Paul BalogHistory of the Dirhem in Egypt from the Fāimid Conquest until the collapse of the Mamlūk Empire. In: Revue numismatique, 6e série - Tome 3, année 1961 pp. 109-146. Citer ce document / Cite this document : Balog Paul. History of the Dirhem in Egypt from the Fāimid Conquest until the collapse of the Mamlūk Empire. In: Revue numismatique, 6e série - Tome 3, année 1961 pp. 109-146. doi : 10.3406/numi.1961.1704 http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/numi_0484-8942_1961_num_6_3_1704 Paul BALOG HISTORY FROM OF THE THE OF IN UNTIL THE DIRHEM CONQUEST EMPIRE EGYPT COLLAPSE 922 H 1517 AD FÀTIMID THE MAMLUK 358 H 968 AD PL XII. ABBREVIATIONS TO THE REFERENCES ANS = George С. Miles, Fatimid Coins, Numismatic Notes and Monographs, No. 121, The American Numismatic Society, N. Y., 1951. Bergmann = Karl v. Bergmann, in Sitzungsberichle der К. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien, 1873, p. 158-162. BGA = Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, éd. M. J. de Goeje, I-VIII, Leiden, 1870-1894. BIE = Bulletin de l'Institut d'Egypte, articles by Paul Balog, XXXIII, 1951, XXXIV, 1952, XXXV, 1953. BM = Catalogue of Oriental Coins in the British Museum, by Stanley Lane-Poole, vol. IV, 1879. BM Suppl. = Vol. IX of the above, 1889. Khed. = Catalogue of Arabic Coins in the Khedivial Library in Cairo, 1897, by Stanley LanePoole. L = Vol. Ill of the Catalogue des Monnaies Orientales à la Bibliothèque Nationale à Paris, 1896, by Henri Lavoix. Maqrizi-Sacy = Traité des Monnoies Musulmanes, traduit de l'arabe de Makrizi... in Magasin encyclopédique, VI, p. 472-507, 1796. Suite du Traité des Monnoies Musulmanes, traduit de l'arabe de Makrizi... in Magasin encyclopédique, I, p. 38-98, 1797. Both translated by Antoine Isaac Sylvestre de Sacy. Maqrizi-Sacy Reprint = Extracts in Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale (IFAO), Biblio thèque des Arabisants Français, 1905. Edited by Emile Chassinat. 0strup = C. 0STHUP, Catalogue des Monnaies Arabes et Turques au Musée National de Copen hague, 1938. QDAP = The Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine. RT = J. Farrugia de Candia, Monnaies Fatimites au Musée du Bardo in Revue Tunisienne, 1936. RT Suppl = As above, but Premier Supplément, 1948. 110 P. BALOG Sauvaire = Henri Sauvaire, Matériaux pour servir à Vhistoire de la Numismatique et de la Métrologie Musulmanes, Journal Asiatique, 1882-1887. Soret = Frédéric Soret, Lettre à M. le Conseiller d'État de Dorn, Troisième Lettre sur les Méd ailles Orientales inédites de la Collection de M. F. Soret. No. 88, Bruxelles, 1856, Impr. E. Devroye, and Lettre à M. C. J. Tornberg sur Quelques Monnaies des Dynasties Alides, in Revue Archéologique, 1856. A remarkable study of the development of Egypt's monetary system during the Middle Ages, from the Arab conquest until the fall of the Mamldk empire, was made by Michel de Boiiard in 1939 1. Based on extensive research in Medieval and modern lit erary sources, this publication presents a clear picture of the evo lution of economic life, and the political factors which played an important part therein. We are told what the country's original resources were and what caused its riches to be ceaselessly drained. M. de Bouard's paper deals with every aspect of the slow but inexorable process of impoverishment and the continuous efforts of consecutive governments to remedy the difficulties constantly arising. M. de Botiard's references are fully comprehensive and one can safely say that the author has made an excellent work on this subject. Of course, this study is entirely based on a critical anal ysis and synthesis of the numerous notes handed down by the Medieval Arab historians, but some information gained from modern numismatic works and catalogues of coin collections is also profitably used. A special merit of the work is the welldefined and set out role played by all the three metals — gold, silver and copper — in the monetary history of Egypt. Important contributions to the knowledge of the monetary evolution in the Muslim Middle East were also made by A. S. Ehrenkreutz. His « Extracts from the Technical Manual of Mansur Ibn B'arâ » is of great value to the knowledge of the minting technique, affinage, etc., used during the Ayyubid period 2 ; furthermore, he studied the fiscal administration of the same epoch and the sub sequent monetary changes 3. In other publications, Ehrenkreutz deals with the gold coinage only * 5. 1. Boúard (Michel de), Sur révolution monétaire de l'Egypte médiévale. In L'Egypte Con temporaine, XXX, No. 185, May 1939, p. 427-459. 2. Ehrenkreutz (Andrew S.), Kashf al asrár al ilmiya fi dar al darb al misriya, by Mansur ibn В 'ara al Dahabi al Kàmili( Extracts from the Technical Manual on the Ayyubid Mint in Cairo. In Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, XV, 1953, p. 502-514). 3. Ehrenkreutz (Andrew S.), Contributions to the knowledge of the fiscal administration of Egypt in the Middle Ages. In Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, XVI, 1954, p. 502-514. 4. Ehrenkreutz (Andrew S.), The standard of fineness of gold coins circulating in Egypt at the time of the Crusades. JAOS, LXXIV, 1954, p. 162-166. 5. Ehrenkreutz (Andrew S.), JAOS, LXXVI 1956, p. 178-184. however. 3. must be mentioned here. A first step towards independence was taken by Ahmad Ibn Tulûn. one should bear in mind that this country was. always as heavy as it was possible to squeeze out of the population. after Mahmud ibn Zengui's death. its currency was that of the Khalif. 1958. In Journal of the Eco nomic and Social History of the Orient. . 37-65 and I. however. Egypt had no inde pendent coinage . After the Arab conquest. When dealing with the economic or monetary history of Muslim Egypt. 257-296. From that time on. It is true that. sovereign state. but these issues were not different from any other issues of the Khalifate. by David Ayalon 4 This study too is based on literary sources alone. were minted in Cairo. p. its economic and political links with the Khalifate were severed and. the first gold issue bearing his name did not come out until 266 H.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 111 Another paper. and from 170 H onwards. was the first step in the slow bleeding of the country which received nothing in return from the Khalif. Saladin's rule in Egypt. During the whole Umayyad and 'Abbasid period. The situation changed drastically when Egypt fell under Fâtimid rule. brought no perceptible economic change to the population . although on a somewhat different subject. Another attempt towards independence was made by Muham mad Ikhshïd. not only did Saladin declare himself absolute master of Egypt — which fact is clearly expressed on his coinage — but his recognition of the Baghdad Khalifate became only an act of pure courtesy. In 569 H. Ayalon (David). pt. by 181 H. silver. the pondéral and monetary systems were reformed. only a province of the Khalifate. until the Fâtimid conquest in 358 H. although the cir1. I. 1. Egypt henceforth remained an independent. as it contains notes on the rapid debasement of the dirhem : « The System of payment in Mamlùk Military Society ». the country was completely independent. p. numismatically under the same circumstances. Although in 567 Saladin abolished the Fâtimid Khalifate and returned to the allegiance of the 'Abbâsids. al although under the Ikhshidids the weight of gold coins was not any more that of the legal dinar. pt. so that his complete independence should be reckoned as from that date only. However. The system of payment in Mamluk military society. who was appointed a full governor in 258 H. also gold. because of the newly introduced sh'ia doctrine. 1957. there was a new factor in the economic status of Egypt : the annual tribute. XXXIII. Direct examination of the coins — when the number of specimens allows a large scale enquiry — also permits to avoid such errors as may occur by individual interpre tationof historical notes. in his excel lent work « Al Malik al Kamel von Egypten und seine Zeit » 3 (p. fineness of metal. Études Numismatiques de l'Egypte Musulmane III. XXXV. A chemical examination of the coins. so does a study of weight. BIE. now establishes a proportion of 1/3 silver to 2/3 copper in the alloy. Études Numismatiques de l'Egypte Musulmane. this coinage did not differ essentially in its appearence and contents from the Fàtimid silver. It also enables us to grasp the true nature of countermeasures taken in times of crisis. 1958. BALOG dilating Fàtimid coinage was gradually replaced by currency struck in Saladin's name. Otto Harrasowitz. For example. or even necessary. Gottschalk. Al Malik al-Kdmil von Egypten und seine Zeit. Just as coin ep igraphy contributes important data to history. Balog (Paul). and abundance or scarcity of entire emissions. so that a true and coherent picture can be obtained.112 P. add to our understanding of the state of wealth at any given time. often insufficiently or erroneously explained by historians. to complete the information gathered from the historians — which was about the only knowledge we had so far — by as full an exa mination as possible of the coin material itself. On the other hand. it is necessary to study first the preceding Fàtimid epoch. from the arrival of the Fàtimids to the collapse of the Burji Mamluk empire. p. Balog (Paul). For example. This author thought that the current silver of the period was the so called Kâmeli dirhem of pure silver. There is no doubt that. 129) believes that the reform consisted of a debasement of the existing silver coinage. The same applies to the transition from the Ayyubid rule to that of the Mamluks. in order to understand the state of the economic and monetary evolution of the Ayyubid period. p. frequency or rarity of certain denomin ations. 416-424. of which we have described a large number 1 2. BIE. 2. 1951. of which it is but a continuation. 1930. literary sources state that the « round » dirhem struck in 622 H by Kàmel Muhammad contains 2/3 silver and 1 /3 copper. which was withrawn in 622 H and replaced by the new issue of a lesser 1. Wiesbaden. 1952. Hans L. it was thought useful. Gottschalk (Hans L. It is therefore necessary to examine the course of the economic life in Egypt as a whole. when speaking of Kàmel Muhammad's reform of 622 H.). 3. . lasting through the Ayyubid dynasty and the entire Mamluk period. the mesasurement of specific gravity — gives reliable results. more 1. As there was little silver left in the government coffers. When. in other words. it was necessary to use the assay method. Silver was then adopted as the official standard by which currency was counted and exchanged. however. and the low-grade dirhems waraq continued to circulate. and gold became a commodity with no fixed value . as it is now well known. Revue Numismatique. As an appreciable number of the coins with which we are now dealing are made of more or less base metal. during our many years' residence in Egypt. Fortunately. the fine silver coins were rapidly hidden by the public. such as the dirhem and its fractions . was repeatedly attempted by the Cairo mint since Saladin's days. gold became scarce and lost its standing as a monetary standard. the specific weight method becomes completely unreliable. in a crucible. 1961. it was purchased and sold at a daily fluctuating market price. We now know (cf.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 113 quality alloy. the lead * and the inferior metals had been absorbed by the crucible. At this point it must be recalled that. no research has yet been made on the chemical composition of Fàtimid. normal flan dirhems of the Syrian type. s . but always unsuccessfully. Under the last Fàtimids. whether some order could be brought into what appears to be a complete pondéral anarchy. the remaining pure silver was weighed \ The number of coins which could be used for this purpose was naturally restricted. we had occasion to collect a large enough coin material of these periods to enable us to melt down some of it in order to establish the fine silver content. the conservative method — i. the alloy is of poorer quality. For this purpose. Ayyubid and Mamluk silver. the coins had t. Consequently silver became the currency standard by which we should judge the state of the monetary situation and its changes during subsequent periods. with the addi tion of lead. Analytical Chemistry.o be melted down. When. To our knowledge. In cases where coins were numerous. 676-681. e. 1952. 24. Saladin had to sanction officially a situation which already existed.). p. chapter on Ayyubid silver of this paper) that the emission of good quality. nor has any enquiry been conducted as to whether these coins belong to cer tain denominations or not. Estimation of composition of ancient metal objects. in the heating process. For high quality silver alloys. Caley (Earle R. are well known. when the coins were scarce or even rare. We are told. p. II. They all concern Egypt under Fàtimid rule : Abu Dinar reports that the dinar struck by al M'uizz. Historia Monetae Arabicae. Not only did we want to find out whether the coins had weights approaching those of the legal dirhem and its fractions. as well as the countermeasures taken by the government to remedy the ensuing hard ships to the population. or an outbreak of epidemics. The following notes on the exchange rate between dinar and dirhem. p. they fail to recognise its true reasons in the continuous deterioration of the country's general resources. p. on another occasion. Sauvaire. but the pure silver content of the coins could only be calculated from the total weight of the piece and the percentage of silver it contained. I. the direct cause of the financial distress. it was exchanged for 35 dirhems. that at one given time. 2nd para. While our tables of fine silver content give only a relatively small number of figures and there are many gaps. p. Tunis). ANS. in such cases. BGA. We have endeavoured to note the weight of as many coins as possible of our collection. FATIMIDS The writings of Medieval Arab authors contain several notes on the progress of the economic life in Fàtimid Egypt and mention frequent times of crises and difficult periods. 35 f. III.Khitat. Chroniclers often attribute to natural calamities. 6. L and Farrugia de Candia (Bardo Museum. we feel that a general idea on the matter can be arrived at. and of the BM. for example. such as the failure of crops caused by an especially low Nile. p. had the value of 15 and 1/2 dirhems 4 Between 363 1. the dinar was worth 16 dirhems. It is however left entirely to the reader's imagina tion to find out why the value of apparently one and the same silver coin fluctuated to such an extent in such a short interval (436 H and 441 H). 275. the foun derof Cairo. BALOG assays were made . 24012. written by various Medieval authors. . In most cases. — Maqdisi. or that. been altered.114 P. — Maqrizi. 36. only one or two were examined. and 112 f. . — Maqrizi-Sacy Reprint. No chronicler ever mentions how the weight or the fine silver content of the dirhem had. 36 f. reaching soon one to 34 5. 239. BGA. 6. p. In 436 H. 374. ar. 2. It is not clear from the text whether there was a new emission. — Khitat I. and it is entirely left to our imagination to find out what their true nature was. Paris Ms. Arab. The circulating silver at that time is said to have consisted of « z'aida » and « qat'a » (cut) pieces. Amedroz (H. though it no doubt constituted a serious loss to the public and must have caused much bitterness. in 371 H 3 as well as in 390 H 4. p. the value of the Fàtimid dirhem was « week » 2. Ibn Hazary-Dozy. a crisis started. — Maqrizi. I. the value of the dirhem in relation to the dinar — and consequently its purchasing power — 1. but also a serious one. Maqrizi. In 399 H. the dinar was worth twenty dirhems.. Quatremère gives a slightly different value for the same year. Zeitschrift d. F. then we are told of a slight improvement. p. No information is forthcoming for the following 39 years . Ahmad al Jarjarài. 4. i. Traité des Famines. p. the crisis culminated in complete confusion. 290. p. . No.). 41619 and 47915. Kitab al Wuzara. 35 to the dinar 9. p.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 115 H and 365 H. p. in 441 H. p. Sauvaire I. in 395 H. 8. sup. Ges. 1938. Mustansir is said to have issued a new type of dirhem. — Maqrizi. In 397 H already. so that the corrupted dirhems had to be withdrawn and were forcibly replaced by new coins at the rate of 4 old dirhems against one new coin. II. 276-7. 9. 240. 7. Description de l'Egypte. for some (undetermined) time after Jawhar's occupation of Egypt. Anyway. 6r & v. or whether simply old full value coins hoarded in the state coffers were again put into circulation. de l'Egypte. the same exchange rate is recorded by Maqrizi S but a note by al Maqdisi (al Moqaddisi) simply says that. 193. p. the value of the dirhem rose from 1 : 18 to 1 : 16 7. under the wizirate of 'AH b. XI. 113 f. which proved not only a long. Descr.. Maqrizi. 16 1/4 dirhems to the dinar 8. the dirhem rapidly lost its value. 5. the rate of exchange was one to 26. 416 and 419. This sudden drop in the value of the dirhem is in no way explained by the historian. 6. fol. but no description is given. Mon. Mémoire Géographique sur l'Egypte. 395. p. e. II. II. Five years later however. 3. Hist. As can easily be seen from the above. Barely five years later.. Description de l'Egypte. p. Deutschen Morgenland. Their rate of exchange was fixed at one dinar to 18 dirhems 6. They are said to have caused much hardship to the public. Then we are told that. Fortunately. Consequently. 44>\ Sauvaire. BALOG fluctuated considerably during the Fàtimid administration in Egypt. especially during the later period. these. I. the weights are really individual. but also to its weight. These coins chiefly represent the period after al Mustansir's reign. We thereby hoped to find a pattern showing how the silver coinage was kept adjusted to the continuous decrease of silver stocks. We have. the Fàtimid silver flan was rather carelessly prepared. belong to one or the other denomination. Fàtimid silver is not now as rare as it used to be. these coins all the same. these coins could never have been accepted by count. Nor were any such coins available for the same purpose from private collections. in order to show whether a specific issue was based on the full dirhem or on one of its fractions. the actual weight of the coins.1. of course. but only by weight. are not mentioned. In the first place. fol. p. . a list of 164 Fàtimid silver coins was drawn up in chronological order. etc. p. therefore. For a long time. The Medieval Arab historians generally fail to give an explanation to the technical sides of the problem . As already mentioned in the introduction. that. the quarter and the eighth. incorporated the coins into four series. 1938. We know. — Maqrizi-Sacy. as well as the denominations which chiefly composed the issues. — Maqrizi. the half dirhem.) contain an appre ciable number of Fàtimid dirhems . and then mostly incor rectly 1. 208-9. we had to estimate the pure silver content and the weight of as many Fàtimid silver coins as possible. MS P. Bardo. as are those in our possession. It is true that the great collections (BM. however. The limit between the different fractions was fixed by us arbitrarily . ANS. In order to establish this amount. and. the weights of nearly all the coins in the above mentioned collections are noted. Séries Arabes. could never be sacrificed for the estimation of their pure silver content by a destructive method. within a certain limit. that of the full dirhem.116 P. Inaccurate as the weight may be. each coin in the column of the denomination to which it belongs. for any transaction on a larger scale. 44. a serious obstacle to such an investigation was the relatively great scarcity of Fàtimid silver. and the fineness of the alloy is noted only very exceptionally. not only with respect to its finish. our intention was to investigate the amount of pure silver which the government was able to put into the dirhem at each new issue. L. in due time. being less precious than gold. 102 d Khed. 77 BM. One has the impression that silver.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 117 As regards the fine silver content. It is hoped that. Weight of the silver coins in grams : 1 /Idrh.23 1. at least as regards silver.27 1. the conclusions to be drawn from the expe riment are valuable. during the long years of our coin collecting. 11 BM.58 1. It is there fore fortunate that. we have accumulated a certain number of specimens which could be used for chemical estimation of their fine silver content. 7 BM. 4 2. was prepared with less accuracy. 78 2. 1071 1072 . public collections still cannot afford to destroy some of their specimens for assaying. Al Mahdi 297-322 H Weight Ref. Weight Ref. 76 L.23 1. 9 RT. 10 BM.50 L.30 1. Weight L.32 1.40 1. While until now only thirteen coins have been committed to the furnace of the assayer. as more material becomes available.43 1. 6 BM. 1/8 DRH. or that the much praised ability of the Medieval minter did not reach a very high standard of skill. 1/2 DRH. Ref.30 1/4 DRH.36 1.65 BM. the entire Fàtimid period will be covered. 8 BM.40 1. varies considerably from specimen to specimen. It is interesting to note that the fine silver content. under one and the same ruler. the results show a definite tendency of debasement of the alloy. The following tables present a series of 164 silver coins with recorded weight : Fàtimids. Al though their number is necessarily small and only five of the Khalifs are represented. more assays will be performed and that. Weight Ref. 1. 25 1. 75 2. 16 RT. 69 2. 68 2. Weight Réf.45 1. 71 ANS.57 ANS.39 0. 13 0strup 1940 ANS.20 1.35 ANS. Suppl. 123 1/4 DRH. P. 73 ANS. 14 RM. 70 ANS. 44 RT. Weight RT.40 1.31 ANS.67 0.46 1. 85 ANS. 122 1. BALOG 1/2 DRH Weight Réf. 10 ANS.22 0strup 1937 1. Al Qaim 322-334 H Weight Réf. 11 BM. 32 T.70 RT.29 1. 16 L. 9 ANS.30 1.35 1.40 1. 131 BM.61 .31 1. 121 1. 49 0strup 1947 1948 1949 L. 116 ANS.45 1.118 1/1 DRH.45 1. 1/8 DRH.39 1. 15 RT. 72 ANS.40 1.20 1. Suppl. 117 ANS. 48 BM. 86 0. 46 RT. 43 R RT.91 1. 129 L. 19 BM.41 1. 1.40 1.26 ANS.73 0.27 1.37 1.35 1.70 Al Man súr 334-341 H Al Mu'izz 341-365 H RT.35 1. 74 ANS.96 ANS.43 1. Réf.47 1. 21 RT.25 1. 72 ANS.33 1.37 1. 130 L.75 1. 118 L. 15 ANS.39 1.37 1.45 0. 33 All Mu'izz Al 'Aziz 365-386 H 0.44 1. 45 RT. 58 RT. 119 1/8 DRH. 1. ANS.40 1.30 1.27 1.73 L. 408 1. 105 1. Weight Weight Réf. 181 1. 180 ANS.65 BM.58 0strup 1984 1.40 1. 184 1.12 ANS. 179 2.77 0.39 1. 388 (billon) ANS.98 1.42 0.05 1. 72 .08 1.41 1.93 0. 213 L. 214 ANS.62 1. Weight Réf.15 RT.35 1.25 ANS. 1/4 DRH. 209 L.32 L.79 1.40 1.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 1/1 DRH Réf. 185 ANS. 215 0. 103 BM. 191 3.37 1. 211 L. 257 ANS. 390 Al Mustansir BM. 104 L. 53 RT.77 (double drh. 212 L. 119 ANS. 193 f 427-487 H 1. 258 2. 73 0.40 1.05 ANS.05 0strup 1964 2. 253 1.10 1. 182 ANS.80 0.94 ANS.28 1. 106 0. 389 ' L.82 . 61 BM. 178 4.19 0. 68 RT.10 L.66 0.78 0.74 BM.35 1. 193 ANS. Weight Réf.42 1.30 0. 59 RT.20 1. 183 ANS.30 Al Zâhir 411-427 H ANS.36 ANS. 124 0strup 1952 1953 RT. 60 RT.31 Al IIâkim 386-411 H 0. 120 ANS.92 BM. ) ANS. 71 RT.86 0.50 1. 254 0.23 1.90 1. 123 h 2. Al 'Aziz 365-386 H 1/2 DRH.40 (double drh. 186 0strup 1958 1959 1960 RT. 210 L. 177 4. 386 (billon) ANS.36 1. 176 ANS.45 BM.24 0. ) ANS. .68 1. 1/4 DRH.65 1. XXXIII 1. XXXIII 4. Weight Ref.21 0. XXXV.60 5. BALOG 1/2 DRH. 3. XXXV 16.57 1.25 XXXV BIE. 2.01 1.67 XXXV 14. 405 L. from to 7-11. 3. 404 L. BIE. BIE. 1/8 DRH. Weight (billon) ANS. 409 BIE.00 1.79 XXV 1. 3-6.46 1. 1. 406 L. Al Mustanšir 427-487 H Weight Réf. BIE.23 2. 6. 2.88 1. 2. Weight Ref. BIE. 387 1 0strup 1983 L. Réf. 0. from to 13. 1.27 BIE.03 1.30 1. 7. P.120 1/1 DRH.42 0.99 BIE. 407 L.79 XXXIII 2.46 1.45 Al Must'ali 487-495 H Al Amir 495-524 H Al Muntazar 525-526 H Al IIafiz 526-544 H Soret Bergmann Balog unpubl.22 1.74 1. 1.10 BIE.93 0strup 1995 1996 1. 2.25 1. 1.08 1. BIE.58 1.07 Al Zafir 544-549 Al 'Adid 555-567 H Balog unpubl. 0.69 3. XXXIII. BIE. 1. 1.45 1.43 1.38 1/8 dirhem ( 7 coins) : 0. 4. Weight • 0. Balog unpubl. Al 'Adid 555-567 H 17.40 1.49 1. 1/1 dirhem ( 24 coins) : 2. 2.49 1.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 1/1 DRH. 121 1/8 DRH.75 1/2 dirhem (120 coins) : 1. 1. 3.25 11. XXXV 1.72 9. 18. 6. 2. 14. 2.35 1.26 1.99 1/4 DRH.74 Fàtimids.61 1/4 dirhem (13 coins) : 0. 3. 0. 2.21 4. Repartition of different denominations : 1/1 DRH Al Mahdi Al Qâim Al Mansûr Al M'uizz Al 'AzTz Al Hakim Al Zâhir Al Mustansir Al Must'ali Al Amir Al Muntazar Al Hâfiz Al Zâfir Al f Adid 2 3 4 2 1 2 1 1 8 24 1 /2 DRH 11 8 4 20 14 19 2 11 1 2 12 1 15 120 1/4 DRH 1 /8 DRH TOTAL 13 10 4 23 14 31 6 14 1 2 2 16 2 26 164 1 1 4 1 2 4 1 2 3 13 1 — 7 Average (approximative) weight of the Fâtimid dirhem.74 0. Ref. 13. Weight Ref. 1/2 DRH.25 8. Weight Ref. Weight Ref. 7.20 5.81 1.57 10. 15. 2.76 0.30 . 12.93 2.19 XXXV 3.43 1. 2. however. From the number of surviving full dirhems. yet his coins were still exchan ged : 20. however. with an average of 0. The steady quality of the coinage was. No entire dirhems are known of al 'Aziz . so that the dirhem weighs approximately 2. struck dirhems with less than 50 % of fine silver content. Ibn Hazary-Dozy.38 grams. the coinage was kept at a steady level of fineness.6 34 28. Soon after al Hakim's advent. for there are no records of any crisis until 441 H.60 grams. and that the bulk of the coinage consisted most of the time of half dirhems. This fact must have escaped the attention of the public. The quarter dirhem corresponds more exactly to the theoretical weight. and the fine silver content was quite high. . 1. and the half dirhem about 1. only apparent. The weight of the coins remained at this level until the end of the dynasty. because the value of the dirhem remained between 16 and 18 to the dinar until 441 H. 'Aziz Hakim Zâhir Mustansir 1) 2) Al 'Adid Al Al Al Al 81 66 /o 86 66 48 46. as al Zahir. One should think that somehow. the alloy is now only two-thirds silver for one-third copper. Moreover. The fact that under al M'uizz the dinar was exchanged for 15 1/2 dirhems indi cates that. although there are four full dirhems. during the following period. the weight of the coins by about ten percent. which explains the 395 H crisis. it appears that the Fâtimids issued their silver coinage according to the system of the dirhem. They reduced. the bulk of his coinage is defi nitely made up of half dirhems. the coinage definitely worsened . 290. In the first place. however. as well as al Mustansir.122 P. BALOG Fine silver content of the Fâfimid silver coins.75 gram. This appears to be confirmed by the average weight which did not diminish. it seems that rela tively few entire dirhems circulated. p. when a new issue with only 34 % pure silver content suddenly lowered the purchase power of the dirhem (35 to the dinar) x. the full coin was still in use. however. at that period.8 88 70 48 31 25 Several conclusions can be drawn from these tables. as far as 583 H. 29-31 and offprint from J. — SuyOti. 245. Hist. I. the exact meaning. 6. — Khitat I. however. Arab. Ibn B'ara's manuscript was not yet published. p. Maqrizi. 4. and I?. the silver content of al 'Adid's coins dropped to an even lower level. 11021 f. In Dû al Qàda 622 H came the famous reform of Kàmil Muhamm ad. p. . 5. This new coin was sup posed to contain two thirds of silver and one third of copper 2. 37-39. 300 f. Einfuhrung und Chreslomathie zur Arabischen Papyruskunde. when the entire silver currency was withdrawn and replaced by the new round dirhems (mostadirah). Modern authors often tried to identify the dirhem nuqra. as used in 1. AYYUBIDS The first report in literary sources on the silver coinage of the Ayyûbids shows that. Origi nally nuqra (°^£3) meant an ingot of silver (or gold). Mon. II. as. the black dirhems must have remained in circulation. I5. 117 f. the manufacturing of the пщга flans. Husn al Muhadara. p.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 123 Finally. p. Saladin withdrew from circulation the then current black dirhems or dirhems waraq and issued the so-called Násiri dirhems. 2. in the month of Shawâl 583 H. 39. Nevertheless. The only other important literary work on the matter is a tech nical manual composed by a retired official of the Ayyubid mint in Cairo 4. — Sauvaire. among others. reference No. — Sauvaire. p. p. de l'Egypte. Dozy.3. 2. 367. it only contained 25 to 30 % pure silver. This notice also indirectly means that Saladin continued to circulate silver essentially similar to the latest Fàtimid issues. — Sauvaihe. although the weight of the money was about the same. I2 p. Maqrizi. The new Nàsiri coins were reported to remain in circulation well within the reign of Kàmil Muhammad. 22623 f. 240-243. p. Grohmann (Adolf). No more eloquent indication of the great shortage of silver in the country can be imagined than this extreme debasement of the currency. p. Descr. Maqrizi. or else nonminted silver (or gold) \ The expression dirhem nuqra has been discussed in detail by Grohmann « . p. I. 213. 58 f. 710.. . p. p. containing equal parts of silver and copper г. I. Hist. A. Cf. Arab. Ibn B'ara's treatise describes. p. as.. p. 208209. I5. Mon. This treatise has precious information on many a detail of the minting procedure.. Supplément aux Dictionnaires Arabes. but failed to do so. because Maqrïzi relates that around 640 H one Násiri dirhem was worth three dirhems waraq 3. The results are shown on the following tables in chronological order. Fortunately.80 0. CAIRO Dirhems waraq. individual volume. — NC.20 0. BIE.69 0. the name had different meanings. The percentage of pure silver content is also given on a separate table. Ibn B'ara gives an exact description of the technique by which the flan of the dirhem nuqra was produced : the molten silver was poured over a wooden cone (covered with charcoal) from which it cascaded into a basin of water placed underneath. necessarily escaped him. 1955. after appropriate heating but without further adjust ment. The resulting globular dirhems are now well known x . Sàleh Ayyùb. Mu'azzam Toronshàh and to the early Bahri Mamluk period (Ashraf Músa under Aibak and Shajar al Durr). 408-411) Saladin I. 1951. of course. Balog. For Mahmud b. Silver. BALOG Ayyubid Egypt. 33 0 . Ayylbids. directly struck in the dies.28 1. 1951 and XXXV.36 1. they belong to the reigns of Kàmil Muhamm ad.124 P. As sovereign : a) under the Khalif al Mustadi : 2. p. For Egypt under Ayyubid rule. p. each a frozen drop of irregular shape and. (BIE XXXV. p. however. 1953.92 (BIE XXXIII.75 1. were then. and probably in different count ries. 82 1. Some confusion is caused by the fact that at different times.26 0. 27) II. with the individual weight recorded and the coins listed according to denominations. The resulting small ingots. XXXIII.19 0. 1952. weight in grams. we can now compare the few notes left to us by the chroniclers with the information obtained from the examination of a great number of coins. XV. 201 . Zengui : 1 . 91 1.77 0 . .14 1 . . 15 1.. 98 0.73 0.. 93 0.16 0. 58 1.18 0 .34 1 . 66 1.00 1 .69 1. 78 0.37 1 .94 1.47 1 .00 1 . 12 1. 30 1.. 14 1. 53 1. 04 0.34 1 .48 0.96 1 .69 1 .. 24 0.67 0.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 1.99 ťAzTz 'Othmân 1 .82 0. 12 0.26 0.40 1 .38 1 ..97 1 .76 1.28 1 . 83 1.35 1 .47 125 . 65 1.37 1 . .99 1 .. 66 1.65 1.30 1 .36 0 ... 98 0.. 04 0. 04 b) under the Khalif al 2.15 1.72 1.34 1 .22 1 .07 1 .77 1 . 32 0.75 0 .10 0 .42 0. 65 0. 21 1.15 1.96 1.86 1.59 1.81 1.09 1.75 0. 1953.23 1.80 0.90 0.17 0.68 .65 1.54 2.82 1.35 1. 417-420) With Khali f al Nasir : 2.59 1.07 1. p.44 (BIE XXXV.99 Kâmel Muhammad 1.74 1.46 1.24 1.22 1.70 0.126 P.81 0.96 0.19 1.52 1.18 1.61 0.31 0.49 0.85 Globular dirhems : 0.49 1.58 1.90 Mansúr Muhammad 1.42 'Adel I 1.76 0.76 0.19 1.14 0. BALOG 0.23 1.73 0. 1953. p.88 1.32 2.68 0.92 0.32 0. p.31 TORONSHÂH (BIE XXXV.93 With Khalif al Mustansir : 1. 421-423) 1.93 1.76 0.40 1.12 2.96 1.93 'Adel II Saleh Ayyub (BIE XXXV.77 1.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT With Khalif al Mustadi : 1.78 1.90 1. 1953.79 1.85 1.55 1.82 1.83 1.39 2.59 1.58 1.19 1. unpublished) With Khalif al Nasir : 4.00 0.99 (Balog.92 0.67 127 .75 1.73 0.66 1.10 0. 423) 2.62 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.73 (Balog unpublished) 2.36 1.16 0.97 (Balog unpublished) 2.65 With Khalif al Mustansir : 3. .2 30 . 'Adel II. 2.5. 8 28 20 .72 4. 28 . 25. 70 Percentage of fine silver content : CAIRO Dirhems waraq. 1952. The fine silver content of the Cairo normal flan dirhems of Saladin (BM. 28 .6 % fine silver 33. 26.32 grams 2. Sâleh Ayyûb 30.36 grams 2.5. 26 Normal flan dirhems. 28 . 28 N. (81 specimens examined).. 2. 26 27 . 28. 28 . 27. 28 . 26-28) 1.97 74.5. 608) is not known.75 5. BALOG Approximative weight of the waraq and globular dirhems. 867ZZ) and of 'Adel I (L. 2.4. 2. 5 . 29 . 23 — 28. 2. 29 .128 P. Sâleh Ayyûb (BIE. 28 . 27. 27. As sovereign 'Aziz 'Othmân Mansûr Muhammad .89 3. Kâmel Muhammad Globular dirhems." 'Ade'l I .. 43 0 . For Mahmud b. 28. 29 . Zengui II. Saladin I. p. struck in Cairo. Double dirhem Full dirhem Half dirhem Quarter dirhem ( 1 ( 3 (54 (23 coins) coins) coins) coins) 4. B. XXXIV.46 1 . 70 2. and was meant to replace the unsatisfactory black dirhem. he allowed that the Fâtimid black dirhem should continue to circulate freely. Another unique specimen. 81. 77. 78 86. Maqrizi.2. 76. p. 79 80. which was supposed to contain silver and copper in equal parts. Revue Numismatique. . 88.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT SYRIA All coins on normal flan. The latter should have been withdrawn from circulation x.62 From the above tables. and five normal flan 1.2 79. 80.80 2. 80 76. 1961. although he struck silver of his own. 89. Arab. In the first place. 37-39 and 114-117. and Balog unpublished coins.84 2. .00 2. 73. As already mentioned. 88.72 2. BIE. 76 Aleppo Damascus Damascus Damascus Damascus 636 H after 643 H Hamáh Damascus Hamáh Damascus Damascus « Damascus » ToRONSHAH Ism'aTl.77 2. Secondly.4.85 129 MINT FINE SILVER o/ /o 94 94 90.66 3. 'Adel II Saleh Ayyûb 38 29 29 7 8 30 2. in 583 H Saladin issued a new dirhem called Ndsiri. ofSâleh Saleh Ism'aTl ňasir yûsuf Crusader imitations 13 NUM 7 25 40 19 2. Mon.76 2. it becomes immediately clear that Saladin did not change the quality of the Fàtimid silver coinage. 245 coins in BM. That such a Násiri dirhem has really been issued is shown by a unique normal flan dirhem of Syrian style struck in Cairo in 586 H (BM 867 7L).. issued in Cairo by Saladin's brother al 'Adel I in 600 H (L. 72. the latter had exactly the same aspect and composition as its Fâtimid prototype. 609). 80 80 76 89. 87 86 83. 81. Hist. Fine silver content : BER OF AVERAGE COINS WEIGHT Saladin 'Azïz 'Othmán 'Adel I Kamel Muhammad .80 2. BALO G Cairo dirhems of Sàleh Ayyub around 645 H or 646 H (BIE. however. shortlived attempts which failed because of the general shortage of silver. an average of 28 %. so that in fact the reform changed the aspect of the coins. XXXIV. Maqrïzi's assertion. 1952. but it also contained the same percentage of fine silver. but the black dirhems continued to circulate in such quantities that. without any doubt. however. contain about the same amount of fine silver. As already stated. . by 'Azïz 'Othmàn. of the whole Ayyubid period. and the black dirhems of Kàmel Muhammad were in no way worse than those issued by 'Adel I. They were issued by Saladin. e. in 622 H al Kâmel Muhammad introduced his famous monetary reform . p. that the first alternative is the correct one. However. from Saladin to Kâmel. No deterioration of the coinage can be detected during the period preceding 622 H. but not their intrinsic value. I believe. The reform was probably the final result of continuous difficulties caused by the worthless coinage. that the Násiri dirhems successfully and completely replaced the dirhems waraq (black dirhems) is to be accepted with much caution : much too few of these normal flan dirhems (struck in Cairo) have been preserved in order to ascertain whether they were isolated. they must have consti tuted the bulk of the entire silver currency. al 'Adid's dirhem had an average fine silver content of around 28 %. Not only have but one or two Ndsiris been preserved. are further proof that such coins of finer alloy have been periodically issued. As already stated. or whether there was a great quantity in circulation which later disappeared. 26-28). 'Azïz 'Othmàn or Saladin himself. A glimpse at the table of fine silver percentage of the Ayyubid coins shows that aTl the emissions. Not only did the Ayyûbid black dirhem retain the external aspect of the Fàtimid dirhem waraq. the average silver content of the round dirhem was now even a little less than that of the dirhem waraq. More often than not. he withdrew the entire silver currency then in circulation and struck new round dirhems (mostadïrah). then by Mansur Muhammad and 'Adel I. the dirhems waraq were the only silver coins issued. the average was around 27 %. the « reform » of 622 H was nothing but a huge fraud. As far as can be ascertained from the largely fluctuating figures (between 23 and 30 %). It is not clear what the immediate reason for the introduction of this reform was. and even by Kâmel Muhammad until 622 H. Mansur Muhammad. i.130 P. Instead of being better. as recorded by Maqrizi.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 131 Nevertheless. The only specimen which has been assayed has. and even under the Bahri Mamluks. 26-28) to issue normal flan dirhems in Egypt. Sauvaire continues to identify the round di rhems of 622 H with the dirhems Kâmeli. We believe therefore that there is some confusion in the text of Maqrizi. Arab. p. and not the reverse. however. 'Adel I (L. of dirhems waraq until 622 H. a pure silver content of 74. Sauvaire. about ten per cent less than the Syrian prototype. To the Ayyubid kings. On the next page. also : BM. these coins were produced in Cairo until the amir Mahmud the ustàdàr (in 781 H) replaced silver with copper issues. It should be mentioned however that the matter is not easy to understand from Maqrïzi's records. Offprint. XXXIV. suppressed the dirhems waraq and issued round dirhems called Kâmeli . and Sauvaire does nothing to clear it up. says that Kàmel Muhammad. The ultimate reason for the impoverishment of Egypt. made of 2/3 silver and 1/3 copper. I. in 620 (!). These dirhems imitate the aspect of the Syrian coin of superior quality and also try to attain its fineness. We have globular dirhems not only of Kâmel Muhammad. who ruled simultaneously over Egypt and Syria. and of globular dirhems (mustadïra) after that date. the colossal incongruity between the excellent Syrian silver and the inordinately debased Egyptian coinage must have caused many a disturbing problem. It appears from the evidence of these coins that the regular coinage in Ayyubid Egypt consisted. we conclude that in Ayyubid Egypt the globular dirhems remained the current coinage and pro bably the only one.. Mon. 1952.6 % only. Maqrizi. which 1. Hist. 208-210. 2. in his Matériaux 2. all with a silver content of around 27%. the introduction of the globular dirhem was suc cessful and thereafter constituted the only Egyptian silver cur rency up to the end of the Ayyubid dynasty. The proof of it is that repeated attemps were made by Saladin * (cf. but also of Sàleh Ayyúb and Mu'azzam Toronshàh. 608) and Sàleh Ayyub (BIE. From the te stimony of the coins themselves. 867/z). 37-39 and 114-117. p. probably exclusively. The repeated attempts to introduce the Syrian type dirhem seem to have failed. p. and repeats that they were in general use during the remaining Ayyubid period. . Its content was one-third silver to two-thirds of copper. The Fâtimids were already engaged in defensive military action in Syria. and naturally had to be paid for in gold or silver. which were suff icient to supply the necessary gold for circulation under the Umayyads and 'Abbâsids.25 grams) of gold for so many dirhems. consequently. when taking over the administration of Egypt. under the Fâtimids. This was all the more serious. the war in Syria was greatly activated and became more or less permanent. but also the currency necessary for the army's expenses in Syria and the soldiers' pay. began to dry up. which the Arabs found and exploited since the conquest of Egypt. The armies — those already in the war theater and the reinforcements ceaselessly recruited in Egypt — had to be equipped and supplied from their Egyptian bases. . was confronted with the very grave problem of shortage of funds. gold lost its position as a standard of currency. and from now on was consi dered only as a commodity with a daily fluctuating market price. which can only be consi dered as a revolutionary step. 1. 1. practically empty. has been masterfully pointed out by Michel de Botiard 1. to various basic factors : The inexhaustible sources of gold. were now. The mines of Nubia and the innumerable antique tombs. and there forethe constantly diminishing stock of gold or silver could not be replaced. silver was to become the new stan dard of coinage. gold became so scarce that Saladin decided on a change of the monetary standard. He attributes the continuous decrease in wealth. the incessant flight of gold and silver from Egypt. calculated in silver dirhems : one mithqàl (4.132 P. It is not surprising therefore that all efforts to repair the damage caused to the silver coinage of Egypt proved unsuccessful in the face of the continuous outflow of gold and silver. as well as against his Muslim rivals. this metal had also to be bought abroad . Cf. reference No. As no silver mines existed. As there was not enough gold to satisfy the needs of circulation. Saladin. the precious metals began to flow steadily out of the country. by which all payments had to be made . BALOG started unter the Fâtimids but reached its highest peak unter the Ayyubids. Many commodities which could not be found in the country were imported. Egypt had no export worth mentioning. Under Saladin. The Cairo treasury had to supply not only arms and equip ment. as he was obliged to start campaining in Syria against the Crusaders. In the meantime. No mention is made in the chronicles of the copper coinage or the relationship between silver and copper during the Fàtimid or the Ayyubid administration of Egypt. 3. 2. 443. de l'Egypte. 45. p. who relates an exchange rate of 20 dirhems to the dinar. from Saladin to Sâleh Ism'ail. Subh al 'Asha. This author also states that. 288. 4. It is therefore the first time that. as well as by the soldiers themselves for their own necessities and luxuries. Histoire des Sultans Mamelouks. I. de l'Egypte. p. 39.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 133 On the other hand. that of Syria was definitely flourishing.80 grams and the fine silver content between 80 and 94 %. at a time of political troubles. the weight of the dirhem is always around 2. p. MAMLÛKS More notes on Mamluk coinage have come down to us in the Medieval Arab literature than either on Fàtimid or Ayyubid cur rency. fol. — Maqrizi-Sacy. 2nd part. 345-6. II. which is a rather low purchase value for the copper coin. the exchange rate between dirhem and fels is discussed . As a direct con sequence. between 658 H and 676 H. its coinage stable and of high qual ity. 44'. 167. p. according to Maqrizi S the Záheri dirhems. Ibidem. A flagrant discrepancy is however found for the same year 660 H in Quatremère 4. p. 5. — Maqrizi-Sacy. when Egypt's economy was on the verge of ruin. p. 226. contained 70 % pure silver and 30 % copper. when the remaining small part of Ayyúbid Syria was breaking up altogether. MS P. — Sauvaire. 1. the dinar was worth 28 1 /2 dirhems 2. p. struck in 658 H. III. The table of weights and fine silver content of the Syrian Ayyubid coinage shows that. Descr. I. The first sultan mentioned was Baibars I . This rate of exchange seems to have been maintained under Nàsir Muhammad's reign also 5.* the dirhem brought 48 felûs. 1938. . and gives the same figure for 660 H 3. in Qalqashandi e. during the reign of Nàsir Muhammad b. Only during al Nàsir Yusuf's occupation of Damascus (648-658 H) was the fine silver content of the dirhem lowered to 72-76 %. Descr. Reprint. 298. II. the money brought to Syria was lavishly spent there by the army for local supplies. 6. p. Qalâun. 'Ali. The next notice. to strike dirhems of a new type10. From that time on the ratio between the dinar and the dirhem (1 to 20) remained stable for a long period : there are notices to this effect for the years 745 4. 73. 7. the copper had to be imported from Europe and paid for with silver. p. But. Ibidem. that one mithqâl of gold fetched 11 dirhems only 3. II. 212. vol. 3*. Ďescr. and fol 4v. struck in Cairo. in 781 H. II. p. 2nd part. IX. Ibidem.134 P. This happened under the wizirate of Barquq. Ibn Fubàt. fol. 6. When Faraj succeeded his father Barquq. Ibidem. 16 fî. ordered his wizïr. so much gold went into circulation. Barquq. II. The dirhems of this issue seem to have been valued at the rate of thirty to the dinar. p. the exchange rate fell to 1 : 30. this order had however to be with drawn very soon and in 741-742 H already. Maqrizi-Sacy. with the effect that the striking of dirhems practically ceased. it was not large enough to upset the balance for long. 61. 163. II. This ratio was violently upset in the same year (742 H) when. 231 and 309. to have caused much harm to the public. however rich the loot. has been preserved. in 789 H. p. 316. II. Towards the end of his first reign. during Mansúr 'Ali's sultanate. И. the Kdmeli and Zdheri dirhems. after the looting of the amir Qawsan's palace. p. were now « altered » by the emission of the « Mahmudi » dirhems. 9. to issue large quantities of copper fulús . they are said. Mahmùd b. II. we do not know what really the « Mahmudi » dirhems were . Then suddenly. A notice later in the same year ment ions once more the earlier ratio of 1 to 20 between gold and silver. Jarkas al Khalili. in 794 H. 231. 757 to 760 7. 4. . The situation worsened considerably when. Ibidem. de l'Egypte. the dinar/dirhem 1. Reprint. 11. Ibidem. Husn al Muhadara. 35. Barquq ordered his ustàdàr. Ibidem. for 761 H 8. As no silver of Mansur 'Ali's reign. 3. MS Vienna. 39. 8. and there is no explanation for this crisis. now the sultan. p. 10. 4-3 from bottom. nevertheless. II. in 770 H. BALOG Suyuti x states that in 740 H the course of the dinar was off icially fixed at 25 dirhems. p. says that. 746 \ 751 to 753 6. in Maqrizi 9. 5. the rate 1 to 20 was again restored 2. p. which continued to circulate until that date. 2. and finally. p. Constantinople. Even to-day. 2nd part. 15. struck dirhems of pure silver . the new silver was put into circulation and the population rejoiced at the abundant emission of dirhems of such excellent quality e. p. 3. it was not the silver dirhem which lost its value with such rapidity. Faraj decreed that the dinar was to be valued at 100 dirhems 3 and in 808 H. the economic situa tionmust have been greatly troubled. 61. Ibn Iyâs. 57. Both attempts failed because of the complete lack of precious metals. Cf. éd. p.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 135 exchange rate was still 1 to 30 г. Réf. 8. « pennies ». as we read that. but the copper fels referred to in its relation to the dirhem. and copper was the only currency available in sufficient quantities. Things went from bad to worse. a monetary system based on the Venetian zecchino. The ratio even reached the level of 370 to one. p. Ibidem. in the popular tongue in Egypt. 15 ff. the dinar was already worth 460 dirhems 8. In 815 H. II. II. 30 of these coins were exchanged against a dinar of gold 5. 4. In 807 H. Faraj made two attempts to save the currency : one in 803 or 804 H. Nuqùd. 5. the new sultan. Two years later. p. this time introducing a new gold coin of 3. p. when Faraj came into power. and the second in 810 H. 167 (in Sauvaire. 1. the dirhem has once more dropped to 320 per dinar. . 7. when. the sultan issued an order to strike dirhems (Muayyadi). al Muayyad Shaikh. on the 24th Safar 818 H. 272. 1292 AH. and not necessarily « si lver coins ». in 817 H. p. now became money of account and was expressed in terms of fels 2. 316). Silver. the mithqàl of gold was valued at 151 dirhems-fels. 2. Khitat. Actually. This may explain the confusion which sometimes has resulted when modern authors speak • of the rapid deterioration of the dirhem. Silver however became very scarce. VI. virtually non-existent. Maqrizi. but barely a year later. In any case. p. in both cities. Husn al Muhâdara. Descr. « Dirhem-fels » (in Arabic dirhem min al fulus) simply means the number of copper coins equivalent to the dirhem(money of account). when he tried to re-establish the ancient standard of the gold-dinar. de l'Egypte. At the beginning of 856 H. 292. Ainàl fixed it at 300 to the dinar 7. it was worth 300. 54. 6. whereas at the same time in Alexandria. in 862 H. II.40 grams. the mithqàl-fels exchange rate was 1 to 250 4. 420. « darâhim » means « coins ». in Cairo. Abvj'l Mahâsîn. 11. Suyuti. I. in 806 H. II. established the silver dirhem as their coin standard instead of the dinar. Inst. became only a commodity. Finally. we came to the conclusion that the Bahri dirhem did not have the exact weight of the legal dirhem. BALOG We have but little information on the dirhem during the fo llowing period. one in silver and the other in billon (?) . Orientale. one should take into consideration a certain negligence in the often hurriedly carried out minting. for instance. Nevert heless. 3. that a half dirhem (nusf al fidda) fetched 14 copper coins *. 138. The effect of the artificially fixed exchange rate on the economic life can be easily imagined. p. however. 1945. when apparently each coin had a different individual weight. In 881 H. Ibidem. Until a short time ago. instead of 36. Français d'Arch. the circulation of the new fulùs increased to such an extent. p. just as their predecessors. in spite of many fluctuations and irregularities. Ibidem. confusion and complaints ensued 2. silver could only be accepted by weight because of the constant filing and cut ting around the edges of the coins 3. Le Cairo. This is. directly due to the fact that the Bahri Maml uks. If. as it was really difficult to establish any order. The dirhem was the real unit. In 873 H. causing much prejudice 1. therefore. in 903 H. 436. On the whole. We have studied Mamluk coins for over ten years and agree that the gold issues have quite irregular.136 P. Ibidem. 2. by which all transactions were carried out. In the same year. one ratl of the newly issued copper coins sold for 24 dirhems nuqra (« nuqra » here probably stands for the real silver coin). Ibn Iyâs-Wiet. which had a fluctuating daily market price. Lane-Poole went so far as not even to note the weight of Mamlúk coins in his Catalogue of Islamic Coins in the Khedivial Library. the Ayyubids. Following our studies. as was usual previously. individual weights. II. Gold. . p. to many an author it seemed that the Mamluks did not follow any metrological system at all in their coinage. the half dirhem was worth 18 pieces of copper . The few existing notes deal mostly with the copper issues and their often enforced course. one can observe that the 1. 4. as has already been pointed out. this had a certain justification. 21. there were however two tariffs. the currency standard. 57 1..71 (double ?) 2.33 1.75 1.83 0.70 1.76 0.33 1.80 4.50 1. . .43 1. . . Approximative average weight of 556 specimens : FULIj DIRHEM HALF DIRHEM QUARTER DIRHEM ber of coins Shajar al Durr ASHRAF MÙSA .HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 137 Bahri mamllks.30 (double ?) 4.53 0.92 0.00 (double ?) 2.90 0. Kâmel Sh'abàn .93 0.Iajji .93 3.73 4.50 2. Salamish Qalâûm Khalïl Ketbughâ LÂJÏN Baibars II Nâsir Muhammad Nasir Ahmad . .75 2.42 1.10 2.lÂJJI.43 2. Mansûr mad ASHRAF Sh'aBÂN..75 2. . .73 13 1 1..85 3.75 (double ?) 3.66 2.56 1. .00 2.68 2 1 10 2 3 2 1 0. Sâleh I.76 2. . Nàsir Hassan.63 2. SÂLEH SÂLEH • • .75 375 full dirhems 160 half dirhems 21 quarters ..10 1 9 5 62 12 14 15 12 6 7 1 1 1 1. .67 1.63 3.87 2.77 3. 4 1 18 8 3 91 21 8 46 15 14 6 2 43 1 27 6 11 13 2 2 12 11 2 2 2 4 • Weight ber of coins Weight ber of coins Weight 3. Qutuz Baibars I Baraka Qân...58 1.30 2.82 2. AlBAK Mansûr 'Ali . . Sàleh Ismaïl' .50 • 1. Mansûr 'Ali.20 3.34 1.87 2.52 2. MUZAFFAR I.00 2. 50 1.75 9 0. . Qâitbâi Nâsir Muham mad QÂNSÙH AL GhÙRI 2 1 2 2 0.63 1. BALOG Burji Мамы" ks.42 1.35 1. or to one of its fractions.40 1.77 Jaqmaq AlNÂL Khúshqadam.62 1.08 (1/2 + 1/4) 2 3 15 40 46 15 33 5 13 89 full dirhems Weight DIRHEM QUARTER DIRHEM Numb er of coins 2 Weight Barquq Faraj 4 16 1 11 Must'ain Muayyad Shaikh 23 Muzaffar Ah mad Sâleh Muham mad Barsbâi 34 4.73 0.45 319 half dirhems 20 quarters individual coins all belong either to the denomination of the full dirhem. I believed that silver coins struck by consecutive sultans were gradually and constantly redu cedin weight.03 (1/4 + 1/8) 1.75 0.45 1. which. for some time now is in preparation for printing.50 1.68 2.00 (double ?) 2:68 4.65 1. . In the manuscript of my « Mamlúk Coins ».80 0.19 0. This order was not clear regarding the Burji Mamluk coinage.15 1.64 2 0.138 P. . .30 1.42 1.30 (double ?) 2. Approximative average weight of 427 specimens DIRHEM Numb FULL er of coins Weight Numb HALF er of coins 8 1 5 121 2 2.66 1. 66 63 64.5. 73. 68. 90. 46 74.4. 73 . Bahri. 90 96. 73. 92.5. The following tables present the approximative average weight of the different denominations. 66. 92 96. Kâmel Sh'aban MUZAFFAR HaJJI Armenian Trams overstruck by Nâsir Muhammad b. 95.5 95. as well as the Bahris and before them the Ayyûbids. the number of coins with known weight. 65.5.5.7 . o/ /o 74 77 . in percent.6. Aibak ' Baibars I. 96. 73. 90. This hoard. an important hoard of al Muayyad Shaikh's silver was recently acquired by us.5. 65. silver became more and more scarce.2.5 95. Fine silver content of the dirhem. 92. There is no difference of alloy between the Syrian and Egyptian issues. 66 .4 77. 49. the authorities had to be content with the issuing of the half and quarter dirhem. 95. 96. and the fine silver content expressed in percentage of a number of specimens. composed of over twohundred full dirhems and fractions. Baraka Qân Khalil Nâsir Muhammad • dirhems waraq normal flan Nâsir Hassan Saleh Ïsm'aïl : . Mamlûks. enabled us to correct our incomplete knowledge on the subject. 74.5. 72. 82. As. We are now convinced that the Burji Mamluks. 66.5.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 139 Fortunately. 91. Qalâûn '. Naturally.5. 66 . however. 95. 62 77 67 78. the emissions were constantly reduced in volume. 52. Muayyad Shaikh Barsbai Ainal Qâitbâi o/ /o 94.2 68 70. 68. and finally. 94.5. 69.6 Burji. 92. in ever decreasing numbers. followed the classical dirhem system in the manufacture of their silver coinage.5 95. 68. 64. 66. as silver Burji coins are rather scarce. 95. the assays were restricted in number. The silver content of his coins is high. in view of the extreme rarity of the specimens. and. Regarding these. and an ever increasing wealth of gold and silver in Syria. to a lesser extent. so that.140 P. Mansur cAli and Qutuz. During the entire Bahri period. namely. of the Syrian normal flan type. similar to the Ayyubid prototype silver struck in Cairo. the full dirhem appears with the same frequency. The first Mamluk rulers. he issued currency profusely. . with a certain fluctuation tolerated. son of Baibars. The half dirhem is also frequent from the beginning to the end of the dynasty. BALOG Hereunder we shall endeavour to make good use of the above data covering the entire Mamluk period. The financial policy of the Ayyubids. was dictated by the prevailing conditions. only 67 %. Bahri period. Although the coinage continued to imitate the Ayyubid emissions under Aibak. Shajar al Durr. It should be noted here that a dirhem of Baraka. the coins had to be weighed. They could have been accepted by count for small so-called household pur chases. Although the bulk of the emissions consisted mostly of full dirhems. but also the fractions were near enough to the legal weight. and one of Khalïl. enough half dirhems. contains 74 % pure silver. Not only the full dirhems. The only coin of this period which could have been ana lysed. the fineness varies between 62 and 77 %. but the quarter is much more scarce and has apparently been altogether discontinued after Sàleh Ism'ail. and so is that of the fractions. The weight of the full dirhem is more or less equal to the legal dirhem. but there are important fluctuations between the individual specimens . from now on. quarters. they reversed their line of conduct as far as Egypt was concerned and a marked improvement is to be observed. issued globular dirhems only. The fluctuations were nevertheless important enough. the silver was. and the Ayyubid prin celing Ashraf Musa (a puppet of Aibak's). in large transactions. As soon as the early Bahri Mamluks consolidated their rule. son of Qalàûn. The abundance of Baibars's silver coins in all the modern collections is a testimony that during his 18 years of reign. as already described above. we have no data on their fine silver content. were struck for the needs of household transactions. contains 77 % silver. by a disastrous deficit in precious metals in Egypt. a dirhem of Aibak's. Baibars I introduced what was to become the Mamluk coinage proper. the Bahri Mamluk silver coinage is a tremendous improvement over the Ayyubid globular dirhem. . were caused by the poor silver content of the square flan dirhems waraq struck during that year ? A few heavy dirhems were issued towards the end of the Bahri dynasty . only they are larger and their weight is not different from that of the normal flan dirhems. we have noted the fine silver content of three Armenian trams which have been overstruck by Nàsir Muhammad. or paid as a tribute by the Armenians over a period of many years. In spite of the fluctuating individual weight of the coins and the relatively wide limits of the fine silver content. 134. captured in Sis in one of Nàsir Muhammad's raids. The alloy of the Bahri dirhem usually contains between 62 and 78 % fine silver.) These square coins have a much wider range of fluctuation of the fine silver content than any other Bahri issue . But he also issued square flan coins. it certainly belongs to the traditional dirhem system. (They are of thick fabric. 1 on p. the whole gamut of percentages appears right down to 46 %. one would be tempted to classify these as double dirhems. The Armenian trams.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 141 What has been said of the fine silver content of the coins of Baibars I generally applies to the entire Bahri period. Also. notwithstanding the various differences in weight. They prove that the alloy used for the Armenian coinage was at least equivalent to that circulating in the Mamluk empire.75 and 4. were overstruck in great quantities by the Mamluks. Finally. Cf. were it not for their much lighter weight (between 3. a not negligible number for this 1. besides specimens of as high a silver content as 78 %. which contain about thirty coins. Special mention must be made of Nàsir Muhammad's coinage. Réf. His normal flan dirhems do not differ in silver content from all the other Bahri coins. Burji period.71). The pressing shortage of silver felt by the public during the reign of Barquq is not quite faithfully reflected by modern collections. Could it be that the enforced low exchange rate of 740 H (when the dinar was equal to 25 dirhems г. They also prove that they were badly needed to replenish the always dange rously empty treasury of Nàsir Muhammad. manuf actured in exactly the same way as the dirhems waraq of the Fàtimids and Ayyubids. and the economic crisis which followed. such as the half + quarter dirhem. brought with him from Syria enough silver to set the circulation afloat x. he however reduced the weight of the coins. do not suggest a low grade alloy. but came to our knowledge towards the end of 1960 only.5 %. and the quar ter eighth dirhem. Réf. halves and quart ers. the bulk of the treasure is made up of half dirhems. comprising dirhems. and the more remarkable as the precious metal was now quite scarce. by cutting 1. but he also struck straight halves and quarters. of whose coinage at least a dozen specimens are known. . + As already mentioned.68 grams) — is clearly within the system of the legal dirhem. the coins. Although unfortunately no estimation of the fine silver con tent could have been made. but then they only reigned during a very short time. however. with weight recorded. There is. who una nimously state than an acute shortage of silver caused severe di scomfort. If there was any crisis. Faraj. The same applies to Barquq's son and successor. Barsbài continued to strike silver in great enough quantity . 135. BALOG period. The greater was therefore the rejoicing of the population when al Muayyad Shaikh. who reduced the weight of his coins even more : in the first place. a result never achieved since the emanci pation of Egypt from the Khalifate. The next two sultans left only a few half dirhems. numbering more than half of the total. This treasure is com posed exclusively of 222 silver coins struck by Muayyad Shaikh . but there is also a number of full di rhems. Instead of the full dirhem. he issued combinations of different fractions. This measure was also adopted by Barsbài.142 P. The fine silver content remains bet ween 90 and 94. al Muayyad Shaikh reduced the weight of his dirhem by about ten per cent for the benefit of the public treasury. We have excellent proof of the abundance and high quality of Muayyad Shaikh's new silver from an important hoard which was in the possession of a Cairo dealer for a certain time. 3 and 4 p. Cf. and then. it certainly was not due to the silver coins themselves. no reason to doubt the chroniclers. by their aspect. and even an alarming crisis in the country. The weight of the specimens — although the approximative average of the full dirhem is a little short of the legal weight (2. but rather to their absence from circulation. by substitut ing the dirhem by a combination of fractions. colour and touch. upon his election to the sultanate. Repeated assays show a surprisingly fine quality alloy in the coins of al Muayyad Shaikh. the silver dirhem was a coin of high intrinsic value. and the fineness. 1 on p.62 grams + 1/8 (3/8) drh. Three coins of Ainàl con tain between 95. According to Ayalon *. during the final stages of the Bahri dynasty. an innovation in Mamluk silver coi nage. = theoretical : 1. as well as under the entire Burji rule. 1. Consequently. After Barsbài's death. = theoretical : 1. although somewhat fluctuating. The fine silver content. Barsbài thought it necessary to mark the newly introduced denominations on his coins. no explanation why at the end of the Bahri and the beginning of the Burji rule. . became even better in later times.175. Réf. the dirhem.08 grams drh. only one is as low as 82. Khushqadam. the negligent mint official is responsible. 111. The weight. because from now on. Barsbâi's new coinage has the following denominations and weights : 1/2 1/2 1/4 1/4 + 1/4 (3/4) drh. There is.77 grams. was always near the legal limit. = theoretical : 2. and five specimens struck by Qâitbâi show a similar result : four coins have between 90 and 95 % silver. Similar errors are not infrequent on earlier Islamic coins.45. silver was continuously issued until the end of the dynasty. the largest denomination is the half dirhem. always remains on an exceptionally high level. which is certainly due to the general disorga nisation during the last years before the final disaster.7 %.725. in practice : 1. the silver coin should so catastrophically lose its value.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 143 down the theoretical weight of the new coin. We have halves and quarters of Jaqmaq. in the course of an extremely short time. the others do not carry it. in spite of the growing difficulties.09. = theoretical : 0. all of them of satisfactory weight. therefore. Ainàl. ins tead of losing its former high level. an error for which. in practice : 1. There can be no doubt that. Cf. Nâsir Muhammad's reigns. most pro bably.03 grams drh. in practice : 2. Qàitbâi and his son.5 and 96 % silver. The 3/4 pieces are inscribed: я^^^^и and the 3/8 frac tions show : (Jt^j (^j. dropped from 20 dirhems to 460 dirhems to the dinar. in practice : 0. The scarcity of silver is nervertheless noti ceable. as is recorded by the chroniclers. Only under Qànsuh al Ghúri are the coins reduced in weight.Only part of the emissions have the denomination engraved in the field. It should also be noted that the denomination does not always correspond with the actual weight. the latter country grew richer. it was only one step to drop the word fulus and substitute the expression of dirhem to any coin. he really meant 460 copper coins. From time to time the Ayyubids attempted to intro- . hence the expression used by the historian : dirhem-fels. This steady worsening of the currency is a sure sign of increasing impoverishment of the country. that silver vanished from circulation and was replaced almost comp letely by copper. or coins in general. at any time. Dirhem does not mean any more a real circulating silver piece. Soon enough. Therefore. Accordingly. On the contrary. however. we accept the undoubtedly correct statement of the Medieval chronicler.144 P. con sisting of dirhems and halves. as can still be heard in the popular tongue in Egypt when speaking about small change. The Fàtimids issued. in Arabic dirhem min al fulùs. an abundant silver coinage of good quality (81-88 % fine). under al Hâkim. As money of account. There was no improvement in the silver coinage under the great Saladin and his successors. the alloy has been adulterated (66-70 %) and under al Zàhir it dropped to 48 % fine. If. The debasement continued through al Mustansir's rule (from 44 to 34 %) and reached its deepest level at the advent of al 'Adid (31 to 25 %). but merely money of account. the Ayyùbid dynasty. The latter were in fact the coins which circulated in greatest numbers. at the beginning of their reign in Egypt. From there. which steadily lost its stock of pre cious metals. BALOG On the evidence of the coins. the dirhem was used to express the cor responding number of copper fulus. that of Syria stayed on an excel lent level. the disastrous drop in the exchange rate. however. A curious anomaly has. when the Medieval author mentioned that the mithqál (dinar) of gold was exchanged against 460 dirhems. then the collapse of the exchange rate is under standable. This would corre spond to : 1 mithqál gold = 20 silver dirhems = 20 x 24 copper fulus (480). developed : although Egypt and Syria belonged under the same rule. the scarcity of funds has been officially acknowledged by the aban donment of the gold standard and introduction of silver as the standard of currency. in contrast with Egypt. at the same time at which the Egyptian currency became poor in quality. even copper. Summary. if we think of the dirhem in terms of the real silver coin. 1 dinar = 460 dirhems is absurd. every time they met with immediate failure because of lack of the necessary precious metal. Black dirhem of Kiimel Muhammad. footnote 2. 1241 AD. 11. however. 3. 1. Illustrations (PI. Al Muayyad Shaikh. not in the debasement of the alloy of the dirhem. Crusader imitation of Sáleh Ism'aTl's dirhem. Black dirhem of fAdel I. Globular dirhem of Saleh AyyQb. p. d.HISTORY OF THE DIRHEM IN EGYPT 145 duce in Egypt. XII). Akad. The economic confusion and distress continued now until the final collapse of the Mamluk empire in 922 H (1517 AD). Baibars I. Black dirhem of the last Ffilimid. 13. struck in Damascus. struck in Damascus. 15. Black dirhem of Saladin. 8. resulting. 30. a coin of his 622 H reform. at least at the beginning. 12. The succeeding sultans maintained the quality of the silver currency. Round. KL. Revue Nuinismalùfiie. Beitruge zuř Geschichte des Sinaiklosters im Mittelalter nach arabischen Quellen. the shortage of bul lion was again heavily felt. Dirhem of Aibak. struck in Cairo. but in its rapid disappearance from the ci rculation. 9. Preuss. 10 . Wissenschaften. was abundant and of satisfactory qual ity. Cairo. contains only a few references already mentioned above. Black dirhem of 'AzTz 'Otmán. 1961. in Abhandl. 646 H. al 'Adid. 1918. 14. Thus. Phil. Black dirhem of Mansur Muhammad. Dirhem of the same. 2. who succeeded in el iminating the long standing difference between the silver currency of Egypt and Syria. № 4. 5. (globular) dirhem of Kamel Muhammad. It has been replaced by copper which soon became the only coin available to the public. although the fatal shortage of the precious metal soon caused its disappearance once more. Kgl. Syrian type dirhem of the same. Dirhem of the same. Syrian dirhem of the same ruler. Hist.). Heraldic lion on the dirhem of the former's son. 10. Berlin. a good silver coinage similar to the Syrian dirhem . the silver coinage of the Bahri Mamluks. 4. d. 1. Toward the end of this period. one of the early Burji sultans. restored the silver coinage not only to its former high level. 7. A new era was started by the Mamluks. Moritz (В. dirhem with heraldic lion. Baraka Qûn. when the victorious 'Othmanlis put an end to Egypt's independence 1. but even above its former state : his dirhem contains more than 90 % fine silver. 16. 6. A silver coin of Qâitbai. 19. Dirhem of Barsbái. Dirhem of BarqCiq. Dirhem of Qânsûh al Ghuri. struck in Cairo by his wizïr Jarkas al Khalïli. overstruck by Nasir Muhammad. 20. 23. The fine silver dirhem of Muyyad Shaikh. Armenian tram. 21.146 17. . 25. Ainal's dirhem. BALOG Nâsir Muhammad. 22. 24. P. 18. Cairo silver of Ashraf Sh'aban.