahanon women have the komakulkul. the ends of which are prevented from unravelling by a strip of cloth. make up the base. The woman's bun is fastened in place by a bamboo comb with incised decorations or inlaid mother-of-pearl bits of circles. a crib. The woman wears her bun on the crown of her head. It is gathered at the left side and tucked in at the waist. and so forth. goats hair. The traditional hairdo for both sexes is a bun and bangs cut straight on the forehead from one side to the other. Wooden rods. about 3 cm long. with an inwoven checkered design. It's color is identical to that of the blouse. carrying bag. such as black bands or alternating bands of red and black. such as those of the hawk. a piece of cloth which they bind around their head. each raider's tengkulu was unique in pattern and design. in place of their bangs. It is adorned with patchwork or embroidered with geometric patterns or realistic figures. but use it for many other purposes: as a blanket. It is adorned with beads and sequins. Among the Agusanon Manobo. a barrel skirt shorter than the malong. yarn. strings of beads. Originally worn when the bagani went on a raiding expedition. The Ilianon have rattan belts called pinding. and medicinal and magical charms of strong-smelling seeds. The malong was originally of abaca but is ow of cotton cloth. Those worn for special occasions are adorned with beads. or garuda. and yellow. is knotted in front by the men and knotted at the back by the women. with inwoven horizontal designs. green. Besides being ornamental. and leglets of braided plant fiber. Toe rings are made from brass wire coiled around a wooden base.The baklaw. Sometimes these are covered with beads. Besides being ornamental. The colors of both the beads and tassels are red. 30 cm long. toe rings prevent the wearers from slipping as they walk. these make tinkling sounds as they dance. legbands of braided nito. The baloso is a shell bracelet. white. Another armlet is made of taklobo (seashell). glossy black agsan vines and believed to work as a charm against scorpion bites. armbands. The man's necklace is a sinakit about three fingers wide with a zigzag pattern like a python's back. Balungkag are necklaces made of multicolored small seed beads. black. 1. or beaten brass wire. The pugnot. small shells. 1 cm wide. these are believed to strengthen the major limb muscles. Another type of ear ornamentation is made of four strings of beads. About five of the black coral and white taklobo armlets are placed alternately and worn all at once. Red cotton yarn passes through the hole in the ear disk and the hole in the ear lobe. comtained with a series of small triangular holes. and tikes/tikkos. Cotton tassels are attached to the ends of the beads. The sinakit is a necklace of beadstrings that fit snugly around the neck. As many as 15 pewter bells are attached to each anklet. two to each leg. Highly prized armlets are those made of sagai-sagai (black coral). .5 cm wide. are made of braided. are worn tightly around the forearms and just below the knees. The women wear armlets so numerous that they can fill up the whole forearm. with tuft of the cotton yarn left over the ear hole. from which hang pendants of crocodile teeth and pieces of mother-of-pearl. Hanging from each ear of the woman is a wooden disk. gold. Attached to the front of the woman's jacket is a silver disk 7-10 cm in diameter. or braided bands of plant fiber covered with white beads. or multicolored glass beads strung together to make geometric patterns. the women wear dutus (anklets). 6 mm in diameter. tight-fitting wristbands 50 mm wide. crocodile teeth. and yellow. usually on the left arm. Together with the hawk bells hanging from the belt. A bride wears additional accessories of bead necklaces. Bracelets are bands of beaten brass wire. It is incised with concentric circles or other such geometric designs. and from which hang cotton tassels. which is used for its whorl whose cross section is triangular. coins. because these are believed to contract around the wearer's arm to warn of impending danger. The balaring are strings of beads attached to a pair of round metal earplugs so that the beads pass under the chin from one earplug to the other. 3 cm in diameter and laminated with silver. hanging from each ear. At festive occasions. for the toe rings act as "tread". and the final effect was that the upper teeth appeared to jutout over the lower teeth. hence. Fourteen front teeth were filled down to the gums. . is upland. and soot compressed into the size of a marble. bird. The men wore tattoos on their chest. The orientation of all the subgroups.g. The teeth were then blackened with juice of the mau-mau plant. and stars. Hence. consisting of a mixture of the mau-mau juice. with the addition of the binuaja (crocodile figure). The face is kept hairless. there adapting to various environmental niches to develop self-contained variations of a generalized culture.Teeth filing. Commonly. although the women enlarge the holes up to 2. The different subgoups are highly dispersed transecting the entire island of Mindanao. both sexes shave their eyebrows.. is done for ornamental purposes. upper arms. tobacco quid. Tattoo designs are the same as those embroidered on their clothes. there is little bulge on the upper part of the mouth. ginibang (iguana). a practice that is now fading. and fingers. The women wore theirs on the same parts of the body. but the most elaborate tattoos were done on their calves. forearms. The Manuvu women wore less around their waistline and on their forearms. lime. is placed between the upper lip and upper gum and removed only when the mouth is used for other purposes. and the men prevent beards from growing by plucking. Tattooing. was done for both boys and girls when they reached puberty. cultivation is multicropped and intercropped. A stimulant. or human figure. Manobo of both sexes have their earlobes pierced.5 cm wide with tufts of pandanus grass. however. This mixture is replaced whenever it loses its flavor. e. a name. The western Bukidnon Manobo use any design that catches their fancy. Land Typical Manobo House The Manobo occupy and have adapted to various ecological niches ranging from the coastal to the rugged mountain highlands of the interiors of Mindanao. binuyo (betel leaf) and other leaf designs. no longer practised now. Two smaller holes may be added on the upper part of the ear lobes. Dibabawon and Umayamnon. they would recognize one datu as head. the lives of Manobos have been catastrophically altered by the rape of the environment by logging companies. In a grouping. the fear of evil spirits. usually of kindred traditional community. . Religion Animism. Up to 90% of the land that belonged to Manobo has been sold . Tigwa. Since the 1960s almost all of the native rain forest has been destroyed. up through a political pyramid with a sultan and a rajah muda holding sway in a larger territory. not realizing that the urge for materialism has made them poorer because of their unique lifestyle.and is still being sold . legume.to lowlanders. there are long houses that accommodate a number of families. Agriculture production is supplemented by hunting and food gathering. Up to this point in time many Manobo remain subsistence farmers and food gatherers instead of producers but this lifestyle has become increasingly hard without a good rain forest. there is a bias toward the male in terms of decision-making and leadership. In some areas. They include the Ata or Langilan Manobo. corn. Matig-Salug. Although the kin relationship is bilateral. and sweet potato. Language The Manobo have 24 main dialects. The following six groups are more closely related than others since their dialects are related. Livelihood Physically. yams. is the mainspring of tribal religion. Also many Manobo found pleasure in the new way the lowlanders brought. The woman holds a subordinated position in the society. usually a man. Settlements are generally kin-oriented nuclear groups near the swidden fields located on the ridges. Every village will have at least one spirit priest. The communities are widely dispersed and placed on high ridges above mountain drainage systems. Leadership is placed on a highly skilled and socially powerful individual who builds up his following through various modes of alliances including marriage. All of the tribal groups believe in one great spirit who created everything but then left and turned over the daily affairs of running the world to the spirits.including rice. This has rendered the Manobo slash-and-burn agriculture ineffective and no longer viable. usually of an extended kind. Animal sacrifices are required to appease the offended spirit in times of illness. A number of datus would be united under a more sovereign datu. Talaingod.