Hubs and Spokes of US-RP Immigration Policy and Its Gradual Shift of Political Economy in Human Capita of Filipino Immigrants

International Political EconomyAngelei T. Dineros March 24, 2018 AB Foreign Service – 301 Jumel G. Estrañero Hubs and Spokes of US-RP Immigration Policy and its Gradual Shift of Political Economy in Human Capita of Filipino Immigrants Abstract This research aims to know the deep Bilateral Relation of US-RP in terms of migration and how the New Immigration Policy of the United States of America could affect the Political Economy of the Republic of the Philippines with regards to Human Capita of Filipino Immigrants.  Chapter I INTRODUCTION The Philippines and the United States have an enduring alliance that is based on deep historical and cultural ties. The Philippines gained its independence from the United States on July 4, 1946, and diplomatic relations were formally established the same day.1 During the late twentieth century, Filipinos became one of the fastest-growing immigrant populations in the United States. By the early twenty-first century, they constituted the third-largest Asian immigrant group in the United States, after Asian Indians and Chinese, and could be found living throughout the North American continent. 2 A long history of migration is deeply ingrained in the social, economic, and cultural climate of the Philippines. As one of the largest origin country for migrants, migration has greatly affected the Philippines. The history of Philippine migration helps us understand how migration has shaped the social landscape of the Philippines today. The rich history of migration explains the motivation of Filipinos to go overseas, the challenges and the opportunities that they face. 3 United States of America and the Republic of the Philippines indeed have a long- standing bilateral relation. Data from the U.S. Census Bureau states that there are approximately 3.4 million Filipino immigrants and their children living in the U.S., making Filipinos the fourth largest immigrant community in the U.S. behind Mexicans, Chinese and Indians. 4 But since the presidency of Donald Trump, immigrants are now being affected by his new immigration policy. This study aims to know how this gradual shift of new immigration policy of the United States of America would affect the Filipino Immigrants in the United States and what will be the effect of this in the Political Economy of the Philippines in terms of Human Capita of Filipino Immigrants. Chapter II 1 Embassy of the Philippines - PH-US Bilateral Relations. Accessed March 22, 2018. http://www.philippineembassy- usa.org/philippines-dc/embassy-dc/ph-us-bilateral-relations-dc/. 2 "Filipino Immigrants." Immigration to the United States. Accessed March 16, 2018. http://immigrationtounitedstates.org/497-filipino-immigrants.html#sel=5:2,5:49. 3 "History of Philippine Migration." Centerformigrantadvocacy.com. March 09, 2018. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://centerformigrantadvocacy.com/philippine-migration/history-of-philippine-migration/. 4 "Filipinos Respond to Trump's Statements Suggesting Immigration Ban for PH." News. August 9, 2016. Accessed March 16, 2018. http://asianjournal.com/news/filipinos-respond-to-trumps-statements-suggesting-immigration- ban-for-ph/.  A. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM (1) What are the push and pull factors that causes Filipinos to migrate in the United States of America? (2) What are the advantages and disadvantages of Trump’s Immigration Policy to Filipino Immigrants in the United States of America? (3) What will be the effects of the implementation of United States’ New Immigration Policy in Political Economy of the Republic of the Philippines with regards to Human Capita of Filipino Immigrants. B. METHODOLOGY These procedures and methods will serve as a guide in conducting and underpinning research data by gathering, analyzing, and processing information. Historical Development According to Dr. Tripti Sharma, Historical methods of research are the process of systematically examining an account of what has happened in the past. It is not facts and dates or even a description of past events. The dynamic account of past events that involves an interpretation attempt to recapture the nuances, personalities, and ideas that events. It also describes as scientific method in which comparison is used to reveal the general and the particular in historical phenomena and to gain an understanding of the various historical stages of development of one and the same phenomenon or two different but contemporaneous phenomena It is made to establish facts in order to arrive at conclusions concerning past events or predict future events. It enables to provide a solution to contemporary problems to be sought in the past. Furthermore, it allows to for the revaluation of data in relation to selected hypothesis, theories and generalizations that are presently held about the past. There are two sources of Historical methods of research, first, the Primary Sources of information which directs outcomes of events or the records of eyewitnesses (e.g. Original documents, relics, remains and artifacts). The other is Secondary Sources of information which provided by a person who did not directly observe the event, object, or condition (e.g. Textbooks, encyclopedias, newspapers, periodicals and review of research).5 Descriptive Research Method The Descriptive method is designed for the investigator to gather information about presenting existing conditions. Furthermore, it defines as involving collection of data in 5 Tripti Sharma. "Historical Method." Lecture. November 12, 2017. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://es.slideshare.net/DrTriptiSharma/historical-method-81926486. order to test hypothesis or to answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the study (Gay, 1976) It aims to describe the nature of situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of particular phenomena (Travers, 1978).6 Descriptive research is a study designed to depict the participants in an accurate way. More simply put, descriptive research is all about describing people who take part in the study.7 There are three ways a researcher can go about doing a descriptive research project, and they are: Observational, defined as a method of viewing and recording the participants. Observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic observation and laboratory observation. Case study, defined as an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions. Survey, defined as a brief interview or discussion with an individual about a specific topic. In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.8 6 Erwin S. Manuel and Razzel Marie L. Masinda. "Descriptive Method." Lecture. July 22, 2008. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://www.slideshare.net/japorto/descriptive-method. 7 Study.com. Accessed March 22, 2018. https://study.com/academy/lesson/descriptive-research-design-definition- examples-types.html. 8 "The 3 Basic Types of Descriptive Research Methods." World of Psychology. September 27, 2011. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://psychcentral.com/blog/the-3-basic-types-of-descriptive-research-methods/.  Chapter III REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 5 reasons Filipino immigrants apply for US citizenship By: Lourdes Santos Tancinco October 04, 2015 There are different reasons why Filipinos aspire to become American Citizen. Here are some of their motivations why they are seeking for naturalization and for applying US citizenship. Family Unity Filipinos are being known for having a strong family-oriented culture. Thus, this become one of the reason why they seek for US citizenship or become a green card holder who are permanent residents of the United states. They can petition their family members particularly their spouses and unmarried children. While being a US citizen provides them the ability to petition more family members including their future spouses or fiancées. Also, US citizens may petition their minor children and spouses faster (about 12 months) as compared to green card holder petitioners.9 Therefore, we can see that US citizenship will be able to unite family members even they are not natural-born citizen of America. Avoiding Separation Having a status of green card holder doesn’t give assurance for non-US citizen, it can be revoked anytime by the Department of Homeland Security if the holder is proven guilty or being convicted of a removable/deportable offense. So, to prevent to prevent any unintended immigration consequence, it would be best to apply for US citizenship as soon as the immigrant meets the eligibility for naturalization. So, prevent any unintended immigration consequence, it would be best to apply for US citizenship as soon as the immigrant meets the eligibility for naturalization. Civic engagement Immigrants who were granted privilege of having a US citizenship were now able to have equal rights like a natural-born citizen of the United States. They can now engage in different socio-political activities like running for a government position and a right to suffrage. 9 Tancinco, Lourdes Santos. "5 Reasons Filipino Immigrants Apply for US Citizenship." Inquirer Global Nation 5 Reasons Filipino Immigrants Apply for US Citizenship Comments. October 4, 2015. Accessed March 20, 2018. http://globalnation.inquirer.net/129131/5-reasons-filipino-immigrants-apply-for-us-citizenship. Federal employment They can also have the opportunities to work in US military and receive benefits from US government. Furthermore, they will be given the ability to petition their family and enjoy military benefits. Ease of travel These may be the least benefits that will be received by the Immigrants eligible of US citizenship but can be one of the privileges. Being an American passport holder has a lot of benefits in terms of travelling and this may be one reason why immigrants wanted to become US citizen beside of many benefits that America can offer. Besides, who doesn’t want a hassle-free travelling? Of course, everyone will dream to become an American passport holder.9 Filipinos respond to Trump’s statements suggesting immigration ban for PH By: Momar G. Visaya, Christina M. Oriel and Klarize Medenilla August 9, 2016 Because of the comment of current president of the United States of America, Donald Trump, suggesting a ban on immigration from areas with high rates of terrorism, including the Philippines, many Filipinos are being affected and reacted on his statement. Trump said that immigrants should be heavily scrutinized even those who obtained their citizenship legally. He called this system trojan horse, which is apparently let terrorist enter their country. He mentioned lot of examples in which this legally immigrants planned to enter in the US for them to be able to kill as many Americans as they can. Philippine Presidential Spokesperson Ernesto Abella responded to Trump’s comment on behalf of the country and stated that Trump should really understand his constituents if he wants to become president. But communications secretary Martin Andanar says that Mr. Trump always loves the Philippines and think that it is one of the best place in Asia. Rep. Jose “Joey” Salceda introduced a bill, House Resolution No. 43, in which he called Trump’s presence in the country harmful to “national interest.” Most of Filipino-Americans residing in the US condemned Trump for his statement and ascertaining that that his remarks disregard the contributions Filipinos have made to the country. Data from the U.S. Census Bureau states that there are approximately 3.4 million Filipino immigrants and their children living in the U.S., making Filipinos the fourth largest immigrant community in the U.S. behind Mexicans, Chinese and Indians. California Assembly member Rob Bonta, put out a call to action on social media to ban Trump, urging Fil-Ams to share videos and pictures with a sign that says “#BawalSiTrump.” Along with other migrant communities and the colonial history of the U.S. and the Philippines, countless contributions have been made by Filipino workers and their families to the growth of the U.S. in various fields: agriculture and industry, health and wellness, performance arts and humanities, science and technology, public service and social movements, mass media and even security and defense. Meanwhile, Fil-Am Republicans argue that Trump’s comments were taken out of context. Dolly De Leon, a Filipina in Las Vegas who founded Baby Boomers, she stated that “the mainstream media should be blame for taking out of context what Donald Trump said as much as when he made comments about the criminals who come from Mexico.” The Filipino-American Republicans USA Facebook page denounced the media reports that suggested Trump had referred to all Filipinos as “animals,” and encouraged Filipinos to be more mindful of the news. “We urge our fellow Filipinos to continue to have an open mind and to seek the truth in every issue. We are proud of our readership’s vigilance and not giving into the biased media’s pandering,” the post said.10 5 ways a Trump presidency could affect Filipinos By: JC Punongbayan November 12, 2016 Immigration and remittances Donald Trump espouses a protectionist worldview that runs across many of his policies, such as immigration. He promised to bring back job opportunities for the Americans and thought that these undocumented immigrants stole the job opportunities that were reserved for the Americans per se. These statements affect the ethnic minorities in US including the nearly 4 million Filipinos currently living there, who account for about a third of all Filipinos abroad. Even those highly skilled OFW’s could be affected when the immigration policy begins to tighten, thus, it OFW’s remittances could be compromised once Trump propose to “impound remittance payments derived from illegal wage. Investments Trumps Administration plans to build businesses inside the America thus this decrease America’s investment abroad. This could affect the economy of the Philippines since the business process outsourcing (BPO) industry has served as one of the Philippine economy’s bright spots. It has created many high-paying jobs for our young professionals and earned dollars for the economy in a way that is even starting to overtake dollar earnings from remittances. Trade 10 "Filipinos Respond to Trump's Statements Suggesting Immigration Ban for PH." News. August 9, 2016. Accessed March 20, 2018. http://asianjournal.com/news/filipinos-respond-to-trumps-statements-suggesting-immigration- ban-for-ph/. Trump’s rejection of the Trans-Pacific Partnership – although it admittedly has its flaws – could promote a general skepticism of trade deals and disrupt the integration efforts of countries like the Philippines. Trump’s protectionist policies could derail global trade including the US-RP trade relationship. Figure 2 shows that as much as 15.7% of Philippine exports of goods go to the US, but this share has, in fact, been decreasing for several years. Today more than half of our exports of goods go to East Asian countries. Still, it will be better for the Philippines to see more trade rather than less, regardless of the country destination. West Philippine Sea Trump’s presidency could also serve as a game-changer with regards to Philippines’ claims in the West Philippine Sea. In contrast to Obama’s “rebalancing” strategy in Asia-Pacific, there is now doubt whether Donald Trump will show a similar degree of interest in the region. Hence, with less US “interference”, China could now flex its muscle more in the region. It seems that Trump could complicates our strategy when it comes to the West Philippine issue since he didn’t show that much support to the Philippines with regards to this territorial dispute. But president Duterte is planning to repair its relation to the US and expressed his willingness to work with Trump. Climate change Donald Trump believes that climate change is just an “expensive hoax” that’s why people all over the world wary that Trump could spell climate disaster for the entire world. Numerous studies have shown that the Philippines is one of the countries most at risk and vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The impacts range from more frequent extreme weather events, rising sea levels, ocean acidification, and loss of biodiversity. Hence, the Philippines could easily find itself at the receiving end of Donald Trump’s dangerous and utterly misinformed stance on climate change.11 Due to Trump? Filipinos in U.S. sending more money home January 17, 2017 Inward remittances to the Philippines posted their biggest jump in over 8 years in November last year, following the US election victory of Donald Trump, who threatened to send the 10 million undocumented immigrants back to their countries. Latest data from the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) showed that remittances spiked by 18.5% to $2.22 billion in November, the fastest growth since July 2008 and a rebound from the 2.8% decline posted in October 2016. This brought the remittances level for the period January-November 2016 to $26.9 billion, representing a growth of 5.1% year-on-year. There are some factors while Remittances increase during this time. First is the “front- loading of cash transfers” Overseas Filipinos tend to send their money to their relative in the Philippines because they know that the protectionist policies of Donald Trump could affect and tighter immigration policies that’s why they may even send not just their monthly income but as well as their annual savings. Moreover, the peso depreciation could also be one of the factor why remittances from OFWs increased. Because as lower peso rates would allow them to convert each dollar to more units of the local currency, also, given the fact that month of December considered as the month of having a highest percentage of remittance in the Philippine Economy. 12 The Philippines: Beyond Labor Migration, Toward Development and (Possibly) Return By: Maruja M.B. Asis JULY 12, 2017 In the Philippines, a deeply rooted and pervasive culture of migration has made moving abroad common, acceptable—even desirable—as an option or strategy for a better life. It’s been a decade, a large number of Filipino decided to leave their home to work abroad to have a temporary or permanent work abroad. oday, more than 10 million Filipinos— or about 10 percent of the population—are working and/or living abroad. While a markedly improved economic situation in recent years has not diminished the outflows, it has allowed the country to move beyond its longstanding labor migration policy to incorporate migration into long-term development planning and strengthen the return and reintegration of overseas Filipino workers (OFWs). The government subsequently 11 Punongbayan, JC. "5 Ways a Trump Presidency Could Affect Filipinos." Rappler. November 12, 2016. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://www.rappler.com/thought-leaders/152115-trump-presidency-affect-filipinos. 12 "Due to Trump? Filipinos in U.S. Sending More Money Home." Rappler. January 17, 2017. Accessed March 20, 2018. https://www.rappler.com/business/158659-ofw-remittances-november-donald-trump. developed a number of institutions, laws, and policies aimed at enhancing the protection of OFWs and their families, spurred on by civil-society advocacy. Because during 1970’s the deployment and competition with other countries increased and surfacing labor migration problems including poor working conditions and abuse by employers. This dual approach of facilitation and protection makes a contribution to the Philippines as major source country of workers and talent for the global labor market, while also providing protection to OFWs. The Philippines ranks third after India and China as major recipients of remittances. In 2016, the country received US $26.9 billion in money transfers, according to the Central Bank of the Philippines. There are concerns that reliance on remittances may have delayed the implementation of needed reforms. Background: The Centrality of the United States in Early Filipino Migration After more than three centuries of Spanish colonial rule, the Philippines became a U.S. territory as a result of the Spanish-American War in 1898. For much of the 20th century, "international migration" for Filipinos meant moving to the United States and its Pacific territories. The first batch of Filipino workers arrived in Hawaii on December 20, 1906 to work on sugarcane and pineapple plantations. More workers, mostly single men, followed; others left Hawaii to work in agriculture in California, Oregon, and Washington, or the salmon canneries of Alaska. Some 4,000 Filipinos were employed in the merchant marine, but this employment possibility ceased with the Merchant Marine Act of 1936 requiring the crew of U.S. flag vessels to be at least 90 percent American citizens. Estimates place the number of Filipino workers coming to the United States, chiefly to Hawaii, between 1906 and 1934 at 120,000 to 150,000. A small number of scholars, known as pensionados, also migrated to the United States before the 1920s. Because the Philippines was a U.S. colony, the movement of Filipinos to the United States was considered internal migration. As U.S. nationals, Filipinos could enter and leave the country freely, but could not access citizenship. It was not until the passage of the 1934 Tydings-McDuffie Law, which provided for the granting of Philippine independence within ten years. Other countries of settlement also dismantled their pro-European immigration policies in the 1970s, paving the way for Filipinos to enter Canada, Australia, and New Zealand under family- or skills- based provisions. The Philippines eventually became one of the top ten origin countries in these traditional immigration destinations. This permanent migration, however, was overshadowed by the larger and thornier temporary labor migration that started in the 1970s. Becoming a Source Country of Workers A number of factors led to the ascent of the Philippines as a major labor exporter in Asia and worldwide. In 1974, the Labor Code of the Philippines established the framework for what became the government's overseas employment program. The Philippines' foray into organized international labor migration was supposed to be temporary, lasting only until the country recovered from its economic problems. However, the ongoing demand for workers in the GCC countries and the opening of new labor markets in other regions, especially in East and Southeast Asia, fueled further migration. On the supply side, the push factors did not abate. Lack of sustained economic development, political instability, unabated population growth, persistent unemployment, and low wages continued to compel people to head abroad. Beyond Labor Migration The problems that emerged in the 1970s remain the same today: illegal recruitment, contract substitution, illegal placement fees, long working hours, and no days off (in the case of domestic workers), among others. The 1995 Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act, a landmark law, aimed to provide protection to OFWs from predeparture through arrival and return. The focus on protection shifted during the presidency of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (2001-10), when the government for the only time to date set a target for the deployment of workers. The Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan 2004-2010 set a goal of sending 1 million workers overseas every year. This thrust was reversed by the subsequent administration of Benigno Aquino III (2010- 16). His social contract with the Filipino people included the goal of moving “from a government that treats its people as an export commodity and as a means to foreign exchange, disregarding the social cost to Filipino families, to a government that creates jobs at home, so that working abroad will be a choice rather than a necessity; and when its citizens do choose to become OFWs, their welfare and protection will still be the government’s priority.” This stated desire to a return to welfare and protection was accompanied by legislative and executive actions to further regulate labor migration and expand services for OFWs. Soon after Aquino took office, he signed Republic Act (RA) 10022 into law, aiming to further strengthen measures to protect migrant workers, their families, and other overseas Filipinos in distress. The Philippines Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) also amended recruitment industry regulations, resulting in the 2016 Revised POEA Rules and Regulations Governing the Recruitment and Employment of Seafarers, and a separate set of rules and regulations applying to land-based workers. The welfare and protection of OFWs received another boost in 2016 with RA 10801, which launched a new charter bolstering the Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA). This agency’s mandate is to provide programs and services for the welfare of OFWs and their families, and to manage the funds from member contributions and interest from investments. Growing marriage migration also has caused anxieties about the welfare of women who marry foreign nationals. A new law (RA 10906) strengthening the Anti-Mail Order Bride Act of 1990 was enacted in 2016. Linking Migration and Development A 2007 conference and a 2010 comprehensive study on migration and development in the Philippines brought to the fore five key observations:  1. Migration policies in the Philippines were primarily focused on temporary labor migration. 2. The development impact of migration was mostly discussed in terms of economic benefits, particularly remittances. 3. The social costs of migration to families were often mentioned. 4. National, regional, and local development plans did not take international migration into consideration. 5. At the regional and local levels, there were few migration institutions.13 10K Filipinos may be affected by rescinded US immigration policy—DFA By: Frances Mangosing September 06, 2017 The Department of Foreign affairs stated that an estimation of 10,000 Filipinos may be affected by the United States’ new immigration policy. The United States of America particularly Washington, decided to end a program that allows undocumented immigrant children to stay legally in the US or the Deferred Action on Childhood Arrivals (DACA). After the statement of Donald Trump which pertains to revoking DACA and gave US congress up to 5 March 2018 to come up with a law that would prevent the deportations of as many as 800,000 people covered by the program, the secretary of Foreign affairs, Alan Peter Cayetano issued a statement regarding authorization of certain limitations on the use of the Assistance to Nationals Fund and the Legal Assistance Fund to assist immigrants. Furthermore, he said that while we are hoping for the best in the form of a legislative solution and exploring other possible legal options for the affected Filipinos, we should prepare for the worse. Quoting Chargé d’Affaires Patrick Chuasoto of the Philippine Embassy in Washington, D.C., the DACA program was covered by an executive order issued by President Barack Obama in 2012 that was envisioned to protect undocumented immigrant children from deportation.14 13 Asis, Maruja M.B. "The Philippines: Beyond Labor Migration, Toward Development and (Possibly) Return." Migrationpolicy.org. November 30, 2017. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/philippines-beyond-labor-migration-toward-development-and-possibly- return. 14 Mangosing, Frances. "10K Filipinos May Be Affected by Rescinded US Immigration Policy-DFA." Inquirer Global Nation 10K Filipinos May Be Affected by Rescinded US Immigration PolicyDFA Comments. September 6, 2017. Accessed March 22, 2018. http://globalnation.inquirer.net/160222/filipino-ofw-immigration-daca-dfa-deport- trump-undocumented. Trump’s Immigration Policy and Its Effects on Filipinos in the US OCTOBER 4, 2017 During his election campaign, current US president Donald Trump had made remarks about taking America to a more cautious stance when it comes to immigration. Issues he expressed support for include the limiting of legal immigration and guest-worker visas, as well as adding more restraints to the granting of green cards. Then there’s that promise of building a wall on the US-Mexico border. Rescission of DACA Perhaps people may say that these claims have been exaggerated and over-the-top for the most part. However, with the recent rescinding of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) policy, which deferred deportation for around 800,000 individuals who arrived in America as children—referred to as Dreamers. Former President Barack Obama had put DACA into effect in June 2012 and expanded in November 2014 with the hopes of making America a more immigration-friendly nation. But with it no longer being in effect and the full implementation of its rescission looming, the situation is dire for those who used to be covered by the now-overturned policy. The RAISE Act The Reforming American Immigration for a Strong Economy (RAISE) Act was introduced by Senators Tom Cotton (R-Arizona) and David Perdue (R-Georgia) to take the place of current immigration policy, with basis on family unity being superseded by that of a rigid merit-based system. This will restrict legal immigration into the US, and President Trump has since endorsed this act. Trump’s approval of this act is in line with the “America first” policy his administration has been pulling for thus far. The RAISE Act was proposed for the main purpose of cutting immigration by at least half from current levels by only including spouses and minor children in a prospective immigrant’s petition. Filipinos in the US According to Foreign Affairs Secretary Perfecto Yasay Jr., at least 300,000 Filipinos in the United States are now at risk due to Trump’s immigration policy. President Duterte has stated that Manila can’t do anything to interfere due to it being a US domestic matter, so the Philippine government has no real say in the matter. There are almost 400,000 family petitions filed by Filipino immigrants waiting for visa availability. The impending changes to US immigration policy that were approved by President Trump are set to eliminate these visa petitions. Among the 2.73 million immigrant and non-immigrant visas issued by the US State Department to citizens of countries listed in the “terrorist safe havens” list, the Philippines ranks second with more than 235,000 visas issued. There are now 3.5 million Filipino immigrants living in the US as of 2013, according to a report by the Migration Policy Institute.15 Filipino Immigration to America By: Linda Alchin January 01, 2018 Background History and Overview of the Philippines The Philippines came under the control of the United States of America in 1898 following the Spanish-American War (April 25, 1898 – August 12, 1898). The term 'Tagalog' refers to both ethnic race in the Philippines and their language. The Philippines achieved full independence in 1946. The Philippine islands were embroiled in political turmoil during the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos that started in 1965 and ended with his exile in 1986. The capital of the Philippines is Manila and the country has a population of 91 million. Filipinos now represent the 4th largest immigrant group in the United States by country of origin, after Mexico, India and China. Major waves of immigrants from the Philippines There have been four major waves of immigrants from the Philippines to America: *** The first wave of immigrants from the Philippines to America was during the period when the country was under Spanish rule and formed part of the Spanish East Indies *** The second wave of immigrants from the Philippines occurred from 1906 - 1934 bringing plantation workers to Hawaii and migrants to the west coast *** The third wave of immigrants from the Philippines started just before World War II (1939 - 1945) and the Philippines independence in 1946 *** The fourth, present and largest wave of immigrants from the Philippines started after the 1965 Immigration Act was passed. The Reasons for Filipino Immigration to America The reasons for the Filipino Immigration to America were motivated by political reasons such as escaping from the harsh rule of the Spanish or the later dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos. The poverty and high levels of unemployment in the Philippines are still a strong motivational reason for the high levels of Filipino Immigration to America. Some Filipino immigrants also looked to avoid the natural disasters in the Philippines such as Earthquakes, Landslides and Typhoons. 15 "Trump's Immigration Policy and Its Effects on Filipinos in the US." Para Sa Pinoy. October 04, 2017. Accessed March 22, 2018. http://parasapinoy.com/trump-immigration-policy-filipino-immigrants-usa/. The Spanish Rule Filipino Immigration to America started in the period in history when the Philippines were under Spanish rule. As part of the Spanish East Indies the first Filipinos made their way to America via the 'Manila Galleons', the Spanish trading ships that ran across the Pacific Ocean from Manila to the port of Acapulco and. The Manila Galleons brought silk, perfume, spices, ivory and other exotic goods from China, via Manila, to Mexico and California where Filipino seamen, who had been forced to work for the Spanish, would migrate to North America. In 1763, Filipinos, called the "Manila Men", made their first permanent settlement in the bayous of Louisiana. Los Angeles founded by a Filipino Early Filipino Immigration to America established the city of Los Angeles. In 1781, a Filipino expedition, led by Filipino born Antonio Miranda Rodriguez, were sent by the Spanish government from Mexico to establish what is now known as the city of Los Angeles in Alta California. The province of Alta California marked the northern frontier of the Spanish empire in the New World. The first 44 settlers are known as the 'Pobladores'. The 1897 Philippine Revolution The next wave of Filipino Immigration to America was preceded by the 1897 revolution in the Philippines. The Philippine Revolution (also called the Tagalog War) erupted between the Philippines and the Spanish colonial authorities. It was a Filipino victory and led to the establishment of the First Philippine Republic in 1899, proclaimed by revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo on June 23, 1898. The revolutionary constitution in the Philippines created the Biak-na-Bato Republic. The preamble of the constitution declared the separation of the Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formation into an independent state with its own government called the Philippine Republic. The turmoil and conflict in the western pacific led to the Spanish-American War. Immigration to America in the 1800's: The 1898 Spanish-American War Filipino Immigration to America was strongly impacted by Spanish-American War between Spain and the United States, which lasted for just over three and a half months from April 25, 1898 – August 12, 1898. The 1899 Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish- American War, and Spain sold the Philippine Islands to the United States for $20,000,000. Immigration to America in the 1900's: The Philippine-American War The Philippine-American War (1899–1902) erupted as the Philippine Republic fought in the Philippines to secure independence from the United States. The Philippine-American War lasted just over 3 years and resulted in a US victory with the capture and surrender of Emilio Aguinaldo and the occupation of the Philippines under U.S. sovereignty and the dissolution of the Philippine Republic. The Philippines became part of the U.S. Commonwealth and an unincorporated territory of the United States until Filipino independence was gained in 1946. Immigration to America in the 1900's: US Sovereignty In 1901 William Howard Taft was sent to the islands as the first U.S. governor of Philippines. The 1902 Philippine Bill was passed provided for a Bill of Rights and established a bicameral legislature. The law made it illegal for a Filipino to vote, own property, operate a business, live in an American residential neighborhood or hold public office. The Second Wave of Immigration The second wave of Filipino Immigration to America occured from 1906 to 1934 with a heavy concentration of Filipinos emigrating to California and Hawaii. The Jones Law was enacted in 1916 which promised independence to the Philippines once a stable government had been established. Because the Philippines was an American colony Filipinos in the second wave of immigration were able to travel to the US as American nationals. Angel Island Immigration Center The Angel Island Immigration Center (1910 - 1940), was located in San Francisco Bay, California and opened on January 21, 1910. Angel Island served as an Immigration center for immigrants from Asia, Japan, India and the Philippines. Filipino immigrants during this period would have been processed very quickly and subject to brief medical examinations, unlike other immigrants. The Third Wave of Immigration - WW2 The third wave of Filipino Immigration to America started in 1934 just before the outbreak of World War II (1939 - 1945). In 1941 Japan invaded the Philippines defeating General Douglas MacArthur at Bataan and Corregidor. President Manuel Quezon y Molina was forced to establish a government in exile and dies in 1944. In 1944 General MacArthur re-invaded the Philippines and Manila was liberated from Japanese occupation. The Philippines become an Independent Nation The Tydings-McDuffie Act provided for independence of the Philippine Islands in 1946, changed the status of Filipinos from American citizens to aliens and the transition to independence began. Philippine independence came on July 4, 1946, with the signing of the Treaty of Manila between the governments of the United States and the Philippines. Filipinos who had served in WW2 were given the option of becoming U.S. Citizens, and over 10,000 Filipinos took up the offer. War brides from the Philippines were also allowed to immigrate to the United States due to the 1945 War Brides Act and Fiancées Act. The immigration policy of the United States was restricted by the ’per-country' quota system and records show that 32,201 Filipinos immigrated between 1953 to 1965. The Fourth Wave of Immigration - 1965 Hart-Cellar Act The fourth wave of Filipino Immigration to America started in 1965 with the passing of the Immigration and Nationality Act, also known as the Hart-Celler Act. The law was an extremely important landmark in U.S. immigration history as it abolished nation-of-origin restrictions. The numbers of immigrants from Asian and Hispanic countries rose dramatically and Filipinos now represent the 4th largest immigrant group in the United States.16 16 Alchin, Linda. "Linda Alchin." History for Kids ***. January 01, 2018. Accessed March 17, 2018. http://www.emmigration.info/filipino-immigration-to-america.htm. Push and Pull factors of Filipino Migration By: Linda Alchin January 01, 2018 This article explains the Push and Pull factors of Filipino Migration to America The push and pull factors of Filipino Migration are dictated by economic, political, environmental and social reasons. Discover specific events in the history of the Philippines that prompted Filipino people to leave their homes to start a new life in America. Push Factors  Political and Economic Factors: The Philippines were colonized by Spain as part of the Spanish East Indies from 1565-1898. In 1793 they established a trade route from Manila to the US port of Acapulco.  Political and Economic Factors: The 1897 Revolution in the Philippines (Tagalog War) erupted as Filipinos fought for independence from Spain. This led to Philippine-American War (1899 -1902) that ended with the occupation of the Philippines under the sovereignty of the United States.  Environmental Factor: The Mount Taal volcano erupted in the Philippines in 1911 causing 1335 deaths, destruction and homelessness. A year later a 7.5 earthquake struck Northeast Mindanao resulting in widespread landslides and serious damage.  Economic Factor: The Philippines featured high unemployment in the 1930's.  Political Factor: The 1965 Hart-Cellar Act lifted restriction on immigration.  Environmental Factor: Mount Pinatubo volcano erupted in the Philippines in 1991 causing the deaths of 700 people and the destruction of homes and property.  Environmental Factor: Typhoon Ketsana, a devastating tropical cyclone struck the Philippines in 2009 resulting in 747 deaths and damage amounting to over 1 billion dollars. The devastation was followed by the Bohol earthquake and Typhoon Haiyan in 2013. Pull Factors  Political and Economic Factors: The "Manila Men" were the first Filipino immigrants who made their homes in the bayous of Louisiana to seek a new life and freedom from the Spanish rule.  Political and Economic Factors: A second wave of migrants from the Philippines occurred from 1906 - 1934 as Filipinos moved to a new life and employment opportunities on the plantations of Hawaii and in west coast areas of America.  Environmental Factor: Filipino immigrants chose to find more fertile land, escape hunger and disease and find new homes and safety in a more settled climate and environment.  Economic Factor Filipino immigrants took the opportunity to build a new life and gain new employment in America.  Political Factor: People looked security and employment potential in America   Environmental Factor: Lower risk from natural disasters and hazards  Environmental Factor: Filipino immigrants looked to the safer environment of the United States and escape from the threat of more natural disasters.17 Filipino Immigrants in the United States By: Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova MARCH 14, 2018 Migration from the Philippines to the United States began in the late 19th century and has ebbed and flowed since then, in response to evolving government and business relationships between the two countries and changing U.S. immigration policy. In 2016, more than 1.9 million Filipinos lived in the United States, accounting for roughly 4 percent of the country’s 44 million immigrants. Between 1980 and 2016, the Filipino population in the United States nearly quadrupled, rising from 501,000 to 1.9 million. The Philippines, which was the second-largest origin country for immigrants in 1990, was overtaken by India and China during the early 2000s and since 2010 has ranked fourth, after Mexico, India, and China. After the U.S. annexation of the Philippines in 1899, large numbers of Filipinos migrated to the United States to study or to fill agricultural jobs, primarily in California and Hawaii. Depression and passage of the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934, which set the Philippines on a track to independence after ten years and imposed strict immigration quotas on the islands of just 50 immigrants per year. However, after World War II larger numbers began arriving, primarily as “war brides” of U.S. servicemen and as recruits into the armed forces, though some also came to train as health-care workers. Starting in the 1960s, the Filipino immigrant population grew rapidly, in part a result of the 1965 Immigration Act’s removal of national-origin quotas. But this growth was also influenced by longstanding government, military, economic, and educational ties between the two countries, as well as Philippine policy that encourages and facilitates labor migration for development purposes. The unique historical experience of having once been U.S. nationals sets Filipinos apart from other immigrant groups that have arrived in large numbers since 1965. Today, most Filipinos in the United States who obtain lawful permanent residence (LPR status, also known as getting a green card) do so through family reunification channels, either as immediate relatives of U.S. citizens or through other family-sponsored channels. Many also get green cards through employment preferences. Meanwhile, Filipinos are more likely than other immigrants to have strong English skills, and have much higher college education rates than the overall foreign- and U.S.-born populations. They are also more likely to be naturalized U.S. citizens than other immigrant groups, have higher incomes and lower poverty rates, and are less likely to be uninsured. 17 Alchin, Linda. "Chinese Migration." For Kids ***. January 01, 2018. Accessed March 22, 2018. http://www.emigration.link/push-pull-factors-filipino-migration.htm. Distribution by State and Key Cities In the 2012-16 period, immigrants from the Philippines were highly concentrated in California (44 percent), followed distantly by Hawaii (6 percent). The next four most populous states—Texas, New York, Illinois, and New Jersey—were home to 19 percent of the Filipino population collectively. The top four counties by Filipino concentration were Los Angeles and San Diego counties in California, Honolulu County in Hawaii, and Clark County in Nevada. Together these counties accounted for 26 percent of Filipinos in the United States. As of 2012-16, the U.S. cities with the largest number of Filipinos were the greater Los Angeles, San Francisco, and New York metropolitan areas. These three metro areas accounted for about 32 percent of Filipinos in the United States. English Proficiency Filipino immigrants are much more likely to be proficient in English than the overall foreign-born population. In 2016, about 30 percent of Filipinos ages 5 and over reported limited English proficiency (LEP), compared to 49 percent of all immigrants. Approximately 15 percent of Filipinos spoke only English at home, versus 16 percent of the foreign born. Age, Education, and Employment In 2016, Filipinos were older than the overall foreign- and U.S.-born populations. The Filipino median age was 50 years, compared to 44 years for all immigrants and 36 years for native born. This is largely due to the disproportionately high number of Filipino seniors: 22 percent of Filipinos were 65 or older, versus 15 percent of both the overall foreign- and native-born populations. Meanwhile, Filipinos were more likely than the native born but somewhat less likely than the overall foreign born to be of working age. Income and Poverty Filipinos overall have significantly higher incomes compared to the total foreign- and native-born populations. In 2016, households headed by a Filipino immigrant had a median income of $87,000, compared to $54,000 and $58,000 for all immigrant and U.S.- born households, respectively. Further, in 2016, just 5 percent of Filipino families were living in poverty, a much lower rate than the 9 percent for the U.S. born and 15 percent for immigrant families overall. Immigration Pathways and Naturalization Filipinos are much more likely to be naturalized U.S. citizens than immigrants overall. In 2016, 70 percent of Filipinos were naturalized citizens, compared to 49 percent of the total foreign-born population. Compared to all immigrants, Filipinos are slightly more likely to have arrived before 2000. The largest share of Filipinos, approximately 59 percent, arrived prior to 2000, followed by 26 percent coming between 2000 and 2009, and 16 percent in 2010 or later MPI also estimated that, in 2017, approximately 18,000 Filipino unauthorized immigrants were immediately eligible for the 2012 Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program. However, as of January 31, 2018, just under 3,800 Filipinos were active participants, according to U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) data. Overall, about 683,000 unauthorized youth were participating in the DACA program. Health Coverage Filipinos have relatively high health insurance coverage rates compared to other groups. In 2016, 7 percent of Filipinos were uninsured, the same as for the native born, compared to 20 percent of all foreign born. Filipino immigrants were also more likely to be covered by private health insurance than the overall foreign- and U.S.-born populations Diaspora The Filipino diaspora in the United States was comprised of nearly 4.1 million individuals who were either born in the Philippines or reported Filipino ancestry or race, according to tabulations from the U.S. Census Bureau 2016 ACS. Remittances In 2017, Filipinos living abroad sent nearly $33 billion in remittances to the Philippines via formal channels, according to World Bank data. Remittances more than doubled in the past decade and represented about 11 percent of the country’ gross domestic product (GDP) in 2016.18 Chapter IV PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION OF DATA The United States of America and the Republic of the Philippines has a long-standing history and deep relationship since Americans colonized Philippines in the late 1800’s. This also became one of the factors why many Filipinos have been migrating in the United States since 19th century up until 21st century. Filipinos are being known for having a deep and pervasive culture of migration. That’s why migrants become one of the contributors in the growing economy of the Philippines especially the Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) that decided to migrate in the United States since they wanted to keep their jobs permanently once they become a green card holder or a citizen of US. America has been one of the great influencers of Filipino culture, the way they think, the way they dressed and especially their language that became one of the language use in teaching and publishing textbooks, since they introduced proper education in the Philippines, no wonder Filipinos always dream of going in the United states and thinking that once they have been to America, their life will change since America is a first-world 18 Zong, Jie, Jeanne Batalova Jie Zong, and Jeanne Batalova. "Filipino Immigrants in the United States." Migrationpolicy.org. March 14, 2018. Accessed March 24, 2018. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/filipino- immigrants-united-states. country and considered as hegemonic state in international arena. Filipinos have this stereotype that once their relatives or friends have given the opportunities to go abroad, especially in the United States, they see it as if it will be great chances for them to become rich and popular. Filipino migration to America have push and pull factors. In terms of political and economic factors, during 1793 they established a trade route from Manila to the US port of Acapulco and the colonization of US became one of the push factor. Furthermore, during 1930’s, Philippines experienced high unemployment rate and 1965 Hart-Cellar Act lifted restriction on immigration that also contributed to the push factor. And lastly, the environmental factor, the eruption of mount Pinatubo 1991 that causes death to over 700 people and the destruction of home and property. Moreover, Typhoon Ketsana, a devastating tropical cyclone struck the Philippines in 2009 resulting in 747 deaths and damage amounting to over 1 billion dollars. The devastation was followed by the Bohol earthquake and Typhoon Haiyan in 2013. While on the other side, the pull factors in terms of political and economic, the “Manila Men” who initiated that migration in the US and were considered as the first Filipino immigrants who made their homes in the bayous of Louisiana to seek a new life and freedom from the Spanish rule. A second wave of immigrants move to America for a new life and seeking job opportunities in plantations of Hawaii and in west coast areas of America during 1906 – 1934. Additionally, Filipinos sought for security and protection away from disaster since America before is considered as having a lower risk of natural disasters and hazard. And because Americans free Filipinos from Spanish colonization, they tend to look them as if they were heroes that can pull us from being underrated by the abusive colonization of Spaniards. They also introduce us the proper education and teach us their culture that’s why Filipinos wanted to become part of America as citizens. The Presidency of Donald Trump became very alarming for Filipino Immigrants residing in the United States. Since Donald Trump has a protectionist policy that prioritize Americans especially in employment opportunities. He promotes “America First” in terms of Political and economic affairs. He also wanted to protect the US against illegal immigrants that later on became terrorist. For he believes that migration becomes the way of terrorist to enter US in more possible way. He called this system as “Trojan Horse” In one of his statement, Trump consider Philippines as one of terrorist country and said that he will tighten the immigration policy. Some government officials said that they cannot pass a legislation about it but instead he will implement a much stricter immigration policy. Not just Filipino Immigrants have been affected but also other nationals, for example, Mexicans, for Trump believes that South Americans have been a source and couriers of illegal drugs in US, that’s why he planned to build a wall that separates North and South America. Others said that the statement of Donald Trump was being misinterpreted by Filipino Immigrants. This gradual shift of new Immigration Policy of US has a lot of impact especially in terms of Economy of the Republic of the Philippines since remittances became one of the source of economic growth in the Philippines. In fact, since the Presidency of Donald Trump, there have been an increase of sending money from the US to the Philippines for the Filipino Immigrants worried that sending money will also be affected in the new immigration policy of Trump. In fact, the inflow of OFW remittances has slowed down in recent years, and today they account for just around 10% of GDP (Figure 1). 19 In 2017, Filipinos living abroad sent nearly $33 billion in remittances to the Philippines via formal channels, according to World Bank data. Remittances more than doubled in the past decade and represented about 11 percent of the country’ gross domestic product (GDP) in 2016. 19 Punongbayan, JC. "5 Ways a Trump Presidency Could Affect Filipinos." Rappler. November 12, 2016. Accessed March 16, 2018. https://www.rappler.com/thought-leaders/152115-trump-presidency-affect-filipinos.  20 But as much as 43% of such remittances come from the US. Hence, if Trump’s immigration policies push through, the role of remittances in buoying up the Philippine economy could further diminish. This graph shows how the economy of the Philippines would go down in the next ten years, since one of the great contributors in the Economy of the Philippines are Filipino Immigrants and Overseas Filipino Workers. Furthermore, the rescission of DACA or the Deferred Action for Childhood can affect around 800,000 individuals who arrived in America as children—referred to as Dreamers. For they are prone for deportation. Even those who legally enter the US can also be affected in this new immigration policy for they are not the one who will be prioritizing by government of America, they might lose their jobs for giving the opportunities to other Americans that needed an employment. In terms of Economy of the Philippines, Investments might suffer because Trump was planning to build businesses inside the America, therefore, foreign direct investment in the Philippines may also bust since one pf the major investor of the Philippines is the United States of America. While with regards to Political Economy of the state, the bilateral relationship of US-RP might also change since the two leaders has the same in terms of strong personality. In 20 Zong, Jie, Jeanne Batalova Jie Zong, and Jeanne Batalova. "Filipino Immigrants in the United States." Migrationpolicy.org. March 14, 2018. Accessed March 24, 2018. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/filipino- immigrants-united-states his recent statement, President Duterte announced that he will cut military ties with the US, but since Trump and Duterte are having a slightly good relationship, the strong relationship of US-RP may also restore unlike the former administration of Barrack Obama where Duterte showed no interest in having good relationship in the United States of America. The stand of US in terms of territorial disputes in South China Sea may also change. Back in the former administration of Barrack Obama and Benigno Simeon Aquino, the republic of the Philippines and the United States have strong military ties. US supports Philippines in pursuing the disputed island, but since Trump became the President of the United States, he doesn’t show more concern in the Philippines unlike Obama that shows unending support and alliance to the Philippines. Chapter V SUMMARY, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION US-RP has a strong bilateral relation in terms of Political and economic affairs. They have a long-standing history since American occupation. This become one of the factors that Filipino Immigrants consider why they decided to migrate in the United States. Americans became influential in terms of culture and education. They believe that once they become a US citizen, their life will change, and this will provide them more opportunities in life. Filipino Immigrants were one of the great contributors’ economic growth and development of the Philippines. Since 19th century to 21st century, they still become one of the reason why Philippines’ economy boom. But apparently, there has been a gradual shift in terms of Immigration Policy of United States that will definitely affect the economy of the Philippines since Donald Trump promotes a protectionist policy in the US and prioritizing native or naturally born American Citizens and was planning to deport immigrants from other countries particularly the Filipinos abroad. It may affect the economy of the Philippines since Filipino Immigrants become one of the contributors in the RP’s economy. This new immigration policy that was planned to implement in the next few years might make our economy suffer, but this will not just end there, since no one can predict what Trump was planning in the future. As a researcher of this study, I don’t think that Trump will pursue this kind of Policy since a large portion of America are immigrants. Their economy might also suffer if they just contained themselves inside America with just Americans citizens only. America cannot just deport immigrants that easily because they are also one of the major contributors of American economy. They will also lose highly-skilled workers from countries that has a cheap and large human resources. Their laborers were composed of different immigrants from different countries especially Filipinos. Not just the economy of the Philippines might suffer but this policy can also bring economic crisis to the United States of America. I believe that Trump uses this statements and actions as strategic steps and to become popular in the international arena. For the leader of different countries have its own national intertest that promotes economic development in the state. They cannot just make steps that might ruin their own country. Moreover, as researcher, President Duterte will not let these Filipino Immigrants to be deported since they contribute a lot in RP’s economy, he will make a way to make this issue be solved, maybe not today but surely, he has a plan for the citizens residing abroad. And since they already met, Pres. Duterte and Trump praise each other and Trump shows support for the drug campaign of President Duterte, while Pres. Duterte shows his willingness to restore the bilateral relationship of US-RP. This might be a stepping stone for future restoration of US-RP relation. I therefore conclude Immigrants are one of the great contributors on RP’s economic growth and development. And once they are gone, they will make RP’s economy suffer. For they have been making our Political Economy robust and stable, providing sustainability and development to political economy of the state. Furthermore, I therefore concluded that this new Immigration policy might not just affect the Political economy of the Republic of the Philippines but can also bring economic crisis in the United States of America. Furthermore, the Filipino Immigrants should not be affected and be worried since Duterte Administration has been providing them assistance and establishing a restored relationship to US. The Republic of the Philippines should guarantee protection among our Citizens abroad. They should make them secured even though they are not residing inside the country. They should extend their hands for those have needed them and give assistance to Filipino Immigrants since they contributed a lot in the Political Economy of the state. President Duterte should establish good relationship with other countries where Filipino Immigrants residing, especially in the US. The department of Foreign Affairs should focus on the positive side but expect the worse since the President on the US has a tendency to change his mind in just a nick of time. They should also be guaranteeing the protection of each individuals and provide them proper information that would lessen their worries and not to make things worse.  Chapter VI REFERENCES Maruja M.B. Asis Maruja M.B. Asis. (2017, March 02). The Philippines' Culture of Migration. Retrieved March 16, 2018, from https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/philippines-culture-migration Asis, M. M. (2017, November 30). The Philippines: Beyond Labor Migration, Toward Development and (Possibly) Return. Retrieved March 16, 2018, from https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/philippines-beyond-labor-migration-toward- development-and-possibly-return Zong, J., Zong, J. B., & Batalova, J. (2018, March 14). Filipino Immigrants in the United States. 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