History of Indian Architecture - By Ashish Nangia

January 4, 2001 The Evolution of the Temple The Gupta Age (AD 350 - 650) by Ashish NangiaAfter the reign of Ashoka the Great, there was an interregnum of relative anarchy, with the collapse of two powerful dynasties, the Kushanas (236 AD) in the north, and the Andhras (225 AD) in the south. As pointed out in our previous article, Buddhism too suffered from a lack of political patronage during this period, leading to its slow decline, despite the valiant efforts of its monks. Also notable was a corresponding slowdown in the arts and literature. Thus, in its effects, this period in Indian history may be said to be analogous to the end of the Greek empire in Europe (which coincidentally was almost contemporaneous). However, the cyclic nature of history demands a renaissance after every Dark Age. It was no different in India - the age that followed has been described as the greatest intellectual awakening in the sub-continent. A large part of the country came under the political control of the Gupta dynasty, which reached its zenith around 400 AD. The culture of the Guptas and their innate Brahmanism gave a fillip to the arts, and in the field of architecture fundamental progress was made. Architecturally, we may discern a new sensibility, a break from the mere copying of forms carrying over from wood construction, to a new sensitivity in the handling and use of stone. This is the first time that the use of dressed stone masonry is made, a major step in the evolution of building construction. With this, a radically different type of architecture began to evolve. Hitherto, it seems that all Brahminical shrines were impermanent. Stone reliefs on the Stupas in Bharhut and Sanchi depict non-Buddhist rituals being held in the open, with merely a shed for shelter, '…formed of posts and beams covered with reeds and mats'.1 However, with time, Indian deities gradually became anthropomorphic and needed to be housed in some more permanent abode. Thus we see the Indian temple passing through various stages, corresponding to the need - clearings in forests, a reed hut, and finally a sanctuary of first wood and then of brick. Eventually, by the Gupta period, a garba-griha2 of stone evolved. Although the final form of the temple itself is small and unimpressive compared to the juggernauts that followed in the mediaeval age, yet they contained the nucleus of the architecture to follow. We can best illustrate the point by discussing a few seminal examples. From Modest Hut to Mighty Sculpture - The Beginnings of Poetry in Stone The first example is that of a modest structure at Tigawa, near modern Jabalpur. This has all the main characteristics of early Hindu temples - an inner garba-griha surrounded by an ambulatory path or cella, an outer portico with columns in the front, and above all, a flat roof of stone. This temple is notable for the vitality of the carving on its outer columns. There is indeed a certain crudeness in its construction, an over-use of stone, far more than structurally necessary. This may be attributed to the mason's unfamiliarity with the new material. However, there is no concealing the vitality and sheer exuberance of the sculpture, nor the signs that this was done in an age of plenty, with optimism and security writ large. Of the numerous similar examples, this is undoubtedly the finest. The early Gupta Age reached its zenith with the construction of a superb little Shiva Temple at Deogarh, in Jhansi district. This temple is remarkable for a number of reasons. First and foremost, an effort is seen to augment the grandeur of the shrine by a raised structure above the garba-griha, discarding the hitherto-used flat roof. Thus the upper part of the sanctum assumes a pyramidal shape, which when built would have been at least 40 feet (unfortunately, not much of the temple survives). Placing the whole structure on a pedestal, thus adding five feet more, further increases the appearance of height. The second noteworthy point is the portico - which does not face only in one direction. Instead there are four, one in each direction. There is also the usual carved exuberance on the pillars. Developments in the South Almost contemporaneously, another similar movement was taking place in the south under the vigorous direction of the Chalukyas (AD 450 to 650). The main effort of this dynasty was at Aihole, in Bijapur district. Here we find almost 70 Brahminical shrines and temples, all in stone. Similar to the Gupta examples, the temples at Aihole for the most part are flat-roofed (we will discuss the noteworthy exception). The chief difference from the Gupta temples is in the presence of a pillared hall or mandapa in front of the temple - this represents a noteworthy step forward in temple design. We shall discuss two chief examples. The Ladh Khan temple is noteworthy, as it does not seem to have been originally intended for use as a shrine, but instead was probably the village assembly hall. This is borne out by the fact that it fulfils very few of the conditions necessary for a ritualistic Brahminical temple. To convert it into a temple, the openings between the external columns were filled in with masonry, and a place for the shrine created by the addition of a closed chamber at the far end of the hall. The roof was created of massive blocks of masonry, grooved at the edges. The whole structure gives an appearance of ponderous strength and elemental beauty, part of which again may be attributed to the unfamiliarity of the mason with stone. In stark contrast, but illustrating yet another architectural principle in its formative stage, is the Durga temple, also at Aihole. This is an example of the form of a Buddhist Chaitya hall, adapted to suit the Brahminical ritual. The apsidal hall has a small tower over its end to give the appearance of height. It is interesting to note that in both cases, the temples at Aihole were adapted from existing communal buildings. However, in the process, the shrines became forerunners to the mighty temples to follow by providing, as a precedent, the early forms of the mandapa or Hall of Worship. These humble shrines were the beginnings of the movement which would result in the rise of magnificent structures all over the country. It can be safely said that the lineage of the mighty cathedrals at Khajuraho, Dilwara and Lingaraja can be traced to these tentative experiments with the magic of stone. February 1, 2001 1 The Satpatha Brahmana, in Brown, Percy, Indian Architecture - Buddhist and Hindu, Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, 1971. 2 Or Sanctum-Sanctorum, literally the 'house of the womb' Poetry in Stone: Crystallization of The Hindu Temple by Ashish Nangia In the previous article, we saw how the form of the modern temple gradually started emerging, from a leafy shelter in the woods, to the first hesitant experiments with stone, and the adaptation of existing communal buildings in villages. Gradually, as the masons gained greater confidence, temple forms all over the country started crystallizing. Just as in a church, a temple too has its distinctive elements. The Temple in its Final Form The principal architectural features of a temple are as follows: The sanctuary as a whole is called a vimana, and the pyramidal or tapering roof above this is called the shikhara. Inside the vimana is a dark chamber, the cella, called the garbha-griha (literally the 'womb-house'), and this is entered by a doorway on one side. In front of the doorway is a pillared hall, or mandapa, which serves as an assembly for devotees. In some examples the mandapa is detached from the vimana by an open space. Leading up to the mandapa is a porch or ardhmandapa. In some parts of the country it was common to enclose the temple complex by a boundary wall made of rectangular cells facing inward, thus forming a courtyard. With this, the onwards) saw thousands of unparalleled India every and in every rose singly remains the present Architectural Middle Ages in India (A.D. 800 the proliferation of hundreds and temples. This was an age of construction activity. "… so in hamlet had its cluster of shrines, town the tall spires of temples and in groups, as proved by the observable all over the country to day."1 Details, Decoration and Sculpture A detailed analysis of temple architecture reveals that much of its character was the result of repetition of motifs. Thus looking at the Shikhara we see that it is made up of many miniature ones repeating themselves time and again. In fact these repeating motifs in themselves were miniature shrines. Two main types of motifs/mini shrines exist, depending on the geographical location of " Guilds and the Vastushastra Two institutions that greatly influenced temple construction brought about this close coordination. or guilds. No attempts were made to solve the problems of spanning large distances by the use of the arch.the temple. by following which they could be assured of success. the introduction of the chaitya arch (kudu). These two types make up the Indian temple 'orders'. due to its prominence and characteristic form. Initially a system of apprenticeship. treatises codifying rules for Art. and the piling of massive blocks one on top of the other ensured stability without using mortar. The silpas were committed to memory and passed down the generations simply by learning them by heart. 2001 . and the unmistakable vaulted roof as survives in the Telika-Mandir at Gwalior. vault or dome. in spite of all these distinctions. Materials and Construction Indian temple architecture has often been called sculpture on a mass scale rather than true architecture. and also from the pyramidal covering on a ceremonial chariot of the Aryans. Sculpture and Architecture and the Vastushastra in particular. and are called the Dravida. The origin of the Shikhara is the subject of intense debate. mute sentinels to the skill of their unnamed builders. However. This has made Indian temples poetry in stone. This is because there was little structural inventiveness or technical ingenuity. It is fairly clear that some of the architectural character of the temple was a direct influence from Buddhist architecture. sometimes a generation or more. Some theories on its derivation: from the sphere of the Buddhist stupa. a book setting down the rules of architecture. However. and the Indo-Aryan. For example. The first was the seni. Thus "a large architectural undertaking became an art center from which a local school and style were derived. the guilds slowly became hereditary and knowledge of temple construction and sculpture was passed down through the generations from father to son. This fact becomes even more amazing when we see that "a similar stylistic content reveals itself in the distant Indo-Buddhist monuments of Java and Cambodia. there were certain fundamental principles throughout which guided and controlled the art of building in all its phases. the finished structure showed a fine appreciation of mass and the value and effects of shadow to a marked degree. Every part of the building was the result of generations of conscious and sub-conscious knowledge. from the domed huts of central India." The second influence was that of the silpas. Thus the workmen had infallible rules. found mostly in the south. in the north. which were by this time common in other parts of the world. Instead the Indian mason relied on gravity and mass for his structure to stand. February 15. A large project necessitated a guild being obliged to settle on the site for a long period. DB Taraporevala Sons and Co Pvt Ltd. beams. forces. yet it can be clearly seen that the rock-cutter improved all the time. . Firstly. 1971 ibid. but are seldom playing any structural role. p. in that a solid body of material (rock) is taken. columns.1 Brown Percy. P. Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindi).. In a circle of two hundred miles around modern Nasik. the art is more akin to sculpture than architecture. we shall cover a wide chronological range. In this article.these can be carved. the final product visualized and cutting/carving starts. the mason is not overly concerned with spans.62. in natural caves and grottoes in the hillsides. All of these have some common features. from the earliest primitive caves of Buddhist monks. Buddhist Caves and Chaityas The ascetic nature of early Buddhism and Jainism was well suited to living a life away from the cities.with steep cliffs providing an ideal surface for carving in. gaining confidence and mastery over the material. to the crowning glory of the art. namely the Kailash temple at Ellora. and all the other architectural features . This differs from 'building up' in many important ways. Bombay. Secondly. p. the rugged hills of the Western Ghats are naturally suited to the creation of living space in the hillside ..63 Rock Cut Architecture by Ashish Nangia Rock-cut architecture occupies a very important place in the history of Indian Architecture. until the final culmination at the 'White Temple' of Ellora.64 ibid. The architecture here is divided into distinct groups . and the tallest is 40 feet high. at Mahabalipuram. scaled-down replicas of actual temples. but betrays the fact that as far as the physical properties and potential of stone was concerned. . The Rathas of Mahabalipuram The next notable development occurs much later chronologically (c. in rock. under the reign of the Pallavas.900 AD). down to the joints and fastenings.each having its own version of the prayerhall. which became the style prevalent all over South India during mediaeval times. which are now known as the Rathas of Mahabalipuram or the 'Seven Pagodas'.600 . or a vihara. all the rathas are modeled on two types of structure: the Buddhist vihara and chaitya. the biggest measuring 42 feet by 35 feet. The town of Mahabalipuram is home to a curious experiment: to determine which form of temple is best. This went as far as imitating every detail of wood. or chaitya and a monastery. out of monolithic rock. as well as much further south. The most significant of these are the examples at Karle. The rathas are not very large. They were the founders of what later became known as the Dravidian Style. This led to the sculpting. With one exception. The most remarkable aspect of the rock cut architecture at Karle and other sites is its close similarity to wood construction. with magnificent chaityas cut deep into the hillside. This is by itself an impressive feat. the masons had much to learn. The rathas are today half-buried in the sand. in every detail. to the great temples of the south that would follow. Kailash Nath Temple. their silhouettes and graceful surface sculpture exact. Ellora . silent monuments to the age of kings gone by. identical in every detail to a structural. Standing within its walls. This is indeed unique. the entrance gateway. but as an example of rock-cut architecture it stands unrivalled. the sub-structure is heavily molded. One gradually becomes aware of the stupendous labor that it involved (over a hundred years). an intermediate nandi shrine and the cloisters surrounding the courtyard. by carving vertically down into the living rock. and finally.Rock Cut Architecture . the sculpture that adorns it. Above and below this. 'built-up' example. The scheme of the Kailash temple is basically divided into four main parts: the body of the temple itself. 2001 See Also : Elephanta Caves . and that it is one and a half times as high.a jewel hewn out of the rock itself. Instead of carving down into the face of a cliff and creating underground halls which had been the practice. which on first examination seems to be a floor by itself. The Kailash temple is not only the single largest work of art executed in India. also at Ellora. When we consider that the plan of the Kailash temple is fully equal in area to the Parthenon at Athens. some idea of the magnitude of the achievement comes through. the sculptors/architects set aside all convention and created a full temple.The final example of this type is the Kailash Nath Temple. while the central space is occupied by a frieze of elephants and lions. Much of the imposing character of the main shrine is due to its substantial plinth. one cannot help but be aware of the spiritual energy that went into its creation . March 1. The builders at Osian added a mandapa or open assembly hall for devotees to congregate. like the temples at Khajuraho. The shikhara. at each corner of which was a subsidiary shrine. The north Indian style was manifested over a large geographical area. but their shikharas are like the early Orissan examples. We shall discuss some representative examples. Two are raised on high plinth.D. Osian – Descendant of the Guptas The picturesque village of Osian. and were the intermediate steps in the continuing process of the evolution of the Hindu Temple. near modern Jodhpur in Rajasthan. had gradually crystallized into two main streams – the north Indian or Indo-Aryan. 800 onwards) by Ashish Nangia Temple building in India. The only remnants now of its former glory are a handful of small stone temples.North Indian Style Evolves The North Indian or Indo-Aryan Style (A. These disparate developments often were the basis of regional schools of art and architecture. Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior . Another feature was a rectangular wall around the temple. from Gujarat in the west to Orissa in the East. was now the logical culmination of a plan that included all the basic features of the later temples at Khajuraho and Bhubhaneswar. by the Mediaeval Age. was the capital of the Pratiharas in the eighth century. and the Dravidian in south India. which was the main feature of the Gupta temple at Deogarh. namely the Sas-Bahu group.This temple in the fort at Gwalior is unique. But it is distinguished by the fact that it was the last attempt to cap a Hindu temple by a barrel-vaulted roof of Buddhist origin. as it consists of a sanctuary only – there is neither mandapa nor pillared pavilions that make up the composition of a full temple. were the basis for the formal composition of South Indian temple gateways. . More orthodox than this are the other temples in Gwalior Fort. to say the least. echoes of this. In its conception it resembles more a shrine than a temple. as we shall see later. of course. This gives the temple a silhouette which is quite original. The name. Though this form was subsequently discarded by the north Indian architect. literally means Oil-man’s temple. However. are more known for their temple architecture than any city or town planning. The seventh-century Vaital Deul at Bhubhaneswar is in fact a later version of the Teli-ka-Mandir described above. as only the main hall remains. however. the Orissan craftsmen went further – as they capped the vault by three kalasa finials. or ‘deul’ as the main cella is called. one of the richest havens of temple building activity. having disappeared. the shikhara that was about 150 feet in height. but with the same architectural style. Examples at Bhubhaneswar The state of Kalinga (modern Orissa) was becoming. . one much smaller than the other. History tells us that Kalinga was ruled by a succession of kings who sought temporal freedom by building whole cities of temples. and the Orissan craftsmen reverted to the familiar shikhara. soon asserted itself. Ignoring the elliptic curve of the Gupta temples. Over a period of seven hundred years. the city of Bhubhaneswar itself had more than seven thousand temples. or spire. and as was common throughout India. in mediaeval times. Simple shrines consisting of a small ‘Sri Mandir’. albeit with a change in profile. are grouped all over Orissa. crowned by the shikhara. as it too is roofed by a barrel vault. These cities are marked by their lack of secular buildings.This consists of two temples. The larger temple is but a portion of the original conception. The incongruity of the barrel vault as a finial for the temple. the Orissan shikhara was endowed with a more ‘shoulder like’ profile. This is the reason why Orissan temples seem incomplete. who gradually assumed power as the sole arbiters of almost every aspect of life . A lifetime was required to study the rules and more. March 15. 2001 Theories and Principles of Indian Temple Construction by Ashish Nangia Before we go any further. In the 8th century temple of Parasurameshwar. These were purposely couched in hideously complicated mumbo-jumbo . of course.the better to be well beyond the ken of the common man or even an ordinary craftsman. there was no central political authority through most of India. business and personal. the earliest known example of such a modification was found. Rarely did the Orissan architect get a chance to visualize his temple as a single entity. All these 'favors'. to . had a price and those on whose behalf they 'generously' interceded with the gods would pay the priests by cash or in kind. some essential unity underlying the apparent diversity? We shall examine briefly the social. it was the Brahmins who began erecting a complex edifice of rules and layouts for different classes of building. not realizing their full potential. While the basic concepts of construction and decoration had already been evolved.The need was soon felt for attaching a mandapa or covered hall to single room shrines where worshippers could congregate.birth. How was there a proliferation of high-quality work in throughout the country? Was it a spontaneous expression of creative energy or were there some basic rules follow. metaphysical and material factors that led to the production of Indian temples. if possible. puberty. religious. For such crystallization. This political vacuum was filled by the priestly class. in our next article. Supremacy of the Brahmins Since the decline of the Gupta dynasty to the age of the Mughals. marriage. The most basic acts of building were no longer to be based on technical considerations but rather on mythological ones. we must look to the temple of Khajuraho. These rules sometimes assumed ridiculous dimensions. death. Thus the Vastushastra was sometimes more of a hindrance than a help to the craftsmen. it will be worthwhile to examine the principles that guided the Hindu Temple architect and mason. Obviously the serious business of construction was too important to be overlooked either. about which a brief mention has been made in a previous article. Over the years. which were further divided into many regional variations and schools of construction. which ensured overall similarity of form and function. A large part of this was due to the institution of Senis or guilds. and the square .the Orissan. and finally to ensure a minimum standard of quality of workmanship. Chalukyan. The Magic of the VastuPurushaMandala Looking at Hindu temples. and of course. the mason and stonecutters came forth and created beauty simply by the plasticity of their sculpture and the sheer brute force of their forms. was chosen for these qualities. A temple project would often be of such magnitude that more than one generation of master cutters and masons would be required to finish it. In the senis.It is in this situation that the genius of the Indian Craftsman came to the fore. and to gain for themselves better working conditions. heredity was the route by which traditional knowledge was passed on through the generations.perfect for its symmetry. was responsible for fettering the imagination of the craftsmen.. the form had to be perfect and this limited the choice of shapes to the circle . So a clan of stonecutters would settle around the building site for years. the same situation in the temples of the south.the square. In a situation that could easily have been stifling. The circle had already been extensively used by the Buddhists in their Stupas and moreover. Hence we find distinct schools of art and architecture even within North Indian temple construction . . as we have seen. As soon as a boy was old enough to hold tools. but also. In all these the Vastushastra was the giver of cohesiveness.a form without beginning and end. he was set to work on a rough block of stone and so commenced his long apprenticeship. The temple site attracted young men hoping to learn as well as find work. Gujarati. Senis . thus. regional variations introduced for the building of a particular temple led to the evolution of a new style or 'school' of temple building. much like the gharanas that exist in Indian classical music even today.C. it is not very easy to discern that they are composed of one repeating unit . For God's own abode. The square. their gods had to be installed in buildings symbolizing unity. For the Hindus. Thus it became the focus of activity for miles around. This was the father's sole gift and heirloom to his sons who in turn ensured that his name and style would live on. Indian craftsmen had organized themselves into guilds.Protectors of Heritage As early as the 7th century B. the better to protect their special knowledge. inertia and permanence. Kashmiri. was perceived to be too dynamic a form for the resting place of the gods. the creator. Each of these smaller squares was then invested with a resident deity. occupied pride of place in the center and lesser gods were relegated to the edges. those containing 64 or 81 being the most common. The distance of the deities from the center was according to their power and perceived importance. A humanistic façade was given to the square by showing it to be able to accommodate a figure in a convoluted yogic posture. Thus Brahma. each with his own special attributes and powers.This was the origin of the square Mandala (the best translation of this in English is 'divine chart'). The mandala was further subdivided into smaller squares in a grid. . while the surrounding grid formed the pradakshina-path and outer wall. It was by manipulation of this basic grid that the Indian architect created the greatest temples of India. and so on By increasing in complexity this system of proportion could spawn the most complex of forms with their basic unit remaining the square. the central square could be used for the garba-griha. that of the human figure being the basis of a system of proportion. and later by Le Corbusier. The best examples.It is interesting to note that this idea. shall form the basis of our next article. Very simply. Thus. the glorious days of Hindu architecture. was also used in the European Renaissance by Leonardo de Vinci. the VastuPurushaMandala was fit to be the basis of temple construction. with many permutations and combinations being used to achieve the final form. having acquired magical and theological properties. planner of Chandigarh in India. . in his Modular system of measurement. There were four main sites. rather it serves as a magnet for tourists from all over the world. the craftsmen and stonecutters’ skill.March 29. All the temples of Khajuraho are set on broad terraces. Hence Khajuraho is not a religious pilgrimage. Among the many temples that exist. But the most distinctive feature of the silhouette of a Khajuraho temple is without doubt its distinctive shikhara. all combined to produce temples of breathtaking glory. In profile they display a unity of composition and graceful silhouettes that exceeds any preceding examples. the painstakingly evolved theories of construction. Bhubhaneswar. . combined with the backing of a dynasty powerful enough to conceive and execute such a concept. especially the town of Khajuraho. on the eastern coast of Orissa. most have been deserted. which we shall discuss: 1. 2001 Hindu Temple Architecture in the North The Glorious Culmination by Ashish Nangia We are now reaching the final phase of Hindu Temple architecture in the North. 3. In several areas. The Glory of Khajuraho The sleepy town of Khajuraho is home to some of the finest examples of Hindu temple construction. The Bundelkhand region ruled by the Chandelas. Konark. 4. Modhera in Gujarat. 2. which remain unsurpassed to this day. which produced its biggest temple ever. However. However. without being conscious of any taboo attached. Indeed. which we have discussed in a previous article. The resulting silhouette has been compared to a chain of mountains building up to its highest point. The great Lingaraja at Bhubhaneswar Meanwhile. life was meant for living in all its aspects. the temple was dedicated to Shiva. the temple city of Bhubhaneswar.The effect of height of a temple till now was mitigated and compromised by the horizontal courses of stone used for construction. was witnessing the construction of its biggest temple – the Great Lingaraja. it is primarily for this that Khajuraho is known. Unlike the temples at Khajuraho. the shikharas at Khajuraho are really a composition of many mini-shikharas converging on the main spire. As is evident from its name. the ones in Bhubhaneswar are still active. the most famous example being the temple of Jagannath at Puri. and he merely depicted scenes of a fact of life. a place of worship be adorned with such carving? For some historians this is evidence of the decadence of the Chandela kings. a hypothesis backed up by the fact that the Chandela dynasty did not survive for long thereafter. the presence of erotic sculpture elsewhere too may point to the fact that for the Hindu. Why would a temple. The temples here are also justly famous for their erotic sculpture. . which after all was a much later ‘invention’. the foundation of the temple started sinking under the great weight above. there are many smaller examples of temple construction that are far better architecturally. The Sun Temple. or the Hall of Offering. a number of additions were made to the Lingaraja in subsequent years. Konark This temple. or Hall of Dance. these were rather unimaginative and had a detrimental effect on the silhouette of the Jagannath temple as a whole.To accommodate the increasing number of pilgrims. Yet it seems that the conception of the structure exceeded the available structural skill. . For even before completion. would have been the biggest temple in India by far. though the Lingaraja is unsurpassed in its importance as a center of pilgrimage in Orissa. were the major ones. had it been successfully completed. The Nat Mandir. and the Bhog Mandir. Thus. and the 200 feet high shikhara could never be finished. Unfortunately. The British walled up the interior of the mandapa with rubble to prevent its roof from collapsing. . its great size no deterrent to the skilled stonecutters. From the outside. Modhera In the middle of the desert in Gujarat lie the haunting remains of what must have been one of the greatest temples of mediaeval India. The temple at Konark too is ultimately a triumph of sculpture. the sun temple is on a large platform. The whole temple was conceived as the vehicle of the Sun. which alone is colossal.What remains of the temple now is the mandapa. which has on its sides carved wheels. the sculpture at Konark is no less sensuous nor less haunting. the Sun temple at Modhera. Although it takes second place behind Khajuraho. The Sun Temple. The shafts of the columns of this hall are exquisitely and sensuously carved.com Tamil Magnificence : Developments in South India by Ashish Nangia In the 10th and 11th centuries. the Chola dynasty came to dominate politics in south India. This tank. or gateway. with the result that no sustained architectural effort was ever possible again by the Hindu kingdoms of the North. a broad flight of steps goes up to the temple itself. From this tank.The most visible and famous ruin at Modhera is that of a ritualistic bathing tank in front of the Sun Temple. April 13. With their progression to power. raiding parties from across Afghanistan and Persia were beginning to seriously degrade the political stability of the region. with its pattern of steps. An Age Ends And so ended the Mediaeval Period of temple construction in North India. This temple is little more than a ruin now. the south too witnessed the construction of massive temples. Yet the poignant remains are ample testimony to the magnificence that must have been the great Sun Temple of Modhera. With the passage of time. 2001 Images under license with Gettyimages. has been the inspiration for many an architectural effort even today. great cathedrals in their own right. By this time. almost embroidered. through an ornate torana. the small scale of the Pallava masterpieces . The torana leads on to the mandapa that forms the heart of the temple. In this respect. as the capital city of the Cholas. is structurally intact even after a thousand years. defined by a portico with a double colonnade.D.was not sufficient as a showpiece of Chola power. This was to be seen again in a later example. As was common. Rajendra I. in a bid to assert his own kingly identity. In this temple. .. It was also true. the Chola king Rajarajeshwara the Great commissioned a temple. In 1000 A. weighing at least 80 tons. the seat of all spiritual power. the two mandapas in front of the Vimana are also proportionately bigger. the city needed to be built around its own mighty cathedral. The Vimana. that the form chosen was far more prudent.the rathas and the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram . the Tamil architects proved themselves far more adept than their northern peers. So the Rajaraja temple at Tanjore was 180 feet high from the ground. which was revolutionary by its sheer size. of course. fully 70 feet higher than the tallest spire so far attempted. a comparatively stable pyramid rather than the complex curvilinear profile of the shikhara. This soaring height was capped by an enormous domical monolith. The Temple at Gangaikondacholapuram Growing chola power in the south was accompanied by a corresponding increase in patronage for the arts. dwarfing all efforts made so far in the south. though not much shorter than the projected spire at Konark. the successor to Rajaraja the Great. However. the building of new cities and improvement in material life of the city-states as a whole. took the bold step of shifting his capital from Tanjore to Gangaikondacholapuram. The craftsmen were soon to be put to a greater test. with a spire of 130 feet. The entire complex of the main temple and its ancillary structures and subsidiary shrines is in the middle of a rectangular. nothing surpassed it in wealth and power in the 11th century. which is arranged as always around a central axis. The Great Temple at Thanjavur Today Thanjavur or Tanjore is an ordinary little town in Tamil Nadu. Gopurams The Gopuram (literally Cow-Gate). To change the outer covering. But it was not felt necessary to repeat verbatim the square-based form of the temple Vimana.. that symbolizes conscious might…" while in the example at Gangaikondacholapuram "… the fluid lines…are imbued with a subconscious grace". April 26. the form of the temple itself would be nothing short of sacrilege. and then population growth. the power of the Cholas slowly waned from incessant disputes with the other powers of the south . The Decline of the Cholas .the Pandyas Come to Power After the death of Rajendra I in 1050 A. considerable political changes were taking place. the 14th Century A. The huge flat-roofed hall has processional aisles that remain at ground level. The most threatening was evidence of a new. This approach is the forerunner of the famous 'halls of thousand columns' of later efforts in temple building. These temple cities and their sociological implications will be the subject of our next chapter in this story of Indian architecture. Pandyas and Kerala. Yet the temple at Gangaikondacholapuram was important because of innovations that affected South Indian temple architecture in the future.D.e.D.Today the town is in ruins. This threat made the Pandya rulers hurriedly throw up makeshift battlements around their cities and the heart of their towns -the temples. signifying . This was the genesis of the famous gopurams. that too a most utilitarian one. This could be due to the fact that the square was a essentially a static form. and the temple scarcely less so. was erected primarily to emphasize the importance of the temple within the city precincts without in any way altering the form of the temple itself. i. a veritable forest of columns supports the mandapa.the all-conquering hordes of Islam. Thus an ancient. or entrance gateways of the temple cities of the south. this was unacceptable. 2001 The Temple Cities of the South by Ashish Nangia In our last article. It had to be towering. which inherited all of its considerable wealth and trade agreements with foreign powers. massive and impressive. The Pandya rulers hit upon a novel solution: raise the gates of the fortress to the level of architecture. which is in total contrast to "the rigid and geometrically perfect Vimana of Tanjore. we explained how the typical south Indian city came to be surrounded by a ring of walls because of the need for defense. venerated shrine could often find itself in the position of being reduced in appearance to a fortress. irresistible force from the north . Eventually the Chola Empire was usurped by the Pandya dynasty. To hold up such a large area of roof. For so religious a people. This led to a number of interesting solutions in city planning and the most visible architectural feature of this expansion was the Gopuram. rises up in a concave curve.e..the Chalukyas. The main Vimana on a base even larger than the temple at Tanjore. The formal aspects of the Gopuram were evolved slowly over time. The second innovation is the Mandapa. i. By this time. crowned with a row of finials. Thus. The new wall. with successive perimeters being added as population growth dictated. Above this base could be raised tier upon tier of a pyramidal structure comprised of brick and plaster with the topmost tier also a rectangle. The 'Annular' Growth of Cities Such an increase in importance of the city led to a natural population increase as well as demands for more resources. This rectangular top was crowned by a barrel-vaulted shape of Buddhist origin. the great temple of Srirangam at Tiruchirapalli acquired several concentric rings of growth over a period of 500 years. In this way the city grew much like the annular rings of a tree. . Elongating the square and converting into a rectangle with an open entrance in the middle solved this problem. albeit much smaller. had its own huge Gopurams. But growth was also constrained by the huge battlements thrown up around. punctuated by the massive Gopurams. too. the concentric city and Gopurams. As time went by. social and secular activity of the region. which evolved out of necessity rather than conscious design. while the entrance gateway needed to have some dynamism. The only viable solution was to erect yet another wall around the existing one. cities all over South India could be discerned from afar by the distinctive shape of their Gopurams dominating the skyline.calm and rest. Ultimately. The temple-city had evolved from a place of pilgrimage to the hub of political. cultural. came to be accepted as the standard 'form' of temple construction in the south. . The Meenakshi Temple at Madurai Thus it came to pass that the Meenakshi temple was designed as a series of concentric courtyards, or parikramas. The spaces around the shrine became hierarchical, diminishing in religious value; the further one went from the main shrine. The outermost ring had buildings of a more practical nature - accounts, dormitories, kitchens, shops selling items for rituals, maintenance areas and 'parking' for the increasing number of chariots. The inner circles contained parikramas for singing and religious tales, bathing tanks and guest houses. And in the innermost courts were the pavilions for the dancing girls and the treasury - both jealously guarded by the priests! Admittance was restricted to the upper castes only. And finally, the holiest of holies, the Cella containing the idol of the deity was open only to the head pujari and out of bounds for even the king of the land. The Hall of a Thousand Pillars With temple building losing its architectural challenge and becoming more and more a town planning exercise, the craftsman was restricted to working on pavilions, halls and Gopurams, the last of which grew ever larger and imposing. The huge hall in the Meenakshi temple needed 985 pillars to support its roof. This is the famous 'Hall of a Thousand Pillars'. Unfortunately its size cannot compensate for its architectural mediocrity, and according to Satish Grover: ...the hall, surely one of the more arid products of Indian craftsmanship is a museum of drawings and photographs of the entire gamut of the 1200 years of temple architecture of the South.* The Corridors of Rameswaram Rameswaram, on a tip of land jutting out into the sea, is a maze of huge pillared verandahs. Not only is the temple surrounded by corridors, but it is also linked to the entrances by covered passages. Rameswaram thus has the distinction of possessing the longest corridors in the world. However, in spite of their huge proportions, the Gopurams and pillared corridors were the last gasp of conceptually revolutionary Hindu architecture in the country. The invasion of Islam had already resulted in the North being a bustling hive of mosque and tomb building. The Hindu stonecutter proved to be equally adept at carving Islamic masterpieces as sculpting nubile forms on the surface of temples. This will form the subject of a later article. May 13, 2001 Grover, Satish The Architecture of India - Buddhist and Hindu, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. , New Delhi, 1980. All color images under license with Gettyimages.com The Hoysalas of Karnataka by Ashish Nangia The flourishing temple styles in North India - both the Khajuraho and the Orissi versions - were brought to a rude end with the Muslim invasion. When the Muslims consolidated their hold over North India, temple-building activity virtually stopped. Entire families of skilled craftsmen were now presented with two choices - the first of which was to work for their new masters and abandon the idea of building a temple as an offering to God. This resulted in the fusion of Persian and Indian building styles and was to result in an entirely new idiom, as we shall see later. Another option was to migrate further and further south, in search of work and new patrons, where Muslim influence had not yet made inroads. This was the region around modern Mysore, where the hitherto unknown Hoysala tribe was making its first moves towards glory. Having overthrown their former overlords, the Cholas, the Hoysalas were in no mood to imitate their architectural style and were looking for something with its own distinct identity. The craftsmen migrating from the north were able to provide just such an impetus. The merging of the Dravidian and North Indian styles created a temple that is unique, so much so that it is often classified as the Hoysala style. The early experiments were found on the extreme edges of the kingdom, around ancient Dwarasamudra. The profile of the temples at Ittagi, Gadag and Lakhundi reveals that the craftsman's most visible contribution was a subtle merging of the two spire forms - the horizontal tiers of the pyramidal south Indian vimana and the roundshouldered elegance of the northern shikhara. Gradually this hybrid evolved into an identifiable style, rivaling in The Star in Plan To add to its distinctiveness.* The mandapa of this temple has an extremely beautiful circular stone platform. lustrously polished after years and years of dance on it . the shafts of which had been lathed and thus acquired a number of parallel knife-edges. though it was now distinguished by circular columns. bell-shaped towers and above all the star-shaped plan. This was designed and planned by the architect Janaka Acharya at the behest of King Vishnuvardhan. the Chenna Kesava temple at modern Belur is one of the finest. The mandapa remained a square. Among the examples of the developed Hoysala style. Splendor in Halebid .grace and beauty its predecessors. Though built around a single shrine. The gaps between the outer pillars were covered with a jaali meant to provide privacy for the Brahmins. The departure from the accepted square form of the temple is understandable when we analyze the plan and see that it is made up of a grid of rotating squares.the ritualistic. devotional Bharata Natyam of the South. the temple has all the distinguishing features of the Hoysala style .a pillared mandapa. The resulting outline thus emerges as a star. The plan of each of these cellas was a star. the Hoysala temple in plan composed of numerous cellas or garbhagrihas served by a common mandapa. and especially the 'highly seductive dancing of the devdasis'. vegetation and other objects coming to life on its surface.Buddhist and Hindu. with bands of dancing figures. According to Percy Brown. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. the Vijayanagara empire further south held on a little bit longer. Satish The Architecture of India . June 23. ** ibid Images under license with Gettyimages. The high plinth of the temple is a virtual tapestry of sculpture.in the next column. parallel and connected at their transepts.** The Last Chapter The Hoysala temples were among the last temples of consequence to be built in India.Not content with this little gem in Belur. the king commissioned an even larger and more magnificent temple in his new capital city of Halebid. New Delhi. The Halebid temple is one of the most fitting climaxes to the sculptor's art in India. the 'Halebid Temple and the Parthenon are probably the two extremes of the architectural art of the world'. animals. 2001 * Grover. 'The one revels in the cold purity of its form and the other in the warm complexity of its sculptural architectonics'. The marvels at Hampi are the last examples of mediaeval Hindu architecture we shall discuss . 1980. Ltd. especially after Belur. While architecturally it was not revolutionary. it is in its rich sensuous sculpture that this example comes into its own. Muslim invasions were fast taking their toll and kings were more concerned about fighting off the invaders than with artistic and architectural endeavors. The architect proceeded to lay out two identical temples.com Death of an Empire – The Ruins of Hampi by Ashish Nangia . However. . A million-strong army ensured that the empire continued to grow in size and importance and numerous military successes resulted in Hampi itself being renamed Vijayanagar . and little by little Muslim rule and the Persian-Saracenic way of life began to permeate throughout the land. with the exception of a few proud Rajput strongholds. and at night the boulder-strewn landscape has an almost magical quality.the City of Victory. two Hindu princes managed to carve out for themselves a stronghold at Hampi. the treacherous terrain provided ample defense with only a few well-defended accesses. The site of Vijaynagar is spectacular. . Before long. with the rulers of Delhi leaving a governor in Daulatabad who nominally ruled in the name of the Sultan but in reality was a law unto himself. The Tungabhadra river meanders gently through. The Sultans of Delhi were now in the process of consolidation and administration. The south however was largely ignored. a city carved out of low lying hills and massive boulders. and established an empire which would be the last great Hindu kingdom before the coming of the British. the inevitable happened with these governors revolting and naming themselves the true rulers. In this melee of changing power.The conquest of the North by the marauding forces of Islam had already sounded the death-knell for most of the Hindu empires. art rather than architecture. and the huge massifs of rock were often themselves sculpted to produce a unique architecture that is part organic. It is built in such a manner that seven citadels and the same number of walls enclose each other… The outer citadel has a fortress. Hampi shows us a change from the normal centralized temple with outlying ancillaries. and does not have any pretensions to cohesiveness or concept. each an orgy of sculpture in itself. built on the summit of a mountain and constructed of stone and lime. outlying fields and a fifteen mile long aqueduct were the defense against a siege. the greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers. of round shape. The large space is completely devoured by the forest of columns. whose stone wheels lifted off from the ground are actually capable of revolving around their axles. in the sense that the religious buildings are scattered around in small units. . Its chief peculiarity lies in the extent of its conception (an area of 500 by 300 feet) and the numerous columns. the columns rise from massive pedestals and scream upwards into grotesque brackets of enormous proportions. The Vithala Temple The Vithala temple was commissioned by Krishnadeva Raya. becoming instead a maze of intricacy. we will illustrate two." * Living Architecture The site provided ample raw material for building. the planning of the whole obeying the diktat of the terrain.Portuguese and Persians : "The city of Bidjanagar (Vijayanagar) is such that the pupil of the eye has never seen a place like it and the ear of intelligence has never been informed that there existed anything to equal it in the world. Of the numerous temples and shrines scattered around. part man-made and often is difficult to distinguish from natural features. each with its own importance and function.Fortifications. The other major feature in the complex of the same temple is a chariot in granite. This city has been the subject of many an impassioned travelogue by foreigners . Like a dying gothic monster. including the Buddhist barrel vaulted roof.Hazari Ram Temple A private chapel of the same ruler has the same suggestion of the grotesque and the fanciful. Among the most elegant constructions are the so-called 'watchtowers'. These towers have elements from both Hindu and Islamic vocabulary with typical Islamic arches. although in reality most of them may have been built for pleasure. The Elephants' Stable. and a decidedly Hindu finial. . corbelled brackets under the windows. for the nobility to look out over the city. an octagonal or square plan. projecting eaves. Civic Architecture and the Influence of Islam The fascination of Vijayanagar continues with its secular architecture. A combination of forms. is mighty in conception and is perhaps one of the most impressive buildings in Vijayanagar. as if the rulers were sufficiently impressed to import craftsmen and masterbuilders from neighboring Islamic states. adds to the repertoire of shapes. It is a mix of Hindu and Islamic features. in consonance with the beast's position as an animal for pomp and war. and the domes are alternately totally Islamic and with a hint of Hindu influence. charging horses. The recessed arches in the front elevation as well as the central structure on top (perhaps for drummers and musicians) all combine to make this a must-see. lies as much in its architecture as in what it represents. the haunting beauty of the landscape by night all contribute to painting for us. '. The beauty of ijayanagar-Hampi. in the ultimate analysis. August 26. For this was the last stronghold of Hindu architecture and art. but would never again be paramount.This long.com . the influence of Islam was already visible. And here too. and finally the eventual sack of the city as it fought vainly to stem the swelling tide of invasion. as we stand there today. the barren rocky site.the proud capital was (soon) a forlorn ruin inhabited only by tigers and other wild beasts'. slowly subsuming Hindu craft in a Hindu kingdom. dying elephants and men. 2001 1. a picture of battles fought. From Persian ambassador Abdu’r-Razzaq’s diaries Black and White Pictures courtesy Michel Polizzi Read Also: Vijayanagara: The Empire that Vanished! by VK Joshi All color images under license with Gettyimages.. Hindu craftsmen and traditions would continue. echoes of the roar of the king of beasts lingers in the still air over proud and deserted ruins of Hampi. 10-domed structure has mighty arched opening for the animals. The twisted sculpture at Hampi. And as we leave. According to Percy Brown. For this would be the last Hindu fling at monumental architecture. would influence the Islamic style. which were rapidly disappearing in an increasingly Muslim ruled subcontinent. very reminiscent of the Lodi tombs in Delhi. and this could be one reason for the new Muslim rulers to feverishly start building activity as another sign of their missionary zeal.Qutb-ud-Din Aibak .D.the founder of the so-called Slave or Mamluk dynasty. Lodi (1451-1557 A.) and finally the great Mughals.D. It is also accepted that raids for land or booty were later 'translated' into more acceptable crusades for conversion of the infidel by many contemporary writers . Islamic building types may be divided into two main categories: a) religious and b) secular buildings.D. much like in the rest of the civilized world. The essence of God is inapprehensible and knowledge of Him depends upon the ninety-nine names which He gives Himself in His revelations. Khilji (1290-1320 A. fasting. the Koran spells out the conditions for submission (Islam) and the consequent moral obligations of the believer (Muslim). Tughlaq (1320-1413 A. that Delhi got its first Muslim ruler .D.D. The supreme revelation is the Koran. the Five Pillars of Islam: affirmation of the Creed.). 2 . 570-632. Muslim rule was marked by spectacular monuments. dictated to Muhammed.).. Thus the Muslim dominance in India starts with the Slave Dynasty (1192 A. Sayyid (1414-1444 A. prayer1. Muslim building types Throughout. As the book of Law. A combination of superior tactics and weaponry and the infighting amongst the region's Hindu princedoms combined to make the forces of Islam irresistible.D.The Islamic Influence by Ashish Nangia Though it had been the subject of marauding Muslim raids since the 8th century A.). In succession. Religious Buildings To use a quote: "The fundamental Islamic dogma is the unity of God (Allah) and the finality of the prophethood of Muhammed .D. alms-giving and pilgrimage.) and goes on till the British achieved pre-eminence in the early 19th century.D. it was not until 1192 A.His chosen one who lived from c. this translates into the following dynasties at Delhi: Slave (1192-1246 A. many of which count as among the finest in the world.). . and soon led to the erection of increasingly complex structures culminating. or emphasize more decisively the principles underlying the consciousness of each community. A lecturn for the Koran and a pulpit (minbar) to the right of the mihrab complete the basic furniture. while the temple is not infrequently introspective. and the temple on the other…Compared with the clarity of the mosque. complex and indeterminate.wells. hitherto unknown in India. in the monumental mausoleums of the Mughal emperors.It is the pre-eminence of prayer that dominates much religious architecture in Islam. architecturally the mosque is wholly visible and intelligible." 4 . The tomb as a form made a modest beginning with small canopies over the graves of Sufi saints. the latter encloses 'a phantasma of massive darkness'. the Muslims were very conscious of the need for strong fortifications and these often reflect parallel developments in the West . jealously guarded and remote .must provide for the considerable number of mats used as a community. as represented by the mosque on the one hand.influence being derived from the Holy Land . Secular structures Having conquered by war.the Middle East. The Koran lays down a precise ritual wherein the prayer mat is on the axis (qibla) towards Mecca. From these constraints a mosque-form begins to evolve . The principal vertical features are minarets or towers at corners (from which the faithful are called to prayer). Gradually these defensive forts developed into cities in which a large number of other structures were built . the temple is an abode of mystery. in India. especially at the Friday (juma) noon prayers. A fusion of cultures . The second major religious building type was the tomb. Thus the principal public place of worship .Indo-Islamic Architecture "Nothing could illustrate more graphically the religious and racial diversity. palaces. the courts of the former are open to light and air.a large rectangular enclosure on one end of which is a wall articulating the qibla by means of a central recession (mihrab)..the mosque or masjid . inviting publicity. having somber passages leading to dim cells." 3 "On the one hand was the rhythmic mind of the Hindu. with many doorways. on the other the formal mind of the Musulman. stables and halls of audience. than the contrast between their respective places of worship. The Towers of God by Ashish Nangia In 1192. Both benefited from the other's knowledge and what slowly evolved was a distinct new style of architecture . it is now more properly termed Indo-Islamic. 1990. Qutb-udDin is credited with being the first to realize that 'he who holds Delhi rules India'. over the years a certain symbiosis did come into being between Muslim designers and master-builders and the Hindu craftsmen who carried out their bidding. There were other variations apart from the merely formal: the presence of carving in Hindu temples which was forbidden in Islam..2 After the death of Ghori. Qutb-ud-Din lost no time in declaring himself the ruler and embarked upon a vigorous campaign to quell dissidence. New Delhi.2 m by 33 m. who was to become the first Sultan in the Slave Dynasty. the Quwwatu'l Islam (The Might of Islam) was constructed by destroying. It is not just a story about architecture. 1975.Persian in inspiration but very Indian in execution. the Hindu propensity for a single stone and the Muslim penchant for inlay work. The Quwwatu'l Islam The first mosque in India. 2001 1 My highlights 2 Tadgell. Recognizing the strategic value of the city. 3 Brown. both in his home cities in Afghanistan as well as in and around Delhi. However in spite of this wide gulf. it is a whole new civilization developing in the fertile plains of India which left an indelible mark on its future. . enclosed by colonnaded cloisters.militarily and theocratically. fresh from his victory over the brave but futile resistance of the Rajputs1. Pvt. Ltd. Once the immediate military aims were achieved. October 2. Muhammed Ghori left as his viceroy in Delhi Qutb-ud-Din Aibak. 4 ibid. in Qutb-ud-Din's own words. but a proselytizing missionary.These quotes from a venerable early architectural historian serve to highlight the utter difference between Muslim and Hindu building types.B. decorative lettering on mosques and tombs which was unknown in Hindu art and architecture. This enclosure formed the heart of the mosque. Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D. 27 Hindu and Jain temples in the region. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Long referred to as Saracenic. We will trace the development of Indo-Islamic architecture from its crude beginnings in the early 12th century to its heyday. Bombay. delineating a space where the faithful could kneel to pray.3 There were two ways of consolidating power . Christopher The History of Architecture in India Penguin Books (India) Ltd. The mosque originally consisted of a rectangular court 43. Qutb-ud-Din set about to establish himself not just as a marauding invader. a structure which is architectonically a mosque with apparently vandalized Hindu components. The riot of defaced carving is complemented with the difference in the columns .human forms. the columns still betray a riot of carving . it was time to define the qibla or the axis along which lay Mecca. gods and goddesses. but was expressly forbidden in Islamic architectural expression. the arches are again imperfect as they are made by corbelling stone rather than by wedge-shaped voussoirs.It is with a closer examination of the columns that the otherwise undistinguished mosque begins to assume significance. The result is a curious combination . floral motifs which sneak in every so often. A compromise was effected by knocking off the faces of the deities and other human and animal forms. the central one the highest at 16 m. Ogee-shaped. the hand of the Hindu craftsman is again evident in the sinuous carving as well as serpentine. who between them nearly quadrupled the size of the original enclosure. . With the cloisters complete.4 The shortage of both time and money forced the Muslim ruler to reuse inherently sacrilegious elements. This mosque was later extended and enlarged by two subsequent rulers. flanked on each side by two smaller ones. Carved in alternating bands of inscriptions and arabesque ornamentation. Dismantled from temples. but several demolished temples. flora and fauna. Above the cloisters rise imperfect corbelled domes .which was characteristically Hindu. jewelry and other motifs .the result of Hindu craftsmen striving to erect a form of which they had no prior experience. This was done by erecting a stone screen of five arches.they came from not one. Iltutmish and Ala-ud-Din Khilji. projecting on a system of stalactite pendentives .this feature appearing for the first time in India and no doubt imported from classical Islamic construction. Qutb-ud-Din laid the foundation of the world-famous Qutb Minar. Repaired and added to numerous times by successive rulers. the Qutb with a height of 72.both as a minaret for the mosque as well as the most visible symbol of his growing power. The lowest has alternately circular and triangular fluting. while the fourth and fifth are mostly plain. the third triangular. . Each storey is articulated by a balcony. Intended to serve a double function . the second circular. each distinct.The Qutb Minar The mosque and its ancillaries finished. the Qutb today consists of five storeys.5 m is the highest stone tower in the world. This was the first time that Hindu craftsmen and Muslim builders allied together. swarming the site each day testify to its appeal.a true fusion between Muslim sensibilities and Hindu capabilities. at par with Taj Mahal. there was the Qutb. Pvt.5 4. as well as verses from the Koran. both Indian and foreign. 3. A similar Islamic tower in Spain 6.was strictly prohibited.B.arabesque . 2001 Images under license with Gettyimages. However. Ltd. And ever in the future. the apparently magnanimous ruler of Delhi.B. and we see in this first stumbling step the beginnings of a long association between the two contrary cultures of Islam and Hinduism. Thousands of tourists. Taraporevala Sons and Co. let him go free each time. 2. 1975 Consolidation and Continuation : The Beginnings of An Indo-Islamic Culture by Ashish Nangia . Brown. Bombay. Ltd. This was the famous battle against Prithviraj Chauhan. 1975. It is to be noted that in 'classical' Islamic architecture in Persia.6 October 31. It could be asserted that the result was forms and details confused and hesitant. The depiction of living form . structurally incompetent and formally subject to a myriad of influences. a lofty symbol of God's will.com 1. decoration took the form of very geometric carving . Bombay. Brown. Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D.in intricate patterns. but in a display of incredible ignorance. This was to result in an architecture which was undoubtedly Islamic but distinctly sub-continental . 5. especially in military service. Taraporevala Sons and Co. enclosing between itself and its counterpart5 the 'entire paradise of God's world'. perhaps more important. who had defeated Ghori twice earlier. Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D. in the evolution of the history of Indian architecture. Yet at no time does the Qutb complex lose its magnificence. Pvt. The word 'slave' here has no demeaning connotations as capable servants were highly valued and often rose to positions of great responsibility.human or not .The Qutb and its associated structures today is the most visible and famous landmark of Delhi. it holds a unique place. The Qutb was the first monumental stamp of Islamic architecture in India and was the start of a long relationship between indigenous craftsmen and their Mamluk masters. The grandiosity of its concept encouraged several rulers to continue adding to the structure and adding further stages. The Arhai-din-ka Jhompra Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish (A.D. 1211-1236), succeeding to the throne after Qutb-ud-Din's death in a freak polo accident, was an energetic builder. The first of his notable works was the addition of a facade to the Arhai-din ka Jhompra (literally, hut of two-and-a-half days) mosque built by his predecessor at the military encampment of Ajmer in Rajasthan. Built on the same principles as the Quwwatu'l Islam at Delhi, this mosque at Ajmer is larger. The façade is similar to the one at the Qutb, but here the similarity ends. The central arch at Ajmer is straighter - Tudor Gothic - and the side arches are multifoil and cusped, a common feature in other Islamic work outside India. The main stylistic difference is evident in the It was not long, however, before several other additions and alterations were made on the same site. The first of these was by Iltutmish, who doubled the size of the original enclosure of the Quwwatu'l Islam mosque, and added another screen of five arches to define the qibla (the axis towards Mecca). This screen, though superficially the same as in the original mosque, has better stood the ravages of time. The main differences are in the detail, with the carving using a purer Islamic vocabulary, though here too, in the sinous curves, the hand of the indigenous craftsman is seen. The floriform low relief at the Qutb gives way to a far more geometric, rigid style. This is by no means an advance over the Qutb mosque. The arches seem almost a regression to a purer, stricter form of Islam with their monolithic and sombre appearance. Two broken minarets over the main arch resemble the Qutb in their flutings. The Tombs of Iltutmish and Sultan Ghari With these two works, there appeared for the first time in India a strange and novel way of laying the dead to eternal rest - burying them with a tomb as a monumental cenotaph. Iltutmish constructed his own tomb as well as that of his son Nasir-ud-din Mohammed - the socalled Sultan Ghari or 'Sultan of the Cave'. This is probably due to the subterranean tomb chamber. The octagonal platform above was probably intended to support a pillared pavilion, the whole of which has disappeared or was never built. This platform was surrounded by a square masonry arcade on a high plinth, and according to Percy Brown, it has "such a grim and martial appearance that one of its more remote purposes may have been to serve as some kind of advanced outwork to the main fortress of the capital" * The second main contribution of Iltutmish was his own tomb, a little to the north-west of the enlarged mosque at the Qutb, built a little before A.D. 1235. A square 42 feet in side and with a height of almost 30 feet, its plain and unadorned exteriors belie its interior - the whole of which is covered from top to bottom on all four sides by rich carvings almost rivaling Hindu temple sculpture on the sandstone-clad walls. The cenotaph and the three arches of the mehrab towards the west(marking the direction of Mecca) are both in marble, again a riot of inscriptions from the Quran. Architecturally speaking, Iltutmish's tomb is interesting as it reveals quite clearly the first attempt in India to solve the 'dome on a square' problem - or in other words, how do you support a circular shape on a square base? In this case, a 'squinch' was employed - a half-arch/dome spanning across the corners of the square base and making the square an octagon. This can be repeated to transform the octagon into a sixteen-sided figure on which the base of the dome may rest. That the dome, if ever fully built, subsequently collapsed was a testimony to the fact that the it was imperfectly constructed - however an important start had been made and future attempts in this direction were to grow ever more confident. Balban's Tomb After the death of Iltutmish, there is little to be seen architecturally from the early years of the Delhi Sultanate. The main reason for this were the squabbling successors of the Sultan ruling for too short a time for any effective architectural patronage. There was thus an interregnum of 60 years - with one exception. This is the tomb of Sultan Balban of the extremely short-lived 'House of Balban' (A.D. 1266-1287). Now a ruined and totally unremarkable structure in the extreme south of Delhi, this tomb is notable because it introduced for the first time in India the principle of the true arch with radiating voussoirs. This is not only a significant structural advance, but also a socio-cultural one. For it indicated that slowly but surely the Muslim rulers were ceasing to regard North India as invaded territory. Delhi was becoming a city of repute attracting men of art and learning, craftsmen, poets and historians. The early steps of creating a distinct Indo-Islamic culture were being taken. November 11, 2001 * Brown, Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D.B. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt. Ltd. Bombay, 1975. Images of Arhai-din-ka-Jhompra by Bourne and Shepherd, 1880's* The Megalomania of Ala-ud-Din Khilji by Ashish Nangia After Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish, the Delhi Sultanate was marked by a long period of brief rules and frequent internecine warfare. This interregnum was to last for almost sixty years before any stable government could be re-established. Not surprisingly, there was little in the way of building achievement except for a few scattered tombs at Multan. The wars of succession and coronation left little scope to devote time or energy to artistic and architectural patronage. Some fifty years after Iltutmish, the Khiljis, a dynasty of Afghanized Turks from Ghazni, seized power in Delhi. With the third in the line, Ala-ud-Din (A.D. 1296-1316) a stable government was at last installed in Delhi. Ala-ud-Din was a prodigious builder whose appetite for building was matched by his prowess in war. His most notable efforts, apart from shifting his capital from Lal Kot to Siri, were again to be found at the site of the Qutb Minar - which by its very magnificence had become over the years both an inspiration as well as a challenge to do better. The Great Alai Minar Ala-ud-Din, true to form, felt compelled to increase even further the size of the Quwwatu'l Islam mosque. His scheme called for increasing the size of the enclosure four times, providing ceremonial entrance gateways on each side, and a great minar, twice the size of the Qutb - the Alai Minar. It would have been clear to anyone less megalomanic - 'with a vision less obscured by selfexaltation 1 - that such a grandiose project would be impossible in the Sultan's lifetime. Indeed, the Alai Minar today is a stump (albeit a magnificent one - we can well imagine the proportions of the tower had it ever been finished), its rubble core clearly showing as it rises up to one story. The Alai Darwaza The only part of Ala-ud-Din's scheme which was completed was the southern ceremonial entrance - named the Alai Darwaza after its builder. It is clear from its appearance and construction that a fresh new influence was at work - this is a piece of Muslim architecture hitherto unknown in India. . the influence of local workmen in the provinces and the eventual decline of the Khilji dynasty meant that these were never as remarkable nor of as high a standard as the Alai Darwaza at the Qutb. Because of its revolutionary construction. 2001 1.16 2. alternating between one course of stretchers . and among the places offering sanctuary was the Delhi Sultanate. little remains except fragmentary and crumbling structures. Ltd. p.it had been used in Balban's tomb before . by far the most imposing feature of these facades is the central arch. The interior of the structure is no less remarkable for its technological innovation. rising to nearly the whole height of the structure.B. Pvt. The plinth is carved in bands.a horse-shoe or keel arch. Brown.and one course of headers . Around its outer rim is a band of inscribed white marble. The second innovation was the true arch. In this case. Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D. each further subdivided into rectangular panels. 2 This imported arcuated tradition was to play an important role as it was to provide the prototype for successive Sultanate tombs. The header course enabled the walling to penetrate into the rubble core and thus make the wall as a whole stronger. 1975. December 2.Historians have traced its genealogy to the architecture found in Asia Minor under the rule of the Seljuks in the early centuries of the second millennium. Taraporevala Sons and Co.the squinch. Among the other architectural work of Ala-ud-Din. and the wall surface above is divided into two stories. The breakup of the Seljuk empire under the weight of Mongol invasions caused craftsmen and builders to be scattered far and wide. The first innovation in the gateway was the system of walling.stone laid with its longer ends facing outward . Bombay. For one. is different. and the octagon into a sixteen sided figure. First started in the tomb of Iltutmish (see previous article). This method of walling was to continue and was a typical characteristic of Mughal building. the squinch consists of five recessed arches gracefully transforming the square into the octagon. The three outer faces are very similar with a tall arch over the steps. The lower of these panels have a recessed arch while the upper ones into smaller rectangles.stone laid with its longer end going deep into the wall. . At each point. the weight of the dome is transferred to the square base by the same mechanism . In form the Alai Darwaza is a rectangular building on high plinth into which steps have been cut to access the interior. However. This was not the first time that a true arch had been used in India . 3 The inner façade. the Alai Darwaza served as a model for many of its successors. and for another it is clear that in its sensual and plastic decoration the indigenous craftsman was given a much freer hand.but this time it was employed in a far more influential building.a fringe of lotus-bud carving. the opening is not a keel arch but a true semi-circular one. facing the mosque and Qutb Minar. In shape it is rare . the articulation is marked by a mixture of sandstone and marble arabesque and decorative carving. The intrados or the inner rim of the arch shows its most distinctive feature . And though the work of the Khiljis was not entirely confined to the capital city of Delhi. ” The citadel integrates outer defence with the inner city buildings. following approximately the topography of the land. the master builders. And in his old years. From the corners of the land they came. “all that remains of this great enterprise is a haunting scene of savage splendor. always has strong military overtones. he had seen history. Today a neglected but magnificent ruin..D. which though secular or religious. The Tughlaq Years by Ashish Nangia It was a time of elation. Of the three rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty. the first. one of the historical seven cities of Delhi. This was originally thought to be a fringe of spear-heads but now are generally accepted as lotus buds.Nothing resembling this picture (of treasures and palaces) can now be seen in the huge masses of broken masonry. It was a time of rediscovery. At close intervals are semi-circular bastions with eyelets for archers to look down and shoot at the enemy.) was already aged when he became Sultan. and ruled for barely five years. the city of Tughlaqabad. the unadorned nature of which suggests that the project took more the form of a stern and practical stronghold. And was laying the foundation of what he hoped would be an empire that would last far beyond his approaching death. being able to be adapted for a spirited defence if necessary. Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq (1320-1325 A. sited on a high outcrop of the southern Delhi ridge. Little can be identified within these walls.3.. than a work of architectural significance. for a new Sultan had taken his seat. though little remains of the latter but scattered ruins. According to Percy Brown. The major efforts of this man were concentrated on the building of his citadel. The warlike conditions prevailing throughout his reign are best exemplified by his architecture. Seen empires rise and fall. but it is clear that there was some kind of royal palace . The massive outer walls were sloping. the use of sun-dried brick made sloping walls a structural necessity. halls of audience as well as a connecting passageway to the monument just opposite. The tomb itself is almost like a miniature fortress. much in the manner of Sultan Ghari’s tomb. by an offshoot of Mathura Road leading to the Qutb. with the drying up of the water body. or a descendant. This originally stood in the middle of an artificial lake. The commonly accepted view is that the tomb is an offshoot. with a bastion at each angle of its outer walls.with its accompanying residences. complete with eyelets for archery. It is almost like a rallying point for a last. about which much excited scholarly discussion has taken place. are its sloping walls. The Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din In stark contrast to the dilapidated condition of the fortress. rooms for the women. In the latter. much like . of a similar contemporaneous tomb at Multan (in modern Pakistan) of Shah Rukn-i-Alam. The plan of this fortress-tomb is an irregular pentagon. The most distinctive feature. however. the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din is almost perfectly preserved. The tomb walls are clad for the most part with red sandstone and the dome with marble. Ghiyas-ud-Din’s tomb. and the arched causeway which connected it to the citadel has now been replaced. with sloping crenellated outer walls. hopeless defence. Sultan Mohammed Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.begun in the Alai Darwaza . of which little remains. could be easily toned down to graceful perimeter guards. bereft of tourists unlike the nearby Qutb. some years later. The site of Tughlaqabad is desolate. but this feature was transferred unchanged to the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din.) came to power. a court with a chabootra or platform for sitting in the open. with confusion and even chaos resulting for a time. It is almost as if the indigenous craftsmen. were being safe by introducing a lintel. and its high buildings with corporate offices and banks contributes mainly to the city’s burgeoning skyline. Today. and another percentage on the way back.of red sandstone cladding and white marble. emasculated by years of incessant warfare in the Deccan and the profligacies of Muhammed bin Tughlaq.) in whose reign this was built. the tomb is overrun by monkeys. where stone was used for the walls. However. still not trusting the true arch as a means of support. It is also famous for Modern School (Barakhamba Road) which has makes a regular contribution to the ranks of India’s rich and famous every year. Among these were the shifting of the Capital to Daulatabad in the Deccan (to administer the empire from a central location). visionary though they may have been. made for defence. a roof terrace. when it was apparent that the scheme had failed. lacked the authority and persistence of the Sultan to make them really work. The massive outer walls. was not known for much else except his wacky. the last stand of a Sultan who was destined to die at the hands of his son. probably used for looking at the city. The surviving evidence is of interest because this is one of the few cases when secular architecture . It is in this tomb that we first begin to get a hint of what would follow in the coming centuries. which became for a time desolate and abandoned.Egyptian temple pylons. as well as a quirky three-story high tower. A reconstruction of the house would show it enclosed in a high perimeter wall containing an open courtyard with rooms around. the name Bara-khamba or Twelve Pillars derives from the house of a nobleman originally erected there. One side effect of this was the undoing of all the good work of the previous generations in Delhi. That this lintel also introduces an element of style was incidental. The Bara-Khamba Barakhamba Road in modern Delhi is one of the major entrances to Connaught Place. The introduction of token money instead of precious metals also had similar results.has been found in any degree of preservation this far back in time. and there are many other stylistic similarities. hundreds of them at a time.as opposed to religious or military .D. had its coffers nearly empty by the time Firoz Shah (1351-1388 A. A significant proportion of the population died en route to Daulatabad. yet its importance cannot be denied. ruined and magnificent . The tomb continues the lotus-bud fringes found in the arch of the Alai Darwaza. ill-timed policy decisions which. There is the same vocabulary . The throne of Delhi.very much like the history of the Sultanate which set the base for Muslim rule in India. This ruler leaves behind a wealth of architectural evidence that is a testimony both . Another interesting feature is the presence of a structurally redundant lintel over the arched gateways. ” * The architecture of Firoz Shah is stern. as a cricket ground and the feeding grounds of Delhi’s hoi-polloi. These.200 towns.at times hauntingly lovely (Hauz Khas Madrasa by night). This did not stop him from embarking on a vigorous campaign of building. 100 public baths and 150 bridges.. nearly empty coffers and a disintegrating empire.. February 23. respectively. This is due in no small measure to its rough exposed finish (the glazed tiles having come off a long time ago) as well as the lack of skilled masons and sufficient capital.. the devout (and even bigoted!) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 A. 40 mosques. and more.” These claims are no doubt exaggerated but underscore his interest in architecture. at times warningly forbidding..) became Sultan. 2002 Firoz Shah and After by Ashish Nangia After the capricious reign of Muhammed bin Tughlaq. Today. Firoz Shah inherited. 100 hospitals.among the Gifts that God has bestowed on me. and in the words of a contemporary historian he was eventually responsible for “1200 gardens around Delhi.D. thanks largely to the disastrous policies of his predecessor. 30 villages. .is a desire to erect public buildings. utilitarian... 50 dams. his cousin. 30 reservoirs. almost tragic . In his own words “. as well as to his propensity for architecture.to the age in which they were built. Firoz Shah Kotla and Hauz Khas are more famous. The unfortunate and appalling state of neglect of the monuments today does nothing to ameliorate this perception. in the next column. but they stand as mute witnesses to the dying flickers of the Sultanate. A new Capital . as well as public and private baths. The fort itself was fairly straightforward.Khirki village . it was apparently not very successful as a building type and was not repeated. halls for audience. Today the Khirki masjid has its own village . Kalan masjid and Khirki masjid at Jahanpanah. the Begumpuri masjid. the mosque can barely be glimpsed. near modern Saket. from the road. the chief ones are the Kali masjid. this decision could also have been prompted by an increasingly irregular water supply at Tughlaqabad. Symbolically. an imposing mosque. Of Firoz Shah’s numerous mosques. this was an icon of the Sultan’s supremacy in North India. The congregational nature of worship in Islam has generally resulted in mosques having a large common open space in which to pray. Apart from the desire of the new Sultan to make his mark. armouries. called Firoz Shah Kotla.perhaps to avoid the scorching heat of North India in the summer . thereby abandoning the old fort-city of Tughlaqabad. But the roofing of the Khirki masjid and dividing of the interior spaces into various small courtyards . very much like the Gupta Iron Pillar in the Q’uwwat-ul-Islam mosque at the Qutb. and an Ashokan pillar removed from Ambala and mounted on top of a pyramidal three-tiered construction. This last is interesting not only for its cruciform plan. Within the perimeter walls of the fort were structures serving as barracks. The king’s quarters as well as those of his wives and concubines were situated along the river-front. but also because it is one of the few examples of covered mosques in India. Whatever the reason for this unusual masjid. Indeed. The narrow paths of the village twist and turn until suddenly you are face to face with an imposing structure mounted on an impressively high . rooms for servants.effectively broke up the congregation into small groups.Firoz Shah built a new capital city on the banks of the Yamuna. using common-sense building principles used the world over for buildings of a similar type. a stepped well or baoli.in Delhi. The Death of Delhi In the last years of the 14th century. right from ‘antiques’ from Kerala and Tamil Nadu to fabrics to paintings. The story of modern Hauz Khas village is all too familiar . mosque and his own tomb were added by Firoz Shah. so what we are left with is a network of buildings. encroaches on its space . of course.but perhaps the very unexpectedness of the building is the reason for its powerful solemnity. and teaching cells at the other. and persist even after the Mughal invasion of India. marks a radical design innovation in the sense that for the first time the plan was octagonal instead of square. an official at the court. Today Hauz Khas sells you India . though otherwise decaying. which would be far easier over an octagon than over a square. and when you’re tired of it all.at Hauz Khas . and the whole complex nestles in the midst of a forest .neatly packaged.except for one example. Chengiz Khan. Jaali windows overlooking the tank (and the setting sun) make for a fine place to spend summer evenings. And spend some more money. . does not detract from the solemnity of the monument. the Khirki Masjid today is an architectural gem tucked away in a forgotten corner of one of India’s largest metropolises. with a mosque at one end. Exterior surface decorations have long disappeared. A failure as a building type. the grandson of the terrible Mongol scourge. this tomb would be the forerunner and model for tombs of the next two dynasties. the whole composition hinging on Firoz Shah’s tomb as the pivot.plinth.of an urban village being hijacked for its (initially) low property prices. each of whom would refine it further. His tomb. Whatever the reason. Delhi was invaded by the hordes of Timurlane. which would not rise to its former glory for many decades hence. of course. All this activity. This may have been done to facilitate the placing of the dome at the summit.if you’re a foreigner . The Madrassa at Hauz Khas To be forgotten . The village chokes the mosque. there are the restaurants to relax. and thousands of citizens were slaughtered. These buildings are laid out in an ‘L’ shape on a high rocky outcrop overlooking the tank. This is the tomb of Khan-i-Jahan Telengani. The major buildings of Firoz Shah’s reign would end here . The decaying empire of the Tughlaqs could offer no more than feeble resistance. Firoz Shah’s tomb is at the junction of this ‘L’. almost barrack-like in their disposition.is not the fate of the Madrassa or religious school . Timur left behind him a shattered and emasculated city. and is also the highest building there. a large school. surmounted by a dome with its interior finely stuccoed.having for company some of the most exclusive (and expensive) restaurants and boutiques in the city.the Deer Park at Hauz Khas. Originally the site of a large water-storage tank built by Ala-udDin Khilji. a projecting eave and a height of one storey. The first. In the words of Percy Brown. 2002 * Fatuhat-i-Firoz Shah (Elliot Vol III P. based on an octagonal plan.”* The Sultans and the Nobles A closer examination shows that we can classify the tombs built during this period (15th and 16th centuries) into two types based on their plan. One notable addition in the tomb of Sikander Lodi (died 1517 A. so much so that in the course of time the country around the capital was converted into a large necropolis. and it only remained for Babur to invade India to lay the foundation of that mightiest of dynasties in India – the great Mughals.) was the introduction of a double dome. and this innovation becomes necessary when the height of the dome is increased to create a more imposing elevation. making it all out of proportion to the . and sometimes kiosks or chhattris on the roof. This building would have a dome on top.D. were derivations from the original of Khan-iJahan Telegani (see previous article). fortresses and civil work was replaced by a more somber. Building work in Delhi continued after a fashion. of varying height. a mere pause. Still. A double dome consists of an inner and outer shell. for the first time in India. which will be discussed in a later column. The once mighty city of the Delhi Sultanate. funerary architecture of tombs and mosques. home to kings and dynasties. this event was some years away. With minor modifications such as raising the height of the dome to make it more visible. It took more than a century for the city to regain a semblance of its former prestige. This was. The culmination would probably be Sher Shah’s magnificent tomb in Sasaram. yet the prodigious output of the previous dynasties in terms of capitals. “Scores of large tombs therefore arose within its (Delhi’s) neighborhood. was left a shattered wreck. the height of the inner chamber also increases. Unfortunately. for the death knell of the Sultanate had long been sounded. first under the Sayyids and then under the Lodis. The main features common to all tombs of this type may be summed up as : an octagonal plan with a verandah with an arched colonnade on all sides. as it would eventually turn out. these tombs carried on with little major modification. 382) The End of the Delhi Sultanate by Ashish Nangia The invasion of Timurlane (see previous article) left Delhi sacked and in ruins.March 10. Bihar. inner spaces. To prevent this, an inner, lower shell is added to the dome. The other type of tomb of tomb was square in plan, without a verandah, and going up to three stories in height, or rather, the illusion of stories, as this effect was mostly given by lines of stones and arches as decorative elements, to make the exterior proportion acceptable, whereas the interior in reality was a double or triple height space. The façade had a central rectangle articulated by an arched doorway, and the roof, as in the octagonal type, had a dome. It seems clear enough that the octagonal tombs were reserved for the royal line, i.e. the sultans (examples being those of Mubarak Sayyid, Muhammed Sayyid, and Sikander Lodi), whereas the square tombs were for high-ranking nobles. However, while the octagonal tombs are all identifiable, the square ones are known merely by their common names and it is not known any longer who lies buried in them. Mosques The experiment with covered-court mosques having being hastily jettisoned after the Khirki Masjid, a more conventional mosque form was resorted to in the Lodi period. Apart from the mosques attached to tombs, one large, independent structure which was to be the forerunner of a whole series of mosques was constructed during the reign of Sikander Lodi – the Moth-ki-Masjid. The complete series, chronologically, is (i) the mosque attached to the Bara Gumbad, 1494, (ii) Moth-ki-Masjid c.1505 (iii) Jamala Mosque or Jamali-Kamali, 1536, (iv) QilaI-Kuhna Masjid c.1550. The last was built as Sher Shah’s private chapel and is a gem, the culmination of this mosque type. A look at the first in the series, the mosque with the Bara Gumbad, shows the genesis of the form, with five arches receding arches in the façade and domes on top. However, the faulty proportions as well as clumsy handling of the arches with their weak curves indicate the hesitancy of the designers in building a new typology. The next mosque in the series, the Moth-ki-Masjid, shows the rapid crystallization of the earlier concept. Firstly, it is considerably larger than its predecessor. Secondly, the articulation of the recessed arches is far more adept. Thirdly, embellishment has been done using elegant niches on the columns abutting the arches. Another important feature is the use of better material and color, as if the masons were trying for something more permanent and forceful. The third of the examples of this type of tomb, and the last to be discussed here, is a gem of a structure originally called the Jamala tomb, but now popularly called Jamali-Kamali. But the story of Jamali-Kamali lies elsewhere, for before it was finished, a cataclysmic event had taken place – the third battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D., when a small but well-led force of cavalry and artillery led by Babur defeated the fractious Afghan nobles led by the last Lodi Sultan. And so passed into history the Delhi Sultanate. It had a long history, starting from the early days of Qutb-ud-Din Aibak, passing through numerous dynasties, sultans, intrigues, wars and defeats. The Delhi Sultanate was dead, but it had left behind its legacies. Delhi would forever be the most important city in the north, the master of whom would rule India. The city itself was dotted with symbols of kings fallen and risen again, of victories and triumphs, of despair, and in its silent tombs, of eventual death. the regional Islamic satraps – whether governors of the Delhi Sultanate or newly-independent Sultan – patronized an architecture which slowly began to assume a very different identity. examples further away from Delhi illustrated both a riot of carving as well as formal aspects directly influenced by Hindu architecture. This identity was not constant throughout. and depended chiefly on : • • • • the distance from Delhi. As one moves away from the main power centre. . Bombay. Malwa. Ltd. the economic condition of the regime.com Integration and Absorption Regional Variations of Islamic Architecture by Ashish Nangia Islamic architecture in and around Delhi retained much of the characteristics in both form and detailing of Persian Islam. The main areas that produced a substantial body of architecture and can be said to have evolved a ‘style’ of their own are Gujarat. which determined the level of dilution of ‘pure’ Islamic principles. the local artisans available in the region and their specialization and experience. some parts of south India and Kashmir. Pvt. 26 Images under license with Gettyimages. but varied from place to place. which served as direct or indirect inspiration for Muslim examples.May 4. Gujarat The Muslim rulers of Gujarat produced architecture on as grand a scale as their Hindu and Jain predecessors. If the Qutb Minar merely had sinuous carving which hinted at the Hindu craftsman at work. Punjab. Taraporevala Sons and Co. responsible for the quality of finished and materials used.B. Bengal. p. As in Delhi. 1975. the first building material for the earliest mosques and tombs came from the demolition of temples in the area. 2002 * Brown. and local Hindu architecture. Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D. with only the court at Delhi able to attract and pay the best Muslim architects and artisans from abroad. the ethos of Gujarat architecture in the same tradition of the carved temples at Mount Abu. the minarets do not become any more graceful. almost like pilasters. At a later date. indeed. the central arch of which is flanked by two rather bloated minarets rising from the ground.an architectural wonder. the two most impressive examples are the mosque of Ahmed Shah and the Jami-Masjid. More than simply a means of bathing. The form of the minarets. vocabulary extensively used in a classical temple. that the city of Ahmedabad was founded. and are indeed part of. Thus while the mosques retain all the design elements of a Islamic prayer hall. consisting chiefly of a tomb and mosque face to face. to the arcaded screen type prevalent in Delhi. The base of the minarets is covered by what seems to be almost temple shikharas rising one upon the other. (Images show Adalaj .) The mosques at Ahmedabad show a development from the relatively primitive. the successors of Ahmed Shah were noted for a number of mortuary complexes or rauzas. In the Jami-Masjid. with an open façade. arcaded type of mosque. . Ahmed Shah’s mosque has original Hindu pillars behind a simple arcaded façade. Of the second. Imposing steps lead down to the water table and the vertical exposed walls were treated with rich carving. but their power depends mainly on their massive proportions and the riot of carving on their faces. in detail they resemble. with carved pillars visibly produced by Hindu craftsmen discernible through the arcade. Some of the most spectacular architectural remains at Ahmedabad are the stepped wells or wavs.It was with the reign of Ahmed Shah (1411-42). a seven-storied underground Step well built by Queen Rudabai during the rein of Ahmed Shah. these wavs were associated with stylistic ritual which spanned back to the time of the Rajputs. brings to mind the battlements of Rajput fort rather than the graceful tapering classical Islamic minaret. And so. The Plateau of Mandu The decline of the ruling power at Delhi after the sack Chronology detailing main events of the city by Timur prompted the Ghauri governor of Sultan Dilawar Khan Ghauri A. A notable example is the rauza of Rani Separi. Thus Islam in India generated not only an imperial style. and entrance definition is achieved by means of two stubby minarets at each end of the mosque. Both the mosque and tomb are finely detailed with the by-now familiar carving. among the first state buildings to come up were mosques. had as its capital the ancient Hindu city of Dhar.D. almost sensuous quality. among which that of Gujarat is one of the richest. 1405-1434 Mahmud Shah A. and in the manner in which the carving is depicted. a dream-world of fragrance. till it was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate – by Ala-ud-din Khilji in 1305 A.D. Here the mosque face is without a screen. with Sultan Hoshang Shah A.A notable example. in modern Madhya Pradesh. 1401 Mandu to declare his independence in A.D. to conclude.D. Delhi. Carving here takes on a sinuous. project from the south side. we can say that Muslim architecture in Gujarat is characterized mainly by its carving. so unlike classical Islam. July 1. relaxing the strict dogmas of Islam against decoration and depiction of living form. gardens and sweet herbs. very similar to the Qu’wwat-ulIslam mosque at the Qutb.com The Pleasure Palaces of Mandu by Ashish Nangia The province of Malwa. As with all conquests. Carved balconies. 1401.D. and a governor installed in place. 1436 Sultan Dilawar Khan declaring himself Shah. the function of which is not clear. . built with pillars taken from Hindu temples. about 24 miles north of Mandu. but many regional variations. 2002 Adalaj images under license with Gettyimages. 1569 capital from Dhar to the plateau of Mandu. . The Jami-Masjid at Mandu The Jami-Masjid near the centre of the Mandu plateau was one of the finest achievements of the Ghauri dynasty. Bounded on three sides by a rift valley. became the site of some of the finest provincial Islamic architecture. and to endow it with elements of humanism can be counted as a very difficult exercise in design. jutting out from the Vindhyas range. This problem has been fairly successfully addressed. to shift the Malwa/Mandu annexed by Akbar A. madrassas and pleasure-palaces dotting the landscape. with mosques. A mosque. Hoshang Shah. The fortress enclosed an area of approximately 12 square miles within walls over 25 miles in circumference. is monumental by its nature.D. with its necessarily vast scale to accommodate numerous worshipers. and overlooking the Narmada to the south from a height of 300 metres. The inspirational landscape of Mandu.(Contemporary of Rana Kumbha of Chittor) It was left to his son. the fortress of Mandu was virtually impregnable. next to the mihrab. Indeed. which shows influences from florid Gujarati architecture.Of the elements that make up this mosque. the only departure from sobriety is in the chattri inside the mosque. with a main arched doorway flanked by two smaller openings. the monumental entrance from the east is a fine exercise in elegance. The courtyard is surrounded on three sides by columned cloisters with galleries of majestic arches. The whole building is faced with red sandstone. Hoshang Shah’s Tomb . with little concession to decoration. A squat yet well-proportioned dome crowns this entrance. with its profile being reflected in smaller domes over the cloisters surrounding the central court. their proportions being ‘not unlike in profile to the so-called shoulder shaped contours of the shikharas of Orissan temples. To the south-west of the Jami-masjid lies Hoshang Shah’s tomb. or women’s chambers. Here also are the remains of a seven-storey victory tower – which collapsed in the 17th century – echoing Ala-ud-din’s megalomaniac flights of fancy near the Qutb. . it was an extraordinary achievement in its time. among the earliest Muslim buildings in India to be sheathed entirely in white marble. and documented fact says that Shah Jahan sent a team of surveyors here for case studies before commencing construction of the Taj Mahal. possibly exerting an influence on buildings to follow elsewhere. it is clear that the whole area was divided into three zones – ceremonials with halls of audience. serving as a madrassa with open courts surrounded by cells for students on several levels. The ceremonial zone was dominated by the Hindola Mahal – literally ‘swinging palace’. Hindola Mahal From the remains of Hoshang Shah’s palace. to the east of the Jami-masjid. the king’s private chambers and the ubiquitous zenana. Asharfi Mahal Although little remains of the Asharfi Mahal. with strongly battered walls adding to its ponderousness.and is uncharacteristically massive. The image to the right shows the interior of the Hindola Mahal. One theory is that it was originally intended to have several more storeys above.This vast longitudinal room enormous arches punctuating its length . Pleasure at Mandu . The most striking thing about this monument is its location between two water bodies. Lal. and the home of a prosperous dynasty. hence its name. The Jahaz Mahal. Baz Bahadur and Rupmati palaces.Situated as it was on a plateau. was a departure from the previously stolid and somber style at Mandu. Mandu became the site for various pleasure-palaces and resorts for royalty. which gives the building the appearance of floating on water. be they for the women of the harem. in the form of the Jahaz. In Mandu we have architecture dedicated to the pursuit of pleasure on a large scale. the fine arts or hunting. . the Kaphur Talao and the Munja Talao. Chappan. literally the ‘ship palace’. built by Mahmud Khilji. with numerous water bodies through its length. And so. The Jahaz Mahal proved an inspiration for later Khilji sultans to dot the landscape with their own pleasure pavilions and summer retreats. which was slowly sliding into decadence. the building consists of a series of compartments and corridors over the Munja Talao. with terraces. The esoteric character of Mandu later prompted the likeminded Mughal emperor Jahangir to spend a considerable amount on its maintenance. echo the strains of the romantic tales of Rupmati and Baz Bahadur to this day. its legend lives on as the city of Joy. 2002 Brick and Bamboo at Bengal by Ashish Nangia . July 21. if you listen hard enough.Architecturally. and in the forests of the Vindhyas today. kiosks and numerous open-air baths conforming to the lifestyle at Mandu. even though the city of Mandu was eventually absorbed into the Mughal empire. 1282 Shams-ud-Din Ilyas founds Purbiya dynasty A. Another remarkable feature which predominates is a curved roof form. beginning with A. however. when closer places like Malwa took many years to subdue.D. its destruction is inevitable. with its pointed arches and finishes so different from those in stone. indeed. there are traces of Sena and Pala constructions in Gaur. The harsh climate of Bengal also means that antiquities decay rapidly.D. that it is sometimes difficult to discover it – always to explore it. when Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji extended Muslim rule right down to the ancient capital of Gaur. The reason for this rapid conquest. 1576 Curved Roof Form at Bengal Bengal was one of the foremost provincial Islamic outposts.. If the roots of a tree of the fig kind once find a resting-place in any crevice of a building.D. of which there was an abundant supply.D. is the influence they had on Islamic architecture in terms of short squat pillars used to support the superstructure above. and this meant that no building was possible using the usual column-beam construction so characteristic of early Islamic structures. and even without this. and so hordes of troop transports could navigate the river with ease all the way down to its estuary. 1352 Sher Shah invades Bengal A. right from the beginning. Instead. the luxuriant growth of the jungle hides the building so completely. though not enough to accurately reconstruct the architectural style used. 1193. Their chief worth. 1193 Nasir-ud-Din Bughra Khan appointed Governor A. no doubt derived from its bamboo predecessor. which was long a Hindu capital city.D. The lack of building stone in Bengal meant that most construction was carried out in brick. arches were used to span spaces and to support the weight above. Brick thus lends Bengal architecture a style which is distinct. This curved roof was to prove very popular in north India in general.Chronology of Events Muhammed Bakhtiyar Khilji conquers Bengal A.D. according to Fergusson: “…the climate of Bengal is…singularly inimical to the preservation of architectural remains. It is interesting to note that it was in the same year that Qutb-ud-Din Aibak established the Sultanate in Delhi. Many fragments of Hindu architecture are still to be found. . Mughal and even Sikh architecture being influenced. 1537 Bengal absorbed into Akbar’s empire A. with later Rajput. was principally that the Ganges provided a great waterway to facilitate the movement.” 1 Of the pre-Islamic architecture. as well as the earliest pointed arches in the province. marked by arches and crumbling walls. is impressive in size but lacks in architectural significance. When complete. and the major traces of this are to found at Tribeni on the Hoogly river. the large ruined mosque is a similar mixture of arched and column-beam construction. the whole reminiscent of a Greek or Roman city in ruin. and the second in the 15th and 16th centuries. Most of these have collapsed. Measuring a huge 507 feet by 285 feet. the Adina mosque provided a valuable lesson in building in the inimical climate of Bengal. when the Bengal Sultanate was established. the mosque had no less than 378 brick dome. the central court is surrounded by three and five aisled enclosures supported by pillars of basalt. The first period is marked by construction influenced by Hindu remains.The architecture in Bengal can be further divided into two periods – the first from the 13th to 15th century when it was a provincial outpost of the Delhi Sultanate. and with brick. including the central vault. The mosque and tomb of Jafar Khan Ghazi are adapted from the remains of a Hindu temple but have brick walls. In the nearby village of Chotta Pandua. built by Sultan Sikander Shah to celebrate his victory over and independence from the Delhi Sultanate. . Whatever be its architectural merits. as well as a huge central pointed vault over the liwan. The Adina Masjid The Plan View of Mehrab The Adina Masjid at Pandua. and so the Adina Masjid today consists of little more than a pile of ruins. As befits an early example. With strange proportions of the dome as well as the structure below. a rather smaller example with stocky basalt pillars supporting the arches above. with a rather hesitant curved roof. the climate of Bengal proved to be a decisive factor in determining the plan. Both apparently had gilt applied to their curved roofs. The Bengal Mosque Once again. the Eklakhi tomb remains rather tentative in plan as well as in execution. attesting to the efficacy of the curved roof as well as its stout construction.In the Eklakhi Tomb we see for the first time an Islamic curved roof inspired from the bamboo version. after the lessons of the Adina Mosque. . a large number of mosques came up in and around the city of Gaur. and the slight slope on the roof is a departure from traditional cubical construction and served to throw off rainwater. Notable among these are the Chotta Sona and Bara Sona masjids. And so the courtyard was replaced by an enclosed hall. which gives them their name – literally. the tomb nevertheless has stood the ravages of time. ‘Golden Mosques’. It was evident that a large open courtyard was useless in the long monsoons in Bengal. Once this principle had been established. One of the last of the mosque examples in the Qadam Rasul mosque. The Dakhil Darwaza. offers. August 11. and indeed in the columns themselves which are divided into tiers. Forts and Citadels . marking the entrance to the remodeled city of Gaur with its broad thoroughfares. in the aggressive outward thrust of the column bases. continues to have effect in the architecture of Sikh Gurudwaras even today. James History of Indian and Eastern Architecture. The days of Bengal producing fine provincial architecture were almost over. Munshiram Manoharlal. Yet the harsh climate of Bengal and the lack of building stone had combined to produce a style which was unique. According to some accounts. a first-hand account of India in the late 19th century. among other things. and which. as well as the Feroza Minar or ‘Blue Tower’ marked some of the finest late examples of the Bengal style before the Ilyas Shahi dynasty succumbed to an Abyssinian mercenary in 1489. is eminently recitable. emphasizing their low height and posture. 2002 1. who was impressed by his zeal and honesty.Gulbarga and Bidar by Ashish Nangia From a Beggar to a Prince The Delhi artists transported (forcibly ?) to Daulatabad by Muhammed bin-Tughlaq took the Sultanate style with them to the north-western Deccan but trade had long exposed the region to western Asia. 1876. is ‘flaccid and formless’. Zafar Khan rose through the ranks to become eventual governor of the province of Daulatabad. N. With the weakening of power at Delhi.The mosque. and certainly the first who took Indian architecture on it own merits. His book. the first ruler of Gulbarga. Fergusson. in the form of the curved roof. New Delhi. he declared the province independent of central authority and assumed the name of Ala-ud-din Bahman (1347-1358). The Deccan. Later distinguishing himself in battle. Zafar Khan was a poor laborer who was nominated to the Sultan’s service by his master. though difficult as a read. according to Satish Grover. James Fergusson was one of the first British chroniclers of Indian Architecture. but possesses nevertheless beauty in its robust proportions.B. The invasion of Sher Shah further weakened the province and absorption by the mighty Mughal empire was inevitable. The tale of Zafar Khan. mosques and secular structures bear silent witness to a oncepowerful empire. in four concentric rings. was at Daulatabad. In contrast to Gulbarga. The fort.Daulatabad Fort Main Gate in Second Outer Wall. Inside the citadel walls. the Bahmanis instead endowed Gulbarga fort with the Bala Hissar. was again in the tradition of military architecture inspired by the Crusades in the holy land. With no natural defense like a hilly site or a river nearby. citadel within a citadel. was out of immediate striking range of the Vijayanagara kingdom. was at the highest level. The fort could be isolated for better defence from the town by a system of gates and moats. The capital of the Bahmani empire was shifted yet again in 1429. on which were built the fort and its associated town. with its citadel at the northern tip. ruins of palaces. and was to remain practically the only example built in India. This massive rectangular keep. Religion and Death . as Bidar had a more central position in the kingdom and perhaps more importantly. Bidar : Fort and Town Plan The Bahmani dynasty’s first citadel. Bidar was situated on a sloping promontory. The tradition of strong fortifications continued with the shifting of the capital to Gulbarga in 1347. which was a constant menace. before the capital was shifted to Gulbarga. naturally. Here the most prominent feature is the extraordinarily imposing outer walls. similar in design and style to the Château Gaillard in France. This was a strategic decision. These arches contrast with the trefoil arches of the mihrab and the squinches – these again being traces of Seljuk work at the Isfahan Jami Masjid. the Shah Bazaar. The tomb of Firoz Shah (not to be confused with the same name of the Tughlaq dynasty at Delhi – see associated article) was enlarged to two large bays to also accommodate members of the royal family. like at Isfahan in modern Iran. this mosque has arcades two bays deep and a triple-aisled prayer hall which runs around three sides of the building. These delineate also their Persian origin. the earliest mosque founded in Gulbarga. is one of the first in India to reflect the Timurid tendency of the multi-bay prayer hall. For example.The Bahmani sultans’ Shiite tendencies are clearly reflected in their mosques. was to prove very popular with the Adil Shahis of Bijapur who subjugated Gulbarga late in the 15th century. though not universally emulated. and the low-slung domes which cap the roof. the kalash at the corners marking an increasing awareness of the local craftsman and his repertory. A simple structure. . This Gulbarga variant of arches with imposts. with arches springing from imposts spanning the area of the court. The space of the central court itself is covered over with smaller domes. Its most refined expression is then found in the Jami Masjid of Gulbarga. it is marked by the trellis work in its windows. On a rectangular base. The tombs of the first Bahmani rulers at Gulbarga are fairly simple structures of plastered stone and rubble work. where the outer arches are supported on serpentine columns. the Bahmani dynasty can also lay claim to another masterpiece – the madrassa of Mahmud Gawan. Despite its monumentality and originality. mosques and citadels. 2003 Architecture The Deccan: Golconda and Bijapur by Ashish Nangia The dynasties which supplanted the enfeebled Bahamanis in the Deccan early in the 16th century continued ardently patronage of architecture. and the increasing profusion of decoration is marked. however. the Qutb Shahis of Golconda and the Adil Shahis of Bijapur were especially active. February 23. The most striking feature of this structure is its three stories of cells. The elevated domes marking the entrances and the imposing minarets combine to make this a high point of the influence of Persian Islamic art and architecture in India. a most unusual happening in a madrassa. the type represented by this Iranian import did not subsequently find favor in India. the Persian minister of Muhammed Shah Bahmani III (1463-1482). apart from its wealth of tombs. Of their . However. Of these.This tendency to fusion with native crafts and motifs reappears very distinctly in the Langar-kimasjid at Gulbarga. This trend is only too visible in the tomb of Sultan Muhammed (c. against Murad. when the urge to monumentality and impressiveness was muted by the addition of small-scale decorative elements. the citadels. one each at Golconda and Bijapur.military works. The three successive walls with numerous bastions for artillery and convoluted approaches for better defense testify to a time when wars were common and imminent attack around the corner. The heroic exploits of Chand Bibi. are testimony to the eventual might of these dynasties and cause for their long resistance against the Mughals. 1544. The Hindu motifs on the gates show a continued trend of using local craftsmen and decorative vocabulary. The Qutb Shahis of Golconda Golconda fort was built on the remains of a Kakatiya citadel by Sultan Quli c. and may also be proof of the religious tolerance of the Qutb Shahis. 1612) at Golconda. The main fortress dominates the town 30 metres below. son of Aurangzeb. . are at least as celebrated as those of Rani Lakshmibai or Razia Sultana. the Sultana of Bijapur. Later architecture of the Qutb Shahis showed a tendency to degenerate into a sort of tired decadence. at Bijapur. Adil Shahis of Bijapur The Adil Shahis have the distinction of being the most prolific of all the Deccan builders. A similar judgement may be passed on the Char Minar at Hyderabad. such as the over-thin columns in the gallery on the ground floor. Within and around this astonishing citadel. The culmination of these mosques is the great Jami-Masjid of Bijapur. the Adil Shahis continued a campaign of incessant building for nearly 150 years which resulted in numerous public works. The early mosques of the Adil Shahis are usually threebay affairs with the simple. Be that as it may.Incongruous elements in this otherwise wellproportioned structure. and strengthened by over 100 bastions. The fort itself is composed of an immense ring wall 10 kilometres in perimeter. a series of tombs unrivalled except by the Mughals. broad. as the very symbol of that city. They have to their credit one of the greatest forts of India. its sheer monumentality and visibility have contributed to make it a source of national pride. does not add to its architectural effect. up to 12 metres thick and 10 metres high. prevent this tomb from attaining the status of a masterpiece. The Char Minar is ungainly as a structure and incoherent in its use of decorative features. and indeed. It has an . Its overwhelming status as the main landmark in Hyderabad. low-sprung arches of the Gulbarga Jami Masjid. and over fifty mosques. Of the rauzas (combination of mosque and tomb) the best example is perhaps that of Ibrahim II. like the Anda Masjid of 1608 and the Mihtari Masjid of 1620 show an increasing elaboration of forms.open prayer hall surrounded on three sides by arcades. The highly elaborate detailing of both structures does not detract in the least from their fine proportions but rather complement them. which define the open court in front of the mihrab. and in this he partially succeeded. the out-of-scale detailing of the arcades around the dome. along with its famous whispering gallery. For it is to him that can be attributed the Gol Gumbaz with its huge dome. It should be said here that the sheer size of the structure is alas. all combine to make the Gumbad . The later mosques of the dynasty. and indeed among the largest in the world. the relatively blank facades of the walls. on a rectangular terrace set out along the charbagh concept. For the bulky and squat corner minars. and the central arch in axis with the mihrab stands out by the addition of cusps to its inner curve. the largest in India. The great dome on top of the qibla is supported by great interlocking arches rising from the square base below. with the middle space occupied by an ornamental pool. Muhammed I tried to outdo his successor. not matched by a corresponding fineness of proportion. The chajja on top of the outer arches of the court is supported by numerous brackets. at least in terms of sheer grandeur. Here mosque and tomb are directly facing one another. This is the old story of kingdoms waging war against each other and rulers erecting palaces and monuments to their glory. In the north. or need to be modified in response to changing needs. and fortresses to preserve their rule. a break in building tradition – caused by the Delhi Sultanate in the preceding years – means that the science of architecture is no longer the same – the ancient texts which were followed in early temple building have either been lost. the making of a warrior tradition which will provide eventual stiff resistance to the Mughal onslaught. From this vacuum come the kingdoms of Vijayanagara. The infighting among the various nobles of the Delhi Sultanate has caused many kingdoms and provincial governors to assert their freedom. and are more occupied by the more mundane aspects in life. and bring with them the tradition of Islam. of pomp and splendor. or forgotten. surely among the most advanced in late medieval India. too.magnificently confused. have now practiced on Islamic buildings. The craftsmen. a true Indo-Islamic culture. This said. However. Architecture will now be truly a fusion. the proud fighting clans of the Rajputs too seize this opportunity. 2003 Color images under license with Gettyimages. Meanwhile the principal players in this drama are of course a little less aware of their eventual place in history. The current of cultural exchange now flows both ways – earlier it was Islam which had to forcedly borrow indigenous craftsmen for its architecture – and now it is these very same guilds who return to the service of Hindu kings. in Rajasthan and Gujarat.com Rajput Architecture: The Beginning of a National Identity by Ashish Nangia Time : The 14th and 15th Centuries A political vacuum exists in India. tools of a sub-continental identity. Golconda and Bijapur in the south. This will be the time of chivalry. March 2. and will be one of the first. the sheer overwhelming size of the building leaves one wondering at its boldness of conception. The Legend of Chittor . and among the most prominent. of great forts under the hot sun. Gwalior The strategically located Gwalior fort was fair game. Chittor fort. which was to be carried on with increasing skill in the forts of Gwalior. glorious death. This is the fort of Chittor. one would say. once home to kings and nobles. of noble but futile chivalry. of beautiful queens and princesses. and of eventual. The structure thus becomes quasi-religious. This no doubt contributed to its fine system of defences designed to slow down and eventually stop any attacker. and the halwai is the main cultural centre.The Sisodias of Chittor and Rana Kumbha (143368) were among the most active patrons of building. with the principles of temple building. It doesn’t even have a proper train line. Nothing spectacular. in its position as the gateway to central India. much like many others in semi-rural India. the only connection is by an old metre-gauge to Delhi and Ahmedabad. the cows blink stupidly in the ferocious heat of the mid-day sun. where politics is discussed over chai. The Jayastambha (Tower of Victory) is an odd structure. Except for the low plateau in the near horizon. represent the start of the tradition of synthesis between native and imported ideas. and the massive slumbering walls around its top. for all would-be potentates. Orchcha and finally Fatehpur Sikri. a sort of vertical temple. along with Mandu and Chanderi. . The climb up to Gwalior plateau is tortuous and not easily accomplished even by a motor vehicle. The youth all want to leave. combining as it does the urge to commemorate a victory (that over Malwa in 1458). Chittorgarh today is a sleepy little town. of stirring tales of manhood and valor. its greatest is perhaps the palace of Man Singh Tomar built in the 15th century. with even the blue and yellow tile work on the façade still visible. Orchha .Among its many remarkable buildings. Unlike even its successors. Man Singh’s palace is in an excellent state of preservation. Raj Mahal Jahangir Mahal All three palaces. and the Jahangir Mahal of Bir Singh Deo. the Raj Mahal of Madhukar (1554-91). have square courts .like most Muslim buildings – surrounded by living quarters. built in the time when the Mughal influence had begun. The fusion experiment at Orchha culminated in Bir Singh’s Govind Mahal at Datia. Arches and domes mingle with beams and columns. In plan the Govind Mahal distinctly . These last two were built on an island in the river Betwa.At Orchha there are three palaces of note – the Ramji Mandir of Raja Rudra Pratap (1501-31). For none of these developed in isolation. So if architecture can define a nation. March 16.follows the Muslim concept of a central court. but were rather a product of the volatile political process around them. 2003 All color images under license with Gettyimages. Humayun and Sher Shah by Ashish Nangia The Delhi Sultanate – An Uncertain Legacy . the architectural plan is surprising. The history of the Indian subcontinent is best studied in this way – as a product of diverse influences. However. with a symmetrical disposition of elements around it. Buddhist. This trend of fusion was to be evident in Muslim architecture of the period as well. perhaps the most surprising creation at Orchha is the giant Chaturbhuja temple. Muslim etc. rather than a narrow division into Hindu. The four corners culminate in domes which set off the larger one crowning the central royal quarters. resembling more a cathedral. quite unusual for a temple where the interiors tend to be closed and cramped. Jain. being a cross in plan. it is at this period in history that we witness a remarkable change – a sort of rapprochement between Hindu and Muslim – at least in the domain of architecture.com A Quirk of Fate Babur. The other astonishing thing is the large interior space. and what pleases the eye. More than its size. For craftsmen do not know any religion except for what feels good to build. each of which leaves its own mark. . that he was at best first among equals. its fertile plains proving ideal ground for the massing of armies. And so came about the first battle of Panipat.that would serve as the base for their successors the Mughals. After the extinction of the Tughlaq dynasty at the hands of Tamerlane. the Lodis finally assumed power at Delhi. And lastly.000 horsemen and 1000 elephants far outnumbered Babur’s troops. brutality and astuteness. at the seat of power at Delhi since the 12th century. but it was his use of artillery. Babur was a young. The Sultan’s 100.literature.chief among whom was Rana Sanga of Chittor . And yet the Delhi sultanate had. for the first time in India. thus finally came to an end. Secondly the sultans put into place a system of administration . and numerous princes and would-be sultans. from Ferghana. philosophy. they established firmly the principles of Islamic architecture . The last of the Lodi sultans had succeeded in alienating the majority of his nobles by his arrogant posturing.A political vacuum – this phrase can best summarize the state of affairs in north India in 1526 AD. In search of a new land to claim for his own. In spite of the empire building efforts of the first two of the line. This was to be the ground for many a decisive battle afterwards. taxes and minting . that won him the day.revenue collection.with the disinherited Timurid prince Babur. The Delhi Sultanate. Never controlling more than a part of north India. and important as far as we are concerned. Firstly it introduced Islam along with its culture . left an undeniable mark on the subcontinent. ambitious and ruthless warrior who knew an opportunity when he saw one. The Afghan nobles thus found themselves allied. The Lodi dynasty was thus fated to be the last in the Delhi Sultanate. Ibrahim Lodi’s pretensions were to prove his downfall in a land where class and clan loyalties were precarious at best. Bahlol and Sikander. along with certain Rajput chieftains . Ibrahim Lodi frittered away their gains by his imperious manner. painting. Winning and keeping control of an empire here would require finesse and tact. This he did largely forgetting that the Sultan’s power base was eventually his nobles. it left behind a fractured and divided subcontinent characterized by the lack of central power. in the last three centuries.which from its Persian and Turkish origins was to evolve into many regional prototypes. architectural activity was sporadic at best. Yet a number of notable changes came about. mainly with the Timurid and Safavid influences which came along with Babur. the Mughal destiny in India might have ended before it begun. However. the massive portals of the Qila are still for the most part intact and show a fine sense of proportion combined with a judicious mix of local red sandstone.The Beginning of the Mughal Empire In dividing history into periods. is the Purana Qila at Delhi. For a while he succeeded in chasing Humayun from the subcontinent. and were it not for his accidental death. which can be attributed to both Humayun and Sher Shah. only to return after the latter’s death. Mughal supremacy in India was not established till the reign of Akbar and before that there were times when the Mughals were in danger of extinction. Persian-inspired encaustic tile work and marble mosaic. with the short reign of Babur giving way to Humanyun. of Sasaram in Bihar. This period in history thus show a flux in political power at Delhi. The founder of the Mughal empire did not have much time for architectural construction. The Purana Qila The main citadel of the time. This danger came from the brief reign of the Afghan Sher Shah Sur. Thus with war taking precedence. . and the beginning of the Mughal period. with its associated structures. He in his turn was defeated by Sher Shah. The Ram and Zahara Bagh at Agra is a garden that ameliorated the climate that Babur so detested. Though the walls are crumbling in places. this stage is chiefly taken as the end of the Delhi Sultanate. and also a talar before the Lodi palace. The magnificent setting of the tomb is eloquent.this was to prove ill-fated as it is from its steps that Humayun tumbled to his death. Situated in the middle of a lake. two of the most notable are the Sher Mandal. the tomb obeys all the principles of octagonal tombs – arched side openings. 2003 The Mughal Empire: Fortresses and Citadels by Ashish Nangia . but takes them to a previously unsurpassed level of grandeur not only in size. in the Qila-i-Kuhna. buttressed walls and chhattris. But for a cannon exploding ahead of time which caused Sher Shah’s death. the subtle variations of the arch heights are among the features that mark this as the high point of mosques of this plan type. This tomb was the apogee of the octagonal type which found its beginnings in the Tughlaq and Lodi dynasties. March 23. and speaks of the quirks of fate. Sher Shah’s Tomb A word should also be added here for the fine tomb of Sher Shah Sur at Sasaram in Bihar. the octagonal library . the Mughal empire that came after him may never have been able to take root. Both these mosques are of similar pedigree. This should also be compared with the Jamali Masjid of roughly the same period near the Qutb Minar complex. with five frontal arches of which the central one is made the most prominent. but also cohesiveness of concept. The other is the superb Qila-iKuhna mosque.Of the structures inside the Qila. However. . as it does to the syncretism of its patrons. forts. tombs. Akbar (1556-1605 A. as we have seen. durbars and palaces.D. gardens and pools. Delhi and Lahore. Mughal architecture owes its origins to its religion. did not live to enjoy rule. It is thus that impeccable Charbagh plans combine with indigenous detailing as in the tombs of Humayun and Akbar. This unprecedented empire building went hand in hand with the subcontinent’s most fertile period as far as art and architecture were concerned. Islam. Mughal architecture owes as much to its genealogical origins among the Safavids and Timurids.Humayun.) was the first in a line of emperors that for the next century would establish Mughal rule over practically the whole of India. These concepts are reflected in great mosques. for pleasure. notably Akbar and Shah Jahan. and the forts at Agra. and finally. as a showpiece of prestige and power. His son and successor. Formally and artistically. and for death. We will however attempt to make the task easier by classifying the architecture into building types and then discussing the major examples of each. palace and garden. Lahore (from 1580) and Allahabad (from 1583). Ajmer (from 1570). chief among which are the ones at Agra (from 1564). The whirlwind and extensive military campaigns of Akbar were contemporaneous with the construction of a large number of metropolitan and provincial forts.Such is the volume of building during this epoch that it would be impossible to detail every building in this series. Mughal Fortresses in Akbar’s Rule The function of a fort is to command large swathes of territory. and finally to be a refuge if attacked. Mughal building can thus be divided into fort. to inspire awe and loyalty amongst the populace. to control the trade routes that pass therein. . primarily Gujarati in origin. Fine detailing incorporates both Islamic and indigenous elements. Refinement and taste are the words that come immediately to mind even in so utilitarian a structure as these forts’ defensive walls. mosque and finally tomb. Agra Fort Agra fort, in the form of an irregular semicircle, has its to the river Yamuna which protects its eastern side. riverside walls are punctuated nevertheless by defensive bastions of which the main one controls an access from the and numerous underground passages. Agra Fort plan On the town side the back thus The river bastions are regularly spaced and the height of the walls is 30m. The western wall is dominated by the massive main entrance – the so-called Delhi Gate- and the Hathi Pol. This gate is approached by a tortuous access ramp. More to the south, the Amar Singh gate is defended by two towers which flank the entrance. A remarkable feature in this fort is a hybrid beast, part horse, part lion and part elephant sculpted on a panel. This monster evokes Assyrian men-beasts but also resembles the monsters of Hindu mythology. It is unfortunate that most of Akbar’s not inconsiderable work within the fort walls was demolished or modified by Shah Jahan’s rebuilding and transformation later. One specimen that does survive is the Jahangiri Mahal. Agra Fort, Jahangiri Mahal This structure built for the emperor’s wives and family is similar in character to the Man Mandir at Gwalior. Of Shah Jahan’s additions, most notable are the Anguri Bagh (Garden of grapes) palace and the white marble Moti Masjid. Agra Fort, Anguri Bagh pavillion Agra Fort, Moti Masjid The greatest surviving example however of Akbar’s appetite and taste for architecture is of course his capital city of Fatehpur Sikri – soon abandoned because of lack of a reliable water supply. This will require the entire next section for a detailed examination. April 3, 2003 Color images under license with Gettyimages.com Fatehpur Sikri - The City of Victory by Ashish Nangia After his victories over the Rajputs, Akbar commemorated his achievement by the building of a new capital. The city was called Fatehpur Sikri and was close to the imperial fort of Agra. Here, within six kilometers of defensive wall, Akbar built palaces, courts of audience, hunting lodges, mosques and triumphal portals. The city was abandoned soon after its construction, and the reason for this was the lack of any reliable water supply for its inhabitants. Its disuse as a city during the Mughal period is the reason why its buildings have come down to us almost intact, without the changes effected by later Both formally and in their detailing.emperors on other imperial sites such as Agra. Allahabad and Delhi. as also his finely developed aesthetic sense. This means that Akbar’s genius at building can be seen fully here. the buildings at Sikri are a fine blend of Timurid planning and aesthetics and Rajput art and architecture. . of which little survives today. placed across the ridge. that role being assigned to the fort of Agra close by.Site Plan : Fatehpur Sikri Fatehpur Sikri : Palaces Apart from its outer wall. The city is situated on a hilltop. in the centre of which is a pavilion for music. a princes’ palace and ammunition stocks. the haram sara or queen’s chambers. . The highest point of the ridge is occupied by the main mosque and Sheikh Salim’s dargah. is divided into four principal parts – the daulat khana or treasury in the centre. The palace itself. The palace is entered ceremoniously from the Hathi Pol or elephant gate facing the lake (now dry!) The palace complex itself is dominated by a central court (b) with water bodies and fountains. Fatehpur Sikri was not really designed for a sustained defence. and beyond the walls was the old town. Birbal’s palace (d). All are disposed around the central court in such a manner as to recall Gujarati cluster planning. from which four walkways connect it to the sides.Of the buildings clustered around the court. in which radiating serpentine brackets support the emperor’s dais and throne. the Nagina mosque (f) and the five-storeyed Panch Mahal (g) are noteworthy. . The diwan-i-khas which is a two-storey building with four chhatris on top is noted for its great central column. the diwan-i-khas (hall for private audience) (b). Jodha Bai’s palace (c). the diwan-i-am (hall of public audience) (a). The scheme resembles in planning the Raj Mahal at Orchha. The Nagina Masjid to the north of the haram sara served as the queens’ private place of worship. Fatehpur Sikri is also known for two more buildings – the gem of a dargah of Sheikh Salim Chisti. Its introverted form with a single gate was well suited for the days when women were still screened from public view. .The haram sara is connected to emperor’s private chambers by a screened viaduct. and the Buland Darwaza. This building consists of queens’ apartments around a central court. The Buland Darwaza is a massive gate mounted on steps. by an addiction to drink and drugs. The Mughals in fact throughout the length of their dynasty were known for their good taste. To him also goes the credit of refining Sher Shah’s administrative systems and putting in place a regular source of revenue for the empire which stretched over all of North India and was beginning to threaten the Deccan. which faces the old town. palaces and civil structures. Noor Jahan. however. mosques. This tomb with its filigree screens and exquisite carving was originally planned in red sandstone. was greatly diminished. April 19. He was not only tireless in the battlefield. His potential. Bahadur Shah Zafar. Jahangir. and was a gifted individual. and he gradually came to lose all interest in the intricacies of governance. one corner of which is occupied by Sheikh Chisti’s dargah. son of Akbar. . As a remarkable man who not only won and consolidated political and military power but also patronized the arts and sciences. Akbar has rightly won the sobriquet of ‘the Great’. It was built to commemorate Akbar’s military victory over Gujarat.com The Mughal Empire: Splendor and Decadence in Delhi by Ashish Nangia Akbar’s long reign was a period of expansion and consolidation. but proved to be a man of exceptionally fine taste in art and architecture. was no less refined. But there was still more to come – tombs. right from Babur to the last ill-fated emperor. Fatehpur Sikri itself grants Akbar pride of place as a builder in the history of India. especially in his later years. 2003 Color images under license with Gettyimages. but was finally made entirely of marble at the beginning of Jahangir’s reign. preferring to leave all in the hands of his queen. This great triumphal portal leads into the mosque court. However. His liking for Kashmir led him to construct the Shalimar Gardens by the side of Lake Dal in Srinagar. However. Building profusely. it would be appropriate to examine the Red Fort at Delhi in more detail. Humayun – were nevertheless enough to hold the empire together and for art and architecture to continue to flourish.J ahangir’s sporadic bursts of coherence and creativity – very much like his grandfather. . we have to wait till the reign of Shah Jahan for the full genius of Mughal architecture to come forth. The exquisite dargah of Sheikh Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri is also attributed to him. But all these were to be overshadowed by the pièce de résistance – the Taj Mahal at Agra. in continuation with our series. Shah Jahan not only changed existing forts and palaces greatly but also built an entire new city and a fort – Shahjahanabad with its great Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Red Fort. arguably the most perfect mortuary building in all Islam. Allahabad and Agra. as are certain additions and alterations in the royal forts of Lahore. today looking strangely naked and exposed. The massive round bastions set off the main Delhi and Lahore gates. Inside the hall. The roof of this building. was completed by his son Aurangzeb. The entries from these gates meet in a square public place which finally leads off to the hall of public audience. This. the Shish Mahal or the Hall of Mirrors. is supported on columns and arches which are more ornate than utilitarian. the treasury and magazine or Daulat Khana. The walls themselves are clad with finely dressed red and pink sandstone. . The other buildings in the complex are the tiny Moti Masjid – a mosque entirely in marble.The Red Fort in plan consists of outer walls in a near-perfect rectangle except where they border the course of the Yamuna to the north. massive defensive entry portals which tower over the walls. the joints of which are surprisingly fine. the emperor’s private chambers and harems for the queens. though started by Shah Jahan. Various bays of these arches make up the hall. the simple pointed arch giving way to a multi-cusped version. or the Diwan-i-am. and is different in style. the emperor’s dais is raised on a high platform. the whole being clad in white marble with inlays of semi-precious stones. with the extra decoration that was the first sign of impending decadence and decay. The Red Fort was a defensive structure.I by Ashish Nangia The first of the Mughal emperors. were still far away. full in its importance as the capital of one of the richest empires of the world. 2003 The Mughal Empire Mosques and Tombs . and outside the walls of the fort. Humayun’s Tomb . The old city of Chandni Chowk from an English drawing. May 25. did not have the time to embark upon a concerted program of building. in spite of his keen aesthetic sense. But in its time it was home to merchants and poets. A visitor today to the Red Fort can still not help be surprised by the coolness of the interiors even in the hottest summer. a city flourished. The mosque built by him at Ayodhya . when the rule of law and justice for all was subjugated to the will of a few gangsters acting in the name of religion. Who could tell that in less than a hundred years an irreversible decline would begin? Those days. soldiers and workmen. Babur. a last resort for an attack that seemed improbable and even impossible during the heyday of the Mughal empire.Running through and around most of these structures is a system of open water channels which. An act supposedly demonstrating Hindu pride did nothing but lower the image of India in the whole world.the Babri Masjid – is now history. however. kept the interiors amazingly cool. all busily turning the cogs of the Mughal empire. in an incident that must surely rank as one of the most shameful points of the history of independent India. the grandeur of which is not now apparent in its narrow streets and crumbling buildings. courtesans and artists. This was the old city of Delhi. combined with carved marble screens fronting the river. a part of the Humayun Tomb complex. and the callous way in which we treat our built heritage. gardens with fountains built on the Islamic concept of paradise being ‘gardens in which flow torrents of water’. which are ascribed to various nobles and workers who served Humayun. A great central chamber has four offshoots. The tomb itself is raised on an arcaded platform. While image above shows the Humayun Tomb. in the reign of Akbar. Its construction was undertaken by the late emperor’s widow. This was the first mosque built on the lines of the Charbagh. though this too suffers from neglect due to the pitiful funds allocated to the Archaeological Survey of India.Luckily the first great Mughal construction. under which can be found numerous lesser graves. Humayun’s tomb near Nizam-ud-din in Delhi. has come down to us mostly intact. double storeyed in height and . The tomb is entered by a long axial processional path. which has on its way great gateways offering teasing views to the superstructure. the Hamida Bano Begum. the image to the right shows the Humayun library . and although the nearby railway line succeeds in disturbing the peace. the nearby Yamuna flowing slowly. a preponderance of sandstone with marble filigree and detailing. the dargah of the Sufi saint Salim Chisti was designed in sandstone during Akbar’s reign. The central room contains the epitaphs of the emperor Humayun and his queen. lotus. is set in the midst of gardens with fountains and canals. the tomb is clad in red sandstone with marble being used for detail work and inscriptions. offers a panoramic view of the city. and its main claim to architectural fame is the presence of Akbar’s tomb. and is instead integrated into the pillared cloisters. is also raised on a superstructure. and its central court is dominated to the south by the Buland Darwaza. but was eventually executed wholly in marble. it was built by his son Jahangir. already discussed in a previous article. Akbar’s tomb. On the exterior. as well as the remnants of forest which still exist. The prayer hall to the west is a departure from the free-standing Afghan mosque halls like Jamali-Kamali near the Qutb. Here. or the Qila-i-Kuhna at the Purana Qila. Fatehpur Sikri The Badshahi Masjid is the largest and most impressive mosque built during Akbar’s reign. which keeps the interiors cool and breezy. Added later during Jahangir’s reign. The terrace of the tomb. Akbar’s Tomb. and like Humayun’s tomb. As was so often the case. continuing the charbagh formula. swastika and . Badshahi Masjid. Akbar’s tomb takes much from the indigenous Rajput and Gujarati traditions. Also continued here is the jali work along the facades. however. Sikandra Sikandra is a sleepy little outpost on the outskirts of Agra. The pavilions inside are decorated with motifs ranging from elephants. because in plan and detail. swans. accessed by staircases. continue to offer the sleeping Emperor solace as one of the founders of the great Mughal empire.arcaded on their facades. The materials used are the same which dominated much of Akbar’s reign. and is crowned by great double dome. the similarities lessen. rich in detail. Shah Jahan was a ruler exceptionally given to be a patron of the arts and architecture. one of his first acts was to found a new city. Shahjahanabad. In fact. as a symbol of the supremacy of British power over the previous emperor. and chattris set off the entrance pavilions. The growing richness of the Mughal empire brought with it traders and merchants. one of the requirements for the Viceroy’s house built by the British (and now Rashtrapati Bhavan) was that its dome should be higher than that of the Jama Masjid. June 15. for all his taste. It seemed that the empire would last forever. decadence was about to set in. The emperor Jahangir. 2003 Images of Humayun Tomb and Humayun library under license with Gettyimages. who were eager to make a quick profit. we may also enumerate several lesser known structures built during the same period.chakras. the Begam Shahi Masjid of Akbar’s widow at Lahore. Apart from these monuments. and is built on an exceptionally grand scale. This last is one of the few notable mosques built during Jahangir’s reign. were present at the court. the French and eventually the English. Jama Masjid at Delhi The Jama Masjid at Shahjahanabad is raised on a platform surrounded by arches. As most rulers did. was too wasted by alcohol and sensual pleasures to ever embark seriously on military or architectural campaigns. The Mughal court was close to its zenith. India ran a flourishing trade with Europe and the East. the fort of which we have discussed previously. and the Patthar Masjid of Srinagar. Embassies and foreign diplomats. The great central arch of the frontispiece of the qibla qubba masks the dome behind. and as is the case with too much prosperity. Itmad-ud-Daula’s (Jahangir’s father-in-law) tomb at Agra. the Portuguese. But not before the Mughals had built some of the most impressive monuments in the world. The Mughal empire now stretched across almost the whole subcontinent. like the Jama Masjid at Shahjahanabad. But appearances are often deceptive. Along with military structures were also religious buildings. and seemed to have no equal or challenger.com The Mughal Empire Mosques and Tombs – 2 by Ashish Nangia The reign of Shah Jahan was one of unparalleled prosperity. India was at that time running a lucrative spice trade with foreign powers such as the Dutch. and the imperial court was amongst the richest in the world. mosques at Tatta and Ajmer. Agra and Agra fort. Among these are Jahangir’s tomb at Shahdara near Lahore which reflects the influence of Sikandra. among them the Englishman Thomas Roe. The Jama Masjid is accessed by monumental gates and steps from the bazaar below. . along with the more conservative arabesques and calligraphy. Lahore The Badshahi masjid in Lahore is comparable to the one at Delhi in size and importance. A tomb was built near Humayun’s memorial for Abdur-Rahim. Mosques at Agra The small but beautiful Moti Masjid is in the precincts of Agra fort. however. does no good to the proportions of the mosque. This mosque entirely clad in white marble has calligraphy in black marble. and perhaps served as an experiment in completely decking a building in this material before the Taj Mahal. Delhi witnessed an evolution from the tomb type exemplified by Humayun’s tomb. and the decoration in terms of patterned panels on the sandstone clad surface is more effete than a strong statement. Abdur-Rahim Khan-i-khanan’s tomb at Delhi Late in Jahangir’s reign. but its splendid free standing prayer hall has a minar at each corner. For the first time. this tomb is higher than it is wide. This composition was to be further experimented with in some more . The squatness of the corner minars. which had partially continued in Jahangir’s mausoleum as well. as does the courtyard. the khan-i-khanan during Akbar’s reign.Today the bustling bazaar around the masjid is known for its delicacies and the roofs of the houses around the masjid form a dense network of terraces from where ancient and time-honored sport like kite-flying and pigeon-flying are still practiced. and the chattris on the terrace crowd more closely around the main dome. com The Taj Mahal is widely acclaimed as the best example of Mughal tomb architecture.com The Mughal Empire The Taj Mahal by Ashish Nangia Satellite image of Taj and Agra courtesy of SpaceImaging. the Taj is located on the banks of the river Yamuna in Agra. .subsidiary tombs before its final refined appearance in the Taj Mahal. and is indeed famous all over the world as one of India’s most enduring architectural symbols. Begun in the fifth year of the reign of Shah Jahan as a monument to his dead wife Mumtaz Mahal. August 3. Lahore under license with Gettyimages. 2003 Image of Badshahi Masjid. it is ambiguous in form: the main arcades express the fusion of the five elements of the hasht behisht.com Much has been written about the Taj and its ethereal quality. the dome and chhattris express their distinction. Even scholarly writers are susceptible to hyperbole: “Yet. What is clear from the mass of analyses available is that no consensus exists about the symbology that the composition is supposed to represent. elusive in scale. And the materials – the water of canal and river – as much as the substance on the terrace – takes this incomparable work even further from the realm of rational analysis. moon or stars.” * In plan the Taj composition .Image under license with Gettyimages. In contrast to the red sandstone mosque and guesthouse flanking it. the mausoleum is built of marble of legendary beauty passing through a range of colors from peach to pearl according to the light of the sun. A rich dado of flowering plant motifs runs all around the building. In the Taj the hasht behisht is similar to the one in Humayun’s tomb. The tomb also has a double dome which consists of a lower inner shell and a much higher outer shell. leading from the main gate to the tomb. and these meet in a raised water body. Another remarkable feature of the tomb is of course the richly carved marble screens which ring the cenotaphs (raised marble platforms depicting burial places) of Shah Jahan and his queen. however. supported on an arcaded platform.Detail of corner of Hasht Behisht courtesy Harneet Bhatia The hasht behisht – ‘eight paradises’ – is the name given to the eight chambers formed in a typical Islamic tomb type. is entirely faced with marble.offsets the chahar bagh preceding the tomb so the garden is no longer in the exact centre of the composition. This was done to keep the scale to a reasonable level in the interior. Both axes of the garden have broad causeways with water channels flanked by cypress trees. The main axis then leads on to the superstructure. and four by the diagonal chambers left over. four created by the crossing of the axes. Taj Mahal . as is the rest of the tomb. has fountains along the water channel to reinforce its centrality. but with more emphasis on the axes. A significant improvement over Humayun’s tomb is that the platform is not high enough to mask the lower part of the superstructure and thus the entire building is visible from the entrance gate. . The north-south axis. yet its preponderance and a massive influx of tourists means that traditional professions and craft skills in the city are in danger. Banning industry per se will lead to loss of jobs and so another. but contributes instead to an overall weakness of architecture. This fact is changing Agra so that it is in danger of losing its unique cultural specificity. with a larger and larger percentage of the population turning to the tourism industry to make a livelihood. An architectural write-up on the Taj cannot be complete without a word on the issues affecting it today. for letting me use his excellent pictures of the . and can in extreme cases change the very nature of the object of attraction – in this case the city of Agra and the Taj. its cultural significance is that of an ancient Indian city which has been the seat of power of the Mughals for many years. who argue that a blanket ban on polluting industries is simplistic and does not take into account the complex socio-economic structure of the city. Another issue is that of cultural significance. Unfortunately these do not inspire much admiration. more sensitive solution should be found. The first. The first is the tomb of Rabi Daurani. Tourism thus can be a danger if not sensitively incorporated into existing local culture. and the most prominent. I would like to thank Harneet Bhatia. In the case of Agra. Instead of subtle beauty there is overstated ornament. built at Aurangabad less than thirty years later and the tomb of Safdar Jang. Architect. built in Delhi in the mid-18th century. The Taj is not the only thing in Agra of significance. Cultural significance is defined as the unique blend of social. being poor copies of the original. which does not inspire respect. The recent Taj Heritage Corridor proposal was struck down precisely because it did not adequately investigate future ramifications. of course. Nawab of Oudh. historical and ethnological factors that give a place its particular character and appeal.Two later tombs were clearly inspired by the Taj Mahal. is the furor over acid pollutants from industries in and around Agra severely affecting the marble of the tomb. This apparently sound decision has raised the hackles of some conservationists and social activists. thus leaving behind a distinct culture and architecture. wife of Aurangzeb. A Supreme Court directive ordered that these industries should clean up their act. The truth is probably a mixture of all these. His orthodoxy had alienated large sections of the population which were hitherto allied to or at peace with the Mughals. In the south. who were beginning to realize the lucrative potential of trade with India. What caused this radical change? Firstly. C. at the death of Aurangzeb. among these were the Marathas. Viking. Some historians have associated the fall of the Mughals with excessive decadence. Governors of the Mughal empire also took advantage of growing feebleness – the nawabs of Bengal. They were aided immensely by the fact that the native rulers could never form a lasting alliance against them. some even as short as weeks. appearances were deceiving right from the end of Aurangzeb’s reign. and a large part of the empire’s resources. and only then turned . The History of Architecture in India. April 11. the Mughal empire would have ceased to exist as a viable political entity. in fighting what were to prove ultimately fruitless wars in the Deccan. the Mughal empire was apparently intact and was still the premier power in the subcontinent. and so could be tackled one after the other. it was during the interregnum of the late 18th century that the British and the French began to actively interfere in sub-continental politics. Whereas during the time of the Mughals. Aurangzeb’s long reign was followed by fratricidal warfare amongst his successors and brief rules. the Sikhs and the Rajputs. until the final sack of Delhi by the Persian Nadir Shah in 1739. New Delhi. In 30 years. for example. 1990. as well as the fact that the Mughal empire had reached the maximum possible limit for an absolute monarchy.Taj. Mughal Decline and Princely Architecture by Ashish Nangia The Decline of the Mughal Empire In 1707. which led to increasing demands on the peasantry and the alienation of the supporting classes. Oudh and Hyderabad were soon to establish quasiindependent states which owed only nominal allegiance to Delhi. The emperor had exhausted himself. The absence of a strong central power paved the way for the entry of European powers. Tadgell. by 1739. the British dealt separately with Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. the French and the British were content with trade concessions. 2004 *. . Princely States and their Architecture The confusion accompanying the decline of the Mughal empire saw an abundance of new architecture at the new seats of regional power by the Rajputs. Bengal and Hyderabad. tombs. The Sikhs. Their was no longer a dominant style. Sikhs. pillaged Mughal building in their turn to build their own gurudwaras or temples. Deccan and Persian elements fused to produce an eclectic strain of building. Hindu rulers started to construct memorials to their dead. Bengali. The nawabs built lavish gardens.their attention to the Marathas. persecuted for long by the later Mughals. neglected for long because of the lack of power and finances. Marathas and the nawabs of Oudh. and restarted the construction of lavish temples. much after the style of the Mughals. The French and the British also competed with each other for supremacy in the subcontinent. but a hybrid where Gujarati. mosques and palaces. but in the end it would ultimately be the British who would emerge victorious. many-cusped arches. His 18th and 19th century successors continued the eclectic tradition by importing the late architecture of Marwar. It would be fair. . with its prominent oriels and balconies. half-circular roofs and luxuriant sculptural ornament. The palaces in the fort although elaborately floral. Jaisalmer Jaisalmer is particularly noted for its havelis or private houses belonging to the noblesse. to discuss two notable examples. Here the court style fusing Mughal and Rajput elements was first emulated by Rawal Amar Singh (1661-1702) for the palaces and temples surrounding the lake and at Bada Bagh. are not however Jaisalmer’s most celebrated buildings.Late mediaeval Rajput architecture was noted both for its town planning and urban architecture. thus. Rulers patronized research into ancient treatises and shastras of Hindu architecture and attempts were made to build accordingly. an oligarcy very much like that of late mediaeval Venice. Jaipur If Jaisalmer is famous for its havelis. and the noblesse.This status belongs to the dense network of havelis in the town below the fort – the private houses of the rich and wealthy. Many examples of modern Indian architecture take their inspiration from Jaisalmer’s urban planning and house clustering pattern.the plan had to be modified to incorporate an existing garden . who in the dwindling of royal power became the de facto rulers. Like Kautilya’s ideal towns too. Jaipur is known for its town planning inspired from ancient texts. The havelis of Jaisalmer are thus world-famous for their dense interlocking structure and their architectural devices which keep out the heat and dust. The death of the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah accentuated the influence of Maharaja Jai Singh II of Amber. a notable one being Raj Rewal’s Asiad Games Village built for the Asian Games at Delhi in 1984. Its original regular nine-square geometry was however disturbed by military and esthetic considerations . who then embarked upon the construction of a modern capital in the plains – a metropolitan fort inspired by Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Jaipur is regularly planned. Jaisalmer © Martin Wierzbicki www. Within the walls.com “For Christians and Spices” The Portuguese and the Estada da India by Ashish Nangia The control of the Mediterranean by the Turks and the Egyptians. extending to Jaigarh and Amber. Jaipur under license with Gettyimages. and their subsequent domination of cities in the Middle East holy to both Christianity and Islam. the original garden palace was follows the precepts of an ideal Kautilyan complex.palace at the ruler’s direction. The uniform pink color of the construction and the fantastic observatory built by Sawai Jai Singh contribute to give Jaipur its distinctive flavor.com Golden Temple.com Urban Structure. Amritsar under license with Gettyimages. prompted the orthodox Portuguese . Jaisalmer by Raj Rewal Jaipur Observatory (Jantar Mantar) under license with Gettyimages.com Peacock Gate at City Palace. and by displacing the north-west zone to integrate the defences with the hills there. The famous nine-square pattern of Jaipur is again much celebrated and has once again inspired modern buildings – the most famous being Charles Correa’s Jawahar Kala Kendra in the same city. April 25.photosbymartin.com Wealthy merchant’s house. 2004 Images: Interior of Amber Fort under license with Gettyimages. the English and the Dutch in the Indian Ocean. the Portuguese first mistook the Hindu inhabitants of Calicut for Christians. both to menace the Muslims along another front as well as to supplement trade. They are of tawny complexion. that the Portuguese culture has not contributed substantially to the region. In the 15th and 16th centuries. The Portuguese would remain powerful till their domination was broken by two events – the defeat and subsequent vassal status of Portugal itself by the Spanish. The Jesuits were asked to send two representatives to Akbar’s discussions on various religions that were taking place contemporaneously at Fatehpur Sikri. Vasco da Gama records his first meeting. whilst others clip their hair short or shave the head. and the printing presses were amongst the first to print in vernacular. however. and. merely allowing a tuft to remain on the crown as a sign that they are Christians. and the arrival of other European powers. and so to maintain the small garrisons in India. and answers to a query that he comes in search of ‘Christian and Spices’. Some of them have big beards and long hair. namely the French. the Portuguese established trading bases all along the Malabar coast.kings to find a way to the Indies. Goa also became cosmopolitan – its status as a trading centre attracted people from all over India and at one time the university had students from all over the subcontinent speaking 18 different languages. when the Indian Army took over Goa. South Africa. the sailors were encouraged to marry Indians and this phenomenon gave birth to another class of mixed blood people who were Christians and spoke Portuguese. . but in many ways retained the culture and customs of their maternal ancestors. Their powerful naval fleet controlled commerce in the Indian Ocean and broke up the hegemony enjoyed till that point by Gujarat. In fact. to eventually sail and drop anchor off the port of Calicut. In his log. In Vasco da Gama’s words: The city of Calicut is inhabited by Christians. 1498 AD – Vasco da Gama was the first to round the Cape of Good Hope. This first encounter was the beginning of the Portuguese adventure with India which lasted till 1961. Daman and Diu. with the help of a Gujarati navigator. This did not mean. and became an important political force in the hinterland. The Portuguese did not take their women with them when they travelled across the sea. the chief colonial architecture representatives are the Cathedral of St. or list of plans. which faithfully document in their turn European post-Renaissance architecture. in various combinations. from 1665. sections and details copied from ‘classical’ examples and their imitations. Catherine (Se Cathedral). The pattern book was an invaluable tool for inspiration. . but in the main it is Portuguese churches and monastic buildings which take pride of place. These churches reveal the influence of the so-called pattern book. the Bom Jesus (1594). dating mainly from the 18th century. elevations. the Church of the Holy Spirit or St. It did not always result in a harmonious building. but it did guide and provide a ready source of examples to follow. Although Goa is dotted with white churches. Francis of Assisi (1521). as well as numerous remains of fortifications and defences. rebuilt from 1631).The architecture of the imperial Portuguese presence is marked by its many churches and cathedrals. though to Classicism and its Mannerist and Baroque branches. There also still exist old mansions. and the Church of Our Lady of Divine Providence. the components of a building. (founded 1562. as it allowed engineers and craftsmen to create architecture by putting together. The rich façade of the Bom Jesus incorporates much leathery scroll-work and oddly proportioned pilasters at variance with the canonical fourstorey sequence from Doric at the base to Composite at the top. Madras. conforming to the requirements of Christian ceremony at the time incorporating strong counter-reformist (against Protestants) Jesuit influences. Francis of Assisi shows evidence of the Manueline* style in its entrance portal. whose extremely floral tomb rests in one niche of the building. Francis Xavier.In this way the Church of the Holy Spirit or St. as well as more modest 18th century Portuguese works such as the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary. The Cathedral of St. Catherine (Se Cathedral) was built by the colony’s Chief Engineer Julio Simao is a style which would later be very popular and was further developed and refined by the French at Pondicherry. The plan of the church is not an exaggerated cross. and its façade in its repetition of plastered bays seems to be inspired from the early Renaissance. Nellitope. This cathedral is also famous for housing the mortal remains of St. . Daman and Diu. Maderne. the Portuguese retained control only of Goa. However. Serlio. May 23. the Indian state that they hoped to establish. Her industrial techniques showed a subtlety and a tradition that the European handicrafts did not possess. it was these trading bases that formed the nucleus of British settlements and it was here that the first British buildings came up. Persia and Turkey). However. the French military engineer Vauban’s influence is apparent. Instead of selling their own goods. during the height of power of the Mughal empire. neither India.It should be noted that all Portuguese colonial architecture was very much influenced by contemporaneous developments in Europe at the time – the Renaissance and the influence of the Italian architects of the time – Alberti. the British eventually found it more profitable to sell Indian goods in Europe. eventually and with perseverance the Company slowly established trading bases wherever it could along either side of the lengthy Indian coastline. Asia still had a far more important place in the world than Europe. In keeping with the nature of the Company. transfer of funds. There was competition from both other Europeans. He added. In the forts at Madras and Calcutta. a far cry from the original Estada da India. Thus the early British Traders were in no position to dictate terms and trade concessions were hard won. barracks and living quarters. and has considerably enriched the variety of regional architecture in India. protected by a fort.com Trade to Empire – From the East India Company to Angrez Raj British Colonial Architecture – 1 by Ashish Nangia "In the middle of the seventeenth century. the Portuguese attempts of controlling the spice trade would eventually come to an end from increased competition and lack of support from the homeland. finances and materials. In the end. As the East India Company slowly changed in character from a purely trading concern to a political-military-economic machine. Persia. Though Goa would continue for some time to be one of the richest cities in India. and the Northern Caravan Route through Afghanistan. the first buildings were warehouses. nor China had anything to learn from Europe. as well as other trade routes (the Red Sea route through Egypt." So wrote J." (Quoted in Auguste Toussaint's 'History of the Indian Ocean') The British East India Company made its presence felt in India in the 17th century. the pattern books ensured that none of the styles advocated by each of these would be followed in its entirety – the Goan churches are often a reinterpretation of Renaissance principles and aesthetics to suit local colonial tastes. and cartels. Pirenne in his 'History of the Universe'. Regular polygonal geometry and salient triangular bastions with recessed flanks at each angle maximized all-round cover and minimized vulnerability by offering overlapping fields of fire. 2004 Color images under license with Gettyimages. "The riches of Asia were incomparably greater than those of the European states. the Persian Gulf Route through Iraq. insurance. Goa today retains a significant Christian population and its Portuguese heritage in art and architecture continues to shape much modern building and architects in the city and the surrounding region. The early days were hard. and the German Dietterlin. Ditches and earthworks between the main ring of bastions . The earliest British forts followed Portuguese and French variations of the Italian Renaissance’s conception of an ideal city and its defenses. And there was nothing in the more modern methods used by the traders of the Western countries that Asian trade had to envy. published in Paris in 1950. In matters of credit. Features common to them all include doubled walls and angular bastions for artillery to dominate the approach. showing Fort St. Madras City. Madras. the main fortifications surrounded the warehouses and other military buildings. In the case of Fort St. George. George in lower left Around the forts the first signs of segregation were already apparent – the European and Indian communities lived in separate settlements with very distinct characters. Plan. and the so-called ‘white town’ had another ring of fortification separating it from the ‘black town’. The fortifications also took advantage of natural features like the sea and rivers for defense. Bombay and Calcutta were the principal seats from where the Company oversaw its affairs. outlying salients increased defensive capability. These first forts at Madras. .and lower. The area surrounding the fort was cleared of all obstacles so as to remove any cover for attackers. George was finished in 1715. George. before it was finally retaken by the British. To place this in context. George. Madras Bombay’s Fort St. Fort St. Captain John Bohier. The French were also weakened by their losses in Europe and were slowly abandoning India to the British. it fell to the French in 1745. the Mughal empire was beginning to rapidly come apart with Aurangzeb’s death in 1707. On an island .Fort St. After the Nawab of Bengal took Calcutta in 1755 and was then defeated by Clive. Bombay Although Fort St. a new Fort William was begun by the Company’s chief engineer in Bengal. George Madras was one of the first British outposts. and again in 1758. emulated at Bombay. was a necessity. Calcutta In addition to warehouses within the fort walls. there was also the need for arsenals. The first English church in India was thus St. Mary’s at Madras fort. Mary's Church. barracks and residential accommodation for the British. Fort William. A church. Fort William’s field survives as the maidan. too.site by the river unencumbered by buildings. founded in 1678. Madras . St. but for the purposes of government and the church. depending on its function. was restricted to military and utilitarian structures. Unlike Madras and Bombay. a pattern book would show how to put together different elements and combine them into a building. and show also the continued influence of the so-called ‘pattern books’. its Fort William being the highest point on the Hooghly that ships could reach. incorporated ideas on the form architecture ‘should’ take. as the Company was still mostly a trading concern and only interfered in politics where it felt its commercial interests were in danger. With this status came also the need and responsibility to govern territories under their control. Calcutta was an early British outpost. The Military Boards set up by the English contributed the bulk of secular architecture. something more assertive was needed to proclaim the supremacy of the British. Architecture as a symbol of political power was to come later. from where the business of governance and justice was carried out. June 5.Early British construction. while conforming more or less to Europe’s Greco-Roman heritage. Calcutta Like Madras and Bombay. stemming from its position in the last decades of the 18th century as the Company’s main seat. civilizing force by the Indians. and to be seen as a powerful. follow closely changing trends in Britain to a great extent. however. Calcutta was stamped with the hallmark of authority like the era’s . housing for soldiers and other assorted building. from which the bulk of the Company’s design was carried out. with the exception of St. forts. In essence. the British became the most powerful political and military force in India. like barracks. These pattern books. but the fall of the Mughal empire and infighting amongst the powers that succeeded it was to make it easier for the British to consolidate their tiny footholds into the beginning of a mighty empire that straddled the whole subcontinent. The City of Calcutta Government House. It is thus that Government Houses and Town Halls. 2004 British Colonial Architecture II An Imperial Vision by Ashish Nangia With the defeat of Tipu Sultan of Mysore in 1799. principles of urban design were applied here. Mary’s. thus. At Triplicane. even in its original form without the lower arcading – but not the least in the application of column to wall – was as remote from its ostensible model. Government House Tripilicane (Madras) is typical except for its later Banqueting Hall. The secondary one embraced the Council House. Gibb’s St. Most distinguished was the ‘English Palladian’ Town Hall of Colonel John Garstin. Wyatt’s adaptation was well attuned to the climate: the central-aisled hall on both main levels is flanked by galleries or vestibules on all sides. and the rotunda in which the central axis culminated. elegant if not exactly following set ‘rules’ of spacing. Wyatt’s fellow officers produced the other major buildings of the town. for the stone tower of the church. and the soldiers’ failure to comprehend the full significance of the Classical motifs reproduced in their pattern books. However the Company’s failure to foresee the inadequacy of brick and plaster in the absence of good cheap local stone. Bombay Town Hall . built for the Governor-General Lord Wellesley from 1798 by Captain Charles Wyatt of the Bengal Engineers – and the architectural family then prominent at home. oddly dissected within. were erected around much of the side as well as the front. was expressed on the garden front. as the main house is from Academic Classical principle. linked to the central block by quadrant galleries to full height. Derbyshire. unlike in the original.classic European capitals – indeed contemporaries likened it to St. The Madras Government Hall was adapted for Lord Clive in the 1790s from an earlier one. Martin in the Fields. much lighter colonnaded verandahs. and the main staircase is outside the north portico. The whole complex is dominated by the Doric banqueting hall. Lieutenant James Agg proved himself competent in adapting a particular metropolitan model. detract from the authenticity of the work. after the pattern set at Pondicherry by the residence built for Dupleix some fifty years earlier. unlike its French equivalent at Pondicherry. which. There were two main axes. At their perpendicular intersection stood Government House. There superimposed arcaded verandahs before clerestory-lit major spaces were articulated with Doric and Ionic orders in the Academic classical manner of early 18th-century France. on the one hand. however. Petersburg. In these respects. The first one led from the civil arm of authority around an expansive square dominated by the barrack-like Writers’ Building. All four of the satellite blocks projected there were constructed here. the Parthenon. maximizing ventilation. to the military arm in the Maidan by Fort William. the Courts and the Town Hall. The model for this imperial work was James Paine’s published design for Kedleston Hall. Contrary to the prevailing fashion. James. George’s Cathedral and St. St. Delhi . the walled and pillared later colonial churches. the work of Stuart and Revett. the dome of which distantly recalls such High Renaissance works as San Gallo’s Santa Maria di Loretto in Rome. Delhi . Colonel James Caldwell and Major Thomas de Havilland added side porches for St. Martin in the Fields was to be an enduringly popular model. Andrews Kirk. usually avoid the insubstantiality if not always the coarseness. and the dramatically lit staircase leads to a splendid Corinthian Hall worthy of a mature student of Vitruvius Britannicus. To the Gibbs formula. is adventurous in following Gibb’s alternative scheme with circular nave. Despite their airy porticoes and slender steeples. Madras. The most accomplished homage paid to it was certainly in St. George’s and study aedicules below the distinguished steeple. James. The Greek Doric Order of its powerful templefronts doubtless came from the principal source of the English Greek Revival. indeed unusual in its centralized plan. with an elegant fluted Ionic order and a more purely classical steeple. St. Andrew’s. St. Bombay engineers. It is hardly inferior to many of the works of the masters of French neo-classicism.Quite different in its exceptional neoclassical gravitas is the Bombay Town Hall of Colonel Thomas Cowper. of detail characteristic of many secular works. is Colonel James Skinner’s Greek cross church of St. Tipu Sultan’s Mosque and the Sitambara Jain Temple. of course. 2004 British Colonial Architecture III A Search for an Imperial Style by Ashish Nangia The debate in Britain in the 19th century was centered around the form imperial administration should take. Amongst examples too numerous to count. both Muslim and Hindu. based on the same civilizational values that the British espoused. and one aspect of the structural changes wrought by the British was a change in the education system. the Tomb of Mushirzadi (1814) and the Kaiserbagh at Lucknow. is only one facet of the whole picture. which . It is ironic that these changes. the Gopalji Temple. July 11.The increase in British influence led to traditional architecture becoming more eclectic in its choice of sources. The Empire derived its moral legitimacy from its ‘burden’ to spread civilization and universal values among the peoples of the world. The subcontinent was now firmly part of Britain’s colonial responsibilities. by and large the esthetical values of a ‘Christian civilization’ were espoused by Pugin and Ruskin and the classical pattern book ceded to the ‘Ecclesiologist’ for churches in India as well as in England right from the early 19th century. Although there was room for exoticism. can be mentioned. and increased intellectual contact between the two countries. While one school of thought spoke for preserving as much as possible the culture of the countries under rule. Calcutta Architecture. A projection of British architecture as that associated with power and influence was a first and essential step for its elements to be associated with the architecture of Indian patrons. The nineteenth century British paramountcy searched for an appropriate style for its architecture. others spoke of supplanting native systems by a wholly British one. all in Calcutta. India was seen as a morally degenerate civilization. Tipu Sultan's Mosque. would partly fuel the nationalist debate in India. brought about to convince the Indians of the superiority of British civilization. This school of thought was also fiercely orthodox. promoting the preaching of Christianity as one of the main aims of empire. sometimes with quite unexpected results.though once great had slipped from the true path of progress. served for momentous exercises such as the Mutiny Memorial Church (aka All Souls Cathedral) at Kanpur – or the last garrison church built in New Delhi by Lutyens’ associate. From the 1840s it was the norm for the Anglo-Indian church builder to follow the precedent set by the revivers of the many permutations of Gothic in England. in the buildings constructed by the British. an architecture appropriate to the most valuable possession of the British crown – India. and this was to be expressed. fervent ethical principle – and imperialism – rather than practicality recommended the translation to India of the great expanse of glass that was the principal characteristic of British Perpendicular Gothic. . Colonial architecture in India closely followed the developments in the metropole – but also sought. mainly by a rigid system of caste and exploitation by the rulers. If Empire had to rule. inspiration from existing architecture in India. it had to be seen to be ruling. Other mediaeval styles. among other things. Most usually. for greater legitimacy. weightier than Gothic. What had started in the early days as utilitarian architecture – forts and military buildings – evolved by the late 19th century into a full-fledged search for form and meaning. was a crucial pointer for English builders away from a narrow cultural chauvinism towards a building style more ‘Indian’. the masterly ‘Venetian’ designs sent out by Sir Gilbert Scott for Bombay University were decisive. though still foreign and historicist.The Italian Gothic preferred by John Ruskin for secular works. and applied most influentially to public buildings in England. Sir Bartle Frere – of which Scott’s buildings were so significant . This would be the beginnings of a truly imperial style that reached its apogee at New Delhi. The hybrid aspect of this style that Scott devised for Bombay. After numerous essays in northern styles. was seen to be well adapted to conditions in India. These developments may be traced primarily in the great public building campaign launched in Bombay in the second half of the 1860s by the energetic Governor. This was only partially realised but Trubshaw made a weighty contribution. Clair Wilkins. Thomas’s cathedral by the Government Architect. For the Public Works Secretariat.a product. The campaign opened with the Decorated Gothic scheme for the rebuilding of St. Paris. Colonel Henry St. Royal Engineers. . William Emerson’s Crawford Market – in an elementary Northern Gothic delineated in the various colored stones which contributed so much to the Gothic revival in Bombay – reflected the ideals of the early design reformers at home more nearly than any other prominent Anglo-Indian buildings of the period. in collaboration with W. in the General Post and Telegraph Office of 1872. Colonel John Fuller mixed Venetian and Early English for the stupendous High Court of 1879. James Trubshaw. followed Scott’s lead with a Venetian Gothic design in 1877 and his colleague. Of other landmarks produced by the campaign. The culminating masterpieces of the series. especially Victoria Terminus (1878-87). . Like Scott’s University buildings. increasingly hybrid in style. are Frederick Stevens’ works. the headquarters of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway. the Venetian Gothic of Stevens’ splendid terminus is infused with Indian decorative elements. Baroda and Central Indian Railway Terminus at Churchgate. Stevens was also responsible for the municipal buildings built in 1893 opposite Victoria Terminus and for the slightly later Bombay. and the High Court. Madras. as at St. John’s College. William Emerson tried to emulate the Taj Mahal in material if not in form. Agra. Walter Cranville fused the Classical and Baroque.Shimla and New Delhi by Ashish Nangia . in addition to the already existing mid-18th century Chepauk Palace.Innovation did not stop here. 2004 British Colonial Architecture IV The Seats of Power . This last was a symptom of ‘Indo-Saracenic’ hybridisation. Madras. and was increasingly being attempted at different sites in the subcontinent. For the Victoria Memorial at the other end of the Maidan. August 8. With his Calcutta General Post Office. The vice-regal lodge here is patterned after an English great house. originating from the simple double-roofed hut of Bengal. provides their base. the King-Emperor. devised in accordance with the principles of the modern English Garden City. An essential ingredient was the Classical portico.The British Empire legitimized its colonial rule as an entity furthering the abstract principles of the ‘Rule of Law’. King George V proclaimed the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi at the climax of the 1911 Imperial Durbar. Rajpath.they lived in the ubiquitous bungalow. Lutyens had arrived in India to undertake this great work with little or no respect or appreciation . asserting the dignity of the ruler without ostentation. in the main they continued the well-established Indian traditions of ostentation and luxury. This was contrary to the original intention. and which would expand in size and complexity on a scale ascending strictly in accordance with the gradations of their hierarchically ordered service. It is thus ironical that the public buildings of the empire were anything but of the people. Even though the vice-regal lodge is grand. extended to form the sun-shielding verandah in more elevated permutations. It runs through the India Gate War Memorial and the portal buildings of Baker’s secretariat. the ‘Progress of Industrialized Society’ and the ‘Model Ruler’. This is in contrast to the partan accommodation of the majority of officials who actually governed . from the chattri in which the city’s founder. who was fresh from his imperious triumph at Pretoria. and the vital chaos of Shahjahanabad: the latter seemed to be the very embodiment of all the evils of laissez-faire growth that the formulators of the Garden City movement specifically deplored. Shimla was the viceroy’s seat for half the year. the north-west diagonal bypasses the cathedral and the originally unforeseen parliament. complete with a quaint reproduction of a rural parish church. Like Calcutta. An equilateral triangle is defined by the ceremonial. New Delhi was inaugurated early in 1931. it was stamped with the hallmark of authority and like most other seats of British power in India it stood apart from its Indian predecessors. during the summer months. it pales in contrast with the last capital of British India laid out from 1913 by Sir Edwin Lutyens in collaboration with Sir Herbert Baker. administrative and commercial centers of the new metropolis. Rajpath is aligned with the entrance to the Purana Quila. The prevailing enthusiasm of Anglo-Indian imperial designers for the synthesis of eastern and western styles quailed before the problem of assimilating an urban order. the east-west axis of power. stood in imperial majesty to the durbar hall of the house where his Viceroy sat. The commercial centre in the north forms the apex. The north-east diagonal serves the Law. now in ruin and inhabited mostly by bats and a play space for children who live near. B. the Viceroy’s House is clearly a revision of its Calcutta predecessor. 2004 New Delhi – A New Capital by Ashish Nangia . The king had of course the casting vote. E. August 22. Lord Hardinge. but Lutyens thought him singularly insensitive to the spirit of the scheme as a whole in the angle at which he set Rajpath’s ascent between the Secretariats to the plane of the Viceroy’s house. through architecture. Baker was equally liberal with his Indian motifs in the Secretariats and the massive. Stephen’s Wallbrook (for the Viceroy’s library) to the Mahastupa at Sanchi (for the central cupola) and the chahar bagh. Whether it be myth or not. though in Delhi the western ones containing the Vice-regal and state guest apartments are linked to the centre not by loggias but by the major suite of reception rooms. Many Europeans in India were of a similar opinion. Centered on the great circular durbar hall. and he himself showed a proclivity for the Mughal style. arguing that its colonial antecedents would make it a continuing reminder of the past. Lutyens was forced to concede (as if he had a choice!) that indigenous decorative motifs might be used ‘within reason’. enlightened patronage could reconcile racial and religious differences. however. Havell pointed to the example of Akbar and maintained that. The only concession made was to remove the statue of King George V from its cupola. the fact is that independence for India was near. and this legacy haunts the politics of the region to this day. there was a brief protest against the continued use of the Viceroy’s house as a state building. Both have a ceremonial core and four satellite blocks of living and office quarters. Lutyen’s imperial eclecticism ranged from Wren’s St. asserted that the new capital was being built for a joint British-Indian administration and must symbolize reciprocity between the British and Indians of all creeds. After Independence. but not before the subcontinent was divided into two. On the way he took in the ubiquitous Indian chattri and chadya. cross-fertilized acanthus and volute with padma and bell for his Order and tethered Indian elephants at salient portal corners where the great ancient Mesopotamian monarchies had ceremonial syncretic winged monsters. the state house of the President of India. This debate however did not last long and the Viceroy’s house is today Rashtrapati Bhawan. Apparently there is a saying which warns of the dangers of building at Delhi – the saying prophesies that the empire will soon be lost. strangely unassertive. The British crown lost its biggest jewel in 1947. In his Indian Architecture of 1913. circular Parliament building.for the architectural legacy which preceded him. to be replaced by that of Gandhi (the cupola remains empty to this day). their luxuriance providing a foil for Classical order. The Viceroy. Apart from the English country house derivation of the plan and the Pantheon ancestry of the durbar hall. and his views grew only the more derogatory with first-hand familiarity – especially with the Anglo-Indian Imperial hybrids developed by his immediate predecessors. tower. and makes ready to evoke those of Greece. Before his eyes. tombs and mosques Mogul times and earlier. but also an architectural vocabulary that would be representative of the subcontinent. of course. This country has been compared with the Roman Campagna: at every hand. the seventh Delhi. . The road describes a curve and embarks imperceptibly on a gradient. traveling through India in the 1930s. would say: The traveller drives out of Old Delhi. New Delhi is thus a strange but wonderful story – of an Empire in its heyday. dome.A New Capital – A visible symbol of British supremacy over India was New Delhi – the 'New' being added to distinguish it from the older cities that preceded – the last and most famous being the walled city of the Mughal emperor. fresh as a cup of milk. past the Jama Masjid and the Fort. sunlit pink and cream dancing against the blue sky. red. but whose like has never been. reared above the green tree tops. tower. Here is something not merely worthy. A flat country – brown. With a shiver of impatience he shakes off contemporary standard. And Robert Byron. comes to a stop. One major imperative for the new city. and the Moguls. Suddenly. a scape of towers and dome is lifted from the horizon. runs a gravel way of such infinite perspective as to suggest the intervention of a diminishing glass. and skirting the low red base of the gigantic monument. and with it his apprehensions and preconceptions. grand as Rome. The traveller heaves a breath. weathered to the color of the earth bear witness to former Empires. was that it had to surpass in all respects its predecessor. but also of an Empire that would soon crumble. A search for a monumental and imperial architecture. The traveller loses a breath. at whose end. glitters the seat of government. four square upon an eminence – dome. Close at hand the foreground discloses a white arch. and white washed gold and flashing in the morning sun. sloping gently upwards. on the right. of Renaissance. dome. scrubby and broken – lies on either side. The motor turns off the arterial avenue. pink. cream. a relatively little-known architect. and the great Coronation Durbar that followed. To shift into an existing city. His name was Edwin Lutyens. but it was also the symbolic head of government for centuries. till now specializing in country houses. to announce the shifting of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi. Wren's unbuilt plan for London. contemptuous of what had passed before as architecture. This decision was of both strategic and political significance. managed by dint of enterprise and family connections to become the forerunner for the new capital team. (Image showing an ariel view of Rajpath) In Britain. Planning for the new capital had begun well before the actual shift. Together with his friend Herbert Baker. Lutyens appropriated to himself the task of creating an architecture fitted for the Raj. was out of the question – the new power demanded a new city. and addressed questions of urban planning and an appropriate architectural style. as well as L'Enfant's plan . Delhi was not only more central to the Empire's increasing influence over the subcontinent. both by Indian dynasties and by his British colleagues. Planning inspiration came from other imperial models and new capital cities: the Paris and Champs-Elysées of Baron Haussmann. however.History George V used the occasion of his second visit to India. . Other planning ideas came from contemporary British experiments in urbanism: the Circus at Bath for Connaught Place. and Hampstead Garden City for the residential suburbs of New Delhi.for Washington DC. while many elements of New Delhi architecture borrow from indigenous sources.B. these were due to the persistence and urging of both the Viceroy. and what are today known as North and South Blocks. the more so after a dispute with Baker over the exact location for the Viceroy's house. and designed after its predecessors. All other decisions were subordinate to this. Lord Hardinge. Denis in Paris. the Arc de Triomphe and Porte St. The Legislative Building (Parliament House) . the division of labor was more exact: the Viceroy's house was Lutyens'. and it was this framework that dictated the choice and application of symbology and influences from both Hindu. Baker would eventually have his way. Indian architecture. but the professional discord would undermine the friendship between the two men.000 men who fell fighting for the British empire. in fact. in the Viceroy's House. A politically appropriate monument. And so.Architecture and Symbology The New Delhi town plan. This was also the origin of the dispute between the two: for Lutyens. was chosen with one single chief consideration: to be a symbol of British power and supremacy. India Gate was originally called the War Memorial Arch. they have to fit into a British Classical/Palladian tradition. the archway also completed Kings Way (now Rajpath). but had not much of a style to emulate or to be inspired from. in terms of architecture. If. created one of the most monumental public spaces of the 20th century. Lutyens and Baker. for him. with Baker were the Secretariat buildings. was nothing better than random spurts of inspiration. Buddhist and Muslim architecture. Divided Responsibilities Responsibility for the plan rested chiefly with Lutyens. Together. Lutyens was openly scornful of 'experiments' in developing an Anglo-Indian style that had preceded him. like its architecture. and historians like E. 1921-1931) Conceived originally as a memorial to fallen Indian soldiers in the service of the British army. India Gate (All India War Memorial Arch. However. while for Baker a gentler slope would undermine his conception of the Secretariats. the monumental central axis of New Delhi. On its walls are inscribed the names of 60. the steep slope towards Raisina Hill would obscure 'his' Viceroy's House for some time. such as the ones at Bombay and Delhi. there were any indigenous features in the design. Havell. More clearly classical in origin than the Imperial buildings. In spite of the difficulty of citing a circular building in the urban plan. with an imposing exterior colonnade and an interior three-pointed plan with a central. At Baroda House Lutyens chose. a house ('palace') in the New Delhi scheme was an indicator of their prestige.A. Baroda and Jaipur among others – were more symbolic than actual representations of power. other churches came up around New Delhi. The other. Churches Although Lutyens dreams for a great cathedral were never realized. the Church of the Redemption by H. The princely houses in New Delhi – Hyderabad. and with it the need for a legislative building as part of the New Delhi complex arose.The Montague-Chelmsford reform of 1919 brought a certain legislative responsibility upon Indians. Medd. perhaps at the time the richest man in the world. Hyderabad House is less ornate and yet more original as a typology. One of these. (That this prestige was mostly on paper was a fact that would be painfully clear soon after 1947). Princely Residences For the Indian princes. The biggest of these was Hyderabad House. Conclusion . Lutyens' plan was adapted from the 'butterfly' scheme he had already employed as far back as 1902. Parliament House in its final form was Baker's conception. and took care not to rival in splendor the Viceroy's residence. not to indulge in any concessions towards Indian motifs and traditions. Baker creation is not without architectural merit. with the full approval of his British-educated client. an odd circular form in a predominantly orthogonal planning scheme.N. Baroda House is Anglo-Saxon in aspect and finishes. domed space. and here the butterfly plan is cut in two in the center. was directly next to the Viceroy's House. for the Nizam of Hyderabad. the Garrison Church for Delhi Cantonment (Architect: Arthur Shoosmith) would be a forerunner of the modern architectural movement in India). old reception rooms gave way to durbar halls. it was already clear that British rule in India was drawing to a close. Like the Raj. This was a grand gala affair of dances and cocktails. all celebrating the British empire's greatest architectural achievement. This change in lifestyle began to be reflected in their architecture as well. and so the term ‘princely states’ came into being. the British Crown became wary of continuing the policy of annexation. Many of these symbols were manifested in elaborate patterns of behavior – parades. Dining and drawing rooms were . They were. closely tied with what was happening in Britain.In that sense the term ‘princely’ is misleading. 3500 stone dressers for the sandstone.000 cubic feet of marble. New Delhi was already the symbol of an age that was ending – an age of splendor.New Delhi was an enormous political. When the British replaced the Mughals as the controlling group. and entered into treaties with almost all these states. A world war intervened and slowed down construction. but which continued to be ruled by their traditional rulers. irregular power supply and water and finally the numerous and often conflicting directions from various sources of authority. However. since these rulers were kings in their own right. From the middle of the 19th century until 1947 the princes ostensibly controlled 40 percent of India. What irony! In 1931. 2005 Top | Architecture All black and white images copyright Andreas Volwahsen All color images under license with Gettyimages. they were educated along British lines. June 5. The ambiguity of their status led to a substantial concern for the symbols of identity. watched over by British agents and their powers. rooms for European guests were built and ways to entertain guests were provided. the inspiration for much of Indian architecture became English in origin. However. though real. However for the British there was only one King. and he was in London. Though the rebellion was crushed. 17 years of continuous construction saw New Delhi in a state ready to be inaugurated in 1931. strategic and also ultimately logistical undertaking. 700 million bricks. of pomp and grand receptions.com The Architecture of the Princely States by Ashish Nangia The term ‘princely states’ applies to those regions of India not under direct control of the British. durbars. the Company’s policy of war and annexation led to a band of rulers forming a loose confederation against the British.After the 1858 transference of power. In the early 19th century. entertainment – but their physical manifestation was in their architecture. the East India Company had established treaties with many Maharajas who. what would be called the Mutiny of 1857. 100.. however. in return for nominal independence.all of these under local conditions of heat and dust. the British Crown became the guarantor of peace and commerce treaties. an age of Kings. accepted British rule and Pax Britannica – friendship with their neighbors.. The impeccable geometry and order imposed by the Delhi plan on the site was emblematic of the order imposed on the world by the British empire. As for the princes. In their palaces. were limited to internal matters. after all. taken on tours of Europe and introduced to Western manners and norms. or if constructed later. British army engineers and often the princes themselves. water systems and public hospitals were built. Hyderabad built in 1872. fireplaces.introduced. new social functions and new engineering techniques led to a new architecture created by British architects. Some examples of the former are the Falaknuma Palace. Many palaces mixed styles and out of this mixture emerged two newer substyles in addition to the Indo-Saracenic – what Miki Desai has called Renaissance-Oriental and Indian-Eclectic. Italian Renaissance at Cooch Bihar. Indo-Saracenic. marble fountains and statues. Beaux-Arts Classicism at Kapurthala (Jagatjit Palace). Buildings were European classical. Lal Bagh.. or again an eclectic mix. The new princely towns of Jaipur. Some. . public offices. and British Classicism at Kashmir. patterned along French Beaux-Arts Classicism. railway stations. and Jagatjit Palace Kapurthala for the Maharaja of Kapurthala. Tripura’s Vijayanta Palace. assembly halls. Gwalior and Tripura. oil paintings and stuffed animals began to be displayed in the halls and drawing rooms. In evidence are Mughal antecedents at Bikaner. Porbandar. New education. were more successful than others. the Gwalior Jai Vilas Palace (1872-74) designed by Sir Michael Filose for Maharaja Jayaji Rao Scindia. Bikaner and Mysore showed themselves amongst the most successful in negotiating this divide. Their towns were modeled along British examples – clock towers. Indore designed as a Palladian Villa by the Calcutta firm of Triggs and Co. of course. The princes were expected to be both traditional and modern – to retain traditional feudal powers but to create a new India. Mughal tracery and European halls. As the Gothic replaced the Classical in Bombay. and the Durbargadh Waghaji Palace (1882) in Morvi. The Amba Vilas Palace (1900-1910) in Mysore by Henry Irwin is a mixture of influences: fluted pillars from the Red Fort in Delhi. living as if there was no tomorrow in a unreal world of pomp and splendor which had no substance. it was picked up for use by the princely states – Bangalore Palace has a similarity to the one at Windsor Castle in England.The Indian-Eclectic was modelled on royal luxury but its referents were also to Indian myths and folk tales as well as earlier architectural patterns and motifs. This last is a magnificent example. Outwardly Indian and built by Indian hands. Laxmi Villas Palace. Bhuj Such palaces were a sophisticated political symbol of the imperial presence. Cantonments & Bungalows by Ashish Nangia . the princes had very little power. and so they turned inward on their own little territories and lives. onion domes from the Taj Mahal. In the real world. Baroda Durbargarh Palace.Much of it borders on the Indo-Saracenic but it tends to be more eclectic in its selection of ancient referents. The use of Indo-Saracenic in the princely states can be seen in a number of places: the Kohlapur Palace at Mant. August 29. They reflect the appearance of the power of the princes and the real power behind their thrones. but much of it has been damaged by the Bhuj earthquake of January 2001. the Laxmi Vilas Palace at Baroda. 2004 British Colonial Architecture: Towns. the overall control stayed with the British. an Indo-Venetian Gothic building with Saracenic domes and Rajput arches. London by John Nash were particularly influential. and (d) planning techniques already in use for Britain’s industrial cities. In the main the effort was to physically and socially separate the Europeans from the indigenous populace – the so-called ‘White’ and ‘Black’ towns of Madras being an example. and which in turn have influenced much middle-class housing development in modern India. The cantonments and civil lines both were generally laid out as gridiron planned communities with central thoroughfares (the famous ‘Mall Roads’). regularly divided building plots and bungalows as the main housing type. The planning and urban design policies of the British followed certain principles – (a) their perceptions of the nature of the Indian city. (b) the fear of further revolts along the lines of the Mutiny of 1857. As pressure on space grew. was also made to enforce sanitary and developmental guidelines on the old towns. The Cantonment and the Bungalow . India was still divided into administrative districts as under the Mughals. In addition to major urban design schemes. as in the cities of Calcutta and Bombay. though sometimes belated. The economic boom of the later half of the 19th century translated into frenetic building activity in British India. and other trappings of an easy civil life were soon to follow. Churches and cemeteries. The application of urban design guidelines resulted in the unified character that old British settlements in India still possess. and the towns which functioned as district headquarters were the ones where most of the new architecture was built. This stems from their perception as the colonies of the elite. race and golf courses.Urban Design While British supremacy did not change the fact that India was becoming rapidly urbanized. and the pattern of new town planning changed. though these had little effect as in the main they failed to take into account traditional ways of community life. (c) Haussmann’s plan for Paris which had become so popular in Europe and which advocated cutting through and demolishing old city centers to make space for new construction and boulevards. with tree-lined streets. translating into Elphinstone Circle (now Horniman Circle) in Bombay. it did lead to new alignments and priorities. and the Quadrant in Regent’s Park. A number of new towns and new suburbs were built to house the British. In some cases new urban design smacked of retribution – Delhi and Lucknow in particular. These urban design projects could not fail to be influenced by precedents in Britain: the Royal Crescent at Bath by John Wood. it was the civil lines and the cantonments which remain today a major evidence of 19th century British presence. lost large parts of their historic areas to new British planning and city-core demolitions. since the controlling power was now different. clubs. being the centers of the Mutiny of 1857. British architecture progressed from single buildings set in open surrounding to more densely packed urban schemes. This being done an effort. The second half of the 19th century saw this transformation complete. a population of 100. for example. Originally conceived as a military base for British troops. . the cantonment also began to house civilians who were associated with servicing the military.Kabul Cantonment The Cantonment was a British military settlement which was to spread out all over India wherever the British were present in sizable numbers. it appears to have dual origins: the detached rural Bengal house sitting in its compound (from the word root bangla – from Bengal). It was a fusion of these two types that led to a building form which would later become an enduring symbol of the Raj. parks. The cantonment thus developed into a European town in India. The bungalow’s design evolved as a type over a hundred years. While the actual model for a bungalow remains controversial. shops and schools.000 by the early 20th century and consisted of public offices. churches. and the British suburban villa. whose main house type was the bungalow. and developed into a full-fledged mini-city of its own. It was an entity distinct from the old city – traffic between the two had to stop at a tollgate and pay entry tax. Bangalore cantonment had. for example. low classical lines and detailing. The early bungalows had long. These were the result of English education making itself felt amongst the wealthier class of Indian on the one hand. was set back from the road by a walled compound. The amount of land enclosed was a symbol of status. 2004 Nascent Nationalism and Indian Architecture by Ashish Nangia From the middle of the 19th century. The Classical bungalow with its Doric. but gradually outstripped their origins to become an accurate reflection of hierarchy amongst the English community. Tuscan orders became a symbol not only of an European heritage but also of the military and political might of Britain. while for a beginning rank it could even be 1:1. was appropriate. The . and later. garden to built form. who felt that Indian traditional culture and customs were in danger of being wiped out by European culture. nationalistic currents in India began to be more and more pronounced. The Gothic revival in England brought about a corresponding change in bungalow design – spawning buildings with pitched roofs and richly carpentered details including such features as the ‘monkey tops’ of Bangalore.The first bungalows inhabited by the East India Company agents were initially the same as the kutcha local ones. in New Delhi for instance. In this sense the British showed a hierarchical system no less developed than the complex caste system which they ascribed to India. That the bungalow continues to evoke associations of wealth and power is evident from its continued relevance as a building type in India today. September 12. The typical residential bungalow for the wealthy. For a senior officer a ratio of 15:1. and the efforts of indigenous reformers on the other. ranging from Buddhist gateways and columns to Mughal and Rajput style window openings. especially the so-called ‘swadeshi’ branch. with an emphasis on folk themes. that the architecture of Shantiniketan would search to find appropriate inspiration and symbology in India’s past. financial and governmental institutions of the West as a way for India to catch up with the developed world. autonomous decision-making and safeguarding and preserving what remained of Indian traditional skills and customs. Abanindranath and Gaganendranath) were the chief founders of what would be later called the Bengal school of artistic thought. the Tagore brothers (Rabindranath. Rabindranath Tagore’s school of art and culture begun in 1901. as did Gandhi’s insistence on self-sufficiency .first lot would go on to espouse increasing modernity and appropriation of the industrial. even though the floor plan designs themselves remain far more functional. providing education from the preschool to a graduate level. Here. nationalism and India’s future course are so well known that it would be futile to discuss them at length here. but rather different points of view as to how to best achieve the target of greater self-sufficiency. and that at the time there were no clear-cut differences between various people working for or towards a pan-Indian nationalism. These ideals would find an echo in the architecture of Shantiniketan. The Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad is a very representative example. with mud and brick construction. low thatched roofs and sometimes even straw mats for doors and windows. These streams have been variously classed as the Modernist movement and the Swadeshi/Revivalist movement. the school would be known later for housing and giving patronage for artists from all over India. but it is also equally certain that these labels have been applied with the advantage of hindsight. As with all beginnings. Shantiniketan’s development would be closely identified with that of the nationalist movement. then. both in South Africa and in India. Gandhi was another nationalist whose ideas of life. austerity and non-violence found ample reflection in the architecture of the many ashrams which he established or patronized. the buildings emulate those in a simple village. while the second category would militate for a return to traditional values and culture systems as the path for India to recover her lost glory. the rejection of European techniques and a search for a pan-Asian art form. equality. In Bengal. It was inevitable. Open spaces between the huts and buildings continue the metaphor of village life. here too a philosophy of nationalism had to be worked out before it found an echo in art and architecture. Strongly revivalist in character. These ideals of simplicity. The school buildings have eclectic origins. In 1940. A curious movement would be started by Sris Chandra Chatterjee in the 1930s. he also built the Arya Dharma Sangha Dharamsala at Sarnath in 1935. and so were many of the prominent buildings within it. It is clear now that the nationalist movement found a clear echo in art and architecture of the period. curious because it was called the Modern Indian Architectural Movement but referred in the main to a pastiche of traditional symbology and elements stuck on the facades of fairly functional structures. as well as a project for the Deshbandhu memorial to the Princess of Agartala. A few urban planning projects were also inspired by these schools of thought. The plan (shown in the image below) of the Benares Hindu University (BHU) campus was supposedly based on Vedic principles. . In this sense it made for easy identification and was popular with indigenous clients because it contained visibly identifiable symbols from the past. near Connaught Place. Apart from this. Chatterjee was one of the patrons of the ‘All India League of Indian Architecture’.and dignity of labor. which had strong ideological roots in the architectural styles of Shantiniketan and Sabarmati Ashram. Chatterjee’s most famous work is the Lakshmi-Narayan Temple at Delhi. a colossal place of worship funded by the Birlas in 1938. engineers and painters). The stated intent of the League was the search for a specifically ‘Indian’ Architecture and among its aims were to write textbooks and manuals to further hone the skills of people who already had a background in construction or the arts (for example architects. what can be said with certainty is that the architecture of the time was an accurate reflection of society – a society seeking for self-definition and turning to one source of inspiration after another to find it. which. having lost the jewel in its crown and substantially enfeebled at the end of . Jawaharlal Nehru stood on the ramparts of the Red Fort at Delhi and proclaimed the new Republic of India on the night of August 14. September 26. we made a tryst with destiny. for much of the world from the period. a new promise to millions of people who had till then been under the British flag. The largest democracy in the world came into being. It is not clear how much they achieved architecturally. However. if not randomly. even avowedly ‘revivalist’. and the time comes now to redeem our pledge…” With these historic words.Architects attempted to search the past for appropriate symbology which could effectively be used in the present as a reflection of popular sentiment. symbolizing a new hope. a sentiment which was turning decisively against the British and eventually against all things ‘white’ and ‘foreign’. 1947. then at least eclectically. 2004 Post Independence India Partition and After: New Challenges for a New Nation by Ashish Nangia “Long years ago. The birth of the new nation also signaled forever the end of the British empire. is merely a cloaking of modern-age requirements and plans by a pastiche of elements chosen. This event led to the largest transmigration of population ever to take place in history. Otto Koenigsberger was responsible for a large amount of rebuilding and reconstruction work. from food to medicines.L. This was not uncommon. It was at this time that the foundations for various public undertakings were laid (in electricity. but at the time they laid a substantial industrial base. Housing for the refugees. a policy which translated into investment in heavy industry. metals. Compounding this was the fact that very few of the post-independence Indian architects had any experience with dealing with projects on such a massive scale. These would go on to be. with a transition period being the norm in most professions. Joseph Allen Stein (also American) stayed on in India and later became almost single-handedly responsible for a style of architecture that created a whole new school of disciples. coal. they being mostly employed during British times as draftsmen and working under British architects. The flames of partition subsiding. there was also enough cause for sorrow. This aim was concomitant with Nehru’s policy of placing the West “on tap. There were millions of refugees without a home. from housing to distribution systems for relief and aid. Fletcher of the ICS would go on to be responsible for the initial studies for the new city of Chandigarh. Albert Mayer the American oversaw many village development projects. with India bounded on both sides by another state whose self-declared aim was to protect the rights of the Muslims of the subcontinent. the new Indian State was faced with a gargantuan task. many additions were made to existing cities. In architecture and urban planning. from industry and infrastructure to skilled manpower. improvement of conditions in villages and rural areas. to go and settle in an alien land with which. The communal riots that accompanied this displacement must go down in history as the bloodiest hand-over of power ever. with millions of Muslims. Towns . for example). the building of industry and institutions were only some of the challenges faced by architects and planners in India. lossmaking behemoths some years down the line. from the military to the administration and bureaucracy. they had few ties. for example. Hindus and Sikhs from both sides of the border uprooted from their lands and homes. the State invested massively in heavy industry and giant infrastructural projects.the Second World War. and fuel. in many cases. thus. Towards this goal. India required new towns to house the displaced population of East and West Pakistan (now Bangladesh and Pakistan). and A. and providing at the same time protectionism to the fragile indigenous Indian industrial and crafts base. not on top”. The State was short of almost everything. A massive nationwide program. But if there was joyous celebration in India. In engineering and construction. There was debilitating poverty. The country had been divided into three. in most cases. was launched. Thus it came to pass that most of the large and prestigious projects in post-independence India continued to be directed by foreigners of all nationalities. would never again be the same world power. Giant infrastructure projects like the Bhakra dam in the Punjab were direct offshoots of this policy. and besides. shown above and alongside. dividing the British empire in the Indian subcontinent into two new entities: the nations of India and Pakistan. even at the cost of a divided nation. It is this mixture of opposites that characterized the India of 1947. which wanted independence from British rule as fast as possible. at the command of the British viceroy and with the consent of the future leaders of India and Pakistan. Bhubhaneswar and Gandhinagar were built. Similar events had taken place further south. a strong state was needed to ensure unity and a show of force (as that displayed in Hyderabad. was ultimately a necessity to ensure that India as we know it today continued to exist? It is remarkable that India remained united and one country politically in the turbulent years following independence. Amritsar and Ambala in the Punjab were enlarged to accommodate the new population. and retained and in fact strengthened its democratic character. Ludhiana. ‘Hindu’ rate of growth and a corrupt. This is easy to say. and continues to be its main feature today. and an equally uncompromising Congress led by Nehru and Patel. Radcliffe’s job was next to impossible in the best of circumstances – the state of Punjab. speak for themselves. licence Raj. two photographs. given the benefit of hindsight. now partitioned in two. The rationale behind this division was the pre-independence politics of India – a militant Muslim League led by Jinnah fuelled by the fear of being a minority in a Hindu-dominated nation. the state of Punjab. through which the line was to be drawn – was an incredibly homogenous mix of three communities – .like Jullunder. in Gujarat. Kashmir. October 24. the North-East and Goa). There is a lot of criticism today about the decisions taken in postIndependence India: that the Nehruvian version of socialism ignored the development of private capitalism and instead placed too much reliance on state-controlled investment. on the challenges and paradoxes of the India of 1947. To close. Lahore. to Pakistan. and Delhi underwent as well massive new construction to house its immigrant population. 2004 The City of Chandigarh I – The Start of an Utopia by Ashish Nangia In 1947. from the period by the recentlydeceased French photographer (and an Indophile) Henri-Cartier Bresson. It was to create new capitals in these dispossessed states that the new cities of Chandigarh. Sir Radcliffe drew a line in the sand. But these additions were simply not enough. giving rise to sluggish. and in the East. had lost its historic capital. But would it not be fair to also say that in a new nation where there were many opposing forces. To this was added the daily toll in human lives from the riots that took place on both sides of the border – disgruntled and angry citizens venting their ire on members of the other community. the building of a new capital city was to quickly assume the importance of a project of national priority. based on the principles of liberty and equality. In this sense. It was inevitable. Muslims finding themselves in the heart of Hindustan and Hindus and Sikhs being stranded in Pakistan. To build up infrastructure. food. neighbors and even friends.Hindu. (Image shown from the Tribune Ambala. was simply incapable of coping. most of the 1950s were occupied by a mammoth effort to undo the damage of partition. and to be the wrong religion in the wrong country was at the time a life-threatening danger. and to provide housing and employment to its citizens. to rebuild an economy torn by the ravages of independence. already taxed to the limit. Lahore. it had suffered greatly both economically and socially. The aftermath of the partition of India led to the greatest known exchange of population in history. from the poorest sections of people to the richest. 1950). The socialist leanings of Nehru translated into his personal backing for this project. and bound together by social and economic ties fostered by generations of cohabitation. The new states of India and Pakistan quickly assumed mutually antagonistic postures. Huge refugee camps were set up on both sides of the new international border. There was shortage of medicine. the pride of the Punjabi population. Muslim and Sikh – living together in close proximity and sharing the same physical space in villages. was now across the border in Pakistan. Not only did it have the maximum number of refugees from across the border. bedding. It was also as much a social as a political experiment. in spite of official protestations to the contrary. relief supplies. Reconstruction efforts in this state thus assumed a symbolic value – not only was this effort a Punjabi initiative. The state of Punjab was the most grievously affected. and its success or failure would be India’s measure of its post-independence capability. The infrastructure of both the new countries. Its administrative and historic capital. as well as most of their wealth. that entire villages and communities found themselves on the wrong side of the line. towns and cities. For Punjab. To resettle people. but it was also deemed to be a microcosm of India’s postindependence effort. clothing. a confident new nation. This city was to be a showcase of the new India. housing. For north India. The word ‘stranded’ is used with some thought. till recently their co-citizens. thus. and thus India. leaving behind in a now foreign land the major part of their immovable property. Having taken the decision to treat Chandigarh as a material expression of the optimism and the dynamism of a newly independent nation began the struggle for locating the city within the . designed to have space for all. It is estimated that 15 million people crossed the Radcliffe line both ways. to attract capital. though based on its ancient traditions. the new capital was also an expression of the Republic of India. The near vacuum of indigenous expertise needed to realize this dream prompted the search for Western skill. But. in pre-independence India.” 6 Designing The City: Early Beginnings . conscious of the specificities of their situation. 1950 The brief presented to the architects was essentially a reflection of such individual and collective perceptions of what a utopian. unfettered by the traditions of the past…”**** Utopian Dreams From the Tribune.”3 Above all. stretches from the 5000 year old Indus Valley Civilization* to the British Imperial Capital of New Delhi. February 24. drainage and electricity’ and ‘sun. commercial and industrial center … from it would flow life and activity throughout the Province. modern capital of independent India should be. Chandigarh would be an aesthetic and social utopia and was described variously as “…the last word in beauty. the history of which. “the world’s most charming capital”2 and “… a capital which would be a cultural.would be available to even the “poorest of the poor”4. the search was narrowed to “…a good modern architect who was not severely bound by an established style and who would be capable of developing a new conception originating from the exigencies of the project itself and suited to the Indian climate. available materials and the functions of the new capital. living conditions in the average Indian city of 1947 – whether of colonial or indigenous origin – were no better than confinement to extremely cramped and obsolete structures.Patiala***. Ambala. Chandigarh would be the first Indian city where opportunities for healthy living – interpreted as access to ‘water. were structured around a centrally positioned royal palace.5 Yet. democratic nation.complex matrix of Indian architecture. in simplicity and in standard of such comfort as it is our duty to provide to every human being”1. Since none of the existing could have served the purpose of an appropriate symbol or an architectural and social model for a newly independent. fitted with gardens for the king and his privileged few. The vision was of a capital that would serve as a model in city planning for the nation if not the world. which like all medieval cities in India. Located in between these two extremities are examples such as the cities of Jaipur** or – nearer home to Chandigarh -. space and verdure’ -. for the majority of the Indian populace. it became important to have a conscious departure and create “…a new town. 7 with his associate Matthew Nowicki working out architectural details. with a regular grid of the fast traffic V3 roads defining each ‘Sector’. The Urban Form : Generic Concepts The present urban form of Chandigarh derives from the well-ordered matrix of the generic ‘neighborhood unit’ and the hierarchical circulation pattern resulting from Le Corbusier’s theory of the 7Vs. the City Centre. Dakshin Marg (South Avenue) demarcates the Phase One of Chandigarh. a result of Nowicki’s sudden death in August 1951. Beginning with the practical necessity of re-locating the Capitol. contained sites for schools and sports activities. with its concept of a fan-shaped city with a curved network of road and varying shapes of superblocks. Le Corbusier’s association with the city – as also that of his three associates. was designed as the ceremonial approach to the Capitol with the Leisure Valley10 reinforcing its directionality. Pierre Jeanneret. Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew -.8 this first scheme. recreation and the like were arrayed along the V4 – all on the shady side. cutting across the city.000. establishing the hierarchy of the roads and giving the city its ultimate civic form. the gently sloping plain with groves of mango trees. the ultimate one being 500. The agreement with the second team had included acceptance of the Mayer Plan. the University. of course. with the pedestrian V7. of which the Jan Marg (People’s Avenue). connects the railway station and the Industrial Area to the University. as well as the bands of open space that cut across in the contrary direction. Aesthetic Controls Among the tools devised to regulate the city’s built mass were extensive visual controls covering .was purely fortuitous. healthcare.11 which was designed for a population of 150. Disposition of Functions A city such as described above could be placed almost anywhere. The Industrial Area. at first. making contact with the surrounding fast traffic roads at four specified points. But what distinguishes Chandigarh are the attributes of its site. The second V2. Day-today facilities for shopping. The natural edges formed by the hills and the two rivers. (10L) a stream bed meandering across its length and the existing road and rail lines – all were to play their role in influencing the distribution of functions. The rest. was soon set aside. The third V2. E.The Chandigarh Project was.000. assigned to the American planner Albert Mayer. and scaling its matrix were the city’s V2s. is history. 9 (Image shows the Master Plan of Chandigarh) Connecting the various accents of the city – such as the Capitol. (9R) Connections with adjoining neighborhoods were made through its V4 – the shopping street. etc. (10R) The vertical green belts. Madhya Marg (Middle Avenue). The sector itself was a self-sufficient introverted unit. the Martyrs’ Memorial and the Open Hand. it is these lesser-known constructions that were to define the constructed volume and architectural vocabulary of the city and.the crowning glory and la raison d’être of the entire enterprise. fenestration. direct the course of Modernism in India. with a thriving economy and a vibrant young population. 2004 Acknowledgements . That this change has come about only recently is testified by most books on the city. the Governor’s Palace (later changed to Museum of Knowledge) the complex also had a number of other “Monuments” such as the Tower of Shadows. buildings for work and entertainment and of grappling with the complex exigencies of the situation. The Capitol was to contain the three major functions of democracy – the Legislative Assembly.volumes. textures. the College of Art as well as some other smaller works such as the Boat Club and parts of the Sukhna Lake. the High Court and the Secretariat. which till the last decade were continuously talking about the same things. Occupying vast tracts of land all over the First Phase of Chandigarh. everyday functions such as government housing. the ‘Periphery’ set limits to the built-mass of the city. That this has changed is visible immediately in Chandigarh today. a comprehensive plantation scheme was devised. hostels. Places for People To the other three architects was assigned the role of designing ‘places for people’. schools. The fact that these are also the physical and visual manifestation of the social agenda of the new republic only reinforces the need to delve deeper into the basis of their design. Besides the fourth major building. Le Corbusier.e. as the “Spiritual Director” of the entire enterprise had assumed the responsibility of establishing the architectural controls of the City Centre and designing the Capitol group of buildings -.12 Architectural Components The Capitol: Besides deciding the city’s layout. In time he would also be assigned the responsibility for designing the Government Museum and Art Gallery. it has evolved from being a city with deserted streets and overscaled public places to the richest city in India. A protected green belt. i. Recognizing the crucial role of trees as elements of urban design. Chandigarh is now over 50 years old. a city unsuited to India and its conditions. containers for ordinary. November 21. materials. and even boundary walls and gates. Over time. in general. ” 5 In looking to the West. occupies only 27 sq. 1953. 1953. p. 8 See Otto Koenigsberger. p. 1966. university. “Chandigarh – the First and the Revised Projects”. 1 Rajkumari Amrit Kaur. Evolution and Modern-day Issues by Ashish Nangia The end of an Utopia? . ** The plan of this famed example from Rajasthan is based on the ancient Shilpa Shastras. Berkeley. km. 1954.25. Professor. It was this totally defined and delimited entity that was to give the city its global image. April 27. 3 C M Trivedi. p. “It is almost biological in form. 6 P N Thapar. *** At a distance of some 70 km from Chandigarh. drainage and waste disposal. 7 Albert Mayer was known to Prime Minister Nehru through his proposals for model villages and several town-planning projects in India. hierarchy of roads and even aesthetic controls. Governor of East Punjab. It was designed for a population of 150. Its commanding head the Capitol group. though for 350.56. letter to Sardar Gurbachan Singh. 9 “The Master Plan is of poetic significance. library.” wrote Jane Drew. unfettered by the traditions of the past … an expression of a nation’s faith in the future. Chandigarh was perhaps also seeking appropriate symbols to project the dynamism of a newly independent people on their march toward development. etc…” Jane Drew. Chandigarh College of Architecture. with a density of 40 persons per acre. this is a much more pertinent and contextually relevant example for comparison. 8 July 1950. Chandigarh.” Jawaherlal Nehru. **** “Let this be new town symbolic of the freedom of India. Punjab’s Chief Minister. 4. * The towns of this river valley civilization were compact with well-ordered street layouts and are known especially for their fairly advanced service infrastructure – water supply. Elek Books Ltd. its heart the city commercial centre. 000 persons. Maxwell Fry and Pierre Jeanneret. 12 The need for holding the population of the city within prescribed limits led to the formulation of the “Punjab New Capital (Periphery) Control Act.25. Hindustan times. 1952”. occupying an area of 43 sq. Chandigarh and author of the book Documenting Chandigarh: The Indian Architecture of Jane Drew.000 persons. Phase Two. University of California Press. provide market gardens.A large part of this article is adapted from the work of Kiran Joshi. It was originally of 8km and extended to a radius of 16km in 1962. identified to prevent haphazard growth. Architects’ Year Book. 1950. The ‘Periphery’ was a Green Belt around the Master Plan Area. as reported by Norma Evenson. “Chandigarh Capital City Project”. Marg.. 6. No.Vol. June 19. New Delhi. 11 Of the two developmental phases of the city. direct growth. and. London. 10 This is the name given to the city park along the line of the streambed cutting across the length of Chandigarh. 4 Le Corbusier’s vision of Chandigarh was also that of “a city offering all amenities to the poorest of the poor of its citizens to lead a dignified life. km. its brain and intellectual centre in the parkland where are the museums. Its density of 144 persons per acre is more than three times that of the earlier development. if required. 2 Gopi Chand Bhargava. but has many similarities to Chandigarh such as its orthogonal plan. The City of Chandigarh II – Urban Planning. Phase One extends from Sectors 1 – 30. its hand the industrial area. commercial. and the city in its strict zoning of functions was to reflect this division of human life into cycles. Chandigarh (c) IJS Bakshi In its wide avenues and streets. Chandigarh was right from the start very different from existing Indian city cores. Chandigarh today is the cultural. living and leisure. and was supposed to represent the best of both. its essence is of a functional order… the chaotic division of land. the CIAM charter was designed to rid cities of the postIndustrial Revolution overcrowding and inhuman conditions which had characterized many European and American cities of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. ranked Chandigarh as the richest of Indian cities (on the basis of per capita income)." In its egalitarianism. This has all changed today. once thought . second in importance only after Delhi. Designed for a population of 500. Slums. That the modern age also meant a new moral order was implicit in the CIAM charter. and with startling rapidity. Chandigarh answered to two agendas: CIAM on the one hand and the new India on the other. resulting from sales. Traffic jams and debates on pollution are now increasingly a common feature of the cleanest Indian city.Chandigarh was planned by Le Corbusier as a CIAM (Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne) city. and stressed on the need to lead a dignified human existence. speculations.000. administrative and educational centre of north India. must be abolished by a collective and methodical land policy. That this difference existed not only on paper but also in reality was apparent from a visit to the city – its stark emptiness and apparently over-scaled spaces were reminiscent more of a ghost town than a living. its socialist bent to housing design. India Today. "Urbanization cannot be conditioned by the claims of a pre-existent aestheticism. The CIAM city called for ample space. Sector 17. the CIAM city divided human functions into work. the CIAM city responded well to the needs of a new capital city of modern India and dovetailed neatly with the founding principles liberty and equality of the new republic. as well as the fact that architecture and urbanism could be the tools by which this new order could be brought about. light and green areas. inheritances. The CIAM was a group of architects and urban planners who formulated rules for an ideal city for the modern age in the so-called Athens Charter. At the time. its green spaces running right through the heart of the city. squatters and filth. breathing organism. In brief. in a survey. which belong in principle to everyone and thus to no-one. living and leisure. are no longer strangers to Chandigarh. Reinforcing class inequality? – The Chandigarh Master Plan That Chandigarh has not developed as planned. In its inherent arrogance. Firstly. while making ample provision for the classes of people the city was originally meant for – administrators and bureaucrats. Thus the Chandigarh plan. Chandigarh. It is clear that something has gone wrong with the CIAM ideal city. is a reflection of the limitations of architecture and urban planning as tools to engineer social change on the one hand. . It is these people and their daily business that fills up the interstices of the city – the spaces which are no-man’s land. if not impossible. and inherent flaws in the master plan on the other. politicians and refugees – made very little concession towards the people who actually ran the city – the sweepers and the rickshawallas. and equally difficult to categorize human activity and imagine that it will not change over time. the Chandigarh plan assumes that human activity can be regulated just as a city plan can be on paper. by division into rigid zones of work. at least in some ways. the construction workers and the hired labor. Image by IJS Bakshi shows Street Vendor at Sector 17. the street vendors and the hawkers. This is a form of assumed social control that is difficult. It is difficult to class people into neat categories. the Chandigarh plan failed to provide space for the very people without whom the city could not be run as a functioning organism. to enforce in a democratic country.to be the preserve of ‘other’ cities. and combining together to create a much larger city than the original 47 sectors of Chandigarh. do not have sufficient infrastructure to support it – and thus it is Chandigarh which now supports a daytime population much larger than what it was originally meant for. a city which had as its main goals the suppression of class struggle – is a measure of the limitations of planning on basic human instinct. An Uncertain Future? It is clear that there is no political will to touch the basic precepts of the Le Corbusier plan. This fact has no reflection in the Chandigarh plan. and the wealthiest and oldest families of city. While Le Corbusier mired Chandigarh in an idealistic world – no development around the city for 16 kilometers to preserve its ‘green’ character – the fact is that the neighboring states of Haryana and Punjab have profited from the city by developing. which still talks about Chandigarh as an isolated island. these towns. Chandigarh Periphery Zone (From Inner Spaces – Outer Spaces of a Planned City) (c) Gopal Krishan The plan gives very little concession to political reality. Chandigarh is administered by officials on transferable jobs. the reality is that there is a hierarchy in the city plan. though having a sizable population of their own. oblivious to all external development. but his intrinsically instinctive approach seemed to be less conducive to practical urbanism. Chandigarh. There is thus a crisis of management – at . more infrastructure. which runs from north to south. and in this hierarchy the northern sectors are more privileged than the rest. There is hierarchical development in every city – but that there is one in Chandigarh as well. with lesser densities.Secondly. officials who have barely enough time to learn the ropes before they leave. Till date. This translated into a flawed appreciation of how cities develop. while Chandigarh was supposed to develop evenly along its three phases of development. Being a Union Territory. Le Corbusier was a great architect. It is no wonder that they are the living places of the city’s elite – the politicians and bureaucrats. and better upkeep. promoting and finally selling townships of their own – Panchkula and Mohali. Thus. Panchkula and Mohali are now rapidly taking on the characteristics of a metropolis. and the real estate issues that go hand in hand. To this list must be added the outlying areas. which were home to numerous villages and small towns that served as the agricultural hinterland for Delhi. the original building byelaws of the city are also relics of a past forgotten. where such decisions can be taken.the very top. substantial increase. These people – for the most part belonging to prosperous communities in West Punjab – found themselves without jobs. In the meantime. to see through a plan for Chandigarh for this century? For the moment there are no takers. open flouting of the law. and the latter using a mixture of threats and cajoling to limit. with a smaller number fanning out to other parts of India – notably the Terai region in Uttar Pradesh. the byelaws of Chandigarh were designed to ensure a certain uniformity in building. But first there was work to be done. and one of the critiques of Chandigarh has been that it discourages individuality. the refugees rebuilt their lives from scratch – and their dynamism and work ethic became legend in the time to come. to realize. Most of them settled in and around the state of Punjab. However. the Civil Lines where British civilians and their Indian staff had lived. the byelaws also stifle. while guarding against really bad building. December 19. What is Chandigarh today? In spite of the strict injunctures of the Corbusier plan. With nothing to lose. following CIAM principles. and the need for change to accommodate the new reality is only too apparent. as displaced persons from what was now Pakistan poured in across the border. homes and food. there is no one to take a decision which will take years. 2004 The Beginnings of an Architectural Culture Delhi – Post Independence Challenges by Ashish Nangia The unprecedented refugee influx from West Pakistan (it is estimated that 15 million people crossed both ways!) post-1947 meant that north India’s population underwent a sudden. . if not stop. The city of Delhi at this time consisted of the following parts: the old walled city of Shahjahanabad. already bursting to the seams. Who will take the responsibility for this change. There is thus this unspoken war between constructors of new buildings and the administration – the former testing the limits of what they can get away with. and the administrative capital of the British empire in India – New Delhi. The speed at which the city is growing is swamping the master plan. if not decades. it is clear that the city has come a long way from the ghost town of the 60s and 70s. Again. the Delhi ridge and the localities around the Yamuna. public offices) and large quantities of housing for the refugees. which had as its primary task housing the immigrants. are marked by a certain strong similarities. It is not surprising that much work at the time was ad hoc.was simply not prepared for a massive population increase – Delhi’s population went from 700. an attempt to introduce ‘Indian’ motifs and elements as ornamentation (jaalis. are two such examples. However for the most part foreign architects would underline that truly national architecture should be of indigenous origin. and then absorbing them in viable occupations. The scarcity of trained architects outside the PWDs (the independent profession at the time was a few firms operating out of the main metropolitan centers) meant that many overseas architects were advisors to architectural and reconstruction committees formed by the Government of India and local bodies. Krishi Bhawan and Udyog Bhawan (both 1957) and the Rail Bhawan (1962). New Friends Colony. The architecture of the time is marked by a fundamental unity that gives it. the government set up the Ministry for Relief and Rehabilitation. and continue to define the image of the city today. and the city of Delhi. the Vigyan Bhawan (1962). Thus the Supreme Court (1952). In the absence of sufficient housing. Karol Bagh. and also to provide for new institutional buildings that were needed. As an emergency measure. Some of these settlements came up at the site of refugee camps.in some places already taxed to its limit . and yet also dovetail with the built form of New Delhi’s British buildings. It is a mix of both of these that gave Delhi its unique character. Kaka Nagar and Bapa Nagar. colleges. Among the many new colonies were planned and built for this purpose are the modern localities of Lajpat Nagar. The challenge here was a vocabulary that would be sufficiently indigenous. the same cannot be said for their expertise in conceptualizing an architectural vocabulary representative of the nation. cost and ease of maintenance (for example rough-hewn stone. with the primary directive being speed and efficiency rather than good design. chajjas. while serving very different purposes. At the same time. in their capacity as ex-British institutions responsible for government buildings.The city’s infrastructure . a distinct character. refugee camps sprang up all over the city. New Delhi required several buildings to complete its main esplanade. Defining an Architectural Culture Government PWDs (Public Works Department) were responsible for much building work. While the PWDs had sufficient experience in building maintenance and upkeep. and the experience of these generated many valuable lessons for the future.000 in 1941 to nearly 2. and others clustered around existing villages and gradually absorbed them into their midst (Hauz Khas being among the better-known examples). What commands attention from the time are institutional buildings (schools. and other more substantial elements).5 million people in 1961. and finally an attempt to integrate this architecture with current modernist theories of form and function – ideas that were . brick and plaster). It was a generation later that questions of what constitutes an ‘Indian’ architecture began to be answered with any degree of success. who prepared the plan for Bhubhaneswar. Colonies like Kaka Nagar. Malviya Nagar. Bapa Nagar and Sarojini Nagar were among the first large-scale experiments in mass urban housing. it is incorrect to say that design principles played no role at all. and Otto Koenigsberger. finishes that were not extravagant but were rather chosen for their durability. an American who worked extensively in India after the war. This may be defined as: a plan form derived from British precedents. Albert Mayer. South Extension. certainly helped by the presence of professionals from abroad and the accompanying discourse on art and architecture in newspapers. There were many challenges – to rebuild. 2005 Image courtesy and (c) Delhi Development Authority. August 7. The agenda was nothing less than national reconstruction. The lack of trained architects and planners made this task difficult. it can safely be said that there were. but instead helped to define new nation. At the same time for a professional. . The Good and the Popular – Culture and Architecture The quest to define what is popular and what will sell has never been easy for an architect/builder. the radio and magazines. Reflections on the Validity of ‘modern’ Architectural Histories Towards re-Writing a History of Indian Architecture by Ashish Nangia Questioning Classification and Category The last half-decade of architecture in India is often lumped under the heading of ‘Modern Indian Architecture’. and this lends a heroism to the story that cannot be negated. no easy answers. This convenient historical classification can be misleading in more ways than one – firstly. When to these factors are added the turbulent conditions in north India after partition and during the rebuilding phase. however. this is not the only issue – there is also the search for personal and professional satisfaction. to create an architectural culture that would not be a replica of what had gone before. many design decisions and the resulting urban form of Delhi is held up as prime examples of what not to do in Urban Design. This cannot be argued with. and when applied to post-independence architectural history is even more questionable. In retrospective. it should be said also that professionals at the time worked in conditions that are unimaginable today. at the time. to provide housing. the word ‘modern’ is somewhat of a misnomer. ‘The Modern Movement’ in a historical sense refers to an approach and a way of thinking – not just about architecture. The traditional method of writing architectural history has been firstly classification and periodicity. a tacit faith in science. a belief that means. Perhaps this is not such a bad thing. Having said that. that a perfect society can be engineering by the medium of a perfect built environment. technology and most importantly. and shows little sympathy or tolerance for difference and diversity. What is a ‘perfect’ society. and by consequence. ‘modernism’ is a concept that embraces reason as a methodology of architectural production. but also in a larger sense of the term as a representation of society and its values. to choose . that the needs of society can be analyzed a perfect outcome guaranteed. religious beliefs and customs. a ‘perfect’ building? The quest for a single ‘perfect’ identity leaves no scope for evolution or change. A heterogeneous mix of identity. for as soon as we tie down and fix a single identity. in essence. then. of course. It is distinguished from ‘ancient’ or even ‘mediaeval’ by its appreciation and recognition of the complexity of the world and its diverse components. the question of what is ‘Indian’ is not a simple one to answer. The Case of India These concepts are of paramount importance in a multicultural and multilayered society that is India. we capture and fix ourselves as a society in a single image. It is not surprising. and secondly. When applied to architecture. have been discredited in the last few decades because of the inherent authoritarianism associated with them. and all attempts to preserve that (possibly imaginary!) image are doomed in a world that is rapidly evolving. that it becomes truly difficult to choose representative examples of Indian architecture – for the question of what to represent is one that has not yet been answered with any success so far. These concepts. class. architecture can be an agency of change. a ‘perfect’ individual. the choices the historian faces are not easy. Conversely and as a corollary. a belief in the power of rational thinking as an agent of change in the world. layered by a history of more than two thousand years. new towns. adaptive reuse of traditional methods of construction Architecture by Indians outside India . expansion of old metropolitan centers. the following classification could be legitimately made of post-Independence Indian architecture: • • • • • • • • • • Institutional– architecture for and by the government. but they also equally represent other things – the pluralism of religious belief in India. exercises in political wrangling and bureaucratic procedures. public sector concerns. low-cost housing Industrial projects – Factories and infrastructure Low-cost and vernacular responses – modern interpretations of traditional and regional architecture Commercial architecture – Shopping and entertainment complexes. the Indian Diaspora. education Urban design and redevelopment – Planning and urbanism. associations of each of these movements with social agendas – the list can go on.representative examples of each of the categories thus produced. private organizations. . special facilities. the wealth and power associated with successful and mass religious appeal. For example: where would one classify the ISKCON or the Ba’hai temples? As religious buildings? It is true this is their primary purpose. experiments with new technology. Writing a better history The categorization above is perfectly reasonable except for one thing : there are few buildings that fall into such neatly defined categories.. sport and infrastructure. hotels and hospitality industry Special purpose facilities – Health industry. urban design projects Conservation and Restoration Utopian visions and innovation– Unbuilt examples that showcase a non-traditional design view... public housing. Following this method. Housing – Private residences. Once again. And so we can continue to question the validity of slotting architecture into neat categories. An analysis of this sort would not only look at architectural form and period of production. because. as has been just seen. a more traditional classification as institutional buildings does not adequately represent the complexity of the symbology that these structures communicate.The Traditional in the Modern by Ashish Nangia . which though still searching for an elusive ‘perfect’ definition. November 13.I Charles Correa . single. how would one classify buildings such as the Bombay Stock Exchange or the New Delhi Municipal Corporation (NDMC) buildings? Once again. We can hope that such an approach would do at least partial justice to the complex mix of social. 2005 Post Colonial India and its Architecture . of wealth and capital. diverse examples and look at the forces that produce them. and to refer to only one aspect would be once again to fall into the same trap – of having a single definition of ‘perfection’. and perhaps even of social inequity and a society that still has a large gap between its very rich and very poor. but would also look at the forces that contributed to the shaping of this built form. symbolism is a multi-layered thing. and continue to shape their present and future. Perhaps a far more valid approach in this globalizing world is to examine. as far as possible. The BSE is not just a building where brokers and traders work – it is equally a symbol of an economic boom. is perhaps best left without one. political and cultural agencies that go into the building and production of architecture – that mysterious object. before establishing a practice in Bombay.from celebrating and valorizing tradition and heritage. combining Western rationalism and architectural theory with vernacular tradition and an appreciation of the need to preserve and reinvent South Asia’s built heritage for a postcolonial age. perhaps most importantly the power of symbol and myth as a factor in good architecture. an understanding of technique and. Correa uses a network of interconnected open-to-sky spaces landscaped in different themes. Correa has evolved a distinctive style of his own and has been a chief actor or major participant in various influential projects that shape and give definition to postcolonial South Asian architecture. Correa’s responses to these questions have been outstandingly innovative. Indeed. and then the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Correa studied at the University of Michigan. The result is an elegant solution that is climatically sound and energy-efficient. Over the span of a career starting in the early 1950s to the present day. and above all conveys some sense of the solemnity and dignity appropriate for an institution dedicated to Gandhi’s life and work. . creating markets for the arts and leisure. Some of these would later return. Correa’s buildings. to recreate the Gandhian ideal of a self-sufficient village community. setting up practice and often evolving highly original styles of work. uses low-cost material and finishes. seem often to be as much gestures to prevailing political ideology as intelligent responses to an architectural problem. In the ranks of those who have contributed substantially to architectural practice and discourse in South Asia is Charles Correa. to the need for increasing housing. and is also a fair representation of the evolution of South Asian urban centers and the debate around them . and finally responses to the challenges that explosive urban growth creates. Ahmedabad (1958 – 63). Representative Work At the Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya. in their clever semiotic appeal. displaying an impressive knowledge of tradition from various sources. Born in 1930 of Goan origin. A representative catalogue of his work displays an impressive vocabulary and technical virtuosity that he brings to his work.Introduction The post-independence generation saw an increasing number of architects from South Asia migrate to Europe and the United States for advanced studies. the National Crafts Museum (1975-90) at Pragati Maidan. Continuing the same effort to interpret India’s vernacular architecture in a modern typology. Correa acknowledges a strong debt to Le Corbusier. Note use and blend of material and texture. both resident and alien. Ahmedabad.Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya.. Especially remarkable here is Correa’s use of natural light in conjunction with semi-open spaces to create tonal gradations in illumination and shadows. View of courts. Plan. Notice massing of units. The museum is solemn without being overbearing. . is austere without appearing to make an effort to be so. New Delhi. Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya. provides a forum to craftspeople nationwide to showcase their art – and the process of its creation! – to visitors. Ahmedabad. and this effect of the Frenchman’s influence is clearly visible here. National Crafts Museum. In the Kala Akademi. New Delhi. At the Kala Akademi especially. Plan. Note linkage of spaces. New Delhi. he plays with a hierarchy of spaces and terraces to create a spectacle of sorts in itself – and at both these sites an illusion of space and spectators is created by paintings complementing the architecture. bamboo. brick. Correa demonstrates here a successful transition of the vernacular to the modern. (1973-83) a centre for the performing arts. thatch – and uses craftwork as both interior and exterior ornamentation. as also how traditional architectural vocabulary need not be synonymous with ‘backward’. and the Cidade de Goa (1978-82). combined with intelligent space planning. mud. open space and marketplaces. the Museum incorporates extensive use of vernacular material – stone. Mario Miranda creates a skilful impression of people already present in the theatre. a luxury hotel. Panaji. .National Crafts Museum. The Cidade de Goa – ‘City of Goa’ in Portuguese – is planned as a microcosm of a traditional city – complete with pedestrian streets. Views with details of ornament and landscape elements. It is in his native Goa that Correa demonstrates a flair for an elegant use of colour and contrast. The result is once again a very impressive series of spaces that hold together as a unit. Its spaces massed together to recreate an Indian village. and display a high degree of functional efficiency. Cidade de Goa. The right side of this interior. is actually a painting. .Kala Akademi. External terraces and balconies. including the human figures at bottom right. Goa. Interior View. Panaji. the fine elegance that characterises Correa’s smaller.). as much for its bold use of material as for the radical way in which it affects its urban surroundings. almost. In his project for Navi Mumbai (New Bombay) (1964 . thus reducing old Bombay’s primacy as the sole business center. in its aggressive use of sandstone cladding and the massive metal truss uniting its components. For all this. the Jeevan Bharti building disappoints in its details – the workmanship can be shoddy in parts. its glass curtain walls reflecting the colonial-era buildings. Correa argues for decongesting Bombay’s historic city centre. earlier work is missing. the Jeevan Bharti building continues to be the object of debate and polemic. however. Correa has less success in blending the vernacular and the modern. The Jeevan Bharti (Life Insurance Corporation) (1975 – 86) headquarters at New Delhi towers over Connaught Place.When it comes to monumental architecture. Challenging and cocky. breaking the vicious cycle of inflated land-prices and accompanying high-rise growth. and limiting urban sprawl north of the city. His solution is to develop the land across from Bombay Harbour and increase road and rail links from the mainland to the new settlements. . This may be an inevitable consequence of success – lacking the time to devote to each project the attention it needs. especially the urban poor.Navi Mumbai. Conclusion This summary of Correa’s work. A few words. New Bombay Redevelopment Plan. while including some seminal examples from his career. It is his skill for translating into built form an acceptable political discourse that has contributed to his success. 2005 . may be added here about the larger significance of his career. Historic Bombay is to the left. This fact is a reflection of a professional’s personal development as well as public recognition and confidence in his work. Inherent in Correa’s scheme is an appeal to provide the invisible squatter population of Bombay with a degree of human dignity and opportunity for growth that the current system denies. however. December 18. What stands out in Correa’s work. infusing at times almost mythical references in his buildings. a reputation that is built up over decades and after a body of significant work has been completed. Stressed also is the need to provide land for all. is his original fusion of modern typology and South Asian elements. new development to the right across the harbor. as much as his obvious ability and aptitude as a professional. It is fairly representative for a typical architect to handle projects that increase in complexity and volume over time. beyond this evolution. leaves out far more than it includes. who alone seemed to be able to guarantee a certain unity. Also constructed for the Games are a series of stadia. Within it. the quality of construction leaves something to be desired. both domestic and international. The Indraprastha Stadium is an imposing structure with bearing walls of concrete . a decision influenced by the lack of expertise in steel construction as well as the prohibitive cost of steel at the time. controlled almost everything – including information flow. social development. Thames and Hudson. London. each time with a representative of the Nehru-Gandhi family at the helm. While this model of governance may possibly have been the only viable solution in a time when India was struggling to become a cohesive political unit. The State. as the biggest actor in the country. The Search for an Aesthetic The Asian Games in 1982 provided a massive fillip to construction. This socialist-industrial model called for massive State-controlled investment in heavy industry and associated activities. the most prominent being the Indraprastha Indoor Stadium by Sharat Das and the Talkatora stadium by Satish Grover. post-independence Indian politics till the 1990s was dominated largely by the Congress party. the Hall of Nations by Raj Rewal is a large column-free space that is characterized by its use of reinforced concrete in a structure that would normally be constructed of steel trusses. The Pragati Maidan complex. Pragati Maidan continues to be one of the stellar attractions in Delhi. 1996) Post Colonial India and its Architecture . Built as an exhibition and entertainment space. While the use of concrete results in a massive structure that does have some brutal appeal. especially in Delhi. it was also subsequently criticized for encouraging and entrenching endemic corruption and propagating a multi-layered bureaucracy that continues to this day.(All images and photographs from Charles Correa.III An Architecture for a Socialist State by Ashish Nangia The Architecture of Socialism With a few brief exceptions. Principally backed by Nehru and his coterie of advisers. India with its five-year plans embarked on a socialist model of development that featured a top-heavy State with minimal delegation of power to the regions or to district-level representative bodies. and most importantly for our purposes. For all that the building is one of the most imposing in Pragati Maidan and continues to host many high-quality exhibitions. It is not surprising then that most significant large-scale construction from this era has been either directly sponsored by the government or by public corporations. became also the biggest client for architectural and urban development projects. provided a space for many innovative architectural experiments and cemented the careers of a whole generation of professionals. built on the eve of the Games. For athletes visiting the capital.Image below) by Uttam C. Bangalore by Stein. Jain. exhibition areas. and the use of plastic covering on its roof on rainy days is sometimes visible. Conclusion To sum up. It unfortunately suffers from a lack of maintenance. Raj Rewal designed for this purpose the Asiad Games Village. large-scale temporary housing was required. a cluster of interlocking housing units that takes its formal inspiration from the streetscape and scale of towns in Rajasthan. Asiad Village. This experiment with ‘vernacular’ material and scales is continued elsewhere. or Khelgaon as it also called. both at Delhi. Cluster Plan Today the Games Village. marked by its rapid construction with movable shuttering on the bearing columns ensuring continuous activity on the site. as well as a neo-Corbusian aesthetic in the Shriram Center and Akbar Hotel. in the Indian Institute of Management. New Delhi. Rewal claims to have used these spatial references to create a series of courts and ‘streets’ through the complex and even to use finishes and material that correspond to their original inspiration. several buildings in Rajasthan (including the University of Jodhpur . particularly Jaisalmer.and roofing of steel trusses. and secondly the search for an appropriate aesthetic fluctuates between two extremes – that of a . houses commercial and office space. by Shivnath Prasad. Doshi and Bhalla. as well as nightspots that are known as much for their fine cuisine as for their easygoing urban setting. most of the architectural production of any significance till the 1990s is marked by a certain commonality of factors: firstly sponsored or commissioned by the State and its organs. Frustrated by the slow progress of the movement and his activities fettered. and convention centers) and construction and aesthetics influenced by what is actually possible on the site. Vikram and Peter Scriver. in many cases. Aurobindo turned over his responsibilities to Mira . However.completely ‘international’ vocabulary of Modernism (such as Prasad’s Akbar Hotel) and an attempt to reinterpret the vernacular on the other (exemplified by Correa’s Crafts Village). Ahmedabad: Mapin Publishing: 1990 The Auroville Experiment by Ashish Nangia Aurobindo Ghose retired from active participation in the Indian nationalist movement in 1910 after being acquitted in the ‘Alipore Bomb Case’. Contemporary Indian Architecture: After the Masters. 2006 Images from Bhatt. for an urban landscape that has done little to help minimize the inequality that vowed to eradicate. Fortunately this is an issue that is increasingly being debated in the work of younger professionals today. most architectural production is a balancing act between these two poles – a form dictated by the exigencies of universal standards of space (stadia. exhibition spaces. when juggled elegantly and with flair. It is ironic that the same State that professed a social agenda has been responsible. Jodhpur University. Notice use of local material for finishes. These mixes. April 9. has resulted in elegant or in horribly clunky structures that have only got worse with time. Aurobindo finally sought asylum in French Pondicherry. It is perhaps best here not to point out examples – suffice it to say that many of the larger cities in India are littered with architectural horrors from this period that are a blot on the cityscape and serve to efface the many fine and sensitive examples time that co-exist side by side. In 1926. “Roger will be the architect”. a place of peace. with Sri Aurobindo living at its centre.” 2 . on top of the hill. to surmount his weakness and ignorance. a place where the needs of the spirit and the care for progress would get precedence over the satisfaction of desires and passions. It has been nearly 40 years since that time. with government approval. was not only a yogic Oracle of sorts. it would seem. The Matri Mandir 23rd June 1965: “Have you heard of Auroville? … For a long time. that of the supreme Truth. I am waiting for Roger to make the detailed plans because since the beginning I have said. Mira. but that was during Sri Aurobindo’s lifetime. a sort of divinity on earth. in her words: “…a place that no nation could claim as its sole property. international and industrial. and I have written to Roger. An émigré from Paris. Under her aegis the Aurobindo Ashram began attracting people and funds that would promote her ‘dream’ project – a city that would be. It takes place up there. concord. what has worked as a completed project is the Matri Mandir at the canter of the plan. My plan is very simple. where all the fighting instincts of man would be used exclusively to conquer the causes of his suffering and misery. Afterwards…I was no longer interested… And it came back with that letter: suddenly I had my plan of Auroville. The community relies heavily on neighboring Pondicherry and the surrounding countryside for its economic and social survival. a place where all human beings of goodwill. cultural. and Auroville’s growth has not been spectacular. however.Richards – ‘The Mother’ – who became the spiritual head of the Aurobindo Ashram. could live freely as citizens of the world. the seeking for pleasures and material enjoyments. sincere in their aspiration. on the way to Madras. but also. as well as several innovative architectural projects that are remarkable for their elegance and commitment to environmental concerns. Now I have my general plan. the utopian community of Auroville was inaugurated. It is time to look again at this little community in the deep south of India. had a natural talent for organization. to triumph over his limitations and incapacities. harmony. Its master plan – strikingly empty for the moment – consisted of a formal expression of Mira’s vision – that of four arms radiating from a center marking off four zones of activity – residential.” 1 In February 1968. obeying one single authority. I had had a plan of the ‘ideal city’. Mira continued Aurobindo’s stated purpose to function as an agency facilitating the evolution of humankind into ‘Supermind’. However. the inner chamber is lined with a skin of tinted glass. Roger Anger. The French architect. The plan for the city evolved nominally from Mira’s series of sketches for the project that varied from a central focus with radiating arms to more organically free-flowing lines enclosing spaces. The outer edges of the columns forms a circle in plan. Common to these was the central meditation space – the Matri Mandir – whose design went through a series of changes before a final concept was chosen for construction in 1971. The Matri Mandir The Matri-Mandir in its final form consists of four massive concrete columns that support an inner circular chamber – the floor being at 14m and the roof at 29m. The outer skin is covered by a mesh of gold-encased discs. became Mira’s chief consultant for the project. and this means that the space-frame (grid of triangles) that forms the outer skin of the structure is in volume similar to a flattened globe.By 1965 Mira and the Aurobindo Ashram felt sufficiently ambitious to plan the construction of a city – that came to be called Auroville from the French Aurore – for Dawn – and Ville – for City. . apart from the obvious connection to Sri Aurobindo. unreachable destination. . and utilizes the ‘primeval egg’ symbology very well in its form. very little of this comes out in the finished building – the gold leaf scintillates in the sun. The site immediately around the Matri Mandir is landscaped in three ways: the first is an existing banyan tree on the site. This is where the resemblance ends: though the Matri Mandir is an elegant composition as an integrated part of its landscape. and finally there are the Matri Mandir gardens and associated landscaping. and the final chamber is very impressive. with the crystal globe hanging in the centre like a final.The Matri Mandir (c) Premsagar From the entrance. one suspects also that the structure itself is a little clunky. illuminated by a single ray of (sun) light from the heliostat mounted on the roof. utopian future is what gives the Matri Mandir its unique symbolism – not dissimilar from that of the Baha’i temple at Delhi. This double dialogue between a present state of being and an imagined. two helical ramps serve as entry and as access to the inner chamber. The symbolism of the structure is in flux: but at least one powerful association is that of the primeval egg (here representing developed human consciousness) breaking free from Matter (here represented by the earth/ground). in the centre of which is placed a crystal globe. and the ramps adding – in their present form – to the structural unease. with the concrete columns being oversized for the load they support. the second is an urn containing soil from different countries (as a symbol to the internationalism of Auroville). the walk up the ramps is a suitable contrast in darkness. However. but that is another story. ecological solutions and cost-effective techniques of construction.Paolo Tommasi’s landscaping for the Matri Mandir Some might say. of course. a study in architectural form of a human body. Bharat Nivas Campus: . that the Matri Mandir within its landscape resembles the quintessential feminine conception. Architecture and Building As an experimental utopian city Auroville has also been the site of innovative experiments in architecture combining local material. A few projects can be briefly illustrated here: a. the Atithi Guest House offers temporary accommodation for visitors and artistes. spanning the sitting-out spaces of the verandah. the Sri Aurobindo auditorium (Architect: R. or India Pavilion. consists of a series of buildings. and uses a mix of local material and labor to create a series of spaces that cluster around a central focus. like the wooden pillars around the courtyard. Chakrapani) is complete. This 850-seat space is the largest of its kind in South India and has hosted cultural events – dance. Auroville: . explains: “The entire building is centered around a neem tree which already existed on the site.Bharat Nivas. Of these. drama and music – as well as been the site of several conferences and seminars.” 3 c. it’s much more about the space it creates than the materials it uses. The central staircase which goes up to the open terrace winds around this tree…Though I have used many traditional elements. Visitors Centre. and the earthen tiles over it. not all of which are completed (or even started). b. and is intended as a cultural center and showcase for India within the international zone of Auroville. Atithi Guest House: As its name suggest. Dharmesh Jadeja. the architect. being dependent upon – and exploiting – neighboring villages for its survival. The community is charged with being elitist. the Visitors Centre is Auroville’s chief reception and information focus for those new to the community. arches and corbels to create an interlocking network of spaces that blend in with the landscape. The Design/Built program of the University of Washington. 4 Conclusion The Auroville experiment. the Last School by Roger Anger. and with exacerbating the divide between Indians and aliens. is far from complete. as part of the US Pavilion. led by Sergio Palleroni. .000 population that the master plan envisions. Anupama Kundoo’s own residence. Apart from the work cited above. Finally. André Hababou’s Surrender Housing Community are notable landmarks in the community. modelled this shelter inspired from the ‘outdoor room’ ambience of a banyan tree. The building emphasizes using natural and renewable energy sources for lighting and ventilation. Of the projected 50. Auroville has barely 2000 permanent residents almost a half-century later. an example of collaborative participation is the Students Guest House. Seattle visited Auroville in 2002. A team of students and faculty. Also of relevance are Piero and Gloria’s earliest experiments in community housing – built for the most part with thatch and bamboo – in 1972-73. started as one person’s mystic dream in 1968. Suhasini Iyer-Guigan combines local brick and construction with low vaults.Constructed in 1998 with a grant from HUDCO and the Foundation for World Education. Auroville: 2004 “Auroville: The City of Dawn” Times of India Online.To its credit. Auroville has been the site of numerous innovations in architecture and building construction – ferrocement technology. pp. Seattle. It is fair to say that there is little wrong with the ‘idea’ of Auroville – a city that belongs to none. sur le haut de la colline. It is home to a small but effective cottage industry that exports its products worldwide. From www. . Palleroni. 96-97. Whether humankind can live up to this utopian agenda is a very personal judgment – what is true is that. 139-147 3. and of hope that at least some of this will have its intended effect. Mother’s Agenda. Sergio et. Auroville. en route pour Madras. it is difficult not to feel a sense of awe. 4. 2007 References: 1. 13th May 2001.al.auroville. Studio at Large : Architecture in Service of Global Communities. pp. but is home to all. and reusing local material and building technique. 70-75 “Auroville Architecture: Towards New Forms for a New Consciousness”. June 17. once in Auroville. PRISMA. of promise. low cost alternatives. 2004. 2004. 1965.in 2. Cited in «Auroville Architecture : Towards New Forms for a New Consciousness » PRISMA. Ca se passe là haut. The world is better off with an Auroville – than without.org. UW Press. sitting not far from the Matri Mandir as the sun goes down. pp. the better to counter the often damp ground. or is it simply defined by its opposition to the ‘modern’ or ‘designed’? These questions. or the socio-cultural norms that they are designed to preserve and protect. . or the shingle style. relating to. In Punjab. 11th November 2002. Rangan. Oct 16. village houses are slope-roofed with Mangalore tiles and thatch to draw off and channel rain. the Soul of Auroville”. especially : of.indiatimes. The ‘vernacular’. Vernacular settlements in India often take on the shape and form that is dictated by the climate they are in.cms Guigan. the same houses are often built on stilts.al. with thick stone walls of coursed rubble masonry designed to ward off cold. where the ‘vernacular’ often denotes pioneer construction and architecture. in many cases. . whitewash on the outside walls helps to cool down the summer heat. The Indian Vernacular : A Rich Tradition by Ashish Nangia What is the vernacular? Does it mean the architecture of villages and remote settlements. 1971. especially in the context of India. In Assam. village settlements in Uttaranchal are often characterized by houses of stone. are not easy ones to answer. where construction is carried out without the help of architects and professionals. Sergio et. The vernacular can be simply defined as “of. with a shelter for animals below the main house (the heat given off by mulch animals heats the house above further). New York Times. Seattle. traditional village and small town settlements. relating to. denotes low cost. “A Utopian Town in India Built on a Dream”. Kasturi.com/articleshow/41644891. Studio at Large : Architecture in Service of Global Communities. or being the common building style of a period or place <vernacular architecture>” Though this definition is better applied to Western culture. in India. UW Press. or group . place. Gilles. more so in the context of North America. timber and mud mortar on slopes. “Aspiring for Perfection: A History of Matrimandir. Palleroni. 2004. In Kerala. For example. or even the forest construction of New England and the Rockies. Samasti: Auroville.http://timesofindia. where building activity is regulated by a long tradition that stretches back for many centuries. or characteristic of a period. The list could go on. Climate. from the damp ground of Assam and Bengal to the dry earth of Punjab. but in each case we see that vernacular architecture in India’s diverse regions has evolved a unique way of responding to the climate and the environment that is sustainable. once again. is a predominant factor in determining the forms of vernacular architecture in India. of course. This variation in climate spawns a diversity of forms for vernacular architecture. floors and semi-private and private spaces. Geography.Houses near Benares showing settlement patterns in harmony with the environment. shows an intelligent approach to the problems of climate. . can vary from the hilly terrain of the Himalayas and Kashmir. from the dry cold climates in Spiti and Leh to the perennially damp conditions in the northeast of the country. to the flats of the Deccan and the south. courtyards. geography too is a determining factor. Apart from climate. and is a delicate balance of social and cultural factors through spatial vocabulary such as walls. Climate in India varies from the scorching sun in the Gangetic plains to the tropical conditions of the south. and roofs tiled with the socalled ‘mangalore’ tiles in the south. red by Kshatriyas. rediscovered the magic of the vernacular in his later projects such as the Rob-et-Roq housing. that most avid of Modernists. An interesting theory holds that materials could also vary according to the caste system. Similarly. Followers of vernacularism as a building tradition have been many : amongst the most famous international examples has been that of Hassan Fathy (1900-1989).* While these classifications may be history in the new India. and the chapel at Ronchamp. a plethora of sandstone made medieval Jaipur into the famous ‘Pink City’. yellow by Vaishyas and black stone by Shudras. who in his numerous projects in Egypt replicated and rediscovered building traditions of the region that were thought to be dead. Vernacularism in architecture has been upheld as a modern value. . and in north India a clayey soil makes sunburnt bricks and mud mortar a commonly used medium. there is much to be gained by evaluating these claims more closely. The third factor is the availability of material and the types of material available. In Goa and Karnataka. Similarly. giving them a new meaning and relevance. and a similar stone was used to face Mughal buildings in the 17th century. White stone is apparently only used by Brahmins. Bamboo construction can be found in the northeast. Le Corbusier. the monuments at Chandigarh.Vernacular Construction in Kerala. an abundance of red laterite stone makes this the medium of choice for vernacular construction. a tradition to be observed while designed for the new age. Village in Spiti.Iraq Refugee Housing. . Indore. Aranya Housing. by BV Doshi. by Hassan Fathy. in practice and from conservation experts than it gets at present. Similarly.The climate is cold and dry. tiles and mortar. Laurie Baker (1917-2007) has been instrumental in giving new voice to a Kerala vernacular in brick. A number of new and upcoming firms in north of the country promise to take this experiment further and prevent India’s built traditions from completely disappearing. 2009 . For the vernacular is a true representation of a people and their culture. and India’s diverse heritage makes this a fascinating study. The vernacular in India. Amongst Indian architects. Gerard da Cunha in Goa has been very innovative in his use of red laterite stone and re-interpreting Goa’s Portuguese and hybrid traditions and architectural vocabulary. then. is a rich and complex tradition that deserves far more attention in education. July 19.