History of agriculture in the United StatesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The History of agriculture in the United States covers the period from the first English settlers to the present day. In Colonial America agriculture was the primary livelihood for 90% of the population; most towns were shipping points for the export of agricultural products. Most farms were geared toward subsistence production for family use. The rapid growth of population and the expansion of the frontier opened up large numbers of new farms, and clearing the land was a major preoccupation of farmers. After 1800, cotton became the chief crop in southern plantations, and the chief American export. After 1840, industrialization and urbanization opened up lucrative domestic markets. The number of farms grew from 1.4 million in 1850, to 4.0 million in 1880, and 6.4 million in 1910; then started to fall, dropping to 5.6 million in 1950 and 2.2 million in 2008.[1] Contents [hide] 1 Colonial farming: 1610–1775 o 1.1 Ethnic farming styles 2 Railroad Age: 1860–1910 o o 2.1 Rural life 2.2 Ranching 3 South, 1860–1940 4 Grange 5 Golden Era, 1900–1914 6 World War I 7 1920s 8 New Deal farm and rural programs o 8.1 Rural relief 9 Postwar 10 Crops o 10.1 Wheat o o 10.1.1 Varieties 10.1.2 Exports 10.1.3 Marketing 10.2 Cotton 10.3 Citrus 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography o o o o o o o o o 13.1 Surveys 13.2 Before 1775 13.3 1775–1860: North 13.4 1775–1860: South 13.5 1860-present, national 13.6 1860-present, regional studies 13.7 Environmental issues 13.8 Historiography 13.9 Primary sources 14 External links Colonial farming: 1610–1775[edit] Plantation agriculture, using slaves, developed in Virginia and Maryland (where tobacco was grown), and South Carolina (where indigo and rice were grown). Cotton became a major plantation crop after 1800 in the "Black Belt," that is the region from North Carolina in an arc through Texas where the climate allowed for cotton cultivation.[2] Most farms were subsistence, producing food for the family and some for trade and taxes. The first settlers in Plymouth Colony planted barley and peas from England but their most important crop was Indian corn (maize) which they were shown how to cultivate by the native Squanto. To fertilize this crop, they used small fish which they called herrings or shads.[3] Ethnic farming styles[edit] Ethnicity made a difference in agricultural practice. As an example, German American farmers generally preferred oxen rather than horses to pull their plows and The Scots Irish built an economy with some farming but more herding (of hogs and cattle). In the American colonies, Scots-Irish focused on mixed-farming. Using this technique, they grew corn for human consumption and as feed for hogs and other livestock. Many improvement-minded farmers of all different backgrounds began using new agricultural practices to raise their output. During the 1750s, these agricultural innovators replaced the hand sickles and scythes used to harvest hay, wheat, and barley with the cradle scythe, a tool with wooden fingers that arranged the stalks of grain for easy collection. This tool was able to triple the amount of work down by farmers in one day. A few scientific farmers (mostly wealthy planters like George Washington) began fertilizing their fields with dung and lime and rotating their crops to keep the soil fertile. at low fares. Merchants and artisans hired teen-aged indentured servants as workers for a domestic system for the manufacture of cloth and other goods. Farmers also expanded their production of flaxseed and corn since flax was a high demand in the Irish linen industry and a demand for corn existed in the West Indies.0 million in 1905. Even larger numbers purchased lands at very low interest from the new railroads. The railroads advertised heavily in Europe and brought over. By 1770.0 million in 1860 to 6. a fur-pelt export trade to Europe flourished adding additional wealth to the region. adapting Old World techniques to a much more abundant land supply. but many poor German immigrants and Scots-Irish settlers were forced to work as agricultural wage laborers. Railroad Age: 1860–1910[edit] A dramatic expansion in farming took place.Before 1720. mid-Atlantic farming stimulated with the international demand for wheat. The number of people living on farms grew from about 10 million in 1860 to 22 million in 1880 to 31 million in 1905. a bushel of wheat cost twice as much as it did in 1720. Merchants often bought wool and flax from farmers and employed newly arrived immigrants. [5] The federal government issued 160-acre (65 ha) tracts virtually free to about 400. who had been textile workers in Ireland and Germany. In New York. Some Colonial Settlers who just arrived purchased farms and shared in this export wealth. hundreds of thousands of farmers from Germany. A massive population explosion in Europe brought wheat prices up. to work in their homes spinning the materials into yarn and cloth. Scandinavia and Britain.[4] The number of farms tripled from 2.0 billion in 1860 to $30 billion in 1906. which were trying to create markets. After 1720. Pennsylvania was the center of British non-conformist settlement and German immigration. Large farmers and merchants became wealthy. while farmers with smaller farms and artisans only made enough for subsistence.000 families who settled new land under the Homestead Act of 1862. The value of farms soared from $8.[6] Rural life[edit] . most colonists in the mid-Atlantic region worked with small-scale farming and paid for imported manufactures by supplying the West Indies with corn and flour. and the chance to homestead 160 acres (0." but they also found that the very harsh climate—with tornadoes. blizzards. new conservation techniques. and large-scale federal aid all lowered the risk. Many early settlers were financially ruined. low priced lands from the railroad companies. they were attracted by the good soil. In the 20th century. floods and grasshoppers[7]—made for a high risk of a ruined crop. In the 1930s techniques and technologies of soil conservation.Boosterism: cover of a promotional booklet published in 1907 by the Rock Island railroad Early settlers discovered that the Great Plains was not the "Great American Desert. most of which had been available but ignored before the Dust Bowl conditions began. crop insurance. drought. hail. Immigrants.65 km2) and receive title to the land at no cost from the federal government. or went back east. especially Germans. The problem of blowing dust came not because farmers grew too much wheat. especially in the early 1890s. but because the rainfall was too little to grow enough wheat to keep the topsoil from blowing away. were . and either protested through the Populist movement. and their children comprised the largest element of settlers after 1860. Nebraska. in reality rural folk created a rich social life for themselves. feeding the hired hands. corn huskings.[11] Grange meeting. so that. especially after the 1930s. 1875 Although the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes the isolation of the lonely farmer and farm life. as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning. including child-rearing. feeding and clothing the family. hosting cattle ranching operations on public land without charge. Such ranching began in Texas and gradually moved northward. Kansas and Ogallala. The womenfolk organized shared meals and potluck events. New conveniences such as sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles. farmers clearly understood the need for a hard-working wife. They often sponsored activities that combined work. church activities. advice columns for women in the farm papers. and numerous children.promoted by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) of the US Department of Agriculture. managing the housework. ranchers held roundups where their cowboys branded new calves. and. In the spring and fall. Cowboys drove Texas cattle north to railroad lines in the cities of Dodge City. farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors. with cooperation from the weather. food. . and entertainment such as barn raisings.[9] During the early years of settlement in the late 19th century. to handle the many chores. women increasingly left the fields. from there. The scientific housekeeping movement. as well as extended visits between families. promoted across the land by the media and government extension agents. soil condition was much improved by 1940.[8] On the Great Plains very few single men attempted to operate a farm or ranch. and school functions. After a generation or so.[10] temporary quarters for Volga Germans in central Kansas. and home economics courses in the schools. treated animals and sorted the cattle for sale. thus redefining their roles within the family. quilting bees. handling the paperwork and financial details.[12] Ranching[edit] Much of the Great Plains became open range. When there was too little rain for ordinary farming. primarily because it fit better with the region's geography. notably the Sioux. and their smaller size and hooves were well suited for such crops as cotton. who were reluctant to settle on reservations. Before the railroads arrived in Texas the 1870s cattle drives took large herds from Texas to the railheads in Kansas. which in turn affected patterns of mule use. Montana. and Tennessee. western Kansas. and sugar. South. so mule breeding tended to reside in the border states of Missouri. but enough grass for grazing.cattle were shipped eastward. British investors financed many great ranches of the era. and which promoted the modernization not only of farming practices but also of family and community life. New varieties of wheat flourished in the arid parts of the Great Plains. Grange[edit] The Grange was an organization founded in 1867 for farmers and their wives that was strongest in the Northeast. tobacco. but most Indians themselves became ranch hands and cowboys. It is still in operation. ranchers generally raised feed to ensure they could keep their cattle alive over winter. The character of soils and climate in the lower South hindered the creation of pastures. with many cattle starved and frozen to death. Overstocking of the range and the terrible winter of 1886 resulted in a disaster. opening much of the Dakotas. 1860–1940[edit] Sawers (2004) shows how southern farmers made the mule their preferred draft animal in the South during the 1860s-1920s. From then on.[13] . Transportation costs combined with topography to influence the prices of mules and horses. Kentucky. A few thousand Indians resisted. Mules better withstood the heat of summer. western Nebraska and eastern Colorado to farming. The economic and production advantages associated with mules made their use a progressive step for Southern agriculture that endured until the mechanization brought by tractors. cattle ranching became dominant. initially supplied by the Chicago wholesaler Aaron Montgomery Ward. ca.050) as many of the state and local granges adopted non-partisan political resolutions. Poor fiscal management.Promotional poster offering a "gift for the grangers". The birth of the federal government's Cooperative . 1873. led to a massive decline in membership. By around the start of the 20th century. Rapid growth infused the national organization with money from dues.[14] In the mid-1870s.000) to 1875 (858. combined with organizational difficulties resulting from rapid growth. Membership soared from 1873 (200. state Granges in the Midwest were successful in passing state laws that regulated the rates they could be charged by railroads and grain warehouses. the Grange rebounded and membership stabilized. and many local granges established consumer cooperatives. especially regarding the regulation of railroad transportation costs. The organization was unusual in that it allowed women and teens as equal members. as millions of European farmers were in the army. 1920s[edit] . The peak of their political power was marked by their success in Munn v. in World War I. and the tractor. although the State and National Granges remain a political force. Rural Free Delivery. was a critical supplier to other Allied nations.S. This gave them very high debts that made them vulnerable to the downturn in farm prices in 1920. that organized farm groups wanted the government to use as a benchmark for the level of prices and profits they felt they deserved.[15] World War I[edit] The U.Extension Service. Consequently. allowed the agricultural market to expand to an unprecedented size. local Granges focused more on community service. called "parity". Illinois. Throughout the 1920s and down to 1934 low prices and high debt were major problems for farmers in all regions. "The Granger Movement")." and therefore could be regulated by public law (see references below. which held that the grain warehouses were a "private utility in the public interest. The rapid expansion of the farms coupled with the diffusion of trucks and Model T cars. During the Progressive Era (1890s-1920s). and the Farm Credit System were largely due to Grange lobbying. 1900–1914[edit] The first years of the 20th century were prosperous for all American farmers. The years 1910–1914 became a statistical benchmark. Golden Era. During World War I prices shot up and farmers borrowed heavily to buy out their neighbors and expand their holdings. political parties took up Grange causes. Overproduction led to plummeting prices which led to stagnant market conditions and living standards for farmers in the 1920s. In fact. Jardine to modernize farming. farm production expanded rapidly to fill the gap left as European belligerents found themselves unable to produce enough food. and better business practices. better seeds and breeds. however. other heavy equipment. more rural education. such as the combine harvester. "How Ya Gonna Keep 'Em Down On the Farm After They've Seen Paree?". and now are unable to meet the financial burden. The early 1920s saw a rapid expansion in the American agricultural economy largely due to new technologies and especially mechanization. and demanded federal subsidies. hundreds of thousands of farmers had taken out mortgages and loans to buy out their neighbors' property. When the war ended.A 1919 sheet music cover A popular Tin Pan Alley song of 1919 asked. meant that the most efficient farms were larger in size and. agriculture became increasingly mechanized with widespread use of the tractor. It was passed but vetoed by President Coolidge. Despite this increase in farm size and capital intensity. more efficient equipment. who were employed by state agricultural colleges and funded by the Federal government. the great majority of agricultural production continued to be undertaken by family-owned enterprises. while the rest of the economy flourished. The average distance moved was only 10 miles (16 km). blamed the decline of foreign markets. the small family farm that had long been the model were replaced by larger and more businessoriented firms. concerning the United States troops returning from World War I. most notably the McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill. Worse. by bringing in more electricity.[16] The new technologies.[17] Farmers demanded relief as the agricultural depression grew steadily worse in the middle 1920s. Farmers had a powerful voice in Congress. and maintained that the farmer's ailments were due to defective distribution. behind a tariff wall. Farmers. and the effects of the protective tariff. there was a great migration of youth from farms to nearby towns and smaller cities. the Hoover plan was adopted. supply increased rapidly as Europe's agricultural market rebounded. many did not remain "down on the farm".[19] New Deal farm and rural programs[edit] . Few went to the cities over 100. However. World War I had created an atmosphere of high prices for agricultural products as European nations demand for exports surged. saddling them with heavy debts. Hoover advocated the creation of a Federal Farm Board which was dedicated to restriction of crop production to domestic demand.S. Farmers had enjoyed a period of prosperity as U. The cause was the collapse of land prices after the wartime bubble when farmers used high prices to buy up neighboring farms at high prices. In 1929. gradually. and superior techniques disseminated throughCounty Agents. Competition from Europe and Russia had disappeared due to the war and American agricultural goods were being shipped around the world.[18] Coolidge instead supported the alternative program of Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover and Agriculture Secretary William M.000. Wallace. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then. M. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. The AAA used a system of "domestic allotments". dairy products. and six million baby pigs were killed and discarded. setting total output of corn. The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations. which was achieved by reducing total farm output. as prices for commodities rose. bountiful crops were left to rot. tobacco. but there were other New Deal programs especially for them. The goal was to force up farm prices to the point of "parity". especially the Farm Bureau. it was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Roosevelt. a liberal Democrat President.President Franklin D. and reflected debates among Roosevelt's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture Henry A.[22] The aim of the AAA was to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. In 1936. Food prices remained well below 1929 levels. rice. hogs.[20] Roosevelt's "First Hundred Days" produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be unconstitutional for technical reasons. cotton. Farm incomes increased significantly in the first three years of the New Deal. Wilson. this program instead subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as alfalfa that would not be sold on the market.[23] The idea was the less produced. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren. but together with large subsidies the basic philosophy of subsidizing farmers is still in effect in 2012. The original AAA did not provide for any sharecroppers or tenants or farm laborers who might become unemployed. and wheat. the higher the wholesale price and the higher income to the farmer. Young men in farming were exempted from the wartime draft.[26] . 10 million acres (40. was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous.L. The Agricultural Adjustment Act created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) in May 1933. Many different programs were directed at farmers. To meet 1933 goals.000 km2) of growing cotton was plowed up.[24][25] The AAA established an important and long-lasting federal role in the planning on the entire agricultural sector of the economy and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. an index based on 1910–1914 prices. andGeorge Peek.[21] Rexford Tugwell. It was not until World War II that America completely recovered from the Great Depression and the agricultural economy was completely revived. rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA.A migrant farm family in California. Their plight gained national attention . reforestation. the Rural Electrification Administration (REA). building new schools. the Administration launched the Tennessee Valley Authority. In 1933. Tennessee (Tennessee Valley Authority. especially in the South. Forest Service and CCC. Major programs addressed to their needs included the Resettlement Administration (RA). Photo by Dorothea Lange. 1942) Many rural people lived in severe poverty. March 1935. Rural relief[edit] Modern methods had not reached the backwoods such as Wilder. For the first time. NYA. through programs such as the Resettlement Administrationand the Farm Security Administration. opening roads in remote areas. generate electricity. including school lunches. and modernize the very poor farms in the Tennessee Valley region of the Southern United States. a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale in order to curb flooding. there was a national program to help migrant and marginal farmers. and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests. antibiotics and growth hormones). and gave them an incentive to ask for government help to stabilize or raise prices. grain elevators. and especially at harvest time. Finally there were great advances in plant and animal breeding. where George Washington was a prominent grower as he diversified away from tobacco. pastries. Advances in fertilizers and herbicides. (as well as insecticides. The invention of mechanical harvesters. and CAFOs (confined animal-feeding operations) (Conkin.[29] Wheat farming depended on a significant labor input only during planting. when the Farm Tenancy Act was created which in turn created the Farm Security Administration (FSA). supported by off-farm employment. and resisted demands of the poor for loans to buy farms. It was introduced by the first English colonists and quickly became the major cash crop of farmers on the frontier. insects and diseases.[27] Crops[edit] Wheat[edit] Main article: Wheat production in the United States Wheat. The New Deal thought there were too many farmers. Electricity also played a role making possible major innovations in animal husbandry. which made them highly vulnerable to price fluctuations.g. reduced wastage due to weeds. and had to specialize in wheat. The last major New Deal legislation concerning farming was in 1937. The crop moved west. Postwar[edit] After 1945.[28] Illinois replaced its wheat with corn (which was fed to the hogs) and was overtaken by Minnesota in 1889. a continued increase in productivity that led to further increases in farm size. The farmers had to borrow to buy land and equipment. electricity powered motors and irrigation pumps that opened up new ways to be efficient. Further down the food change came innovations in food processing and distribution (e." In the mid-18th century. pasta and pizza. and corresponding reductions in the number of farms. Conkin (2009) emphasized how new machinery— especially large self-propelled combines and mechanical cotton pickers—sharply reduced labor requirements in harvesting. which became known as the "bread colonies. Others moved to a part-time operation. drawn first by horses then tractors. Therefore successful farmers. replacing the Resettlement Administration. Many farmers sold out and moved to nearby towns and cities. with Ohio as the center in 1840 and Illinois in 1860. such as crop hybridization. Second.through the 1939 novel and film The Grapes of Wrath. fungicides. In colonial times its culture became concentrated in the middle colonies. and GMOs (genetically modified organisms). made larger farms much more efficient than small ones. . 2009). wheat culture spread to the tidewater of Maryland and Virginia. artificial insemination of livestock. has been the principal cereal crop since the 18th century. especially modern milking parlors. used for white bread. frozen foods). especially on the Great Plains. reaped by sickles.[30] From 1909 to today North Dakota and Kansas have vied for first place in wheat production. as sowing with drills replaced broadcasting. The kernels were then taken to a grist mill for grinding into flour. Production grew from 85 million bushels in 1839. bought up as much land as possible. [32] A 1928 Wallis tractor made by Massey Ferguson . 600 million in 1900. The migrant families tended to be social outcasts without local roots. to produce 200 bushels.000 bushels. purchased very expensive mechanical equipment. wheat was sown by broadcasting. By 1895.0 billion bushels in 1915. McCormick reaper and twine binder in 1884 In the colonial era. cradles took the place of sickles. In 1830.[31] New technology greatly increased productivity in the 19th century. 500 million in 1880. it took six different people and 36 horses pulling huge harvesters. working 10 hours a day. with a downward trend in the 1890s that caused great distress in the Plains states. followed by Oklahoma and Montana. and peaked at 1. to produce 20. working 10 hours a day. Prices fluctuated erratically. and mostly lived near the poverty line except in harvesting season. in Bonanza farms in the Dakotas. and threshed by flails. and the cradles in turn were replaced by reapers and binders.[31] In the 1930s the gasoline powered "combine" combined reaping and threshing into one operation that took one person to operate. Steam-powered threshing machines superseded flails. and depended on migrating hired laborers at harvesting time. it took four different people and two oxen. [38] Similar varieties now dominate in the arid regions of the Great Plains. They sometimes accused the elevator men of undergrading. Before 1850. and weeds. Montana and neighboring states. shortweighting. and yields have resisted the negative impact of insects.[34] In the late 19th century. which had been previously preferred because they were easier for grist mills to grind.[36] More exactly. where it was sold through grain exchanges to flour millers and exporters. Exports[edit] .The marketing of wheat was modernized as well. Thanks to these innovations. farmers soon had targets besides the weather for their complaints. shipped by wagon or canal boat. in the 1880s numerous millers and government agricultural agents worked to create "Turkey red" and make Kansas the "Wheat State". of Agriculture. farmers took their harvest by wagon for sale to the nearest country elevators.[35]Legend credits the miller Bernhard Warkentin (1847–1908). hardy new wheat varieties from the Russian steppes were introduced on the Great Plains by the Volga Germans who settled in North Dakota. and stored in warehouses. vast expanses of the wheat belt now support commercial production.[33] Varieties[edit] Following the invention of the steel roller mill in 1878. have developed many new varieties. The horse-powered thresher. hard varieties of wheat such as Turkey Red became more popular than soft. the crop was sacked. and taught farmers how to plant them. a German Mennonite from Russia for introducing the "Turkey red" variety from Russia. diseases.S. Scandinavian immigrants in the Midwest took control over marketing through the organization of cooperatives. Kansas. Biological innovations contributed roughly half of laborproductivity growth between 1839 and 1909. The wheat moved to terminal elevators. With the rapid growth of the nation's railroad network in the 1850s-1870s. Dept. Since the elevators and railroads generally had a local monopoly. as the cost of transportation steadily fell and more and more distant markets opened up. and the state experiment stations.[37] The U. and excessive dockage. it removes the inedible chaff from the wheat kernels Wheat production witnessed major changes in varieties and cultural practices since 1870. Meanwhile. but otherwise preserved private wheat marketing. During the war and after large-scale wheat and flour exports were part of Lend Lease and the foreign assistance programs. The Canadian government required prairie farmers to deliver all their grain to the Canadian Wheat Board (CWB). when bad crops in Europe. This led to a large surplus in the 1920s.000 bushels a year. opened the European markets. World War I saw large numbers of young European farmers conscripted into the army. a single-selling-desk agency that supplanted private wheat marketing in western Canada. many taking out mortgages to buy out their neighbors farms. after 1933. first through the McNary-Haugen bills.[41] Cotton[edit] Picking cotton in Georgia in 1943 . In 1966 exports reached 860 million bushels of which 570 million were given away as food aid. By 1880. and the Canadians established a wheat board to do the same there. The British in particular depended on American wheat during the 1860s for a fourth of their food supply.[39]which ranged from 100.000. particularly France and Italy depended on American shipments. American farmers reacted to the heavy demand and high prices by expanding their production. The exports run a small-scale until the 1860s. and lower prices due to cheap railroads and ocean transport.000. so some Allied countries.Wheat farmers have always produced a surplus for export. 150. Marketing[edit] By 1900 private grain exchanges settled the daily prices for North American wheat. which failed in Congress.000. topping off at a billion bushels in 1944.000 to 260. and later in the New Deal through the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 and its many versions. A major drought in the Soviet Union in 1972 led to the sale of 390 million bushels and an agreement was assigned in 1975 under the détente policy to supply the Soviets with grain over a five-year period.000. Santon (2010) explains how the AAA programs set wheat prices in the U.[40] World War II brought an enormous expansion of production.S.000. the United States government subsidized farm incomes with domestic-use taxes and import tariffs. The resulting low prices prompted growers to seek government support of prices.000 bushels were exported to the value of $190. with the work done by black slaves. By the 1970s. Jump up^ Mary Caroline Crawford (1970).000. Finally in the 1950s. the US shipped 3. By 1840. most cotton was grown in large automated farms in the Southwest. focused on textiles. exports reached 1.[44] Although there was some work involved in planting the seeds. only short-staple cotton could be grown but it was full of seeds and very hard to process into fiber. 4. the emerging textile mills in New England also produced a heavy demand. How much a cot in a bit operation could produce depended on how many hands (men women and children) were available. with a value of $22 million.[43] The quantity exported held steady. It was generally produced on plantations ranging from South Carolina westward. The result was a large-scale exodus of the white and black cotton farmers from the south. but prices on the world market fell.5 million bales worth $192 million. 2. In 1860.[45] Citrus[edit] Main article: History_of_Riverside.000 bales (of 500 pounds each) were exported to Europe. 437 series K1-K16 . In the days of the Pilgrim Fathers. new mechanical harvesters allowed a handful of workers to pick as much as 100 had done before. and cultivating or holding out the weeds.[42] After the Civil War.5 million bales valued at $64 million. The farmer's last frontier: agriculture. 1860–1897 (1945) complete text online Jump up^ Historical Statistics (1975) p. at 3. By 1820. most of the population is African American. so planters used their large profits to buy fresh land to the west. 114 Jump up^ Fred A.In the colonial era. 3. Inland. California#Citrus history See also[edit] Agriculture in the United States Cotton production in the United States Corn production in the United States References[edit] 1. operated by white and black tenant farmers and sharecroppers. Cotton prices kept going up as the South remained the main supplier in the world. over 250. and purchase more slaves from the border states to operate their new plantations. Cotton quickly exhausts the soil. the rapid growth of the industrial revolution in Britain. After 1810. Shannon. the critical labor input for cotton was in the picking. created a major demand for the fiber. 5. small amounts high quality long-staple cotton was produced in the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina. two thirds of all American exports. Simultaneously. cotton production expanded to small farms. p. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010 (2010) Table 800 Jump up^ The "Black Belt" was originally names after the black soil. The invention of the cotton gin in the late 1790s for the first time made short-staple cotton usable. Jump up^ US Bureau of the Census.000 bales. Depression and New Deal in Virginia. 321–41 18." Uncoverings. Twentieth Century Populism: Agricultural Discontent in the Middle West 1900–1939 (1951) pp. pp. Sven Nordin. Vol. Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska. 139–156 9.. 89. Jump up^ Annette Atkins. Jump up^ Karl Ronning. 16." Nebraska History. 1932–40. Wilcox." Great Plains: Environment and Culture. 153-57 25. Jump up^ R. Jump up^ Ronald L. Jump up^ Anthony Badger. Jump up^ Deborah Fink.6. Sanderson. excerpt and text search 15." Agricultural History 1977 51(2): 378-395 20. Economic. pp." Great Plains Quarterly. pp. Jump up^ Theodore Saloutos and John Hicks. 120–131 13. 7. Vol. Jump up^ Paul W. 245–258 11. The Coming of the New Deal (1958) pp. Jump up^ The Dominion Lands Act of 1871 served a similar function for establishing homesteads on the prairies in Canada. Douglas Hurt. Jump up^ See M. and Social Manifestations. Jump up^ For price data and farm income see Statistical Abstract 1940 online 26. 1933–1940 (2002) p. Jump up^ Conkin (2009) ch 5 28. The American Farmer and the New Deal (1982) 21. Wilson Collection. The Granger movement: A Study of Agricultural Organization and its Political. "Secretary Hoover and National Farm Policy: Problems of Leadership. Twentieth Century Populism: Agricultural Discontent in the Middle West 1900–1939 (1951) pp. 1867–1900 (1974). Fall 2005. Jump up^ Solon Justus Buck. 107 24. Jump up^ Chad Montrie. Jump up^ Theodore Saloutos and John Hicks. Jump up^ Arthus Schlesinger. 13. 156–59. Jump up^ Wilson Gee. The place of agriculture in American life (1930) online edition 17. "'Men Alone Cannot Settle a Country:' Domesticating Nature in the KansasNebraska Grasslands. Koerselman. 372–403 19. Harvest of Grief: Grasshopper Plagues and Public Assistance in Minnesota. Jr. Rich Harvest: A History of the Grange. 25 Issue 4. 89 Issue 3. Jump up^ Theodore Saloutos. Fall 2008. 169–191 12. Jump up^ Nathan B. Jump up^ D. 1880–1940 (1992) 10. (1983) p. "Quilting in Webster County. Jump up^ Citation needed. 1815–1860 (1960) pp. The New Deal: The Depression Years. 1870–1880 (1913) full text online 14. 1880 –1920. Nebraska. Jump up^ Walter W. L. 1992. The Farmers Age: Agriculture. "Agricultural Technology in the Dust Bowl. 27–84 23. Gates. "More Than a Potluck. 183-86 . 1935–1960 22. Farmer in the Second World War (1947) 27. Heinemann. pp. et al. 1873–78 (2003) excerpt 8. Jump up^ Gary H. 1979. Vol. Rhode. Historical Statistics of the United States. Jump up^ Alan L. 929– 66 35. Vol. Saul. 23 Issue 1. 100–111 39. The First World War. pp. p. 134-55 43. Jump up^ Karen Penner. Jump up^ Shannon. "Bernhard Warkentin: Kansas Miller and Promoter Of Turkey Red Wheat. Willard W. pp. Jump up^ Peter Fearon. 27–34 37. pp. ^ Jump up to: a b Shannon. "Beyond Winter Wheat: The USDA Extension Service and Kansas Wheat Production In The Twentieth Century. Jump up^ Joseph M. 40. "Going Against the Grain: Why Do Canada and the United States Market Wheat So Differently?" American Review of Canadian Studies. The Farmers Last Frontier. Colonial Times to 1970 (1976) series U:279-280 41. Farmer's Last Frontier. "Myth and History: Turkey Red Wheat and the 'Kansas Miracle. 393–412 31. Jump up^ Bureau of the Census. pp. Colonial Times to 1970 (1976) series K:507-508 33. "The Red Queen and the Hard Reds: Productivity Growth in American Wheat. Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fiber (2004) Bibliography[edit] Surveys[edit] Cochrane. Vol. Jump up^ Stephen Yafa. 130-136. pp. Jump up^ Toby Higbie. 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The farmer in the second world war (1947) online edition 1860-present. Rahno Mabel. a popular survey of agricultural conditions. pp. Theodore. Farmer's Last Frontier: Agriculture. 1945–1985. 1858–1900 (1926). The range cattle industry (1930) online edition Fite. Horace Mitchell. Indiana U. Monica Richmond. Clawson. Douglas Cazaux. (1945) by Nobel-prize winning conservative online edition Shannon. regional studies[edit] Cyclopedia of American agriculture. H. 16 Issue 1. The history of the California Fruit Growers Exchange (1925). "The Transformation of the Rural Midwest. ed by L. ―Paradox of Precision: Bright Tobacco as Technology Transfer. The Historical Statistics of the United States (Cambridge U.Environmental issues[edit] Craven. ―Migration Out of 1930s Rural Eastern Oklahoma: Insights for Climate Change Research. 2003). Issn: 0002-1482 Fulltext: in Ebsco Everett Eugene Edwards (1970). 1606–1860 (1925) Cronon. ed..‖ Agricultural History. and Viken Tchakerian. 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ISBN 978-0-8337-1002-4 Primary sources[edit] Bruchey. Malin. William. Colonists. Avery Odelle. 2006). Bogue. The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 8: Environment (v. Geoff.A. U. eds. and Charles Reagan Wilson. Stuart. 6 vol. Revised Edition: Indians. Timothy. 27–40.‖ Great Plains Quarterly. Issn: 0002-1482 Fulltext: in University of California Journals and Ebsco. Melosi. 26 (Winter 2006). Michael A. A New Face on the Countryside: Indians. On the Great Plains: Agriculture and Environment.‖ Journal of Historical Geography. John. Large database of individual farmers from manuscript census.P. Cotton in the Growth of the American Economy: 1790–1860 (1967) Carter. ―An Uninhabited Waste: Transforming the Grand Prairie in Nineteenth Century Illinoi s. Jeremy. "Tilling Agricultural History with Paul Wallace Gates and James C. Soils. 2000 pages of primary sources and commentary. 2 Volumes. 1649–1863. and Other Rare Sources. Wayne. eds. Plantation and Frontier Documents. online vol 1 and online vol 2 Rasmussen. ed. Phillips. ed. Pitirim et al. Readings in the economic history of American agriculture (1925) online edition Sorokin. Louis Bernard. Illustrative of Industrial History in the Colonial and Antebellum South: Collected from MSS. worldwide coverage . 1930). ed. Agriculture in the United States: A Documentary History (3 vol 1975) 2800 pages of primary sources Schmidt. (1909). Ulrich B. A Systematic Sourcebook in Rural Sociology (3 vol.
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