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AJELS Asian Journal of English Language Studies Volume 4 December 2016
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AJELS
Asian Journal of English Language Studies
ISSN 2350-773X
Volume 4 December 2016
THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE UST DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
The Asian Journal of English Language Studies (AJELS) is the official journal of the Department of English of the University of Santo Tomas (UST), the oldest university in Asia. It is a peer-reviewed journal that aims to provide current literature to those concerned with research in the realm of English language studies and English language teaching and learning either as a second or a foreign language.
VERONICO N. TARRAYO CAMILLA J. VIZCONDE
AJELS annually publishes articles primarily concerned with the following: (1) the theories that underpin English language acquisition, teaching, and learning; (2) the contentious issues relevant to the international and intranational use of English; and (3) the structure of English. Thus, the journal features empirical and descriptive studies marking significant academic and practical advances in the fields of theoretical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, multilingualism, stylistics, language and the law, language education, and language policy. Editorial Board Members: ALEJANDRO S. BERNARDO JUDITH MA. ANGELICA S. CLAUSTRO MARILU R. MADRUNIO Journal Cover Designer: Adrienne A. Zacarias UST-College of Fine Arts and Design Layout Artist: Vermon Bryan Y. Revillosa UST-College of Fine Arts and Design Articles for review and possible publication may be submitted to:
[email protected] Copyright©2016 by the UST Department of English and individual contributors. All rights reserved. The UST Department of English holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. No part of this journal may be reproduced without the written permission of the copyright holder. Editorial Office Department of English General Education Unit Main Building University of Santo Tomas Sampaloc, Manila, The Philippines E-mail:
[email protected]
Asian Journal of English Language Studies The Official Journal of the UST Department of English
Ricardo D. Ma. Nolasco University of the Philippines-Diliman Quezon City, The Philippines
Ahmar Mahboob University of Sydney Sydney, Australia
Suzanne K. Hilgendorf Simon Fraser University Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
Diane E. Dekker Summer Institute of Linguistics SIL-Philippines
Christopher Conlan Formerly of Curtin University Perth, Australia
Roger Barnard University of Waikato Hamilton, New Zealand
T. Ruanni F. Tupas National Institute of Education Singapore, Singapore
Isabel P. Martin Ateneo de Manila University Quezon City, The Philippines
Andrew Moody University of Macau Macau SAR
Lee Kooi Cheng National University of Singapore Singapore, Singapore
Azirah Hashim University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Resty M. Cena University of Alberta Alberta, Canada
Carolyn D. Castro Montgomery College Maryland, USA
Board of Editorial Consultants
Richard Powell Nihon University Tokyo, Japan
Catherine M.B. Young Summer Institute of Linguistics SIL-International
EDITOR’S NOTE
ASIAN JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES Volume 4 December 2016
We are delighted to release the fourth volume of this journal. The Asian Journal of English Language Studies has successfully lived through the first three critical years of its production. Now, after overcoming the birth pains of putting this publication together, the members of the editorial team look forward to more volumes and better quality outputs with increased regularity. During the initial stages of its production, the biggest challenge that faced the editorial team was the acceptance of the publication by its niche market. Happily, this fourth volume highlights articles that bring to the fore studies on language learning motivation, stylistic and discourse analysis, as well as reading comprehension strategy instruction. The first article by Giovanna V. Fontanilla examines the crucial role that motivation plays in teaching and learning English by determining the types of motivation and self-identity changes of Filipino students who major in secondary education English teaching at institutions declared as Centers of Excellence by the Philippines’ Commission on Higher Education. Through interviews and survey questionnaires, the results showed that no dichotomy exists in the types of English language learning motivation as claimed by some teachers and students, and that such motivation is both integrative and instrumental. Interestingly, the sets of respondents agree on the level of ratings for each of the self-identity changes experienced by the English majors, with self-confidence topping the list followed by productive change.
the WP editorials as well as the predominant process types employed in the editorials of these two newspapers, the results yielded that the stylistic features of the WP editorials highlight people’s characters and attributes, believed to be important factors in the argumentative nature of the WP editorials. Conversely, PDI editorials focus on ‘what is done to someone’ and ‘who does it.’ This study puts forward that the transitivity system could be an effective tool to analyze the stylistic features of editorials.
The second to the last article entitled “Discourse features of methodology sections of research articles in high-impact and non-high-impact applied linguistics journals” written by Rodrigo C. Morales attempts to describe the discourse features of 30 methodology sections of research articles by employing Peacocks’ (2011) framework. The findings revealed that highimpact academic writers were more prolix with respect to the number of words and paragraphs in writing their methodology than non-high-impact academic writers. The obligatory move (Move 1 Subjects/Materials) has been employed by both sets of academic writers; while Move 3 (Procedure) and Move 4 (Data Analysis) have been found to be obligatory moves in non-high-impact journals but seem optional for some high-impact journal academic writers.
Aiming to investigate the relationship between theory and practice, the sixth and final article by Ma. Jhona B. Acuña studies the pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge for the reading comprehension strategy instruction of teachers. Administering the survey to at least 121 Math, Science, and English language teachers, the teachers’ perceptions on the awareness of teaching comprehension strategies were analyzed. Validating the responses gathered, an observation of classes was conducted to check on the relationship between pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices. The results indicated that while teachers in general believed in the importance of comprehension strategy instruction, many are not quite familiar with the principles on which those strategies are founded. Their ambiguous understanding of pedagogical content knowledge likewise limited their use of comprehension strategies in instruction. Furthermore, a significant correlation was established between the teachers’ beliefs and knowledge of their practices. It is to be noted that the actual practices as observed by experts did not match the teachers’ perceptions on pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge and that the perceptions of the contentarea teachers were not observed in their practices in comprehension strategy instruction.
I wish to thank all those who contributed their share to this fourth volume of AJELS. I also thank the members of the Board of Editorial Consultants/Reviewers who have been generous with their time to review the articles and address the production timetable of AJELS. In particular, I extend my gratitude to Dr. Maya Khemlani David of the University of Malaya, Dr. Loy Lising of the University of Sydney, Dr. Remedios Z. Miciano and Dr. Leonisa A. Mojica of the De La Salle University-Manila, and Dr. Christopher Conlan, formerly of Curtin University (Perth, Australia). Without your scholarly inputs, AJELS Volume 4 would have not come out this well and on time.
I sincerely hope that with the articles published in this volume, fresh insights will be developed and similar or new studies will spring.
The aforementioned paper is followed by the study on “The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper opinion columns” written by Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas. Veering away from the usual discourse analysis of newspaper articles such as editorials and news stories, he studied the organization of opinion articles found in university-level newspapers. Anchored on the framework of Ho (2001), he analyzed the macro-structure and features of the editorials. The findings revealed that the discourse structure of Philippine newspaper opinion articles employs the two-move pattern in the orientation, exposition, and summation blocks, suggesting that most of the time, university students adhere to a prescribed journalistic text organization.
MARILU RAÑOSA MADRUNIO, Ph.D. Editor, Asian Journal of English Language Studies
Ilyn R. Faminial shares an interesting study on critical poetry reading through creative and responsive skills. It deals with the semantic deviation in the language used in the poem “The Secretary Chant,” focusing on lexical features. The meaning of the text was inferred through its deviating features, such as metaphors, in the process employing the framework of Leech (1969) on the classification of tropes.
The fourth article by Luzminda R. Valeriano and Rachelle B. Lintao endeavors to critically examine the similarities and differences in the stylistic features of Philippine Daily Inquirer (PDI) and The Washington Post (WP), respectively, using Halliday’s (2000) transitivity method. Aiming to compare the transitivity process types employed in the PDI and
Articles
Table of Contents
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes of Filipino English majors in Philippine universities Giovanna V. Fontanilla
1
Functional stylistic analysis: Transitivity in Philippine Daily Inquirer and The Washington Post Luzminda R. Valeriano and Rachelle B. Lintao
The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper opinion columns Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas
71
54
34
23
Discourse features of methodology sections of research articles in high-impact and non-high-impact applied linguistics journals Rodrigo C. Morales
91
Semantic deviation in Marge Piercy’s “The Secretary Chant” Ilyn R. Faminial
Implications of pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge for the reading comprehension strategy instruction of teachers Ma. Jhona B. Acuña
1.
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes of Filipino English majors in Philippine universities
Giovanna V. Fontanilla University of Santo Tomas, Manila, The Philippines
[email protected]
Abstract
Motivation, English language learning motivation, instrumental motivation, integrative motivation, self-identity changes
Motivation plays a crucial role in the teaching and learning of the English language. This paper aims to determine the types of English language learning motivation and self-identity changes of Filipino English majors from three declared Centers of Excellence for teacher education in Manila, The Philippines. The mixed methods research approach was used for the study. The interview technique was utilized with guide questions on motivation types and self-identity changes, and a questionnaire on the same topics composed of 58 items was likewise distributed to student respondents. To further validate the responses of the English majors, the perceptions of their teachers toward their responses were generated through a questionnaire and answers to guide questions. The mean rating and canonical correlations showed that both teachers and English majors agreed that there is no dichotomy in the types of English language learning motivation, and that such motivation is both instrumental and integrative. The English majors had a slightly higher mean rating than their teachers’ perception as to their positive attitude toward the English language. The findings also showed that the student respondents and their English language teachers agreed on the level of ratings for each of the selfidentity changes experienced by the English majors. Self-confidence topped the list under the self-identity changes, followed by productive change. Split change, on the other hand, occupied the lowest in the scale. This study encourages intellectual exchanges on both linguistic and nonlinguistic outcomes in the teaching of the English language. Linguistic outcomes, which seem to be more of the cognitive level, relate to language proficiency such as vocabulary and grammar; while nonlinguistic outcomes, which appear to be on the affective domain, pertain to attitudes and values. The study also initiates further discussion on English language learning motivation and the corresponding self-identity changes among students, with emphasis on the educational context. Keywords:
Introduction
The English language is considered a second language (L2) in the Philippines. Teaching and learning it can be both a challenge and an opportunity because of the accelerated pace of development in the educational landscape. A keen understanding of the theories and processes of learning an L2, therefore, will lead to meaningful and significant experiences in language
Giovanna V. Fontanilla
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
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2
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identity” (Gardner, 2010, p. 3). Gao, Cheng, Zhao, and Zhou (2007) define self-identity as the way learners perceive themselves in terms of linguistic and cultural groups they belong to, and their communication styles, abilities, and worthiness. Gao et al. (2007) identified the six types of self-identity changes, namely, self-confidence, additive change, subtractive change, productive change, split change, and zero change. The following are the descriptions of the said types of selfidentity changes: 1. Self-confidence relates to the learners’ awareness of their achieved proficiency in the English language. An indicator of self-confidence is the ability of the students to communicate with other people with ease and grace and to express their opinions in public with poise and assurance. 2. Additive change pertains to the presence of two sets of languages (L1 and L2), values, and culture that students use as the context requires. An example of this change is when the students talk with their Filipino friends and to their English language teacher; in this case, the students can easily switch between Filipino and English. 3. Subtractive change means that the native language (L1) and the native cultural identity of the learners are supplanted by the target language (L2) and its culture. After learning English, the students feel that their behavior has become somewhat westernized. So, they say Thank you or thanks, instead of Salamat when a friend does a favor for them. 4. Productive change results in the combined use of both L1 and L2 where each language reinforces one another. An example is when the students’ ability to appreciate the English language and literature is heightened, they also become more fascinated with Filipino literature and arts. 5. Split change arises because of a conflict between the use of L1 and L2 and their corresponding cultures. The students experience a divide as they switch between Filipino and English behavioral patterns. When they meet their teacher in English, they greet her, Hello, Ma’am!, but when they meet their Filipino teacher, they nod their heads as a gesture of acknowledging her presence and at times greet her, Magandang umaga po. 6. Zero change happens if there is no self-identity change. Students find it meaningless to talk about personal changes after learning English because they do not observe any change in themselves.
Gao et al. (2007) examined the types of English language learning motivation among Chinese students. They likewise determined a nonlinguistic outcome in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context and explored the possible relationships between motivation types on the one hand and self-identity changes on the other. The study used the factor analysis for the motivation types, and such analysis yielded seven factors, which, in turn, yielded more than half of the total variations. These factors were intrinsic interest, immediate achievement, learning situation, going abroad, social responsibility, individual development, and information medium. The study identified self-confidence as the most prominent among the self-identity changes. It was followed by zero change. However, a canonical test revealed
Motivation and Self-Identity Changes
learning. It should be noted, though, that motivation is likewise an important element in learning a language. It assumes a pivotal function in learning an L2; thus, it is important to identify the types and combination of motivation that lead to effective L2 acquisition. Motivation has been widely accepted by teachers, scholars, and researchers as one of the key factors that determine the rate and success of L2 learning. It provides the primary “impetus to initiate learning the second language and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process. Indeed, all the other factors involved in L2 acquisition presuppose motivation to some extent” (Dornyei, 1990, p. 274). Drawing a list of characteristics of a motivated person can provide an idea of what it means to be motivated. Gardner (2007) emphasizes that “the motivated individual is goal directed, expends effort, is persistent, is attentive, has desires (wants), exhibits positive affect, is aroused, has expectancies, demonstrates self-confidence (self-efficacy), and has reasons (motives)” (p. 10). In the socio-educational model of second language acquisition, motivation is assessed in three components, namely, “the desire to learn a language, attitudes toward learning the language, and motivation intensity i.e., the effort expended to learn the language” (Gardner, 2010, p. 9). In the study of Noels, Clement, and Pelletier (1999), effort, aside from anxiety and language competence, is one of the three factors that determine language learning outcomes. To be motivated means to have the dynamism and energy to do something. A person who has no enthusiasm or desire to act is, thus, characterized as unmotivated, whereas someone who is inspired and focused toward a goal is considered motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Motivation is likewise defined as a dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the cognitive and psychomotor processes by which initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritized, operationalized, and successfully or unsuccessfully acted out ( Dornyei & Otto,1998 ). In his book Motivation and Second Language Acquisition, Gardner (2010) presents the socio-educational model that provides a construct for motivation. The model begins with the social milieu that comprises educational and cultural contexts. Then, he identifies ability and motivation as the major individual-difference variables that determine students’ success in L2 learning. Motivation can either be integrative or instrumental. The former pertains to the desire to learn a second language in order to interact and identify with members from an L2 community, while the latter refers to the desire to learn an L2 to achieve some practical goals (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). It is said that integrative motivation has a strong interpersonal quality, while instrumental motivation has a strong practical quality. Furthermore, Gardner (2010) in his explanation of the socio-educational model suggests that the second language learning environment could either be the formal context of language learning or the informal context of experiencing language learning. Self-Identity Changes There are “linguistic outcomes that refer to second language proficiency such as vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and non-linguistic outcomes that refer to attitudes, values and others” (Gardner, 2010, p. 45). There seems to be a “relationship between the linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes because the extent to which individuals develop a high level of proficiency in the language may also enable them to experience changes in their self-
Giovanna V. Fontanilla
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
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4
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The 91 respondents who answered the questionnaire and participated in the interview were all Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English students from three declared Centers of Excellence for Teacher Education in Manila: De La Salle University or DLSU (21 students), Philippine Normal University or PNU (36 students), and University of Santo Tomas or UST (34 students). From the total of student respondents, 15 were randomly selected for the interview. On the other hand, a total of 22 teachers of the student respondents – ten (10) from DLSU, five
Research Questions
2.
Research Design
Method
2.2
Participants
The mixed methods research approach was used for this study. The qualitative component made use of the interview technique with guide questions on motivation types and selfidentity changes, while the quantitative component consisted of data gathered through a survey questionnaire.
2.1
This study seeks to determine the role of motivation in English language learning and selfidentity changes of English majors in Philippine universities. Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions: 1. What are the types of English language learning motivation among these English majors as expressed by them and as perceived by their teachers? 2. What types of self-identity changes have the English majors experienced as expressed by them and as perceived by their teachers? 3. Is there an agreement between the English majors’ types of English language learning motivation and self-identity changes and those perceived by their teachers?
1.1
on motivation and self-identity changes reveals that studies were conducted for Japanese (Mori, 2002 ), Chinese (Liu, 2012), Thai students (Teer, 2013), among others. However, with the number of studies on motivation and its relation to second language learning, there seems to be relatively little information about the English language learning motivation of Filipinos, particularly of the future Filipino teachers of the English language who will eventually be responsible for the formation of ESL learners in the Philippines. Such a dearth of similar studies in the Philippines prompted the researcher to conduct a recent research work on motivation and language learning. A new and added feature of the study is the inclusion of the perception of the respondents’ English language teachers as to the students’ learning motivation and selfidentity changes. The comparative study between the students’ learning motivation types and self-identity changes and their teachers’ perception on these variables can provide meaningful insights into the quality of English language teaching and learning, most especially in the Philippine context.
four pairs of variables: intrinsic interest was correlated with productive and additive changes; individual development with self-confidence; and social responsibility with productive change on the one hand and split change on the other. Gao et al. discussed the four implications of their study for language teaching, which include (1) emphasis on the nonlinguistic outcomes of English language learning that can lead to self-identity changes among the students; (2) productive bilingualism that cultivates both the target language and the native language; (3) self-confidence among the learners to identify their goals for career development; and (4) focus on short-term objectives to channel them to long-term goals. Another study on English language learning motivation was conducted by Dai (2009). The study aimed to answer three research questions: (1) Are there any effects between English learning motivation and language proficiency in response to self-identity changes in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context?; (2) What motivation types are correlated with self-identity changes among EFL learners?; and (3)What is the relationship between language proficiency and self-identity changes among FL learners? The participants of the study were 94 students majoring in Applied Foreign Language who responded to two types of questionnaires: one on motivation types and another on self-identity changes. The findings of Dai’s ( 2009) study run parallel with those of Gao et al.’s (2007) investigation. Specifically, since the first three motivation types, i.e., integrative motivation, social responsibility, and learning situation, correlated with both productive and split selfidentity changes, teachers need to guide EFL learners to develop a positive attitude toward both the target language and the native language. Nonlinguistic outcomes should also be considered in English language teaching in which the teachers may develop the learners’ integrative motivation and individual formation to promote positive effects on self-identity changes. In 2013, Teer worked on a study similar to that of Gao et al. (2007). Her research examined the English learning motivation types and self-identity changes among Thai English majors and the extent to which these types of motivation and self-identity changes vary according to year levels. The types of motivation identified in the study were regulation, intrinsic motivation (stimulation), intrinsic motivation (knowledge), intrinsic motivation, (accomplishment), external regulation, introjected regulation, and amotivation. Teer found that the highest motivation type among the Thai EFL learners was regulation, followed by the three subtypes of intrinsic motivation, namely, stimulation, knowledge, and accomplishment. Amotivation obtained the lowest mean score for the motivation type. Confidence change topped the list for self-identity changes, followed by productive and additive. Split change had the lowest mean score for the self-identity changes. Based on these findings, Teer drew the following pedagogical implications: (1) nonlinguistic outcomes should be given attention in English language teaching and learning; (2) motivation should be monitored, developed, and channeled to meet the nonlinguistic objectives; (3) motivation types should be reinforced to encourage goal-setting; and (4) the linguistic self-confidence of the learners should be developed. The foregoing research findings underscore the key role of motivation in English language learning and have encouraged a number of researchers to embark on investigations and studies related to it on a worldwide scale. Studies have been conducted involving Spanish (Gardner, 1985), French (Legault, Green-Demers, & Pelletier, 2006; Vandergrift, 2005), Iranian students (Khodadady & Ashrafborji, 2013), among others on the types of English language learning motivation. In the Asian context, a review of research work done
Giovanna V. Fontanilla
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
7
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Instruments
Results and Discussion
(5) from PNU, and seven (7) from UST – answered the questionnaire, and 15 of these teacher respondents were randomly selected to respond to the prepared guide questions in lieu of the interview. It was difficult to hold a face-to-face interview with the teachers because of their tight schedule. The best option was to ask them to answer the guide (interview) questions. 2.3
3.
Types of English Language Learning Motivation among Filipino Students Majoring in English
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
I learn English so I can go abroad to experience English speaking culture.
I learn English in order to find better education and job 3.25 opportunities abroad. (0.86)
I learn English so as to catch up with economic and 3.35 technological developments in the world. (0.75)
Only with good English skills can I find a job in the 2.87 future. (0.87)
I learn English in order to facilitate the learning of 3.59 other academic subjects. (0.58)
Learning English is important for me because English 3.79 is very useful in contemporary society. (0.44)
An important purpose for my English language 3.24 learning is to obtain a University degree. (0.81)
My purpose in learning English is to obtain a high 2.75 grade in the subject. 0.93)
I study English because it is a required subject for my 2.92 program. (1.05)
A
A
A
A
A
SA
SA
A
A
A
VI
3.64 (0.50)
3.73 (0.46)
3.09 (0.82)
3.64 (0.66)
3.55 (0.67)
3.32 (0.65)
3.59 (0.60)
3.82 (0.50)
3.32 (0.65)
3.05 (0.65)
3.36 (0.85)
Teachers’ Perception
SA
SA
A
SA
SA
A
SA
SA
A
A
A
VI
Students’ Response
9
Fluent oral English is a symbol of good education and 3.27 accomplishment. (0.87)
A
Statement
10
Acquiring good English skills is a stepping stone to 3.37 one’s success in life. (0.79)
2.93 (1.0)
11
SA
A
3.77 (0.43)
3.20 (0.36)
SA
3.11 (0.37)
A
Studying English is important because it will be useful 3.57 in getting a good job. (0.58) Total
12
Table 1 Instrumental type of English language learning motivation of English majors
3.1
analyzed, interpreted, and discussed based on the research questions. Mean ratings were generated, and with the use of t-test, the differences in the mean ratings of teachers and students were determined. Canonical correlations were used to determine the relationship between the English language learning motivation and selfidentity changes of the students and the perceived responses of the teachers. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was utilized in the processing and treatment of the data collected. The two-way ANOVA test was utilized to determine the difference between the students’ responses and the teachers’ perceptions regarding learning English for integrative and instrumental motivation. The Spearman test, on the other hand, was used to ascertain the agreement on the ratings by the students and the perception of the teachers.
Data Collection
Two sets of questionnaires based on Gardner’s Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) and Gao et al.’s (2007) study on self-identity changes were prepared, one for the students and another for the teachers. Using the Likert scale, 24 items for the first part relate to English language learning motivation, 10 items for the attitude toward the English language, and another 24 items for the self-identity changes. The same questions with minor modifications were asked of the teachers of English. After conducting the survey, a semi-structured interview among the 15 randomly selected students was done as a follow-up to their responses to the questionnaire. The interview guide questions used has three parts: the first part includes the demographic data of the interviewees; the second part deals with questions related to types of motivation; and the last part focuses on the sharing of self-identity changes the respondents experienced, if there was any. Likewise, the 15 randomly selected teachers were given guide questions to answer with the same items asked of the students in their interview. The interview technique was utilized to validate the students’ and teachers’ responses and to elicit pertinent insights to better understand the concepts of motivation types and self-identity changes. Sample questions asked of the teachers were: Who motivates the English majors? What motivates the English majors? Why do the English majors want to learn English? Why do they need to learn English? 2.4
Data Analysis
A letter of request to conduct the research work and to set an appointment with the deans or associate deans of the respective College of Education of the three participating universities was sent. Upon approval, the researcher distributed the copies of the questionnaire to the student and the teacher respondents on separate dates. An immediate retrieval of the questionnaire was done. The researcher set another appointment with the same deans or associate deans to schedule the interview of the students from the participating universities and to give the guide questions to the teachers. The individual face-to-face interview with the students was conducted. However, because of different teaching schedules, it was not possible to conduct a face-to-face interview with the teachers. The best means was to request these teachers to answer the guide (interview) questions. 2.5
The analysis and interpretation of the data gathered was descriptive in nature. The types of motivation and self-identity changes among the respondents were coded using the numerical values assigned to the responses to the items in the questionnaire. The codes were based on the following scale: 4 - strongly agree; 3 - agree; 2 - disagree; and 1 - strongly disagree. The encoded data were then reviewed for accuracy. After which, they were summarized,
8 Giovanna V. Fontanilla
Verbal Interpretation Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
VI SD D A SA
_________________________________________________________________________________
Legend: Scale 1.00 - 1.50 1.51 - 2.50 2.51 - 3.50 3.51 - 4.00
The teachers, in general, have somewhat a slightly higher mean rating than that of the students which is 0.09 points lower, but they are still on the same level of agreement on all the items for the instrumental type of motivation. Both the teachers and the students indicated the highest mean rating for: • Item 4 Learning English is important for me because it is very useful in contemporary society. • Item 12 Studying English is important because it will be useful in getting a good job. (The item ranks second for the teachers, while it ranks third for the students.) • Item 10 Fluent oral English is a symbol of good education and accomplishment ranks third for the teachers, while item 5 I learn English in order to facilitate the learning of other academic subjects has the second highest rank for the students. Both the teachers and the students strongly agree on items 4, 5, and 12. Item 9, which states I learn English so I can go abroad to experience English speaking culture, has the lowest rating by the teachers, while the students gave the lowest rating to agree to some extent in item 2 My purpose in learning English is to obtain a high grade in the subject. The above results as regards the instrumental type of English language learning motivation are supported by findings from the interview with the students and the responses of the teachers to the guide questions. Such findings reveal that the top reasons for the students’ motivation to learn English include employment opportunities and application of knowledge learned to the teaching profession. One interviewee shared: I need to learn the English language because I can easily get a job in the future. On the other hand, one teacher stated: They (students) will use the knowledge they will learn in their career as a teacher. Table 2 shows that the teachers agree on almost all indicators of the integrative type of English language motivation, except on item 3 My effort in studying English depends on whether I like my classmates or not. The students disagree on the following: item 1 I study English because my parents expect me to be fluent in the language; item 2 My effort in studying English depends on the quality of the English textbook; and item 3 My effort in studying English depends on whether I like my classmates or not. Both the teachers and the students do not agree that the students’ learning motivation is dependent on or affected by whether they like or do not like their classmates. Both the teachers and the students agree on the following items: • Item 5 I look forward to going to class because my English teacher is so good. • Item 8 I enjoy the activities of our English class much more than those of my other classes.
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
9
_________________________________________________________________________________
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Studying English is important because other people will respect me more if I know English.
Studying English is important because I will be able to interact more easily with speakers of English.
I enjoy the activities of our English class much more than those of my other classes.
Studying English is important because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people.
Studying English is important because it will allow me to be more at ease with people.
I look forward to going to class because my English teacher is so good.
Learning English can give me a sense of achievement.
My effort in studying English depends on whether I like my classmates or not.
My effort in studying English depends on the quality of the English textbook.
I study English because my parents expect me to be fluent in the language.
3.51 (0.69)
2.88 (0.83)
3.75 (0.46)
3.22 (0.70)
3.64 (0.53)
3.36 (0.64)
3.40 (0.71)
3.70 (0.55)
1.75 (0.74)
2.32 (0.90)
2.19 (0.90)
Students’ Response
SA
SA
SA
A
SA
A
A
SA
D
D
D
VI
3.55 (0.51)
3.23 (0.75)
3.59 (0.60)
3.05 (0.72)
3.55 (0.60)
3.64 (0.50)
3.36 (0.66)
3.73 (0.46)
1.73 (0.55)
2.55 (0.91)
2.77 (0.810)
Teachers’ Perception
SA
SA
SA
A
SA
SA
A
SA
D
A
A
VI
Table 2 Integrative type of English language learning motivation of English majors
10
I experience satisfaction from knowing more on how to apply skills in English.
Statement
11
A
SA
3.30 (0.31)
3.73 (0.46)
A
SA
3.15 (0.43)
3.66 (0.50)
VI SD D A SA
I feel good in being able to articulate difficult ideas in English.
Verbal Interpretation Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
12 Total
Legend: Scale 1.00 - 1.50 1.51 - 2.50 2.51 - 3.50 3.51 - 4.00
They both strongly agree on the following: • Item 4 Learning English can give the students a sense of achievement. • Item 7 Studying English is important because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people. • Item 9 Studying English is important because I will be able to interact more easily with speakers of English. • Item 10 Studying English is important because other people will respect me more if I know English. • Item 11 I experience satisfaction from knowing more on how to apply skills in English. Item 12 I feel good in being able to articulate difficult ideas in English. •
Giovanna V. Fontanilla
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
11
_________________________________________________________________________________
10
_________________________________________________________________________________
3
2
1
My desire to learn English is:
My parents encourage me to learn English.
My attitude toward English speaking people is:
4.51 (0.71)
4.67 (0.89)
3.82 (1.09)
4.11 (0.84)
My motivation to learn English in order to 4.24 communicate with English speaking people is: (0.91)
F
VF
VS
S
F
S
VI
4.45 (0.67)
3.91 (0.92)
4.14 (0.83)
4.14 (0.58)
3.91 (0.87)
3.86 (0.64)
3.59 (1.0)
Teachers’ Perception
S
F
F
S
S
F
S
VI
1
After learning English, I feel repugnant about some 2.42 Filipino conventions. I think that Filipinos can hold (0.83) the hand of a man or woman openly anywhere.
After learning English, I feel my behavior has become somewhat westernized. For example, I say “Thank 3.02 you or Thanks” instead of “Salamat” when a friend (0.90) does a favor for me.
D
D
A
VI
2.57 (0.75)
1.77 (0.75)
2.23 (0.75)
2.73 (0.83)
Teachers’ Perception
D
A
D
D
A
VI
Table 4 Self-identity changes among English majors
2
After learning English, I have begun to reject some traditional Filipino ideas such as kissing the hands of 1.92 the elders. However, I think that I can do it in my own (0.98) way.
A
2.31 (0.605)
Statement
3
With the improvement of my English proficiency, I feel my Filipino is becoming less idiomatic such as 2.76 making a sound like /s/, /sh/, /th/ in Filipino words (0.88) unconsciously.
A
Subtractive
4
2.54 (0.584) Total
Students’ Response
Based on the results in Table 4, self-confidence obtained the highest mean score for both the students and the teachers as indicated by the mean scores 3.45 and 3.33, respectively. The interview findings and the teachers’ responses to the guide questions revealed that both groups agree that some self-identity changes were experienced by the students, particularly self-confidence. One student said: I think learning the English language has changed me in terms of boosting up my level of confidence as well as my self-esteem in terms of trusting myself that I will be able to perform better.
Types of Self-Identity Changes Experienced by the English Majors
The interview findings tend to emphasize the importance of the integrative type of English language learning motivation, as one of the students stated: I need to learn it (English) because right now, especially with the ASEAN integration, it [sic] is a need to communicate with other people so that misunderstanding won’t really happen between that person and myself. Another interviewee said: I need to learn English to socialize with other people, not just Filipino people but to interact with other cultures because I know that I may use the English language to coordinate or to communicate with people of other cultures.
4 My attitude toward learning English is:
4.29 (0.76)
S
3.2
motivation to learn English as strong (4.23) and desire to learn and attitude toward learning English (4.14) as strong and favorable, respectively. It is interesting to note that the interview data reveal that family, specifically the parents, primarily serves as the encouraging factor among the students who learn the English language. The teachers serve as the secondary encouraging factor in this respect. The survey results indicate the students’ attitude toward their English teachers as favorable (4.29) and their attitude toward their parents’ encouragement for them to learn English as strong (3.82). On the other hand, the said items were rated the same by the teachers, both with a mean score of 3.91.
Table 3 *Attitudes of the English majors toward English language learning
5 My attitude toward my English teacher is:
4.47 (0.86)
Students’ Response
6
My motivation to learn English for practical purposes (e.g., to get a good job) is:
Statement
7
F
F
My attitude toward my English course is:
S
8
4.23 (0.81)
N
4.05 (0.84) VS
3.10 (0.83)
4.35 (0.70)
N
F/S
VI VS/VM/VH/VF S/M/H/F SS/SM/SH/SF W/L/L/U VW/VL/VL/VU
3.94 (0.647)
My motivation to learn English is:
9
My friends encourage me to learn English so I can 3.38 interact with them. (1.2) 4.24 (0.501)
Verbal Interpretation Very Strong/Very Much/Very High/Very Favorable Strong/Much/ High/Favorable Slightly Strong/Slightly Much/Slightly High/Slightly Favorable Weak/Little/Low/Unfavorable Very Weak/Very Little/Very Low/Very Unfavorable
F/S
4.52 (0.69)
10 Total *Legend: Scale 4.51 - 5.00 3.51 - 4.50 2.51 - 3.50 1.51 - 2.50 1.00 - 1.50
Table 3 shows that the English majors recorded a slightly higher mean rating of 4.24 than that of their teachers (3.94). The responses of the students indicate the desire to learn English as very strong (4.67); their attitude to learning English as very favorable (4.51); and their motivation to learn English as very strong (4.52). On the other hand, the teachers perceive motivation to learn English for practical purposes as strong (4.45), followed by
Giovanna V. Fontanilla
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
13
_________________________________________________________________________________
12
_________________________________________________________________________________
I prefer to listen to the original English dialogue when 3.45 watching English movies, just as I enjoy the original (0.71) Filipino dialogues when watching Filipino movies.
While I am talking to my Filipino friends and my English teacher participates in our conversation, I can 3.27 easily switch between Filipino and English according to (0.77) the situation.
D
D
A
A
A
A
A
2.45 (0.60)
2.36 (0.72)
2.32 (0.65)
3.07 (0.49)
3.18 (0.66)
2.68 (0.84)
3.23 (0.69)
3.18 (0.67)
A
D
D
D
A
A
A
A
3
2
1
It is impossible for me to change my value system and 2.50 lifestyle after learning a language. (0.84)
I have not felt any change in them/myself after learning 1.97 English. (0.89)
For me, it is meaningless to talk about personal changes 2.09 after learning English. (0.88)
A
No matter which language is used for expression, I remain myself.
2.64 (0.37)
4 Total Zero
D
2
1
When parting with friends, I am frequently confused 2.13 whether to shake hands or hug and kiss. (0.96)
After learning English, I am caught between contradicting values and beliefs. For example, Filipino 2.10 children should not argue with their parents; on the (0.95) other hand, a child with western values can do it if he/ she feels the need for it.
I feel a painful split when I switch between English and Filipino behavioral patterns such as when meeting 2.25 my Filipino teacher, I nod my head as a gesture of (0.87) acknowledging her, but when I meet my teacher in English, I greet her “ Hello, Ma’am!”
D
D
D
2.14 (0.80)
2.10 (0.63)
2.23 (0.61)
D
D
D
D
3
2.20 (0.46)
A
D
D
3.27 (0.70)
A
2.38 (0.74)
2.31 (0.61)
A
3.36 (0.58)
A
A
I can express my opinion in public easily and 3.25 confidently. (0.66)
SA
3.23 (0.53)
A
2.69 (0.89)
1
I feel great when I speak in English with foreigners 3.54 confidently and comfortably. (0.62)
SA
3.45 (0.60)
I feel strange when my speech in Filipino is mixed with English words. For example, I usually say okay integrated in my Filipino sentence.
2
Whenever I have overcome a difficulty in English 3.57 learning, I realize my own growth. (0.60)
A
A
Total
3
I can be in a place or situation which allows me to 3.42 communicate with other people with ease and grace. (0.54)
3.33 (0.43)
Self-confidence
4
A
Agreement between the English Majors’ Types of English Language Learning Motivation and Self-Identity Changes and those Perceived by their Teachers
There is a difference between the response of the students and the teachers in the interview question, Has learning English affected the English majors’ use of the Filipino language? The students believe that learning the English language has affected their use of the Filipino language, while the teachers observe that the students’ use of the Filipino language is not affected by their English language learning because they believe that the two languages complement each other. In relation to the question of whether learning English has affected the practice of Filipino customs, both the teachers and the students agree that there is little or no effect on the students’ living out the Filipino customs.
Total
3.45 (0.42)
4
Split
Table 4 continued…
I am relatively confident when speaking in English and 2.85 relatively modest when speaking in Filipino. (0.83)
D
3.41 (0.71)
A
VI
3.26 (0.70)
A
2.64 (0.37)
D
Teachers’ Perception
1
3.38 (0.08)
D
2.32 (0.65)
D
VI
2
I can accept someone’s suggestion or comment without feeling offended.
2.48 (0.51)
D
2.36 (0.72)
D
Students’ Response
Table 4 continued… Statement
3
For me, it is meaningless to talk about personal changes 2.09 after learning English. (0.88)
D
2.45 (0.60)
A
Additive
4
I have not felt any change in them/myself after learning 1.97 English. (0.89)
D
3.41 (0.71) 2.48 (0.51)
A
1
It is impossible for me to change my value system and 2.50 lifestyle after learning a language. (0.84)
A
Total
2
3.38 (0.08)
3.21 (0.46)
3
No matter which language is used for expression, I remain myself.
Zero
4 Total
3.3
Based on the data in Table 5, only in item 1 I study English because it is a required subject for my program do teachers and students significantly differ in their level of perception. As indicated by the t-test results, both groups slightly agree on all other items.
Giovanna V. Fontanilla
4
3
2
1
I learn English in order to facilitate the learning of other academic subjects. 1.917
-.191
Learning English is important for me because English is very .190 useful in contemporary society.
An important purpose for my English language learning is to -.119 obtain a University degree.
My purpose in learning English is to obtain a high grade in 1.053 the subject.
I study English because it is a required subject for my program. 2.775
.476
.058
.849
.850
.906
.295
.006**
p-value
.062
-.173
.035
.003
-.022
-.093
-.244**
r-value
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
6
5
4
3
2
1
Studying English is important because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people.
Studying English is important because it will allow me to be more at ease with people.
2.272
I look forward to going to class because my English teacher -.018 is so good.
Learning English can give me a sense of achievement.
1.108
.253
My effort in studying English depends on whether I like my .396 classmates or not.
My effort in studying English depends on the quality of the 1.757 English textbook.
I study English because my parents expect me to be fluent in 2.084 the language.
.491
.027*
.270
.025*
.986
.801
.693
.086
.044*
p-value
-.118
-.217*
-.048
-.184
-.108
-.207*
.001
-.055
-.013
-.121
-.170
r-value
t-test
7
I enjoy the activities of our English class much more than 2.297 those of my other classes.
.001**
-.141
Statement
8
Studying English is important because I will be able to interact .691 more easily with speakers of English.
.054
-.124
15
_________________________________________________________________________________
14
5 Only with good English skills can I find a job in the future. -.715
.098
9
Studying English is important because other people will 3.444 respect me more if I know English.
.068
_________________________________________________________________________________
6 I learn English so as to catch up with economic and technological developments in the world.
.298
.115
10
I experience satisfaction from knowing more on how to apply 1.971 skills in English.
.063
Table 6 Agreement of the students and the teachers as to the integrative type of English language learning motivation of English majors
7
I learn English in order to find better education and job -1.047 opportunities abroad.
.256
-.165
11
1.904
I feel good in being able to articulate difficult ideas in English. 1.872
* - significant at p< 0.05
**- significant at p< 0.01
.199
.004**
p-value
.140
.273**
r-value
Table 7 Agreement of the students and the teachers as to the attitude of English majors toward English language learning
The results in Table 7 indicate that the students’ and the teachers’ responses differ significantly in item 1 My motivation to learn English in order to communicate with English speaking people is:, item 4, My desire to learn English is:, item 5 My attitude toward learning English is: The findings show that there is a slight positive correlation for these items.
Note:
Total
12
Table 5 Agreement of the students and the teachers as to the instrumental type of English language learning motivation of English majors
8
I learn English so I can go abroad to experience English -1.159 speaking culture.
.075
t-test
9
Fluent oral English is a symbol of good education and 1.800 accomplishment.
.014
Statement
10
.799
-.099
-.051
Acquiring good English skills is a stepping stone to one’s .255 success in life.
.295
11
1.051
.562
12
* - significant at p< 0.05 **- significant at p< 0.01
Studying English is important because it will be useful in .582 getting a good job.
Total Note:
Table 6 shows that there is significant agreement for items 6 Studying English is important because it will allow me to be more at ease with people, and 10 Studying English is important because other people will respect me more if I know English. The teachers and the students slightly differ with their responses in other items. In general, they agree on the items under the integrative type of motivation. The two-way ANOVA test shows that the responses of the students and their teachers’ perceptions as to the students’ responses do not differ regarding learning English both as integrative and instrumental motivation as indicated by p>0.05. This may prove that both the teachers and the students agree that learning English is both integrative and instrumental.
t-test
My motivation to learn English in order to communicate with -2.946 English speaking people is:
Statement 1
My attitude toward English speaking people is:
-1.292
2
Giovanna V. Fontanilla
My desire to learn English is:
My parents encourage me to learn English.
-1.991
-2.125
-2.684
.340
t-test
.082
.927
.049*
.036*
.013*
.735
p-value
.155
.152
.060
.170
.194*
.287**
-.008
r-value
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
-1.651
Filipino is becoming less idiomatic such as making a sound like -.927 /s/, /sh/, /th/ in Filipino words unconsciously.
.219
.643
.388
.187
.632
.102
.356
.508
.319
p-value
.069
.115
.059
.098
.150
.072
.155
.099
.032*
.082
r-value
3
4
After learning English, I feel repugnant about some Filipino
conventions. I think that Filipinos can hold the hand of a man or -1.001
woman openly anywhere.
After learning English, I have begun to reject some traditional Filipino ideas such as kissing the hands of the elders. However, -.664
I think that I can do it in my own way.
With the improvement of my English proficiency, I feel my
Additive
when watching Filipino movies.
I am relatively confident when speaking in English and relatively
modest when speaking in Filipino.
Productive
-.866
I prefer to listen to the original English dialogue when watching English movies, just as I enjoy the original Filipino dialogues -1.327
between Filipino and English according to the situation.
While I am talking to my Filipino friends and my English teacher participates in our conversation, I can easily switch -.480
Total
1
2
3
Total
Total
4
t-test
-1.237
I can accept someone’s suggestion or comment without feeling -.464 offended.
.366
.238*
Subtractive
After learning English, I have become more understanding and communicative with others of various cultures and languages -.907 not only Filipino or English but also other languages.
.017*
-.010*
Statement
1
With the improvement of my English proficiency, I can appreciate better the subtleties in Filipino. For example when -2.522 I study European or American history, I am more proud of Philippine history.
.813
.066
2
2
After learning English, I find myself more sensitive to changes in the outside world. For example, when I read or know .237 English news about global warming, I feel more aware of the preservation of the environment.
.515
.105
17
_________________________________________________________________________________
16
3
My attitude toward learning English is:
.091
3
.225
_________________________________________________________________________________
4
My motivation to learn English for practical purposes (e.g., to -.091 get a good job) is:
My attitude toward my English teacher is:
-1.757
4
-1.220
Table 8 continued…
5
-1.705
r-value
.151
As my ability in appreciating English language and literature increases, I have become more interested in Filipino literature -.653 and arts.
Table 7 continued…
6
My attitude toward my English course is:
Statement
7
My motivation to learn English is:
.188*
.115 .020*
.197
-2.365
-1.311
8
them.
My friends encourage me to learn English so I can interact with
9 10 Total Note:
* - significant at p< 0.05 **- significant at p< 0.01
Table 8 shows that the students and the teachers agree on the level of ratings for the self-identity changes. The interview findings and the teachers’ responses to the guide questions revealed that both the teachers and the students strongly agree that there is a relationship between the English majors’ motivation to learn and their self-identity changes. Some teachers mentioned that the students have managed to improve their communicative skills in English as a result of possessing the motivation to learn, and this has led them to build their self-confidence and self-esteem. The students also identified higher selfesteem, confidence, and high regard for people and their cultures as self-identity changes they acquired. These positive changes resulted from their motivation to learn English and from the competence they developed through learning the English language. One student mentioned: Learning English really boosts my confidence because in our society now, if you know how to speak in English well, not only fluently but also accurately, others will respect you. Another student said: I became more confident because we have the thinking wherein when other people see you speaking another language (English) than your native language, you are somehow a learned person, or somewhat superior. According to one interviewee, English language gave me a sort of higher self-esteem. Another shared his idea: I am more comfortable to express myself in English.
.162
p-value
Table 8 Agreement of the students and the teachers as to the self-identity changes of English majors t-test
westernized. For example, I say “Thank you or Thanks” instead of -1.407 “Salamat” when a friend does a favor for me.
After learning English, I feel my behavior has become somewhat
Subtractive
Statement
1
Giovanna V. Fontanilla
1.156
t-test
.054
.250
p-value
-.226*
-.166
r-value
3 4
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
Whenever I have overcome a difficulty in English learning, I
realize my own growth.
* - significant at p< 0.05 **- significant at p< 0.01
-2.471
-1.159
I can be in a place or situation which allows me to .259 communicate with other people with ease and grace. Total Note:
.015*
-.034
.267**
19
_________________________________________________________________________________
18
1.948
r-value
.796
_________________________________________________________________________________
For me, it is meaningless to talk about personal changes after learning English.
.008*
p-value
.001*
.107
Table 8 continued…
1 I have not felt any change in myself after learning English. .801 .008*
.873
-.031*
-.016*
As a whole, the results show that Filipino college students majoring in English from this cohort of participants and their English teachers seem to agree on the same level with regard to the types of motivation for English language learning and the levels of self-identity changes. The study found that both the students and the teachers seem to agree that learning the English language stems from both instrumental and integrative motivation. The present batch of students, also called the millennials and generation Z, are characterized to be highly sociable and communicative, for they value interacting with others. Raines (2002) identifies the communication preferences of the millennials as positive, motivational, and goal-focused, among others. Jonas-Dwyer and Pospisil (2004) further propose that these millennials should be provided with an academic environment that encourages teamwork and integrates essential opportunities for social interaction. In this context, the integrative type of motivation in learning English is the moving force that may enable them to be competent in communicating with others. A study by Schmidt and Watanabe (2001) related to the combinations of factors (intrinsic/integrative/instrumental orientations, expectations, anxiety, perceived language aptitude, and the like) that define “motivation” for a university population with many heritage learners (including Filipinos) revealed that students, in general, are highly motivated and possess high social motivation. These learners, especially the Filipinos, strongly agree that they value their teacher’s opinions about them and the camaraderie they build with other students. Based on the aforementioned findings, it can be inferred that the two types of motivation among the student respondents are equally important. As discussed earlier in the paper and supported by Schmidt, Boraie, and Kassabgy (1996, as cited in Lucas, 2010), instrumental and integrative motivation are apparently not a dichotomy. One of the nonlinguistic outcomes of language learning is self-identity change. The results of this study, which show that self-confidence ranks first among the list of self-identity changes, is consistent with the research findings of Gao et al. (2007), Dai (2009), and Teer (2013). However, in Dai’s (2009) and Gao et al.’s (2007) studies, the second in rank among the self-identity changes was zero change, while in the present study and that of Teer (2013), productive change is next to self-confidence. This may imply that for the respondents in the studies of Dai (2009) and Gao et al. (2007), learning the English language is primarily instrumental in character; thus, no change was observed. However, in this present study and that of Teer (2013), both languages (i.e., L1 and L2) complement each other. It can be postulated that English as a second language enables Filipinos to use English for interaction and socialization purposes and, at the same time, for other functions that will affect their profession and future lives. Pascasio (2005) presented a finding of her earlier study, which
.249
Table 8 continued…
2 It is impossible for me to change my value system and lifestyle -.253 after learning a language. .858
-.167
Statement
3
.170
Zero
4 1.381
No matter which language is used for expression, I remain .179 myself.
Total
Aside from the responses to the interview that are mostly on self-confidence, some answers dealt with the other types of self-identity changes. One student expressed his insights about productive change: I am so happy because I already have the balance of learning English and, at the same time, enhancing my Filipino. English language is a tool for me to strengthen my identity as a Filipino and my knowledge also of Philippine Literature. For me, it is good to learn the language and their [sic] cultures [sic] but not totally forget the culture and the language that I belong [sic].
I feel a painful split when I switch between English and Filipino behavioral patterns such as when meeting my Filipino teacher, I nod my head as a gesture of acknowledging -.160 her but when I meet my teacher in English, I greet her “ Hello, Ma’am!”
.972
-.016*
Table 8 continued…
1
After learning English, I am caught between contradicting values and beliefs. For example, Filipino children should -.035 not argue with their parents; on the other hand, a child with western values can do it if he/she feels the need for it.
.972
.162 -.784
.900
t-test
2
When parting with friends, I am frequently confused whether .036 to shake hands or hug and kiss.
.139
.055 .126
Split
3
.435
Statement
4
I feel strange when my speech in Filipino is mixed with English words. For example, I usually say okay integrated in -1.490 my Filipino sentence.
I can express my opinion in public easily and confidently.
.137
Total 1
.233
Self-confidence
2
I feel great when I speak in English with foreigners -1.200 confidently and comfortably.
Giovanna V. Fontanilla
English language learning motivation and self-identity changes...
21
_________________________________________________________________________________
20
_________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion
indicated that Filipino bilinguals use English in school when interacting with people of higher status and when discussing formal topics; they use Filipino, on the other hand, when interacting with family members at home and with friends in the community. In the Philippine setting, Bernardo (2005) wrote that language discourse amidst globalization has emphasized the growing importance of English as the global lingua franca. This significant role of English may be the kind of influence that motivated the student respondents to rate their desire to learn English as seemingly very strong and their attitude toward learning English as somewhat very favorable. The present study further emphasizes that English has maintained its stature as the more preferred language of the Filipino students, that they have strong positive attitude toward it, that they are motivated to learn it for both instrumental and integrative purposes, and that through it, they experience self-identity changes, particularly self-confidence and productive change. 4.
Bernardo, A.B.I. (2005). Bilingual code-switching as a resource for learning and teaching: Alternative reflections on the language and education issue in the Philippines. In D.T. Dayag, & J.S. Quakenbush (Eds.), Linguistics and language education in the Philippines and beyond: A Festschrift in honor of Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista (pp. 151169). Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines. Dai, M.H. (2009). Relationships between language learning motivation, language proficiency and self-identity changes in EFL learning contexts. Journal of Applied English, 2, 121-137. De Guzman, A. (2005). The impact of globalization on teacher education. Philippine Perspective, Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 4, 65-82. Dornyei, Z. (1990). Motivation and motivating in the foreign classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 273-284. Dornyei, Z., & Otto, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation. Working Papers in Applied Linguistics, Thames Valley University, London, 4, 4369. Gao, Y., Cheng, Y., Zhao, Y., & Zhou, Y. (2007). Relationship between English learning motivation types and self-identity changes among Chinese students. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 133-155. Gardner, R.C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London, GB: Edward Arnold. Gardner, R.C. (2007). Motivation and second language acquisition. Portia Linguarum 8. Junio 9-20.
References
composed of both the language learning motivation and the language classroom motivation. Further, the focus of the educative process related to learning the English language should not only be on the linguistic but also on the nonlinguistic outcomes (Gao et al., 2007). One of the nonlinguistic outcomes found in the present study is self-confidence, which is a necessary trait in a globalizing world. The nonlinguistic results of English language learning complement significantly the linguistic outcomes of learning the English language. Linguistic outcomes, which seem to be more on the cognitive level, provide for the development of one’s proficiency in language use; while the nonlinguistic aspects, which relate more to attitudes and values, affectively assist in the use of the language to communicate in a sociocultural context. Future research can conduct a comparative study by exploring the English language learning motivation of Filipino English and non-English majors. Such an investigation can incorporate the students’ level of language proficiency and its effect on self-identity changes. Likewise, an evaluation of the concept of motivation in the context of the changing notions of self and identity among the students and their teachers may be conducted. The outcome of such a research work will generate theories that can help guide Filipino teachers of English toward a critical yet encouraging atmosphere for the teaching and learning of the English language.
Operating in a milieu of changes and challenges brought about by the forces of the global market, the Philippine educational system has pledged itself to the imperatives of globalization. According to De Guzman (2005), “The road to a globalized teacher education program in the country calls for a close examination of the individual and collective insights of those players who shape and reshape the direction by which the program is moving” (p. 66). The findings of the study can contribute to the thrust of the Philippine educational system, particularly in English language teaching. Understanding the learners is a crucial step to an excellent and responsive English language education. The results of the study reveal that there is no dichotomy between the integrative and the instrumental types of English language learning motivation among the Filipino college students majoring in English and that their English language teachers’ perception concurs with them. The student respondents and their English teachers also agree that self-confidence tops the list of self-identity changes, which students experience as a nonlinguistic outcome in learning the English language. Pama (2012) explains that the Philippines, which has a considerable number of English-speaking people, can have the competitive edge in the ASEAN 2015 integration because English is one of the media of instruction in Philippine schools, colleges, and universities. He adds that in a global perspective, English remains to be the lingua franca. Thus, in the era of globalization, the ability to communicate in English is an indispensable competency largely integrated in the international community. Pedagogical implications arise from the study. Gardner (2010) expands the notion of motivation in his socio-educational model and states that “in the area of L2 learning, we can distinguish between two aspects of motivation, language learning motivation and language classroom motivation” (p. 9). The former pertains to the students’ reasons and inspiring motives to learn the language; particularly in the present study, this refers to instrumental and integrative types of motivation. Language classroom motivation, on the other hand, refers to the learning environment, learning materials, teachers, and other factors that contribute to the dynamics of teaching and learning. Even if motivation comes from the learners, it seems imperative for the teachers to sustain and strengthen the students’ motivation, which can lead to positive changes such as self-confidence. Thus, the motivation construct should be
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Gardner, R.C. (2010). Motivation and second language acquisition: The socio-educational model. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Gardner, R.C., & Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley: MA: Newbury House. Jonas-Dwyer, D., & Pospisil, R. (2004). The millennial effect: Implications for academic development. In F. Sheehy, & B. Stauble (Eds.), Transforming knowledge into wisdom: Holistic approaches to teaching and learning (pp. 194-205). Milperra, NSW: HERDSA. Khodadady, E., & Ashrafborji, M. (2013). Motivations underlying English language learning and achievement. Sage Open, 3, 1-8. Legault, L., Green-Demers, I., & Pelletier, L. (2006). Why do high school students lack motivation in the classroom? Toward an understanding of academic amotivation and the role of social support. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 567-582. Liu, M. (2012). Motivation in Chinese university EFL learners in varying learning contexts. TESL Reporter, 45, 17-39. Lucas, R.I. et al. (2010) A study on the intrinsic motivation factors in second language learning among selected freshman students. Philippine ESL Journal, 4, 3-23. Mori, S., (2002). Redefining motivation to read in a foreign language. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14, 92-110. Noels, K.A., Clement, R., & Pelletier, L.G. (1999). Perception of teachers’ communicative style and students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The Modern Language Journal, 83(1), 23-34. Pama, R. (2012). The role of education in the pursuit of globalization and internationalization. Paper presented in a Seminar on Leveling Up to ASEAN 2015 Building Linkages and Securing Grants. Pascasio, E. (2005). The Filipino bilingual: Current issues in Philippine Linguistics. In L. Hsiu-Chuan, & C.R. Galvez Rubino (Eds.) Current issues in Philippine linguistics and Parangal kay Lawrence Reid (pp.136-145). Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines and Summer Institute of Linguistics. Raines, C. (2002). Managing millenials. Connecting generations: A sourcebook for a new workplace. Berkeley, CA: Crisp Publications, Inc. Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 6878. doi: 10.1037110003-066X.55.1.68 Schmidt, R., & Watanabe, Y. (2001). Motivation, strategy use, and pedagogical preferences in foreign language learning. In Z. Dörnyei, & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 313-359). Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center. Teer, S. (2013). An Investigation of the English Learning Motivation Types and Self-Identity Changes among Thai English Major Students (Unpublished master’s thesis). Payap University, Thailand. Vandergrift, L. (2005). Relationships among motivation orientations, metacognitive awareness and proficiency in L2 listening. Applied Linguistics, 26(1), 70-89. doi: 10.1093/applin/amh039
1.
Semantic deviation in Marge Piercy’s “The Secretary Chant”
Ilyn R. Faminial Notre Dame of Dadiangas University, General Santos, The Philippines
[email protected]
Abstract
Poetry, semantic deviation, stylistics
The study deals with semantic deviation in examining the poetic language featured in the text “The Secretary Chant” by Marge Piercy. By specifically focusing on the analysis of deviating features such as metaphors, the analysis hopes to interpret the meaning of the poem. Informed by Leech’s (1969) classification of tropes, semantic relations are marked through the evaluation of lexical features. As suggested by MacIntyre’s (2002) procedure of examination, the text reveals the poet’s use of figurative devices to create a vivid picture of the persona’s melancholic state. The occurrence of heavy metaphors suggests a strong use of semantic deviation. This is determined by the identification of irregularities in lexical choice to unmask the text’s sense. In addition, the poet’s graphological organization of the poem’s structure reinforces the resolution of the theme. Pedagogically, this study promotes critical poetry reading by encouraging creative and responsive skills. Keywords:
Introduction
Reading poetry is quite an intimidating mind exercise. Considering that a reader is often bombarded with so many terms that make him or her feel a stranger, poetry reading puts one in a situation where he or she needs to give himself or herself a push to experience the pleasure of the poet’s world. Initially, before a reader can have a sense of what the text means and determine where it is going, he or she needs to stumble once or twice. However, becoming sensitive to the poet’s choice and arrangement of words or being aware of the poem’s structure can be a good starting point. In responsive reading, one can begin by anticipating the different strategies the poet might have employed in the poem. Eventually, answers can later be generated through further examination of words, descriptions, and form. Meyer (2002) opines that appreciating poetry is appreciating language. In actuality, human experiences are usually presented through language. Being regarded as a significant part of man’s existence, life instances enhance any person’s ability to sense the magic of words. Although poetry demands more skills in understanding, it often captures the interest of those who enjoy the play of words. The language of poetry is distinct from other literary genres. The linguistic peculiarities prominent in poetry produce special effects on the meaning it offers the readers. Poetic language likewise supports what Leech (1969) termed as deviations. When a writer wants to put a strong impression on the reader’s mind, he has to break rules of language to form irregularities – something distinct to what is normally practiced in everyday living. By so doing, creativity ascends and curiosity sparks. Deviation makes a part of a poem more
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2. Focus of Analysis
Method
visible as it creates a psychological effect on the readers (Short, 1969). According to Cook (1989), nonconformity to norms result in the irregularity of the structure, which allows readers to notice variability as to what they are used to see. In effect, people’s curiosity is stimulated. This then leads them to finding the message concealed in the distinct use of language. The writer’s conscious violation of rules, as Crystal (2003) explains, gives the readers the chance to fill the gap. Similarly, Trougott and Pratt (1980) point out that deviating means departing from the linguistic norms, and the distinctiveness it brings to the language impacts on the readers’ way of understanding its meaning. Evidently, deviation highlights the significant part of what the poet intends to foreground, which significantly directs the readers to ascertain the message it tries to convey by relating it to the linguistic features present. Leech (1989) presents various aspects of poetic discourse. To illuminate both the creative and mechanical use of language in poetry, he discusses eight types of deviation: lexical, grammatical, phonological, graphological, morphographical, semantic, dialectical, and register. The present study specifically deals with semantic deviation found to be relevant in understanding the poem’s meaning. Semantic deviation here is comprehended in metaphorical sense. As Leech mentions, all poems have irrational elements. Irregularities are viewed to be normal in the poetic context. Metaphors, for instance, in terms of transference of meaning, are one of the types of figurative language that bring mental variability. As what Leech called as tropes, they create irregularities of content by representing differently the truth. To further elucidate, poems employ words that need careful analysis of meanings, just like strange collocations that have effects on style, thereby, bringing figurative meanings. The stylistic advantage of using metaphors is that it enhances readers’ understanding of the poet’s message by drawing the words nearer to disclose the meaning. Semantic deviation, as Short (1996) defines, is a logical inconsistency of meaning relations and “metaphors are aid to fit into this characterization” (p. 43).
2.1
The study aims to examine the irregularities of the poetic language (Leech, 1989) present in the poem “The Secretary Chant” by specifically focusing on semantic deviation. The term “irregularities of content” used by Leech (1969) refers to the features of the text that break the established rules at any linguistic level in which “semantic deviation” is reasonably translated mentally into “nonsense” or “absurdity” to force the reader to think beyond the literal-minded way (p. 48). The conscious or unconscious strategy of poets in featuring oddity is viewed as highly expressive. Examining the peculiarities in the poem is helpful in inferring the meaning through understanding the purpose of deviation. Short (1997) cautiously reminds that language helps unlock the meaning of any text; therefore, for intuitions to be reasonable, the analysis of deviating features should be carefully undertaken. This paper considers the noticeable occurrence of metaphors in the poem. As the study tries to examine the said dominant linguistic features, it offers an analysis that may facilitate the transference of meaning to the readers. To objectively interpret the text’s intent, recognizable features are examined, particularly on the use of metaphors based on the framework employed for the analysis.
Semantic deviation in Marge Piercy’s “The Secretary Chant”
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Text
Informed by Leech’s (1969) classification of tropes (i.e., foregrounding and irregularities of content), this paper considers metaphors as one of the types of figurative language used for the creation of meaning. Decoding the message embedded in the poem through metaphors means finding clues from the text that reveal the message. Furthermore, the interplay of lexical features through semantic relations is considered in the analysis. The paper offers a clearer understanding of the poem’s meaning by examining its lexical features as the primary components of the piece. The language used as the most visible element is highlighted for the disclosure of the poem’s message. To account for the interpretive effects of the text, the paper attempts to study the literary text’s linguistic details as suggested by MacIntyre’s (2002) procedure of examination. Through this, the study provides the answer to the question: What irregularities are demonstrated in the poem in terms of semantic deviation? 2.2
“The Secretary Chant” by Marge Piercy was written in 1973. It talks about a woman who seems tired and unhappy of her job. Her narration of her desk duties while in her working zone – the office – details her day-to-day routine. The poem is meaningful, for it was written right at the beginning of the feminist movement. Thus, the message it brings to readers suggests the need to empower the seemingly weaker sex, women. Additionally, the researcher’s observation of the distinctiveness of the language used in the poem prompted the interest in determining the purpose of heavy employment of a linguistic feature, i.e., semantic deviation, prevalent in the literary piece. Such an experiential reason drove the researcher to consider the text under study.
My hips are a desk, From my ears hang chains of paper clips. Rubber bands form my hair. My breasts are quills of mimeograph ink. My feet bear casters, Buzz. Click. My head is a badly organized file. My head is a switchboard where crossed lines crackle. Press my fingers and in my eyes appear credit and debit. Zing. Tinkle. My navel is a reject button. From my mouth issue canceled reams. Swollen, heavy, rectangular
The Secretary Chant (1973) Marge Piercy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
26 Ilyn R. Faminial
I am about to be delivered of a baby Xerox machine. File me under W because I wonce was a woman.
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19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Results and Discussion
(Note: The lines are marked with numbers for easy reference in the analysis.) 3.
Animate (Human) hips ears hair breasts feet head fingers eyes navel mouth baby woman
The procedure in analyzing the text under study is informed by MacIntyre’s (2002) Doing Stylistics. As cited in the method of analysis in the said work, the types of words consisting the text may give rise to the understanding of the message. By simply looking at how it is worded, the poem seems to consist mainly of words associated to animate and inanimate things. These words are classified as nouns belonging to two semantic fields, which account for things/objects and humans. The examination involves the assessment of lexical items from the two said categories, which may explain the connection between the word classes. The initial examination leads to possible categories in which these nouns may fall. These nouns are listed in Table 1. Table 1 Semantic fields of nouns in the text Inanimate (Objects) desk chains of paper clips rubber bands quills of mimeograph ink casters delivered file switchboard crossed lines credit debit reject buttons canceled reams Xerox machine
Table 1 shows the classification of nouns based on two dominant lexical groups. As listed, the words pertain to inanimate objects and animate words used to associate specifically to office things and human body parts. The use of feminine attributes, such as hips, hair, breasts, navel, baby, and the like, are descriptions that help identify the gender of the persona even without the explicit mention of “woman” in the last line (25). The use of true linking verbs (is and are) to connect the two semantic fields can be perceived as a means of creating
Semantic deviation in Marge Piercy’s “The Secretary Chant”
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a connection between the semantic classes as they give additional information about the subject, which happen to be the animated lexical items. Noticeably, these two groups in the poem tend to establish a point of transformation where the persona is visualized to have changed completely into something mechanical. For instance in these pairings, hips-desk, hair-rubber bands, breasts-quills of mimeograph ink, head-switchboard, navel-reject button, the comparison tends to almost show literally the woman’s lost of her self as she becomes inseparable and unrecognizable from her work’s environment. “My hips are a desk” does not merely say that they look like desk but “they have become desk.” The hair does not only feel like rubber bands but “they sort of form the hair of the woman.” It appears that the lifeless objects try to overpower the human attributes by converting the secretary’s body into pieces of office equipment and supplies as all the body parts are replaced by the inanimates. This, therefore, creates an idea of a struggling woman who tries to fight for her identity as a human being as the force from her work environment seems to take over her real identity. The feeling of being dehumanized because of her office functions is shown by the way the animate and inanimate items are equated. Moreover, the pairing of nouns from the two semantic fields leaves an impression of the reduction of human attributes to give way to the dehumanization of the persona. In addition to the nouns, the presence of finite verbs contribute to the understanding of a serious situation going on because of the movements they signify. The use of the present tense (e.g., hang, form, bear, press) in most of the lines in the poem signals the existing actions that happen to the woman. It further establishes the continuity of her transformation. The present simple tense likewise indicates the ongoing struggle of the persona, which may call for urgency as she is almost reduced to being an office stuff. As what MacIntyre (2002) observes in E.E. Cummings’ poem, the dynamism indicated by the use of present verbs means immediacy in action. This may explain then the fate of the woman at the end of the poem as she finally became a dehumanized secretary, for no one took notice of her supplication. These impressions based on the linguistic elements present in the poem accentuate what the text wants to convey. By taking the classification of nouns in Table 1, there seems a clear comparison between life and lifeless. The equivalence of words enumerated in the first column that pertain to office materials and equipment and the words in the second column that refer to human features implies an understanding of inevitable consequences of overworking. The use of humor through the lexical choices is clear enough to create a kind of mood that the author wants the readers to feel. “The Secretary Chant” is heavily loaded with metaphors. Of the 25 lines, only 6 lines bear no metaphor. This means that 76% of the poem’s content is metaphorically written. Semantically speaking, there is almost a total distort in meaning as the deviation from the usual understanding of meaning is strong. Conversely, the heavy use of metaphors discloses vividly the underlying thought. A poet’s conscious or unconscious employment of metaphor as a figurative device brings stronger impact on the reader’s understanding (Nofal, 2011). The poet’s preference for the use of metaphor over simile may suggest that the persona being portrayed is not just comparable to objects but is totally losing her personal identity since metaphors have stronger effects on meaning. Sharma (2009) states that drawing analogy without pointing out similarity by using “like,” “as,” and “than” suggests keen perception of the structure. The meaning is then conceived by putting a kind of experience into another. The poet’s choice of not using the markers of similarity indicates that there is a strong comparison of the two groups of nouns in the poem that the language itself can demonstrate.
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My breasts are quills of mimeograph ink. My feet bear casters,
A metaphor, as defined by Nofal (2011) in his examination of the syntactic aspect of poetry, is a device used to compare two objects. As of Leech’s (1969) classification, it is a figure of speech used in the transference of meaning; and as one of the tropes, he refers to it as an irregularity in poetry that deviates from the conventions of meaning. To further establish the initial observation, the words desk, chains of paper clips, rubber bands, quills of mimeograph ink, casters, and the like in Table 1 show a literal picture of an office where these are commonly used as materials for a desk duty. On the other hand, the words hips, ears, breasts, hair, feet, head, fingers, eyes, and the like are body parts of a human being that are feminine qualities by association. Thus, the mention of both office materials and human attributes brings the readers to thinking that these groups of words are equated. This contributes to what the text is communicating to its readers. The tendency of the inanimate objects overruling the human qualities may suggest the idea of dehumanization. The series of metaphors significantly evokes the transformation of a woman into something mechanical. The increasing number of metaphors as the poem progresses tells the helplessness of the woman as she can no longer stop the process of her transformation. The initial line alone opens with a metaphor, “My hips are a desk.” Conventions will definitely question the idea of hips as a desk, as desk can never replace a woman’s hips. In fact, this line may cause embarrassment to women. Lines 2 and 3 present another metaphor, i.e., chains of paper clips, which introduces a deviation from a common understanding that what should be placed are “earrings” not “paper clips.” This seems ridiculously humiliating, for women adorn themselves to feel good and not to look funny. Line 4 (Rubber bands form my hair.) is perhaps grammatically correct but semantically problematic considering that what form a woman’s hair are rubber bands. Additionally, the subject position of the“rubber bands” in line 4 assumes control over the word “hair” used to associate to humans. This prompts the idea of power and dominance. 5 6 7
My head is a badly organized file. My head is a switchboard
Lines 5-7 compare breasts with mimeograph ink and feet with casters. What readers would commonly expect to come out from a woman’s breast is milk, not ink. Line 7 states, “My feet bear casters.” Roller skates are for mobility, but no way it can become the feet. The comparisons shown in lines 1-7 signify a strange semantic relation that visualizes a woman who begins to turn into a lifeless being. Semantic deviation continues in lines 9-10 with separate descriptions of head as a badly organized file and a switchboard where crossed line crackle. 9 10
In a literal sense, file and switchboard are terms used to refer to a clerical job. It is unlikely to see these objects become the human head. If comprehended in a metaphorical sense though, this suggests a blending of an object and a human being that creates another form. This then conceives a sense that the persona is slowly replaced with office materials, making her look like her surroundings.
Semantic deviation in Marge Piercy’s “The Secretary Chant”
and in my eyes appear credit and debit. My navel is a reject button. From my mouth issue canceled reams. I am about to be delivered of a baby Xerox machine.
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13 14 16 17 19 20 21
My hips are a desk, My breasts are quills of mimeograph ink. My feet bear casters, My head is a badly organized file. My head is a switchboard and in my eyes appear credit and debit. My navel is a reject button. From my mouth issue canceled reams.
Lines 13 and 14 contain the phrase, “and in my eyes appear credit and debit.” In real sense, what one sees in a man’s eyes are the internal parts that composed the optical system. Analogically though, a reader can see the persona changing herself into something she usually does, like the sheets of paper she often sees. Lines 16 and 17, navel as a reject button, mouth as canceled reams, are another metaphorical expressions, which are irreconcilable in reality. It is certainly not a button that functions only when pressed. The idea forwarded here signifies an image of a mechanical thing as human-dependent. The sentence in lines 19-21, Xerox machine as baby, is absolutely unbelievable. Child birth is such a delicate process. Giving birth to a Xerox machine will make it more difficult. This is totally odd as readers cannot equate a baby with a Xerox machine. Clearly, the use of metaphors in the poem seems to show equality in terms of existence. The effect of providing lifeless counterparts for a human body creates a meaning of a change in form and appearance of the persona. The lines containing semantic deviations lead readers to infer a metaphorical meaning by connecting oddities and normal expressions. Through this, the meaning becomes clearer and recognizable. Such observations are supplemented in the sequence of metaphors used in particular lines in the poem. Lines 1, 5-6, 7, 9, 10, 13-14, 16, and 17 shown below are grammatically framed, but because of incongruent terms in which the headwords pertain to human qualities and contrasted with predicators pertaining to office supplies, the sentences’ status shows semantic deviation, for naturally, the words associated should complement each other to create a holistic meaning. Moreover, the position of the metaphors can become a point of consideration as the human attributes function as subjects, while office supplies are positioned as predicates but function as complements. This would mean that human characterisctics and inanimates bear significance in the sentences and that the meanings they intend to convey to the readers are also shared by the metaphors. The literal transference of meaning leads to semantic deviation, but its transformation in the figurative plane determines what the poem attempts to communicate (Leech, 1969). 1 5 6 7 9 10 13 14 16 17
Ilyn R. Faminial
Semantic deviation in Marge Piercy’s “The Secretary Chant”
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resembling her job. This can be further supported by the placement of words that may signal the completion of the process of transformation. A closer look at the occurrence of the words buzz, click and zing, tinkle in lines 8 and 15, respectively, gives an impression that they are situated subsequently in every stage of transformation. These onomatopeic words preceded the lines 1-7 where the persona begins to turn into a desk, chains of paper clips, mimeograph ink, and casters. In a similar sequence, lines 9-14, which indicate the ongoing changes in the woman’s body such as badly organized file, switchboard, and credit and debit, is followed by the words zing and tinkle in line 15. The implied meaning in this linear division may pertain to the helplessness of the persona’s case of being overtaken by her duties as an office employee. The last four lines of the poem may provide an additional explanation to the aforementioned interpretation as regards the persona’s melancholic and depressing state of being dehumanized.
File me under W because I wonce was a woman.
Lines 22-25 form a complete sentence that runs over four lines. This seems to show that the poet suspends the idea by breaking the sentence into separate lines in order to emphasize the persona’s former identity. The phrase “a woman” that stands alone in the final line tends to draw attention from the readers in seeing her worth as a human being, which was lost because of her unrewarding job. The use of “a” as an indefinite reference presents a strong message of becoming uncertain of her individuality. As the sentence runs over the lines, it seems to create a depiction of death as it sounds like the woman is finally broken down into pieces of office equipment. The slow progression of the event in the last part as shown in the fragmented statement implies the persona’s unfortunate destiny. Lastly, the misspelling of the word “wonce,” which should be spelled “once,” can be interpreted in two views. Interestingly, the misspelling relates a feeling of confusion and disinterest. As the character finally expresses her concession, her disorientation becomes more apparent in her failure to give attention to details. On the other hand, the use of the misspelled “wonce” might be intentionally considered to establish consistency in the effect of the “w” sound in the final four lines. Hence, the inclusion of “w” to “once” in line 23 is a deliberate move to sustain the initial “w” sound present in each of the last four lines: “W” in line 22, “w” in was in line 24, and “w” in woman in line 25. The irregularities of the linguistic features used in the poem “The Secretary Chant” are not so overwhelmingly different from other works of poetry such as those of E.E Cummings and T.S. Elliot. However, the examined irregularities are aesthetically employed to encourage a more responsive and critical reading of the text. The deviations the poet utilized by ‘breaking the rules’ of the conventional language brought more challenges and excitement to the readers who love to read beyond the lines.
22 23 24 25
To further explicate the aforementioned observations, parallelism in the sentence components was also analyzed. The headword is introduced with “My” and followed by a linking verb and complement. Parallel linguistic features are viewed to prompt interpretive links. For readers to see semantic associations, analogous words should go together. However, a linkage of incongruous terms will reveal the nonconformity of expressions, and this is where deviation surfaces. Metaphors are understood in the figurative plane, but in the literal sense, it is viewed as atypical, forwarding a message beyond what is usually called as acceptable. In this context, the poet uses a parallel arrangement of sentence components and, at the same time, a series of metaphors. Such a combination creates a conflict as suggested by the terms “parallel” and “deviation.” Meanwhile, to see the totality of metaphorical use, the following expressions are recounted: hips like a desk, rubber bands forming the hair, the separate descriptions for head as a badly organized file and a switchboard, navel as a reject button, and Xerox machine for baby. The weight they bring into the poem creates a noticeable impact, for it is regarded that dominance in stylistics informs interpretive significance. Another point of discussion is the presence of onomatopoeia in Lines 8 and 15 (i.e., buzz, click, zing, and tinkle), which can be metaphorical to pieces of office equipment. The quick sounds can mean a habit or routine that seems to sound pleasing than irritating. This may also suggest the poem’s message of presenting the woman who is turning into a robot. On the other hand, the repetitive use of the simple sentence structure and the use of the pronoun “My” as the initial word in several sentences would indicate an interesting aspect of the poem’s meaning. Simple sentences by definition are used to express a single idea. The use of this structure seems to convey the idea that the persona simplifies her complicated situation. The emphasis on self as represented by “My” may mean her solitary state of struggle. The repetition of “My” may picture her work as a routine – producing the bursting effect of “My” that may sound like a melancholic complaint in a monotonous repetitive tone, therefore, sounding as irritating as noise. Additionally, the flat sound it produces because of its repetition creates a voice that appears mechanical. In addition to the above analysis, MacIntyre (2002) mentions that it is typical in poetry to break rules of convention. The unconventional form of paragraphing or line formation in poetry, for this matter, is a sort of a poet’s demonstration of independence (Leech & Short, 1981). The graphological organization of the poem, which includes the arrangement of words and phrases, creates a unique form that contributes to the totality in meaning. The poem “The Secretary Chant” has 25 lines organized in sentence form and marked with explicit deviation from punctuation use. With an open-form type of organization, lines are derived from words, phrases, and sentences. Meyer (2002) regards this type of stanzaic form as “formless,” for no strict and fixed form is employed. However, this type relies on an intense use of language to establish relations between meaning and form. By looking at how the linguistic items are structured in the poem, like most lines are constructed to form a complete sentence (e.g., 12 Press my fingers and in my eyes appear credit and debit, 17 From my mouth issue canceled reams), there seems to be an order that exists despite the difficulty in finding parallelism in the poem’s structure. The compliance with grammatical construction tends to strengthen the observation that indeed order is emphasized. It can be perceived then that the simple construction urges instantaneity of actions, which can be linked to the poem’s theme about the dehumanization of the persona who is in a serious situation. Yet, despite her prayer of being noticed, the persona unceasingly changes herself into an object
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Conclusion
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4. The importance of understanding the construction of any text is a good starting point in the objective interpretation of meanings, most especially in dealing with poetry that requires a careful analysis of its stylistic features. Such a description should not be based mainly on instinct or sensitivity. Instead, recognizing some deviations is helpful in determining the underlying thought the text conveys. The poem, “The Secretary Chant,” provides a good ground for literary interpretation, for its language shows explicit peculiarities. Through the prevalent use of metaphors and the poet’s wit and humor, readers can relate with the persona’s feelings. The choice of words totally captures the message the poet wants the readers to comprehend, making them visualize the real event in context. Semantic deviation reveals reality as it shows the lexical relations among the words in a poem. Differing and twisting the meanings of lexical pairs unshade the hidden meaning encoded in the text. Thus, a metaphor, as a figure of speech, is an expressive device that allows the visualization of a particular environment shared by both the poet and the reader (Nofal, 2011). Comparing what one reads in the text through personal experiences leads to a better appreciation of a literary text, but digging deeper into the text’s meaning through critical reading, such as stylistic analysis, can be a more rewarding experience. The physical presentation of the poem under study shows a minor style, not as superficial as those of E.E Cummings works. However, ignoring conventionality is not simply viewed as a style; instead, it proposes a message. The poem’s lines with no spaces in between may mean an unstoppable phenomenon as the persona shows submission to what she is expected to become anyway. The simple structure of sentences may also suggest simplicity, so the message can transfer automatically, for there is a struggle in the persona’s life that needs to be addressed right away as her transformation is becoming inevitable. Therefore, the examination of irregularities through the lens of semantic deviation makes the meaning of the poem more transparent. The metaphors suggest a figurative transfer of meaning that only skillful readers will appreciate. Generally, the poet’s intention of communicating the message of the poem is successful. In terms of pedagogical implications, the findings of this study may help assist language teachers in identifying appropriate strategies that can engage learners to become critical readers. Clearly, second to what literature offers, which is pleasure reading, such strategies can promote better appreciation of literary texts through linguistic descriptions. Literary interpretation through linguistic analysis provides the students with opportunities to become better readers and introduces them to a more fact-grounded activity as they begin to mature academically. Further, such a strategy in teaching literature encourages both the teachers and the students to explore more of their creative and critical-thinking skills. References Cook, G. (1989). Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crystal, D. (2003). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Leech, G. (1969). A linguistic guide to English poetry. London: Longman. Leech, G. (1989). A linguistic guide to English poetry. Hongkong: Longman.
Semantic deviation in Marge Piercy’s “The Secretary Chant”
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Leech, G., & Short, M. (1981). Style in fiction. A linguistic introduction to English fictional prose. London and New York: Longman. MacIntyre, D. (2002). Doing stylistics. An analysis of E.E. Cummings. Retrieved from www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/projects/stylistics/sa1/example.htm Meyer, M. (2002). The Bedford introduction to literature. USA: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Nofal, K.H. (2011). Syntactic aspects of poetry: A pragmatic perspective. International Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 2(16), 47-63. Sharma, R.S. (2009). Linguistic aspects of English poetry. New Delhi: Sarup Book Publishers. Short, M. (1969). Exploring the language of poems, plays and prose. United Kingdom: Pearson Education Ltd. Short, M. (1996). Exploring the language of poems, plays and prose. United Kingdom: Pearson Education Ltd. Short, M. (1997). Exploring the language of poems, plays and prose. London: Longman. Traugott, E., & Pratt, M.L. (1980). Linguistics for students of literature. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper opinion columns Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas University of Santo Tomas, Manila, The Philippines
[email protected] Abstract Recent studies on text organization have focused mostly on business documents, academic texts, and certain newspaper articles such as editorials and news stories. However, the organization of opinion articles found in university-level newspapers has not been formally investigated. Therefore, this study attempts to determine whether these articles are written in accordance to journalistic writing principles. A total of 45 opinion articles were taken and served as the study corpus. These articles were analyzed based on Ho’s (2001) framework, as supported by the principles of macrostructure and the features of editorials in journalistic writing. The findings indicate that the discourse structure of Philippine newspaper opinion articles employs the two-move pattern in the orientation, exposition, and summation blocks, where two frequently used specific steps are found in each block. The findings suggest that university students adhere to a prescribed journalistic text organization, although there is also a tendency to deviate from it. Furthermore, it is possible that their judicious choices in using a particular step may have been influenced by the writers’ objective of effectively communicating their opinion to a wide variety of readers.
Introduction
Written discourse, opinion articles, macrostructures, move analysis, campus journalism
1.
Argumentation and Opinion Columns
Keywords:
1.1
It is believed that argumentation actively occurs in all available avenues of expressing one’s thoughts (I. de Leon, personal communication, February 2, 2015). Freely and Steinberg (2000) define it as an act of reasoning in communication, where individuals explain and justify their actions, beliefs, and perceptions. In liberal and democratic societies such as the Philippines, argumentation is important because various societal groups, such as the government, create laws that affect every citizen (Duque, 2013). These policies are informed through argumentative discourse, where persons supporting or opposing a given policy are engaged in discussions that may improve a proposed law or abandon the bill and later propose a more favorable policy. While it is important in democratic nations, Myers (2004), believing that argumentation is a democratic activity in itself, stresses that people must be willing and responsible in expressing their propositions and claims. Hence, argumentation is an effective means of expressing sentiments, provided that these are supported by substantial
The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper...
35
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evidence (Miller, 1989). One of the ways in which argumentation may take place is through newspaper opinion columns, which, unlike lead editorials, are a reflection of the stand of an individual columnist and not of the entire editorial board (Cruz, 2003). Cruz (2010) cites different types of editorial columns based on their content, and among these include the opinion or signed editorial column, which “carries the personal stamp of the writer’s own ideas” (p. 116), although he also adds that its structure is akin to that of editorials. Hence, opinion columns are considerably similar to editorials of interpretation, argument, and criticism because the beliefs of individual writers are expressed through well-thought-out arguments (Ramirez, 1989). Therefore, these columns are indeed suitable avenues for exercising freedom of speech and contending for or against anything worthy of discussion, such as relevant events and current affairs (Malinao, 2008). However, columnists are expected to observe resourcefulness, fairness, truthfulness, and a good understanding of facts (Anker, 2005; Cruz, 2010) because these articles contend with different crucial topics that serve and reinforce the knowledge and beliefs of readers (Le, 2004). Indeed, argumentation is a socially relevant type of discourse, for it is chiefly used in different aspects and levels of society. In general, discourse satisfies communicative functions such as greeting, arguing, and requesting (Orillos, 2008); it is also a socially natural phenomenon, where individuals communicate meaning through discourse in activities of different situations (Blommaert, 2005). Hence, it follows that various types of discourse may tend to observe certain structures and contain features dependent on the purposes of the interlocutor (Malden, 2003). However, the organization of texts is also dependent on other factors such as social and cultural practices influencing acts of communication (Kelley & Tomic, 2001; Kramsch, 1998), exposure to any particular language (Magistro, 2007), and the manner of language instruction (Smith, 2005). The discourse organization of different texts has been the focus of various studies. Academic texts such as medical research articles (Li & Ge, 2009, Nwogu, 1997), crossdisciplinary empirical research articles (Lin & Evans, 2012), student-written persuasive essays (Crismore, Markannen, & Steffensen, 1993), textbooks (Hyland, 2000, 2005), philosophy research article introductions (Briones, 2012), and even argumentative speeches for debates (Duque, 2013) have been intensively investigated, as well as professional texts such sales promotion letters (Bhatia, 1993), research grant proposals (Connor & Mauranen, 1999), and commercial negotiation letters (Pinto dos Santos, 2002). Research investigations have also dealt with the discourse organization and features of journalistic texts such as persuasive articles from a leading Spanish and a British newspaper (Dafouz-Milne, 2008), news leads from online American and Philippine newspapers (Gustilo, 2002), Philippine newspaper editorials (Dayag, 2005; Tarrayo & Duque, 2011), Asian newspaper editorials (Dayag, 2009), and regional Philippine newspaper editorials (Barrios, 2013). While there have been numerous studies on the structures of argumentative discourses and newspaper stories and editorials, there is a dearth of research dealing with the discourse organization of local campus newspaper articles such as opinion columns. In addition, while existing literature on L2 writing presents that undergraduate writing has been investigated much, exploring other forms of writing such as opinion columns is still necessary (Juzwik et al., 2006). Moreover, previous studies on discourse organization mostly involved news stories and editorials of nationwide newspapers, academic texts, and professional texts.
36 Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas
1.2 Macrostructures
Theoretical Framework
__________________________________________________________________________________
1.2.1
Model of a General Paper Essay
Macrostructures (or superstructures) are important in examining the linguistic structure of texts (Connor, 1996) because these refer to the primary organization of texts (van Dijk, 1977). In addition, van Dijk (1977) contends for the need for discourse structures to be semantically characterized on the global level, for “at the semantic level, the coherence of discourse is determined also by macro-structures” (p. 149). This means that in order for texts to be understood, strategies, such as the use of topical sentences and connectives, are needed to weave related local propositions together to form the global structure or macrostructure (van Dijk, 1977). Therefore, discourse is viewed as a whole unit carrying an overall meaning stemming from the meanings found in sentences. This can be applied to campus newspaper opinion columns, where the characterization of the text as a discourse unit is done using the model of a General Paper Essay of Ho (2004). 1.2.2
This research also considers the General Paper (GP) Essay Model purported by Ho (2004). Upon examining the discourse features of the GP essays, a requisite for all student examinees taking the General Certificate of Education “A” level test, she categorized the common features and patterns that characterize these essays as a distinct category. She proposed three blocks, namely, Orientation, Exposition, and Summation Blocks. Each block is composed of an obligatory two-move pattern that consists of specific steps as shown in Figure 1. First, Ho purports that the Orientation Block contains the main idea or thesis of the essay, the plans of the author, and the expected essay layout. This block also consists of the “Orientation” and the “Focusing” moves, whereby the former provides the background and the context of the topic, while the latter is a means of providing a general discussion of the main idea. The Orientation move may consist of definitions, statements presenting the topic or issue in general terms (general statement), further explanations (elaboration), and concrete examples or statistics (exemplification). Second, the Exposition Block consists also of two moves used to construct the specific ideas of the essay, namely, “Inquiry” and “Response” moves. On the one hand, the Inquiry move presents specific details supporting the main argument, which may consist of a particular argument (specific statement), supporting facts and circumstances (situation), a statement of the problem (either as a question or a declarative statement), supporting reasons (justification), as well as providing elaboration and exemplification. On the other hand, the Response move primarily contains the writer’s input on the topic, which may contain assessments of the worthiness of a stand or a solution (evaluation), solutions to issues, more specific statements, exemplifications, and elaborations. According to Ho, it is possible to present the two-move pattern in different means, such as by stating the claim, raising a problem, and exposing or filling a gap. However, Ho emphasizes a caveat that this block is less predictable as compared to the other blocks, particularly when sentence length and frequency of moves and steps are considered.
The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper...
a. Conclusion b. Elaboration c. General Statement
MOVE #1: ROUNDING OFF
a. Evaluation b. Statement (Specific) c. Solution d. Justification e. Exemplification f. Elaboration
MOVE #2: RESPONSE
a. Situation b. Specific Statement c. Problem (Statement) d. Problem (Question-Raising) e. Elaboration f. Justification g. Exemplification
MOVE #1: INQUIRY
a. Elaboration b. Problem (Statement) c. Problem (Question-Raising) d. Justification e. Exemplification
MOVE #2: FOCUSING
a. Definition b. General Statement c. Elaboration d. Exemplification
MOVE #1: ORIENTATION
37
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ORIENTATION BLOCK
EXPOSITION BLOCK
SUMMATION BLOCK
MOVE #2: FINAL STANCE
a. Metastatement b. Evaluation c. Elaboration d. Solution
Figure 1. The model of a general paper essay by Ho (2004)
Lastly, the Summation Block consists of two moves that complete or synthesize the ideas raised by the writer. In this block, writers are found to either restate the thesis or to conclude based on the main ideas pointing to the main thesis; this is called the “Rounding Off” move, which may include a previously justified assertion or consequence (conclusion), elaboration, and a general statement about the issue. Ho also explains that the “Final Stance” move may be used as a means of restating the ideas found in the Orientation Block, primarily through providing an evaluation, a solution, further elaboration, or an explicit statement of a stand (Metastatement).
38 Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas
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Features of Editorials in Journalistic Writing
Each of these blocks in the model is presented as a composition of moves. These moves are considered sequences predictably occurring (Dudley-Evans, as cited in Ho, 2004), which is directly correlated to the writer’s purpose. Ho also elaborates that these moves are characterized and driven by specific purposes, and each move would have certain pragmatic functions in the whole discourse structure. 1.2.3 Table 1 presents the description of editorial writing based on the 12 points of comparison forwarded by Cruz (2010), which are also used to distinguish news and feature articles.
Style
Parts
Use of adjectives and opinions
Use of literary device
Paragraph
Use of sentences
Use of words
Length
Timelessness
Purpose
Definition
Characteristics
Hypothesis, arguments, stand on issue, conclusion
Follows style-sheet newspaper style
Introduction (news peg, reaction), body, conclusion
Adjectives used freely; primarily opinion
Journalistic, direct to the point, may use idioms and figures of speech if properly handled
With topic sentence, longer
May be longer
Simple, forceful, direct
Around 300 words
Timely
To interpret
Interpretation of an event or issue
Editorials
Table 1 Features of editorial columns as journalistic texts
Structure
Cruz (2010) emphasizes that editorials present commentaries representative of all the members of the editorial board and not of an individual writer. He also purports that editorials must discuss recent events and issues of public interest and significance. Furthermore, he enumerates editorials to have three important parts which together present a single idea founded upon factual information, namely, introduction, body, and clincher or punch line, where the introduction consists of a brief statement about the recent event followed by a reaction; the body is comprised of paragraphs that further elaborate or justify the reaction. Lastly, the clincher serves as a conclusion that synthesizes the ideas and concepts previously indicated in an editorial. The description of editorial parts and structure is used in determining whether opinion editorial columns observe or deviate from it, based on the employed moves and steps. Furthermore, this investigation also considers the distinction between editorials and opinion columns, where the latter is written by a single writer and has the tendency of using a rather personal tone (Cruz, 2010).
The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper...
Conceptual Framework
39
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1.3
• EXPOSITION BLOCK: ◊ Inquiry Move ◊ Response Move
MACROSTRUCTURES OF OPINION COLUMNS
COLUMNIST
• SUMMATION BLOCK: ◊ Inquiry Move ◊ Response Move
Language Instruction Received
Language Exposure
Figure 2 presents the conceptual framework of the present study, which assumes that four independent factors influence the macrostructure of opinion columns, namely, the columnists’ culture, their writing objectives, language exposure, and the approaches to language instruction they have received in formal classes.
Culture
Writing Objectives
• ORIENTATION BLOCK: ◊ Orientation Move ◊ Focusing Move
Figure 2. Conceptual framework
Research Objectives
It is believed that as columnists construct the macrostructure of their articles in writing, they implicitly express their cultures, objectives, and knowledge about the language in the opinion columns. Since those concepts may influence the writer in constructing the macrostructure of the columns, it may probably affect the three general components of the macrostructure – orientation, exposition, and summation blocks – and each block is specifically influenced by these four factors through the two moves belonging to each block. Thus, the moves present in each block forms the macrostructure, and these are manifestations of the four factors influencing columnists. 1.4
The objective of this paper is to examine the discourse organization of Filipino university student-written opinion articles in selected campus newspaper publications. Specifically, it seeks answers to the following questions: a. What are the rhetorical moves in the orientation, exposition, and summation blocks of Filipino university-student written opinion columns? b. For each move employed, what are the specific steps in the structure of the orientation, exposition, and summation blocks of these articles? How do these articles observe or deviate from the purported journalistic style of writing articles? c.
40 Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas
The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper...
41
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2.4
__________________________________________________________________________________
Method
Research Procedure
2. Research Design
Results and Discussion
2.1
Study Corpus
This study employed a mixed methods design, where qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to address the research questions. Whereas the qualitative approach was done by analyzing the organization of opinion columns in terms of the moves and steps purported in the GP Essay Model (Ho, 2004), the quantitative approach was adopted by determining the frequency and percentage distributions of the observance of the two-move pattern and the steps characterizing each move. 2.2
3.
Moves Employed in Philippine University Opinion Columns
The data in the following tables present the discourse features characterizing the organization of opinion columns in university campus newspapers in the Philippines. Table 2 presents the frequency and percentage distributions of the moves used in these columns. The findings in Table 2 indicate that the organization of Philippine university newspaper opinion columns generally observe the two-move pattern in the orientation, exposition, and summation blocks purported by Ho (2004). This result indicates that opinion articles written by university students may be organized in a similar manner as typical argumentative essays. Specifically, the articles were structured as follows: the orientation block provides an overview or a background, which may often include the columnists’ general position on the topic; the exposition block provides an in-depth discussion extending from the general claim; and the summation block includes a synthesis of the ideas discussed, which
3.1
The 45 opinion articles collected were reformatted using word-processing software such as Microsoft Word in a tabular form to ease data analysis. Each article was first analyzed, divided, and classified according to the three blocks presented in the GP Essay Model. After which, macro data analyses were conducted, where the discourse moves and the particular steps used in the formation of the macrostructures were analyzed in light of the GP Essay Model. The moves and steps are not entirely analyzed on a sentential level, since all of the moves and steps utilized by the writers are pragmatic units contributing to the overall structure of the text, rather than syntactic units (Ho, 2004; van Dijk, 1977). Therefore, these articles were divided into parts, where each portion of the opinion articles was classified on the basis of these blocks, moves, and steps, primarily based on the cohesive or transitional devices used by the authors. The occurrences of the rhetorical moves and steps in each block were counted, tallied, and tabulated on a frequency table. Whereas the moves were counted based on whether the two-move pattern was employed in each block for every article, the steps were counted based on the occurrence of organizational moves. For instance, a series of sentences was considered as an organizational move or a step as long as it conveyed the same function. These steps were also observed to reoccur in a block; in this case, each occurrence was considered a step if it did not come in succession. Furthermore, a phrase or clause was counted as a step despite occurring only once or twice in some instances. Three independent coders, all of whom with relevant educational attainment in applied linguistics, assisted in coding and analyzing all the opinion columns. They were thoroughly oriented about the concepts in the study and the coding process, which required providing exercises on the organizational moves in Ho’s model. Moreover, while the independent coders agreed to the findings in most cases, there were instances of differences in opinion, especially in identifying the steps found in the exposition blocks. In resolving these conflicts in their analyses, a thorough discussion was held with the coders and was later resolved by arriving at a consensus.
Unit of Analysis
This research is a corpus-driven one in which a considerable number of opinion articles in university campus newspapers were used in analyzing the moves and steps characterizing the organization of these texts. A total of 45 published opinion articles written in English were collected through purposive sampling, where 15 articles were gathered from three campus organizations of universities within the National Capital Region (NCR). In addition, these opinion columns consisted of 250 to 950 words and were published in campus newspaper volumes from 2012 until 2014. While a majority of the articles were written by studentwriters, some of these texts were also written by professionals, who may have been previously or currently affiliated with either the campus organization or the institution represented by the publication. The opinion articles were selected from three official campus newspapers from three private universities in NCR: The Guidon of the Ateneo de Manila University (ADMU), The La Sallian of the De La Salle University-Manila (DLSU), and The Varsitarian of the University of Santo Tomas (UST). These newspapers were chosen based on their longstanding histories and legacies, as well as the reputation of these schools where these newspapers are published. Furthermore, a number of academic programs in these universities have been given recognition by the Philippines’ Commission on Higher Education. The online version of these opinion articles were also considered in cases where the school publication operates an official website, for it is assumed that the online and the print versions are similar in many important respects and that the online source is more accessible than the printed version. 2.3
The unit of analysis was the organizational moves, which pertain to the semantic units dependent on their functions in the text. These moves may be an independent clause, a series of sentences, or a dependent clause. Since text coherence and cohesion is established in macrostructures (van Dijk, 1977) such as the columns under study, the semantic meanings conveyed in each move are related to the meanings of the other moves in the text. The semantic meaning in each move was identified through the cohesive markers that may have been employed in each move, as well as the relationship of each move with respect to the thesis of the text.
42 Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas
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Percentage (%)
is often supplemented with general evaluations, and in some instances, recommendations to the issues. Table 2 Moves utilized in the Philippine university opinion columns Frequency
17.78
Move
100.00
82.22
8
37
45
Two-move pattern (i.e., Orientation Block: Orientation/Focusing; Exposition Block: Inquiry/Response; Summation Block: Rounding Off/ Final Stance) Non-two-move pattern
The Orientation Block
Total
3.2
Table 3 presents the frequency and percentage distributions of the steps used in the orientation block.
Definition
Justification
Problem (Question-Raising)
Problem (Statement)
Exemplification
General Statement
Elaboration
Step
149
2
5
7
13
17
8
37
Frequency
100.00
1.34
3.36
4.70
8.72
11.41
17.78
82.22
Percentage (%)
Table 3 Steps employed in the orientation block
Total
These findings suggest that columnists use the elaboration and general statement steps more frequently than the other steps. Tan (2003) posits that introductions must supply the general background of the argument because effective backgrounds can sustain the attention of the readers. The need to attract the readers’ attention seems likely to account for the use of general statements in this block. Baker, Brizee, and Angeli (2013) also emphasize that the introductions must contain the thesis statement or the main argument the author wishes to convey to the readers. In addition, as general statements, thesis statements may consist of propositions, points of views, interpretations, and cause-and-effect statements (Brizee & Tardiff, 2014). To illustrate the organization of the orientation block, the following extracts from each campus newspaper show how specific steps are employed. The first extract is taken from The Guidon, where the author focused on the topic through examples and reasons why individuals freely opine on social issues.
The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper...
One of the reasons why they express these opinions is because these issues may affect their lives.
These issues have allowed them to engage in intelligent discussions about the realities that surround them.
Controversial and timely issues such as the RH bill, the cybercrime law, and the US presidential elections have given students the chance to express their sentiments about their particular concerns.
Extract
Elaboration
Justification
Exemplification
Elaboration
General Statement
Step
ORIENTATION
Move
43
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These issues may either go against their personal beliefs and principles or heavily influence their way of living.
FOCUSING
Having said these, one’s opinion can be a way of protecting oneself.
In 2005, I wrote an opinion column for The La Sallian and made the case that Filipinos should stay with Filipinos.
Extract
Elaboration
General Statement
Step
FOCUSING
ORIENTATION
Move
Meanwhile, the following extract from The La Sallian presents that a single rhetorical step can be employed for each move in the Orientation Block.
Living (in my case, teaching) in another country was heresy. The case was to give back to the community that gave to me. Almost ten years later, I’m teaching in the United States. I have also recently made the case to my recently married friends that they should move out of the country. The old wrestling match between the idealistic college student and practical working adult is raging and it’s pretty obvious who won.
Death penalty in the Philippines dates back to the time of Spanish colonizers and the American occupation where executions were conducted by firing squads, decapitation and drowning, among others.
Extract
Elaboration
General Statement
Step
ORIENTATION
Move
In the following extract from The Varsitarian, it can be noticed that after additional details related to general information on death penalty was provided, a problem, posed as a question, is stated.
It was not until President Corazon Aquino’s term that the death penalty was first abolished. However, President Fidel Ramos reinstated capital punishment, but it was later removed by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. Eight years later, with the spate of heinous crimes, come calls to revive death penalty.
Problem (Question-Raising)
FOCUSING
Is the Philippines just letting history repeat itself once more?
44 Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas
The Exposition Block
__________________________________________________________________________________
3.3 Table 4 presents the frequency and percentage distributions of the steps used in the exposition block.
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Table 4 Steps employed in the exposition block Step
12.76
21.43
9.69
16.84
50
5.87
84
38
4.34
Specific Statement
Justification 23
3.32
15.05
Problem (Question-Raising) 17
100.00
66
Evaluation 13
59
Problem (Statement) 392
Elaboration
Solution
Exemplification
Total
Upon examining the data further, it can be inferred that the total frequency may be attributed to the unpredictability of this particular block. This block seems to include the more detailed parts of opinion columns, which may involve the multiple uses of a certain step (or steps) more than once to establish the specific details of the writers’ arguments. Moreover, another potential factor that may have contributed to the unpredictability of the block is the lack of cohesive or transitional devices in the articles, which, at times, made the analysis difficult. From these findings, it can be gleaned that the specific statement step is frequently employed by writers, in which these are used to construct specific arguments in support of the main argument (Tan, 2003). These arguments were stated through specific statements, which were explained further through the use of the elaboration step and were supported through justifying and providing concrete examples or statistics. Hence, in this block, arguments are developed and strengthened through these steps to maintain credibility and validity of thoughts and ideas (University Writing Center, 2012). To illustrate how exposition blocks are constructed, the following extract from The Guidon illustrates how the author first examines an argument by providing a specific claim about how product brands have upheld women’s equality, which is supported by an illustrative example and a further explanation of it. It can also be noted that a statement of the problem is employed as an Inquiry move.
The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper...
These may sound like trifles as compared to other national issues, but the fact that they are perceived as trifles is indicative of a problem.
The Pantene commercial shows the positive labels given to men, and negative ones given to women in the same position – a male CEO is called boss, a female, bossy; a working mother called selfish.
For example, Dove commercials focus on women’s “inner beauty” and also deal with most women’s self-depreciating tendencies. Another is Pantene’s advertising campaign #WhipIt, which hopes to put an end to women’s labels.
Recently, different brands have also pushed for women’s equality.
Extract
Elaboration
Specific Statement
Problem (Statement)
Elaboration
Exemplification
Specific Statement
Step
INQUIRY
Move
45
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Despite what the statistics say, the Philippines is not one of the best places for women.
RESPONSE
There is a disjunction in the supposed gender equality we have achieved.
As students of one of the top universities in the country, we are all looked at as potential leaders.
It might be impossible to change those in power now and these politicians accursed of corruption won’t instantly turn over a new leaf. However, every young person who enters the ‘real world’ after graduation is a glimmer of hope and a chance for things in this country to change.
There’s a popular idiom that goes, “You can’t teach an old dog new tricks,” in reference to how hard it is to change older people.
Extract
Solution
Justification
Specific Statement
Elaboration
Specific Statement
Step
INQUIRY
Move
Meanwhile, the following extract from The La Sallian begins the exposition block by presenting a specific claim through a popular idiomatic expression, followed by a contextualized explanation. Then a response is provided by stating another claim supported by a reason why the claim holds true, and it is followed by one of the infrequent occurrences of the solution step.
All eyes are on us and many will follow the lead that our actions depict.
RESPONSE
So it is essential to think before we act.
Lastly, the following extract from The Varsitarian starts its exposition block with a specific claim, stating the danger posed by black-sand mining to the environment. The danger it poses is explained further by providing additional details, i.e., a law and reasons supporting the previous statements; after which, a response is provided through another claim related to the previous one, with further explanation about the current claim.
46 Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas
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INQUIRY
Move
Step
Extract
Elaboration
RESPONSE
But more than my fondness for our beaches, my love for my culture Specific Statement and land, black-sand mining is a threat to the environment. The Philippine Mining Act of 1995 specifically stated that beaches are “no-go” areas in black-sand mining. Justification
Specific Statement
According to the geohazard mapping of MGB, sand mining makes coastal areas of Ilocos prone to erosion, making them vulnerable in case of sea-level rise and high tidal waves. Thus, the extraction of black sand is not allowed in the region. ISCAPE claims local officials are playing deaf to the people’s complaints.
The Summation Block
The group further alleges that the local governments are conniving Elaboration with the foreign mining companies.
3.4
The next table presents the frequency and percentage distributions of the steps used in the summation block. Based on the data, the general statement and the evaluation steps were also used, but there were more instances of further elaboration.
Metastatement
Conclusion
Solution
Evaluation
General Statement
Elaboration
Step
132
0
16
19
22
27
48
Frequency
100.00
0.00
12.12
14.39
16.67
20.45
36.36
Percentage (%)
Table 5 Steps employed in the summation block
Total
Surprisingly, not many writers opted to provide a direct conclusion as expected. From this, it can be inferred that the act of drawing conclusions might be left to the readers, in which readers may be encouraged to determine the implicit conclusion based on the arguments, evaluations, and solutions provided by the columnists. These findings support the idea that summation statements in argumentative essays must involve a summary of the ideas and a reassertion of the main argument (Tan, 2003), thus, explaining the use of the general statements and elaboration steps, where the former provides the reassertion of the thesis statement; while the latter elaborates through a general review of the specific arguments. However, it is also purported that closing paragraphs must leave a strong impression upon the readers (Hacker, 1999; Tan, 2003) by providing evaluations, possible solutions, and judgments; and this assertion manifests in the articles through the use of the evaluation, solution, and elaboration steps.
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But the question is: Are we also liberal? Or is freedom just a state of mind?
Artists in UST have a lot of potentials compared to other colleges but unlike in UP, they can express their art forms freely because they are liberal.
Extract
Elaboration
Solution
Elaboration
General Statement
Step
ROUNDING OFF
Move
To show how summation blocks are constructed in the corpus, the following extract taken from The Varsitarian presents two steps employed for each move, whereby the general claim on art pedagogy is supported by rhetorical questions. After which, the final stance is indicated through a solution, as indicated by the modal verb “should.”
Art should be applied in everyday life.
FINAL STANCE
What we see, what we hear, who we talk to, where we are right now should spur our passion for the arts, it is without boundaries. Art is for everyone, you just need to appreciate it. You never know when the next Picasso comes running out the Arch of the Centuries.
This is going to be an extremely difficult task for the government.
Visayas is now starting its plans to rehabilitate the region.
There are some government officials who may be corrupt, but that does not necessarily mean that the entire government was not acting on the situation, or that the government is the one causing the people’s suffering.
I do believe that there were better ways for the government to have handled the situation of Typhoon Yolanda, but I also think they did the best they could.
It’s hard for a government to operate when the very same people that elected these officials don’t trust them.
Trust is something that the government needs in order to work.
Extract
Solution
Conclusion
Elaboration
Genaral Statement
Elaboration
Evaluation
Elaboration
General Statement
Step
ROUNDING OFF
Move
Meanwhile, the following extract from The Guidon contains a synthesis in the form of a general statement, where the present circumstance is cited. The circumstance is supported by an explanation, which may have been used as a means of transitioning to the conclusion and the solution to the issue.
And there is a need for us citizens to realize that the rebuilding period is the perfect time to work hand and hand with the government.
FINAL STANCE
Now more than ever, the people must trust the government.
Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas
General Statement
Step
FINAL STANCE
ROUNDING OFF
Move
The discourse organization of Philippine university newspaper...
Influential Factors to the Organization of Opinions
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Previous studies found that different factors affect the rhetorical organization of texts. Among these factors are language exposure and language-instruction approaches. However, previous studies proved that culture is central (Fernandez, 2011) and is a highly influential factor (Kelly & Tomic, 2001; Kramsch, 1998;) in text organization because it is truly embodied and encountered in any form of discourse. Because of the multicultural nature of the Philippines, as well as the diversity of university students, other factors, such as exposure to the language and the employed approaches to language teaching, will have to be considered. The exposure of writers to the language is also reported to influence the organization of ideas in a text (Magistro, 2007). For instance, these writers may have been exposed to a wide array of literary masterpieces written by renowned and budding Filipino writers in English; nationwide newspapers are also published in English, and there is also an influx of users with internet access. Considering these instances, it is possible that their exposure to these examples of real-time language use provides an understanding of how ideas are organized in written and even spoken discourses. In addition, these provide them with insights on their own writing strategies. For instance, Tarrayo and Duque (2011) claim that editorials found in nationwide broadsheet newspapers frequently employ organizational moves such as providing specific arguments, elaborations, and examples. When universitystudent columnists read these editorials, they may be able to get ideas as to how they may effectively construct and organize their own arguments. Thus, they may be inspired to adapt the same rhetorical moves and strategies, for such are viewed to be effectively employed. Additionally, since English functions as a second language in the Philippines, the language is widely encountered in daily activities despite not being the mother tongue (Magno, 2011). Therefore, exposure to English is inevitable, particularly in countries striving to satisfy the demands of globalization (Arriola, 2002). Lastly, language instruction is believed to influence written discourse organization (Smith, 2005). In the Philippines, English was first introduced as a second language by the Thomasites during the earlier phases of the American Occupation, where structural approaches are employed such as the audio-lingual method (Arriola, 2002). However, in time, a paradigm shift from structural approaches to communicative approaches occurred, where authentic communication and a more comprehensive context are considered (Strevens, 1977). This also entailed the emergence of the process-approach to writing, where writing is perceived as a creative process (Perfecto, 2011), complemented by other student-centered approaches (Manlapaz, 2011). Since these approaches are employed in teaching writing, students are given enough freedom in exploring their topics of interest and in carefully shaping their arguments in writing. Thus, the texts they produce are not merely imitations of those they frequently encounter.
3.6
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Extract
Solution
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Whether it is due to government neglect or whatever else, in situations like these, the whole is worth more than the sum of its components.
Elaboration
From these observations, it may be gleaned that the opinion columns have a tendency to observe the format of editorials. However, this is not to indicate that opinion columns are also editorials. Both types of journalistic texts serve relatively the same purpose of sharing views on a topic, but the distinction is marked by the article’s ownership.
We need to stop looking for people to blame, to condemn, to shame; what matters now is giving as much as we can to help our fellow Filipinos.
Solution
Lastly, this extract from The La Sallian illustrates a different manner of summation, in which a general statement related to the issue is used to initiate the closing. After which, in support to the general statement, a solution (in the form of call-to-change attitudes) is provided, which is supplemented with an explanation and a more concrete solution.
Many private institutions have already begun their own drive to aid the devastated areas. De La Salle Philippines for one has a donation drive-operating right now in DLSU.
Adherence to Journalistic Standards
If you still don’t know what to do to help the Yolanda victims, just walk on over to the North Conservatory; helping out there is better than winning over some comment war online.
3.5
Cruz (2010), in the context of journalistic writing, indicates that editorial sections must introduce the topic with a news peg and the reaction, whereby the former introduces and briefly provides the nature of the topic at hand, while the latter is the presentation of the author’s stand. It is on this basis that the orientation block of the opinion columns under study may be likened to the introduction section of editorials. Whereas the orientation move in the corpus consisted mainly of general information and additional details about the topic, the focusing move contains the central proposition of the text – that is, the main, overarching argument accompanied with a few explanations behind it. Therefore, with respect to the introduction section of editorials, opinion columns tend to observe the format prescribed in journalistic writing. The same claim may be held true for the exposition blocks of the opinion texts. Since the body of editorials is reported to generally consist of paragraphs with enough details supporting the reaction (Cruz, 2010), the exposition blocks of the opinion columns adhere to these assertions, because the texts tend to employ inquiry and response moves such as providing specific claims, further explanations, and reasons that support the author’s general claim. While there seems to be an adherence to the journalistic format in the orientation and exposition blocks, it seems that deviation from the format is present in the summation block of the opinion columns. Cruz (2010) purports that the closing paragraph of editorials (the clincher statement) must provide a sound conclusion to the ideas. In the corpus, most of the articles are found to use other steps in place of conclusions. The steps employed in these articles contain more essential steps than merely conclusions; these steps include solutions, evaluations, and additional related information, all of which are further elaborated. These steps are more critical possibly because of the potential for reader involvement that these steps carry.
50 Wilfred Gabriel A. Gapas
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References
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4.
Conclusion
This study examined how opinion columns are organized in Philippine university-level campus newspaper publications and whether these articles observe or deviate from the purported style of editorial writing. The findings of this investigation indicate that Ho’s model of a possible text structure for general paper essays is applicable to the opinion columns. In addition, its observance of the journalistic principles of editorial writing is evident; but it is apparent to a certain extent, for some columns either do not follow the two-move pattern or does not provide a conclusion for the clincher statement. Moreover, the study suggests that discourse structures serve as language tools available for writers to use, whereby it can affect the way columnists present themselves, argue for or against a standpoint, and appraise the need for reader involvement. In addition, it seems that their respective objectives influence which rhetorical steps to employ in the articles. Hence, it is possible that the way columnists organize the content of their columns may ensure the effective communication of their opinion to different readers. Certain pedagogical implications arise from this research. First, providing L2 learners of English with a background regarding the organization of opinion columns may be helpful in improving argumentation and perhaps the persuasion skills of learners. Although students are not tasked to write opinion columns very often, it may be important for them to study these articles as these serve as concrete examples of customs used in written argumentation (Connor, 1996). Moreover, the findings concerning the organization of opinion columns can be helpful for students in analyzing the structure of different written argumentative discourses, such as debate speeches delivered in public fora (Duque, 2013), reviews, and other academic-writing forms. However, while these articles may be used as authentic examples of argumentative texts, it may also be important for the learners to understand and undergo the writing process and develop their own style of writing (Murray, 1972). Second, opinion columns published in campus newspapers may also be considered as authentic texts which can be used in pedagogy that enhances reading, writing, and critical thinking skills, for these articles are considered timely (Cruz, 2010) and present arguments concerning relevant news and current events occurring within and beyond the walls of the educational institutions the columnists represent. Through the use of opinion columns as instructional materials, language teachers may uphold a more contextualized and meaningful language instruction. Given the limitations of this investigation, further research is necessary to contribute to the increasing number of research on discourse analysis. First, investigations on opinion columns with a larger corpus or sample size (i.e., five university newspapers) can be done to arrive at more conclusive results. In addition, it is encouraged to compare the discourse organization of opinion columns and editorials written in university newspapers with those found in national broadsheets. In the same way, a comparison of campus newspapers from two separate writing milieus (i.e., newspapers of public and private universities) may be done to identify other factors that may influence organization such as socioeconomic status. Lastly, investigations on move analysis may be done on opinion columns and editorials written in elementary and secondary school newspapers to explore primary- and secondary-school student writing, which has not been extensively investigated (Juzwik et al., 2006).
Anker, S. (2005). Real writing (3rd ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Arriola, J.A. (2002). Issues on English as a second language: The Philippine experience. Unitas: The Quarterly Scholarly Journal of the University of Santo Tomas, 75(2), 223-242. Baker, J., Brizee, A., & Angeli, A. (2013). Argumentative essays. The Online Writing Lab of the Purdue University. Retrieved from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ resource/685/05. Barrios, A. (2013). Organizational framework in editorials of two Philippine local newspapers. Philippine ESL Journal, 11, 86-114. Bhatia, V. (1993). Analyzing genre: Language use in professional settings. London: Longman. Blommaert, J. (2005). Discourse: Key topics in sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Briones, R. (2012). Move analysis of philosophy research article introductions published in the University of Santo Tomas. Philippine ESL Journal, 9, 56-75. Brizee, A., & Tardiff, E. (2011). Tips and examples for writing thesis statements. Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Retrieved from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ resource/545/01/. Connor, U. (1996). Contrastive rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second language writing. New York: Cambridge University Press. Connor, U., & Mauranen, A. (1999). Linguistic analysis of grant proposals: European Union research grants. English for Specific Purposes, 18(1), 47-62. Crismore, A., Markannen, R., & Steffensen, M. (1993). Metadiscourse in persuasive writing: A study of texts written by American and Finnish university students. Written Communication, 10(1), 39-71. Cruz, C. (2003). Pampahayagang pangkampus sa bagong milenyo para sa mag-aaral, guro, at taga-payo. Manila: Rex Bookstore. Cruz, C. (2010). Campus journalism and school paper advising (2nd ed.). Manila, Philippines: Rex Bookstore, Inc. Dafouz-Milne, E. (2008). The pragmatic role of textual and interpersonal metadiscourse markers in the construction and attainment of persuasion: A cross-linguistic study of newspaper discourse. Journal of Pragmatics, 40(1), 95-113. Dayag, D. (2005). Epistemic modality, concessiveness, and interpersonal meaning in L2 newspaper editorials. In D. Dayag, & J.S. Quakenbush (Eds.), Linguistics and language education in the Philippines and beyond: A Festschrift in honor of Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines. Dayag, D. (2009). Metadiscourse, argumentation, and Asian Englishes: A contrastive rhetoric approach. Manila: University of Santo Tomas Publishing House. Duque, M. (2013). Discourse organization of argumentative speeches: Implications for teaching argumentative writing. Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 1, 86116. Fernandez, D. (2011). Culture in the classroom. In A. Fernandez, D. Paez, & M. Paterno (Eds.), Best practices in language and literature teaching: Practical ideas for the classroom from The ACELT Journal and ACELT Forum (pp. 153-163). Quezon City, Philippines: Cornerstone of Arts and Sciences.
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Orillos, L. (2008). Language acquisition theories, principles, and research. Quezon City, Philippines: University of the Philippines Open University. Perfecto, M. (2011). A process-oriented approach to writing. In A. Fernandez, D. Paez, & M. Paterno. (Eds.), Best practices in language and literature teaching: Practical ideas for the classroom from The ACELT Journal and ACELT Forum (pp. 104-120). Quezon City, Philippines: Cornerstone of Arts and Sciences. Pinto dos Santos, V. (2002). Genre analysis of business letters of negotiation. English for Specific Purposes, 21(2), 167-199. Retrieved from ScienceDirect database. Ramirez, J. (1989). Philippine journalism handbook (3rd ed.). Manila: National Book Store Publishing. Smith, M. (2005). Students as contrastive rhetoricians: Examining ESL student perceptions of L1 and L2 rhetorical conventions. Arizona Working Papers in SLAT, 12, 79-98. Strevens, P. (1977). Orientations in the teaching of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tan, K. (2003). Constructing the argumentative essay. Successful Learning. Retrieved from http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/success/sl29.htm. Tarrayo, V., & Duque, M. (2011). Arguing in L2: Discourse structure and textual metadiscourse in Philippine newspaper editorials. i-manager’s Journal on English Language Teaching, 1(4), 11-24. University Writing Center. (2012). Arguments. Texas A&M University Writing Center. Retrieved from http://writingcenter.tamu.edu/Students/Handouts-Guides/Guides(What-Are-You-Writing-)/Academic-Writing/Arguments van Dijk, T. (1977). Text and context: Explorations in the semantics and pragmatics of discourse. London: Longman.
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Freely, A., & Steinberg, D. (2000). Argumentation and debate: Thinking for reasoned decision making (10th ed.). Connecticut: Wadsworth Thomson Learning. Gustilo, L. (2002). A contrastive analysis of American English and Philippine English news leads. Philippine Journal of Linguistics, 33(2), 53-66. Hacker, D. (1999). A writer’s reference. (4th ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Ho, C. (2004). Discourse features and strategies in students’ argumentative writing at preuniversity level. ACELT Journal, 8, 3-10. Hyland, K. (2000). Disciplinary discourses: Social interactions in academic writing. London: Longman. Hyland, K. (2005). Metadiscourse: Exploring interaction in writing. London and New York: Continuum. Juzwik, M., Curcic, S., Wolbers, K., Moxley, K., Dimling, L., & Shankland, R. (2006). Writing into the 21st century: An overview of research on writing from 1994 to 2004. Written Communication, 23(4), 451- 476. doi: 10.1177/0741088306291619 Kelly, M., & Tomic, A. (2001). Editorial. Language and Intercultural Communication, 1(1), 1-5. Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and culture. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Le, E. (2004). Active participation within written argumentation: Metadiscourse and editorialist’s authority. Journal of Pragmatics, 36(4), 687-714. Li, L., & Ge, G. (2009). Genre analysis: Structural and linguistic evolution of the Englishmedium medical research article (1985-2004). English for Specific Purposes, 28(2), 93-104. Lin, L., & Evans, S. (2012). Structural patterns in empirical research articles: A crossdisciplinary study. English for Specific Purposes, 31(3), 150-160. Magistro, E. (2007). The multilingual classroom: New rhetorical frontiers in L2 writing. College Quarterly, 10(2), 1-12. Magno, C. (2011). World Englishes: Implications for learning and teaching English. In S. Dita (Ed.), Trends in applied linguistics in the Philippines: A decade in retrospect. Pasig City, Philippines: Anvil Publishing Inc. Malden, M. (2003). The handbook of discourse analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Malinao, A. (2008). Journalism for Filipinos (3rd ed.). Mandaluyong City, Philippines: National Book Store Publishing. Manlapaz, E. (2011). Revisiting student-centered pedagogy. In A. Fernandez, D. Paez, & M. Paterno (Eds.), Best practices in language and literature teaching: Practical ideas for the classroom from The ACELT Journal and ACELT Forum (pp. xvi-xxiii). Quezon City, Philippines: Cornerstone of Arts and Sciences. Miller, R. (1989). The informed argument: A multidisciplinary reader and guide (2nd ed.). Orland, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. Murray, D. (1972). Teach writing as a process not product. In R. Graves (Ed.), Rhetoric and composition: A source for teachers and writers (pp. 89-92). Upper Montclair, New Jersey: Boyton J. Cook. Myers, G. (2004). Matters of opinion: Talking about public issues. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nwogu, K. (1997). The medical research paper: Structure and functions. English for Specific Purposes, 16(2), 119-138. Retrieved from ScienceDirect database.
1.
Functional stylistic analysis: Transitivity in Philippine Daily Inquirer and The Washington Post 1,2 Luzminda R. Valeriano and 2,3Rachelle B. Lintao 1 Navotas Polytechnic College, Navotas, The Philippines, 2Philippine Normal University and 3University of Santo Tomas, Manila, The Philippines
[email protected];
[email protected]
Abstract
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), transitivity system, editorial, stylistics, contrastive rhetoric
This paper aims to examine the similarities and differences in the stylistic features of Philippine and American editorials, particularly the Philippine Daily Inquirer (PDI) and The Washington Post (WP), respectively, using Halliday’s (2000) transitivity method. Specifically, the study sought to answer these questions: (1) What are the similarities and differences in the transitivity process types employed in the PDI and the WP editorials? and (2) What are the predominant process types employed in the editorials of the two newspapers? The results of the study revealed that the stylistic features of the WP editorials give more emphasis on people’s characters and attributes, which are regarded to be important factors in the argumentative nature of the WP editorials. On the other hand, PDI editorials focus on ‘what is done to someone’ and ‘who does it.’ This study puts forward that the transitivity system could be an effective tool to analyze the stylistic features of editorials. The results also imply that in the application of process types, the stylistic features related to the editorials’ expected or commonly observed style and purposes, i.e., informative, persuasive, argumentative, and purposive, could be realized. Keywords:
Introduction
Wales (1989) defines stylistics as study of styles, while stylistic analysis is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text, with what is peculiar to the uses of a language in a literary or nonliterary material for delivering a message. The term “style” is used by linguists to describe the choices which language makes available to users, above and beyond the choices necessary for the simple expression of a meaning. Linguistic forms can be interpreted as a set of possibilities for the production of texts, thus, the synonym linguistic styles. One basic idea of stylistics is that stylistic choice has an effect on the reader and that it should be possible to understand the causal relation between the said stylistic choice and its particular effect. Different notions of style give critics their choice of method of stylistic analysis. As stated by Crystal (1989), variations in English use are determined by group identities: the more a group of people is given the status of a social institution within a community, the more distinctive that language would likely to be. The stylistic features of a text can be analyzed by looking into the transitivity component of the Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG).
Transitivity
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1.1
Put forward by Halliday (2000) and Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), SFG pays great attention to how speakers generate utterances and texts to convey their intended meanings. A basic notion of SFG presents that language has three metafunctions (i.e., ideational, interpersonal, and textual), which are reflected in a huge system network that specifies all meaning potentials. The ideational function is the use of language to express content and to communicate information. Where content is the focus, emphasis will be on transferring information clearly and effectively so that the work can be comprehended quickly and easily. Moreover, the ideational function involves two main systems, namely, transitivity and ergativity. According to Halliday (2000), SFG includes other functions: textual and interpersonal. Briefly, language, in the textual function, is used to signify discourse, and that the language – the text – is related to itself and to its context of use, including the preceding and following text and the context of situation. The interpersonal function, on the other hand, is the use of language to establish and maintain social relations. This function involves modalities related to the modus system. This system is signified by two main elements, namely, mood and residue. This paper zeroed in on the ideational function of language through transitivity system. Transitivity (Halliday, 1985; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004) relates to how events and their participants are represented in discourse. Based on the semantic categories of process, participant, and circumstance, transitivity describes how different phenomena taking place in the real world can be coded linguistically (Halliday, 1985; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004). In any event, there can be three elements involved: the process itself, participants, and circumstances. Thus, transitivity “specifies the different types of process that are recognized in the language, and the structures by which they are expressed” (Halliday, 1985, p. 101). Transitivity is a semantic concept that examines how meaning is represented in a clause. By definition, transitivity in SFG is a process-centered system employed to encode and decode the experience and knowledge of human beings via lexico-grammar. It is Halliday (1967) who first stated that transitivity should be regarded as a property of clauses rather than verbs. Thompson (2000) also explicates that transitivity is a system for describing the whole clause, rather than the verb and its object. The systems and networks of transitivity convey the user’s experience of the external world of the senses and the internal world of the mind. The term “process” of transitivity refers to the “goings-on” in reality, for example, doing, happening, and being. According to the latest edition of Halliday’s (2008) An Introduction to Functional Grammar, transitivity system is composed of six processes that represent human experience in terms of physical and physiological actions (Material and Behavioral), thinking and speaking actions (Mental and Verbal), and actions that signal the existence of something or someone and their identifying features (Existential and Relational). Several works (Halliday, 1967, 1976, 2001, 2008; Hopper & Thompson, 1980; Langacker, 1987) have broadened the domain of transitivity, and each could be regarded as a milestone in the study of transitivity. Yang (2001) conducted a transitivity analysis on editorials and reported that the specific stylistic feature of editorials, i.e., narration interspersed with comments, was realized by the predominant use of the material and the relational processes. Meanwhile, Wu’s (2004) findings of a high frequency of mental processes in the English e-mail used for academic
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discussion reflected the interactive style of the discourse. Babaii and Ansary (2005) studied academic book reviews from discipline-related professional journals (i.e., physics, sociology, and literature) and found that book reviewers in different disciplines used varied devices in conveying their messages and in striking a balance between impersonality and interaction. Applying systemic functional theories, Gong and Fang (2005) analyzed the process types of the transitivity system taken from court debates and reported that the ideational function in the court discourse was mainly realized through the processes of transitivity. Furthermore, the analysis of the transitivity system in literary discourses by a number of researchers (Cunanan, 2011; Halliday 1971; Liu, 1998; Short, 1976) demonstrates that the transitivity system helps reveal the personalities of heroes depicted by writers and contribute to a better understanding of the stylistic features in literary pieces. On the other hand, the analysis of the transitivity system in nonliterary discourses prompted in recent years has focused on the expressivities of transitivity in describing text features.
observed to have employed the transitivity method but on a single editorial only. Meanwhile, some contrastive rhetoric studies on editorials employed theories, such as the application of coherence theory by Connor and Johns (1990), which dealt with the ‘topical structure analysis’ of American and Filipino editorials. Other discourse analyses zeroed in on the functional grammar approach such as the utilization of the news-transitivity analysis (Renstrom, 2012). It can then be said that only few research paid attention to the use of transitivity in comparing and contrasting editorial stylistics of two different cultures. In emphasizing that writing styles differ across cultures, Kaplan (1966) gained much support from several linguistic studies. The need to discover and describe the causes for the preferences found in other cultures is based on the notion that there are unique rhetorical traditions in at least the world’s major cultures. This idea supports the fact that people in different cultures do not only write in contrasting styles, as what has been adequately demonstrated in numerous recent contrastive rhetoric studies, but they also have developed other methods of writing because of differences in worldview. Therefore, it is crucial to explore, find, and describe the origins of rhetorical differences in various cultures.
On Editorials
1.2
1.4
1. 2.
Theoretical Framework
What are the similarities and differences in the transitivity process types employed in the PDI and the WP editorials? What are the predominant process types employed in the editorials of the two newspapers?
In view of the preceding literature and previous studies done on stylistic choices, transitivity, and editorials, it can be noted that exploring the processes employed in clauses (via SFG’s transitivity system), which would reveal the meaning of editorials and the stylistic techniques used by writers, is worth investigating. This study then was aimed at uncovering the similarities and differences in specific stylistic features based on the transitivity process types employed in Philippine and American editorials, particularly in Philippine Daily Inquirer (PDI) and The Washington Post (WP), respectively. Specifically, the study sought to answer the following questions:
Research Questions
Halliday’s (2008) transitivity system involving six processes served as the framework for this study. The material process, a process of doing, usually describes concrete and tangible actions. The process expresses the notion that a participant, the Actor, “does” something – which may be done “to” some other participant, the Goal. Second, the mental process accounts for the process of sensing and involves not material actions but phenomena best described as states of mind or psychological events. A mental process should have two participants: the Senser (endowed with consciousness) and the Phenomenon (realized as a thing or as a fact). Next, the relational process, a process of being, serves to establish a relation between two separate entities. As the term “relational” suggests, something is being said to “be” something else in relational clauses. There are two types of relational processes: the attributive relational process with the Carrier and the Attribute as the participants, and the
1.3
Editorials are short, argumentative texts that are unsigned and appear in the first pages of a newspaper. Editorials as a genre are regarded to have appeared first in the mid-19th century when newspapers in their present form started to be published (Kress, 1985). They form a genre of journalism that not only “reports” but also provides “a judgment of an event” (Richardson 2007, p. 60). Thus, editorials differ inherently from news articles, which aim at presenting news objectively, without taking particular positions. Editorials, therefore, “are argumentative and aim to persuade by explaining” (Le, 2010, p. 214). As an openly opinionrelated text type, they represent the official position of a newspaper on various issues (Le, 2010). An editorial delivers a newspaper’s stand on a relevant development or an issue. Therefore, this newspaper section is often argumentative by nature because it aims to persuade the readers. What is the connection of SFG’s ideational function to an editorial? By traversing at its SFG’s ideational function, an editorial can be analyzed in terms of how language is used to express its contents and how such information is communicated to a large crowd (since a newspaper is a powerful media tool). The ideational meaning can also discuss how language is effectively used to serve the purpose of an editorial, that is, presenting facts to justify or prove an argument. In addition, this genre tends not only to persuade readers but also to influence public opinion, promote critical thinking, and cause people to take action. Yuli and Yushan (2012) conducted a comparison of the transitivity system in English and Chinese E-C translation based on Halliday’s theoretical frameworks. It was found that the six processes in the transitivity system in English and Chinese are semantically the same and can remain unchanged in E-C translation; while in certain circumstances, process transfer is necessary. Another study on transitivity was done by Caffarel and Rechnieeski (2009) titled “Systemic Functional Approach to analyzing and interpreting ideology: An illustration of French editorials.” Moreover, Lehtoaro’s (2013) research analyzed the use of transitivity in her study, “Editorials, election and persuasion: Semantic representation in ideologically polarized discourse in the New York Post and the New York Times” by employing Halliday’s (1985) SFG. The foregoing studies related to transitivity dealt only with stylistic analyses on literary works, email, debate discourse, and academic books. A number of studies were
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Similarly, the clause with the verb estimated is a verbal process when it has an explicit Sayer and projects what is said; but it is a relational process when it relates abstract nominal elements. For example:
material: action event
Process Type
‘behaving’
‘doing’ ‘doing’ ‘happening’
Category Meaning
Senser, Phenomenon
Behaver
Actor, Goal
Participant
Mona (Behaver) is crying.
Mother kicked the ball. Actor goal Niko hit the ball very hard. (circumstantial)
Example
Sayer, Target
Intensive Attributive - Niko (carrier) is talented. (Attribute) Intensive Identifying - Niko (Token) is the president. (Value)
He (sayer) said he was tired. (Verbiage)
2.
Study Corpus
Method
Fifteen (15) editorials from PDI constituted the Philippine corpus, while 15 editorials were taken from WP for the American corpus. The PDI is the most widely read broadsheet in the Philippines (Philippine Primer, 2016). On the other hand, the WP is an American daily newspaper that covers general-interest topics with emphasis on American politics. The editorials for this study were published on the following specific dates: February 27, 28, 29; March 1-18 and 31; and April 1, 2 of 2016.
2.1
The frequent use and the presence or absence of the six process types of a text could mean various implications. Hu (1994) explains that the use of a relatively larger proportion of a certain type of process is one of the elements reflecting the text characteristics. Hu further explicates that the material process as the dominant type characterizes technical directions and medical instructions; the verbal process ranks after the material process in English broadcasting; the existential process usually appears in the description of travel notes; and the mental process is mainly used in literary works to reveal the personality of relevant figures.
US Geological Survey estimated deposits of 122 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and 1.7 billion barrels of oil lie off the coast of Israel and under the Gaza Strip. (Relational)
US Geological Survey report estimated that deposits of 122 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and 1.7 billion barrels of oil lie off the coast of Israel and under the Gaza Strip. (Verbal)
As a remedy, the United States has instituted the H-1B visa program. (Mental process)
As a remedy, the United States instituted the H-1B visa program. (Relational process)
Some clauses though can be classified under more than one type of process, depending on their use in the text. Clauses with verbs, such as suggest and indicate, can be categorized as relational processes when the nominal elements in the transitivity structure are abstractions, or as mental processes when the meaning of the verb is making us think that. In the latter sense, the verbs are sources of projections according to Halliday and Martin (1993). For example:
identifying relational process with the Identified and the Identifier as the participants. Fourth, the behavioral process is typically human physiological and psychological behavior. Normally, a behavioral process has only one participant: the human Behaver. Being partly like the material process and the mental process, the behavioral process is the least distinct of all the six process types, especially in the language of science. Fifth, the verbal process is the process of saying. It characteristically involves three participants: the Sayer, the Receiver, and the Verbiage. The Sayer, the participant responsible for the verbal process, is typically but not necessarily conscious. The Receiver is the participant to whom the saying is directed. Nouns expressing verbal behavior such as question, story, and report characterize the Verbiage. Last, the existential process represents existence or happening through a process and a participant that is being said to exist, the Existent. Generally speaking, the existential process is realized by the There-construction in English, which has no representational function. In addition, no human participants are involved in the existential process. Table 1 shows the principal criteria for distinguishing the process types as posited by Halliday (2008).
Behavioral ‘sensing’ ‘seeing’ ‘feeling’ ‘thinking’
Table 1 Halliday’s (2008) criteria in determining the process types
mental: perception affection cognition
Token, Value Carrier, Attribute Identified, Identifier
There was a little house (existent) on the big prairie. (Circumstance)
Cognition: I (Senser) don’t understand his theory. (phenomenon) Affection: I (senser) fear the war. (phenomenon) Perception: I (senser) heard the music. (phenomenon)
‘being’ ‘attributing’ ‘identifying’
Existent
‘saying’
relational: attribution identification
‘existing’
Verbal
Existential
Some other examples of the behavioral process are sit, dance, sing, lie, down (near material processes); think, watch, look, listen (near mental processes); talk, gossip, grumble, chatter (near verbal processes); smile, laugh, cry, frown (physiological processes expressing states of consciousness); and sleep, breathe, cough, yawn (other physiological processes) (Halliday, 1994).
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The researchers chose the data in order to cover different pressing issues in society in three succeeding months of the same year. Generally, the selected data were classified as editorials of criticism and argumentation. The reason for selecting these editorials rests on the notion that these types, which are similar to editorials of attack, can stimulate interest of readership and call for change and action on serious issues. In this paper, the data, which were labeled as PDI and WP, were presented in simple frequency counts. Table 1 shows the titles of the editorials used as study corpus. Table 2 Editorial titles used as study corpus
(11) A Georgia Bill Shields Discrimination Against Gays
(10) A Better Way To Control The Banks
(9) Donald Trump ‘really not prepared to be president’
(8) The Sad Demise of the Summer Job
(7) HIV Toll on Black and Latino Men
(6) An All Out Assault
(5) Inside the Clinton’s Plan to Defeat Donald Trump
(4) Supreme Court Looks at Recusals in Capital Trials
(3) Should a Judge Rule on his Own Case?
(2) Dig Your Own Grave
(13) To the Debate
(12) Startling Bigotry
(11) Filipino Tragedy
(10) Vote of Confidence
(9) Teasers
(8)
(7)
(6)
(5)
(4)
(3)
(2)
(1)
Making it Real
Reclaim Edsa
China’s Ratchet Job
Say It Like It is
Election Eyesore
Start of the Binay’s Political Demise
PPP’S Big Loss
Restitution Required
PDI
(12) I’m not a Super Predator
WP
(13) Why Should ‘Never Trump’ Mean?
(14) Summit and Reality
(1) The First Shipment of Crude since the Embargo was Lifted in Israel
(14) Brazil’s Political Crisis Deepens
(15) Drought and Water
Data Analysis
(15) Growing Terrorism in Pakistan
2.2
Based on Halliday’s (1981) definition of transitivity (the grammar of the clause and as a structural unit for expressing a particular range of ideational meanings), the identification of the process types employed in the clauses of the two sets of corpora was set. The six processes defined by Halliday (2008), i.e., material, relational, mental, behavioral, verbal, and existential, were identified and categorized strictly based on the process categorization, process definition, and instantiation for process types set by Halliday. The help of an intercoder, who validated 30% of the data, was sought to guarantee the validity and reliability of the results.
Functional stylistic analysis...
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An example of data analysis is shown below.
In 2015, about 500 information technology employees at Southern California Edison were laid off, and were told they had to show the ropes to new hires recruited by contractors in India or lose their earned severance pay.
Results and Discussion
In the example identified as one clause, the underlined “were laid off” and “were told” are processes of “doing” with the goal “employees,” and “they had to show the ropes to new hires recruited by contractors in India or lose their earned severance pay” was a process of “saying” as it expressed what were told; thus, the clause was found with material and verbal processes. The clauses were marked according to the types of process identified. The frequencies of the process types were counted manually and recorded. 3.
A total of 725 clauses taken from PDI and WP were analyzed. All the six process types appeared in the selected editorials. The PDI editorials were found to have a total of 411 clauses, while the WP corpus had 314 clauses. It could be inferred that the PDI editorials had longer sentences as compared with the WP editorials. As a whole, the PDI editorials had marked high frequency of material process with 140, whereas the WP editorials were found to have high frequency of relational process (91) used. Moreover, in the WP editorials, material process ranked second with 83 occurrences, followed by mental (61), verbal (53), existential (20), and behavioral (6). Meanwhile, in the PDI editorials, relational process was the second most frequently used type, followed by mental (50), behavioral (35), existential (29), and verbal (25).
Verbal
Relational
Mental
Material
6
20
53
91
61
83
WP Editorials
411
35
29
25
132
50
140
PDI Editorials
Table 3 Frequencies of the six process types employed in the WP and PDI editorials
Existential
314
Total
Behavioral
Table 3 shows the six process types utilized in WP and PDI, which both have material, mental, and relational processes as the most frequently used. From the said types, the relational process has the highest frequency with 91 for WP; while in the case of PDI, the material processs is most frequently used with 140. Meanwhile, both newspapers have the behavioral process as the least frequently used type with six and 35 for WP and PDI, respectively.
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Material Process
(1)
The court of Appeals granted the petition of the Anti-Money Laundering Council (AMLC) to freeze the bank and other accounts of VP Binay. ( PDI-3)
The material process type was most frequently used in the PDI samples. Such a result is congruent with the findings of Yang (2001) and Wu (2004) in their studies of journalistic English news and editorials, and sports news, respectively, which found a high percentage of material processes. Out of 140 clauses of material processes in the PDI editorials, 98 had the Actors as the Subjects. The use of the Actor as the doer or subject of the clause rather than the Goal as the subject may hint the writer’s intention to focus the attention to who “does” and not to what is being done. This function is shown in these examples:
(2)
Also in 2013, the Comelec, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and then Department of the Interior and Local Government formed a watchdog group to monitor and arrest those who were littering the landscape. (PDI-4)
In the examples given, The court of Appeals, the Comelec, and the Department of Environment and the Department of the Interior and Local Government are all Actors, and with the presence of the concrete verbs granted and formed, they may give a strong implication about the personal intention of the writer to reveal the identities of those responsible for the actions. Hu (1994) explains that a text will contain a variety of transitivity process types; but the material process will predominate because the material world is the foundation in nature, and the human activity is the fundamental guarantee of human existence. Meanwhile, the material process in the WP editorials was relatively high as well. Of the 83 marked material processes in these samples, 46 had the Actors as the Subjects in the clauses. Therefore, such findings, like those in the PDI editorials, put emphasis on the Actors or the doer of actions. Relational Process Relational processes were found to be predominantly employed in the WP editorial samples. According to Halliday (2000), the relational process is essentially a process of being and the relationship between two things or concepts. Halliday (2000) subcategorized the relational process into Intensive Attributive, which basically suggests the relationship of “x carries attribute y” where quality, classification, or adjective is assigned to a participant (carrier); and Intensive Identifying where “x serves to define the identity of y.” In this study, the intensive attributive was found dominant in the relational process to describe rather than identify the participant (carrier). The following extracts illustrate the use of the relational process: (3)
They were confident that his incendiary remarks about immigrants, women and Muslims would make him unacceptable to many Americans. (WP-5)
Functional stylistic analysis...
Marco Rubio’s loss in Florida was a big setback, leaving two challengers to Mr. Trump. (WP-13)
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(4)
(5)
The “Vizconde massacre” is among the high- profile criminal cases in the country that remain open-ended. (PDI-11)
But the CSIS analysis is right: The long term goal of denying access to the area, including two large parts of the West Philippine Sea is clear. (PDI-6)
In extract (3), the Carriers “They” and “Muslims” are described as “confident“ and “unacceptable,” respectively, and in extract (4), the Carrier “Marco Rubio’s loss” is described “a big setback.” Both attributes confident and unacceptable present the readers with information about the Carriers. Through descriptions of the people involved in the editorial, the readers may fully understand why the writers come out with a stand or reaction, and they get to familiarize themselves with the key players in an issue. Halliday (1985) also posits that in scientific writing, the relational process perhaps tends to be the most informative process. An editorial, like any scientific writing, has texts of description, argumentation, or exposition; hence, the relational process is favored. The descriptiveness and preciseness of an editorial can be attributed to relational process as it serves to characterize and to identify (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004). The frequency of relational processes in the PDI samples is higher than that of the WP samples (91) and shows a slight difference to material processes of the PDI editorials (132). The PDI editorials, like the WP editorials, prefer the intensive attributive relational process to describe the Subject (Carrier), which could be a straightforward expression of views about relevant issues. There is a strong implication of detachment of readers’ focus on identifying the “who”; instead, the readers’ focus was directed to the attributes that create impact by knowing the descriptions of the topics. This is shown in these examples:
(6)
In these clauses, the readers are provided with some necessary information about the subject under discussion that give strong support for the argumentation to be made. In this case, relational processes are semantically impersonal, for they show the relation between two concepts and do not involve human participants in their transitivity structure, thus, making the presented information more objective, impersonal, and factual (Halliday, 2000; Martinez, 2001). Mental Process
The mental process accounts for the process of sensing and involves not material actions but phenomena best described as states of mind or psychological events. A mental process should have two participants, namely, the Senser (endowed with consciousness) and the Phenomenon (realized as a thing or as a fact) (Halliday, 2000). The mental process was found to be a frequent process type in the WP editorials. The frequency of the mental processes in the WP samples was higher (61) than that of the PDI editorials (50). The following examples show the use of the material process in the WP editorials:
64 Luzminda R. Valeriano and Rachelle B. Lintao
(7)
Some conservative leaders see Mr. Cruz as their best chance for maintaining their influence. (WP-2)
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(8)
Astonishingly, however, she appears to have felt she had political capital to spare last week when she appointed her predecessor and political mentor, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, to be chief of staff, a move that largely shields him for now from prosecution in the corruption scandal involving his ties to giant construction companies. (WP-14)
(9)
Should Davao City Mayor Rody Duterte run for president and win, the Philippines might become one of the safest destinations in the world for tourists. (PDI-4)
In example (7), the Senser “conservative leaders” endowed with consciousness, “see” the perception and “Mr. Cruz as their best chance for maintaining their influence” the phenomenon, may give an implication that WP editorials tend to use mental processes to persuade readers as strongly indicated by the Senser’s perception of events. Mental processes often relate human being’s consciousness and are viewed for subjectivity. Although American writers are known for maintaining objectivity and impartiality, the present study found that their use of mental processes revealed the persuasive strategy they employed in writing editorials. Meanwhile, example (8) conveys that the Senser “she” is perceived (“appears” the perception) “to have felt she had political capital” (phenomenon). The use of mental processes here is perceived as an effective strategy to make the readers believe in the ideas of the Senser. Wu (2004) confirms the persuasive function of mental processes in his study of English email used for academic discussion. The use of the material process in the WP editorials, which ranked third among the six process types, may prove that American editorialists attempt to persuade the readers to accept their ideas. In the PDI editorials, mental processes ranked fourth among the process types, which would imply the writers’ preference in using this type in argumentation. The two extracts below illustrate the use of the mental process in the PDI editorials.
(10)
Binay’s answer reflected current political conditions. A family that has been in public office over a long period of time enjoys what is called brand equity. ( PDI-8)
Examples (9) and (10) show the mental processes employed in the PDI samples. The verbs “might become” and “reflected” (perception) suggest what is perceived or predicted about “Philippines” (phenomenon) and the notion of how “current political conditions” (phenomenon) are seen in “Binay’s answer” (Senser), respectively. On the other hand, the verb “enjoys” (affective) reflects the strong liking for “what is called brand equity” (phenomenon) by “family” (Senser). Thus, the mental processes frequently used in both the WP and the PDI editorials make the readers believe and accept the writers’ ideas.
Functional stylistic analysis...
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Behavioral Process
(11)
These and other actions have taken place while China’s neighbors protested. (PDI-6)
Behavioral processes were least frequently used in the WP editorials (6), while PDI editorials (35) had a relatively high frequency of the said process type. The following extracts show the use of the behavioral process in the PDI editorials:
(12)
When he threatened to prosecute to the fullest extent of the law the Inquirer if this paper published the freezing of the assets of Jojo Binay et al. (PDI-4)
(13)
They toyed with phrases from a now infamous speech Clinton gave in 1996. (WP-12)
The woman won the legal battle and remained in her home.( WP-5)
The behavioral process typically reflects a human physiological and psychological behavior. This process has only one participant: the human Behaver. The verbs in the given examples “protested” and “threatened” may suggest the Behavers’ (i.e.,“China’s neighbors” and “he”) state of mind to be a crucial factor in the editorials’ aim to expose reality as it happens. The near absence of behavioral processes in the WP editorials may give the impression that writers avoid expressing their personal view on the psychological behavior of human agents, as gleaned from the following examples:
(14)
The verbs “remained” and “toyed” in the above examples were not as intense as the verbs “protested” and “threatened” used to reflect a psychological behavior of the Behaver in the PDI editorials. The behavioral process is the least salient among Halliday’s six process types. This was proven in Zheng’s (2014) study, which excluded behavioral processes from the statistical analysis because their extremely low percentage of occurrence would not affect the results. Verbal Process
The verbal process occurred more in the WP editorials (53) than in the PDI editorials (25). The participants of this process are the Sayer (participant who speaks), the Receiver (the one to whom verbalization is addressed), and the Verbiage (what is said). (15)
At an oral argument on Monday, the lawyer for Pennsylvania argued that a rule requiring recusal for former prosecutors would not be realistic, because many judges have prior experience as prosecutors. ( WP-3)
The Verbiage in the example may have assured the reliability of the text based on the sources presented. Thus, the WP editorials deem it crucial to cite sources to prove
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(17)
For all the well-documented brutality and heinousness of his late father’s rule- the numbers, the stories, the facts are there. ( PDI-1)
There is encouraging news in the fight against HIV in the United States. (WP-7) Yet there’s been no real effort by “Never Trump” leaders on Mr. Kasich’s behalf.
Conclusion
existed or happened. It seems that the readers are more interested in knowing what were done to someone and why such happened. However, existential processes are often used to denote and emphasize objectivity (Jin, 1996). In examples (17), (18), (19), and (20), the Existents, “encouraging news, the facts, the accounts in 242 banks and securities and insurance accounts” and “valiant efforts” are the only participants presented to distance the writers from the discourse in order to focus the readers’ attention to the arguments, thus, maintaining objectivity.
(18)
Because the accounts in 242 banks and securities and insurance accounts are there for public to see. ( PDI-1)
This paper investigated the similarities and differences in stylistic features of PDI and WP editorials using Halliday’s (2000) transitivity method. This study found that the WP editorials used more relational, material, mental, and verbal processes, while the PDI editorials employed more material, relational, mental, and behavioral processes. The two, however, showed similarity in the use of mental (ranking third) and existential (ranking fifth) process types. Nonetheless, all the process types appeared in the two sets of editorials. While WP preferred verbal over behavioral, PDI preferred behavioral to verbal processes. Based on the results, the stylistic features of the WP editorials give more emphasis on people’s character and attribute, which are important elements of the argumentative nature of editorials. The Americans’ culture of saying how they feel and think about people and events as objectively as possible by giving specific descriptions and identifications were reflected in the relational processes the editorialists employed. On the other hand, the PDI editorials focus on ‘what is done to someone’ and ‘who does it.’ In several editorial topics, Filipino writers tend to point fingers, holding specific people responsible for the irregularities committed in particular government transactions. Furthermore, the similar process types found in both sets of editorials could be attributed to the fact that Filipino writers were taught English the American way and standards. Some Filipino writers were exposed to the American culture of straightforward or direct-to-the-point manner of expression. Thus, though many Filipino writers have matured in their writing styles, they still follow certain American writing conventions, which they find more comfortable to use. Moreover, the presence of verbal and less of behavioral processes in the WP editorials would give a notion that the newspaper would focus on the information relayed in the Verbiage and the sources of evidence to stimulate readers’ interest toward the information. The presence of behavioral processes in the PDI editorials tends to implicate the Filipino style of affecting the emotional aspect of readers. Using words that reflect certain behaviors such as hostility, violence, charity, and the like can draw such emotional response from the readers. In addition, Filipinos are known for their interest to engage in ‘talks’ about people and their behavior. This study put forward that the transitivity system could be an effective tool to analyze the stylistic features of editorials. The results also revealed that in the application of process types, the stylistic features of editorials related to the expected or commonly observed style and purposes of editorials, i.e., informative, persuasive, argumentative, and purposive, could be realized. The results of the present investigation validated the findings of similar studies on the use of the transitivity method and proved that the frequent use or the mere presence or
4.
the credibility of information conveyed in editorial writing. Yang (2004), in her study of political news, also found that the use of verbal processes in the speeches of government officials or in their answers to journalists’ questions was high, which indicates that the use of verbal processes could reflect the authority of the news. In the same way, the Sayer in the WP editorials such as “the lawyer from Pennsylvania” stimulates authority, reliability, and persuasiveness. The extract below illustrates the use of the verbal process in one PDI editorial. (16)
Public Works Secretary Rogelio Singson said it was the concerned agencies way of supporting the ‘anti- epal’ campaign, or the citizens’ call on politicians not to use government projects as accessory resources to drumbeat their accomplishments at the expense of taxpayer money. (PDI-4)
It is also interesting to note that the identities of the Sayers in the PDI samples were revealed unlike in the WP editorials in which common nouns were used to anonymize the speakers. Existential Process
(19)
Existential processes concern whether or not something exists or happens (Halliday, 2000). This process type was found with low frequency both in the WP (20) and the PDI editorials (29) compared with the other process types in the corpus. The following examples show the existential process used in the WP and the PDI editorials:
(20)
To be sure, there are valiant efforts to remind people of the tens of thousands of men and women abducted, tortured, killed, or simply made to disappear by the Marcoses. (PDI-7) The purpose of an editorial is not only to argue and persuade readers to accept what the writers believe but to make the editorial informative as well, and for this purpose, existential processes in the text could be important to present facts and prove that something actually happened and really existed. However, the WP and the PDI editorials employed a few existential processes, which may imply the restrictions set in the minds of the writers to rather criticize or comment on an event or an issue than merely report something that
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even absence of the six process types of a text could have various implications. Hu (1994) in his book, Discourse Cohesion and Coherence, states that the use of a relatively larger proportion of a certain type of the transitivity process is one of the elements reflecting the text characteristics. A study by Zheng, Yang, and Ge (2014) revealed that transitivity system plays an important role in realizing the stylistic features of English-medium medical research articles and that the application of different process types in the articles’ different sections may be attributed to the purposes and style requirements of each section. Since the corpus for the present study is relatively limited, the findings may not be sufficient to conclusively prove the similarities and differences between the PDI and the WP editorials. It is suggested, therefore, that a larger set of data be employed to validate the findings of this study.
References
The study of stylistic features through the transitivity method provides some pedagogical implications. Stylistic analysis through the said method can help students have a sense of direction in analyzing the content, relevance, and essence of an editorial. Studying stylistic analysis may also aid them as writers to be aware of the proper use of process types, and in doing so, realize their role as writers and be more perceptive of the readers’ expectations. The use of transitivity can be a new avenue for these students to develop their critical thinking and skills in making sound judgments on serious topics. Meanwhile, in understanding the transitivity method, teachers can guide their students in the process of editorial writing. As a result, the students can develop certain appropriate styles in writing. Being knowledgeable about the similarities and differences of Philippine and American stylistic features as reflected in the PDI and WP editorials, respectively, both the teachers and the students can consider understanding the process types they prefer to employ in their editorials and, thus, avoid personal biases. Lastly, the similarities found in the use of the process types between the two cultures in this study will be an encouragement for Filipino students to write for American audience and vice-versa.
Pedagogical Implications
Halliday, M.A.K. (1967). Notes on transitivity and theme in English, Part 1. Journal of Linguistics, 3(1), 37-81. Halliday, M.A.K. (1971). Linguistic function and literary style: An inquiry into the language of William Golding’s “The Inheritors”. In S. Chatman (Ed.), Literary style: A symposium (pp. 45-47). New York: Oxford University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (1976). Types of process. In G.R. Kress (Ed.), Halliday: System and function in language (pp. 159-173). London: Oxford University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (1981). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. American Anthropologist, 83(3), 659-661. Halliday, M.A.K. (1985). Ch.3 dimensions of discourse analysis: Grammar. In T.A. van Dijk (Ed.), Handbook of discourse analysis: Vol. 2. Dimensions of discourse (pp. 29-56). London: Academic Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (2000). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold/Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (2001). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (2004, 2008). An introduction to functional grammar (3rd ed.). London: Edward Arnold/ Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Halliday, M.A.K., & Martin, J.R. (1993). Writing science: Literacy and discursive power. London: The Palmer Press. Halliday, M.A.K., & Matthiessen, C.N.I.M. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar. London: Hodder Arnold. Hopper, P., & Thompson, S.A. (1980). Transitivity in grammar and discourse. Language, 56(2), 251-299. Hu, Z.L. (1994). Discourse cohesion and coherence. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Kaplan, R. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education. Language Learning: A Journal of Research in Language Studies, 16(1-2), 1-20. Kress, G. (1985). Linguistic processes in sociocultural practice. Victoria: Deakin University Press. Jin, C.S. (1996). Language arts and disciplines. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Langacker, R.W. (1987). Foundations of cognitive grammar. USA: Stanford University Press. Le, E. (2010). Editorials and the power of media: Interweaving of socio-cultural identities. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Lehtoaro, L.K. (2013). Editorials, elections and persuasion: Semantic representation in ideologically polarized discourse in The New York Post and The New York Times. Univeristy of Eastern Finland. Liu, S.S. (1998). Outlines of western stylistics. Jinan: Shandong Education Press. Martinez, I. (2001). Impersonality in the research article as revealed by analysis of the transitivity structure. English for Specific Purposes, 20(3), 227-247. Philippine Primer. (2016). Major broadsheets in the Philippines. Retrieved from http://primer. com.ph/business/2016/02/20/major-broadsheets-in-the-philippines/ Renstrom, C. (2012). Discourses in the news: The case of occupy wall street in the New York Times and the New York Post. Department of English, Stockholms Universitet. Richardson, J.E. (2007). Analyzing newspapers: An approach from critical discourse Babii, E., & Ansary, H. (2005). On the effect of disciplinary variation on transitivity: The case of academic book reviews. Asian EFL Journal, 7(3), Artic. Caffarel, A., & Rechniewski, E. (2009). A systemic functional approach to analyzing and interpreting ideology: An illustration from French editorials. Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses, 22, 27-43. Connor, U., & Johns, A.M. (1990). Coherence in writing: Research and pedagogical perspectives. Alexandria, VA: Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Crystal, D. (1989). The English language. USA: Penguin Books. Cunanan, B.T. (2011). Using transitivity as a framework in a stylistic analysis of Virginia Woolf’s “Old Mrs. Rey”. Asian EFL Journal, 54, 69-79. Gong, J., & Fang, Y. (2005). An ideational functional analysis of argumentative discourse in English courts. Foreign Languages Research, 3, 11-16.
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analysis. USA: Palgrave Macmillan. Short, M.H. (1976). Why we sympathize with Lennie. Mal Journal, 1, 1-9. Thompson, G. (2000). Introducing functional grammar. London: Arnold/Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Wales, K. (1989). A dictionary of stylistics. USA: Longman. Yang, X.Y. (2001). A study of the style of editorial English. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 33(5), 367-373. Yang, X.Y. (2004). The stylistic characteristics of international politics news English. Foreign Languages Research, 3, 31-37. Yuli, S., & Yushan, Z. (2012). A comparison of transitivity system in English and Chinese. Cross-Cultural Communication, 8(4), 75-80. Zheng, S., Yang, A., & Ge, G. (2014). Functional stylistic analysis: Transitivity in Englishmedium medical research articles. International Journal of English Linguistics, 4(2), 12-25.
Keywords:
Introduction
Research article methodology, discourse features, obligatory moves, cyclicity of moves, rhetorical variability, high-impact journals
There is burgeoning interest in investigating targeted sub-genres of research articles apart from employing Swales’ (1994) CARS model, considered as a generalized model that apparently captures all research articles across disciplines. This study investigates the discourse features of methodology sections of research articles by employing Peacock’s (2011) framework. It is hoped that the established discourse features in this study may somehow serve as rhetorical guidelines in writing the methodology section attributable to ISI or high-impact journals and be adopted by non-ISI or non-high-impact academic writers in order to meet the standard criteria and writing-convention practices required by high-impact applied linguistics journals. Thirty (30) research articles extracted from high-impact and non-highimpact applied linguistics journals were comprehensively analyzed in terms of physical characteristics, rhetorical moves, and cyclicity of moves. The findings revealed that high-impact academic writers were more prolix with respect to the number of words and paragraphs in writing their methodology than non-highimpact academic writers. Moreover, it was found that there was one obligatory move (Move 1 Subjects/Materials) that both sets of academic writers employed. As the data suggested, Moves 3, Procedure, and 4, Data Analysis, seemed to be obligatory moves in non-high-impact journals. Conversely, the same moves seemed optional for some high-impact academic writers. Rhetorical variability was the probable reason for a number of cyclicity of moves found in the research article methodology sections produced by both sets of academic writers. Based on the results, several pedagogical implications and future research directions were provided.
Abstract
Rodrigo C. Morales University of Santo Tomas Graduate School, Manila, The Philippines Parañaque Science High School, Parañaque City, The Philippines
[email protected]
Discourse features of methodology sections of research articles in high-impact and non-high-impact applied linguistics journals
1.
The sophistication of research article (henceforth RA) writing, “the central genre of knowledge production” (Yang & Allison, 2003, p. 365), has led to a number of researchers investigating the RA’s parts and functions. In fact, the academic recognition that the Swalesian paradigm (1990, 2004) has received made the said model widely used in examining RAs written by ESL (English as a Second Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) academic writers (Anthony, 1999; Hirano, 2009; Ozturk, 2007; Samraj, 2002; Sheldon, 2011) as an effective
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“analytical tool for the analysis of the structural organizations of the RA introductions” (Hirano, 2009, p. 242). Dudley-Evans (2000) describes the CARS model as a leading key to enter a particular discourse community that requires its members to be informed with the writing conventions. These rhetorical requirements impose the discourse community members to justify their research contributions by hopefully filling up the vacuum of knowledge in a particular discipline. According to Dudley-Evans (2000), Swales’ and Feak’s (1994) CARS schema is considered a generalized model that captures all RAs in all academic disciplines. Its comprehensiveness is demonstrated by three major moves with corresponding obligatory and optional sub-moves as shown in Table 1.
a.
Table 1 Swales and Feak’s (1994) CARS model Move 1 Establishing a research territory
by showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way. (optional) by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area. (obligatory)
a.
by indicating a gap in the previous research, raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in some way. (obligatory)
b.
a.
4
3
2
1
Research aims/questions/hypotheses
Limitations
Data Analysis
Procedure
Location
Subjects/Materials
Author
Biomedical Engineering
Discipline
Move 1: Describing research procedures
Move
Move 2: Featuring methodological issues
Kanoksilapatham, 2012
Step 3: Identifying data sources
Step 2: Setting apparatus
Step 1: Describing participants, instruments, materials
Step 6: Declaring ethical statements
Step 5: Justifying a procedural decision
Step 4: Providing background of procedures
Step 3: Detailing methodological procedures
Step 2: Specifying protocolised procedures
Step 1: Announcing objectives
Step
Table 3 Proposed method moves from previous studies (Musa, Khamis, & Zanariah, 2015, p. 75)
According to Swales and Feak (1994), the research article method section is the easiest part to write, for it is the section that researchers write first. This could probably be the reason why a number of academic writers prioritize it in accomplishing the research design of their RAs. Thus, once the research design has been accomplished, the academic writers are ready to initiate the actual research work. Holmes (1997) claims that this fact may be attributed to the straightforward characteristic of writing this section. Musa, Khamis, and Zanariah (2015) elaborate that RAM “describes the procedures and experiments taken for obtaining findings for a study” (p. 74). More importantly, “it constitutes the key section in research papers because it serves to convince the readers on the validity of the procedures employed” (Kellet, 2004; Lim, 2006, as cited in Musa, Khamis, & Zanariah, p. 74). One important assumption of RAM was underscored by Swales and Feak (1990) positing that it is “enigmatic, swift, presumptive of language knowledge, not designed for replication, with little statement of rationale or discussion of the choices made” (p. 170). Furthermore, RAM’s primary aim is “to give the work plan of research” (Rajasekar, Philominathan, & Chinnathambi, 2013, p. 5). Musa, Khamis, and Zanariah (2015) presented an overview of RAM’s moves and steps from previous studies. Table 3 indicates three different RAM frameworks including the disciplines in which a particular schema was developed.
Move 2 Establishing a niche
Move 3 Occupying the niche
by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present research. (obligatory) by announcing principal findings. (optional) by indicating the structure of the RA. (optional)
b. c.
Recently, there has been growing interest in linguistically investigating specific sections or sub-genres of an RA. In particular, Peacock (2011) conducted one interesting study that dealt with the RA methodology (henceforth RAM) section. Peacock’s framework was derived from 288 RAMs across disciplines including Physics, Biology, Chemistry, and Environmental Science; Business; Language and Linguistics; Law; and Public and Social Administration. As a result, a seven-move scheme rhetorical organization was established as seen in Table 2. Table 2 Peacock’s (2011) move structure of method sections
5
Overview
Function
6
Move
7
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Step 2: Justifying the procedures
Step 1: Taking the measurements
Step 2: Describing the characteristics
Step 1: Describing the sample
Step 2: Describing the source for data collection
Step 1: Describing type of data collection
Step 4: Explaining findings
Step 3: Comparing findings
Step 2: Interpreting findings
Step 1: Announcing findings
Step
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Move 1: Describe study materials
Move 3: Describing data-analysis procedure
Move 2: Describing experimental procedure
Move 1: Describing data-collection procedure
Move 3: Reporting and consolidating findings
Move
Table 3 continued… Discipline
Medical Engineering
Medical Engineering
Move 2: Provide inclusion criteria
Move 3: Describe procedures
Move 4: Present the analysis of the experiment Step 1: Statistical test techniques
Among the RAM frameworks, Peacock’s was the only model obtained from a large corpus of 288 RAMs across eight disciplines. This may imply that Peacock’s schema is more reliable in terms of providing an account for variations prevalent in the structures of RAMs across disciplines. Therefore, this study adopted the said framework to achieve its research objectives.
Huang, 2014
Nwogu, 1997
Author
More recently, Musa, Khamis, and Zanariah (2015) investigated 60 RAMs in the fields of medical and biomedical engineering retrieved from Scopus websites. The said study attempted to analyze the rhetorical structures and the most frequent verbs found in RAMs. It was found that the compulsory moves, Describing the preliminary actions and Referring to previous studies, were achieved by biomedical engineering corpus, whereas Describing procedures was found to be an obligatory move under the medical discipline. The findings of the former suggested that referring to previous studies was a more important referential antecedent for biomedical engineers than the medical engineers, whereas the findings of the latter suggested that describing procedures was apparently a significant communicative purpose to achieve than other moves in the RAM. With regard to the most frequent verbs found in RAMs in particular, the study revealed that the structures of these verbs were in past tense and passive construction. This may mean that the rhetorical intent of RAMs was achieved. Analyzing how textual metadiscourse was employed in the research article introduction (henceforth RAI) and RAM, Jalilifar and Kabezadeh (2012) investigated 65 RAs retrieved from a number of international journals on applied linguistics. As far as instrumentation of the said study is concerned, Hyland’s (2004) schema on textual metadiscourse was employed, thus, aiming to shed light on the rhetorical activity using textual metadiscourse whose “meaning and use are relevant to a particular socio-rhetorical situation” (p. 24). The study revealed that the frequent use of transitional devices was evident and represented internal connections in the discourse, thereby, establishing an essential feature of academic argument. Likewise, both RAI and RAM employed cohesive arguments, which helped build the assumptions created by readers themselves. Kanoksilapatham (2011) developed a proposed model for biomedical engineering RAMs. The said schema involves three major moves with a number of steps under each move. Apparently, it was found that Move 1, Stating procedures, was an obligatory move for it occurred 100% in the study corpus; whereas Moves 2 and 3, Describing materials/ apparatus/participants and Stating results, respectively, were considered optional moves with less than 51% of occurrences in the RAM corpus. Conversely, there were obligatory and conventional steps under the said optional moves: the former was regarded as an obligatory step with 100% occurrence, Announcing results, while the latter was referred as a conventional step with less than 82% occurrence, Itemized materials. Kanoksilapatham emphasized the role of applied linguistics in understanding scientific discourse. She went on to mention that pedagogically, “rhetorical consciousness-raising should be instilled in learners” (p. 145) in the teaching of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). In another study, Pramoolsook, Li, and Wang (2015) compared the rhetorical variations of RAMs between the academic sub-fields of business such as management and marketing and explored the differences of the said sub-disciplines in terms of disciplinary concepts and practices. After analyzing 10 RAMs extracted from two prestigious journal articles in the field of management and marketing, Pramoolsook et al. claimed that Lim’s (2006, as cited in Pramoolsok, et al., 2015) framework used in their study failed to offer sufficient elaboration for the rhetorical organization of RAMs found in the research corpus. The problematic results may be attributed to the diversity of rhetorical patterns of RAMs in the corpus albeit Lim’s framework was yielded from the management corpus. Pedagogically, the researchers highly recommended the explicit instruction of the writing conventions of the method section for sub-discipline-specific kind of writing.
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PLOS One
High Educ
The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher
TESOL Quarterly
High-Impact Journals
1
1
2
2
7
No. of RAs
Asian EFL Journal
Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language Journal
The Asian ESP Journal Spring Edition
i-manager’s Journal of English Language Teaching
Reading in a Foreign Language
Non-High-Impact Journals
1
2
1
2
1
3
No. of RAs
1
1
2
European Journal of English Studies
TESL Canada Journal
1
1
Philippine ESL Journal
15
3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies
International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies
Journal of Language Studies
Total
1
Journal of English for Academic Purposes
Total
Data Gathering
Framework for Analysis
Peacock’s (2011) framework, Move Structure of Methods Sections, was employed. The organizational and rhetorical moves of RAMs were analytically explored to determine the overall structures of RAM sections of HIJ and NHIJ RAs under study.
2.3
2.2
As a result, a total of 30 RAMs was analyzed in the study: 15 RAMs were extracted from HIJ and another 15 from NHIJ. Adopting Moreno’s (2008) criteria of comparability of data under similar contextual conditions, all empirical RAs were singly written and were all taken from the field of applied linguistics. Moreover, these RAs were published from 2011 to 2015. The RAMs from the two journals have the total of 37,927 words.
15
Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education
Table 4 Distribution of RAs from HIJs and NHIJs
suggested by the researcher’s dissertation panelists. Table 4 presents the distribution of RAs in HIJs and NHIJs.
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Method
Thirty (30) empirical RAs were retrievable or accessible online. Fifteen RAs were extracted from ISI Applied Linguistics journals representing HIJ. Moreover, journal impact factors were employed as a parameter in assessing if an ISI journal RA belongs to HIJ, e.g., TESOL Quarterly. Conversely, 15 RAs were extracted from non-ISI Applied Linguistics journals representing NHIJ, e.g., Philippine ESL Journal. 2.
Research Corpus
In her earlier study, Kanoksilapatham (2005) investigated the rhetorical structures of 60 RAs extracted from the field of biochemistry. In particular, a four-scheme model of RAM was formulated: Move 1, Describing materials, with three corresponding Steps, namely, (1) Listing materials, (2) Detailing the source of the materials, and (3) Providing the background of the materials; Move 2, Describing experimental procedures, with three corresponding Steps, which include (1) Documenting established procedures, (2) Detailing procedures, and (3) Providing the background of the procedures; Move 3, Detailing equipment; and Move 4, Describing statistical procedures. The results revealed that Moves 1 and 2, with their respective steps, were considered obligatory, whereas Moves 3 and 4 were optional. Kanoksilapatham emphasized that literature as regards the investigation of RAMs is wanting because of the relatively little attention it receives from scholars across disciplines. Using the genre of medical RAs, Huang (2014) attempted to identify the rhetorical moves prevalent in the four sections of a medical RA: introduction, methodology, results, and discussion. Specifically, Huang found four typical rhetorical moves medical researchers employed in RAMs: Move 1, Describe study materials; Move 2, Provide inclusion criteria; Move 3, Describe procedures; and Move 4, Present the analysis of the experiment. Moreover, three among the four major moves were deemed as obligatory moves with 100% frequency, while Move 2 with 80% of frequency was considered as an optional move. The study recommended that future research should utilize larger corpus in order to further establish the proposed RAM framework. Using Nwogu’s (1997) framework for RAMs, Mozaheb, Saeidi, and Ahangari (2015) analyzed RAs from Iranian and English medical journals indexed under ISI to compare and contrast the rhetorical moves and steps of RAMs employed by nonnative Iranian speakers of English and native speakers of English. The results of the quantitative data yielded no significant difference between the two sets of samples in terms of moves and steps in the RAMs. Accordingly, the researchers prompted future researchers who are interested to publish their research outcomes in ISI journals to gain genre awareness. While a number of investigations on the organizational and rhetorical moves of RAMs have been explored, less attention has been paid to conduct studies on RAM in the context of high-impact journals (henceforth HIJ) and non-high-impact journals (henceforth NHIJ). It would seem, therefore, that further investigations are needed in order to fully characterize the apparently less-explored RAM, specifically the organizational and rhetorical moves used in the said contexts. This study aimed to comprehensively analyze the discourse features of some selected RAMs written by HIJ and NHIJ academic writers. Specifically, the present study sought answers to the following research questions: 1. How are the sampled RAMs structured in terms of word- and paragraph-level? 2. What major rhetorical moves and cyclicity of moves are evident in HIJ and NHIJ RAMs?
2.1
A total of 90 empirical RAs were extracted from seven HIJs, consisting of 35 RAs, and ten NHIJs, with 55 RAs. Fifteen (15) RAs from each journal category were randomly selected as
78 Rodrigo C. Morales
Data Analysis and Level of Analysis
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2.4
Coding Scheme
The physical structures (Simpson, 2000) of RAM sections were subjected to manual word and paragraph counting by the researcher. The level of analysis in determining the major moves in RAMs was the sentence level. Hence, “sentence-level analysis means looking at individual sentences and to be aware that a single sentence can constitute one move” (Peacock, 2011, p. 485). It should be noted that if there are two moves or steps in a sentence, the researcher should assign the schematic unit to the move or step that appears to be more salient. As far as elaborating the descriptions of obligatory, optional, and conventional moves utilized by the HIJ and NHIJ academic writers, Kanoksilapatham’s (2011) proposal was adopted underscoring that a move is deemed obligatory if it achieves 100% of occurrence. Conversely, an optional move is achieved if it garners 60% to 99%. Likewise, a move is considered conventional if it occurs 59% and below. As far as cyclicity of move is concerned, a series of the same move is considered one move as employed in this study, e.g., 1+1+1+3+3+4 is deemed as 1+3+4. 2.5
Provided below is a sample extracted from NHIJ. Using Peacock’s (2011) framework, any of the seven major moves are identified on the basis of their communicative purposes in each RAM from the two journal categories. Table 5 shows the seven major moves of the study’s framework and their respective functions.
Realized Move
Table 5 Realized moves of a RAM extracted from NHIJ Function
(M1M) A total of 16 RAs were analyzed in this study: eight RAs were written by Filipino authors and another eight by Japanese authors. (M1M) The said RAs were all singly written in English language and extracted from the field of applied linguistics. (M1M) Moreover, the duration, within which the RAs have been published, were from the years 2005 to 2010. (M1M) All RAs were published in international journals.
Move
To count as Move 1, the segment of the rhetorical feature states the participants/subjects and the instruments, tools, or materials used in the study.
*
1 Subjects/ Materials/ (M1M)
2 Location/ (M2M)
To count as Move 2, the segment of the rhetorical feature states where the research is conducted.
(M3M) RAs’ conclusion sections under study were subjected to word and paragraph counting to get the average length of RAs’ conclusion sections.
3 Procedures/ (M3M)
To be counted as Move 3, the segment of the rhetorical feature demonstrates how datacollection is employed in the study and how the collected data is carefully prepared for interpretation and analysis.
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5 Limitation/ (M5M)
4 Data Analysis/ (M4M)
Move
To be counted as Move 5, the segment of the text shows the boundaries or constraints of the study.
To count as Move 4, the segment of the text demonstrates how the collected data are analyzed by the researcher/s and how the collected data be presented in the results section of the RA. It also elaborates statistical treatment to measure the research variables in order to achieve the targeted data of the study.
Function
*
*
(M5M) As a limitation of the study, the number of pages in which the conclusion parts were written were not considered because all RAs’ conclusion sections did not seem to exceed to two pages.
(M4M) Furthermore, as part of the major contrastive analyses of all the RAs, rhetorical structures or organizational moves and their corresponding steps were analyzed to determine the overall structural components in the conclusion parts or sections of RAs under study, following Yang’s and Allison’s (2003) Conclusion model. (M4M) Moreover, the researcher asked two intercoders, who are English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers and have completed graduate education in English from reputable universities, to code the moves and steps in the conclusion sections of all the RAs. (M4M) Moreover, the intercoders were provided a hard copy of Yang’s and Allison’s (2003) Conclusion model for comprehensive directions and identification of the components found in the conclusion sections. (M4M) Trial sessions were done by the researcher with the intercoders before giving them two weeks to complete the task. (M4M) The researcher and the two intercoders met to analytically compare the coded moves and steps in the conclusion sections of RAs under study. (M4M) The preliminary intercoder agreement was 93% but reached 100% after listening to several justifications and settling some of the disagreements as regards the coded moves and steps found in the conclusion sections particularly written by Japanese authors under study.
Table 5 continued…
6 Research aims/ questions/ hypotheses/ (M6M)
To count as Move 6, the segment of the text displays the reiteration or delineation of the study’s objectives, research questions, and hypotheses.
Realized Move
7 Overview (M7M)
To be counted as Move 7, the segment of the rethorical feature summarizes, presents, or reviews the methodology of the study.
Limitation
* This rhetorical move had not been realized in the provided RAM sample.
2.6
As a limitation of the study, the analysis of the linguistic realization of the major moves found in the RAMs from the two journal categories was not employed. This means that although linguistic features would certainly assist the intercoders in distinguishing a particular move, explicit instructions as regards the functions of all the schematic units featured in the linguistic framework to be used in the study was done in advance.
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Intercoding
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2.7
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in presenting their research designs and methodological procedures. Thus, the more complex the research topics or problems are, the more likely the HIJ academic writers tend to describe comprehensively the research processes in their RAMs. These results further confirm Kellet (2004) and Lim’s (2006) assumption highlighting that a RAM is a significant section in an RA where academic writers employ their rhetorical persuasion to convince their audience as regards the validity of the research processes utilized in order to achieve the targeted data.
Table 7 Number of words, sentences, and paragraphs in RAM sections from high-impact and nonhigh-impact journals
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
722
266
920
432
3064
1011
1913
1141
1459
2437
2021
1048
NW a
9
5
2
7
4
21
6
17
12
9
24
12
7
NP b
526
1450
812
2191
841
427
1144
2595
2711
972
634
443
2136
6
12
10
4
20
5
3
9
20
21
7
3
5
14
NHIJ RAM Sections
12
1322
HIJ RAM Sections
13
To validate that a rhetorical move could be identified with a high degree of accuracy by trained coders, intercoder-reliability procedures were implemented by assigning two independent intercoders, who are both pursuing Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics degrees from reputable universities, to tag the major moves found in the RAM sections from 30% of the research corpus—such an approach was adopted from Kanoksilapatham’s (2011) study. Furthermore, the intercoders were oriented and trained as regards the framework for coding and were provided clear instructions on how to identify and code the major moves and how to determine the typical cyclicity of moves in RAMs. Moreover, the researcher conducted trial sessions with the intercoders before giving them two weeks to complete the given tasks. Likewise, the researcher and the two intercoders met to analytically compare the coded moves and the typical cyclicity of moves in the RAM sections of RAs.
Percentage Agreement (%)
522
Intercoder Reliability
Level of Agreement
10
To set the high reliability of the coded moves, the intercoder agreement was 90%, but it reached 94% after presenting a number of justifications with regard to RAMs, particularly a number of RAs extracted from HIJs. The percentage of agreement among the intercoders was computed as shown in Table 6. The result reveals that there is a high consistency (94.2%) with respect to the application of the coding system between and among the intercoders. Thus, the devised coding system is a reliable tool for tagging the major moves in the employed framework.
2.8
Value of Kappa
1887
1
14
140
94.2
329
Almost Perfect (High)
17,733
9
4
1182.2
149
MNP d
551
10
20,194
MNW c
Another probable reason why HIJ RAMs are longer than those in NHIJs is that a majority of the HIJ samples included different sections and subsections in their RAMs so that a large amount of details are apparently more organized and structured. This finding suggests that the inclusion of sections and subsections in writing HIJ RAMs could be a part of the publication guidelines provided by HIJs. Table 8 summarizes the obtained averages with respect to the major rhetorical moves in RAMs from the two journals. As revealed in Table 6, not all major moves, in
NW a, number of words NP b, number of paragraphs MNW c, mean of number of words MNP d, mean of number of paragraphs
1346
15
0.942
Results and Discussion
Table 6 Intercoder reliability analysis in kappa value
3.
Table 7 shows the varied length of RAMs published in HIJs and NHIJs in terms of the number of words and paragraphs. As revealed in Table 5, HIJ academic writers produced more words and paragraphs with samples totaling to 20,194 and 149, respectively, as opposed to NHIJ writers with 17,733 and 9, respectively. Specifically, the longest RAMs among the RAs from the two journals were RA No.8 from an HIJ sample with 3,064 words and 21 paragraphs, and RA No.5 from an NHIJ sample with 2,711 words and 21 paragraphs. On the contrary, the shortest RAMs were found in RA #11 among the HIJs with 266 words and two paragraphs, and in RA #15 among the NHIJs with 329 words and one paragraph. It appears that the HIJ academic writers are more prolix in rhetorically producing their RAMs than the NHIJ writers. The apparent prolixity that the HIJ academic writers have demonstrated in writing their RAMs could be attributed to the complexity of the research topics and problems of their RAs, and that could be the possible reason why the HIJ writers are more likely meticulous
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Feak’s (1994) assertion that the RAM straightforwardly stipulates “in various degrees of detail, methodology, materials, and procedures” (p. 156). Likewise, these results validate Kanoksilapatham’s (2011) assumption that stating procedures in a RAM is a compulsory move in the field of applied linguistics. The following extracts illustrate the realization of the obligatory moves, i.e., Moves 1, 3, and 4 in both journal categories:
Move 5 – Limitations
Move 4 – Data analysis
Move 3 – Procedure
Move 2 – Location
Move 1 – Subjects/materials
Move
13
0
87
93
0
100
HIJ %a
40
0
13
100
100
0
100
NHIJ %a
(M4M) Closed response items were analyzed by frequency and percentage, whereas content analysis was performed for the open questions, critical incident reports, and interview data. (M4M) An interpretive and naturalistic approach was taken to the qualitative data analysis, seeking to interpret the teachers’ experiences from their insider’s perspective (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). Specifically, the constant comparative method (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998; Merriam, 2001) was used to identify themes. (M4M) After identifying and coding significant units of meaning derived from reading the teachers’ responses, themes were constructed for grouping purposes. (M4M) The collected data was read repeatedly to clarify differences between the derived themes, and after the units were categorized, three core categories were established. (M4M) Following data analysis, member checks were used to elicit feedback on the aptness of the interpretation (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
RA No.5 (HIJ)/Move 4 (M4M), Data analysis
(M1M) A total of 30 Filipino participants took part in this study, 15 male and 15 female advanced L2 learners, all of whom were among the top 15 students in the third year level from Parañaque Science High School. (M1M) The average age in both groups was 15.
RA No.8 (NHIJ)/Move 1 (M1M), Subjects/materials
Modeling materials. (M1M) For the MG, three different video clips were created in which the researcher and the students’ English teacher carried out (i.e., modeled) each task. (M1M) Each video clip lasted about 2 minutes, and the MG viewed it once during the planning time prior to carrying out each task (i.e., watching a different task modeling video each time designing for a particular task). (M1M) Video scripts were written by the researcher prior to the recording in order to ensure that each task model (a) provided examples of paying attention to linguistic codes (i.e., producing LREs involving questions) and (b) demonstrated collaborative pair work patterns, with both learners providing various feedback types, responding to questions, and sharing ideas.
RA No.8 (HIJ)/Move 1 (M1M), Subjects/materials
general, were realized in HIJs and NHIJs, specifically Move 2, Location. Moreover, Move 5, Limitation, and Move 6, Research aims/questions/hypotheses, were not utilized in HIJs and NHIJs, respectively. It should be noted, however, that the size of corpus of the present study seemed limited, and these findings could be attributed to the concurrence of the corpus choice by the researcher.
Move 6 – Research aims/questions/hypotheses
13
Table 8 Average occurrence of major rhetorical moves of RAMs from high-impact and non-highimpact applied linguistics journals
Move 7 – Overview
As regards the obligatory moves in RAMs, the HIJ and the NHIJ academic writers could have considered it important to employ Move 1, Subjects/materials. It appears that both sets of academic writers might have seen the need to realize the communicative purpose of Move 1 because they probably want their readers to know how subjects are carefully selected to take part in the study and to elaborate in detail how materials are carefully prepared for the study. Moreover, it appears that the HIJ and the NHIJ writers might have wanted the readers to identify how the subjects and materials are likely manipulated to answer the research questions, and how the research variables are measured to come up with empirical data for further analysis. These findings further substantiate Huang’s (2014) and Kanoksilapatham’s (2005) assumptions that the typically employed rhetorical moves in a RAM are concerned with the detailed descriptions of the materials, samples, or participants and the discussion of particulars on how the obtained data will be scrutinized or analyzed. In addition, the data revealed that Move 3, Procedure, and Move 4, Data Analysis, seemed to be obligatory moves in NHIJs. On the other hand, the same moves seemed to be optional moves in HIJs with obtained means of 93% and 87%, respectively. It appears that procedure and data analysis are more important moves to employ in the framework for the NHIJ academic writers; however, the said moves are relatively less significant for the HIJ writers. These findings could be attributed to the rhetorical preferences of both HIJ and NHIJ writers because of the seemingly different research background and orientation. Also, it may be implied that the communicative purposes and functions of these moves should possibly be achieved among other major moves. Further, realizing Moves 1, 3, and 4 in Peacock’s (2011) framework would likely help the HIJ and the NHIJ writers convince their audience that their studies are of significance by showing them the clear and precise description of how the studies’ data were analyzed and explored, and the rationale behind the employment of particular procedures and analyses. These findings confirm Swales and
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RA No.1 (NHIJ) /Move 4 (M4M), Data analysis (M4M) In this study, I analyzed the data in the following phases according to the specific mixed methods purpose described earlier. (M4M) In phase One, I calculated participants’ scores on their content knowledge vocabulary assessments to assign the test passage and select 36 participants for the “familiar” and “unfamiliar” grouping. (M4M) After the think-aloud sessions were completed, I collected and coded the think-aloud protocols and interview responses from the participants qualitatively. RA No.1 (HIJ)/Move 3 (M3M), Procedure (M3M) The participants were randomly assigned to three equal groups of 50 students. The first group took Version 1, the second took Version 2, and the third took Version 3. All these versions were administered on computer. (M3M) After the VST, participants were required to finish the reading comprehension task (for distraction purposes). The meaning recall task, which participants were unaware of when they took the VST, followed the reading comprehension task. (M3M) Participants were allowed to take as much time as they needed to finish the recall task. RA No.6 (NHIJ)/Move 3 (M3M ), Procedure (M3M) Before the experiment, participants were notified of how the personal data collected would be used. (M3M) Participants were tested individually in a single session. (M3M) After a participant completed the English reading proficiency test, within a 30-minute time limit, they were instructed on how to complete the semantic relatedness judgment task. With respect to major Move 5, Limitation, NHIJs used it as a conventional move with 13% occurrence as compared with HIJs, which had zero occurrence. This result suggests that NHIJ academic writers more likely prefer to delineate the research restrictions and constraints of their studies. This delineation of limitation as far as research methodology is concerned may indicate that the NHIJ writers may have wanted their audience to refrain from spotting a loophole as regards the research design and processes they conceptualized. In this way, they apparently own their flaws by expressing the limitation of their RAMs. The following extracts exemplify the use of Move 5: RA No.15 (NHIJ)/Move 5 (M5M), Limitation A total of 16 RAs was analyzed in this study: eight RAs were written by Filipino authors and another eight by Japanese authors. The said RAs were all singly written in English language and extracted from the field of applied linguistics. Moreover, the duration, within which the RAs have been published, were from the years 2005 to 2010. All RAs were published in international journals. RAs’ conclusion sections under study
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were subjected to word and paragraph counting to get the average length of RAs’ conclusion sections. (M5M) As a limitation of the study, the number of pages in which the conclusion parts were written were not considered because all RAs’ conclusion sections did not seem to exceed to two pages.
Move 6, Research aims/questions/hypotheses, which was used by the HIJ academic writers who chose to delineate their research questions in their RAMs, obtained 13% occurrence; on the other hand, the NHIJ writers apparently decided to articulate the said move in the RAIs. It appears that the HIJ writers might have seen the need to outline their research questions or objectives in their RAMs, which is an optional move in Swales’ (1994, 2004) framework for RAIs. The said optional move may have given the HIJ writers the choice to express their research questions or objectives in writing their RAMs. The realization of Move 6 is shown in this extract:
RA No.7 (HIJ)/Move 6 (M6M), Research aims/questions/hypotheses
Research Questions
(M6M) What is the impact of sampling condition, including institution, genre, and timing condition, on the mean values of any given syntactic complexity measure? (M6M) Which measures show significant between-proficiency differences? What is the magnitude at which between-proficiency differences in each measure reach statistical significance? (M6M) What are the patterns of development for the measures that show significant between-proficiency differences? (M6M) What is the strength of the relationship between different pairs of syntactic complexity measures?
Given the information available in the corpus, I conceptualized proficiency level using school level. Following Wolfe-Quintero et al. (1998), I assumed that if a measure progresses linearly in a way that is significantly related to school level, it is potentially a good candidate for a developmental index. With this conceptualization and assumption, I analyzed the syntactic complexity of the essays in the corpus using the 14 measures, with the aim to answer the following four research questions. 1.
2.
3. 4.
As regards Move 7, Overview, NHIJs obtained a mean of 40% as compared with HIJs, which had a mean of 13%. These findings suggest that the NHIJ writers may have wanted their audience to be reminded of relevant details as far as the research processes are concerned, highlighting and retaining the outline of their RAMs. The following extracts illustrate Move 7:
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RA No.5 (HIJ)/Move 7 (M7M), Overview (M7M) Two effect sizes derived from the studies by Rezaee and Nourzadeh (2011) and Horst (2005) were based on the same samples. (M7M) Multiple effect sizes from the same sample distort the results of the meta-analysis; therefore, an adjustment was applied. (M7M) If a study produced two or more effect sizes from the same sample, the effect sizes were averaged. (M7M) For any studies providing multiple effect sizes from one control group with different experimental groups, an effect size that came from the largest sample size was chosen. (M7M) Table 2 shows the aggregated effect sizes for group contrasts, and Table 3 for pre–post contrasts. (M7M) The 34 studies included 43 unique effect sizes (22 effect sizes for group contrasts and 21 effect sizes for pre–post contrasts) and a total sample size of 3,942 participants. (M7M) The sample sizes of group contrasts ranged from 10 to 96 (M = 42.32) for experimental groups and 10 to 139 (M = 38.95) for control groups; thus, these studies had a similar number of participants in each group. (M7M) The sample sizes of the pre–post contrasts ranged from 10 to 216 (M = 51.29); this amount of variance in the sample sizes indicates the ease of conducting research without control groups. (M7M) After effect sizes for the two types of contrasts were calculated, they were entered into Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Version 2.2). RA No.7 (NHIJ)/Move 7 (M7M), Overview (M7M) This intervention study involved a longitudinal diary study to track the learners over time in their naturalistic environment in order to capture any changes in their L2 motivation, resulting from the motivational strategy training. (M7M) Ushioda (2001) argued that a more qualitative research approach should be adopted to investigate the dynamic and temporal dimensions of L2 motivation. (M7M) Crookes and Schmidt (1991) suggested that longitudinal diary studies offer a better way to explore the dynamics of motivation and provide interesting insights from the learners themselves. (M7M) In this study qualitative data collection and analysis methods were used. 10 Chinese EFL learners kept a diary of their English learning for a period of six months. (M7M) After keeping their diary for three months, they were randomly allocated to the two groups: five in the intervention group and five in the control group. (M7M) In order to test the effectiveness of motivational strategy training and the effect of the use of motivational strategies on students’ motivation, I (as an independent researcher) provided the intervention group with motivational strategy training outside the classroom from the fourth month to the six month. (M7M) The control group did not receive any treatment. (M7M) Differences in the L2 motivation of the two groups were examined.
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9
HIJ
13.00
60.00
Mean %
7
NHIJ
33.33
46.67
Mean %
53.5
Total Mean %
16.67
6.50
5
Table 9 Cyclicity of moves in RAMs from high-impact and non-high-impact applied linguistics journals
2
Cyclicity of Moves RAM
1+3
1+3+4
7+1+3+4
Conclusion
Table 9 demonstrates a number of cyclicity of moves in RAMs employed by HIJ and NHIJ academic writers. Based on the data in Table 7, three sequence patterns were employed by the two sets of writers. Both the HIJ and the NHIJ writers preferred the cyclicity of move 1+3+4 in the RAM sections. Specifically, the HIJ writers frequently used the said cyclicity of move with the obtained mean of 60%, while NHIJs garnered less than 47% in using the same move sequence. It appears that the three moves, subjects/materials, procedure, and data analysis, in the study’s framework are possibly found more significant to be realized by both sets of academic writers probably because these moves are involved in the experimental manipulation of data in their studies. In doing so, without likely realizing other moves, research questions could possibly be answered, thus, achieving the objectives of their studies. More so, HIJs seemed to favor the use of the cyclicity of move 1+3, for such was found in the two shortest RAMs among the samples from the HIJs, whereas NHIJs preferred to employ the cyclicity of move 7+1+3+4. It appears that the NHIJ academic writers may have wanted to prepare the readers for what to expect in their RAMs by realizing Move 7, Overview, first before moving on to the elaboration of research processes. Furthermore, the HIJ and the NHIJ writers utilized a variety of rhetorical patterns in their RAMs. In particular, HIJs used four different sequences of patterns apart from the two identified frequently employed cyclicity of moves. Conversely, NHIJs had three different sequences of patterns aside from the cyclicity of moves 1+3+4 and 7+1+3+4. These findings suggest that the variability of rhetorical preferences used by both sets of academic writers might have affected the choice of cyclicity of moves in the RAMs. In addition, the results imply that the academic writers’ research orientation and training from their respective discourse communities may play an important role in rhetorically shaping their RAMs. Furthermore, the rhetorical preferences of journal reviewers and scholars could have influenced the HIJ and the NHIJ academic writers to follow specific writing practices and conventions, and publication guidelines. It should be noted, however, that the size of the present research corpus was inadequate to determine the different sequences of patterns or cyclicity of moves preferred by both sets of academic writers. 4.
In summary, the present study attempted to determine the organizational and rhetorical moves employed by HIJ and NHIJ academic writers and to identify which among the major rhetorical moves in Peacock’s (2011) RAM framework were frequently used. Moreover, the
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Anthony, L. (1999). Writing research article introductions in software engineering: How accurate is a standard model? IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 42(1), 38-46. Dudley-Evans, T. (2000). Genre analysis: A key to a theory of ESP? Ibérica, 2, 1-10. Hirano, E. (2009). Research article introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A comparison between Brazilian Portuguese and English. English for Specific Purposes, 28, 240-250. Holmes, R. (1997). Genre analysis, and the social sciences: An investigation of the structure of research article discussion sections in three disciplines. English for Specific Purposes, 16(4), 321-337. Huang, D. (2014). Genre analysis of moves in medical research articles. Stylus, 5(1), 7-17. Hyland, K. (1999). Academic attribution: Citation and the construction of disciplinary knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 20(3), 341-367. Hyland, K. (2002). Options of identity in academic writing. ELT Journal, 56(4), 351-358. Hyland, K. (2004). Genre and second language writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Jalilifar, A., & Kabezadeh, F. (2012). A comparative study of textual metadiscourse markers in introduction and method sections of applied linguistics research articles. Journal of Language, Culture, and Translation (LCT), 1(1), 17-31. Kanoksilapatham B. (2011). Civil engineering research article introductions: Textual structure and linguistic characterization. Asian ESP Journal, 7(2), 55-84. Kanoksilapatham, B. (2005). Rhetorical structure of biochemistry research articles. English for Specific Purposes, 24, 269-292. Kellet, R. (2004). How to write the methods section of a research paper. RESPIRATORY CARE, 49(10), 1229-1232.
References
academic writers. A study employing Hyland’s (2002) taxonomy of writer identity is likewise recommended using the research corpus extracted from HIJ and NHIJ RAMs. The power of pronouns in RAMs appears to have received less attention in the literature; thus, further investigations as regards pronouns using Hyland’s model for writer identity might prove useful. Such an attempt could help explore more the rhetorical variations of RAMs between HIJs and NHIJs. This study not only demonstrates how academic writers establish the discourse organization of RAMs but also emphasizes how moves analysis provides an insight into the textual shape of the RAM section. In addition, it is hoped that the rhetorical moves and the cyclicity of moves used by academic writers from two different rhetorical contexts, whose publication guidelines may likely be varied in terms of how the RAM design is presented, would serve as rhetorical guidelines in writing the RAM section, specifically for NHIJ academic writers who aspire to publish their papers in HIJs. While the findings of the present study may still be inclusive as far as the rhetorical and the cyclicity of moves employed by HIJ and NHIJ academic writers are concerned, more studies with a larger corpus should be conducted to validate the rhetorical variability found in this study.
study investigated the varied length of RAMs published in HIJs and NHIJs in terms of the number of words and paragraphs. It was found that HIJ academic writers produced more words and paragraphs than NHIJ academic writers. These findings implied that HIJ writers had the tendency to provide greater elaboration in presenting the research processes or procedures in their RAMs as opposed to NHIJ writers. In addition, the seeming prolixity of HIJ writers could be attributed to the complexity of the research topic or problem of their studies. Hence, the more complex the RA is, the longer explanations are likely needed in presenting the research processes in RAMs. The seven-move model proposed by Peacock (2011) perhaps proved to be a reliable rhetorical schema; however, Move 2, Location, was not employed by both sets of academic writers. Likewise, Move 5, Limitation, was not found in HIJs. These findings could be attributed to the limited size of the present study’s corpus; thus, more studies tackling the same variables should be conducted to validate the said findings. With respect to rhetorical preferences, one move, i.e., Move 1, Subjects/materials, seemed to be obligatory in both journals. Also, as the data suggested, Moves 3, Procedure, and 4, Data Analysis, seemed obligatory in NHIJs but were considered optional in HIJs. These findings suggest that the employment of the said moves likely convince the readers to judge the validity of the studies. Also, these results further substantiate Huang’s (2014), Kanoksilapatham’s (2005), and Swales and Feak’s (1994) assumptions. Variations were found as regards the use of cyclicity of moves in the two journals. This finding may be attributed to the varied research orientation and training undertaken by HIJ and NHIJ writers. Another probable reason is that both sets of academic writers might have been influenced by the rhetorical preferences of journal reviewers and the specific journal publication guidelines. The findings of the study may be useful for ESL or EFL instructors who handle academic or research writing classes. ESL or EFL instructors may provide group-writing activities on how to write the methodology section of a research paper. As averred by Swales and Feak (1994), the RAM is the easiest RA section to write because it requires a straightforward writing style and the use of the simple past tense. According to Swales and Feak (1994), the RAM is the RA section usually written first by a number of academic writers. Adopting this assumption, Rajasekar, Philominathan, and Chinnathambi (2013) recommended that by writing the RAM section first and foremost, academic writers could initiate the actual research work. Furthermore, writing instructors may provide their students with explicit instructions on using the types of denotative reporting verbs corroborated by Hyland (1999), such as reporting verbs of research act (e.g., demonstrate, establish), cognition acts (e.g., understand, think), and discourse acts (e.g., account, suggest). In this way, the students would be able to carefully choose the appropriate verbs when writing a research paper, particularly the RAM section. As for future research directions, academic writers may compare the RAMs written by NHIJ Filipino academic writers and HIJ non-Filipino academic writers to further prove the findings of this study. Moreover, further studies can be undertaken to include some linguistic features such as nominalization, reporting verbs, and cohesive and hedging devices found in RAMs to provide more insights on the commonalities and differences between HIJ and NHIJ
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Lim, J.M.H. (2006). Method sections of management research articles: A pedagogically motivated qualitative study. English for Specific Purposes, 25(3), 282-309. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2005.07.001 Moreno, A.I. (2008). The importance of comparable corpora in cross-cultural studies. In U. Connor, E. Nagelhout, & W. Rozycki (Eds.), Contrastive rhetoric: Reaching to intercultural rhetoric (pp. 25-41). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Mozaheb, M., Saeidi, M., & Ahangari, S. (2015). A comparative genre-based study of research articles’ method and results sections authored by Iranian and English native speakers. MAGNT Research Report, 2(4), 172-184. Musa, N., Khamis, N., & Zanariah, J. (2015). The structure of method section in Engineering research articles. Asian Social Science, 11(17), 74-82. Nwogu, K.N. (1997). The medical research paper: Structure and functions. English for Specific Purposes, 16(2), 119-138. Ozturk, I. (2007). The textual organisation of research article introductions in applied linguistics: Variability within a single discipline. English for Specific Purposes, 26, 25-38. Peacock, M. (2011). The structure of the methods section in research articles across eight disciplines. Asian ESP Journal, 7(2), 98-124. Pramoolsook, I., Li, Q., & Wang, S. (2015). The methods sections in management and marketing research articles: Rhetorical variations between two sub-disciplines of business. times n, 1(2). 294-300. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18769/ijasos.29943 Rajasekar, S., Philominathan, P., & Chinnathambi, V. (2013). Research methodology. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0601009.pdf Samraj, B. (2002). Introductions in research articles: Variations across disciplines. English for Specific Purposes, 21, 1-17. Sheldon, E. (2011). Rhetorical differences in RA introductions written by English L1 and L2 and Castilian Spanish L1 writers. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 10, 238-251. doi:10.1016/j.jeap.2011.08.004 Simpson, J.M. (2000). Topical structure analysis of academic paragraphs in English and Spanish. Journal of Second Language Writing, 9(3), 293-309. Swales, J. (2004). Research genres: Explorations and applications. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Swales, J., & Feak, C. (1990). Academic writing for graduate students essential tasks and skills: A course for nonnative speakers of English. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Swales, J., & Feak, C. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students essential tasks and skills: A course for nonnative speakers of English. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Yang, R., & Allison, D. (2003). Research articles in applied linguistics: Moving from results to conclusions. English for Specific Purposes, 22, 365-385.
1.
Implications of pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge for the reading comprehension strategy instruction of teachers
Ma. Jhona B. Acuña University of Santo Tomas Graduate School, Manila, The Philippines Philippine Normal University, Manila, The Philippines
[email protected]
Abstract
Comprehension strategy instruction, instructional practices, pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge
This study is an attempt to investigate the relationship between theory and practice on teachers’ reading comprehension strategy instruction. One hundred twenty-one (121) Math, Science, and English language teachers participated in the present study. The descriptive research design was used to address the research problem at hand. A survey was administered to obtain the necessary information about the teachers’ perceptions on and awareness of teaching comprehension strategies, while observation of classes by experts was conducted to corroborate the perceptions of the teachers with their instructional practices. The measure of central tendency and correlation were the tools used to analyze the quantitative data. Pearson r was utilized to determine the relationship among the three variables (i.e., pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices), while the mean scores were computed to ascertain the beliefs, knowledge, and practices of the teachers. The results indicated that while teachers believed in the importance of comprehension strategy instruction, they hardly knew about its principles. Their ambiguous understanding of pedagogical content knowledge limited their use of comprehension strategies in instruction. Moreover, a significant correlation was established between the teachers’ beliefs and knowledge of their practices. However, the actual practices as observed by experts did not match the teachers’ perceptions on pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge. The study likewise revealed that the perceptions of the content-area teachers were not observed in their practices in comprehension strategy instruction. Keywords:
Introduction
The recent developments shaping the 21st-century economies and societies pose significant challenges, especially for basic education teachers. Skills required of the 21st-century students are changing fast with technological advancements; hence, 21st-century education and teachers must respond accordingly to such a challenging context. To prepare teachers in this environment marked by unstoppable changes, Donaldson et al. (2011) suggested a “state of the art knowledge as part of a more dynamic career-long teacher education” (p. 14). Even government and private institutions have partnered to achieve high-quality teaching for students’ successful learning. However, this can only be achieved if teachers continue to develop professionally and equip themselves with a new set of pedagogical competencies.
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Another view of reading in which this study was anchored is constructivist pedagogy (CP) as espoused by Richardson (2003). Drawn from the theory of constructivism,
1.2
Teacher Cognition Theory
Constructivist Pedagogy
This study is founded on the perspective that reading instruction has significantly changed from the traditional view of teachers as transmitters of knowledge to being facilitators in the classroom. Such is premised on the Teacher Cognition Theory espoused by Borg (2003; 2009), which states that teachers are active-thinking decision-makers who make instructional choices by drawing on complex, practically-oriented, personalized, and context-sensitive networks of knowledge, thoughts, and beliefs. The theory highlights ‘what teachers do and think’ and ‘what decisions they make and why.’ The teachers’ education, their personal experiences as learners, and their classroom experiences are the constructs that form the mental dimension of their cognition. The knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of teachers become the strong indicators of instructional classroom practices (Gunning, 2006). These are manifested in teachers’ decisions and choice of instructional materials (Borg, 2003). What teachers do in the classroom is guided by what they believe, which can act as filters through which instructional decisions are made (Pajares, 1992). The nature and the role of these beliefs are essential for understanding the choices and decisions teachers make. Handal and Herrington (2003) claim that what teachers bring to their classrooms are sets of beliefs about teaching and learning that were shaped through years of personal experience, perceptions of students they teach, choice of subjects and activities, decision-making, evaluation in the classrooms, teacher’s role definitions, and knowledge of teaching strategies. These beliefs ultimately interact with or influence the teachers’ planning and delivery of instructional procedures. As facilitators, cognitivist teachers regard readers not as mere recipients of information but as active builders of their own comprehension.
1.1
of studies that address the comparison of teachers’ beliefs and practices in teacher education (Ng, Nicholas, & Williams, 2010; Olafson & Schraw, 2006; Powers, Zippay, & Butler, 2006; Seymour & Osana, 2003; Theurer & Onofrey, 2006; Wilson, Grisham, & Smetana, 2009). However, Guthrie et al., (2004) noted that professional development on comprehension strategy instruction is lacking, particularly in the disciplines of Math, Science, and English. Notably, the study of Bernardo and Limjap (2003), which reported on mathematics teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and their implications for mathematics achievement of elementary and secondary students, is the only study that focused on pedagogical beliefs about reading comprehension instruction. Unlike the present study that focuses on the relationship of teachers’ beliefs and instructional practices, the study of Bernardo and Limjap only investigated the beliefs of teachers. As Chou (2008) contends, “The little amount of studies on investigating teacher’s beliefs’ in reading instruction have indicated an unclear picture of teacher’s belief construct in teaching reading” (p. 192). Alger (2007) suggests that research on pedagogical content knowledge of teachers must be conducted to explore more avenues on how teachers can be trained in strategy instruction. He claims that strategy instruction should be implemented in content-area classrooms so that teachers can be effective in addressing the needs of students.
In fact, the European Commission made this clear in 2004 (as cited in Donaldson, 2011), emphasizing the need for teachers to have extensive subject knowledge; a good knowledge of pedagogy, skills, and competencies to guide and support learners; and an understanding of the social and cultural dimensions of education. The need to continuously develop teacher quality was also reflected in the AsiaPacific Regional Education for All Report: A Synthesis of the National EFA Reports (UNESCO, 2015a). Highlighted in the report were the poor quality of teachers and teaching, and lack of a systematic teacher training and development. It was recommended that greater attention be given to the quality of education, specifically on learning outcomes, contents of learning, and teaching and learning practices. The report added that achieving quality education and learning is only possible by having competent, qualified, well-trained, and motivated teachers. In recent years, commitments to strengthening the quality of teachers in the Philippines have been the focus of initiatives for teacher training. Guided by the National Competency-Based Teaching Standards (NCBTS) as a framework, Filipino teachers recognize what effective teaching is in relation to students’ learning process. The framework also serves as a guide to teacher-development programs for hiring and promotion (UNESCO, 2015b). However, in spite of the implementation of educational reforms, there are still gaps as indicated in the Philippine Education for All 2015 Review Report (UNESCO, 2015b). As revealed in the said report, the results of the National Achievement Test (NAT) for elementary schools was 6% points away from the 75% targeted Mean Percent Score (MPS), with 68.9 MPS in the school year 2012-2013. The report further indicated that one of the main causes of low-quality education in the country is the deficiency in the necessary skills and competencies of teachers to deliver quality education. In the same report, the results of the Test of English Proficiency for Teachers (TEPT), which covers subtests on structure, written expression, and reading comprehension, show that only 50.53 % was attained. This confirms that teachers lack the minimum competencies needed to deliver the desired quality education as shown in the TEPT score of 50%, which indicates that the language proficiency of the teachers remains a challenge. Moreover, educational gaps that focus on instituting quality teaching and learning must also be addressed. Hence, this study was influenced by the EFA Report recommendation that to ensure the quality of teaching, there must be continuous professional development. Consequently, this study focuses on the competencies of K-5 and -6 English, Science, and Math teachers in teaching reading comprehension. A primary assumption of the present study is that reading comprehension strategy instruction (RCSI) is particularly suited for helping students learn to handle the increased instructional and textual demands they experience as they transition from lower-elementary to upper-elementary grade level. As they move from the primary to the intermediate level, the focus of their instruction shifts from “learning how to read to using reading to learn” (Roe, Stoodt-Hill, & Burns, 2007, p. 359). In this level, they are expected to read and understand increasingly more difficult materials in different content areas. To teach students to read in order to learn, teachers must be prepared on how different comprehension strategies can be taught to help their students who have relatively inadequate experience in reading expository texts found in K-5 and -6 textbooks. The three factors deemed important in this study are pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices of teachers. Previous literature shows a number
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‘constructivist pedagogy is thought of as the creation of classroom environments, activities, and methods that are grounded in a constructivist theory of learning, with goals that focus on individual students developing deep understanding in the subject matter of interest and habits of mind that aid in future learning. (p. 1631) Constructivism, a learning theory from which CP is premised, states that learners ‘construct’ their own understanding in an active, mental process of development. In an educational setting, the learners reflect on their experiences to build and create meaning and knowledge (Gray, 1997). When a new experience is encountered, the learners construct a new understanding of that experience. Richardson (2003) explains that constructivism is a theory of learning or meaning making. When individuals create ideas, the basis of an interaction is between what they already know and believe, and the ideas and knowledge with which they come into contact. Richardson (2003) proposed the five elements of constructivist pedagogy: (1) attention to the individual and respect for students’ backgrounds and developing understandings of and beliefs about elements of the domain; (2) facilitation of group dialogue that explores an element of the domain with the purpose of leading to the creation and shared understanding of a topic; (3) planned and often unplanned introduction of formal domain knowledge into the conversation through direct instruction, reference to text exploration of a Web site, or some other means; (4) provision of opportunities for students to determine, challenge, change or add to existing beliefs and understanding through engagement tasks that are structured for this purpose; and (5) development of students’ meta-awareness of their own understandings and learning processes. (p. 1626) Moreover, Richardson describes the constructivist classroom as such that the teacher provides students with opportunities to develop deep understandings of the material, internalize it, understand the nature of knowledge development, and develop complex cognitive maps that connect bodies of knowledge and understandings. Also, focus is given to develop the students’ thinking ability in various disciplines. Inasmuch as the constructivist classroom focuses on specific domains, the teachers’ content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) are likewise important. According to Richardson, these domains of knowledge “helps teachers in the interpretation of how students understand the materials, develop activities that support students when students explore concepts, hypothesis, and beliefs, guide discussions toward a shared understanding, provide guidance on the sources for additional formal knowledge and correcting misconceptions” (p. 1631). This shows the rationale for the teaching of reading strategies; that is, comprehension can be improved by teaching students to use specific cognitive strategies or to reason strategically when they encounter barriers in understanding what they read.
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1.3
Pedagogical Beliefs, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, and Instructional Practices
Based on the notion of comprehension strategy instruction, Cooper (2000) and Duke and Pearson (2002) describe comprehension strategies as procedures that guide students as they attempt to read and write. This means that readers employ cognitive strategies as they process the text actively when they generate questions about what is read. The values of cognitive strategies in comprehension instruction include: (1) their usefulness in the development of instructional procedures, and (2) learning of these procedures by students as aid in their reading and learning, independent of the teacher. However, comprehension strategy instruction alone is not sufficient for improving students’ reading comprehension. Previous studies (Hall, 2005; Keer & Verhaeghe, 2005; Pawan, 2008; Seymour & Osana, 2003) revealed the important role of teachers’ beliefs, especially in the content-area reading classroom. Generally, it is acknowledged that teachers possess pedagogical beliefs about reading and reading instruction, and that these beliefs and theories tend to shape the nature of their instructional practices (Kagan, 1992). 1.4
The relationship between teachers’ beliefs and instructional practices has been given attention in different disciplines such as Science and Math education (King, Shumow, & Lietz, 2000). This relationship has also drawn the attention of researchers and reading experts (Leu & Kinzer, 2003; Tompkins, 2003). To be effective, reading teachers’ beliefs must be aligned with their instructional framework and must implement such accurately. As teachers in the different learning areas, they must be knowledgeable about content-area reading instruction as Vacca and Vacca (2002) suggested. Although there is a popular assumption that they are not reading teachers, Vacca and Vacca emphasize that every teacher should be a reading teacher. Their content knowledge, together with pedagogical content knowledge of reading instruction, would help students better understand what they read in a particular content area (Ulusoy & Dedeoglu, 2011). Content-area teachers’ beliefs and understandings of teaching and learning play an important role in their classroom practices and professional growth. However, the opposite seems to happen in the classroom. Previous studies on teachers’ pedagogical beliefs outweigh the actions that teachers may take to provide instruction (Block & Parris, 2008; Calderhead, 1996; Sandvick, van Daal, & Ader, 2014). As Alger (2007) postulated, teachers make decisions about classroom instruction in light of the beliefs they hold about teaching and learning; and such beliefs influence their goals, procedures, materials, classroom-interaction patterns, roles, students, and the schools where they teach. Such assumptions are anchored on the theories on teacher cognition by Borg (2003; 2006) and constructivist pedagogy by Richardson (2003). Similarly, Vacca and Vacca (2005) and Kuzborska (2011) affirmed that teachers’ knowledge in and approaches to teaching reading are influenced by their schema and beliefs. This means that the teachers interpret and respond to new ideas in relation to their existing beliefs. They may recognize that students need additional strategies, but that does not ensure that they will embrace the task of teaching the strategies they perceive themselves to be knowledgeable about. Thus, beliefs may affect actions negatively when the teachers feel
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2.
Research Design
Method
inadequate in their respective classrooms, and such a situation may result in problems and disappointments (Bandura, 1986). Likewise, Alger (2007) attributes teachers’ actions in the classroom to entrenched beliefs and assumptions. He elaborates that, “Teachers have a tendency to teach the same way their master teachers taught or based their teaching decisions on the past experiences as a learner” (p. 621). In a similar vein, Sporer, Brunstein, and Keischke (2009) view that teachers’ decisions in the classroom is a manifestation of their beliefs on instructional procedures they experienced. Simply put, although teachers provide students with comprehension tasks informed by current research on comprehension process, it can be inferred that they may not employ the appropriate instructional strategies and procedures in teaching their students the reading strategies necessary to accomplish specific tasks. They may assume that the students were taught these strategies in previous grades, and that they would improve such through reading (Pressley, Wharton-McDonald, Mistretta-Hampston, & Echeveria, 1998). Guided by the theories on teacher cognition (Borg, 2003; 2006) and cognitive pedagogy (Richardson, 2003), this study examined the teachers’ pedagogical beliefs in teaching reading and matched them with their pedagogical content knowledge and reading comprehension strategy instruction in the content areas of Math, Science, and English. The present study intends to identify the pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and practices in comprehension instruction of K-5 and -6 teachers. It provides a substantial amount of information regarding the use and application of comprehension strategy instruction procedures in the classroom. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What are the pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and practices of elementary school teachers in reading comprehension strategy instruction? 2. What practices are used by elementary school teachers in reading comprehension strategy instruction as observed by experts? 3. Is there a difference between the private and the public school teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices? 4. Is there a congruence among the pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and practices of elementary school teachers in reading comprehension strategy instruction?
2.1
The descriptive research design was used in the present study to describe the collected information for analysis and correlation (Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007). To collect the descriptive data, survey-questionnaire and observation techniques were employed. The cross-sectional survey was administered to collect information from predetermined names of teachers (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2013). Observations of classes were conducted to describe the degree of relationship among the quantitative variables. The conduct of classes was video-recorded for later observation and analysis (Knupfer & McLellan, 2001). Observers (i.e., reading experts) were asked to describe, infer, and evaluate the behaviors
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Participants of the Study
of the teachers in the reading classroom. Further, to guarantee the accurate recording of instructional practices of the teachers, the expert observers were asked to accomplish an observation form designed by the researcher. Moreover, correlation was done to determine the extent of relationship among the teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices. In the analysis of data, the use of descriptive statistics yielded valuable information based on the statistical measures of central tendency and correlation. Insofar as in-depth discussion and analysis was needed to explain the quantitative data, the qualitative data collection likewise provided a comprehensive understanding of the quantitative results, which can only show the general relationship among the variables. The qualitative results helped clarify the outcomes obtained from the quantitative data (Knupfer & McLellan, 2001). 2.2
Data-Gathering Procedure
The purposive sampling method, a nonprobability means of sampling, was used to identify the participants for the present study following a predetermined set of criteria in reading comprehension instruction. The participants were selected and nominated by their respective school principals. Only teachers of English, Science, and Math who have been teaching for at least three years were included in the predetermined list provided by the principals. The participants’ rich and varied insights on reading comprehension instruction provided valuable results (Best & Kahn, 2003). Following Best and Kahns’ guidelines, this study was able to identify 121 respondents from different schools in the National Capital Region (NCR), particularly in Manila City, Quezon City, and Caloocan City. Forty-four (44) teacher-respondents were from Catholic Educational Association of the Philippines (CEAP) member schools, and 77 were from public elementary schools. Out of the 121 in-service teacher-participants, 32 from both private and public schools were selected for class observation. The rest participated as respondents of the survey. 2.3
Prior to data gathering, the researcher requested permission from the Office of the Secretary of Education, Department of Education (DepEd) Central Office to conduct the study in the divisions of Manila and Quezon City, NCR. Endorsement letters were acquired from the DepEd Central Office, the Regional Office, and the Division Offices. Upon acquiring approval from the Division Offices, coordination with principals in the different elementary schools was done based on the list provided by the Regional Office. On the other hand, the respondents from private schools came from member schools of the Manila Archdiocesan and Parochial Schools Association (MAPSA). The schools from Manila and Caloocan were identified and included in the study. The approval and endorsement to conduct the study in the chosen schools were sought from the Office of the President of MAPSA. To facilitate the data collection, the researcher personally conducted the distribution and retrieval of the survey questionnaires. The participants were asked to answer the questionnaire using a four-point Likert Scale (i.e., 4 – Always, 3 – Often, 2 – Rarely, and 1 – Never). Classes were also observed and video-recorded to capture the conduct of lessons.
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Research Instruments
Results and Discussion
_________________________________________________________________________________
2.4 Pedagogical Beliefs, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, and Instructional Practices Questionnaire (PBPCKIPQ)
3.
Pedagogical Beliefs, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, and Practices of Elementary School Teachers in Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction
The reading experts were asked to view the videos and then fill out the Explicit Reading Comprehension Instruction Observation Form adapted from Moore, Marinak, Henk, and Tomasetti’s (2000) Reading Observation Framework.
2.4.1
3.1
Pedagogical Beliefs in Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction
As shown in Table 1, the public school teachers obtained the highest scores for items 2 (M=3.91, SD=0.29) and 1 (M=3.65, SD=0.55) in terms of pedagogical beliefs in comprehension strategy instruction as compared with the private school teachers’ scores for items 4 (M=3.77, SD=0.42) and 1 (M=3.61, SD=0.61). Evidently, both groups of teachers believed that content-area teachers understand fully the features of comprehension strategies on predicting, questioning, identifying main ideas, and monitoring comprehension. Two other beliefs involve the awareness that comprehension strategies help students learn content in subject areas for public school teachers (M=3.91, SD=0.29) and the ability to bring about comprehension instruction tasks and routines in the classrooms for private school teachers (M=3.77, SD=0.56). Based on the data, all indicators have the verbal interpretation of Always, which means that the teachers deemed that pedagogical beliefs are important characteristics that teachers of reading must posses and that these beliefs are essential factors in comprehension strategy instruction. It is more likely that the teachers embraced the belief that comprehension instruction is highly beneficial to their students, particularly when the students encounter complex texts in their content-area classrooms (Hall, 2005).
3.1.1
Strategy with Gradual Release of Responsibility (GPS); and Independent Use of Strategy (IUS). The first component, EDS, is an explanation that focuses on what the strategy is, what knowledge is associated with it, why it is used in a given situation, why it is helpful in that situation, when can it be used, and how it is executed. Secondly, T/SMS shows the teachers’ demonstration or modeling of the strategic process of performing a think-aloud of the strategy in use. Through this process, the teachers share with students the thinking process one must go through to approach a task and complete it (Almasi, 2003). The third component, CUS, brings the teachers and the students to work together and figure out how may they apply the strategies. The teachers discuss with their students why some of the information are rejected but are likewise settled in other information. The discussion of difficulties and finding out solutions to these difficulties also happen in this stage. The teachers further provide feedback and encouragement, intervene when students are unresponsive, and assume responsibilities for completing a task (Duke & Pearson, 2002). The fourth component, GPS, pertains to the teachers’ and students’ practice using strategic processing under instructional circumstances (Almasi, 2003). To prepare the students for assuming responsibilities, the teachers provide feedback and build opportunities to assess and evaluate their own strategy use following the Gradual Release of Responsibility model of instruction. The teachers slowly withdraw their support until the students become independent of the teacher (Duke & Pearson, 2002). Lastly, in using IUS, the students assume near-total responsibility for determining what the strategy is and how to apply it. It is in this phase that the students own strategy use in reading a text.
The Explicit Reading Instruction Lesson Observation Form (ERILOF)
This instrument covered the general beliefs of K-5 and -6 elementary school teachers about teaching reading comprehension. The descriptors focused on the teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge, which were based on their experiences as teachers in content areas. In particular, the PBPCKIPQ determined the teachers’ amount of knowledge and full understanding of the strategies involved in comprehension strategy instruction. The instrument used was drawn from Almasi’s (2003) concept of strategic process instruction, which is consistent with Transactional Strategy Instruction and Direct Explanation (Duffy & Roehler, 1987). The instrument utilizes a four-point Likert scale measure, where 4 is interpreted to mean Always; 3, Often; 2, Rarely; and 1, Never. A coding system, which identifies the beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices, was used in which items 1-7 are categorized under beliefs. These items refer to the in-service philosophies and perceptions on reading strategy comprehension instruction in the content-area classroom. Statements 8-14 pertain to the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which refers to the teacher’s subject matter (content) knowledge and their general knowledge of reading pedagogy (instructional strategies). PCK includes identifying what teaching approaches fit the content and knowing how the elements of the content can be arranged for better teaching (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). Items 15-35 refer to the strategies and instructional activities or procedures of the teachers, which aim to help students learn how to coordinate and use a set of key comprehension strategies as they read a variety of texts. To draw accurate conclusions, the survey questionnaire was validated and subjected to item analysis in which item-total correlation was employed (Downie & Heath, 1984). Such a process excluded the items irrelevant to the teachers’ beliefs. 2.4.2
In addition to the survey questionnaire, classroom observations were also conducted using a tool indicating the name of the teacher being observed, grade and section of the class being observed, the subject area or discipline, date of observation, and the stages in the conduct of the lesson as witnessed by the expert observer. The observation tool adapted from the Reading Lesson Observation Framework designed by Moore, Marinak, Henk, and Tomasetti (2000) enabled the researcher to record and evaluate the use of comprehension instruction strategies as they occur in the class observations. All items in the observation checklist were regarded as best practices in teaching reading comprehension based on the validated questionnaire. Codes were used according to Duke and Pearson’s (2002) model on comprehension instruction, which includes the following five components: Explicit Description of Strategy (EDS); Teacher and/or Student Modeling of the Strategy in Action (T/SMS); Collaborative Use of the Strategy in Action (CUS); Guided Practice Using the
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100
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Verbal Interpretation
3.65
Mean
0.29
0.55
SD
Always
Always
Always
Verbal Interpretation
3.50
3.86
3.64
Mean
0.58
0.41
0.57
SD
Always
Always
Always
Verbal Interpretation
Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction
More importantly, as regards content area, the teachers believed that they were equipped with competencies in teaching reading. It can be implied that with the necessary teaching competencies, they may be able to provide the best comprehension strategy instruction. As they aspire to become competent in their respective reading classes, the content-area teachers may be bound to have sound decisions in their choice of appropriate activities that may have an impact on their teaching.
SD
Always
3.91
0.62
Overall (121)
Mean
0.61
Always
3.47
Public (77)
3.61
0.56
Always
Private (n = 44)
Table 1 Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs in reading comprehension strategy instruction Statement
1. understand fully the features of comprehension strategies such as predicting, questioning, identifying main ideas, and monitoring comprehension.
3.59
0.50
Content-area teachers . . .
2. are aware that comprehension strategies can help students learn content in different subject areas.
3.57
Always
3. acquire knowledge of and skills in teaching comprehension at the pre-service levels.
0.60
Always
Table 2 indicates the teachers’ reported pedagogical content knowledge in reading comprehension strategy instruction. The data show that both groups of teachers had the same two highest pedagogical content knowledge items. In particular, items 1 and 2 obtained the verbal interpretation of Always for private school teachers (M=3.64, SD=0.57; and M= 3.61, SD=0.53, respectively) and for public school teachers (M=3.52, SD=0.57; and M=3.48, SD=0.5, respectively). Further, it can be gleaned from the data that the private school teachers had a higher score compared with their counterpart. Nevertheless, both groups of teachers gave importance to comprehension strategy instruction by integrating reading strategies in their lessons and determining what, how, when, and why these strategies should be observed when processing a text. The two top choices of pedagogical content knowledge conformed to the teachers’ pedagogical
3.1.2
It seemed that the teachers’ pedagogical beliefs were revealed in their practice of comprehension strategy instruction (Borg, 2003; Gunning, 2006; Roe, Stoodt-Hill, & Burns, 2007). This implies that whatever the teachers do in the classroom can be traced through their pedagogical beliefs, which have been shaped through the years of personal experiences, perceptions of their students, curriculum changes, and definitions of teachers’ knowledge of general teaching strategies. These beliefs influenced the teachers’ planning and delivery of instruction. In contrast, the private school teachers had the lowest scores for items 7 (M=3.41, SD=0.58) and 5 (M=3.43, SD=0.62), while the public school teachers had the lowest scores for items 3 (M=3.47, SD=0.62) and 7 (M=3.52, SD=0.55). Both groups of teachers had a relatively less awareness of the principles of comprehension instruction that can guide them in their teaching; however, they differed in beliefs on items 5 (i.e., teachers use reading comprehension strategies in the teaching of their disciplines) and 3 (i.e., teachers acquire knowledge and skills in teaching comprehension at the pre-service levels). The data revealed that while the two groups of teachers gave importance to comprehension strategy instruction, they were not very much aware of the principles behind comprehension instruction and least believed that they acquired the knowledge and skills in teaching during their pre-service training. It is more likely that while lower ratings were assigned to some beliefs, the teachers still maintain that they demonstrated the characteristics and qualities of content-area teachers as reflected in the verbal interpretation of Always and the overall score (M=3.61, SD=0.06). However, it can be inferred that as teachers gained experience, they may have deteriorated in teaching reading strategies (Frayel, 2007). This can be attributed to the teacher-held belief that comprehension instruction is the responsibility of the English teacher alone (Hall, 2005; Spencer, Carter, Boon, & Simpson-Garcia, 2008); thus, an ambiguous understanding on the role of a content-area teacher is indicated in their least important beliefs on teaching strategies. It is also likely that whatever foundations the teachers had during their pre-service training were not within their beliefs. Thus, it can be assumed that the teachers’ personal beliefs about comprehension strategy instruction can reveal the sufficiency or insufficiency of knowledge they gained from the pre-service training (Biancarosa & Snow, 2004; Hall, 2005).
3.51
0.56
Always
Always
Always
3.59
0.56
Always
0.49
0.59
Always
3.48
0.06
3.67
3.56
0.54
Always
3.61
Always
Always
3.61
0.55
Always
0.51
0.62
Always
3.52
0.1
3.61
3.43
0.58
Always
3.62
Always
5. use reading comprehension strategies in the teaching of their disciplines.
3.55
0.58
Always
0.42
6. practice a combination of comprehension strategies in making learners understand texts.
3.41
0.07
3.77
7. have an awareness of the principles of comprehension instruction that guide them in their teaching.
3.59
4. believe in their ability to bring about comprehension instruction tasks and routines in the classrooms.
Overall
Implications of pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge...
103
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102
beliefs in understanding the features of comprehension strategies and these teachers’ awareness that such helps students in learning content subjects. It seems that the teachers are familiar with declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge in comprehension strategy instruction (Almasi, 2003; Archer & Hughes, 2011; Duke & Pearson, 2002). Thus, it is possible that the two groups of teachers are knowledgeable of what particular teaching approaches fit the content and how the elements of content can be arranged, as guided by their pedagogical content knowledge in different areas.
Verbal Interpretation
Private (n = 44) SD
Mean
Verbal Interpretation
Public (77) SD
Mean
SD
Verbal Interpretation
Overall (121)
Table 2 Teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge in reading comprehension strategy instruction Statement Mean
Practices of Elementary School Teachers in Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction
Table 3 Instructional practices of teachers
SD
Always
Verbal Interpretation
3.42
Mean
0.63
SD
Always
Verbal Interpretation
3.45
Mean
0.63
SD
Always
Verbal Interpretation
Overall (121)
Mean
0.62
Private (n = 44) Content-area teachers . . .
3.50
Statement
1. establish a specific goal for a reading episode, e.g., to learn new information about a topic, to enjoy a story by a favorite author, to review key concepts for an upcoming test.
Public (77)
Table 3 indicates that the private school teachers had higher scores for items 9 (M=3.75, SD= 0.43) and 12 (M=3.73, SD=0.45), while the public school teachers had lower scores for items 21 (M=3.62, SD=0.51) and 9 (M=3.61, SD=0.54). This would imply that both groups of teachers have always practiced instruction by identifying unfamiliar words or phrases in a text and uncover their meanings using context clues. Moreover, the private school teachers gave more attention to pictures and diagrams in a text to resolve comprehension breakdowns, whereas the public school teachers gave more emphasis on carefully selecting texts appropriate to the reading level of the students.
3.1.3
However, the least pedagogical content knowledge was item 6 (M=3.29, SD=0.66) for public school teachers, while item 3 (M=3.30, SD=0.59, for private school teachers; M=3.31, SD=0.61, for public school teachers) was almost common to both groups of teachers. The results revealed that the public school teachers had the least pedagogical content knowledge as regards explaining ‘the impact of the strategy on the understanding of a text,’ while the private school teachers had the least pedagogical knowledge on demonstrating to the students ‘as to when and where to apply a strategy in processing a text.’ Moreover, both groups of teachers had the least idea on providing ‘grounds or reasons for employing a strategy.’ This may imply that the teachers’ relatively little pedagogical content knowledge limits their use of comprehension strategies in their instruction. It is likely that they do not give explanations that focus on what strategy is used, what knowledge is associated with it, why it is being used, and how it is performed (Almasi, 2003; Archer & Hughes, 2011; Duke & Martin, 2008; Williams, 2008). The findings also revealed that the teachers’ least choices conflicted with their pedagogical beliefs. It seemed that the teachers had a superficial understanding of the basic principles of comprehension strategy instruction, which contradicts the characteristics of a contentarea teacher who should be engaged in strategy instruction.
Always
Content-area teachers . . .
0.52
Always
Always
3.53
0.61
Always
0.57
Always
3.31
0.63
3.56
0.50
Always
3.43
Always
3.48
0.61
Always
0.57
Always
3.31
0.65
3.52
0.53
Always
3.40
Always
3.61
0.59
Always
0.57
2. understand comprehension strategies as to what, how, when, and why they should be observed in processing a text.
3.30
0.58
3.64
3. provide grounds or reasons for employing the strategy.
3.48
1. prepare lessons integrating comprehension strategies with their teaching.
4. prompt students if their understanding fails.
Always
Always
Always
Always
0.65
0.05
0.56
0.62
3.35
3.42
3.42
3.34
Always
Always
Always
Always
0.57
0.08
0.54
0.66
3.32
3.39
3.39
3.29
Always
Always
Always
Always
0.68
0.04
0.58
0.62
3.39
3.43
5. demonstrate to the students as to when and where to apply a strategy in processing a text. 6. explain the impact of the strategy on the understanding of a text.
3.48
3.48
7. justify that certain comprehension strategies are suitable for a particular goal.
Overall
Implications of pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge...
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Table 3 continued . . .
104
Table 3 continued...
SD
Verbal Interpretation
Overall (121)
Mean
Public (77)
Verbal Interpretation
Private (n = 44)
SD
Statement
Mean
Overall (121)
Verbal Interpretation
Often
Public (77)
SD
0.62
Always
Private (n = 44)
Mean
3.20
0.55
Always
Statement
Content-area teachers . . .
Often
3.61
0.61
Always
0.51
Always
3.49
0.57
Always
3.56
0.56
Verbal Interpretation
0.68
Always
3.43
0.60
SD
3.18
0.59
Always
3.36
Mean
Often
3.55
0.63
Always
Verbal Interpretation
0.52
Always
3.39
0.61
SD
3.23
0.45
Always
3.31
Mean
11. notice inconsistencies or contradictory statements in a text.
3.73
0.58
Always
Verbal Interpretation
12. pay attention to pictures and diagrams presented in a text to enhance understanding or to resolve comprehension breakdowns.
3.50
0.58
SD
13. create mental images of text content.
3.45
Mean
14. infer and draw conclusions from unstated information.
Content-area teachers . . .
Always
0.62
0.57
Always
Always
17. identify breakdowns in text-level understanding while reading.
16. create graphic representations of text content (story maps, concept maps, flow charts).
3.16
3.48
3.36
0.60
0.66
0.61
Often
Always
Always
3.26
3.27
3.22
0.52
0.64
0.70
Always
Always
Always
Often
3.43
3.22
3.35
3.27
0.54
0.55
0.65
0.67
Always
Often
Always
Always
Always
Always
0.60
Often
3.40
3.60
0.60
3.45
0.56
Always
Always
3.45
Always
3.23
0.65
0.57
Always
0.56
Often
3.38
3.53
0.61
3.40
0.56
Always
Always
3.40
Always
3.19
0.58
0.55
Always
0.66
Always
0.58
3.55
0.55
3.52
4. make predictions on what will happen in an upcoming segment of a text. 3.30
15. identify the structural and organizational flow of a text and use this information to guide one’s reading.
2. activate background knowledge of students before reading a text and linking background knowledge to text content while reading.
5. evaluate and revise these predictions as new information is encountered. 3.43
3.68
6. ask questions (of oneself) while reading.
3.70
3. teach the most important information in the text and distinguish important text content from insignificant content.
7. identify potentially confusing words or phrases in a text and use contextual information or other resources to figure out what they mean.
0.54
Always
3.42
0.60
Always
3.47
0.54
Always
3.45
0.59
Always
3.45
0.55
Always
3.40
0.62
Always
3.50
0.55
8. identify confusing segment of texts and use a variety of strategies to clear them up.
18. synthesize the most important information in a text, either by stopping periodically while reading or by reviewing text content after reading.
3.35
Always
Always
0.51
0.54
3.66
3.48
Always
19. demonstrate a strategic process or perform a thinkaloud of the thoughts that occur while reading and using strategies.
Always
0.54
0.58
3.61
3.41
Always
Always
0.43
0.59
3.75
3.42
9. identify unfamiliar words or phrases in a text and uncover meaning through context clues.
Always
3.41
0.58
10. preview or skim a text to form a preliminary understanding of the content that will be encountered.
Ma. Jhona B. Acuña
Always
Always
Verbal Interpretation
Public (77) SD
0.55
0.51
3.60
3.42
Mean
0.52
0.59
SD
Always
Always
Verbal Interpretation
Overall (121)
Implications of pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge...
107
_________________________________________________________________________________
106
3.62
3.45
Mean
_________________________________________________________________________________
Verbal Interpretation
Private (n = 44) SD
Always
Always
Teachers’ Practices in Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction as Observed by Experts
Table 3 continued . . .
Mean
Statement Content-area teachers . . .
0.64
0.54
Table 4 shows that items 9 and 7 are the top-ranking explicit practices in reading strategy instruction with a verbal interpretation of Observed (M=2.97, SD=0.69; M=2.95, SD=0.46); item 9 (i.e., ‘the teacher designed/selected practice activity/task that allows the students to work collaboratively’) is the most observed, followed by item 7 (i.e., ‘the teacher guided the students in performing the strategy by providing them with adequate range of examples through physical, verbal, or visual prompts’). Both items with the same verbal interpretation imply that the experts’ observed explicit reading comprehension strategy instruction was of satisfactory quality. It is possible though that the teachers encountered difficulty in implementing comprehension strategy instruction, which can be traced from their inability to use specific techniques and procedures in providing their students with explicit explanations on how to think their way through the text (Hall, 2005). What students cannot do in applying a strategy is a reflection of the teachers’ inability to explain, demonstrate, and provide necessary activities. The teachers’ lack of ability to handle comprehension instruction disputes the assumption that all teachers can conduct effective instruction. Ideally, teachers are adaptive and responsive, apply re-teaching, illustrate the depth of comprehension lessons, provide quality-learning environments, and know how to motivate and monitor students (Parris & Block, 2007). In most cases, the professional development of teachers begins with confusion or rejection before taking conscious control of teaching strategies by naming them and telling students why they are important. Eventually, the students learn to model the strategies and texts together (Block & Duffy, 2008). On the other hand, the two least observed practices identified by the experts were items 5 (M=2.03, SD=0.76) and 2 (M=2.14, SD=0.57); thus, modeling and think aloud, and clear explanation about the strategy and guided practice of strategy use were not evident. While such results contradict the teachers’ pedagogical beliefs in their reading comprehension strategy instruction, the verbal interpretation of Recommended would imply that the said strategies were either not observed or were judged to be of unsatisfactory quality. This further proves that the participants of the present study may only have some degree of familiarity with the concept of reading comprehension strategies, which may have resulted in the lack of competencies in reading comprehension strategy instruction. Such a context outweighs the pedagogical beliefs they integrate in their lessons (Block & Parris, 2008; Calderhead, 1996; Kuzborska, 2011; Vacca & Vacca, 2005). With the heavy and complex load in content-area classrooms emerges “the need for professional updating to continuously develop teacher quality” (UNESCO, 2015, p. 53).
3.2
comprehension strategy instruction. They may lack the knowledge necessary for teaching vocabulary and comprehension. One reason for this is that teachers may spend less time explicitly teaching vocabulary, which can be traced from their pre-service orientation (Emily, Kennedy, Pullen, Williams, & Hirsch, 2011). Such concurs with the findings from the study of Bowne, Yoshikawa, and Snow (2015), which found that teacher-education programs might not provide pertinent information required in teaching reading. The teachers’ ability to understand and implement these teaching techniques is likely to shape the effectiveness of their instruction in improving their students’ vocabulary.
3.36
3.57
20. provide students with substantive feedback so they may have opportunities to practice the strategy use. 21. select texts carefully to ensure appropriacy to the reading level of the students..
It can be inferred that both groups of teachers emphasize the importance of context clues and graphics as aids or prompts when presenting new words and concepts. The high mean ratings given to these items indicate that the teachers practice vocabulary strategies instruction as one essential factor in developing comprehension. The strong connection between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension has long been established in comprehension instruction (Sedita, 2005; Vacca & Vacca, 2005). In most instances, students experience difficulty in comprehension because they lack strong vocabulary competencies in the content-area classroom. With a heavy concept load on content-specific and academic vocabulary to be learned by the students, vocabulary instruction becomes the responsibility of content-area teachers (Richardson, Morgan, & Fleener, 2012). Moreover, teachers can also help their students extract information from graphic aids in texts, paying attention to visual displays that let the students picture and remember word relationships. These visuals enhance vocabulary strategies whenever readers associate with images the experiences, actions, and dialogues in a text (Gee, 2008; Gunning, 2003). It is likely that the teachers have the necessary competencies to teach vocabulary to increase their student’s comprehension of content materials. The results also show that the teachers may give importance to word and conceptual knowledge, and conceptual relationships (Roe, Stoodt-Hill, & Burns, 2007) by providing instructional activities for vocabulary development. In contrast, the least instructional practices done by the teachers were items 17 (M=3.16, SD=0.60) for the private school teachers, and 5 (M=3.19, SD=0.56) for the public school teachers. Almost equally given the lower score was item 11 (M=3.18, SD=0.68 for public school teachers; M=3.23, SD=0.52 for private school teachers). It can be gleaned from the data that the teachers only often (a) implement instructional practices such as identifying breakdowns in text-level understanding while reading, (b) evaluate and revise predictions as new information is encountered, and (c) notice inconsistencies or contradictory statements in a text. Moreover, it can be inferred that both groups of teachers do not fully implement most of the valued strategies in comprehension instruction. They may recognize that their students need additional strategies, but such does not ensure that they will embrace the task of teaching the strategies they perceived themselves to be knowledgeable about, thus, resulting in problems and disappointments. The results imply that both groups of teachers may encounter difficulties because of their limited knowledge about procedures in
Ma. Jhona B. Acuña
3. The teacher clarified and verified students’ understanding of the strategy.
2. The teacher provided a clear explanation about the structure of the skill or strategy to be learned and described when, why, and how it could be used.
1. The teacher began the lesson with a clear statement of the lesson’s goals and expectations.
Indicator
2.44
2.31
2.14
2.57
Mean
0.76
1.99
0.62
0.57
0.72
SD
Recommended
Recommended
Recommended
Recommended
Recommended
Observed
Verbal Interpretation
13. The teacher provided opportunities for the students throughout the lesson to self-monitor and directed their comprehension and participation.
12. The teacher constantly monitored students’ understanding of their engagement in the lesson to make sure that they are deriving meaning from instruction.
11. The teacher continually monitored students’ comprehension and provided appropriate feedback.
10. The teacher directed the students to generate higher level thinking questions about the text.
9. The teacher designed/selected a practice activity/task that allows the students to work collaboratively.
2.64
2.65
2.90
2.83
2.67
2.97
0.58
0.56
0.50
0.44
0.47
0.61
0.69
Observed
Recommended
Observed
Observed
Observed
Observed
Observed
Observed
Variable Pedagogical Beliefs Pedagogical Content Knowledge Instructional Practices
Implications of pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge...
Public
Private
Public
Private
Public
Private
School
3.40
3.48
3.39
3.47
3.62
3.59
Mean
0.37
0.34
0.38
0.42
0.36
0.36
SD
109
0.086
0.087
0.030
Mean Difference
1.261
1.160
-0.440
t-value
0.210
0.248
0.661
p-value
Not significant
Not significant
Not significant
Interpretation
Table 5 Comparison between public and private school teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices
Table 5 gives the summary of the comparison between the public and the private school teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices. For pedagogical beliefs, the mean score of the private school teachers is 3.59 with the standard deviation of 0.36, while the mean score of the public school teachers is 3.62 with the standard deviation of 0.36.
Comparison between Public and Private School Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, and Instructional Practices
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4. The teacher shared inner thoughts by modeling the thinking process to demonstrate the strategy being taught. 2.03 0.79
Observed
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5. The teacher modeled fluent reading then asked the students to think aloud about sections in the text. 2.28
0.46
3.3.
6. The teacher guided the students to confirm or disprove predictions they made about a text. 2.95
Table 4 Teachers’ practices in reading comprehension strategy instruction as observed by experts
7. The teacher guided the students in performing the strategy by providing them with adequate range of examples through physical, verbal, or visual prompts.
14. The teacher regulated the amount of help provided to students based on the difficulty level of the strategy being taught.
2.49
0.59
Observed
2.54
15 The teacher asked students to perform the strategy without prompts.
2.67
0.73
8. The teacher and the students used multiple strategies, rather than using only one strategy at a time before, during, and after reading.
16. The teacher implemented self-directed activities for students to work independently with little teacher direction.
The mean difference between the two scores is 0.030 in which the computed t-value is -0.440 with the p-value of 0.661. As regards pedagogical content knowledge, the mean score of the private school teachers is 3.47 with the standard deviation of 0.42, while the mean score of the public school teachers is 3.39 with the standard deviation of 0.38. The mean difference between the two scores is 0.087 in which the computed t-value is 1.160 with the p-value of 0.248. For instructional practices, the mean score of the private school teachers is 3.48 with the standard deviation of 0.34, while the mean score of the public school teachers is 3.40 with the standard deviation of 0.37. The mean difference between the two scores is 0.086, and the computed t-value is 1.261 with the p-value of 0.210 at 0.05 level of significance. Evidently, there is no significant difference between the public and the private school teachers’ responses in terms of their pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices. This finding implies that both sets of elementary school teachers have the same pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices. Content-area teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, and competencies, therefore, are crucial in reading comprehension strategy instruction in different disciplines. The teachers’ instructional choices are based on their knowledge of teaching strategies and their thoughts, attitudes, beliefs about teaching and learning, perceptions of students, educational background, personal and classroom experiences as learners, and concept of teacher roles. These factors are indicators of classroom practices, decisions, and choice of materials and activities (Borg, 2003; 2009; Gunning, 2006; Handal & Herrington, 2003; Pajares, 1992). Whatever instructional strategies and procedures the teachers choose depend on the pedagogical beliefs and pedagogical
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knowledge they have gained through the years. It is likely that all K-5 and -6 teachers in this study may or may not have undertaken explicit comprehension strategy instruction and may have the same professional needs in terms of pedagogy training in content areas. 3.4
Pedagogical Beliefs and Instructional Practices 0.609
0.574
Correlation Coefficient
0.000
0.000
0.000
p-value
Significant
Significant
Significant
Interpretation
Pair of Variables
Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Beliefs
0.646
4.
Conclusion
Based on the findings, it can be inferred that what the teachers believed is manifested in their pedagogical content knowledge and instructional practices. In addition, these beliefs are factors that relate to the teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and instructional practices. These pedagogical beliefs likewise shape the nature of the teachers’ instructional practices, and their goals, procedures, materials, classroom-interaction patterns, and roles as content-area teachers influence their decisions. Moreover, such beliefs, along with knowledge of content pedagogy, are aligned with the teachers’ instructional framework, which is essential for professional growth (Ulusoy & Dadeoglu, 2011).
Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Instructional Practices
Table 6 Correlation among pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices
Table 6 summarizes the correlation among the pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices of private and public school in-service teachers. Based on the data, pedagogical beliefs and instructional practices obtained a correlation coefficient of 0.574 with the p-value of less than 0.05. Further, pedagogical content knowledge and pedagogical beliefs had a correlation coefficient of 0.609 with the p-value of less than 0.05, while pedagogical content knowledge and instructional practices obtained a correlation coefficient of 0.646 with the p-value of less than 0.05. At 0.05 level of significance, the three variables are significantly correlated to one another.
Correlation among the Pedagogical Beliefs, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, and Instructional Practices of Elementary School Teachers in Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction
Such findings provided information about the influence of beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge on practices in teaching comprehension strategies. The in-service teachers in the present study believe that pedagogical beliefs are important characteristics content-area teachers must possess. The teachers value their competencies to conduct comprehension strategy instruction by integrating reading strategies in their respective lessons. Their pedagogical beliefs conform to their pedagogical content knowledge; this means they are aware that comprehension strategy instruction helps students in learning content. Their responses also indicate that they are familiar with the declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge of comprehension strategy instruction and the possible application of this knowledge in the classroom. In planning and delivering instruction, the teachers know what particular teaching approaches and procedures fit the content as guided by their pedagogical content knowledge. This pedagogical content knowledge is greatly influenced by their beliefs, which can be traced from their personal and professional years of teaching experiences. However, both groups of teachers have least awareness on the principles of comprehension instruction, which seems inconsistent with their pedagogical beliefs in teaching comprehension strategies. Such an ambiguous understanding of comprehension strategy instruction refutes the belief that content-area teachers fully understand the features of comprehension strategies and that this competently brings about comprehension instructional tasks and routines. The results of the study revealed that teachers have limited declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge of comprehension strategy instruction, which limits their use of comprehension strategies in instruction. This inadequacy reflects the teachers’ superficial understanding of the basic principles of comprehension strategy instruction; and this contradicts the characteristics of a content-area teacher who should be competently engaged in strategy instruction. Such a context was clearly observed in the classroom practices of the teachers. Classroom observations show that the teachers have limited use of comprehension strategies in their lessons. They emphasize implicit instructions using pictures, graphs, and diagrams to resolve comprehension breakdowns. Vocabulary strategy instruction is limited to context clues and graphics as aids or prompts when presenting new words and complex concepts. Although vocabulary instruction is essential to comprehension instruction, explicit comprehension strategy instruction is needed by students to fully understand a complex text with a heavy concept load on content-specific and academic vocabulary. The teachers’ observed instructional practices seem not to apply the most valued strategies in comprehension strategy instruction. The teachers recognize that students need additional strategies, but they do not practice the strategies they perceived themselves to be knowledgeable about because of their limited knowledge of teaching procedures. This situation results in instructional difficulties and restraints in applying comprehension strategy instruction. The experts’ observations further prove the inadequacy of comprehension strategies used by the teachers. The unsatisfactory rating reveals the inability of the teachers to use varied techniques and procedures with explicit explanations. Also, pedagogical content knowledge (i.e., declarative, procedural, and conditional) is not evident based on classroom observations. This clearly shows that the teachers encounter difficulty in implementing comprehension strategy instruction and that they lack the competencies in doing such. The study also found that the two groups of teachers have the same pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices. The correlation The results obtained from this study indicated the content-area teachers’ beliefs and the importance of pedagogical content knowledge in reading comprehension strategy instruction.
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Alger, C.L. (2007). Engaging student teachers’ hearts and minds in the struggle to address (il) literacy in the content area classrooms. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 50(8), 620-630. doi: 10.1598/JAAL.50.8.1 Almasi, J. (2003). Teaching strategic processes in reading. USA: Guilford Press. Archer, A., & Hughes, C. (2011). Exploring the foundations of explicit instruction. In K.R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching (pp. 1-22). USA: Guilford Press. Bandura, A. (1986). Self-efficacy beliefs in human functioning. In Social foundations of thought and action. Retrieved from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/ effpassages.html Bernardo, A., & Limjap, A. (2003). Mathematics teachers; pedagogical beliefs: Implications for mathematics achievement in primary and secondary education (Report). Manila: CHED. Best, J., & Kahn, J. (Eds.). (2003). Research in education. Boston, MA: Pearson. Biancarosa, G., & Snow, C.E. (2004). Reading next: A vision for action and research in middle and high school literacy (Research Report 2). Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved from https://www.carnegie.org/media/filer_public/b7/5f/b75fba81-16cb422d-ab59-373a6a07eb74/ccny_report_2004_reading.pdf Block, C.C., & Duffy, G.G. (2008). Research on teaching comprehension. In C.C. Block, & S.R. Parris (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices (Vol. 2) (pp. 19-33). New York: Guilford Press. Block, C.C., & Parris, S.R. (2008). Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices (Vol. 2). New York: Guilford Press. Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36(2), 81-109. Borg, S. (2009). Introducing language teacher cognition. Retrieved from http://www.education.leeds.ac.uk/assets/files/staff/borg/Introducing-language-teacher-cognition.pdf Bowne, J.B., Yoshikawa, H., & Snow, C. (2016). Experimental impacts of a teacher professional development program in early childhood on explicit vocabulary across curriculum. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 34, 27-39. Retrieved from http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.08.002 Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and knowledge. In D. Berliner, & R. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 709-725). New York: MacMillan. Chou, Y.C. (2008). Exploring the reflection of teacher’s beliefs about reading theories and strategies on their classroom practices. Feng Chia Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 16, 183-216. Retrieved from http://www.cohss.fcu.edu.tw/wSite/ publicfile/Attachment/f1378096979125.pdf Cooper, J.V. (2000). Literacy: Helping students construct meaning. USA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Donaldson, G. (2013). Teaching Scotland’s future: Report of a review of teacher education in Scotland (Research Report). Retrieved from http://www.gov.scot/resource/ doc/337626/0110852.pdf Downie, N., & Heath, R. (1984). Basic statistical methods. Manila: Harper and Row Publishers.
References
likewise implies that the teachers’ beliefs relate to their pedagogical content knowledge and instructional practices, which have shaped the nature of their instructional methods. Together with knowledge of content pedagogy, the teachers’ beliefs are also aligned with the instructional framework. The students from both private and public schools have received the same comprehension strategy instruction based on their teachers’ beliefs and knowledge of pedagogy in content areas. The findings of the study imply that the K-5 and -6 teachers in the present study should strengthen their competencies in reading comprehension strategy instruction. As pedagogical beliefs greatly influence pedagogical content knowledge and practices, the teachers should keep themselves abreast of recent literature and research-based teaching techniques and procedures as inputs for better practice. Exposing the teachers to new models, frameworks, and curriculum materials allows novel ideas and concepts to emerge, which could aptly be translated into comprehension strategy instruction practices. In addition, continuing professional development (CPD) such as participation in seminars, conventions, and trainings on comprehension strategy instruction can help develop the professional knowledge and skills of the teachers. Such inputs can guide the teachers in planning instruction, identifying fix-up strategies, employing proper time management, selecting strategies to meet content goals and student needs, and determining appropriate scaffolding strategies to name a few. Moreover, though CPD, the teachers can access pedagogical content knowledge such as teacher modeling, scaffold instruction, collaborative models, vocabulary instruction, and repertoire of reading strategies. The study further implies a call for a school-wide collaboration among administrators, content-area teachers, and reading experts. This can provide opportunities for small- or largegroup professional discussions, conversations, and deliberations on instructional problems encountered in teaching comprehension. As teachers work with fellow teachers and school administrators, new perspectives on curriculum, evaluation and assessment, latest research, and gaps in comprehension strategy instruction are known. Another pedagogical implication drawn from this study directs to teacher-education program and recruitment of teachers. To prevent the problems of in-service teachers not being able to apply comprehension strategy instruction, pre-service teachers are expected to have the competencies in executing reading comprehension strategy instruction. New teachers must demonstrate a firm background of comprehension strategy instruction by being familiar and knowledgeable on how content areas and reading overlap. Certain demands on content teachers are expected to properly implement comprehension strategy instruction in different domains. This can be accomplished through a teacher-education curriculum that addresses the demands of the 21st-century education landscape. The curriculum must require pre-service teachers to be high-level knowledge educators who can manage complex ways of thinking. Likewise, the teacher-education curriculum should give emphasis on teaching reading comprehension, especially in content areas. The results of this study, which identified the pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, and instructional practices of K-5 and -6 content-area teachers, pose challenges for teachers, administrators, and experts in the discipline. The present research shows the competencies of content-area teachers with regard to comprehension strategy instruction. It also reflects the need for competent teachers and continuing professional development. With the recent trends in the 21st-century education, producing high-quality reading teachers becomes more crucial.
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