Humour and Its Cultural Context

1Humour and its cultural context Introduction and overview Jessica Milner Davis Recognizing humour is easy enough (with the help of appropriate cultural knowledge) but, as many scholars have found, pinning down a general definition is extremely difficult. Any definition “at once isolates an essence and provides an idealised form” of the thing to be defined1—and there is no essence of humour susceptible of easy definition. If there were, imposing any idealized form would still be impossible. In every culture, including that of contemporary China, the range of structures and media used to create humour and the modalities and messages conveyed are unlimited. Humour can, of course, be classified in many ways—for instance, by medium of communication, by style (such as farcical versus tragi-comical) or by formal structure (for instance, mime versus stand-up comedy). Categories in verbal humour range from jokes, quips, puns and comic anecdotes to full-scale novels. Visual humour embraces caricature, cartoons (single frames, strips, captioned and uncaptioned and so on) as well as pictorial pastiche, a hugely varied category united only by its technique of appropriating and recontextualizing other material. There are even sensory jokes such as pranks, tickling and olfactory jokes.2 Different humorous styles3 or “flavours” can run the gamut from warm and sunny to black and bitter, from carefree nonsense to biting satire—too wide a range to help with general definition. Many instances of humour combine several different formal and stylistic features. Categorization by topic or content is also far too diverse, although often useful, as it unites different formats and styles according to particular themes. Many themes in humour are universal— for instance, sex, trickster tales, political satire, joking about stupidity, mothersin-law and so on. “Humour” in the modern sense of the word embraces all these complex phenomena and more. The word now extends beyond humorous creations to people’s cognitive and emotive responses to them,4 and even to behavioural Davis_01_ch.01(p.1-21).indd 1 09/04/2013 3:40 PM 2 Jessica Milner Davis traits in daily use of humour. Paradoxically, in broadening its meaning, humour has become bound up with the personal, whether in taste, use, transmission or creation. Dictionaries, whose publishing histories necessarily reflect earlier, narrower meanings, struggle to cope with such very recent usages.5 Given these difficulties, this chapter avoids any single definition and leaves individual approaches and usage to be clarified in later chapters. However, from these various accounts of humour in contemporary China, one thing clearly emerges: as for other cultures, the modern use of the term “humour” in China is connected with the concept of the individual. Etymology and modernity The English etymology of humour provides some useful background to this connection. The word shares its Latin root (umor, a liquid) with related Romance language words such as modern French humeur (mood, temperament). In Mediaeval Latin, it indicated the bodily fluids or “humours” that determined a person’s characteristic disposition (as in sanguine, or choleric).6 Being wellbalanced in one’s humours suggested enjoying moderate laughter rather than moping in melancholy.7 However, by the mid-nineteenth century the English “humour” specifically indicated the ability to see the funny side of things, thus developing into the notion of having a “sense of humour”. A self-deprecating form of “good humour” marked out a well-mannered English person; it was different from being too cleverly witty (the French esprit).8 How humour came to be seen as highly desirable in Anglo-Saxon cultures has been documented by Daniel Wickberg, who concludes that it was “the horror of being named as lacking a sense of humour that . . . defined the value of its opposite”.9 Possessing a sense of humour implies the ability to laugh at oneself, and thus the connotation of “good-tempered” still attaches to humour in modern usage. This trait was particularly prized by Gordon Allport in his 1930s investigation of the modern individual, and Wickberg notes that the new personality psychology “was in opposition to the mechanistic empirical study of particular attributes common in the academic psychology of the 1920s and 1930s”.10 For Allport, humour was a hallmark of the modern sense of individual identity, enabling a degree of self-insight and control—perhaps even liberation—from life’s mechanical programming. The theme of humour as modernizing in both concept and practice recurs throughout this book. As in many other languages, the Chinese term “humour” Davis_01_ch.01(p.1-21).indd 2 09/04/2013 3:40 PM Humour and its cultural context 3 (youmo 幽默) is a loan-word, a neologism dating from interaction with the English language—thus indicative of a novel concept. While several authors note that this creates some linguistic confusion, newness has undoubtedly assisted the word to function as a convenient catch-all term in the age of the internet and internationally spoken English. In the companion volume to this book, Jocelyn Chey, Qian Suoqiao and Joseph Sample outlined the process by which “humour” became youmo in today’s Chinese-speaking societies.11 Significantly, youmo implies more gentleness than the older indigenous term huaji 滑稽 (“laughable” or “funny”).12 The same distinction occurs in Japanese terminology, where yūmoa ユーモア now denotes kindly, gentle laughter in the Dickensian sense, while kokkei 滑稽 (Chinese huaji) means comic(al) and another old laughter-related term, warai  笑い (Chinese “laugh”), connotes even broader funniness.13 A newcomer in both cultures, the concept of “humour” is necessarily bound up with the idea of modernity and adaptation to new ways and values. Accordingly, in Chapter 2, Diran Sohigian explores the way in which 1930s economic development in Shanghai imposed the constraints of both clock and mechanization over daily life—pressures against which the new humour, reflected in literary writing of the time, could fight back. Marjorie Chan and Jocelyn Chey focus on Cantonese pop culture’s appropriation of humour in 1960s Hong Kong in Chapter 5, also responding to Westernizing influences. Later chapters explore humour’s constructive functioning today in the serious world of work: for Guo-Hai Chen in Chapter 9, its positive role in teaching; and for Heather Crawford in Chapter 8, humorous advertising that appeals to youth audiences across cultural divides. Even the modern Chinese state finds humour useful—for instance, in providing the social benefits of pleasurable relaxation. State-sanctioned market forces in the 1990s evolved a distinctive style of comic film for the Chinese (lunar) New Year holidays. Remarkably successful in both commercial and artistic terms, this development is recounted in Chapter 6 by Xu Ying and her father, Xu Zhongquan, whose acting career was bound up with these modernizing comedy roles. Modernity and tradition For all its present sense of modernity, humour is scarcely a new phenomenon in China. Behind the use of humour in today’s classrooms lies a hallowed tradition of joking in Daoist ethical discourse, discussed by Shirley Chan and Lily Lee in Chapters 5 and 6 of the companion volume to this book. Even the modern Davis_01_ch.01(p.1-21).indd 3 09/04/2013 3:40 PM Jocelyn Chey notes in Chapter 1 of the companion volume to this book that her translations are inexact matches. the subject of Chapter 7 by Christopher Rea.15 These four were famous for cloaking unpalatable advice to autocratic rulers in clever word-play and jokes.16 Many Chinese terms for humour have only approximate English equivalents. guji and huaji 滑稽 (funny or laughable). Biographies of four huaji-ists (“witty men”) appear in one of the earliest Chinese historical works. the present studies show that a pragmatic but sensitive approach will serve a useful purpose. they distinguished cultivated persons from the untutored. like dayou shi 打油詩 (a game where friends pick up a thought or expression from each other and twist the meaning unexpectedly). Reviewing classical terms like xue 謔 (joking). written between 109 and 91 BCE. or popular forms like xiangsheng 相声 (a “cross-talk” dramatic form) and e’gao 惡搞 (spoofing or parody). The figure of the witty jester speaking truth to authority was likewise born long before the age of the internet. They long predate any jesters named in Western courts. identifying the “proper” kind of humour consonant with Confucian virtue.17 As for many other languages. It should be “never crude or rude” (bu wei nue xi 不為虐兮). developing a Chinese humour-related word-map is an important future task. paidiao 俳調 (joking) or even the closely related xie 諧.14 The Confucian rites (li 禮) acted as a civilizing agency in the Warring States period (c. Such traditional attitudes to public decorum are ingrained in Chinese culture and form a necessary background to any study of humour in Chinese life. building on work already commenced. already being celebrated in the Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BCE).4 Jessica Milner Davis Western notion of valuing a good sense of humour is prefigured by Confucian teachings about the appropriate use of humour. Prescribing correct behaviour from cradle to grave. if not of life. Some traditional literary forms. Equally significant is the continuing importance of good humour in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for restoring balance to emotional and seasonal variations in mood and health.01(p. Shiji 史記 (Records of the Grand Historian). another topic covered in the companion volume to this book (in Chapters 2 and 3). ji 譏 (ridicule). Some long-established forms of humour in China seem quite familiar to the outsider. Weihe Xu found an “inchoate ethics of mirth” in early Chinese writings.indd 4 09/04/2013 3:40 PM .18 Despite the terminological difficulties. Davis_01_ch. undoubtedly risking loss of favour. are simply unique. 475–221 BCE).1-21). chao 嘲 (derision). such as the distinction between fengci 諷刺 (satire) and weifeng 微諷 (subtle satire). such as those discussed in the companion volume: the jester-figure. Significantly. Although both men thought that humour.Humour and its cultural context 5 verbal punning. humour and nonsense are perceived as being more benevolent—“laughing with”—than satire. for example. Even in these contemporary forms. pop-songs and cartooning (manhua 漫画). as elsewhere. be used gently or aggressively.2 in Chapter 7). and for good or ill. while the second favoured social correction through harder-edged ridicule. equally familiar but more recent creations are addressed. both traditional and modern Chinese approaches to humour clearly distinguish between approved “good humour” and disapproved “bad humour”. the authors have taken pains to spell out such “knowledge resources”20 behind the humour they discuss. Christopher Rea shows that the same is true for many internet compilations. such as comic films. In Western terminology. Here. would assist China’s evolution. whose emphasis on the power of the machine in modern life resonated with the coastal urban industrialization of China. historical or political references. Meredithian Lin settled in the United States. as in the companion volume. fun. which carry connotations of bad-humoured “laughing at” (wit is more neutral). Some differences are historically documented. as John Lent and Xu Ying illustrate in Chapter 4. of course. Although both used the term youmo. depending on circumstance and personal preferences. rightly understood. while Qian and his Davis_01_ch. Diran Sohigian’s chapter describes the sharply clashing views of modern youmo’s two major advocates in the 1930s—writer Lin Yutang 林語堂 (林語堂 1895–1976) and novelist Qian Zhongshu 錢鐘書 (錢鍾書 1910–98). Humour and self Humour can. In China. cynicism. In Chapter 7.19 comic operas and humorous novels. sarcasm and irony. the first saw a path to public and private improvement through gentle Allportian humour. joke-books and tall stories. often depends on Chinese artistic. the opposing camps relied on very different humour theorists: Lin enshrined English belles-lettrist George Meredith (1828–1909) while Qian channelled French philosopher Henri Bergson (1859–1941). political realities engulfed their efforts.1-21). But familiarity can be superficial—understanding manhua.indd 5 09/04/2013 3:40 PM .01(p. attitudes and tastes in humour differ. evidenced by the April 2009 cartoon blog by Bimuyu 比目鱼 (“Flounder”) (see Figure 7. linguistic and cultural knowledge unlocks the humour.21 Even without full documentation of such polarities in Chinese terminology. Here. and by Ofra and Baruch Nevo with Janie Leong Siew Yin in Singapore. or “knock-off”.6 Jessica Milner Davis family. despite the author’s celebrated status.1-21). is their delight in laughing at others—concepts discussed in the context of contemporary China in Chapter 10 by a collaborative team from Taiwan and Switzerland. Establishing the validity of such psychological traits in non-Western cultures is a relatively recent activity. The methodological challenges of this approach were explored in pioneering work by Ruch and Forabosco. some linked to better mental and physical health outcomes than others—although research conclusions remain tentative. individualism versus collectivism and short-term versus long-term orientation25—concluding that instruments and methods used to compare humour across cultures should incorporate not only scientific principles of standardization and falsifiability but also informed. and also as an innate way of coping. who remained in China. Another useful tool is Shalom Schwartz’s set of cultural values.23 One significant variable. investigating Chinese student and teacher opinions about the positive role of humour in teaching. pompous bosses and diffident government officials—for many others it is the breath of freedom. is a person’s aversion to or fear of being laughed at. While experiencing humour is unsettling for some individuals—for instance. comparing responses to humour by Italian and German subjects. It allows one to play with the normally clear distinction between serious and non-serious. including appreciation of humorous aspects of shanzhai 山寨 (imitation. people also vary in their use of humour in daily life.22 As well as differing in their preferences for humorists and styles of humour. suffered during the Cultural Revolution. tests on three samples of the same internet-savvy generation. Here. products).indd 6 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . Israel and America.01(p. in Shanghai.28 Christie Davies describes humour as Davis_01_ch. Such findings and insights connect the cultural context of humour studies with personality psychology. po-faced schoolteachers. Several behavioural “humour styles” are distinguished. known as gelotophobia.26 used to underpin the findings of Heather Crawford’s chapter on humorous advertising. katagelasticism. intuitive knowledge of each culture. providing momentary relief from being serious.27 The same sensitivities characterize Guo-Hai Chen’s study discussed in Chapter 9 of this volume.24 Chapter 10 discusses the need for such investigations to take account of broad cultural variables such as those identified by Geert Hofstede—power distance. Psychologists regard appreciation of humour as a personality trait. another. Sydney and Los Angeles revealed many common attitudes. 30 but it can also exclude. so the modern state must accommodate humour. This is the process whereby people “seek to suppress in themselves every characteristic they feel to be ‘animal’”. people designate privies. but also at the cultural level. not just at institutional and individual levels. and China is no exception. animals defecate openly. humans eat neatly with implements.31 Animals rend their food. marketing and social networking. Korea and China) suggest that these do not precisely align with the broad cultural values identified by Hofstede or Schwartz. it is helpful to conceptualize and categorize humour conventions. But they are not as deep-seated as—and should not be mistaken for— internalized cultural constraints that also limit playful rule-breaking. Elias called for more investigation of non-Western cultures. films.indd 7 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . animals roar.29 The worldwide modern emphasis on individual self-expression suggests that China. Cultural evolution theorist Norbert Elias (1897–1990) saw laughter and joking as one example of the trajectory along which all civilizations progress in developing rules about politeness and proper social behaviour. cartoons and novels. Since this is so. including legal and political controls. humans modulate speech. like other nations. between Japan. Humour can bind together. Although principally concerned with European development. allow truth to be spoken in difficult circumstances and even assist survival. and its increasing appeal in classrooms. then laughter and humour constitute a two-edged sword. but also laugh at. Just as businesses and professions adapt to emerging tastes. We can laugh with. which are discussed below. can expect increasing demand for humour. including in logic.Humour and its cultural context 7 playing with deviance and rule-breaking. its irrepressible vitality in modern e’gao culture. and so on. Evidence presented in this book demonstrates its economic importance in pop songs.01(p. it is not surprising that societies should develop conventions and rules about humour designed to channel its expression and impact. Variations in control conventions about humour between one culture and another (for instance. Given such disruptive potential. relieve individual and group tensions. and this is certainly occurring in today’s China. with some interesting consequences. Laughter and civilization If civilization is designed to promote social harmony and restrict aggression.1-21).32 noting that Chinese culture had long ago developed complex rituals for things like food Davis_01_ch. hurt by shaming and speak dangerously unwanted truths. ridicule. someone. These externally imposed controls can be enforced or withdrawn by fiat. bare our teeth and make loud noises—and maybe even fall about clutching our stomachs. behaviour in which we open our mouths. TV shows and comedy theatres). For instance. Japanese and other societies. Indeed. jokes about disability and so on. Wherever such a process goes far enough. books of courtoisie (manners) stipulated that laughter should be regulated in polite society.37 The Japanese custom that women should cover their mouths with the palm of one hand to avoid being seen to laugh has proved that such codes may evolve over time. replaced with delicate chopsticks. as recent studies in European cultural history confirm. It is perhaps thirty years too late for anyone to observe this distinctive hand gesture on the part of Japanese women. .40 Davis_01_ch. when public laughing and drinking are approved) and locations (real or virtual—for instance. aggressive put-downs (bad) humour. Only children and the poorer classes laugh boisterously with their whole bodies. for instance.indd 8 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . such distinctions also characterize cultures such as China and Japan where the feelings of shame and delicacy that drive the civilizing process have long dictated approved forms of self-expression. who signals the introduction of humour and what form it may take.1-21).8 Jessica Milner Davis preparation. as Shōkichi Oda notes.1).35 Since the stimuli of such behaviour also need regulation. He also instanced control of laughter:33 A process of civilization cut back laughter [in Europe] to a moderate level as it had done long before in the East.39 These are both times (such as cherry blossom-viewing time. Modern generations “laugh more frequently and more happily . Knives—connected with aggression and wounding—were banished to the kitchen. For the 2008 Beijing Olympics. volunteers were trained how to smile openly when welcoming foreign visitors (see Plate 1.34 This is. culminating perhaps in the contemporary phenomenon of “political correctness”.01(p. with Chinese. selfdeprecating (good) humour and disapprove crude. or containers”). Laughter-place conventions also concern who is present in a conversation. . service and consumption. One behavioural restriction long found in East Asian cultures prevented showing the teeth when smiling or laughing. “laughter places. mockery of one’s superiors is debarred even when safely “contained”. a compensatory cultural convention continues to mark out special times and/or places in Japan where people can laugh openly (warai no ba 笑いの場. Western manners have tended to approve witty.36 Naturally. the ‘overboard’ forms of laughter [überschwenglicheren Formen des Lachens] disappear. from Renaissance times to the nineteenth century. after all. deploring racial jibes.”38 However. 42 Such rules about humour help to avoid embarrassment and offence. their nature is part of any society’s cultural knowledge. and perhaps also the continuing audience for the derivative nationalistic comic stereotypes analyzed by Barak Kushner in Chapter 3. they point to the continuing existence of different group norms and preferences in different cultures. despite intermittent attempts by offended parties to impose sanctions. but further research is needed to identify the full contemporary range.Humour and its cultural context 9 In comparison. and perhaps also subcultures. this aspect of humour-control is not a reflection of political systems. given these restrictions. artistic or relaxed”. personal aspirations and preferences.41 Since political satire has flourished even under repressive governments in Korea while remaining absent from modern democratic Japan.43 A pioneering 1997–98 study by Giselinde Kuipers in the Netherlands—a society that prides itself on being “classless”—identified two distinctive tastes in “good” humour.44 Group-preferences varied about appreciating and telling jokes (Dutch mops). educational level. Not surprisingly. hard or civilized. Connected to social hierarchies and individual aspirations. including language (dialect and ethnic background). Although— as in the case of Japanese women’s laughter—they can evolve slowly over time. Davis_01_ch. Korean culture has a long-standing tradition of open. biting mockery of the ruling classes in both business and politics. One example of such a subculture was the audience for the witty but lowbrow pop singers in 1960s Hong Kong.01(p. watching certain types of TV comedy shows and preferences for stand-up comedians (reflecting both content and style of humour). Cyber-media spoofing may point to another distinctive taste-culture.1-21). Such a taste-culture may overlap the broader demographic of the “Happy New Year” film-market. Japanese culture is more permissive of innocent punning and word-play (share 洒落 in Japanese)— although. whose songs are discussed in Chapter 5 by Marjorie Chan and Jocelyn Chey. those in Japan expect advance signalling.indd 9 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . Modern taste-cultures of humour Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002) employed a finer-grained lens than Elias to note that subcultures within any given culture include those of taste and aesthetic preference (highbrow versus lowbrow). differing about whether it should be “sociable or confrontational. such humour taste-cultures are likely to reflect regional politico-economic development and cultural knowledge. unlike Chinese auditors. In today’s China. discussed in Chapter 6. who saw laughter as enabling the personal detachment needed to escape the mechanical rule of the clock. humour may fail—sometimes quite seriously.*48 This involves a comic sword-fight in complete darkness where the humour derives partly from the actors’ skilful control of space and timing. and Peking Opera companies touring overseas favour one famous episode. Laughtercontainers. Two high-risk categories are parody and satire. Humorous intent is also clarified by humour’s internal use of stylization or endistancing from reality. an old tradition in China. A clear play-frame helps humour to cross boundaries. a scene from Sanchakou 三岔口 (The crossroads). Irony. introductory statements. stock characters and easily recognizable comedy plots indicate playfulness by simplifying complex reality. Mime can be appreciated without knowledge of Chinese language.45 Rapid patter songs. and often travels better. As Diran Sohigian describes below. matching verbal and musical patterns to intensify the artificiality. titles. The same effect is achieved in verbal humour by patterning and rhythm—for instance in the nonsense-rhymes popular in China as well as the West. while the audience enjoys a clear view of the dangerous sword-play. even physical frames of cartoons or spoof videos. visual performative humour tends to be more clearly framed than verbal humour. Although some formulaic structures such as jokes are easily recognizable. cartoon-like figures.01(p. whether within a culture or between different cultures.10 Jessica Milner Davis Framing in humour One important factor in humour taste-culture is clarity of signalling. which is clearly more important in some cultural contexts than others.indd 10 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . is well tolerated in British and Australian cultures but not in the United States. like those of Gilbert and Sullivan46 and Lenny Bruce. where its typical straight-faced delivery seems puzzling. Davis_01_ch.47 also play with tempi. and on stage by mime. and perhaps inconsiderate. Exaggerated caricatures. for instance. Stylizing images in time as well as space is achieved on screen by animation. are all valuable indicators.1-21). Messages in humour Even with the assistance of a clear frame and stylized patterning. both Eastern and Western. this nexus between manipulating time and creating humour was well understood by Henri Bergson. and partly from the incongruity of actors groping blindly in imaginary darkness and just missing each other. This unsympathetic joke has been attributed to an inexperienced journalist trying to be concise. especially by overly respectful scholars. but more likely occurs for authoritarian or political reasons. Christopher Rea’s chapter details a case in point— Caonima zhi ge 草泥马之歌 (Grass-mud horse song).54 This extended obscenity pun in response to the promulgation of internet controls in 2009 resisted all efforts at suppression. such censorship renders humour a forbidden delight (as with schoolchildren’s jokes about their teachers).53 Self-censorship occurs when humorists choose to respect group tastes and audience circumstances.52 but then (as now) headlines were controlled by subeditors.1-21).50 Tastes change over time.51 The story concerned a lunatic asylum escapee encountering a laundress and raping her. Organizational censorship can also respond in this way.55 requirements to register for domain access and more covert measures. In Chinese scholarship. Regarded as “mirth-provoking” (see source-note above) in the 1960s. Consider a 1930s headline attributed to the Chicago Times: “Nut Screws Washer and Bolts”. suggesting that many regimes and organizations do themselves no favours by repressing humour. these two genres—along with personal invective—are the types of humour most often named in legislative controls.Humour and its cultural context 11 The first assumes an audience’s familiarity with the model being parodied (this is not always the case). while in satire. Unsurprisingly. Controls now include the installation of official “net nannies” to remove posts and dismantle offending websites.indd 11 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . so have the humorous paintings of Dutch master Jan Steen (1626–79). the seriousness of the message may overwhelm the humour. of course. meaning that the callousness of a clever headline linked to a sad story must have been approved by someone. both Daoist texts and the famous eighteenth-century novel Honglou meng 紅樓夢 (Dream of the red chamber) have suffered this fate. Playing on President Hu Jintao’s promotion of a “harmonious society” (hexie shehui 和諧社会. These are not cultural matters of taste Davis_01_ch. screws = having sex. Clues to non-seriousness are also easily overlooked in historical texts. Changed cultural attitudes have rendered taboo public references like this to a madman and his victim— “unmentionables” that trigger both organizational and self-censorship. where hexie is a pun for “river crabs”). the term “harmonization” (hexiehua 和諧化) became a cynical euphemism for internet censorship.49 in the West. the headline would never be used in today’s American press. as discussed below. The laconic sentence signals humour with a clearly recognizable pattern: four repetitive puns on toolnames (nut = lunatic. Perversely. for instance. because humour’s subversive mockery is considered undesirable. washer = washerwoman and bolts = escapes).01(p. indd 12 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . Joking against rule-makers is often more attractive to humorists than joking for them—it offers greater personal satisfaction and peer-entertainment. As X.57 Humour that is truly political critiques the hypocrisy of an entire political system rather than mocking individual politicians’ human failings. L. Even when a state attempts to deploy humour for its own purposes. and explain the bitterness of much of their humour. humour is becoming increasingly salient to the modern state. Nonetheless. Matching his earlier study of Japanese wartime anti-Chinese humour56 with new work on images and concepts used on the Chinese side. State-commissioned humour is scarcely novel in China. These senior Chinese cartoonists reveal tension between personal artistic integrity and Party-approved themes and topics. as illustrated by John Lent and Xu Ying’s account in this volume of early twentieth century cartoonists working during wartime and Maoist years when art “served the masses”. it seems that China has more political than cultural controls on this kind of humour—unlike Japan. but rather reflect the interaction between humour and politics—a topic deserving of some further discussion. resulting in a sense of one humanity mutually confronting fear and distrust. contemporary attitudes to such propaganda are not simple: familiar stereotypes can exist in common with a nuanced awareness of self versus officialdom.12 Jessica Milner Davis and politeness. Davis_01_ch.58 It reacts to efforts to ban open political discourse about corruption and failures of government—strongly contested grounds in China. such as communication and propaganda. Paradoxically. Another perspective is added by Barak Kushner’s Chapter 3. there is a risk from its ambivalent nature and. negative humour may sometimes reach across cultural divides as well as reinforce them. exploring mutual insult and comic stereotyping between China and Japan. as noted above. attempts to control it are liable to backfire. still shaping children’s entertainment half a century later. the spread of such jokes in spite of censorship may function as an index of a culture’s political evolution.01(p. It is useful but also threatening. Humour and politics Given the importance of individual self-concept for modernity and the role of humour in self-expression.1-21). appropriate enough to appalling contemporary events. From the vivacity of political jokes and internet postings that constantly surface. he reveals how durable these are. Ding’s concluding chapter suggests. as Kushner remarks. 63 Certainly this was the belief of the repressive Prussian regime in the mid-nineteenth century. ironically knowing: ‘Our thanks to the nation’”.60 Whether or not they profit from information conveyed in such anonymous jokes. The effect is more likely “to defuse discontent and to divert the joke-tellers away from serious political action against their rulers . The official attitude of the Chinese government and the Chinese Communist Party to humour today is similarly ambivalent. can’t afford to study because schools cost at least thirty thousand yuan.”59 Perhaps this ironic critique and others like it were noted by the leadership: Premier Wen Jiabao’s opening address to the 2011 National People’s Congress—although short on practical remedies—referred to the problem at unexpected length.Humour and its cultural context 13 Since political joking is also an accurate indicator of what is salient to ordinary people. Party officials and cadres do enjoy and share them. . the phenomenon drew comment from international business commentators. In 2010. can’t afford to die because cremation costs at least thirty thousand yuan. can’t afford to live anywhere because each square metre is at least twenty thousand yuan. rather than by internal political joking. the economic suffering of ordinary Chinese people lacking privileged social access was reflected in a proliferation of jokes. The Financial Times translated one joke: “Can’t afford to be born because a caesarean costs fifty thousand yuan. can’t afford to get sick because pharmaceutical profits are at least ten-fold.01(p.64 Mass-marketing of Berliner Witz (clever Berlin humour) in cheap illustrated joke-books and in music-halls was deliberately undertaken as a Luftloch (air-hole) to allow “venting” by both the political elite and the economically depressed workers. perhaps angry or resigned.61 The views of some China commentators notwithstanding. Christie Davies notes that “even the supporters of a harsh regime enjoy playing with jokes and taking time off from compulsory conformity”. By year’s end. They do tolerate considerable ironic comment on Maoist themes and images.1-21). In an Eastern European context. the existence of these pleasing safety valves may even help to prevent an explosion”. . it undoubtedly holds additional interest for the authorities. especially in social media.65 Several Davis_01_ch. the system facilitated monitoring who was saying what—and this is possibly an advantage to governments in many countries today. As a bonus.indd 13 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . but above all. A 2011 Foreign Policy report noted the ubiquitous mocking use in online responses to reports of disasters and corruption of the “newly repurposed old Maoist catchphrase.62 these jokes are unlikely to constitute a strategy of active or effective opposition: the history of World War II and the Cold War demonstrates that powers are overturned by economic and military forces. Adapting familiar images promoting the hero in times past. and art critic Luo Fei 羅菲 (b.3).indd 14 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . Dai’s reinterpretations of him as an icon in today’s consumer society are marked by an enigmatic humour (see Plate 1. his fashion choices.14 Jessica Milner Davis respected schools of contemporary Chinese art—best known internationally through the work of Ai Weiwei 艾未未 (b.66 “Political Pop” (so called both in China and overseas) deliberately appropriates old themes and images. the series gained popularity during Dai’s Beijing retrospective in 2010. Exemplified by the work of artist and sculptor Yue Minjun 岳敏君 (b.67 Few subjects in China are now exempt from artistic irony—even Mao himself. 1982) describes it as “a game in which you use Communist symbols and brands”. Lei’s life of selfless service is commemorated each year on “Learn from Lei Feng Day” (5 March). including during the Cultural Revolution (see Plate 1. one of whose laughing figure sculptures— exhibited in Vancouver in 2009—decorates this book’s cover. 1962 in an accident). he thought such growing consumer sophistication should be taken into account: The louder the volume of the government campaign to study Lei Feng. in his personal blog. my heart just feels uncomfortable. Internationally known photographic artist Dai Xiang 戴翔 (b.68 One ironically recontextualized semi-mythical hero is Lei Feng 雷鋒 (d.70 The explosion of such spoofs drew comment in 2012 from Hu Xijin 胡錫進. They have inspired discussion about the meaning of “serving the people” in this age of self-promotion. When I see such Photoshop images. 1957)—are characterized by humour and satire. the style has been summed up as “meaninglessness with a mocking attitude”.71 Davis_01_ch. But I know that the fact that such photographs appear is a sign of China’s progress. 1962).69 First displayed in a 2008 Beijing Academic Exhibition of Contemporary Chinese Photography.2). his “features. and his Little Red Book (Mao Zhuxi yulu 毛主席語錄 [Quotations from Chairman Mao])”. He acknowledged them uncomfortably as an inevitable reaction to inflated propaganda. Significantly. This is the sighinducing balance of contemporary China’s public debate. 1978) composed Xin Lei Feng gushi 新雷鋒故事 (The new story of Lei Feng. 2007). Despite its 1990s critique of blocked change post-1989. the Cynical Realism school is mostly well tolerated. but also many comic offshoots—including a spoof microblog by Lei Feng’s persona as a worker in a modern office responding to current scandals. the more such spoofs will be enthusiastically circulated online. twelve photographs showing the obedient soldier posed in incongruous modern-day situations. editor-in-chief of the Global Times (a newspaper often noted for its ultra-nationalist views). the honest soldier whom Mao held up as a model “hero of the people”.01(p.1-21). 4).72 Here. [Your] two ears sticking up. liang zhi erduo shuqilai. In 2007. bengbeng tiaotiao zhen ke’ai. since organized attempts to stamp humour out enhance its attraction and often gain unwanted publicity. urging troops to advance valiantly) and “flush” (as in flushing toilets or sluicing a channel). A case in point is a short video posted during the weekend before the 2011 Chinese New Year on the website of Hutoon. Beijing chenbao (北京晨報 Beijing Morning News) sparked public interest with a report that a poster captioned Tongzhimen chong a! 同志們冲啊 (Comrades. In true Bakhtinian fashion. Since both exhortations actually align with official policies. there is a further layer of irony to the joking appropriation. peasant and soldier are incongruously relocated. images from the Maoist era can now convey modern messages such as public health information. values are inverted from inspirational heroic struggle to the practical concerns of the lower bodily strata. and it seems humour as personal critique must be accommodated by the modern Chinese state. The humour is enhanced by a succinct verbal pun: chong a 沖啊 has the dual meaning of “forward/en avant” (the old poster’s original meaning. [you are] really cute. white as white. with new practical instructions. Little white rabbit.Humour and its cultural context 15 Old ways must adapt. At the same time. as already noted for web-postings like the “Grass-mud horse”. 1971). invoking idyllic images of humanized rabbit family-life: Xiao bai tu. humour frequently becomes the subject of official censorship—and sometimes protective self-censorship. Playfully adapted. the uplifting exhortation and its accompanying Cultural Revolution image of the heroic trio of worker. 愛吃蘿卜和青菜， Davis_01_ch.73 Tu nian heka 2011 兔年賀卡 2011 (Greeting card for the Year of the Rabbit 2011)* was well signalled as cartoon humour intended for the artist’s fans at a traditionally festive time of year. Its theme and soundtrack referenced a wellknown children’s rhyme about rabbits.1-21). a Beijing-based studio established in 2005 by animation artist Pisan 皮三 (Wang Bo 王波. bai you bai.indd 15 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . flush!) was being used to encourage toilet hygiene (see Plate 1. [You] love eating radishes and greens. This is not always wholly effective. 小白兔，白又白， 两只耳朵豎起來， 蹦蹦跳跳真可愛。 ai chi lobo he qingcai. b. to the tiled wall of a public toilet. Bounding up and down.01(p. .5). . recalling the popular American “children’s” TV series South Park. are not traditional baddies but a hypocritical master-race badged with Chinese Communist Party (CCP) policy.01(p. In Greeting card. within this fairytale setting the video depicts the rabbits’ exploitation by aggressive tiger overlords (2010 was the Year of the Tiger). Little white rabbit. Do not force me to get angry. with re-enactment of several actual scandals. Pisan described his video as a kind of therapeutic “fairytale” that “could actually take place in many places. even they will bite!). The tigers. simplified child-figures.74 Unsurprisingly. bai you bai. enjoyed by adults for its witty social satire. white as white. (This combines the Maoist slogan. “Serve the people”. I felt this past year was really depressing. so Davis_01_ch. Build a harmonious forest”. Bu yao bi wo hongle yan.indd 16 09/04/2013 3:40 PM .75 Pisan’s distinctive cartooning style employs rounded. “Serve the rabbits. The charming lyric gradually morphs into much uglier language (see below). According to its creator. the final screen scrolls the words. Jile wo yao ren zhen lihai. with the contemporary “harmonious society” admonition. dreamlike and highly stylized.) When the gentle rabbits revolt. Greeting card was not intended as political satire. moreover. their graphic quality borders on adult manga (see angry rabbit-face in Plate 1. however.16 Jessica Milner Davis However. framed as the narration of a small boy’s storybook. although the storybook text ends with the conventional line about living happily ever after: Xiao bai tu. humour seems to have evaporated.76 Both feature violent and transgressive episodes on the part of children or animals rather than adults. such as the banner in their home cave reading. [My] two front teeth sticking up. 小白兔，白又白， Liang ke menya shuqilai. as long as there are people feeling unhappy . these sequences are brief. but rather as relief for fans’ pent-up feelings. with its disappearance drawing international media attention. Such bleak satire borders on the political. When I’m pushed I bite savagely. growing fangs and exterminating their bullies. “Tunian daole: tuzi jile hai yao ren na! 兔年到了：兔子急了還咬人 吶！” (The Year of the Rabbit has arrived: When rabbits are pushed. 两顆门牙豎起來， 不要逼我紅了眼， 急了我咬人真利害。 As the cartoon-world dissolves back into the real world.1-21). fans noted that by Monday the video had been “harmonized”. it is difficult to ignore the satirical comment in the ambiguous ending. location. since when they are contravened. even if offence is not taken. supportively and so on). Davis_01_ch. culturally embedded conventions are less amenable to change. Codifying cultural conventions about humour While legal and political controls on the expression of humour can easily be altered. nature of the event and so on) 2. the ways in which humour can be used interpersonally (aggressively. the would-be humorist quickly learns that a boundary has been crossed.”77 It may indeed have served this purpose. A recent Harvard working paper on cases of media censorship in China suggests that the chief trigger for suppression is not necessarily criticism. but any implied invitation to concerted action. The ambivalent and fascinating interactions between humour and politics merit further study. then neither humour nor fantasy provides any defence. the context in which one should retail and respond to humour (occasion. the choice of topic.indd 17 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . but was clearly perceived by some as going way beyond humorous venting.78 If this was suspected in Greeting card.1-21). Perhaps it was this aspect rather than rehashing of scandals that proved provocative.Humour and its cultural context 17 I wanted to create this thing for fun. theme or target 4. the person/s with whom it is properly—or improperly—exchanged 3. linking fable and present times to a predicted future. What is important is that such suppression is not a reflection of any innately cultural constraint on humour—as politicians might prefer to believe—but simply one instance of external organizational control that might be relaxed under different political circumstances. Reflecting on examples discussed in this book.01(p. They set out parameters within which individual differences arise from behavioural traits in humour use and personal preference in humour taste-culture. Regardless of authorial intention. and the publicity resulting from “harmonization” might well be seen as the lesser of two evils. Their existence is most evident to an outsider. I suggest four possible categories of shaping factors: 1. not just in China but around the world. I would argue that cross-cultural studies of humour should take account of such cultural variation. Despite the challenge presented by quantitative measurement. so will attempt some analysis and categorization. as in China and Japan. to most rigidly prescribed. Strongly hierarchical societies like Japan (and to some extent China) require much greater formality when the circle extends beyond immediate family and friends. written.01(p. openings or product launches. and joking in the presence of superiors will often constrain a group. in contrast. In Australia. structure (joke/s.1-21). where there is also considerable latitude about who initiates it. humorous exchange occurs as part of a wider social occasion. church or museum. ranging from the decidedly informal (such as encounters on the street. religion.79 On group composition. For environmental factors.indd 18 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . mother-in-law. Apart from entertaining oneself. story. joking in every possible context is emblematic of being Australian (that is. Influenced by Irish habits. comedy). enacted). since unexpected irony is appreciated in both countries. Australians and New Zealanders tolerate humour even at church funerals. repartee/insult. As mentioned previously. slapstick. as well as its purpose or intention. butts. Their discomfort reveals a cultural disconnect involving more than preferred styles of humour. the presence of strangers automatically favours seriousness. topics (such as sex. library. ceremonies such as prize-givings. Cultural conventions about formal and semi-formal occasions range from least formal in New World countries through more formal in Europe. who is present is probably the most significant of the human environmental factors.80 In general.82 Even Englishspeaking countries differ from each other in norms about joking with strangers and superiors. unless the most senior member initiates. Culture-specific codes involving these factors may constrain any aspect of humour: its medium (oral.81 Because awkwardness in interpersonal relations is difficult to resolve in Japanese culture.83 It is particularly meted out to new arrivals from the United Kingdom. as noted earlier. sentimental/romantic. flavour or style (nonsense. regardless of the purpose or nature of the group. relaxation-time or entertainment) to more formal events in the workplace. American culture is indeed more uncomfortable with unexpected irony and ambiguity. preferring clearer Japanese-style signalling.84 Davis_01_ch. cultures vary greatly. not British). Some even require codified “joking relationships” to exist before parties may properly exchange humour. although they likely interact. mimicry. satiric).18 Jessica Milner Davis The first two might be termed environmental factors and the last two instrumental. leg-pull. and certainly in most workplace situations. politics). and so on. obscenity. the most important is likely to be formality of the context. class. visual. these are informal events common to all cultures (such as watching TV.indd 19 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . Martin’s styles are either aggressive or supportive. remarking on the popularity between 2006 and 2010 of an innovative TV show by comedian Ōta Hikari. Combining these varieties suggests a short-list of instrumental criteria: Davis_01_ch. this still prevails in many American circles. however. possible that this humour-code might change over time—as noted above in the context of hiding smiles. given widespread temptation to claim cultural rationales for political control. not self-imposed by the public on the basis of ingrained Confucian cultural taboos.01(p. Environmental factors such as occasions or persons present often combine with topics (an instrumental factor). and present restraints are justified by governmental imperatives. visiting a comedy club or laughing at the boss’s bad jokes). Social events associated with alcohol also generally permit laughter. Mockery of leaders “in club” or in public is probably another matter of acculturation. Western inversion festivals like Mardi Gras (indulgence before the beginning of Lent). These include Japanese warai-no-ba (times and places) previously discussed. Mostly. The impact of this positive obligation to be amused deserves consideration when humour and its effects are studied. but formal occasions also occur. To consider the instrumental factor of how humour is used. the ongoing vitality of satirical political joking—despite a history of censorship—indicates a humour code more akin to Korean predilection for satire. of course. At least one commentator anticipated this.Humour and its cultural context 19 Cultural variations also appear in contexts that positively require laughter. the exclusion of Japan’s leadership as a target of humour—either public or private—probably does reflect a cultural preference for avoiding interpersonal aggression and disrespect. the concepts of literary style need to be combined with Martin’s four behavioural “humour styles” of daily use.86 In China.1-21). forming a humour-code like the British tradition of not telling “blue jokes” (about sex) in front of ladies or children. imagining himself as prime minister. although this should be treated with some caution. a relic of the mediaeval Feast of Fools) and the celebratory “roast” (send-up) of a business leader (an American custom now spreading to other English-speaking countries). Nevertheless. since the dearth of modern Japanese political satire is certainly not owing to formal censorship (as in the past). Almost vanished in today’s more casual Britain. Literary styles lie between the two poles of simple playfulness and deeply serious satirical purpose.85 It is. April Fools’ Day (the first day of April. As in Japan. Some have developed laws to control defamatory or vilifying speech (including joking).01(p. privilege parody and satire.93 Importantly. Is it used for instruction (even spiritual insight)87 or simply for amusement? 3. In the process. asserting the cultural value of irreverence. laughter covers embarrassment and avoids the need for humble apologies that can be more readily uttered in other cultures. stop laughing: this is serious!”92 The pragmatic Australian response to Chinese disaster-covering laughter would be. their shock value is apposite and very funny.91 The inappropriateness of mixing the two is excoriated in an iconic Australian cartoon drawn by Stan Cross (1888– 1977) for Smiths Weekly.90 A unique body of colourful expressions (such as “technicolour yawn”. even capable of masking all emotion. a “pub” or drinking house).20 Jessica Milner Davis 1.indd 20 09/04/2013 3:40 PM .” As one recent study has pointed out (discussing the Chinese imperial smile).1-21).89 Beyond legal breach. and published on 29 July 1933. In an Australian context (for instance. Is it used to heal or wound self and/or others? 4. like Australian copyright law. The caption reads: “For gorsake. Is it used to criticize (life or others). although even Australians may find that the topic palls with over-exposure. These may be nationally Davis_01_ch. “That’s not funny: get on and fix the problem. similarities and dissimilarities with laughter conventions in other cultures are highlighted. this behaviour does not equate in any way with European Schadenfreude or pleasure in suffering caused to others (whether by one’s own negligence or by accident). that—intentionally or not—causes personal harm. Australians find the Asian propensity to react to impending disaster with nervous laughter incongruous. how serious is its message? Cultural differences in the extent of permission for these four purposes are certainly reflected in modern legal systems.88 Some. giving offence via humour is highly dependent on culture. Australians are acculturated to surprisingly crude jokes about such things as vomit (reflecting the strength of Australian-brewed beer and a juvenile culture of excessive alcohol consumption). laughing fit to bust. laughing and smiling have always been more enigmatic than other emotive signalling. It shows one (Australian) construction worker dangling precariously from scaffolding while a second man clings on to his descending trousers. In contrast. if so. Is the humour used to include or to exclude others? 2. The primary purpose of this book and its companion volume is to illuminate cultural assumptions in Chinese society about what is proper and enjoyable about laughter and humour. “chunder in the Great Pacific Sea”) out of context can prove quite shocking. [in it] the world is seen anew.01(p. or they may be cultural group codes developed to corral this pleasing but risky behaviour. personality and daily behaviour. . despite—or perhaps because of—historical disasters and challenges. .”94 Although essentially playful. we can at least take pains to learn from each other’s habits of humour. While much remains to be done. the studies collected here show that Chinese humour possesses exceptional vitality.1-21). but finally they will be matters of individual taste-culture. Its study and enjoyment deserve an inquiring mind. All deserve investigation. [it is] one of the essential forms of the truth concerning the world as a whole . Davis_01_ch.Humour and its cultural context 21 or regionally distinctive forms and modes of humour. no less (and perhaps more) profoundly than when seen from the serious standpoint. Bakhtin observed that “Laughter has a deep philosophical meaning.indd 21 09/04/2013 3:40 PM . humour carries traces of age-old rituals designed to restore meaning and balance by celebrating the inversion of logic and order. While there is no disputing differences in taste and culture. Beijing.(2) in the IISH Stefan R. Reproduced by kind permission of Stefan Landsberger. 29 January 2008. Source: Print no. 8085. Reproduced by courtesy of Panos Picture. Weida zhanshi Lei Feng 偉大戰士雷鋒 (Great warrior Lei Feng). Davis_05a_plate(16pp). Landsberger Collection (http://chineseposters. Felix Features and the artist. Source: Photograph by Justin Jin.2859.Plate 1.net). Plate 1.2 1965 poster.1 Student volunteers learn how to welcome visitors to the Olympic Games with upright posture and wide smiles showing their teeth.indd 1 05/04/2013 12:14 PM . Source: Photography by Meng Xiaochen 孟晓晨 and John Courtney. 2012. flush/advance!).4 Public hygiene poster. the “soldier hero” (in reality a 40 centimetre doll). Xin Lei Feng gushi 新雷鋒故事 (The new story of Lei Feng). Beijing. who became famous during the Cultural Revolution. is shown posing for a modern photo-shoot. Davis_05a_plate(16pp). The faded original caption (red on red) reads Tongzhimen chong a! 同志們冲啊 (Comrades. Peasant and Soldier (the three pillars of the proletarian class). appropriating the iconic Cultural Revolution image of the Worker.3 One of twelve photos by contemporary artist/photographer Dai Xiang 戴翔. Reproduced by kind permission. Plate 1. from a 2007–08 series. Source: Reproduced by kind permission of the artist. Daxing District.indd 2 05/04/2013 12:14 PM .Plate 1. displayed in the Popularization of Science Toilet Block in the Children’s Science Yard at Milu Park. exhibited in China and overseas. Here. Tsinghua University. Beijing.5 Video-still of an angry rabbit in Tu nian heka 2011 兔年賀卡 2011 (Greeting card for the Year of the Rabbit 2011). Source: http://www.indd 3 05/04/2013 12:14 PM . Davis_05a_plate(16pp). Source: Photograph by Guo Haijun 郭海軍.youtube.com/watch?v=Tu2a5SI4p60&feature=related (accessed 16 June 2012). Plate 2. The overprinted lyric reads.Plate 1.1 In December 2008. “Bu yao bi wo hongle yan 不要逼我紅了眼” (Don’t force me to get angry [literally: make my eyes red]). to mark the tenth anniversary of the writer’s death. Qian Zhongshu’s admirers placed candles at his alma mater. Reproduced by kind permission of Tsinghua University News Centre. by Pisan 皮三 (Wang Bo 王波). 255-306). burlesque and so on) are widely applied to non-literary humorous communications. Jessica Milner Davis. “style of humour” is used in both senses depending on context: here as literary style. 2. Linguistic theories of humor. 5. often prompted by the performer’s or reader’s interpretation of a humorous script. 3. Part 1: Why US law and dictionaries are unsound sources”. see Chapter 1 by Jocelyn Chey in the companion volume to this book. Davis_12_notes(p.indd 255 15/04/2013 4:57 PM . Salvatore Attardo. For currently available compilations. p.Notes Preface 1. “How virtuous is humor? Evidence from everyday behavior”. “Satire and definition”. Multidisciplinary usage in humour studies creates special challenges with regard to terminology. 286–9. 398–9). 2. For example. But many styles are subjective. p. “Defining parody and satire: Australian copyright law and its new exception. parody. 4. literary critical names for styles and genres of written and performed humour (satire. pp. black humour. 375. See Conal Condren. in Primer of humor research. the 1989 English National Opera production of Prokofiev’s The love of three oranges provided the audience with scratch-and-sniff cards matching the on-stage action with an appropriate odour—correctly. As an example. 387. In this book. Many humour scholars acknowledge the problem (for instance. farce. Sally McCausland and Robert Phiddian. Giselinde Kuipers. p. but in Chapter 9 for example as behavioural style. pp. until “dog poo” hilariously replaced the anticipated “rose petals”. Chapter 1 Humour and its cultural context 1. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) brain research demonstrates both affective and cognitive responses to humour—see Chapter 2 by Jessica Milner Davis in the companion volume to this book. 3). Moreover. Conal Condren. the term “style of humour” is also used in psychology to describe individual differences in behavioural patterns of using humour in everyday life (see discussion in Ursula Beerman and Willibald Ruch. “The sociology of humor”. Noted by Beatrice Otto. For this. 16. “Humor and the French mind: Towards a reciprocal definition”. The distinction is further discussed in Chapters 2 and 9 of this volume. 538–9). quoted by Weihe Xu in Chapter 4 in the companion volume to this book. Martin. see Paul Gifford. J. 11. Laughing in Chinese.. So termed by Salvatore Attardo. 19. “How virtuous is humor?”. The psychology of humor: An integrative approach. see Chapter 1 of the companion volume to this book. see Rod A. pp. pp. p. “Singaporean humor: A cross-cultural. Milner Davis. “Functions of laugh and smile in their Chinese premodern representation: A preliminary survey”. You Meng 優孟. Introduction to Understanding humor in Japan. For differences between French and English concepts of humour. 275–6. p. 18. who served in the court of Han Wudi (156–87 BCE). 12. even in French. You Zhan 優旃. The senses of humor: Self and laughter in modern America. Personality: A psychological interpretation). 23. 398.indd 256 15/04/2013 4:57 PM . See also Note 47 to Chapter 2 of this volume by Diran Sohigian. Ofra Nevo. 14. “A cross-cultural study of humor appreciation: Italy and Germany”. Fools are everywhere: The court jester around the world. 84. For instance. 17. 145–6. 2–6 6. 280. Chapter 1 in the companion volume to this book describes them: Chunyu Kun 淳于 髡 (471–221 BCE). See also Chapter 4 on Confucian humour by Weihe Xu in the same volume. His fame is now revived. 9. Gifford notes that. see note 25 to Chapter 3 in this volume. and examples of dayou shi. p. see Noga Arikha. Daniel Wickberg. Passions and tempers: A history of the humours. Davis_12_notes(p. 15. On Lin Yutang and his school. quoting his “Contagion of laughter: The rise of the humor phenomenon in Shanghai in the 1930s”. Willibald Ruch and Giovannantonio Forabosco. Linguistic theories of humor. Baruch Nevo and Janie Leong Siew Yin. See Chapter 2 by Jessica Milner Davis and Chapter 3 by Rey Tiquia on humoral medicine traditions in China and the West in the companion volume to this book. pp. 222–9. in P. and Chapter 1 of the companion volume to this book. Daniel Wickberg. Santangelo. “humour” is a neologism (“Humor and the French mind”. For a history of the concept. 24. The senses of humor. 21. 20. p. For an overview of the current state of research. 8. jester to the court of the first Emperor of the Qin dynasty (676–652 BCE) and Dongfang Shuo 東方說. Ursula Beerman and Willibald Ruch. Allport. 7. Maoshi zhushu. 85. Paolo Santangelo. 22. pp.256 Notes to pp.255-306). p. 102 (referring principally to Gordon W. cross-gender comparison”. pp. jester to the court of King Zhuangwang (reigned 613–591  BCE). 8 (the author is indebted to Marguerite Wells for assistance with Japanese terminology and scripts). ed. 10. xx. 13. see also Chapter 10 by Qian Suoqiao and Chapter 9 by Joseph Sample in the companion volume to this book. 305–7 and 331–3. The earliest text long predates the Byzantine (tenth-century CE) Philogelos. 40. “Translating English into English in jokes and humour”. humour and literature. p. “Reconstructing the evolution of laughter in great apes and humans”. and coping functions” (Internet Source (IS) Bibliography). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values. Earl of Chesterfield. unite!”.. See Marina Davila Ross. see Justin Jin. behaviors. 28. “Satire in South Korea: Sneaky tricksters. Wallace Chafe. CA: Asian Humanities Press. 16 January 2012 (IS Bibliography). Traditional Korean theater (Berkeley. in Delia Chiaro. See studies collected in Jan Bremmer and Herman Roodenburg. Marguerite Wells. 39. 1. pp. see John Morreall. and to Oda Shōkichi. 38. Humour in Korean literature. ed. Norbert Elias. 121–2. 36. talk show channels young people’s anger”. Milner Davis. 27. Michael Schröter. 31.indd 257 15/04/2013 4:57 PM .255-306). and Nathaniel Hong. p. 41. For photos of a class in training. ed. ed. “‘Laughing’ rats and the evolutionary antecedents of human joy?” Elias’s belief that laughter is a disabling mechanism for aggression is now shared by evolutionary biologists: see Matthew Gervais and David Sloan Wilson. pp. 120. Shalom H. 30. “The evolution and functions of laughter and humor: A synthetic approach”. kann nicht bessen’: Ein unveröffentlichter Essay on laughter von Norbert Elias”. “Laughter and the traditional Japanese smile”. “Humor in the Holocaust: Its critical. The letters of Phillip Dormer Stanhope. Geert Hofstede. pp. 33.. 6–9 257 25. Christie Davies. 34. writing in 1938 about theatres as laughter places. 1 November 2011 (IS Bibliography). 11–12. Felix features (Internet Sources [IS] Bibliography). The civilizing process: The history of manners. eds. Understanding humor in Japan. institutions and organizations across nations. Marguerite Wells. pp. pp. in J. 154. The Economist. 106–8. 120. comparable animal behaviour is less convulsive—chimpanzees “pant laugh” and rats “squeak laugh”. Milner Davis. Understanding humor in Japan. and Oh-Kon Cho. and Choe Sang-Hun. For World War II survival humour. 35. Michael Owren and Elke Zimmermann. Schwartz. On the historical tradition. “Satire and constraint in Japanese culture”. New York Times. Shōkichi Oda. my translation. p.. The civilizing process. and Jaak Panksepp and Jeff Burgdorf. 32. “‘Wer lacht. writing more generally in 1986.. 1: 69. 37.. 26. 24. Paradoxically. 204–5.Notes to pp. “By lampooning leaders. Norbert Elias.T. 861–2. “A theory of cultural values and some implications for work”. Paul Lewis. in J. D. Davis_12_notes(p. where she traces the term to Ōta Masao. See Chapter 7 by Christopher Rea for the etymology of shanzhai and its links with e’gao culture. quoting from Elias’s unpublished essay. “Mow ’em all down Grandma: The ‘weapon’ of humor in two Danish World War II occupation scrapbooks”. see Chun Shin-Yong. “Humor and political correctness”. Japanese humour. cohesive. 29.. A cultural history of humour: From antiquity to the present day. Translation. The importance of not being earnest: The feeling behind laughter and humor. ed. also Lord Chesterfield’s well-known instructions to his son—for instance. Good humor. Chinese folklore: Pekinese rhymes (orig. ed. “Image of internet police: Jingjing and Chacha online”. “Undertaking the comparative study of humor”. Hong Kong: Vetch and Lee. 55. 1972). The primer of humor research. the two styles are summarized at pp. English librettist William S. 9–12 1988). Giselinde Kuipers. Walter Redfern. 79–90. 46. 53. pp. ou les puns et les autres. Mariet Westermann. who composed. A cultural history of humour. for examples of popular nineteenth-century nonsense rhymes. Understanding humor in Japan. on traditional satirical masked dance-dramas. especially note 37. Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste. Beijing. This opera is part of a long series collectively titled Yangjia Jiang 楊家將 (Yang Family Generals). police).258 Notes to pp. 167. Christie Davies.. traduit de l’intraduisable. he was convicted in 1964 of publishing an obscenity but posthumously pardoned. as here. 199. See chapters by Shirley Chan and Weihe Xu respectively in the companion to this volume. 56. ed. in Victor Raskin. Earle Tempel. in Jan Bremmer and Herman Roodenburg. 1896. 22 January 2006 (IS Bibliography). 47. See Xiao Qiang. p. See Guido Vitale. edn.. p. “Laughter as materiel: The mobilization of comedy in Japan’s fifteenyear war”. 45. Titles marked with an asterisk. American satirist Leonard Alfred Schneider (1925–66). mirthprovoking headlines from the newspapers of the United States and other English-speaking countries. are listed in the Audiovisual Sources (AV) Bibliography. played and sang his own works. 42. ed. 52.. Guangdong Province. Heiyō Nagashima. eds. 44. Gilbert (1836–1911) and composer Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900).255-306). China Digital Times. in J.indd 258 15/04/2013 4:57 PM . 98. 133. restaged in the 1970s and 1980s folk revival movement to comment on contemporary politics. “How was Jan Steen funny? Strategies and functions of comic painting in the seventeenth century”. Pierre Bourdieu. bad taste: A sociology of the joke. and Chapter 7 in this volume. installed on 22 January 2006 as official “site guardians” on internet portals by the Internet Surveillance Division of the Shenzhen Public Security Bureau. drawn from the eponymous novel by sixteenth-century author Xiong Damu 熊大木. 54. 16. Barak Kushner. p. 49. For instance. Calembours. 78. about a Song dynasty military family’s exploits. the mascots Jingjing 警警 and Chacha 察察 (punning on jingcha 警察. p. 43. 51. See Chapter 1 by Jocelyn Chey in the companion volume to this book for some characteristic forms of Chinese punning. 48. “Sha-re: A widely accepted form of Japanese wordplay”. Milner Davis. Davis_12_notes(p.. 50. See Christopher Rea’s chapter for text and translation. repub. Humor in the headlines: A comprehensive collection of witty. Such sexual double-entendres were traditional in Victorian music halls and early twentieth-century American burlesque. became a cult figure for fans. 75. Eric Abrahamsen. Orion Martin. 60. site later inoperative). 64. For instance. however. 167–8. in The big bang: Guide look [sic]: Selected works from the White Rabbit Collection. Eric Abrahamsen. “Interview with Wang Bo (Pi San) and Jeremy Goldkorn” (IS Bibliography). “Beijing’s housing price fury goes viral”. 9. BBC News. Financial Times. 63. in Jan Bremmer and Herman Roodenburg. the artist commented. 73. Viewing these stereotyped images reportedly employed as toilet bowls in a Harbin hotel urinal (Cal Widdall.indd 259 15/04/2013 4:57 PM . Blow up the school. 201. that negative reinforcement often outweighs any positive affect. Comedy Central. See http://www. 59. 62. Davis_12_notes(p. “Censors delete Chinese cartoon that takes swipes at public scandals”. Christie Davies. 398–9 (author’s italics). 71. Elizabeth Keenan. “Irony is good” (IS Bibliography). in R. For an outline and interview with Pisan and others.255-306). “China’s art explosion”. p. “Irony is good”. Christie Davies. Beijing Today. 12–16 259 57. Hu Xijin. “Humour and the public sphere in nineteenth-century Germany”. 16 May 2007 (IS Bibliography). pp. “Revisiting Political Pop and Cynical Realism” (IS Bibliography). “Revisiting Political Pop and Cynical Realism: Discussion with Luo Fei” (IS Bibliography). “Spotted on Weibo: ‘Yasukuni shrine’ urinals in Harbin” (IS Bibliography) suggests. translated by Jeremy Goldkorn. “Undertaking the comparative study of humor”. personal blog (IS Bibliography). In Yue Minjun’s former online gallery (IS Bibliography). see Stephen McDonell. 399. 5 March 2011 (IS Bibliography). 74. Christie Davies. “Laughter is a moment when our mind refuses to reason”. Jeremy Goldkorn. “Humour is not a strategy in war”. There is also a literary School of Cynical Realism.hutoon. 25 January 2011 (IS Bibliography). 72. “Comrades. 68. Orion Martin. “Humour is not a strategy in war”. A cultural history of humour. p. 66. The Guardian. the sale of melamine-tainted baby milk: see Tania Branigan. “China’s Premier Wen Jiabao targets ‘social stability’”. See “What if Lei Feng served today?”. The protagonist of Pisan’s 2005 video. a naughty boy named Kuangkuang (“speech bubble”) with a permanently bleeding nose. 76. especially after attempts to erase the video from the Chinese internet. “Lei Feng in the age of the microblog”. 26 March 2010 (IS Bibliography). 61. R.Notes to pp. new series commenced in 2011.. Jamil Anderlini. Created in 1997 by Trey Parker and Matt Stone for the US TV network. “Lei Feng in the age of the microblog” (IS Bibliography). eds. 69. Lyric translated here and below by Jocelyn Chey. Luo Fei. flush!”. Mary Lee Townsend. p. 23 December 2010 (IS Bibliography). 67. Danwei. 70. Joel Martensen. Hutoon’s clients included Motorola and China Central Television. 58. 5 March 2012 (IS Bibliography).com (accessed 17 August 2011. 65. pp. Serious frolic: Essays on Australian humour. 48. “Pushing the boundaries of political satire in Japan”. Jennifer Pan and Margaret Roberts. For anthropological research on this topic. 85. 1. but also educational as well as satirical. Norimitsu Onishi.co. “Over the edge? Subversive humor between colleagues and friends”. pp. ed. 81. 93. “Humor and religion: Humor and religion in East Asian context”. 12 August. 78. The New York Times. . pp. See Chapter 1 by Jocelyn Chey in the companion volume to this book. pp. Elena de Rossi Filibeck Davis_12_notes(p. 4 August 2007. Understanding humor in Japan. pp. 89. “Conversational jokes in Japanese and English”.. . J. The Wall Street Journal. 294. hisho Tanaka (Ōta Hikari: If I were Prime Minister . 92. . and Janet Holmes and Meredith Marra. even after ten years in Australia. Censorship was highly efficient at times like the Kansai Reform period (1787–93). “The smiling emperor: Facial gestures in Chinese historiography”. see Richard Gardner. 88. 17–20 77. For religious attitudes to spiritual humour. Milner Davis. Milner Davis. 26 January 2011 (IS Bibliography). see Mahadev Apte. Witness American fantasy writer Jack Dann admitting to difficulty in coping with Australian humour. Humor and laughter: An anthropological approach.255-306). The Fine Print. fully engaged with politics. 80. 92–100. Gary King.. “Ōta Hikari no watashi ga sōri daijin ni nattara . 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Cartoon in Vane Lindsay. 86. see Janet Holmes and Meredith Marra. 4194–205 and 4205–10 respectively. “Defining parody and satire”. pp. p. “Director of gory rabbit revolt video ‘Just venting’”. see Laura E. Laughing in Chinese. The show’s formula was complex. It ended in 2010. 79. 84. Little. “Just a joke: Defamatory humor and incongruity’s promise” (IS Bibliography). 38–9. 273–4. 83. The mirth of nations. For American law on humour. ed. and Richard Gardner and Scott Davis. 24 (IS Bibliography). “‘Taking the mickey’: A brave Australian tradition”..indd 260 15/04/2013 4:57 PM . “Humor and religion”. by manzai (cross-talk) partners ōta Hikari and Tanaka Yūji. Conal Condren et al. “‘Aussie’ humour and laughter: Joking as an acculturating ritual”. 304–8. 91. pp. Christie Davies. The 1923 “great debate between science and life”. and Qian Suoqiao’s Chapter 10 in the companion volume to this book. Wei cheng 圍城 (hereafter Wei cheng).txt (IS Bibliography). Jackson MD and Helen M. see Qian Zhongshu. Jeanne Kelly and Nathan Mao (hereafter FB) with romanization of names and terms changed to the pinyin system. Full details of all works are in the Bibliography. 21–26 261 notes contemporary Tibetan laughter in order to avoid discomforting others in her chapter in the same book. 66. p. 5–6. Davis_12_notes(p. 155–7. 4. Laughter.Notes to pp. “Introduction”. Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: The Twentieth Century. 619. 23. Rabelais and his world. p. The Chinese text used is Qian Zhongshu 錢鐘書. See Diran John Sohigian. “Contagion of laughter”. 6. announced in 1925. pp. unless otherwise noted. and ghosts: Stories and essays. “Yang Jiang: he Qian Zhongshu bing fei yi jian zhong qing 楊 絳：和錢鐘書并非一见鐘情” (Yang Jiang: With Qian Zhongshu it was not love at first sight)” (IS Bibliography). 9. p. 2. Chapter 2 The phantom of the clock 1. Henri Bergson. 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Da jing xiao guai 大惊小怪 (Storm in a teacup).com/watch?v=60og9gwKh1o&feature =related (accessed 10 December 2010). Director: Ren Xudong 任旭東.indd 337 24/04/2013 10:36 AM . Production: Shanghai Film Studio (1981).com/watch?v=HUowM9Sye8s (accessed 15 July 2009). Che shui ma long 车水马龙 (Busy.com/ watch?v=ymP3JSh5wH4 (accessed 9 January 2012). Chunyun diguo: Hu Ge zuopin 春運帝国—胡戈作品 (Spring festival travel empire: A work by Hu Ge). Beijing Forbidden City Film Company and Sleiman/Tyrol Films (1998). Didao zhan 地道戰 (Tunnel warfare). Production: Amusement Films. Director: Feng Xiaogang.youtube.youtube.html (accessed 9 January 2011).Bibliography 337 Ai ni ru gu [ Oi nei jap gwat ] 愛你入骨 ( Love you to the bone ). Director: Feng Xiaogang 馮小剛. Production: Beijing Film Studio (1992). Numa numa. Da Wan 大腕 (Big Shot’s funeral). Directors: Zheng Xiaolong 鄭晓龙 and Feng Xiaogang 馮小剛. Caan wan caan sik caan caan jau 餐搵餐食餐餐有 (To earn a living). Director: Wong Fung 黃楓. Hong Kong (1969). Caifang Yueyu “Haang faai di laa” gequ chuangzuozhe: Shangguan Liuyun 采訪粵語「行快 的啦」歌曲創作者：上官流云 (Interviewing the creator of the Cantonese song “Haang faai di laa”: Shangguan Liuyun). Production: August First Film Studio (1965).youku. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTGCf4Onx3I (accessed 15 July 2009). Production: Huayi Brothers and Taihe Film (2001).youtube. http://www. super cool DJ super hilarious video “White & nerdy”). Director: Hu Ge 胡戈.com/watch?v=JZL_F85AhSg (accessed 9 January 2012).youtube.youtube. Bu jian bu san 不见不散 (Be there or be square). TV drama in 21 episodes (1992). http://www. http://www.com/watch?v=vp5eVClV334 (accessed 29 October 2009). Beijingren zai Niuyue 北京人在紐約 (A Beijinger in New York).youtube.com/v_show/id_XMTc0MzkwMjgw.youtube. Gary. zibei mojing!!!! 草泥马之歌动漫版，自备墨鏡！ ！ ！ ！(Animated grassmud horse song.com/watch?v=0eksR5iRGxA (accessed 17 March 2011). chao haoting DJ chao gaoxiao de MV “You bai you zhai” 超爽，超好听DJ超搞笑的 MV《又白又宅》 (Super awesome. Da saba 大撒把 (After separation). http://v. www. http://www. As long as you love me: Houshe nansheng 后舍男生 (As long as you love me: Backdorm Boys). alternative title Heavy Traffic). Da Wan UBC midterm ban 大腕 UBC midterm 版 (Big Shot’s funeral UBC midterm edition).307-342). Director: Ding Sheng 丁晟. Brolsma. Production: Beijing Film Studio. get your shades on!!!!) http://www. Caonima zhi ge dongmanban. com/watch?v=DNU3FaIuBkQ&feature=PlayList&p=3C937E7B1DB0188A&in dex=7 (accessed 26 October 2010). http://www. Production: China Film Export and Import Corporation (2000). http://www. Caonima zhi ge 草泥马之歌 (Song of the grass-mud horse). Davis_13_biblio(p. Chao shuang. xiangdang gaoxiao) 吉林大学惡搞（太有才了，相當搞笑） (Jilin University e’gao [brilliant. yifang 甲方乙方 (Dream factory). Kang Ri xiaoqibing 抗日小奇兵 (Anti-Japan little ambush troops). Jipiao tuji 机票突擊 (Plane ticket sortie). Director: Lo Wei 羅維.com (1999) http:// www.tudou.307-342). Production: Huayi Brothers. Director: Wang Fengkui 王凤奎. Shanghai Film Studios. Director: Feng Xiaogang.youtube. Directors: Tang Yingqi 唐英奇.youku. Director: Feng Xiaogang. and Zhejiang AV (2007). Dongjing gong lue 東京攻略 (Tokyo raiders). Production: Haiyan (Shanghai) Film Studios (1959). Hu Ge shanzhai xinwen lianbo xinzuo 胡戈山寨新聞联播新作 (New edition of knock-off news broadcast from Hu Ge). Director: Wang Binglin 王秉林. Production: Great Wall Movie Enterprise (1950). Director: Air Cao 曹正元. Gongfu e’gao pian 功夫惡搞片 (E’gao of Kung fu hustle).com/video/watch/81256481 (accessed 9 January 2012).com/watch?v=pI09ra6KOI (accessed 3 May 2012). Davis_13_biblio(p. Production: Golden Harvest (1985). Fei cheng wu rao 非誠勿扰 (If you are the one). Xu Da 徐達 and Wu Jianhai 吴健海. Director: Jiang Wen 姜文.com/v_show/id_XMTg2MDQ1NjQ=. Director: Feng Xiaogang. hilarious]). Production: Golden Harvest (2000). http://www. Fangshou fanji 防守反擊 (Amateur soccer players). Distributor: Mediatrip.ebaumsworld. http://v. Guizi laile 鬼子來了 (Devils on the doorstep). Director: Sammo Hung 洪金寶. Director: Liang Tian 梁天. Director: Griffin Yueh Feng 岳楓. Director: Joe Nussbaum. Diu jyu long [ Diaoyu lang ] 釣魚郎 ( The fisherman ). Production: Hangzhou Little Ambush Troops Cartoon Company. Production: Beijing Film Studio. Production: Huayi Brothers. http://www. http://v.indd 338 24/04/2013 10:36 AM . Production: Asian Union Film and Entertainment (2000). Production: August First Film Studio (1963). Jiafang. html (accessed 14 January 2010). Jingwumen 精武門 (Fist of fury). Fu xing gao zhao 福星高照 (My lucky stars). Media Asia.youtube. Jintian wo xiuxi 今天我休息 (It’s my day off). Production: Golden Harvest Films (1972). Dou ji 斗雞 (Cockfighting). Hua jie 花街 (The flower street).html (accessed 15 July 2009). Production: Changchun Film Studio (1991). Jilin daxue e’gao (tai youcai le. Production: Beijing Film Studio (1990).youku. com/watch?v=vp2G23hvjlw (accessed 13 March 2011). Huayi Brothers and Taihe Film (2000). Media Asia and Zhejiang Film Studio (2010). Director: Lu Ren. Gaopeng manzuo 高朋滿座 (The weddings). com/v_show/id_XMzU1MzkyMA==. Director: Hu Ge. Director: Jingle Ma 馬楚成. Published by Liaoning Culture and Arts AV Publishers (2006).com/ programs/view/nb8zn0gHszc/ (accessed 12 December 2009). Production: Beijing Forbidden City Film Company (1997).338 Bibliography Dilei zhan 地雷戰 (Landmine warfare). George Lucas in love. Jijie hao 集結号 (Assembly). http://www. com/watch?v=0ki7J0CMiNQ&feature=related (accessed 13 August 2009). Beijing Huayi Brothers and Huayi Yalian Company (1999). Mei wan mei liao 沒完沒了 (Sorry. Director: Hu Ge. Entertainment Haishang Films and Sil-Metropole Organisation (2007). Meiguo zongtong Aobama yuzhu Beishida tongxue siji qude hao chengji 美国总统奥巴马預祝 北師大同学四級取得好成績 (US President Obama wishes BNU students good luck on the CET-4 exam). Production: Shanghai TV (1996). http://www. Production: Yunnan Film. Director: Zhang Jianya 張建亞. and Columbia (Asia) (2003). Su Li 蘇 里. Pingyuan youjidui 平原游擊隊 (Guerrillas on the plain). Nan funü zhuren 男婦女主任 (A man in charge of women’s affairs). Guangzhou Film and Shenzhen Lingjun (2000). Baby!). Production: Heilongjiang New Ocean Technology Company (2006). http://www.youtube.com/programs/view/x1X_BfAks5I (accessed 9 January 2012).youtube. Directors: Wu Zhaoti 武兆堤. Director: Lu Ren. Mao’ershan de guizi bing 帽儿山的鬼子兵 (Devil soldiers at Mao-er Mountain). Star wars kid. Director: Feng Xiaogang. Davis_13_biblio(p.youtube. Production: Focus Features. Production: China Film Corporation Beijing Film Studio.com/watch?v=HPPj6viIBmU (accessed 10 September 2010). River Road. Se jie: e’gao ban 色戒——惡搞版 (E’gao edition of Lust. Shouji 手机 (Cell phone). Huayi Brothers Taihe Film. Meili de jia 美麗的家 (Stories of Zhang Damin). Production: Beijing Film Studio (1980). Production: Beijing Forbidden City Film Company (2000). Director: An Zhanjun 安戰軍. Shanzhaiban Chibi 山寨版赤壁 (Knock-off edition of Red Cliff).youtube. Sanchakou 三岔口 (The crossroads). http://www. Production: Beijing Forbidden City Film Company.youtube. Director: Wang Haowei 王好為. caution).com/watch?v=kKA3JUJ3pro&feature=related (accessed 10 September 2010).com/watch?v=Jll5baCAaQU (accessed 14 December 2009). Li Shuangshuang 李双双 (Li Shuangshuang). Sanmao congjun ji 三毛从軍記 (Sanmao joins the army).com/watch?v=o34O5_nPTDY&p laynext=1&list=PL1EA91CA3D133A70E (accessed 28 February 2011). Qiao zhe yi jiazi 瞧這一家子 (What a family). Se jie 色戒 (Lust. http://www.com/ watch?v=W0y3Aeb7xng (accessed 14 December 2009). Mancheng jinshi jiaban zu 滿城盡是加班族 (A city filled with overtimers).Bibliography 339 Kaoshi yijia qin 考試一家親 (Family tie). http://www. Director: Feng Xiaogang. Director: Liu Xiaoguang 劉晓光.indd 339 24/04/2013 10:36 AM . http://www. Director: Zhang Huizhong 張惠中.youtube. President-Elect Barack Obama in Chicago. Shanghairen zai Dongjing 上海人在東京 (Shanghai-ers in Tokyo). Director: Ang Lee 李安. Production: Changchun Film Studio and Dalian Benshan Entertainment Company (1999).tudou. 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Director: Zhao Huanzhang 趙煥章.com/ watch?v=Tm6blQidu7c (accessed 28 October 2010). Capgen Investment. Director: Wang Bo 王波 (Pisan 皮三).340 Bibliography Tianxia wu zei 天下無賊 (A world without thieves). http://www. Wuxi Broadcast TV and China Film Corporation. Tu nian heka 2011 兔年賀卡 2011 (Greeting card for the Year of the Rabbit 2011). Xi ying men 喜盈门 (In-laws). Taihe Film.youtube. and Morgan and Chan Films (2005). Shanghai Film Studios (1956). Yeyan 夜宴 (The banquet).youtube.youku. Production: Huayi Brothers and Media Asia (2009). Xiao bing Zhang Ga 小兵張嘎 (Zhang Ga. Xiaogui tezhongbing 小鬼特种兵 (Little devils special brigade). Media Asia. Directors: Tso Nam Lee 李作南 and Kong Gang 孔剛. China Film Group and Moonstone Entertainment (2005). http://www. Director: Zhang Yimou 張艺謀.com/watch?v=Tu2a5SI4p60&feature=rel ated (accessed 16 June 2012). Director: Chen Kaige 陳凱歌.com/watch?v=SfGVL3BMGNI (accessed 14 July 2009). Xi shuashua zhi shiqi da ban 嘻唰唰之十七大版 (Seventeenth People’s Consultative Congress edition of Wash scrub scrub). Production: Shanghai Film Studio (1982). Production: Huayi Brothers.com/muzikland/archives/4017155. http://www.com/v_show/id_XNTQyMTI4.com/watch?v=tDjT09fIoNw&feat ure=related (posted 5 November 2007.307-342). Production: Changchun Film Studios (1959). Production: China Film Corporation. Director: Feng Xiaogang. Director: Zhong Song 众松. Director: Wang Jiayi 王家乙. Xingfu shiguang 幸福時光 (Happy times). Director: Lo Wei. Publisher: Shenzhen AV Company (2007). youtube. Wuji 無极 (The promise). http://www. Director: Feng Xiaogang. Director: Peter Chan Ho-Sun [Chen Kexin] 陳可辛. Yeyan: e’gao 夜宴—惡搞 (E’gao of The banquet). Production: Guangxi Film Studio.com/watch?v=fUwliHrWZxc&feature=related (accessed 26 October 2010). Beijing Forbidden City Film Company.roodo. Production: Beijing Film Academy (2006). Tiedao youjidui 鐵道游擊隊 (Railroad guerrillas). Production: Beijing Orange Sky Zhihong Video. http://www. youtube. Production: 21 Century Shengkai. Wu duo jin hua 五朵金花 (Five golden flowers).