www.sainiias.com Paper –I Fundamental of sociology 1. Sociology- The discipline Introduction: Sociology means the science of society and the study of human social life because human social life is so expansive. It also defined scientific study of human society and as study of social life of group interaction and of social behavior. It is the youngest of all the social sciences. When compared to the older disciplines such as political science, anthropology, economics and psychology sociology is considered to be new. It is an academic discipline arose in the first half of nineteenth century. The discipline plays a leading role in the social science. Sociology along with other sisterly disciplines such as anthropology, social psychology, economics, human/cultural geography, history and political sciences has now become an essential component of health and medical sciences universities and other training institutes in abroad. The scope of Sociology is extremely wide. It started from the street quarrels to the global process of Islamic fundamentalism. The scope of sociology: studying all human relationships, group, institutions and societies. Sociology is the study of forms of social relationships. Social interaction or the responses of individuals to each other is the basic sociological concept. Such interaction is the elementary component of all relationship and groups that make up human society. Nature of sociology: It is an independent science. It is a pure science and not an applied science. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical. i) Modernity and social changes in Europe and Emergence of sociology To study society, sociology is a scientific attempt. Sociology emerged as a distinct science in 19th century Europe. Then Europe was passing through a period of immense changes which had set with French and the Industrial Revolutions. The founding father of sociology -Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkhein , Karl Marx lived in this era of profound upheavals’ in European Society. The origin of sociology dates back to early 19th & late 18th.The background to the origins of sociology was the series of sweeping changes ushered by the French Revolution of 1789 and emergence of Industrial Revolution in Europe. The use of science was a key development instead of religion to understand the world. Today our modern world is radically different from that of past. www.sainiias.com Some founding fathers of sociology- Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx. According to Auguste Comte the three stages in which society moves were:- a) The theological or the religious to b) The metaphysical or the philosophical to c) The positive or the scientific stage. In the 1 st stage people thought all phenomena were caused by supernatural forces. In the 2 nd stage Abstract forces of either a religious or secular type were considered to be the source of knowledge. In 3 rd stage scientific laws were supposed to determine both the natural and the social words Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) According to Herbert Spencer, the study of sociology covers the field of family, politics, religion and social control, division of labor and social stratification. He emphasized a total view of society and the study of whole more than the study of parts. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). Emile was also interested in sociology and wrote book in 1895 entitled: Rules of Sociological Method. According to him, social solidarity was one of the main principles of human life. He distinguished between 2 kinds of solidarity:- Mechanical Solidarity and organic solidarity. Mechanical Solidarity based on common expectations, beliefs, sentiments like those found in traditional societies. Organic solidarity based on the division of labour and inters related interests as found in industrial societies. There would be social disorganization and confusion in society when solidarity is broken. Karl Marx (1818-1883) Karl Marx has helped his ideas in understanding the nature of society how fight occurs. In 1848 he writes that all history is a history of classes and class struggles. The society gets divided between the oppressors and the oppressed masters and slaves, lords and serfs. To analyze the structure of society it was necessary to understand the forces of production and relation of production. ii) Scope of the subject and comparison with other social sciences. A different social science deals with the different aspects of social life of man. It is www.sainiias.com essential for the student of sociology to know in what respect his subjects differs from other social sciences. The social sciences has a wide scope and comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups animals and individuals including anthropology, archeology, communication studies, cultural studies, demography, economics, human geography, history, linguistics, media studies, political science, psychology, social work and sociology. It is essential for us to know the interrelations between sociology and history, economic, anthropology, political science, psychology. Sociology: 1. The study of modern civilized and complex societies. 2. Sociologists study the institution marriage, family or processes such as change, social mobility. Sociology makes use of observations, interview, social survey and other method of techniques in its investigations. 3. Sociology is a specific, pure and independent social science. 4. Sociology has depended upon the history for its materials. 5. Sociology is interested in the study of present with all their complexity. 6. Sociology is an analytical and generalizing science. 7. It studies all kind of societies organized as well as un organized. 8. It has changed outlook with regard to the problems of crime etc. 9. Sociology is of great importance in the solution of international problems. 10. It is useful as a teaching subject. Comparison of sociology with other social science: Anthropology concerns with uncivilized or primitive cultures. Anthropologists usually concentrate on small societies. They directly go and live in the communities they study. History History is the study of past and experience of mankind which people have already lived. It is a record of the human past. It deals with the past events of man and history is an age-old social science. It has long story of 2000 years or even more. Historian is only concentrate on the past. History is an individualizing and descriptive science. Political science deals with political activities of man. It has its own topics such as origin, evolution and functions of state, the forms of government, types of constitution, administration law, legislation, elections, political movements. There are some common topics of interest for both sociologists and political scientists such as war, mass movements, government control, public opinion, propaganda, leadership, elections, voting. It is a special social science. It concentrates only on the human relationship which is political in character. www.sainiias.com Psychology: It studies behavior of individual in society and concerned with behavior of individuals. Economics deals with the economic activities of man and studies the structure and functions of economic organization like banks, factories, market, business, firms, corporations, transport. It has attained an advanced degree of maturity. iii) Sociology and common sense Many people mistakenly believe that sociology is the study of the obvious and it is nothing but the application of common sense. Sociology as a discipline is more than common sense. Common sense views tend to reflect social traditions and conventions. It is knowledge and awareness that is held shared by majority of people. Sociology and other social sciences focus on the study of certain aspects of human behavior. Human behavior is something with which we all have experience. Difference between sociology and common sense Common sense views are based on people's immediate and frequently limited experiences. Common sense knowledge is statement of the obvious which is simply based of assumption. Sociological views are based on rigorous research. This can either be based on large scale quantitative research or in depth qualitative research. Common sense views tend to reflect social traditions and conventions. Therefore tend to reinforce the status quo and resist social change. 2. Sociology as science systematic methods of empirical research, analysis of data and the assessment of theories There are reasons for regarding sociology as a science:- Indirectly, Sociology conducts many experiments .It employs scientific method such as scales of socio meter , schedules , questionnaire interviews and case history etc. In this method quantitative measures are used to measure social phenomenon and sociologists use statistical methods. Sociologists use comparisons between groups, communities and societies and it is readily available with the sociologists. In scientific investigation, comparative method is one of the important methods. Sociology as science deals with the social conditions and effects of science. It also deals with the social structures and processes of scientific activity. According to Lundeberg,” Science is a procedure for discovering conditions under which events occur”. “Sociology is a science which attempts at relating understanding of social action in order to arrive at a casual explanation of its cause and effects. “ Sociology tries to classify types and www.sainiias.com forms of social relationship of institutions and associations. It tries to conclude general laws from a systematic study. Principles of sociology are applied to the solution of social problems. i) Science, scientific method and critique. Science is the use of systematic methods of empirical investigation. Science also the analysis of data and assessment of theories in the light of evidence. Scientific method: It is the pursuit of truth and this scientific method as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. The Scientific method is based on certain basic postulates:- It relieves on empirical evidence and utilizes relevant concepts. It is committed to only objective considerations. It results into probabilistic predictions. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny. ii) Major Theoretical Strands of Research Methodology. There are three theoretical patterns:- i) Scientific sociology/ Positivism ii) Critical Sociology iii) Interpretive Sociology Scientific sociology or Positivism is a philosophy of science. It considers social phenomena as existing in a material like physical things. Social phenomena can be described by fixed rules and laws. Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim are the innovators are the innovators of this paradigm. All these three scientists believe that there can be exactness in sociology just like natural sciences. Auguste Comte was a founder of the discipline of sociology. According to him, positivism states that all authentic knowledge allows verification. Max Weber and Karl Marx are the eminent sociologists who do not believe in the ideal of objectivity of scientific sociology. It is highly criticized on following grounds: There is no fixed social reality and rules as predict by scientific sociology. Study of society necessarily involves study of human beings. Human beings are self-conscious and make a society. The researcher himself is a part of researches subject matter. The different researcher has different conclusions regarding the same phenomenon. Critical sociology: To change the society critical sociology focuses on doing research as a tool. It gets rid of the ideal of objectivity. It encourages the researcher to be a part of research itself. www.sainiias.com Generally, Marxist sociologists are seen to be doing critical sociology. Imperative sociology: This sociology focuses on the study of rational motivations. Max Weber is seen as the innovator of the sociology field. Interpretive sociologists believe that society has binary nature. Positivist believes that it does have some objective reality. A Sociologist not only studies the objective phenomenon of social actions of individuals. Max Weber makes sociology different from natural sciences. It is not possible for a researcher to keep his values apart from his research work. His values and ideologies shall affect the findings of the research. iii) Positivism: Positivism is a philosophy of science. It is based on the view that information derived from logical and mathematical treatments , reports of sensory experience is the exclusive source of all authoritative knowledge. Positivism had an huge influence on both the theoretical ambitions and empirical research scheme of sociology. The whole of the history of sociology could be described as a struggle with positivism. Its advocate attempting to secure the foundations of a scientific study of positivism. Its critics search to identify what it is about the social that frees it from positivist canons. iv) Fact value and objectivity A Fact is an objective reality and is an observation based upon experience. A fact is happening of an incident a correct statement, the conclusion of some observation. Thus the facts are true and are the real elements of incidents. Objectivity is the study in which the subject matter is centre of attention and disadvantage is given no place is known as objective study. I the Objective study subject matter am observed. Value: The term Value in sociology doesn’t have an economic implication. In terms of methodology, a basic definition involves the idea that the concept of objectivity becomes a philosophy (or ideology). Anti positivism includes a high involvement on the part of the researcher. In the nineteenth century anti-positivism came out when scientists Wilhelm Dilthey and Heinrich Rickert began to questions sociological positivism and naturalism. Human societies have distinctive aspects like meanings, symbols, rules and values. Scientists like Wilhelm and Heinrich argued that the world of nature is not the same as the world of society. According to Max Weber view the sociological research must concentrate on humans and their cultural values. 3. Research Methods in SOCIOLOGY: Research is done to identify facts and research www.sainiias.com information is used to develop theories. Social research refers to research conducted by social scientists. It is a major aspect of work for social scientists. There are 4 main methods of research :- • Surveys • Interviews • Experiments • Observation Research issues and factors A Researcher’s method of research is affected by a number of variables such as the age, gender, ethnicity and social class of those who are researched. If groups of girls were being interviewed about a sensitive subject such as sexual health it would be good if they were interviewed by female member. If boys were being interview on this sensitive subject it would be much better that a male interviewer was chosen for the job. Ethics: Ethnical consideration are grouped into four areas:- The participants must have agreed to take part. The details of the participant’s actions must remain confidential. In the research process, the participants shouldn’t be harmed psychologically or physically. The researchers should be honest about the study implication (suggestion). Types of Research: Social scientists have a number of different types of research. They can use this research to acquire data. The various forms of research include • Longitudinal studies • Interviews based on open questions • Structured interviews • Unstructured Interviews • Structured questionnaires • Participant Observation. Researchers research or study something which they consider important. i) Qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative Method:-These methods are those which include focus groups, in depth interviews and review of documents. It understands and interprets social interactions. This method provides information which is easy to analyze statistically. This method is also associated with the scientific and experimental approach. Smaller and not randomly selected. Qualitative data www.sainiias.com such as open ended responses, interviews, participants observation and filed notes Objective: To gain an understanding of reasons and motivations. To uncover prevailing trends in thought and opinion. Forms of data collection: Structured techniques such as online questionnaires ot telephone interviews. Data Analysis: Non –statistical Quantitative Research Methods: To test hypotheses and look at cause & effect and make predictions. Quantitative data based on precise measurements using structured and validated data collection instruments. These are more generalizing and have fixed response. Forms of data collected. Larger and randomly selected. Unstructured or semi structured techniques. Objective: To quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of Interests. To measure the incidence of various views. Statistical data is usually in the form of tabulations (tabs). Variables, sampling, hypothesis, reliability and validity. Variable is a concept whose value changes from case to case. Hypothesis is an unverified statement of relationship between variables. Reliability is a quality of constant measure. 4. Sociological thinkers: Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) i) Karl Marx was a German philosopher, sociologist, economist and revolutionary socialist. He works in economics. His theories about society, economics and politics collectively known as Marxism. He is considered to be one of the most dominant thinkers. He was born in 1818 and was influenced by philosophers such as Hegel, Feuerbach and St. Simon. Key idea: - He identifies production as essential for human existence and production is a social activity. The important concept of Karl Marx is:- • Dialectical Materialism • Materialistic Interpretation of History i.e. Historical Materialism. • Class and class conflict • Alienation Historical Materialism: In 1845 Karl Marx put forward his concept of historical materialism for www.sainiias.com the 1 st time in German ideology. Historical Materialism is a methodological approach to the study of society, history and economics. Karl Marx view of history which came to be called the materialist conception of history. This theory based on Hegel’s claim that history occurs through a dielectric or clash of opposing force. Hegel a philosophical idealist who believed that we live in word of appearance. He also stated that true reality is an ideal. Historical materialism looks for the cause of development and changes in human society. By this human collectively produce the necessities of life. The classic brief statement of the theory was made by the Karl Marx in the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859). Historical Materialism includes:- • Human Experience • Production of materials • Needs Karl Marx use Materialistic approach of Young Hegelians and dialectics of Hegel to explain the history of human. This gives shape to the Karl Marx “Historical Materialism or the materialist conception of history. Therefore according to Hegel ideas are primary and according to Karl Marx materials are primary. Marx consider Materialism or Economics as the base on which whole super structure is built. According to Marx,” History is nothing but the activity of men in pursuit of their ends”. Mode of production: It is a central concept in Marxism and a society is organized to produce goods and services .It is a specific combination of productive forces which include human labour and means of production (example:- Tools, equipment , buildings and technologies and Knowledge , materials and improved land.) Social and technical relation of production: These include • The property, power and control relations governing society’s productive assets. • Cooperative work relations and forms of associations. • Relation between people and the objects of their work. • Relations between social classes. The Mode of production is the union or unity of the productive forces and the relations of production. The system of class division depends on mode of production. In the Karl Marx modes of production four factors are involved:- • Labor • Land • Capital www.sainiias.com • Division of labor These factors explain social structure and social change while forming bases of mode of production. Modes of production of Karl Marx are as follows:- 1. Primitive Communism 2. Ancient society 3. Feudalism 4. Capitalism 5. Socialism / Lower stage Communism 6. Communism / Upper stage Communism Primitive Communism: This is the stage of classless society (where society was without a class). In this, the forces and means of production are communally owned. This society has very low divisions of labor. For common good all the people work together. Ancient society: The resources of areas are not enough to satisfy the needs of the people of tribes because population of tribes is increases. So that’s why they migrate to new areas. Due to this migration, different tribes come in contact with each other and the war between the tribal’s begin. One tribe appears as winner and the other is looser. Feudalism: In the Nineteenth Century, Karl Marx made the feudal mode of production. Marx theory of alienation: The theory of alienation nominates the types of human relations which are not controlled by their participants. Alienation is the process where the worker is made to feel foreign to the products of his/her own labor. Marx’s theory of alienation refers to the separation of things that naturally belong together or to putting antagonism between things. It also refers to social alienation of people from aspects of their human nature. Karl Marx believed that alienation is a systematic result of capitalism. Class Struggle also called class conflict or class warfare. It is a conflict between different classes in community resulting from different social or economic positions. Class struggle can take many different shapes. The direct violence such as wars fought for resources and cheap labor; indirect violence such as deaths from poverty, starvation or unsafe working conditions There are some elements in Karl Marx in view of class conflict:- Classes are authority relationship based on property ownership and are naturally antagonistic by virtue of their interests. Consequence of the class struggle is a struggle change. www.sainiias.com According to him, class struggle occurs because of the economic organization of most societies. Emile Durkheim- Division of labour Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist who written a book The Division of Labor in Society in French. In this book, he introduced the concept of anomie or the breakdown of the influence of social norms on individuals within a society. He is credited as one of the founder of modern sociology. According to Emile Durkheim, there are 2 kinds of social solidarity i.e. Mechanical solidarity and Organic Solidarity He discusses law extensively in the book “The Division of Labor in Society”. According to him, law is the most visible symbol of social solidarity. Law plays a part in society that is analogous to the nervous system in organism. The nervous system regulates various body functions. Likewise, the legal system regulates all the parts of society. So that they work together in agreement. He also stated that the division of labor is in direct proportion to the moral density of the society. In three ways this increases can happen: Through an increase of the concentration of people, through growths of towns a; through increase in number of means of communication. Labor started to divide when 1 or more of these things happen because the struggle for existence becomes more difficult. Social fact The Term sociology is created by Emile Durkheim to indicate social patterns. Social facts are the value, cultural standard and social structures. According to Durkheim sociology was the science of social facts. He also stated that the 1 st thing is to consider social facts as things. Things such as customs and social values exist outside individuals; Psychological drives and motivation exist inside individuals. Suicide In the field of sociology, suicide was a ground breaking book. In 1897, suicide was written by French Sociologists Emile Durkheim. In this book, he explored the different suicide rates among Protestors and Catholics. He was the first to argue that the causes of suicide found in social factors and the stronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. In the late 19 th century, Durkheim wanted to show how his approach was superior to others. He also said that suicide can occur for personal reasons. Emile Durkheim distinguishes between 3 types of suicide:- • Anomic Suicide • Altruistic Suicide • Egoistic Suicide. www.sainiias.com When the disintegrating forces in society make individuals lost or alone then the Anomic suicide happens. As this suicide committed by those only who have been sexually abused or whose parents are alcoholic’s. Eg:-Teenage suicide Altruistic Suicide: The type of suicide occurs when there is excessive regulation by social forces. Example:- suicide commits by someone for the sake of religious or political cause such as the hijackers of the high airplane that crashed into the world trade center. Egoistic Suicide:-This type of suicide occurs when people feel totally separate from society. Elderly people who lose these ties are the most who committed egoistic suicide. Max Weber: Social action Max Weber (1864-1920) :A German sociologists, philosopher whose ideas affected social theory and the whole discipline of sociology. His major publications are:- The Protestant Ethic and the spirit of capitalism (1904), The city (1912), The sociology of Religion (1922), The theory of social and Economic organization (1925).He was best known for a founding figure of the field of sociology, Thesis of the Protestant Ethic and the ideas on bureaucracy. He founded the social action theory. Social action is a meaningful behavior place towards other individuals. According to Marx Weber, Social action is the foundation of sociology and no action shall be called a social action expecting that it has relationship with the present, past or future behavior of others. A social action was an action carried out by an individual. He also believed that it was a social action that should be focus of study sociology. A person does not think about can’t be a social action. There are 2 main types of sociological theories: Structural or macro theory Social action or micro perspectives. According to social action theory he believes that in society bureaucratic organizations are the main institutions and views the whole development of modern societies. The theory of social action gives researcher a better understanding of actions behind behavior of human. Types of social action: Evaluative, Emotional and traditional actions. Ideal types of social action:- Marx Weber a German sociologist created concept of the ideal type as simplified models of real actions of societies. The ideal type is an abstract model and used as standard of comparison in a clearer way enables us to see aspects of the real world. It a common mental construct in the social sciences www.sainiias.com There are 4 ideal types of social action:- a) Goal Rational Action b) Value Rational Action c) Affectional Action d) Traditional Action (irrational ) Goal Rational Action: On the basis of rational action, practical goals are identified and goals are achieved in most systematic way. In simple way, goals and means are chosen rationally. Example:- Business man behavior, An engineer who builds a bridge by the most efficient technique of relating means to end. Value rational Action: Goals are chosen on the basis of values like self respect, patriotism, duty, glory etc. Goals are chosen rationally to achieve this goal. So that goals are achieved in most rational manner. Example: Attainment of Salvation Affectional action: They are determined by emotional state of the actor and are not rational. Example: - The participants in the religious services of a fundamentalist sect Traditional action: These goals are not driven by goal and determined by traditions, customs of the actor. The behavior of members of an Orthodox Jewish Congregation. In his sociological and philosophical work Marx Weber identified 3 types of legitimate rule or domination or authority. He divided legitimate or authority into 3 types:- • Rational Legal authority • Traditional authority • Charismatic authority Rational Legal Authority: Marx Weber discussed the 1 ST type authority i.e. Rational Legal Authority: This authority is also known as legal authority and based on rules. It is a form of leadership in which authority is largely tied to legal rationality and legitimacy, bureaucracy. This authority derives its powers from the system of bureaucracy and legality. It is the 2 nd of Weber‘s tripartite classification of authority. The majority of the modern states of the 20 th century are depending on rational legal authorities. In the www.sainiias.com constitution the power of the rational legal authority is mentioned Example: Government officials. Traditional Authority: The 2 nd type of authority is Traditional Authority. This authority is based on habits, social structures and customs. It is a form of leadership in which rules and regulations are tied with custom and tradition. Traditional authority concept comes from Max Weber’s tripartite classification of authority. When the power transfer from one person to another it is known as traditional authority. Example: The Tudor dynasty in England, the ruling families of Mewar in Rajasthan (India) and the right hereditary monarchs to rule furnishes Charismatic authority: The 3 rd type of authority is Charismatic authority. This authority based on inspiration from the higher power. Here the leader play an important role and this authority derived from the “the gift of grace” or inspiration. These are superior to both the validity of traditional and legal authority and followers accept to follow this higher or inspired authority. Example: in this regard can be NT Rama Rao, a matinee idol who went on to become one of the most powerful chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh. Bureaucracy: It is a way of organizing a number of people who want to work together. Organization in the public and private sector including universities and governments depend on bureaucracy to function. Bureaucrats fight fires, teach, and monitor how federal candidates raise money, among other activities. The function of bureaucracy is:- • Promote the public good Agencies of Bureaucratic: National Institutes of Health, Environmental protection Agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation. • Protect the nation Agencies: Armed forces, Coast Guard, CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) Weberian Model: Max Weber a German sociologist created a Weberian Model According to the Weberian Model a Bureaucracy always displays the characteristics: • Hierarchy • Specialization • Division Of Labor • Standard operating procedures (SOP) www.sainiias.com Marx Weber recognized in bureaucracies a rational legal authority in which legitimacy is seen as coming from a legal order. He listed several essential conditions for the publishing of bureaucracy. Rationalization describes a transition in society. Traditional motivators of behavior are replaced with rational calculations. He described many ideal types of public administration and governance. The study of bureaucracy was begun by Marx Weber and his work led to popularization of this term. Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. In 1904-05 Marx Weber a German sociologist and economist written a book the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. In this book, Weber wrote that capitalism in Northern Europe and ethics affect large numbers of people to gain in work in the secular world. They developed their own enterprises and gain in trade and the accumulation of wealth for investment. The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism: It is a study of the relation between ethics and the emergence of the spirit of modern capitalism. Marx Weber argues that the religious ideas of groups such as Calvinist played a role in making capitalistic spirit. The protestant Ethic is a discussion of Marx Weber in various religious and economics. He declares that puritan’s ethics and ideas affect the development of capitalism. Talcolt Parsons: (1902-1979) was an American Sociologist and developed a general theory for the study of society called action theory. He explored why societies are stable and functioning. Parsons model is AGEL (Adaptation Goal attainment Integration Latency). This model represents the 4 basic functions that if they are persist all social system must perform. It was the 1 st open system theories of organizations. The bases of structural in social systems: Stable patterns between actors or roles and social relationship. Talcolt Parsons –Pattern variables Concept of pattern variables was given in book “Towards a General Theory of social action”. According to him 2 modes of orientation drive our action:- Instrumental – Non emotional, logical, rational and Expressive – Emotional, collective etc. Parsons develop concept which could bring out variables properties of actions systems and this concept known as pattern variables. In all there are 5 patterns variables:- • Affectivity versus affective neutrality • Self orientation Vs collectivity orientation • Universalism Vs particularism • Ascription Vs achievement www.sainiias.com • Specificity Vs diffuseness These pattern variables bridges space between social action and social system and structure any system of interaction. Robert King Merton (1910-2003) was an American sociologist’s .He was influenced by Parsonian Structuralism. Robert Merton most famous works were theories and Merton/ Latent and Manifest functions are the social scientific concepts.. Latent and manifest are the 2 concepts that Merton put forward in regards to social action. According to him, Merton Latent and Manifest functions are those that are conscious and recognized. These are the functions which people conclude and expect the institutions to fulfill. Example: Schools are expected to educate the children in the knowledge and skills that they need. Manifest functions are obvious admitted and generally cheer or applauded.Latent functions are unrecognized and not planned functions. It is an institution support the manifest functions. It is an individual or group undertakes without having knowledge of the result. Example: Found in organized religion, a ritual used for its spiritual significance. In a social system social action is the behavior taken by an individual as the result of others. Mani fest Function: It is an individual or group undertakes without that has intended meaning or result. Eg: The manifest function of a religious ritual may be to connect a spiritual level. Conformity and Deviance: Deviance means violates social norm and Conformity follows social norm. There are 5 kinds of norms:-Prescriptive, Proscriptive, Folkways, mores and laws. Prescriptive tell us what we should do, Proscriptive tell us what we shouldn’t do, Folkways: Informal norms reflect cultural traditions and guide everyday interactions. Mores – Informal & salient norms –reflect value judgment. Laws Formal norms abide by laws and follow norms. Deviant behavior is obtaining strong negative reactions from others. It can occur in the behavior of groups as well as individuals. Robert Merton argued that society is set up in a way that encourages more deviance. Typology of Deviance and Example: The main concern of Robert K Merton was that societies such as US didn’t provide the means i.e. access to education, employment etc. to achieve cultural goals. Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs and behaviors to group norms. Example of conformity: The corporate culture demands certain conformity of appearance. www.sainiias.com A reference group is any person or group that serves as point of comparison for an individual in forming either general or specific values, attitudes. We use reference group to evaluate the relative worth of our appearance, feelings, thoughts and behavior. Types of Reference groups classified by • Membership- symbolic • Extent of Interaction – Direct Vs Indirect • Nature of Attraction- Aspirational Vs Dissociative • Degree of formality- Formal Vs Informal Influence Informational Influence; Normative Influence; Identification Influence Reference group are • Friendship Group • Shopping group • Work Group • Virtual Groups • Brand communities • Consumer-action Groups • Celebrities. Mead Self Identity G.H Mead was an American philosopher, sociologist and was a symbolic interactionist. He wrote a book ‘Mind, Self and Identity’. He was best known for founder of Pragmatism, pioneered the development of symbolic interaction perspective and founders of social psychology. He is well known for his theory of the social self .This theory is based on central argument that the self is a social emergent. The individual selves are the products of social interaction. According to him, there are 3 activities through which the self is developed. The three activities are Language, play and game. Language allows individuals to take on the “role of other”. It allows people to respond to his or her own signal in terms of the symbolized attitudes of others. Play allows individuals to take on the roles of other people. It pretend to be those other people to express the expectations of remarkable others. This process of role playing is key: to the generation of self consciousness and to the general development of the self. Game allows the individual is required to internalize “the roles of all others” who are involved with him or her in the game. www.sainiias.com 5. Concept of Stratification and Mobility: The concept of social stratification is one of the concepts of social differentiation of modern society. According to this concept, in a society the layers defined on the different bases. Social stratification is more mobile than other social structures. There are 2 types of social mobility: Horizontal Vertical The channel of vertical mobility both on ascending and descending line, the army, church, school, political institutes etc. Social stratification means the inequalities that exist between individuals and groups within human societies. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS: The ranking apply to the social characteristics of people who share common characteristics. People’s life experience and opportunities depend on social category ranked. Over the time the ranks of different social characteristics tends to change slowly. Social equality:. It includes • Equal rights under the law such as security, voting, rights, freedom of speech and assembly. • Property rights • Equal access to social goods and services. Concept of economic equity i.e. access to education. Health care and other social securities. Social inequality: It is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions within a society. It contains recurrent patterns of unequal distribution of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards and punishments. It is the condition in which members of society have different amounts of power and wealth To measure social inequality there are two ways: • Inequality of condition • Inequality of opportunities. Inequality of condition mention to unequal distribution of Income, wealth and material goods. Inequality of opportunities refers to the unequal distribution of "life chances" across individuals. Poverty and deprivation Poverty: In 2006, 36.5 million people in united state 12.3 % of the population were living in poverty. Families, Individual and groups in the population are in the poverty. Deprivation is the consequence of a lack of income and other resources. Theories of social stratification-This theory try to explain the existing inequality of wealth in www.sainiias.com between different cultures. Weber’s view of Stratification He formed a 3 component theory of stratification. In 3 component theory social difference is determined by class, status and power. According to him class is a person‘s economic position. It based on birth and individual achievement. According to Weber a member of the US congress is an example of someone who is high in social hierarchy due to power and status. Social Mobility: It is the movement of individuals or groups in social position. It can be change between groups. It is a person movement from one class to another. Open system: In this system people are ranked by achieved status. It is an economic system that has upward and downward mobility. It is achievement based and allows social relations between the classes. These allow interaction between its internal elements and environment. Closed system: In this system people are ranked by ascribed status. It has been confined to their ancestral occupations. Their social status has mostly been prescribed by birth. Sources and causes of mobility There are many factors that can affect social mobility:- • Race / Ethnicity caste • Gender • Religious Persuasion • Occupation • The area you live in Causes of social mobility: Vertical social mobility is affected by many different things. Social Mobility important factors and causes:- • Gender • Education • Social change • Urbanization and industrialization • Transportation and communication • Dissatisfaction from previous condition Formal and informal organization of work. Formal Organization is created when 2 or more persons come together and have a common goal. This organization ready to work together and has its own rules and regulation. The rules which are made by the formal organization must be followed by employees and managers. In www.sainiias.com this organization the objectives are specific and has clear subordinate relationship . It has system of authority. The members of the formal organization are given duties and responsibilities. This organization formed by top level management Example: A company School College Bank etc. Objective: Productivity, growth and expansion Informal organization: It is a network of personal and social organization. The people who are working in formal organization work, travel and eat together and meet regularly. They become good friends. In formal organization there are many groups of friends. These group of friends are called informal organization. Informal organization doesn’t have its rules and regulation. It neither have superior subordinate relationship nor any system of authority and coordination. This organization is formed by social forces within the formal organization. Objective: friendship, security, common interest, individual and group satisfaction etc. Sociological Theories: I. Symbolic Interaction Theory II. Conflict theory III. Functionalist Theory IV. Feminist Theory V. Critical Theory VI. Labeling theory VII. Social Learning Theory VIII. Structural Strain Theory IX. Rational Choice Theory X. Game theory Theories of power : • • • Pluralist Elitist Marxist www.sainiias.com Pluralism is how power is distributed, Elitism is how power is concentrated and Marxism is class conflict and economic power. In 1956, Sociologist C . Wright Mills written a book The Power Elite. According to him, the governing elite in the US (United States) draws its members from 3 areas:- i) The highest political leaders including the president and cabinet members and close advisor. ii) Major corporate owners and directors iii) High ranking military officers. Power elite: American sociologists C. Wright Mills describe used the term Power elite. In 1956 The power elite is a book written by sociologists C. Wright Mills and it can be defined as a small group of people who control a disproportionate amount of power , wealth and privilege. According to C. Wright Mills the power elite are the key people in the 3 major institutions of modern society: I. Economy II. Government III. Military Pressure groups, and political parties: A Pressure group is an organization which seeks to affect the formulation and government(public) policy. Pressure groups also called Interest group. It tries to safeguard and promotes the interests of its members. When they campaign they have more general political and ideological objectives in mind. Pressure groups are different from political parties Political parties focus on the national interest. Pressure groups concerned with sectional or single issues. Pressure groups work at local, sub national (Regional), National and International level (including European Union). Sociological theories of religion Religion is a feature of group that are based on beliefs considered sacred. Sociological theories of religion try to answer 2 interrelated questions: What is the origin of religion and what is its function. These theories explain universal characteristics of religious beliefs and practice. Theories of Religion • Functionalism • Conflict theory www.sainiias.com • Symbolic Interaction Conflict theory define group boundaries Symbolic interactions provide definitions of groups and individual identity. Types of religious practices: animism, Animism is used in the anthropology of religion . Animism is said to describe the most common foundational thread of indigenous people. It is the beliefs that nonhuman entities are spiritual beings. Monism: The term monism 1 st used by the 18 th century German philosopher Christian Wolf. It is any philosophical views. Monism holds that there is unity in a given field of inquiry. Some philosophers hold that the universe is one as against to dualism or pluralism. Hinduism is the primary supporter of monism. In Hindu Religion, the nature of Brahman is described transpersonal, personal and impersonal nu different philosophical schools. Sect: A type of religious organization that stands apart from the larger society. The member of sect has rigid religious belief and refuse the belief of others. Cult: A cult is a religious groups with irregular and novel beliefs and practices. In 1932 Howard P Becker , a American sociologists introduced the concept of cult into sociological classification. System of Kinship system: It refers to a group of persons recognized as relatives either by blood relationship or marriage relationship. Family, household, marriage. Good communication is an important tool to maintain good relationship among members of the family. Sociologists define family as a group of people. They are united by ties of marriage , ancestry or adoption. Function of family : Nurturance of children Economic Cooperation Provide child with models from whom that can learn gender appropriate roles. Forms of family: Consanguinal family : All blood relation in sociology is known are called as consanguinity. Example: The relationship between mother and son/daughter , sister and brother/sister , father and son/daughter are called consanguinal. Conjugal family : All relationship through marriage are called affinity. Eg:- Relationship between father/mother –in-law and daughter -/ son-in-law are affinal www.sainiias.com The sociology of the family examines the family as a unit of socialization. Households: The basic residential units that implement are:- • Economic production • Consumption • Inheritance • Child marriage • Shelter. • Female headed Households In 1970s 45 percent were nuclear families and 4.7% households were single parent. In 1998s 26 percent household were nuclear families and 18.2% households were single parent families. Types and form of the family: The family has been classified into 3 types on the basis of marriage: i) Polygamous or polygynous family. ii) Polyandrous family iii) Monogamous family Family can be classified into 3 main forms on basis of nature of residence:- i) Family of Matrilocal residence ii) Family of patrilocal residence iii) Family of changing residence. Family can be classified into 2 main types on the basis of ancestry:- • Matrilineal family • Patrilineal family Family can be classified into 2 main types on the basis size or structure:- • Nuclear or the single unit family • Joint family Lineage and descent Descent group is a social group in which membership depends on common descent from a real ancestor. The member of descent group talk about common ancestry. Lineage is an unilineal descent group in which membership rest either on patrilineage or an matrilineage. Patriarchy and sexual division of labour www.sainiias.com Patriarchy: It is a social system in which males are the primary authority figures. It also means rule of the father in a male dominated family. It is central to social organization occupying roles of political leadership, moral authority and control property. It implicit the institution the institutions of male rule and privilege. It is sociological construct which considers men as superior to women. Sexual division of labour (SDL) is a basic structural element in human social organization. Human have highly developed sexual division of labour in food production. They are the primates that share food on regular basis. 10. Social change in modern society: Social change in modern society refers to change in the social order of a society . It include change in nature, social institutions , social behaviors’ or social relations. Modernization: The process of moving from an agrarian to industrial society. Characteristic of modern societies:- Larger role of government in society and bureaucracy to run governments. Forming of social institutions to regulate behavior . laws and sanctions to regulate behavior. Control over and management of environment resources: oil, water, land, animals etc. The ability to adapt expect and desire continuous change. Example: Change of governments, replacing goods and services such as cars, phone services, marriage. 3 aspects of social change:- Social change is necessarily a process of change with no reference to the quality of change. Change in society is linked to changes in culture. Social change is defined as change in the social structure including the changes in the size of society. Culture changes refers to variation in cultural phenomena such as knowledge and ideas, art, religion moral doctrines , values , beliefs , symbol system and so on. i) Sociological theories of social change: Sociological theories is a group of ideas. It provide an explanation for human society. There are 3 basic theories of social change:- Evolutionary theory or evolutionary perspective Functionalist theory Conflict theory According to evolutionary theory societies moves in specific functions. The concept of social evolution was taken from theories of biological evolution. Herbert Spencer put forward an analog between social and organic growth www.sainiias.com and between society and an organization. The theories of social are made of one or more of the following principles : change , order, direction , progress and perfectibility. Some evolutionists add to the principles of change the concept that change must have an order and some evolutionists combine the principles of change. Due to this early evolutionists they saw society as progressing to higher levels. They concluded their own culture attitudes. Behaviors were more advanced than those of earlier societies. Sometimes it is difficult in evolutionary theory to differentiate simple direction from progress. Auguste Comet father of sociology subscribed to social evolution. He saw human societies as progressing into using scientific methods. Emile Durkheim is one of the founders of functionalism. He saw societies as moving from simple to complex social structures. Functionalist theory: Functionalist sociologists attention on what maintains society. Functionalist believe that society like the human body is a balanced system. Each institution serves a function in maintaining society. According to them, changes come from three sources:- 1) Adjustments of the system to exogeneous change (e.g. war, conquest). 2) Growth through structural and functional differentiation (e.g. changes in the size of population through births and deaths) 3) Innovations by members of groups within society (example: inventions and discovery in a society) According to equilibrium theory changes in one aspect of society require adjustment in other aspects. Equilibrium disappears when these adjustment do not occur and it threatening social order. Talcolt Parsons equilibrium theory include the evolutionary concept of continuing process. Critics argue that functionalist minimize the effects of change. They also argue that functionalist ignore the use of force by society’s powerful to maintain a mirage of stability. Conflict theory: Conflict theory is Weber Marxist based theory. It argues that individuals and groups within society have different amounts of material and non material resources. It emphasize the social, political or material inequality of a social group. Father of the social conflict theory is Karl Marx. Many social scientists have compared the socialist economy and social organization with western capitalist economy and organization. www.sainiias.com Agents of social change. Agents of social change do not have particular name and social change is the movement of people toward change in the economic, environment and social justice. Dependency theory: This theory states that colonialism and neocolonialism have created unequal economic relations between poor and wealthy countries. It is used to explain the failure of non industrialized countries to develop economically without being affected of investments from industrial countries. Education and social change Education can be used as a tool to authorize the individual. Students are able to see their own role in transformation through child centered learning and societal change comes from the common transformation of the individuals. Education has brought about phenomenal changes in every features of men’s life. It has been chiefly instrumental in preparing the way for the development of science and technology. Francis J. Brown stated that education is a process which brings changes in the behavior of society. It enables every individual to completely participated in the activities of society. It is process to make positive contribution to the progress of society. Education is one of the major agency of socialization and teachers and educational institutions as socializing agents. Three things are important in describing education as an instrument:- • The agents of change • The content of change • Social background of those who are sought to be changed i.e. students The educational system of any society is related to its total social system and the main functions of the educational system is to transmit the cultural heritage to the new generation Science, technology and social change. Technological advances such as automobiles , airplanes , radio , television , cellular phones , computers , modems and fax machines have brought major advances and changes to the world. Certainly, twentieth century technology has completely changed the way people meet , interact, learn, work, play , travel , worship and do business. It referred to as science and technology studies. It is the study of how social ,political and cultural values affect scientific research and technological innovation. www.sainiias.com Science, technology and social change scholars are interested in a variety of problems. It included the relationship between scientific and technological innovation. STS is a new and expanding subject. The following have affected the attitudes, attitudes, values and behavior of people across societies:- • The modern society • Means of transportation • Medicine • Surgery • Mass media of communication • Space and computers technology etc. Example: Automobiles and other means of modern transportation have spread culture by increasing interaction among people who live far away from each other.