Handbook of Power QualityEdited by Angelo Baggini University of Bergamo, Italy John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 3 Load-Frequency Characteristics 1.6.1 Influence of the Frequency Variation on the Actuation Motors 1.2 The Generation Characteristic 1.3 Influence of Frequency Variations on Series-Connected Condensers and Coils 1.3. Secondary and Tertiary 1.3.3.2 Influence of Frequency Variations on Parallel-Connected Condensers and Coils 1.6 Frequency Control in Power Systems 1. Aleksander Kot and Janusz Bro'zek 1.1 Frequency Quality Indices 1.6 Technical and Organizational Aspects of Load-Frequency Control Bibliography 1 3 4 6 6 7 7 8 8 11 12 12 16 17 19 20 22 23 28 29 .1 Influence of Frequency Variations on Asynchronous Motors 1.4.4.6.6.3 The System Properties and Control Basics 1.4 Influence of Frequency on Users'Equipment 1.5 Frequency Control: Primary.6.6.5 Governing of Turbine Speed 1.2 Capacitor Bank and Harmonic Filters 1. Nicolae Golovanov.2 Frequency Measuring 1.1 Composite Load 1.4.6.Contents List of Contributors Preface xix xxiii 1 Frequency Variations Hermina Albert.4 Frequency Control in an Islanding System and in Interconnected Systems 1.3 Transformers and Coils in the Power Network 1. 3 Factors Affecting Reliability Performance 2.2 Quality of Supply 2.3 Variation in the Utility Indices 2.1 Voltage Standards in Grid Normal Operating Conditions 3.2.1 Generator Excitation Control 3.1 CONTENTS 31 31 32 34 35 36 36 37 37 40 41 42 44 44 46 49 49 50 51 53 54 57 59 60 61 62 62 63 64 68 68 70 72 74 76 76 76 76 3.3.4.4.1 Load Models 3.3 Voltage 'Quality 2.2.1 Customer Service 2.5.4 3.5.5.1 Reliability Indices Reporting 2.5.5 .5 Node Voltage Optimization Standards 3.5.3.5 Mapping Reliability to End-User Facility Operating Hours Bibliography 3 Voltage Control in Distribution Systems Andnej Kanicki 3.2 Voltage Drop 3.4 Improving Reliability 2.4 Impact of Reliability Events on End-User Productivity 2.4.3 Value of Reliability: a Macro View 2.4.1 3.4.2 Differences Based on Type of Supply 2.3.2 Transformer Ratio Control 3.1 Size of the End-User Load and Duration Affect Cost 2.1.2 Voltage Standards in Grid Disturbed Operating Conditions 2.2 Continuity of Supply 2.2.1.4.5.3 Voltage Control by Means of Reactive Power Flow Change 3.5.3 Description of the Phenomena Disturbance Sources Disturbance Effects 3.3 Voltage Stability Methods of Effect Elimination 3.5 Costs.2 Custom Power Devices 2.2 3.2 Load-Based Indices 2. Markets and Value for Reliability 2.1.2 Market for Reliability 2.3.1 Utility-Side Improvement Options 2.4 Voltage Control by Means of Network Impedance Change 3.3.1 Customer-Based Indices 2.4.vi ) 2 Continuity of Supply Krish Gomatom and Tom Short Distribution Reliability 2. 2 Contactors and Relays 4.5.2.2 Statistical Methods of Analysis 4.5.3 Sources 4.7.4.6.3.3.6 Measurement 4.4 Effects 4.CONTENTS 3.2 Reference Voltage Value 4.1 Reduction of the Number of Faults 4.9.3 Area of Vulnerability 4.1 Sources of Voltage Dips 4.6 High-Pressure Discharge Lamps 4.7.7 Methods for Aggregation of Measurement Results 4.4 Voltage Stabilizers 4.7.4.5.5 Threshold Values for Disturbance Detection 4.5 Improvement in Equipment Immunity 4.5 Variable Speed Drives 4.4 Technical Specifications for Measuring Instrumentation 4.7.Magnitude of a Voltage Dip 4.5 Mitigation 4.2 Parameters 4.3 Induction Motors 4.1 Description of the Phenomena 4.1 Principles of Measurement 4.1 Duration of Measurements 4.2 Sources of Short Supply Interruptions 4.5.4.6.9.8 Standards 4.7 Contract 4.4.1 IT Equipment and Control Systems 4.4.7.5.9.3 Location and Method of Connection of Measuring Instrument 4.2 Reduction of the Fault Clearance Time 4.6.3 Modification of the Supply System Configuration 4.7.1 Indices Based on the Voltage Change 4.2_2 .and Low-Voltage Distribution Networks 77 77 79 79 82 82 83 87 87 89 89 90 92 92 93 93 94 94 95 95 96 97 98 100 100 112 114 114 116 116 117 118 118 119 119 124 126 126 127 129 .5.6 Techniques of Reporting the Measurement Results 4.3 Bibliography 4 Voltage Dips and Short Supply Interruptions Zbigniew Hanzelka 4.3 Others Voltage Standards in Middle.7.4.2 Energy-Related Indices 4.4 Synchronous Motors 4.1 Voltage Dip Duration 4".9 Alternative Voltage Dip Indices 4. 3 Simplified Methods for Pst Assessment 5.2 Parameters 5.4.6 Mitigation Strategies 5.1 Industrial Loads 5.8.3 Converters 6.8 Standards 6.4 6.3.1.2 Static Compensators 6.5 Effects 5. Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker 5.6.6.3 Wind Turbine Generation Systems 5.3.6.4 Sources 5.CONTENTS Acknowledgement Bibliography 5 Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker Araceli Hernandez Bayo 5.6.6.1 6.2 Principles of Assessment Bibliography 131 131 135 135 135 137 138 139 139 146 148 151 152 155 155 156 156 157 160 161 161 163 163 165 170 171 173 174 174 174 175 175 175 176 178 181 181 183 184 .2 Synchronous Generators 6.1 Limits 6.1 Devices Based on Decreasing Reactive Power Variations 5.4.3 Measurement 5.2 Methods Oriented to Increase the Short-Circuit Power 5.3 Other Solutions for Flicker Mitigation Bibliography 6 Voltage and Current Unbalance Irena Wasiak 6.6 Description of the Phenomena Symmetrical Components of Currents and Voltages Parameters Measurements Sources Effects 6.4.6.1.1 Principle of Balancing 6.2 6.5 6.1 Voltage Changes.1 The IEC Flickermeter 5.8.2 Physiology of Flicker Perception 5.6.7 Mitigation 6.7.2 Electrical Appliances Supplied from LV Networks 5.3 6.1 Asynchronous Motors 6.1 Description of the Phenomenon 5.7.3.4 Other Loads 6.2 Use of the Flickermeter 5. 1.6.4.6 Capacitors 7.4.6.4.4.6.7.3 Harmonics and Symmetrical Components 7.6.6.6.CONTENTS 7 Voltage and Current Harmonics Angelo Baggini and Zbigniew Hanzelka 7.6.4 Sources of Current Harmonics 7.6.2 Decomposition of Distorted Waveform 7.8 Standards Bibliography 187 187 188 189 190 190 192 194 195 200 200 202 202 204 204 208 209 213 214 217 218 221 223 226 227 228 229 230 232 234 236 236 236 237 252 252 257 259 .5 Voltage and Current Harmonics 7.9 7.6 Effects Power Factor 7.7 Light Sources 7.4 Fluorescent Lighting 7.1.6.7.3 Load and Harmonic Source 7.6.1 Composition of Distorted Waveform 7.5 Transformers 7.4 Reduction of Load Sensitivity to Disturbances 7.4.2 Reduction of Harmonic Emission Reduction of the Coupling Between Sensitive 7.10 Converters and Electronic Equipment 7.5 Quantities Describing Voltage and Current Distortion 7.6.6.4.2 Overheating of Phase and Neutral Conductors Skin Effect 7.8 Nuisance Tripping of Circuit-Breakers Earth-Fault Currents 7.5 Electronic and Power Electronic Equipment 7.1.6.1 Description of the Phenomena 7.13 Telecommunications Interference 7.4 Classification of Distortion Components 7.4 Motors and Generators 7.1 Methods of Voltage Distortion Reduction 7.2 Motors and Generators 7.7 Mitigation 7.12 Relay and Contactor Protective Systems 7.3 7.7.1 Transformers 7.11 Measuring Instruments 7.1 7.1.1.3 Measurements 7.2 Parameters 7.6 Harmonic Current Values/Magnitudes for Selected Loads 7.7.3 Arc'Furnaces 7. 1 CONTENTS 299 300 300 300 301 301 302 302 307 307 309 316 321 321 324 9.2 Spectral Leakage and Aliasing 9.3.4 Effects 8.2.1 9.2 Three-Wire Power System Analysis 9.2 Switching Impulse Protective Level of a Surge Arrester 8.6.5.1.4 Metrological Features of Measurement System 9.2 Frequency Analysis of Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms: Practical Considerations Analog-to-Digital Conversion 9.2 Apparent Power Definitions 8.1 Internal Overvoltages 8.1 Principles of Protection 8.3 Four-Wire Power System Analysis IEEE 1459: Power Definitions for Modern Power Systems 9.3.1-• Lightning Impulse Protective Level of a Surge Arrester 8.2.5.2 Insulation Coordination 8.2.(x ) Overvoltages Franco Bua.3 9.3 Transient Overvoltage 8.1.4 Combined Overvoltage 8.5 Overvoltage Propagation 8.1.2.1 Continuous (Power Frequency) Voltage 8.3.2.3 Spectral Leakage and Windowing 9. Francesco Buratti and Alan Ascolari Description of the Phenomena 8.4.4.1.5 Harmonic Power Measurement in Non-simultaneous Sampling Sequence Component Analysis 9.2 Reduction of Overvoltage Risk and Level 8.2.3.1.1 Voltage and Current Quantities under Non-sinusoidal Unbalanced Conditions 9.3.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 9.5.1 Breakdown Consequences 8.2 Temporary Overvoltage 8.1 Fortesque Transform Redefined for Non-sinusoidal Circuits 9.5 Mitigation 8.1 Insulation Coordination Bibliography Analysis of Waveforms in Modern Power Systems Johan Rens and Piet Swart 9.3 Overvoltage Protective Devices 8.4 .6 Standards 8.4.2 Parameters 8.3 Sources 8.2.4.2 External Overvoltages 8. 7.6.4.4.4 Meshed Earth Electrodes 10.6 Harmonic Pollution and Unbalance 9.8.6.3 Safety Aspects 10.8 Power Factor Definitions 9.6.3 Galvanic (Electrochemical) Corrosion 10.1 Measurement of Soil Resistivity 10.4 Functionality Aspects 10.2 Measurement of Resistance to Earth of an Earth Electrode Bibliography 10.5.5.4.7 Fundamental Frequency Active and Reactive Power 9.7.7.2 Combined Earthing System 10.4.3 Properties of Earth Electrodes at Lightning Currents 10.8 Measurements of Earthing Arrangements 10.6.3 Arithmetic Apparent Power 9.1 Simple Horizontal Earth Electrodes 10.2 Simple Rod.6.5 Disturbances and Coupling Mechanisms 10.4.4.3.1 10.2 Corrosion Caused by Stray (Direct) Currents 10.1 Chemical Corrosion 10.3 ¥§/ 324 324 325 326 327 327 328 329 331 331 332 335 335 339 340 342 343 346 349 350 352 354 355 357 358 361 362 362 363 366 367 369 370 370 372 373 375 376 377 380 .6 Role of Earthing in Electronic and Telecommunication Systems 10.8.1 Resistance and Impedance to Earth 10.3.3.5 The Effective Apparent Power 9.4.6 Cable with Earthing Effect 10.7 Lifetime Aspects of the Earthing Arrangements 10.4. Vertical Earth Electrodes 10.2 Earthing Arrangements as Protection Elements in HV Networks 10.4.4.4. Combined Earth Electrodes ' 10. Francesco Buratti and Antoni Klajn Typical Earthing System Electric Resistivity of Soil Electrical Properties of the Earth Electrodes 10.6.1 Protective and Functional Earthing 10.1 Earthing Arrangements as Protection Elements in LV Networks 10.5 Localization of Sources of Waveform Distortion in a Modern Power System Bibliography 10 Earthing Franco Bua.4 Typical Earth-Electrode Constructions 10.6 Low-Noise Equipotential Bonding 10.2 Voltage-to-Earth and Surface Potential Distribution 10.4 The Vector Apparent Power 9.4.2 10.5 Foundation Earth Electrodes 10.5 Earthing Arrangements in Protection Against Electric Shock 10.CONTENTS 9.3 Simple. 2 Ring Scheme 11.2.4 The System Supply Section and End Section 11.4 Dynamic UPS 12.4 Power Quality.4 Application 12.3.2 12.3 Double Radial Scheme 11.8 Technological Comparison Dynamic UPS Systems 12.(S) 11 Reliability of Electricity Supply: Structure Angelo Baggini.6.5 Compound Scheme 11.1 CONTENTS 383 384 384 385 387 388 388 389 389 389 390 400 400 401 12 Reliability of Electricity Supply: Appliances and Equipment Roberto Villafdfila-Robles and Joan Bergas-Jane 12.*!-.1 Simple Radial System 11.3 12.7 D.1 Components 12.2.5. David Chapman and Francesco Buratti Basic Schemes of Electrical Grids 11.5 Static UPS 12.1 12.6.5.6 404 405 406 407 410 411 413 414 415 416 417 420 421 425 425 425 426 427 429 429 429 432 433 .1 Modern Flywheels 12.1 Engine-Driven Generators 12.C.5.6 Hybrid Static/Dynamic UPS 12.4.3 Classification 12.3 Uninterruptible Power Systems 12.3 Characteristics of the Installation 11.4.4.5.3 UPS Technology 403 12. Parameters and Basic Conditions 11.5 Future Developments and Applications Static UPS System 12.2. Reliability and Availability General Aspects of Reliability Appliances Power System Protection Alternatives 12.5 The Standard and Preferential Functions Bibliography 11.5 12.2 Scheme of the Grid as a Link Between Supplies and Loads 11.2 Microturbine-Driven Generators 12.4.1.4.2.6.4 Meshed Scheme 11.1.2 General Criteria for the Study and Choice of the Schemes 11.4.2 Components 12.2 Classification 12.4.1.1 Power Conditioners Emergency and Standby Power Systems 12.1.2.4.5.1. Power Supply Systems 12. 1 Interpreting Monitoring Results 13.1.5.5 Bandwidth Amplitude/Frequency 13.2.M.1.6.2 R.S.1 Impact 14.1.3 Software and Data Analysis Tools 13.6.5 of Static Converters on the Supply Network Industrial Equipment Control and Informatics Equipment Solutions Electromagnetic Compatibility Issues Impact on Loads Supplied by Power Converters 13.3 14.13.7 Precision 13.2.CONTENTS 12.3..1 Measurement Chain 13.2 Data Collection and Monitoring Systems 13.2.3.3 Functions 13.1 14.5 Postprocessing Monitoring Results 13.3 Transients Measurement 13.8 Resolution 13.2.2.2 Managing Monitoring Projects 13.4 Successful Power Quality Monitoring 13.4 Application 12.4 14.1 Power Quality Program 13.5 Future Developments and Applications 12.1 General Features of Monitoring Instruments 13.3.2.1 Benefits of Power Quality Monitoring 13.5.5.2.4 Power Quality Data Interchange Format (PQDIF) Bibliography 14 Static Converters and Power Quality Mircea Chindris and Antoni Sudria-Andreu 14.3 Selection of Monitoring Instruments 13.2.4.2 Signal Input/Output 13.5.9 Measurement Aggregation Algorithm 13.1 (Xiii 438 440 442 443 445 445 446 447 447 448 448 449 449 449 449 450 450 451 452 453 454 454 454 456 458 460 460 460 460 461 461 463 464 464 469 470 477 481 .4.2 Measurement Issues 13.1.4 Sampling Rate 13.6 Accuracy 13.2. Measurement 13.1.2 14.4.3 Immunization Program 13.7 Good Engineering Practice Bibliography 13 Monitoring Power Quality Andreas Sumper and Samuel Galceran-Arellano Monitoring Objectives .1. 1.2.1 Voltage Rise 16.1.1.2 Reactive Power 15.3 Bibliography 15 14.xivj Impact 14.1 Dedicated Filtering Circuits for Individual Frequencies 15.1 Control and Regulation of Reactive Power 15.1 Electricity Producers 17.2.1 Steady-State Modeling 16.2 Power Quality and DG 16.2.2 Dynamic Modeling 16.2.2 Central and Dispersed Solution 15.3 Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker 16.2 Voltage Dips 16.3 Passive Filters 15.2.2.2 of Supply Network Disturbances on Static Converters Impact of Voltage Disturbances on Static Converters Voltage Sag Susceptibility Immunization Techniques CONTENTS 487 487 490 490 494 499 500 500 502 503 505 506 506 508 510 513 514 515 516 518 519 521 522 522 523 524 524 524 524 525 526 526 526 529 529 530 530 Compensation of Reactive Power Stefan Fassbinder and Alan Ascolari Basics 15.3.2 Grid Operators .1.2.3 L/C Ratio 15.1.1.3.2.1 Market Players 17.1.2.6 Direct Current Bibliography 16.5 Unbalance 16.4 Sound Frequency Signals Bibliography 15.3 Detuning 15.1 14.2.4 Harmonics 16.3.2.3.1.4 Reactive Power Compensator 15.1 "Characteristics of Inductances and Capacitances 15.3 Wattless current 15.2.2 Centrally and Dispersed Compensation 15.1 ^ ' 16 Distributed Generation and Power Quality Vu Van Thong and Johan Driesen Distribution Network Modeling 16.2 14.2 Power Factor Correction 15.1 17 Electricity Market Pieter Vermeyen and Johan Driesen 17. 1.2 Small Businesses 17.4 Cost of Capital 18.2 Contract Types 17.7 Other Disturbances 18.11.1.3 Project Classifications 18.3.1 Residential Customers 17.11.2.1 Exploring PQ Cost 18.2.1 Investment Analysis 18.11.2 Work in Progress 18.1 Power Quality Contracts 17.8 Profiles by Sector 18.10 PQ Solutions 18.3.4 Contracts for Reducing Consumption 17.11.4 Equipment Damage 18.4 Regulators 17.3 Small and Medium-Sized Companies 17.5 Intelligent Energy Meter 17.3.4.1 Staff Cost 18.11.1.2 Power Quality Market Bibliography .2.1.11.3 Electricity Retailers a 17.5 The Time Value of Money 18.1. 17.5 Other Costs 18.1.3.2 Studies on Cost of Poor PQ 18.9 Cost Per Event of PQ Disturbances 18.5 Voltage Dips 18.3 Long Interruptions 18.1. 18 Cost of Poor Power Quality Roman Targosz and Jonathan Manson 18.6 Harmonics 18.3.6 Other Techniques 17.7 Savings 18.4 Power Quality in the Electricity Market .2.2 Multiple Electricity Tariff *-17:3.6 Specific Costs 18.2 Capital Budgeting 18.3 Load Management in the Electricity Market 17.CONTENTS 17.3 Real-Time Pricing 17.6 Future Value of a Single Cash Flow 531 531 531 532 532 533 533 534 534 535 535 536 536 537 537 538 542 543 545 547 547 547 548 548 548 548 549 549 552 556 556 558 559 561 570 574 582 582 583 583 584 584 585 .1 Reason for Load Management 17.11 Investment Analysis to Mitigate Costs of PQ 18.1.4.3 Equipment Malfunctioning 18.1.4 Large Companies 17.4 Short Interruptions 18. 3 Variable Tariffs 19.1 Emission of Harmonic Distortion by Fluorescent Lamps 19.1.2 Emission of Harmonic Distortion by VSDs 19.3.11.CONTENTS Present Value of a Single Cash Flow and of a Cash Flow Stream 18.4 Immunity of VSDs Bibliography 19.1 Sustainable Development 19.1.11.1.11.9 Discounted Cash Flow Methods 18.2 Techniques for Rational use of Energy 19.2 Economic Considerations 19.8 Deterministic Approach to PQ Investment Analysis 18.3.2.3 Immunity of Fluorescent Lamps 19.1 Adapted Use of Electrical Systems 19.3 Electricity Industry 19.11.3 Customer Definition Customer Requirements Analysis Process of the Customer with Respect to the Requirements Concerning the Product 20.11.2.1 593 594 594 594 595 595 595 596 598 598 598 601 603 603 605 607 607 608 608 609 611 613 20 Perceived Power Quality Maurizio Caciotta 20.2 Efficient Loads 19.2.4 Multiplicity of Goods: Active Categories in the Territory of Rome Bibliography Index Case Studies and Annexes Accessible on the Companion Website Annex 1 Angelo Baggini and Alan Ascolari .2 20.11 Break-even Analysis Bibliography 18.10 Non Discounted Cash Flow Methods 18.3.1 20.3.3 Impact on Power Quality 19.7 586 586 587 590 591 592 19 Power Quality and Rational Use of Energy Pieter Vermiyen -and Johan Driesen Reasons for Rational Use of Energy 19. CONTENTS Annex 2 Angelo Baggini and Zbigniew Hanzelka Annex 3 Power Theory with Non-sinusoidal Waveforms Andrzej Firlit Annex 4 Series and Parallel Resonance Zbigniew Hanzelka .