Himanshu Prabha Ray

The Archaeology of Bengal: Trading Networks, Cultural Identities Author(s): Himanshu Prabha Ray Source: Journal of the Economicand Social History of the Orient, Vol. 49, No. 1 (2006), pp. 68-95 Published by: BRILL Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25165129 . Accessed: 20/02/2014 06:12 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . BRILL is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 202.41.10.21 on Thu, 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS, CULTURAL IDENTITIES1 BY HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY* Abstract The of this paper objective to the social and centuries and as is to draw cultural on archaeological to address data from Bengal of trade from the 5th-4th centuries BC issues to the relating 6th-7th milieu frontiers fer. Within cut across AD. activity by its very nature was mobile, Trading political a result created trans its own networks of communication and information communities in Bengal distinc trading system, diverse developed as well as with environment their unique the they interacted with cultural affiliation and it is identity included sphere. This religious as of these cultural identities from the pre this extensive identities cultural tive cultural larger Indie the vibrancy and dynamism important to highlight to the 8th-9th centuries AD. historic period et cr?a au-del? des fronti?res politiques m?me, mobile, et de transfert de l'information. Dans de communication au Bengale ont d?velopp? communaut?s extensif, diverses en ?tablissant turelle est des relations aussi bien avec indienne identit? Cette plus g?n?rale. de mettre en valeur la vivacit? au 8eme-9eme si?cle Buddhist leur propre culturelle de cet article est de partir des donn?es du Bengale pour en extraire arch?ologiques L'objectif en relation avec et culturel du monde le milieu social les probl?matiques commercial du 5eme-4eme s. av. J.-C. au 6eme-7eme s. de notre ?re. L'activit? commerciale fut, par sa nature ses propres r?seaux syst?me de commerce des identit?s culturelles sp?cifiques environnement la sph?re cul qu'avec inclut les affiliations de ces en cons?quence le cadre de ce important la p?riode pr?historique et le dynamisme de notre ?re. Hindu et il religieuses de identit?s culturelles Inland Keywords: cotta temples. navigation. monasteries. temples. Rouletted Ware. Terra INTRODUCTION Nor food will it be wondered by it is known, that all the salt and a large part of at, when are conveyed ten millions of people the kingdom by water within the of Bengal and its dependencies. (Renell 1792: 35). * Centre for Historical hprayj nu @ vsnl.com 1 An earlier version in Kolkata to Dr. Training, Gautam in April 2004. consumed Studies Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi as Adhir to Mrs. Chakravarti Memorial 110067, Lecture and and for organising Sengupta Eastern India, Kolkata. Brill NV, Leiden, 2006 online www.brill.nl of this paper was presented sincere thanks are due My it at the Centre for inviting me Chakravarty for Archaeological Studies ? Koninklijke Also available JESHO 49,1 This content downloaded from 202.41.10.21 on Thu, 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions I would like to draw attention to another distin Brahmaputra Bengal guishing How was and came to be known through several versions from 16th to 18th cen turies. on the one hand and the east coast and Bay of systems. on the other. passenger and pleasure boats as also war boats. This fluvial network not only provided a distinctive environment throughout the early history of Bengal. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . 1989: 72-3). particularly relevant for this paper is the depiction of boats on the brick temples. These boat representations date to the 18th-19th centuries and depict 62 panels showing riverboats and 53 panels with sailing vessels.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS. feature of the region?the brick temples with terracotta decoration is What (Mitra 2000-2003). fish and rice have been the major resources of the region that have To been transported through the inland network and traded in the historical period. Story-tellers recited the Candi M?ngala Kavyas at village gatherings and this undoubtedly influenced terracotta artists and pata scroll painters. especially the temple of Sridharpur. but it also linked Bengal to the larger Ganga and valley networks. The power of story appeared in literature in the goddess rifying Candi M?ngala Kavyas as early as the 13th century version of the poet Manik building in the subcontinent. with a marked concentration in the 18th and the temples were erected in areas closely linked to riverine trade and relate to This content downloaded from 202. the Lakshmi Janardan temple at Dubrajpur and at Karkai." The sea-going boats found in waters. along the coast the Chittagong area.. these must be added "the transport of commercial exports and imports.10. At present. the interchange of man ufactures and products throughout the whole country" (Deloche 1994: 25). synonymous with the term "denotes nouka wooden non-mechanised craft used on inland any Bengali or in the Bay of Bengal. the expression country-boat. Most of (Haque 1980: 30-1). The former category included houseboats.21 on Thu. There was a spurt in temple construction in Bengal onwards. including animals large accompanied by from the 13th century 19th centuries. while a variety of watercraft carry goods and agricultural products to inland ports (Jansen et al. This prosperity is also reflected in representations on temples. where merchants are shown in boats assistants and carrying cargoes. a distinctive feature in the history of temple like Chand Saudagar and Dhanapati. In some there are elaborate references to the wealth and fortune of M?ngala Kavyas Datta merchants are these boat depictions to be explained? A corresponding development the enormous popularity of the mythological story of Kamale-Kamini glo the the Candi. in Bangladesh. CULTURAL IDENTITIES 69 Writing in 1792. Salt. Rennell was struck by the unique inland navigation network of Bengal and remarked on the brisk trade carried out throughout the region in boats. prob ably to the amount of two millions sterling per annum. while the latter included European vessels (Deloche 1991). ply as far as Myanmar.41. Traditionally. eral local zamindars or landlords. Mallas queens. tradition in Bengal from 5th-6th centuries to 14th-15th centuries AD as evident identity to the emerging local elite. These temples have been studied for their architectural styles and terracotta decorations (McCutchion 1972. but not as indicators of cultural identity of the newly emerging elite groups. The are we to established with Bengal around 1880s?so an 18th century development? Historians of ancient Bengal scarcely refer to the waterways of the region.21 on Thu. as the shrines were located in or adjacent to the houses from which landholders governed their estates (Michell 1983: 8). be it polities such as theMauryas or the Guptas or else economic intervention. Instead the focus has been on agrarian history (Sharma 1965). but also provided cultural and religious movement on basis assumption is that these were later interventions in the medieval landscape of as to the and owed their such movements. This surplus was around the middle of the first millennium BC. Gaudiya Vaisnava Bengal origin religious This contention may be debated led by Caitanyadeva (1486-1533). Trade with the ing ventures. Chakrabarti 2001: 155). 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . Thus it is evident that the ter racotta temples not only provided connectivity between agrarian space and the inland navigation network in Bengal. a continuous temple-building of archaeological which indicates data.2 The one is the Marxist opposing paradigm This credits the introduction of iron around 1000 BC with expansion of agriculture and in the middle Ganga in trad of a 'surplus' then invested production valley. from archaeological Thus the importance of the inland navigation system in the economic and cultural life of the region is undeniable in the 18th century and continued even behest of the newly emergent regional states. An analysis of inscriptions found on the temples indicate donations made by sev at Bisnupur. the raja family of Burdwan.41. Social and cultural change is gen erally attributed to an external agency. who were in turn instrumental in evolving a syncretic Puranic religion (Kunal Chakrabarti 2001: 118). Michell 1983).70 the rise of a new middle HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY class. which emerged Roman led to the development of urban centers in the early centuries of the Christian Empire of the Roman and consequently Era. development of urban centres and assume that this network was emergence of the state (Chattopadyaya 1994).10. which supports the Indian Feudalism theory. in the post-Independence including Bengal. period: school. two broad trends have influenced historical studies on ancient India. merchants and several private individuals. expansion its trade with and India. but with the decline Empire towns and cities were A period of agrarian abandoned. Even religious and culture change is attributed tomovements of brahmanas from north India at the after the rail links were sources (Sengupta and Chakraborty 2002: 395-413). as in the case of Roman trade based on finds of so-called 'imported' pottery such as Rouletted Ware and other material artefacts (Mukherjee 1996: 181-192. these self-sufficient village 2 This content downloaded from 202. Thus the archaeological study of religious architecture indicates a diverse monastic at multiple landscape and the coexistence of the Hindu temple with Buddhist centres and other local and regional cults. lasting until 1000 AD when foreign trade revived under the Arabs (Chattopadyaya 1994: 181). CULTURAL IDENTITIES 71 around which other economic activities coalesced. Ray economy followed. 1994. economic activity and religion as three competing spheres of power and control. It thus questions prioritising one sphere over the other. 2003. my study underlines the autonomy of religion and stresses the close association between religious centres and the community. It under scores the role of polity. the theory of Indian Feudalism emphasises the centrality of the political struc ture in initiating change and suggests three discontinuous phases of urbanisation whether it is the state or agricultural development or trade. I would like to introduce the results of my work as they relate to the cultural and social milieu of Bengal from the 5th-4th centuries BC to the In contrast to the rural/urban dichotomy and early his 6th-7th centuries AD.3 Three major historical processes have been postulated for the early medieval period within this framework: expansion of state society. Secondly. "State formation was in this respect.10. It is significant thatwhile archaeological data and distribution networks than simply as agents of political and Sinopoli 2004). Religious groups functioned levels and interacted with communities legitimisation In this paper. in the early medieval into "nodal in local networks. this paper highlights the centrality of the community in the study of the past and continuity in the settlement pattern as evident from the archaeological record.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS. in a variety of ways. 3 The period between the 6th-7th and 12th-13th centuries showed developments vastly dif a crucial agent of change ferent from the society of the earlier period. This content downloaded from 202. by large agricultural trade routes in the Early Historic the character of these urban centers along period.21 on Thu." period points exchange (Sharma 1965). While centers were urban (Chattopadyaya characterized located changed as centers of political surrounded hinterlands and power. These phases have been defined as the Harappan millennium (3rd-2rd BC). Early Historic (600 BC to 3rd-4th centuries AD) and Early Medieval (6th-7th?12th-13th) periods.41. toric/ early medieval disjunction supported by both Sharma and Chattopadyaya. assimilation and acculturation of tribal peoples. The crucial evidence provided by archae ology accentuates the multivocality of religious structures and negotiations between different groups. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . and integration of local religious cults and practices within the Brahmanical fold. whose complex interaction provided vibrancy to the historical process. rather (Ray 1986. My research over the last several years presents a different picture. in the sense that it brought a measure of cohesion local elements of among culture by providing them a focus" 1994: 35). Chak rabarti argues that though there is evidence for early temples in Bengal. change and co-exist.41.10. often suggesting its close links with trading groups and the second indicating that a number of autonomous and fragmented blance traditions existed. which centred on the worship of local goddesses. There are hierarchies both within the groups as well as cutting across these communities. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . It is also apparent that these diverse groups owed allegiance should include of cities at one end of the scale. goods and car goes were entrusted to the captain of the vessel who was then responsible for their sale and profit. starting from at least the third-second centuries BC onwards. Given the centrality of inland navigation in Bengal it is imperative that any discussion on trade and trading networks fishing and sailing communities within its purview. one with reference to Buddhism. which continued to evolve. which eventually decayed due to or were destroyed by Muslim invaders (Kunal Chakrabarti their founding with a royal patron.21 on Thu.72 of ceramics HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY in different parts of the subcontinent and no a is few of these find mention in inscriptions exception. The religious background of early Bengal has been studied around two axes. regional and oceanic interaction in Bengal. this paper emphasises the role of religious architecture as a rit instrument that integrated individuals and communities into a social fabric. but they neither manned nor sailed these. More often. however. yet there is little historical evidence for this during most of their existence and instead several communities claim special In contrast. these no more lack of patronage 2001: 306). traders. religious clergy and ruling groups. It is significant that while the origin myths of most of the temples associate This content downloaded from 202. ual than local centres of worship. though only Bengal or textual sources. but itwould be na?ve to support the claim that the state controlled all economic and religious activi ties. but which were by no means subsumed or integrated within a homogenising Sanskritic culture. if not earlier. while barter and monetary exchanges were the norm at the local and regional level. Merchants and traders in some cases certainly owned ships and watercraft. Trade involved a complex range of transactions. and prestige commodities required by powerful groups and residents indicate local. with gifts to those in authority. These include fishing and sailing communities. Several communities are in evidence kets. A sem of homogeneity and transformation to a distinctive Puranic form of wor were ship is said to have appeared in Bengal only when brahmanas established a social order by the early medieval period (Kunal Chakrabarti 2001: 2). craft persons. inscriptions are largely silent about trading activities until well into the 5th-6th centuries AD. The state tapped revenues from trade by taxing the sale of commodities at entry points to the city or in designated mar to a variety of belief systems. archaeological data establishes that both the Buddhist caitya and the Hindu temple were contempo the region in at least two spheres of interaction. i. Neolithic sites the widespread celts and beads of semi-precious stones indicate the involvement of these sites in local and regional trade and exchange networks (Chakrabarti 2001: 105. It then moves on to the unique environment of Bengal. Paisra in the Kharagpur in Bihar has provided a 7th millennium BC evidence for range near Munger prehistoric settlement in the region. The distribution pattern of early sites dated to around the 5th-4th centuries indicates that almost all the historical regions in Bengal had been occupied BC This content downloaded from 202. since in eastern India. local and regional cults.41.10. In addition to the characteristic Black-and-Red pottery found at these is the earliest archaeological in Bengal? How are we to understand these beginnings in the context of the oft repeated disparaging refer archaeological ences to Vanga as the land of outcastes and barbarians (vratyas and mlecchas) in later Vedic literature? Are we to understand that Bengal was an isolated zone of human settlement issues that I would occurrence of iron slag. that of the Ganga valley and the other of the Bay of Bengal and traces the development of trading pat terns in these.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS. The earliest human settlement in Bengal is dated roughly from 1700/1600 BC onwards as evident from the distribution of sites in lower Bengal and elsewhere dating from around Black-and-Red Ware 1500 BC (Dutta 2000: 86-91). The final section draws on archaeological evidence for terra cotta figurines. Clearly there is a need to re-examine entrenched orthodoxy in the writing of ancient Indian history. which located to underscore the diverse of cultural identity to the The Archaeological The Inputs like to raise are what evidence until it was brought into a homogenised Brahmanical culture as a result of movement of brahmanas from north India in the 4th-5th centuries AD? Clearly this is an untenable position. iron using village settlements are largely documented in the region of Radha to the west of the river Bhagi rathi. relationship with the deity (Meister 2000: 24). the archaeological data and highlights continuity of settlement as evident in the record. CULTURAL IDENTITIES 73 This paper focuses on archaeological data from Bengal and re-evaluates it at levels both and multiple spatially chronologically. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . It starts with a discussion of raneous in 3rd-1st centuries BC and shared sacred space with a diverse range of domestic. 122). In contrast to the conventional linear development from Buddhist caitya to Hindu temple. copper objects.e. Rice cultivating. sculptures and religious architecture sacred landscape that provided anchorage and means communities.21 on Thu. in an un-flooded area at the This content downloaded from 202. itwas linked via the lower Bengal coast to the Bay of Bengal coastal system. This area formed a part of a larger trad network routes with ing traversing through the Brahmaputra valley of Assam to Tibet.21 on Thu. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . The site of settled on a slightly elevated spot on the western bank of a major artery of communication. one a pan-Indian bead-making dition and the other the east coast and Southeast Asian tradition (Chakraborty is the largest site in the area. In the 12th-13th centuries at least three of the Pala kings adopted Another or lord of Gaur. The sacred complex at the site was unearthed at the northern mound known as Khana Mihirer Dhipi and comprised of a massive brick temple. Jhikra.10. (Chakraborty centuries BC to the 10th century AD. site includes a series of mounds within an area of 3-5 square kilometres scat settlement over a long period of time. A study from Chandraketugarh shows that the circular disc cylinder and short circular beads in banded agate form a large proportion of the total bead assem and that these were 40). etc. Though eleven major riverine identified along the original flow of the Ganga from Boral to (Chakrabarti 2001: 152).74 HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY of beads blage and interacted not only with each other but also with a large hinterland. How is this trading activity to be defined and understood? Before I move to a discussion of the nature of trade and trading activity. It is situated on the mori north-east of Kolkata river system adjacent to the almost dried bund delta of the Ganga-Brahmaputra course once a large tributary of the Bhagirathi. Shanpukur. Its strategic location at one end of access to the ancient histori the Ganga river system provided Pundravardhana cal network of the Ganga plains. upper Burma and China. Chandraketugarh tra belonged to two different cultural currents. Arakan and the Irrawaddy val the title of Gaudesvara located further south. I would like to briefly draw attention to at least three major sites. Tamil and Sri Lankan coasts to the south (The Periplus Maris Erythreaei.41. In addition. which show 1995-96: continued sites have been Mandirtala carried along the riverine routes. Chandraketugarh grew into the largest site of the area on to freshwater resources and control of waterways of better access site continued to be occupied from the 5th-4th 2002: The 154). It is suggested that as compared to Harinarayanpur account region that continued to play a crucial role in the early history of as a major centre until the Bengal was Pundravardhana with Mahasthangarh 13th century when the political focus shifted somewhat south to the Gaur Pandua area. The river of the up Vidhyadhari. the site of Chandraketugarh. 38 kilometres tered in the villages of Devalaya. sections 60-66). Hadipur. decade at Mahasthangarh for the last one the site in a firmer chronological framework. viz. ley on the east and the Andhra. Berachampa. encircled by a huge earthen rampart wall. excavations conducted Archaeological have placed Mahasthangarh was the Karatoya. dating settlement dating from 1200 to 600 BC provided evidence for the use of iron. Another significant result of the exca by theMauryas vations was least in comparison to similar and period are rather poor and indeterminate?at centres in the Ganga valley (Salles 2004: cultural data from other contemporary is It that the 'lean' from 1st century BC to 2nd century 201).41.21 on Thu. sealings and coins. This was 11 deep late 2nd century AD a prosperous environment for rich and diversified agri layers of excavations from the foundation of the site to the AD was corresponds to a 'rich' period further south at Chandra shards ketugarh as evident from the larger numbers of finds of Rouletted Ware as will be argued later. here I would like to summarise briefly the results from another archaeological site.10. but also with a large hinterland. There is a continuity of settlement atmajor sites such as Chandraketugarh In until the 12th century AD. The inhabitants were still skilfully active and were rather wealthy if one of Mahasthangarh assesses their constructions." early 2nd century BC-mid-lst century BC (levels 5 to 8). Mahasthangarh as their eastern capital. It is also evident that the earliest settlement atMahasthangarh at Mahasthangarh a small and obscure village and as yet there is little justification for the tra was founded ditional assumption that from its very beginning. until the 10th century AD. both wild and domesticated animals and consumption of rice. the "Capital City. is located on the right bank of the river Kunur in The site of Mangalkot Burdwan district and dates from 1200 BC to the 17th century AD. On the contrary. This third phase plaques again somewhat later. CULTURAL IDENTITIES limit between culture." mid-lst century BC-2nd century AD (levels 9 to 11). the earliest of the terracotta moulded the change in the nature of settlement around early 2nd century BC terracotta plaques (Salles 2002: that coincided with the occurrence of moulded I will both the of the Rouletted Ware and the cultural significance discuss 536)." late 4th/early 3rd century-early 2nd century BC (levels 1 to 4). and Mahasthangarh food right from the beginning of the settlement consisted of fish. The the Barind to the West 75 and the lower terraces of the Jamuna basin to the East. carp and tor toise (Ray and Mukherjee 1992: 107-34). significant period in the evolution of the settlement extended from the mid-lst century BC (end of the Capital City) to the last quarter of the 2nd century AD. Thus to reiterate. the distribution pattern of early sites dated to around the 5th-4th centuries BC indicates that almost all historical regions in Bengal had This content downloaded from 202. Faunal analysis from the site is par ticularly significant for this paper as it shows that one of the major items of addition been occupied and interacted not only with each other. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . Period IV dating from the 1st century BC to AD 400 was themost prosperous at the site and in to large scale structural remains yielded a large number of inscribed and un-inscribed seals.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS. the cultural remains of the same have been grouped into three cultural phases: The "Early settlement. and the "Pause. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . prescriptions and as account the of hides.41. certain glaring omissions stand out. sea turtles. Archaeological lished the presence of "well-established village cultures based on the cultivation of two crops a year by rotation method" in the Ganga basin as early as 2000 BC in Bihar. yet so little data is available on it in Bengal.76 spite of this wealth With the exception HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY of archaeological data. Comparable dates are available from late prehistoric sites in western India. Thus the role of resource use starting from the prehistoric period fishing in wide-spectrum onwards is gradually being recognised.10. Another much from the prehistoric period onwards. Rennell's such had several practical applications curing does mention transportation of salt through the waterways and at present salt is (Jansen et al. Mantai has provided evidence for exploitation of marine resources such as various molluscs. in intensively cultivated lowland fields and secondly in upland areas as a part of a shifting agricultural regime (Glover and Higham in the last few decades have estab excavations 1996: 413-4). though fishing com are seldom represented in literary sources and their presence in the vation. 1989).21 on Thu. viz. there is an almost total absence of data on ancient flora and fauna. which was no longer available Salt also formed a crucial component in ancient medical that the shift from animal diet to plant food through intake of commodity. but remains to be studied in the context of Bengal. Perhaps the earliest evi archaeological dence of fishing communities in South Asia comes from Sri Lanka. In the his produced in Cox's Bazar area in Bangladesh torical period. Fishing has been the traditional occupation of coastal and riverine popula tions in South Asia munities record has only recently been noticed. It is accepted by archaeologists neglected aspect of man-land relationship relates to rice culti in historical literature is said to result from the use of iron in the resulted in a demand meat. seawater was an important source for obtaining this essential for salt. dolphin and so on in the prehistoric Mesolithic phase dating to thebeginning of the 2nd millennium BC (Prickett-Fernando 1990: 115). Another important marine resource that occurs in the historical period is the cowrie or the shell of the gastropod Cypraea moneta gathered in the shallow This content downloaded from 202. Rice cultivation is attested to at sites such as Pandu Rajar Dhibi in Birbhum dis dated from 1100 to 700 BC in the Ajay valley and Mahishdal trict (Singh 2002: 146).. especially fish remains from archaeological explorations in the region and hence it is difficult to probe further issues and excavations related to man-land and man-water-system relationships. It is seldom recognised thatAsian rice is typically grown in two contrasting situations. which middle Ganga valley in the first millennium BC and to have expanded from there eastward. fish. of Mangalkot. 41.e. Thus turies BC from the above thatmarine sites in Bengal it is evident survey of archaeological and riverine resources were utilised at least from the 3rd-2nd cen specific names of officials involved. these occur as far apart as Harappan sites in north-west India and prehistoric sites in north China (Wicks 1992: 308-310). How was Trade Patterns per plate charters dating from the 4th-5th centuries onwards. These not only provide details of the network of rivers and canals. low denomination coins and perhaps cowries respectively. CULTURAL IDENTITIES waters of theMaldive hence 77 islands. prathama kulika Dhrtimitra and prathama Dhrtipala. the carava neer (sarthavaha) and the chief merchant (nagara sresthi) in the administrative procedures. chief scribe (prathama kayastha). It defines the markers dated to AD at as two of the boats follows: the channel between monastery landing places This content downloaded from 202. rivulets. Nor are these mere stereotypes. Cowries were widely used in the historical period and continued in circulation in different parts of the Indian Ocean well into the 20th century.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS.21 on Thu. Cowries were also recovered from the Iron Age horizon at the site of Khajuri (Allahabad district). letme start by drawing attention to the earliest cop Another example of this is the Gunaighar copper plate inscription ofVainy agupta to the for the lands belonging 507. The Mahasthan inscription from eastern India of the 3rd-2nd centuries BC refers to aid in the form of kakanis and gandakas. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . These have often of agrarian settlements in Bengal been used for the study of expansion are is this the frequent references for but what relevant paper (Morrison 1970).10. Some other species are native to East Asia and the issue of source of cowries found extensively in South and Southeast Asia remains problematic. In the 2nd millennium BC. For example.000 cowries in a pot in levels dated between 600 and 200 BC. inscription Dharmaditya. Faridpur copper plate and 1967: of 82). i. channels. 1919-20: 113-45). tanks and reservoirs as boundary markers. Mukherji Maity In support of my hypothesis that rivers have always played a major role in the cultural life of Bengal. to rivers. the first four Damodarpur I (444 AD) refer to the nagara sresthi copper plates of the time of Kumaragupta sarthavaha Bandhumitra. excavations at Masaon (Ghazipur district) brought to light a hoard of 3. 4th-5th century copper Bengal organisation of trading activity to association of several the charters refer occupational groups such as the plate onwards. In the middle Ganga valley. as several land grants record this system organised? While textual data on the in is limited. The Landscape and while a different set of names is given in plate 5 (Basak chief artisan (prathama kulika). but also include details such as posts to fasten boats (Naudandaka-sima. kayastha Sambapala. if not earlier Arakan looking to Bengal for models of kingship and administration. which saw cultural and reli gious interaction between Arakan and Bengal on the one hand and Burma and mainland Southeast Asia and there was imagery it is evident that the rivers formed a part of the cultural landscape of the communities in Bengal from at least the 4th-5th centuries AD. i. the Sundarban coast. In contrast to the copper plate charters of the Candras their coinage struck in silver was closely related to that of Southeast Asia (Wicks 1992: 86). In to adopting the format of the copper plate grants as prevalent in Bengal. Radha (areas to thewest of the present Bhagirathi). It is significant that stone and copper plate inscriptions of the Candra dynasty that ruled Arakan from circa 454 to 600 AD were found from the ruins of stupas and indicate that at this time was ent sections. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . eighth century AD inscription places states that his palace was of Bhavadeva located high on a hill. The Khalimpur charters of the king were 'where a variety of boats had formed a bridge on the issued from Pataliputra Kielhorn 1896-7: 243 (Nanavidha-nauvataka-sampadita-setubandha Bhagirathi' 54). is by no means a homogenous and may be divided into four differ landscape ravardhana This content downloaded from 202. the mouths of the Padma and the Brahmaputra and finally the Cattagrama coast. Bugura.78 Chudamani HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY and Nagarasri to the east. Pund into four subdivisions. has been divided Historically Bengal on the other. Bhuticandra's inscription (496-520) also incorporates several words known from Bengal such as jola (channel) and khalla (canal) (Sircar 1957: 109.e. Similarly the (Mukherji and Maity to of refers 'trighattika' or three landing Faridpur copper plate Dharmaditya An for watercraft (Sircar 1965/1993: 344). plate profusion a vibrant transportation network along the rivers. A (north Bengal including Rajshahi. the lower course of the Hooghly. Dinajpur areas). I should also draw attention to the overlapping frontiers between Bengal and the kingdom of Arakan lying on its eastern edge. Vanga or central deltaic region and Itmay be underlined that the coast Samatata (areas to the east of theMeghna). the base of by a river where elephants bathed and boats passed to and fro (Sircar 1951: 87). of boats at Pradamara and to the south. viz. Sircar addition 1967: 61-6). to thewest the land belonging to the tem to the north the channel leading to the landing places of ple Pradyumnesvara. is described as a region bordering the eastern By the sixth century Bengal sea (praksamudra) in the Faridpur copper plates of Dharmaditya and by the oceans announces Deva of the his control 'forming eighth century Dharmapala the encircling ditches of the earth'.10.21 on Thu.41. the channel open to boats connected to the tank of Ganesvara villala which was washed 1967: 65-70). By the tenth century AD the Bay of Bengal had acquired a territorial iden in theMadanpur copper tity as indicated by the use of the term Vangasagara of From of varied charter Srichandra 1949: this (Sircar 337-9). The evidence for these settle ity of the users and hence suggested an Indo-Roman trading station at the site (Wheeler et al. increasing in significance only after the fifteenth-sixteenth cen tury" (Chakrabarti 2001: 127). It declined rapidly after the 18th century and within a hundred years stopped the former objective may be well founded the validity of information on identity of trading groups based on pottery types identified so-called 'foreign pottery.10. ceramics have been used most frequently to demarcate trade networks and often to establish the identity of the Indeed a recent publication titled.41. as well as fluctuating and shifting channels and estuaries (Deloche (Alam and Salles 2001: 37). The Karatoya.e. 2nd century Rouletted Ware (Chattopadyaya 2000: 610). Roman. Wheeler Rouletted Ware and amphorae.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS. but also the ethnic on the east-coast impacted its links within early trading sys tems? In the writing of ancient Indian history. He used these ceramic finds to endorse not only the nature of trade. 1946).While of India and dated the former to the end of first centmy BC beginning of first century AD (Wheeler et al. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . which is no more than a nullah at present was part of the larger Tista system. which drained the region north to south and is repre sented as a major river on 18th century maps including that by James Rennell. the Recent excavations at Mahasthangarh most important pottery category remains the Northern Black Polished Ware BC" (NBPW). 1946: 45). i. which "arrived in India around c. More significantly. he unwittingly started a trend for the study and interpretation of ceramics that has proved surprisingly tenacious.21 on Thu. CULTURAL IDENTITIES 79 a striking aspect of this region is the penetration of tides far upstream enabling close contact between maritime navigation and an inland water transport sys 1994: tem. fabric. during his excavations at the site of Arikamedu groups involved in trade. which represents a major share of the finds (80% in levels 5 and 6).. as the sample size that has been subjected to scientific analysis is still This content downloaded from 202. 6 and 7. which now being navigable and joins the sea near Sagar island "is a comparatively flows past Kolkata recent channel. especially those of Roman sailors and merchants at Arikamedu. How has this location of Bengal 116-126). Was across the Bay of ceramic type produced in one region and then distributed answer to or were is this centres It difficult of there several production? Bengal question. to the editor is based on finds of pottery fragments of ments according from the site.' such as needs to be questioned. This Some fragments of Rouletted Ware were also found in the NBPW new a to the of the Rouletted and emergence important argument supports push Ware back to the 3rd or 2nd century BC and Mahasthangarh would thus appear this as one of the earliest centres of production of the Rouletted Ware.A Sourcebook of Indian Civilization refers to the existence of foreign settlements on the east coast of India. Similarly the river. indicate that in levels 5. He supports the and that itwas produced at several cen theory that RW evolved from NBPW area (Gogte 1997: 69 tres with the epicentre in the Tamluk-Chandraketugarh This is further supported by the results from the recent excavations 85).41. Writing facilitated storing of information. 2001: the Bay of Bengal Rouletted Ware 199) in Sri Lanka. though one of the forms of the Rouletted Ware has been found in the excavations at Berenike on the east coast of the Red Sea. This leads me to another important issue. V. What occur at some interior sites in peninsular India. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .21 on Thu. Anjan Kumar Das and others however dispute these results on the basis of 'scientific analyses' of the ceramic (Das et al. trad ing world as evident in the finds of inscribed shards. 2002: 425-450). Across shards have been found at Buni culture sites in north Java. These networks may be identified in the archaeological mens of writing on pottery.80 HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY small.10. seals and sealings. This paper will primarily focus on patterns of use and distribution of the written records variations. it is time to delink the Rouletted Ware from and to analyse its distribution within the regional maritime net north coast of Bali Bengal.. Given this concentration of Bengal littoral. Gogte has attempted to address the question by comparing themin eral content obtained from XRD analysis of Rouletted Ware from several sites with clays from the Tamil coast. its distribution has a clear Bay of Bengal focus. Since then the number of sites yielding Rouletted Ware shards has increased and the distribution map of theWare now extends from in Bengal to Tissamaharama and Chandraketugarh (Weisshaar Mahasthangarh et al.D. especially those marked with a ship symbol. theory fine textured pottery with rouletted decoration on the base and these included the sites of Chandravalli and Brahmagiri inKarnataka and Amaravati inAndhra at Mahasthangarh. seals and sealings and by inscriptions on stone and copper plates. i.. The several other indicators. seals and sealings in along with in an attempt to highlight both temporal and spatial is to define the changing frontiers of trade and the issue larger This content downloaded from 202. lower Bengal and Vietnam.e. Thus the dispersal of the Rouletted is Ware primarily along the Bay of Bengal littoral in South Asia and across the sea at sites in island and mainland Southeast Asia. the extent of the literate. Sembiran on the and at sites in Vietnam. In the 1950s only a few sites were known to have yielded Rouletted Ware a (Wheeler 1946: 48). such as inscribed shards. Here the ceramic occurs together with other Indian pottery types and shards with legends in Tamil-Brahmi the Bay along the Romans works (Begley and Tomber 1999: 161-4). cumulative knowledge pro moted new genre of cultural and artistic expression and aided ordering of infor mation under numeric and alphabetic heads and the use of maps (Goody 2001: record by speci 144). There are several variations within is significant is that though it does the Rouletted Ware fabric. theMilindapanha.21 on Thu. though the overall chronological span ranges from 200 BC to the 4th century AD (Sastri et al. refers to the This content downloaded from 202. Prakrit/Sanskrit and Sinhala.. Sanskrit and Old Sinhala.41. 1992: 116-140). Khuan Lukpad. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . viz.21. CULTURAL IDENTITIES 81 complex ways in which writing aided the construction of a literate culture.10. laid over fastenings on the mouths of pots containing valuables Jataka. at The largest concentration of 109 shards was in Period II dated between 100 BC and AD 200. with several overlaps between these networks. II (Basu 2002: 34). inscribed shards are in addition to the large numbers of seals and seal sites in the Indian subcontinent (Thaplyal 1972). though the earliest find at the sitewas from the Megalithic levels dated to the 3rd century BC (Mahadevan 1996: 295-6). Kuala Selinsing. Prakrit. the other evidence of writing is provided by a Northern Black Polished Ware shard with three Brahmi letters of 2nd-1st century BC found in Chand raketugarh period area and parts of Southeast Asia 1990: 10-1). The monastic complex at Salihundam or ancient Kattaharama yielded eighty inscribed shards and the few complete readings from the site would suggest that these were on platters or pots donated to the monastery (Subrahmanyam 1964: 119-122). It is (Mukherjee was note to that the Brahmi for script important adopted inscribing names in more than one language on pottery in the Indian Ocean world. These inscriptions found at sites in Sri Lanka and at least at four major coastal cen tres in Southeast Asia. An early Buddhist text. They were also used for securing documents (Khadirangara and for identification. This clearly indicates the presence of at least raketugarh three language groups involved in trading activity in the Indian Ocean region? those using Tamil. sites. particularly the Chand The occurrence of inscribed shards at major coastal sites in the subcontinent is of relevance to this paper as it helps define the nature of maritime networks. and the ivory. In addition a large corpus of Kharoshti to the early inscriptions ranging from the second half of the first century AD 5th century AD have been found in lower Bengal. copper ubiquitous terracotta at a range of archaeological are our to the carnelian discussion seals and with relevant intaglios Particularly custodian of seals. they marking These clay on wet seals occur in a variety of materials such as stone. no. 214 inscribed shards were recovered Vaddamanu located 10 kilometres south-east from the archaeological of Amaravati excavations in Andhra. ings found at archaeological were stamped Seals were used for merchandise (Arthasastra 11. Chaiya and Oc-Eo. Another important find of inscribed pottery is from Arikamedu where at least 17 of the 66 inscriptions on pottery are known to be in Tamil. 40). A majority of the inscribed shards date to the lst-2nd centuries AD. Tamil.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS.2-3). viz. With the exception of theMahasthan inscription often dated to theMauryan period. though these continued in use until the 6th 7th centuries AD as indicated by later finds (Ray 1994: chapter 4). This corpus ship identified as a Southeast Asian vessel with outrigger. As mentioned earlier. which occurs around the lst-2nd centuries AD on punch-marked.82 The earliest HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY is supplemented by finds of seals with legends in Kharosthi. A stone seal from Nakhorn Pathom depicts a two-masted specimen of carnelian seals with Brahmi legends from Khuan Lukpad dates to the 1st century AD. Written in corrupt Sanskrit one of the records begins with the Buddhist formula 'ye dharma hetu prabhava' and all three epigraphs record The script used for these stone and copper plates found at centres in Southeast Asia continues to be Brahmi and the language Sanskrit. The nature of the written record changes around the 4th-5th centuries AD with copper plates and stone being used for inscribing and recording in the subcon tinent. Thong now displayed in the Lopburi Museum.10. Kharosthi characters have also been identified on a seal matrix of tin from Oc-Eo. three inscriptions were recovered from the ruins of the a vihara built by herself and that the income from the village was to be utilised for the repair of the monastery as well as for meeting other necessities of the monks (Sircar 1967: 61-6). As in the case of the Indian subcontinent. seals and sealings. Two issues are evident from the above discussion. e. It is also around this time that stone inscriptions in Sanskrit often con mainland and island Southeast taining Buddhist formulae are found at several sites in Asia. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . The second is the literate nature until well of this system as established by finds of inscribed shards. The donated a village called Dengutta in favour of This content downloaded from 202. a seal from U. but after that the are all referred to as worshippers of Siva. cast copper and Satavahana coins. Buddhist monastic in Arakan and are dated to the 6th-7th complex at Vesali centuries AD. these inscriptions record genealogies of the rulers and donations made to brahmanas (Ray 2003: chapter VI).21 on Thu. while the male head on another tin seal resembles 1990: 3). One is the participation of in the Bay of Bengal network and there is evidence for its continuity Bengal into the 10th century AD as evident from the uninterrupted settlement both at Chandraketugarh and Mahasthangarh. A cluster of fifth century inscriptions of unequivocal Buddhist affiliation has grant lists seven ancestors who record states thatKimmajuvdevi royal donations made to the Buddhist monastic complex at the site (Sircar 1957: 109). Other examples of the use of the ship-sym bol on pottery and coins are known from Sri Lanka (Weisshaar et al.g. 2001: 15 6) and south Thailand.41. terracotta sealings and as graffiti from deltaic Bengal and the Andhra coast (Ray 1994: 52). The first line of the copper plate charter is damaged. the head of Kusana ruler Miaos on his coins (Mukherjee A symbol widely distributed in the Indian Ocean region is the ship symbol. while on the other. Along Dhaka. issues of the I (312-280 BC) found in a vil Seleucids. Dating from a Sri Lankan coins were found during trade and information regarding customary laws that applied to trading groups. such as a silver drachm of Seleucos as as near well coins of the Parthians and the Indo-Greeks. Three of these inscriptions are made of local stone and bear similar illustrations of Buddhist stupas. 1965: 23-4). Another issue thatmay be brought into the discussion at this stage relates to the evidence from coins found in Bengal. This includes of formula 'ajnanac-ciyate karmma' on stone?a feature the Buddhist engraving that does not occur among contemporary records from the Indian subcontinent. Texts on the west coast of theMalay peninsula. on the successful completion of his voyage (Chhabra Rajbadidanga very similar to these inscriptions have been found on the island of Borneo and on the coast of Brunei (Christie 1995: 256). while two similar pieces recovered from the river bed at Karur were slightly later period. imports from a wide area of north and northwest of the Indian subcontinent are also evident. bearing legends in Greek are also known in Bangladesh. On the one hand. what is however lacking are details of revenue collected from of the composition of both Brahmaputra within or in the vicinity of temple premises from the 10th century onwards in regions such as Gujarat. 2000: 27). At the same time there are several instances of a This content downloaded from 202. though imitation copper coins are somewhat scarce. Unlike Gujarat. 2001: 87).21 on Thu. These include finds of Mauryan punch-marked coins. influenced the trading system in several ways from religious landscape cultural preferences and choices to active participation. these indicate local series of punch-marked coins dated around 3rd century BC. Religious moulding The as shrines were both consumers of a variety of commodities used in ritual. The most interesting of these inscriptions in Sanskrit is that of Buddhagupta. archaeological silver coins.10. resident of Raktamrttika. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . Mitchiner argues Based on the trace gold content of Arakanese to their south and with that the Candras of Arakan traded with the Mon Harikela Candra and Samatata in Bengal silver coins makes it clear that the Candras to their north. Analyses handled in south India. CULTURAL IDENTITIES been found in Kedah 83 the stone by themariner Buddhagupta. The connection with Sri Lanka is evident from a 3rd century AD Sri Lankan cop per "goddess plaque" in a private collection in Dhaka.41. lage imitations with Kushana local gold coins. identified with in Bengal. 2000: 45). as well important locales for trading activity as indicated by shops and markets traded silver and also Irrawaddy traded silver (Mitchiner. three early medieval excavations at Paharpur (Mitchiner. which refers to the setting up of though the formula is found on terracotta sealings.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS. The building of new temples stimulated economic growth thereby transforming both the geographic and social landscapes of the region (Talbot. integrated to terracotta time re-examine the finds of images and the extent to which these be classified a figure in the round. As with other parts of the Indian subcontinent. Perhaps it is tradition. Terracotta images may into handmade and mould-made based on the technique adopted that terracotta figurines found at archaeological sites formed a part of the folk was into which Brahmanical later the fold. At Tamluk representations This content downloaded from 202. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .84 HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY required for religious purposes. Terracotta plaques and shards with auspicious symbols were integral to Ganga valley religious traditions from the 4th-3rd century BC onwards and the repertoire included a range of Hindu deities.21 on Thu. the move religious shrine was a prominent part of the landscape and inscriptions invari ably either refer to donations made to religious establishments or record rules for managing the property of the shrines and temples. for example. Let us then on from this trading network of Bengal to focus on the diverse religious milieu of its early history. of Buddha. An analysis of the terracottas from Chandraketugarh shows that the group comprising of plaques with female figurines with the distinctive five hair-ornaments or panca-cuda.41. whereas a double-mould with female Naga figurines and several specimens found at Chandraketugarh are now in the Kanoria collection (Roy Chowdhury 1995-6: 69). has yielded a gaja-laksmi plaque in terracotta dated produced to 200-100 I would BC and another uramardini the Ganga comes fromMathura. Landscape differential tax on commodities The Diverse Religious Kosambi had argued for continuity of Indian culture and its survival in pre sent peasant communities. The moulds could be of stone. Thus it is suggested may be termed 'local' or folk goddesses. He proposed that the long survival of observances that have no sanction in the official 'Brahmin' works can only have originated in the most primitive stages of human society and this has been the prevailing orthodoxy in Indian history writing (Kosambi the cult of the mother goddess was Dravidian 1956: 20).10. terracotta or wood and the use of a single mould resulted in the production of a plaque. Other representations include corpulent yaksa images and plaques argue that already by the 2nd century BC Bengal formed a part of valley religious milieu as evident from the widespread distribution of certain types of moulded female terracotta plaques. while only one Buddha figure has so far been reported from Chandraketugarh (Mandai 1987: 25-7). It is often argued that in origin and that religious cus toms of the tribes and low-caste groups can provide insights into archaic prac tices thatwere later incorporated into Brahmanical religion. depicting mahisas in their pro duction. Boddhisattva and other deities are known in terracotta. Atranjikhera. lst-2nd century AD specimen. In addition are the stamped ceramics with auspicious signs such as triratna. Another representation shows the female figurine standing on a pot or ghata containing coins and she is shown shower ing money on a worshipper (Bautze 1995: plates 12-3).THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS. those with ten hair ornaments are also found and these form a class and have been dated from 1st century BC to 2nd century AD (Gill record from Sonkh 46). the use of auspicious symbols on pottery dates to and show enclosures marked by railings. Both these are noticeable in the archaeological near Mathura furtherwest in the Ganga valley. The dates for these figurines correspond with those from sites further west. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .41. Two of the open-air shrines have been identified on terracotta objects from Chandraketugarh dated to the first-second centuries AD single calibrated radiocarbon date of 221 BC was from level 28 assigned to Period III. as opposed to the earlier practice of hand itself indicates production for a larger consumer base on a wider modelling. One or 'chief enclosure of the legends can be read and refers to dha(r) magras(r)ala of religion' (Mukherjee 2000: 41-2). though the excavator termed it too early (Haertel 1993: 85). CULTURAL IDENTITIES divine and semi-divine 85 by themselves. For example. to the beings. Similarly in addition to the data from several other sites in the Ganga valley.10. scale. 1961: But evidence for 137). (Lueders worship at a perhaps indisputable from a record on a pillar base to a gift of Devila described as devakulika shrine comes Nagas. Moulded terracotta plaques were found at Sonkh in levels 29 and 30 in association with die-struck copper coins excavations 2002: and mud brick structures. for example. It is striking that already by the 2nd-1st centuries BC these terracotta images were housed in a variety of structures and worshipped. It is no doubt also evident that along with the panca-cuda figurines. Here again the data from Bengal is in consonance with that from other sites been found in north India. at Jamalpur mound. the earliest occurrence of moulded female terracotta plaques with hairpins is dated around early 2nd century BC (Salles et al 2002: 536). a first century BC Kharosthi inscription found in the Gandhara region records the construction of a tank for the worship of the The practice of donating puskarinis or lotus tanks and the setting up of as well is evident from other inscriptions from Mathura images of Nagas no. srivatsa. yaksas and winged figures belonging numerous most at is far the the site cultural milieu Chowd Ganga valley by (Roy hury 1995-6: 61).21 on Thu. Terracotta plaques depicting a female figurine enshrined in a pillared mandapa accompanied by attendants with fans and umbrellas and devotees with bowls or even with a halo around the head have in lower Bengal. which refers or priest of Dandhikarna Naga This content downloaded from 202. cakra. a couple of fish. A obtained At Mahasthangarh. The use of a mould. which were found in the 1997-8 around second-first century at Sonkh (Haertel 1989: 181-192). lamps and flowers for worship (Basak 1931-2: 78-81). 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . Surya in later periods as well as indicated by finds of continued to be worshipped Surya images from Deora in Bogra district and theKashipur stone image (Alam 1985: 61). A red stone torso now in the Asutosh museum was discovered dur in 1934 though detailed results are not known. These include a stone image of a 2nd century AD Yaksi now a 2nd century AD four-armed Visnu from Narhatta in in the Dhaka Museum. light. In addition to the inscriptions. flower. and Maity 1967: 68).41. which significant find from the site was that of a sandstone column carved with several scenes in high relief one of these showing a four-armed deity (Alam 1985: 67-9). The Damodarpur a records from for land to estab (476-495 AD) request Ribhupala Buddhagupta lish the linga form and to construct two temples or devalayas and two store rooms for Siva and Visnu 1967: 61-4). incense. etc. In addition toMathura another early centre known for the worship of the Naga cult is Rajgir. The performance of daily worship was by no means limited to the Hindu temple as evident from the Gunaighar copper plate inscription (AD 507). Another ing test excavations copper plate of ples built by a diverse cross section of people. The material image from Hankrail inMalda used for these images is different from the mottled red sandstone used at and this led S. at the as well as for maintenance of the complex (Mukherji vihara of Avalokitesvara. the Buddhist monk for the perfor of worship thrice a day with perfume.86 HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY (Lueders 1961: no. Excavations carried out in 1934-5 at a mound at Baigram revealed a temple with a square sanctum and a covered circumambulatory passage (Chakrabarti 1992: 119). which refers to donations for worship and construction of a resting place at a Jaina vihara inhabited by the monk Guhanandin and his disciples from Varanasi (Dikshit 1929-30: 59-64). as well as two representations of Bogra district Surya on coarse grained hard sandstone from sites in north Bengal and a Visnu district in buff-coloured sandstone. records grant of land to acarya Santideva.10. In addition. Hinduism and Buddhism coexisted with Jainism as indi This content downloaded from 202. an apsi dal structure dedicated to the Naga cult was excavated at the site of Sonkh in Mathura district.21 on Thu. now in the Rajshahi museum. The Baigram (Mukherji and Maity copper plate inscription (448 AD) refers to a request from the householders or kutumbins Bhoyila and Bhaskara for a grant for repairs to a Visnu temple estab lished by their father and for a regular supply of perfumes. Saraswati Mathura to suggest that these were produced in Bengal rather than being imports from furtherwest (Alam 1985: 48-53). 63). incense.K. In addition to the terracotta figures several stone images have been found at sites in Bengal. fifth century AD inscriptions refer to several examples of tem mance cated by the Paharpur copper plate inscription. theancient Buddhist Somapura mahavi in Bangladesh founded by Dharmap?la have confirmed the (c. Salles. and affiliated to the Vahrca sakha of Similarly a brahmana of Kaundinyagotra so was that he could perform the five sacrifices enjoined theVedas granted land upon by the brahmana householder It is evident from this discussion Bengal (Mukherji and Maity 1967: 87-95). Within the walls of the site also there are reports of reli gious structures dating to this period. Dhamadata in Bengal identified with Pundravardhana (Marshall 1940: nos 278 and 594). excavations at Paharpur.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS. CULTURAL IDENTITIES There are few references to brahmanas involved in worship.41. comes from the mound of Mangalkot interesting evidence perhaps Small excavations located a kilometre west of the mound at Mahasthangarh. which dha. while a pair of temples of the 8th and 11th centuries were recovered from the site of Bairagi Bhita.10. the latter decorated with terracotta plaques. The zone to the northwest of the site has been identified as a thriving zone of Buddhist A have provided information on a diverse religious land ity of Mahasthangarh with several Hindu scape temples coexisting with Buddhist monastic complexes. region longevity excavations conducted at several mounds located in the vicin Archaeological activity. 770-810) in its coexistence of the and with Buddhism the Hindu temple. 87 though an elab orate ritual had developed both in the Hindu temple and the Buddhist shrine. located in the northeastern portion of the site (Alam and 2001). 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . The excavations at Basu Bihar show that in the 8th to 12th centuries. In 1961. suggested by in Bengal is based on two second to early first The presence of Buddhism century BC inscriptions from the main stupa at Sanchi in central India. But This content downloaded from 202. that the presence of the religious shrine in is indicated from at least the 2nd-1st centuries BC and onwards and images of varied religious affiliations were housed in these. two substantial monasteries and a shrine were constructed. Nor can any link ages be established between certain forms of economic activity such as trade and Buddhism vardhana and Isinadana of Punya by two residents. a temple of the 8th century was excavated near the gateway on the southwest interior corner of the fortifications. while Mankalir Dhap close by yielded bronze figures ofGanesa and Garuda and ornamented bricks reminiscent of the brick temples at Bhitargaon. A somewhat later Nagarjunakonda inscription refers to Vanga as one of the regions where Buddhist missions went for spreading theword of the Bud record donations made hara or agrarian expansion and efflorescence of Hinduism as often historians.21 on Thu. Archaeological shrine and three seated images of the Buddha was found at Khoda Pathar mound. In contrast there is mention of brahmanas granted land to enable them to perform the agnihotra rites and the five daily sacrifices (Mukherji and Maity 1967: 47-9). 421-3). Though gradually deserted by his troops. The area around Mahasthangarh location of religious shrines well into the 12th century. where he went to the temple ofKarttikeya to enjoy the dancing and singing being performed in accordance with the pre cepts of Bharata (Stein 1961: 93. Barakar and Kudia.41.88 HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY conducted here yielded large numbers of female terracotta figurines with snake hoods behind their heads from the foundation trenches of a ruined temple dated (Chakrabarti 1992: 89-110). Jayapida set out to conquer the world. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions . in data for the this paper I have highlighted the archaeological conclude. 160. Temple-building continued here from 8th-9th centuries to 14th-15th centuries AD. Thus to label is not validated by the these temple sites as local centres of no consequence wealth of data provided by sculptures and excavations of early temple sites and the detailed mention To toPaundravardhana. the king travelled down theGanga and fromVaranasi moved activity junction of the rivers Damodar. Both at Mahasthangarh and at Chandraketugarh the Hindu temple coexisted with Buddhist monastic evidence emphasises the long dura century Brahmi. Exploration between the villages of Palashbari and Bamunpura about a kilo metre west of the site of Mahasthangarh have yielded large numbers of terra cotta plaques depicting stories from the Ramayana with short labels in 6th-7th between 2nd and 5th centuries AD complexes. as evident from the excavations of a brick temple at Khana Mihirer Dhipi at Chandraketugarh dated to the 8th to 12th centuries AD. Soon after his accession to the throne. This content downloaded from 202. This data is further corroborated by recent archaeological work at the temple cluster of Begunia (Sengupta and Chakraborty 2002: 395-413) located at the tri of these in Kalhana's Rajatarangini. presence of villages in Bengal as early as 1800/1600 BC and the continuity of settlement at major sites well into the 9th-10th centuries AD. Clearly the archaeological tion of settlement at Mahasthangarh and also themulti-religious affiliation of its seem that Skandher Dhap or mound of Skanda near Mahasthangarh the site of a Karttikeya temple as evident from the reference in Kalhana's Rajatarangini completed in 1149-50 AD.21 on Thu. but find no mention in literature or inscriptions on which historians base the study of the past. IV. It is not surprising then that available histories of the region largely emphasise the spread of Sanskritic culture that evolved in the middle Ganga valley to Bengal around 4th-5th centuries AD and are silent about regional cultural and religious developments. The unique envi ronment of the region and its strategic location astride both the riverine and maritime networks is reflected in the archaeological record.10. It would was continued as a major centre for the inhabitants. Kalhana presents a long and detailed narrative of the reign of king Jay?p?da (751-782 AD) grandson of Lalitaditya. 1994. E. Training. rather than a continuation of existing trends of viewing archaeology as filling in details of material culture to support socio-economic formulations of Ancient Indian History. CULTURAL IDENTITIES The shared culture that extended 89 across not only South Asia. Oxford University Press. Sidebotham Begley Vimala edited. Tomber. -. -. naviga the ruler brahmana. Rather than being subsumed under the diversity tradition Sanskritic hegemonic propagated by the brahmanas. but existed on account of their ability to forge links with a variety of commu nities. Basak. of Chronology the Early Basu. Baigram Art Sculptural and Museums. Press. studies of sacred landscapes help locate these wider networks Archaeological over time and contribute in resolving issues related to structures of society and themeans through which communities in the past constructed cultural identities.Z. 2000. 2001. Bibliography Alam. from Chandraketugarh.G. Salles First edited. of the Ganga Archaeological Geography Dilip Kunal. part or the but included Buddhist and Jaina monks. Shamsul. The XV: Five Epigraphia 1931-32. Indica. New Delhi: 1992. by tors and trading and crafts groups. Leiden: Joachim K. of Archaeology Department and J. Pratna Samiksa. R. of Archaeol Period. Indian Pottery Sherds. and R.M. 2001. This content downloaded from 202. France-Bangladesh Dhaka: 1993-1999. 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I Nalanda jRajgir Monghyr^ Kotivarsri' Mate Brahmaputra Karnasuvarnaf?^ |Mainartiati Chan^Jraketuga Tamralipti ft ?Mho* courses Ancient courses Modem Direction ofchannel shift Zoneofcoastline variation Ftooplain Map 2 This content downloaded from 202.94 HIMANSHU PRABHA RAY V* % Vikramasi??*. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .10.21 on Thu.41. CULTURAL IDENTITIES 95 ?&?&? tm?fmt Mahasthan (Salles 2004) RoulettedWare from This content downloaded from 202.41.THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF BENGAL: TRADING NETWORKS.21 on Thu.10. 20 Feb 2014 06:12:38 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .