Fish Handbook.pdf

FISH SUPPLEMENT FOR THE EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Compiled and Scientifically Edited by Gregory A. Lewbart, MS, VMD, Dipl ACZM Professor of Aquatic Animal Medicine Department of Clinical Sciences North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine Raleigh, North Carolina Zoological Education Network 800-946-4782 or 561-641-6745 www.exoticdvm.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Water Quality: Chemical Imbalances and Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It is intended to be used as a quick guide to selected husbandry and medical topics of fish and is not intended to replace reference material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Restraint . . . . . . . 12 Tank and Water Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Radiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Physiological Quick Facts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Rule-Out Chart Based on Clinical Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Water Chemistry Reference Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Examination . . . 54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Common Medical Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Anesthesia and Sedation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Common Measurement Conversion Table . . . . . . . . . 21 Diagnostic Testing. . . . . . . . 49 Material Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Popular Pond Fish . . . . . . 35 Formulary . 16 Salt Calculations for Common Volumes of Water . . . . . . . 19 Sexing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Popular Marine Tropical Fish . . . . 19 Breeding & Raising Young . . . . . . . 52 References/Further Reading. . 23 Hematology Reference Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTENTS Common Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Zoonotic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Diseases of Fish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Hematology . . . . . 30 Surgery . . . . . 25 Routes of Drug Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Popular Aquarium Non-fish Species . 24 Blood Chemistry Reference Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Laws and Permits . . . . . . . . 42 Equipment and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Popular Freshwater Ornamental Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .FISH The information presented here has been compiled from the literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Preventive Care: Vaccines . . . . . 29 Necropsy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Blood and Sample Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Other Informational Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jack Dempseys. small plecostomus species. Most pet fish fall into 5 categories: 1. danios. wrasses. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ THE TETRAS: FAMILY CHARACIDAE Several hundred different species. and herring. Popular Freshwater Ornamental Fish ■ ■ ■ Some good community aquarium varieties: Mollies. silver dollars. Active swimmers. guppies. swordtails. loaches. piranhas (illegal in some states). swords.2 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Common Variations ■ ■ At least 4000 species of fish are kept as pets or in aquariums (not including morphological varieties). drum. Temperate freshwater pond fish like goldfish and koi (ornamental carp). 3. shiners. lionfish. and sticklebacks. Have swim bladders and adipose fins (small fleshy fin behind the dorsal fin). convicts. tetras. black. Native (US) marine species like sculpins. large catfish. danios.5-5 cm]). 4. and stingrays. marine angelfish. coexist well with other fish. Some aggressive aquarium species: Oscars. Not common as pets in the home. Tropical freshwater species. flounder. This is the most popular group of pet fishes. any of the above aggressive species. Common Tetra Species and Variations: Black neon tetra Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi Black phantom tetra Megalamphodus megalopterus . Single pet aquarium species: Goldfish. Fish in this group are uncommonly kept in the home aquarium and may be subject to local fish and game restrictions. Certain species in this group may be subject to local fish and game restrictions. corydoras catfish. jewel cichlids. large plecostomus species. koi (primarily for the pond). green terrors. 2. damsel fish. bright colors (many silver. sunfish. pacu. Native (US) freshwater species like bass. algae eaters. mollies. and guppies. cichlids. butterfly fish. red). goldfish (there are numerous varieties available). 5. true sharks. Egg-layers. dace. There are about 100 commonly kept species. tangs. silver dollars. red devil cichlids. may be difficult to breed. gouramis. barbs. Tropical marine (saltwater) species like clown fish. Small fish (1-2 inches [2. catfish. such as tetras. carnivorous catfish. Some have barbs (small fleshy whiskers on lower jaw). * Males often have raised tubercles on the gill plate and leading rays of the pectoral fins during breeding season. most are black or gray. change color as they grow. Active swimmers.7 cm) in length. black/red). Spring breeders. Common Carps and Barb Species and Variations: Goldfish Carassius auratus Koi Cyprinus carpio Clown barb Barbus everetti Zebra danio Brachydanio rerio Rosy barb Barbus conchonius ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . danios and rasboras.com/goldfish-varieties. Females spawn in plants. don’t keep with warmer water species.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 3 Black phantom tetra Bleeding heart tetra Blind cave tetra Blood fin tetra Buenos Aires tetra Cardinal tetra Glowlight tetra Hatchet Lemon tetra Neon tetra Serpae tetra Red pacu Silver dollar Red-bellied piranha Rummy-nosed tetra Gymnocorymbus ternetzi Hyphessobrycon erythrostigma Astyanax fasciatus mexicanus Aphyocharax anisitsi Hemigrammus caudovittatus Paracheirodon axelrodi Hemigrammus erythrozonus Gasteropelecus sternicla Hyphessobrycon pulchripinnis Paracheirodon innesi Hyphessobrycon serpae Piaractus brachypomum Metynnis argenteus Pygocentrus nattereri Hemigrammus bleheri THE CARPS AND BARBS: FAMILY CYPRINIDAE Similar to tetras. Chasing precedes spawning (cover rough edges of pond decorations/substrate to reduce risk of injury).54 cm) long. Barbs. Egg layers (in fine-leaved plants). Chasing is not reliable in determining sex. less colorful (silver. Goldfish: * Over 100 varieties — see www. * At 1 inch (2. gold.html * Not tropical fish.petstation. Koi: * Strong. hardy. * Grow to fit size of their habitat (up to 30 inches [76 cm] long). tolerate temperature variation. Most lack an adipose fin. Have swim bladders. easy to breed. but general pattern is established when they reach 5 inches (12. Have swim bladder. black and white. Same colors as the catfish. clown loaches may roll over and play dead). All have barbels (whiskers). angelicus catfish can eat fish larger than itself). more than 2000 different species.5 cm to 1. some have worm or eel shape (eg. Some have bony plates that look like scales. actively search for food using the whiskers. Often sold as scavengers for community tanks. Bottom fish. ■ ■ ■ . Colors: brown.4 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Tiger barb Cherry barb Tinfoil barb Barbus tetrazona Barbus titteya Barbonymus schwanenfeldii THE CATFISH Belong to 37 different families. If the mouth is large and/or points forward. although most are 2-6 inches (5-15 cm). Many are secretive. May show amusing antics (eg. it is predatory (eg. but longer and more rounded.5 m). with some brightly colored. mostly freshwater. Swim bladders present. coming out only to feed at night. Some are nocturnal. Many catfish are piscivorous (fish eaters). kuhli loach). Common Catfish Species and Variations: Aeneus/bronze cory Corydoras aeneus Arcuatus/skunk/arched cory Corydoras arcuatus Banjo catfish Bunocephalus coracoideus Blue-eyed plecostomus Panaque suttoni Chaca chaca catfish Chaca bankanensis Glass catfish Kryptopterus bicirrhis Otocinclus Otocinclus vittatus Pictus/angelicus catfish Pimelodus pictus Pleco/plecostomus Hypostomus plecostomus Red-tailed catfish Phractocephalus hemioliopterus Spotted talking/ Raphael catfish Agamyxis pectinifrons Striped talking/ Raphael catfish Platydoras costatus Upside-down catfish Synodontis nigriventris Zebra pleco Hypancistrus zebra ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ THE LOACHES: FAMILY COBITIDAE Similar to catfish. Size 1 inch to 5 feet (2. but require feeding (use sinking food). the male is often smaller and more colorful than the female. Can feed flake food. need large (>20 gal) aquarium. males’ anal fin becomes narrow and tube shaped. Angelfish: * Schooling fish. Have swim bladders. Exception: mollies need vegetable matter. Young fish and females have fan-shaped anal fins. Carnivorous.F I S H ■ S U P P L E M E N T 5 Common Loaches Species and Variations: Algae eater loach Gyrinocheilus aymonieri Clown loach Botia macracanthus Dojo loach Misgurnus anguillicaudatus Flying fox Epalzeorhynchos kalopterus Harlequin rasbora Trigonostigma heteromorpha Kuhli/coolie loach Acanthophthalmus kuhlii Pakistan loach Botia almorhae/lohachata Red-tail black shark Epalzeorhynchos bicolor Red-tail botia or orange-finned loach Botia modesta Silver/bala shark Balanteocheilus melanopterus Zebra loach Botia striata THE LIVEBEARERS: FAMILY POECILIIDAE Many live in brackish waters. can be aggressive fish eaters. Very intelligent. Swim bladders present. Wide variety of color strains with different kinds of finnage. and some species require. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . at about 2 months. * Grow to 9 inches tall (23 cm). Give birth to live young. They appreciate. but parents may eat fry. a small amount of salt added to their water. Size 1-10 inches (2. Carnivorous. feeding on insect larvae in the wild (used in mosquito control programs).5-7.5-25. Small (1-3 inches [2.5 cm]).5 cm). Will reproduce in a community tank. Common Livebearer Species and Variations: Guppy/millions fish Poecilia reticulata Platy/moon Xiphophorus maculatus Swordtail Xiphophorus helleri Sailfin molly Poecilia latipinna ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ THE CICHLIDS: FAMILY CICHLIDAE Includes fish with special water requirements. less tolerant of laxity in water quality than other tropicals. Have a classical “fish shape” with prominent fins. many colors. Many have enlarged dorsal fin. which facilitates the breathing of atmospheric air. Males build nest at water surface using bubbles of air and saliva.6 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK ■ * Other species such as barbs may attack angels. Powder blue/pindani Pseudotropheus socolofi Ram dwarf cichlid Microgeophagus ramirezi Rainbow cichlid Herotilapia multispinosa Red devil Cichlasoma citrinellum Severum Heros severus Tilapia Oreochromis hybrid Zebra cichlid Pseudotropheus zebra THE LABYRINTH FISH: FAMILY ANABANTOIDEA All possess a labyrinth or pseudo-lung. Fish spawn under the nest. laterally compressed. Enjoy floating plants. Common Cichlids Species and Variations: Angelfish Pterophyllum scalare Black-belt cichlid Thorichthys marculicauda Blue acara Aequidens pulcher Convict cichlid Cryptoheros nigrofasciatus Discus Symphysodon aequifasciatus Eartheater/jurupari cichlid Geophagus jurupari Firemouth Thorichthys meeki Green terror Aequidens rivulatus Jack Dempsey Nandopsis octofasciatum Jewel cichlid Hemichromis bimaculatus Kennyi Pseudotropheus lombardoi Krib/kribensis Pelvicachromis pulcher Malawi eye-biter Dimidichromis compressiceps Oscar Astronotus ocellatus Pike cichlid Crenicichla sp. Prefer the top portion of the tank. then male places the eggs in the nest. Brightly colored (some females are less colorful than males). Swim bladders present. Common Labyrinth Species and Variations: Blue/three-spot gourami Trichogaster trichopterus Croaking gourami Trichopsis pumilus Dwarf gourami Colisa lalia Giant gourami Osphronemus goramy Kissing gourami Helostoma temminkii ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . Size generally 2-4 inches (5-10 cm). guarding and caring for them (and sometimes the new fry) while they develop. * Angels will eat smaller fish and their own fry. require floating food. Pseudochromis sp. colorful. size to 3 inches (7. easy to care for. * Not territorially aggressive. * Tank size recommended: ≥20 gal. small. fire. False clownfish Amphiprion ocellaris Fire clownfish Amphiprion ephippium Green chromis Chromis viridis Maroon clownfish Premnas biaculeatus Percula/true clownfish Amphiprion percula Pink (skunk) clownfish Amphiprion perideraion Sebae clownfish Amphiprion sebae Skunk clownfish Amphiprion perideraion Tomato clownfish Amphiprion frenatus Yellow-tailed blue damsel Glyphidodontops hemicyaneus ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . and sebae clown). * Do not require an anemone to live in. * Larger species are hardy. tomato. Clownfish: * Gender-neutral fish.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 7 Moonlight gourami Paradise fish Pearl gourami Siamese fighting fish/betta Trichogaster microlepis Macropodus opercularis Trichogaster leeri Betta splendens Popular Pond Fish THE CARPS: FAMILY CYPRINIDAE Koi (Nishikigoi) Carp Goldfish Tench ■ ■ ■ ■ Popular Marine Tropical Fish THE DAMSELFISH: FAMILY POMACENTRIDAE Hardy. Size up to 4 inches (10 cm) (eg. Chromis: Most are delicate. with one developing into a female (becoming largest).5 cm). yellowtail blue damsel). (dottybacks): Hardy. Common Damselfish Species and Variations: Bicolor damsel Stegastes partitus Blue devil Chrysiptera cyanea Clark’s clownfish Amphiprion clarkii Domino/threespot damsel Dascyllus trimaculatus Dottybacks Pseudochromids sp. * Common (percula) clown is less hardy. must be kept in schools (eg. no swim bladder. Common Hawkfish Species and Variations: Flame hawkfish Neocirrhites armatus Longnose hawkfish Oxycirrhites typus Redspotted hawkfish Amblycirrhitus pinos ■ ■ ■ THE PUFFERS: FAMILY TETRAODONTIDAE Do not keep with invertebrates.5 cm) long. Nocturnal. Up to 12 inches (30. Common Cardinalfish Species and Variations: Banggai cardinal Pterapogon kauderni Flamefish cardinal Apogon maculatus (Gold) striped cardinal Apogon cyanosoma Pajama cardinal Sphaeramia nematoptera Red cardinal (15 spp. A lot of personality and color. Large ”canine” teeth. Normally live in deep water.) Apogon quadrisquamatus ■ ■ ■ THE BLENNIES: FAMILY BLENNIIDAE Lack a swim bladder and most swim at tank bottom. Common Puffer Species and Variations: Burrfish/striped puffer Chilomycterus schoepfi Dwarf/pygmy puffer Carinotetraodon travancoricus Spotted puffer Tetraodon nigrifilis Whitespotted puffer Arothron hispidus ■ ■ ■ ■ . require hiding places. difficult to acclimate to the confines of an aquarium. Slow swimming. size to 4 inches (10 cm).5 cm). Hardy. Not aggressive.8 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK THE CARDINALFISH: FAMILY APOGONIDAE Hardy. Turn off lights when introducing fish to tank to avoid shock. grow to 3 inches (7. Common Blenny Species and Variations: Bicolor blenny Ecsenius bicolor Forktail blenny Meiacanthus atrodorsalis Golden/lyretail blenny Escenius midas Lawnmower blenny Salarias fasciatus Mimic blenny Ecsenius gravieri Molly miller blenny Scartella cristata Redlip blenny Ophioblennius atlanticus Rockskipper blenny Istiblennius zebra ■ ■ ■ ■ THE HAWKFISH (ROCKHOPPERS): FAMILY CIRRHITIDAE Bottom swimmers. Good personality but not colorful. Intelligent. have sharp caudal peduncle spines. Basslets are compatible with most other fish. very colorful. Common Triggerfish Species and Variations: Clown trigger Balistoides conspicillum Huma/Picasso trigger Rhinecanthus aculeatus Niger trigger Odonus niger Redtooth trigger Odonus niger Undulate trigger Balistapus undulatus ■ ■ ■ THE SERRANIDS (GROUPERS): FAMILY SERRANIDAE Carnivorous. No swim bladder. lionfish and moray eels. Common Serranid Species and Variations: Panther grouper Cromilepetes altivelis Swalesi basslet Liopropoma swalesi ■ ■ ■ ■ THE TANGS AND SURGEON FISH: FAMILY ACANTHURIDAE Reef-dwellers. Common Tang and Surgeon Species and Variations: Brown tang Acanthurus nigrofuscus Goldrimmed surgeon Acanthurus nigricans Naso tang Naso lituratus Purple surgeon Acanthurus xanthopterus Purple tang Zebrasoma xanthurus Sailfin tang Zebrasoma veliferum Yellow tang Zebrasoma flavescens Yellow-tailed surgeon Prionurus laticlavius ■ ■ Popular Aquarium Non-fish Species ■ Aquarium snails: Lymnaea (can be intermediate host for trema- .5 cm).F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 9 THE GOBIES: FAMILY GOBIDAE Small. up to 10 inches (25 cm). best kept with triggers. up to 3 inches (7. Common Goby Species and Variations: (Atlantic) neon goby Gobiosoma oceanops Bumblebee goby Hypogymnogobius xanthozona Gold head sleeper Valenciennea strigata Yellow shrimp goby Cryptocentrus cinctu ■ ■ ■ THE TRIGGERFISH: FAMILY BALISTIDAE Require large aquarium. Spend a lot of time resting on tank floor. aggressive. True groupers are large. coral-banded).T. Sea urchins. Fish and Wildlife Service (www. Laws and Permits ■ ■ ■ ■ Few laws govern the keeping of pet fish. Cover: Many fish will jump so a tight-fitting hood or cover is essential.fws.10 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK ■ todes. debris. Sea stars.gov/permits). Light: Artificial light is easier to control than sunlight. Remove during medical treatment of water. Filter: Filters remove ammonia (nitrogenous waste). candycane. Crayfish.E. Water conditioners remove chlorine but not ammonia.I. need red spectrum as well to bring out fish color and enhance plant growth. state wildlife or conservation offices or international wildlife organization for details. Crabs (anemone. Consult EPA for regulations regarding runoff of pond water that has been treated. Restrictions may apply to species that could survive in the wild (eg. Contact the U. and toxins. blood. Larger tanks may require biological filter and outside-tank filter. Housing TANK ESSENTIALS Size: Small tanks are generally more difficult to keep since water quality can change faster. listed species (very few). Filter types: * Adsorption: activated charcoal (limited capacity). Wet/dry (ammonia tower or trickle) for large volumes. ■ ■ ■ ■ MARINE TANKS Shrimps (cleaner.S. arrow). Most laws affect breeders and commercial aquariums. Do not use blue or white fluorescent tubes (“warm”).S. piranhas and stingrays in Florida and Texas) or to C. * Ultraviolet * Ozone ■ ■ ■ ■ . Incandescent bulbs are not recommended because they give off heat. hermit. Allow several weeks for biological filter development before adding a full complement of fish. which require a bird to complete life cycle in most cases). * Nitrification: Undergravel or wet/dry biological filter. Live plants can carry disease (acting as fomites for pathogens) and don’t do well with undergravel filters or some species of fish.5 1. bucket) Net Water Chemistry Reference Ranges Freshwater Oxygen pH Specific gravity Nitrite Nitrate Ammonia Copper (as a treatment only) Calcium 5-8 ppm 6. * Decrease in dissolved oxygen results from salinity. * Recommended heater size: 4 watts/gallon (15 watts/L) * Marine tropicals: 78-84ºF (25-29ºC) * Freshwater tropicals: 75-80ºF (24-26ºC) * Guppies: 68-84ºF (20-29ºC) * Goldfish. and increased temperature (cool-water fishes require more oxygen than warm-water fish). Hypoxia develops in outdoor. koi thrive at room temp (68-72ºF [20-22ºC]). heavily planted ponds. particles <3 microns Gravel: Enough to form a 2-3 inch (5-8 cm) layer over undergravel filter (if applicable). warm weather. decreased atmospheric pressure. Tank maintenance equipment (eg. do not transmit disease (unless transferred from another tank). Plants: Provide a place for fish to hide.5 ppm <0. . warm fish may pip at the surface for oxygen. can live in outdoor ponds year-round (even when pond freezes over as long as there is running water and an opening in the ice). sponge.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 11 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ * Diatom * Mechanical: Will not remove ammonia.2 ppm 400-500 ppm *Detectible nitrite levels may indicate a problem with the filter.5-7.0 <0. airstones): Maintain dissolved oxygen at 5-10 ppm. nitrite. Cold fish will huddle at bottom of tank. shallow. Test at dawn when oxygen levels are lowest. Air pump (with tubing.5 ppm <30 ppm <1.0-8. Nitrite is rarely toxic to marine fish because chloride competes with nitrite for uptake at the gill epithelium.0 ppm 0 Saltwater 5-8 ppm 8. Submersible heater: Maintain ideal water temperature (monitor with thermometer).020-1.023 N/A* <30 ppm <0. siphon hose. Plastic plants are usually not eaten by fish.5 1. Reduce hardness by adding peat. * Gradually change 25-50% of the water q48h until normal. Measure dissolved cations in water for indirect alkalinity measurement.003 when salt is being used as a treatment. Freshwater specific gravity may increase to 1. usually Ca is sufficient. Emergency acidic water treatment: * Aerate water vigorously to expel CO2. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . Alkalinity = buffering capacity (not the same as alkaline). AND PH Abrupt changes are more disruptive than a specific stable pH level.8 L] of water) or commercial products from pet stores. and/or increase pH with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). Prevent acidity with 10% water change q10d. Soft water has low total alkalinity. Alkaline water treatment: * Filter water through peat. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ CALCIUM Measure in saltwater tanks. Not true when alkalinity is low. * Decrease pH with sodium biphosphate or HCl. lowering pH. ALKALINITY. Over time. expressed as mg/L calcium carbonate. * Use commercial products. NH3 is toxic.12 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Water Quality: Chemical Imbalances and Treatments ACIDITY. Carbonate (as CaCO3. and ammonia is oxidized to nitrate. AMMONIA Any detectable ammonia indicates a filter deficiency. MgCO3) is the primary buffer in water. SPECIFIC GRAVITY Measure with refractometer or hydrometer. dolomite (1 lb per 10 gallon [453 g per 37. Freshwater alkalinity 50-100 mg/L. hard water (>180 mg/L) is a good buffer. NH4+ is non-toxic. too many fish. water organic acids increase. Soft water (0-60 mg/L) has poor buffering capacity. un-ionized ammonia. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ WATER HARDNESS Total cations. If using artificial sea salt. Water hardness and pH can affect toxicity of some medications. 400-450 ppm recommended. or overfeeding. add buffers: crushed coral. ionized ammonia. goldfish and koi to 55ºF (13ºC). City water may contain harmful chlorine (0.0 is nontoxic in short-term. tilapia and striped bass. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ .5-2. Biological filters contain bacteria that oxidize ammonia to nitrite and nitrite to nitrate. Reduce with regular water changes. also neutralizes chloramines.gill necrosis): * Bubble 100% O2 into water. un-ionized ammonia: * 3. but stressful.0 ppm total ammonia at pH 6.0 mg/L) and chloramines (chlorine + ammonia).0 ppm) with a 30-50% water change using dechlorinated water q12-24h. but not ammonia. causing respiratory compromise.1% salt. known as “brown blood disease.0 ppm from 1000 L. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ NITRITE NO 2 Harmful if >0. * 7 g sodium thiosulfate (water conditioner) removes Cl up to 2.0 ppm total ammonia at pH 8. and pH.5 is deadly. goldfish and fathead minnows. bluegill and green sunfish. Treatment for chlorine/chloramines toxicity (piping +/. Reverse high ammonia (>1. <30 recommended.5 ppm. catfish. * Lower water temperature with ice packs to increase dissolved oxygen.2 lbs) of sea water. * Dexamethasone 2 mg/kg ICe or IV q24h for 3 days. High pH increases toxic. NITRATE NO 3 Levels >40 ppm stressful. CHLORINE/CHLORAMINE TOXICITY Chlorinity = amount of Cl. and I dissolved in 1 kg (2.F I S H ■ S U P P L E M E N T 13 ■ ■ NH3: NH4+ ratio depends on temperature. Susceptibility of pond fish to nitrite toxicity (from most sensitive to least): trout and cool water fish.” Reverse with 30-50% water change + 0. or move fish to clean pond or aquarium. pressure. * Add artificial sea salt 1-2 g/L to fresh water. in marine systems it is less of a problem since sea water contains much chloride. * 3. Br. which competes with nitrite for uptake at the gill membrane. large/small mouth bass. Tropical fishes to 70ºF (21ºC). salinity. Nitrites increase methemoglobin. Always quarantine new fish for 4 weeks before adding to main tank. city water as source. copper. allow several weeks for bacterial establishment.5 or less is not usually harmful. to keep an open spot).14 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK COPPER More toxic at lower total alkalinity. * Green spots: green algae growing on pits in the aquarium glass. snails. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ TIPS FOR PONDS Protect fish from birds. Rough estimate for number of fish: Maximum 4-8 koi. FRESH WATER TIPS When moving fish. snakes. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ESTABLISHED TANK TIPS Tanks that are “topped up” repeatedly and not receiving true water changes may accumulate toxic substances. must have running water and a hole in the ice (fountain.54 cm per 3. Film on tank surface: * White film: lime (calcium carbonate). If using a biological filter. Remove with a razor blade. eg. nutrition). or wash tank with dilute bleach (thoroughly rinse and re-establish proper water quality). hibernating and living on fat storage (requires ample feeding through autumn). the result of frequent low water levels. Add only a few fish at one time. clams.78 L)” (numbers affected by many environmental parameters including water temperature. mix old and new water to allow acclimatization (0.5 pH/hr). corals. rats. cats. sea urchins). ■ ■ ■ Tank and Water Tips NEW TANK CONSIDERATIONS Test and balance water chemistry. Number of fish: old rule of thumb “1 inch of fish per gallon of water (2. filtration. or a heater. Remove with copper filter. 8-13 inches (20-33 cm) long. very toxic to invertebrates (crabs. A pH difference of 0. High nitrite levels more frequent in fall and spring with . other wildlife. species of fish. Have one deep spot to keep water cool in summer. Look for copper pipes. Goldfish can live through winter. in winter if pond freezes. per 1000 gallons (3785 L). no addition needed). Salinity rises with evaporation. or pacing. Cubic inches x 0.00433 = gallons.022 (use hydrometer). cloudy weather. Check nitrite q2-3wk. use commercial prep (mix before adding) or sea water.com/convert. Volume = length x width x depth. not table salt. Cubic inches x 0. Reef systems have more stringent light and water flow requirements than pure fish-only aquaria. >2mm. * Circles: Area = 3. Replace evaporative loss with dechlorinated fresh water. Light: Marine fishes and invertebrates (eg. Substrate: Crushed coral or dolomite. * Rectangles or squares: area = length x width. anemones) require more light than freshwater species. Leave lights on for 6-12 hr/day.000579 = cubic feet. using salt: * 6 x pond [NO2] . Keep chloride: nitrite ratio at least 6:1.html for an online conversion calculator for any unit of measure.14 x depth x radius2. . circular tank volume = 3.pond [Cl] = ppm Cl (if <0. Calculating area and volume of ponds and tanks Calculate surface area with a transit. Artificial mixes simulate sea water. or total ammonia nitrogen (NO2 precursor) weekly (total ammonia nitrogen = NH3 + NH4+). Maintain 25-50 ppm Cl in pond. Salinity (specific gravity) 1.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 15 temperature fluctuations. See Southern Regional Aquaculture Center’s “Calculating Treatments for Ponds and Tanks” and “Calculating Area and Volume of Ponds and Tanks” for detailed instructions and conversion tables. When replacing salt water. See www. Calculate average depth of ponds by taking several depth measurements (from boat with weighted cord) in a grid pattern. * Triangles: Area = ½ length x width.nettam.14 x radius2. measuring tape. * NaCl is approximately 60% Cl. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ SALT WATER TIPS Ocean water contains a good balance of elements. 3 g 1/2 tsp 1 tsp 1 Tbsp 1/4 cup 1/2 cup 1 cup 2.4 g 19.2 g 2.5 g 5g 15 g 60 g 120 g 240 g Paracide-F (37% Formaldehyde) 1/4 tsp 1.8 g 63. 1991.3 g 6.6 g 3. JW Jensen: Calculating Area and Volume of Ponds and Tanks.4 g Reprinted with permission from MP Masser.2 g 6.5 g 78 g 156 g 312 g HTH (65% Chlorine) 1. .2 g 2.6 g 1/2 tsp 1 tsp 1 Tbsp 1/4 cup 1/2 cup 1 cup 3.16 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Common Measurement Conversion Table Cooper Sulfate (CuSO4) Snow 1/4 tsp 1.4 g 4.2 g 230.6 g 307.2 g Cooper Sulfate (CuSO4) Powder 1g 2g 4g 12 g 48 g 96 g 192 g Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4) 2g 4g 8g 24 g 96 g 192 g 384 g Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4) 1.4 g 252.4 g 57.2 g 76.5 g 19.25 g 2.8 g 14.6 g 115.2 g 126. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center.6 g 5.8 g Coarse-grain Salt (NaCl) 1/4 tsp 1/2 tsp 1 tsp 1 Tbsp 1/4 cup 1/2 cup 1 cup Vinegar 1/4 tsp 1/2 tsp 1 tsp 1 Tbsp 1/4 cup 1/2 cup 1 cup 1.3 g 15.5 g 5g 15 g 60 g 120 g 240 g 1.8 g 153. 000 ppm . At low concentrations salt reduces osmotic stress during handling.400 1.140 3.400 11.6 141.4 25 — 760 — 12/3 — 31/3 (21/2) 190 — 62/3 — 131/4 (93/4) — 28.000 ppm (0.8 — — — — 0.1-0.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 17 Salt Calculations for Common Volumes of Water Salt (NaCl-sodium chloride).8 81/3 — 380 — 4 11.000g 30. . Approved (FDA-GRAS declaration) for use on food fish as an osmoregulatory enhancer.000-2.3 84.400 1.2%) in hauling tanks as an indefinite treatment 200-500 ppm as an indefinite treatment to relieve stress g kg lb 2 1.000380 g 30.6 — — 1 /2 (11/8) 1 — 12/3 (11/4) 76 — 22/3 — 51/4 (4) — — 11/4 (1) — 19 — — 4 (3) 56.83 61/4 — 283 — 2 Max — 8. JW Jensen: Calculating Area and Volume of Ponds and Tanks. Salt by its osmoregulatory action causes fish to release large amounts of mucus from their skin and gills. 1991.800 11. Level all spoon and cup measurements.4 25 50 (362/3) Min Max 10 ft 3 100 ft 3 Min — 2.000 ppm as a prolonged kg treatment (30 minutes or lb until the fish show signs of cups stress) Volume of water to which salt is added 10 gal 1.49 183/4 — 566 — 11/4 — 21/2 (13/4) Min — Max — 10.5 — 2 — 4 (3) — 5 — 93/4 (71/4) — — — Reprinted with permission from MP Masser. meat-curing grade is given with volumes for common table salt in parentheses. NOT FLUID OUNCES.57 20 — — 21/2 — 5. holding and hauling Ounces in the table refer to weight. Coarse-grain.38 as a prolonged kg treatment (30 3 /4 lb min or until the 12/3 fish show signs cups (11/4) of stress) 1.4 50 — — 6 38 — — /5 /3 Tbsp 2 /3 (2) 5 /4 (4) cups g kg oz tsp Tbsp cups — 7.9 622/5 1871/5 — — 2.14 21/2 5 (32/3) Min Max 100 gal 11. Concentration and Duration of Treatment 10.14 21/2 5 (32/3) 76 — — 1 3. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center. The release of mucus removes and/or kills (at high salt concentrations) some external parasites on the fish.6 — — — — 1. dry. dark areas. Carbohydrates are not required by many fish (although goldfish and koi use hindgut fermentation to digest complex carbohydrates. “Neighbor syndrome:” neighbors over-feed fish while owners are away.18 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Diet NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND FEED INGREDIENTS Most fish are omnivores. nitrite. Avoid by not feeding when gone. Pelleted or granular feeds lose less by leaching. Brine shrimp is fairly nutritious when alive. cichlids. floating pellets. Don’t use as the only feed. causing rising ammonia levels.5% of their body weight in food per day. Avoid live fish as food — risk of disease/parasite transmission. frozen. Juvenile fish may require multiple daily feedings. Store flakes. Warm water ornamentals (eg. Nutrient leaching: Water-soluble vitamins are lost in water from some flake diets within 30 seconds. sinking pellets. Mostly used in the commercial food fish industry. freeze-dried. other fishes excrete plant matter undigested). most fish can readily survive 7-10 days without supplemental food. Animal proteins are most desirable as they contain the 10 essential amino acids. pellets in cool (39ºF [4ºC]). Excess protein breaks down into toxic ammonia. Form: Flakes. gouramis) require 1.0-2. Add fresh vegetables. live. even with commercial diets. replace every 6-8 months. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ AMOUNT Feed once daily.3% of their body weight per day in food. no more than fish can eat in 3-5 minutes. Some examples: . Most commercial diets list protein as the largest % of dry matter in the feed. zebra danios. sinking wafers. but does not provide enough protein when frozen and then thawed. neon tetras. Provide variety to avoid malnutrition. Most energy is from dietary fat (not more than 15% of the daily intake to avoid hepatic lipidosis). Goldfish maintained at 68ºF (20ºC) require 0. Preventive Care: Vaccines ■ ■ Commercially available vaccines for over 20 viral and bacterial diseases. Another option is to prepackage food into daily meals. have a slightly rounder abdomen. Pregnancy lasts 20-30 days. Eggs hatch over 1-2 days. Move eggs or fry to separate tank to avoid cannibalism by adults. Infusorians are microorganism eaten by fry. platies). livebearing fish must be 3-4 months old before breeding. variable with species Breeding & Raising Young ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Livebearers easier for beginners (eg. some up to 20 years Equal to water temperature 30-100 beats/min. One brood can include hundreds of fry. Once eggs are laid. on the fins. remove parents. mollies. lack ray extensions on any of the fins. Need special food for larvae (small enough).) * Enteric redmouth disease (Yersinia ruckeri) * Furunculosis (koi ulcerative disease): a killed bacterin for Aeromonas salmonicida is available for koi. pieces of clay pot. Males may have elongated fins or extended rays. plants. May also use newly hatched brine . and are less colorful. Supply spawning material (eg. guppies. shorter dorsal and anal fins. variable with species 40-80 breaths/min.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 19 * Vibrio: a disease of marine fish (Vibrio spp. Move fish to tank for breeding. earlier hatching fry are larger. isolate the breeders from all other fish. Females tend to be larger. change >50% of the water to remove any waste products that might decompose and harm the eggs. slate). are sensitive to light. including members of their species. Some species’ eggs require darkness. Physiological Quick Facts Life span: Body temperature: Heart rate: Respiratory rate: Freshwater tropical fish: several years. may eat others. Sexing (cichlids only) ■ ■ ■ Age 2-24 months before sexually mature. Many species differences. Fry survival in ponds is poor. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ CARE OF EGGS AND FRY Use filtration that will not harm eggs or hatching fry. When livebearers are born they sink to the tank bottom briefly before swimming. water beetles or beetle larvae may eat fish fry in ponds. gills) or necropsy. Have client bring in any medication being used and food being fed. Goldfish grow to 1 inch (2. neurologic. and dermatologic systems. Take specimens from more than one fish if possible. skin. Can restrain fish by placing in plastic bag with a little water. Livebearers can eat when born. fin clip. moist surface. move to tank with other fish once they grow too big to be consumed by other fish. Evaluation of feces: do not collect from bottom of tank as . could be more. and what type and number of filters are used? * What are the results of your most recent water test (if done)? * What and how often are fish fed? * Is tank-mate aggression observed? * Has the fish changed color (an early sign of many different diseases)? Rule out water quality problems first. Keep fish on smooth. Anesthesia or sedation may be required. Examination FIRST VISIT/ANNUAL EXAMINATION PROTOCOL Fish brought to clinic: use a covered container filled only 1/3 with water. illness)? * What size is the tank. and/or gill snip for wet mount. more manageable groups as they grow. Continue to look after finding one parasite. test water. Take history: * How long has fish been kept? * How long has problem been noticed? * Where did the fish come from? * What about other fish (number. type. fin. Split the spawn into smaller. Cover eyes to calm fish. Restraint ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Wear latex gloves with talc removed to avoid scale/epidermal damage. Egg-borne fry do not eat for 1-2 days. or dim lights.20 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK ■ ■ ■ ■ shrimp (purchase eggs).5 cm) in 1 month. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ SICK FISH EXAM Rule out parasites/bacteria: take skin scraping. Examine ophthalmic. Biopsy (eg. using yolk sac for nutrition. or use high calorie cat/dog canned food or Emeraid II (dietary supplement for tube feeding). blunt-tipped. test water. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine. Epinephrine (for shock/cardiac arrest 0. gill or fin snip) and formalin fixation. . 7(3)154-158. Dexamethasone injectable for shock 1-2 mg/kg IM or ICe. EMERGENCY THERAPY/FIRST AID Take history. Isolate fish in clean bucket or plastic bag and wait for fecal production. Use flexible.5 ml IM or ICe of 1:1000). (Brenda Bunch) stomach. FIN/GILL BIOPSY: Cut fin biopsy or 1-2 mm of gill tissue with fine scissors (+/. Physical examination. Place fish in anesthetic solution. Can also perform a saline rectal wash. feeding tube. Fluid therapy for marine fish: Use 20 ml/kg/day LRS ICe or PO. 1998. TUBE FEEDING Add water to regular feed. skin scraping. Take blood sample. Take specimens for fresh evaluation (squash prep of any organ. Diagnose environmental problems (ammonia. WB Saunders. Place on slide with drops of water for immediate analysis. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Blood and Sample Collection ■ ■ ■ ■ Require immediate microscopic examination (have slides ready with clean drops of water) and laboratory analysis. Avoid branchial arches when inserting tube into pharynx.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 21 opportunistic organisms may confuse a diagnosis. are hyperosmotic. Biopsy (skin. can use lubricating jelly. SKIN: Draw a coverslip over area of concern to collect mucus and epidermal tissue. bacterial gill hyperplasia) with gill biopsy.anesthesia for restraint). cichlids) possess a sacular Reprinted with permission from Lewbart GA: Clinical nutrition of ornamental fish.2-0. Radiograph. Most bony fish (eg. koi (lack reservoir stomach). fish will frequently defecate as it relaxes. don’t usually need fluids. gills) or necropsy. fin. Freshwater fish don’t drink. Use small volumes for goldfish. Technique #3: Fish less than 3 inches (7. Technique #1: Direct needle at 90º to the ventral margin of the thin lateral line caudal to the vent and cranial to the tail/caudal peduncle.22 ■ EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK BACTERIAL CULTURE: Use blood (fish >10 cm long) or kidney tissue (small fish). then “walk” ventrally until needle slips into the venous sinus just ventral to the spine. collect blood with capillary tube. Insert until resistance from the vertebral body is felt. Insert until resistance from the spinal column is felt. Kidneys are ventral to the spinal column along length of body in most species. and insert the needle at a point midway between the anal fin and tail. Venipuncture © Stoskopf. remove tail at base. Technique #2: Place fish in dorsal recumbency. use a midventral approach. ■ ■ ■ ■ BLOOD COLLECTION Use heparinized syringe and needle. 1993 .5 cm) long — euthanize for diagnosis. then withdraw needle slightly to caudal venous sinus. refractometer. so the avian method should be adjusted ([Mean WBC/10 HPF x 2000] + 6300). Gram stain blood (blood smear may reveal sepsis) or kidney (Note: Gram-negative bacteria normal in skin. gills. Red blood cells are oval. Bacterial diagnosis/culture from blood or kidney. fungi. stress. nucleated. Pacu RBCs (and likely other fishes too) are present at 50-90% of the concentration observed in birds. White blood cells: Slide-estimate total WBC counts (using the avian white blood cell slide estimate method. . centrifuge) are required due to cell size and nucleation (RBCs and thrombocytes) that skew automated counts.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 23 IM Injection (epaxial musculature) IM Injection Base of the caudal dorsal fin (line) Diagnostic Testing ■ ■ ■ ■ Visualize parasites. or gills. Manual analysis methods (hemacytometer. PCV lower than 20% indicates anemia. and larger than mammalian RBCs. Thrombocytes are the most abundant non-erythroid blood cell in carp and goldfish. fin. which relies on ratios of RBCs to WBCs) are lower than values obtained using a hemacytometer. bacteria from skin. water). Hematology ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Higher water temperature. Preserve tissue samples in formalin for laboratory analysis (use a laboratory familiar with fish diseases and microbiology). and disease affect hematologic values. 0.3 WBC (103µl) 24 +/.6 +/.6-52.3 (0.9 +/.3.8 14.2 (0.9 (28.12.5 +/.2 +/.1-85.7 (115-183) 34.7 (22-29) 33.6.2) 0.0.1.2.31.7 (25. Southern stingray* = 22 (15-25).6 Neutrophils (%) 10.7) 50 (40-55) 3 (2-6) 0.9) 2.3) 25.9 +/.7 (21.2 52.1 1.6 Heterophils (%) 29 +/.6 +/.3-0.67 +/.91-2.2) 75.1 +/. Bonnethead shark* = 24 (17-28) .24 HEMATOLOGY REFERENCE RANGES FOR SELECTED FISH* KOI 26 (22-32) 1.3-36.6-154.9 +/.1 35 (24-43) RBC (106/µl) 1.83) 135.4 Monocytes (%) 1 +/.3-42.44 2.4 6.31 (1.5.6 EXOTIC MCV (fl) 178.7) 46 (40-58) 33 (27-37) 22.1 +/.3) 5.5 MCHC (g/dl) 21.3-0.08 Hgb (g/dl) 9.38 80.1.1 2.0.3-36.2 (0.2-2.7.0.7) 5.8 (21-23) RED PACU* TILAPIA SANDBAR SHARK* PARAMETER GOLDFISH PCV (%) 26 +/.3 COMPANION Lymphocytes (%) 70 +/.5 (13.7 MCH (pg) 40.2 +/.0 0.5 79.8-11.3 Eosinophils (%) MEDICINE Basophils (%) 4.7) 2.7) 84 (53-96) 4 (0.3 (0.7 Small lymphocytes (%) HEMATOLOGY REFERENCE RANGES FOR FISH Large lymphocytes (%) HANDBOOK Thrombocytes (103/µl) PCV (%): Striped bass = 42 (34-48).7 (1. 4 +/.7) 0.4-2.0.9 (0. which are medians.0.3) 2. .7 4123 (80-9014) — 37 (22-65) 359 (41-1675) — — 6.1 +/.2 4. The ranges listed for the southern stingray are 10th/90th percentiles.0 — 0.7 +/.6) — 134 (112-141) — — STRIPED BASS — — 24 +/.1 (3.0.1 (0.1 1.2 9.0.0 118 +/.4 (2.102 — — — — — — 73 +/.5-7.9 — — — — — — — — — — — 10 +/.10 164 +/.0 (1.2 10.0.9 — — 908 +/.21 11.8-1. Age of fish.3 +/.54 — 356 +/.2 144 +/.0. time of year.3 +/.8-11.1) 1.7-4.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 25 BLOOD CHEMISTRY REFERENCE RANGES FOR FISH PARAMETER AP (IU/L) ALT (IU/L) Anion gap (mmol/L) Bicarbonate (mmol/L) AST (IU/L) Calcium (mg/dL) Chloride Cholesterol (mg/dL) Cortisol (µg/dl) Creatine kinase (IU/L) Creatinine (mg/dL) Glucose (mg/dL) LDH (IU/L) Magnesium (mEq/L) Osmolality (mOsm/kg) Phosphorus (mg/dL) Potassium (mEq/L) Protein.0 174 +/.0.8 +/. koi chemistry and elasmobranch data.9 — *Values listed are means except for the red pacu hematology.4) 114 (108-119) — 23.6 +/. These values are only meant to be guidelines.6-1.1 — 45 +/.7) 3.0. In some cases the data is not based on a large sample size.7 (7.2 — — — 0.2 3.3 +/.0 KOI* — — 17 (14-23) 6 (3-8) 121 (40-381) 8. References are listed on page 54. and water temperature may all affect “normal” clinical pathological data. total (g/dL) Albumin (g/dL) Globulin (g/dL) A:G (ratio) Sodium (mEq/L) Total CO2 (mmol/L) Urea nitrogen (mmol/L) GOLDFISH — 106 +/. 9-3.4) 3.6-4.0) — — 150 (146-159) 7.1-0.5-1.3 (0.5) 49 (0-125) — 10.5) 46 (30-69) — 2.3-2.2) — 151 (139-160) — — *Levels lower for tilapia raised in a low-density system.6)* 1.8 (1.4) — 238 (65-692) — — 7. .1 (5.0) — 0.9 (0.1 (1.2-0.5-22. total (g/dL) Albumin (g/dL) Globulin (g/dL) A:G (ratio) Sodium (mEq/L) Total CO2 (mmol/L) Urea nitrogen (mmol/L) RED PACU — — 6.5-5.4)* 136 (128-142) 189 (110-318) — — 0.6) 2.5-12.3 (4.5 (6-10) — TILAPIA* 22 (15-39) — — — 26 (9-102) 31 (13.1-8.8 (9.26 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK BLOOD CHEMISTRY REFERENCE RANGES FOR FISH PARAMETER AP (IU/L) ALT (IU/L) Anion gap (mmol/L) Bicarbonate (mmol/L) AST (IU/L) Calcium (mg/dL) Chloride Cholesterol (mg/dL) Cortisol (µg/dl) Creatine kinase (IU/L) Creatinine (mg/dL) Glucose (mg/dL) LDH (IU/L) Magnesium (mEq/L) Osmolality (mOsm/kg) Phosphorus (mg/dL) Potassium (mEq/L) Protein.5 (1.3 (3.0 (2.6-69.9) 3.1)* 4.9-6.5) 138 (146-159) — — — 0.9 (1.9 (2.5) — 9.7-5.2 (0.2-12. 2-4.8-18.8 (5.5 (11.6-61.2) 16. In some cases the data is not based on a large sample size.0-6.7) 7.8 (-15. time of year.7 (3. These values are only meant to be guidelines.1-19.0 (3. and water temperature may all affect “normal” clinical pathological data.1 (0.4) 2.3 (5. koi chemistry and elasmobranch data.9-12.4) 3.1 (<2. total (g/dL) Total solids (g/dL) Albumin (g/dL) Globulin (g/dL) A:G (ratio) Sodium (mEq/L) Total CO2 (mmol/L) Urea nitrogen (mmol/L) SOUTHERN STINGRAY* — — — — 14.0) — — — 315 (296-326) — 444 (423-462) BONNETHEAD SHARK* — — -5. References are listed on page 54.4) 5.2) 2.7.6 (1.7-9.2) 282 (273-292) — 1004 (944-1068) *Values listed are means except for the red pacu hematology.3-0.4 (0.6 (4.6-3.6 (1.2-6.5) 2.7-296.9 (2.5 (12.2) — — 1065 (1008-1144) 4.9-42.3) 342 (301-362) — 80.-7.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 27 BLOOD CHEMISTRY REFERENCE RANGES FOR FISH PARAMETER AP (IU/L) ALT (IU/L) Anion gap Bicarbonate (mmol/L) AST (IU/L) Calcium (mg/dL) Chloride Cholesterol (mg/dL) Creatine kinase (IU/L) Creatinine (mg/dL) Glucose (mg/dL) Lactate (mmol/L) LDH (IU/L) Magnesium (mEq/L) Osmolality (mOsm/kg) Phosphorus (mg/dL) Potassium (mEq/L) Protein.8) 0.5) 3 (0-5) 42 (15-132) 16.5) --30. which are medians.2-6. .8 (15.2) 290 (277-304) — 82 (18-725) — 184 (155-218) <5 (<5-11) — — 1094 (1056-1139) 8. The ranges listed for the southern stingray are 10th/90th percentiles.0-6.5 (16.9-3.5 (3.3) — 0.2) 5. Age of fish.1-0. Intracoelomic (ICe) Injection: Either caudo ventral abdomen (needle) or just caudal to the base of the pelvic fin — a few mm from the bone (line) ORAL: Mixed with food or placed in a chunk of food and then fed or force-fed. or baby food spinach (optional) * Add medications and mix. fish can be sedated prior to injection. Use hospital tank. Indefinite bath: Medication added to tank or pond with no water change or immediate re-treatment. intravenous and intracoelomic. * Mix medicated food with gelatin. inject through bag. cool (do not set) Mix in blender: * 250 g flake food * 500 ml tap water * 25 ml cod liver oil + 25 ml vegetable oil (optional) * Can of sardines. tuna. John Gratzek. Dosage based on water volume. Recipe for gelatinized medicated food (modified from recipe of Dr. refrigerate or freeze * Use cheese grater to make bite-sized pieces ■ ■ TOPICAL: Medication applied directly to the lesion or parasite. if possible. Alternatively. Bath: Less desirable than injectable or oral. Place fish in plastic bag. Medicant is added to inflow area. Lasts 15 minutes to 24 hours. WATER TREATMENTS: Discontinue chemical (charcoal) filtration and water flow through biological filter. University of Georgia): * Boil 500 ml tap water * Add 21-35 g powdered unflavored gelatin (3-5 7-g packets). Drug is dissolved in the water in which the fish are swimming. stir to dissolve.28 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Routes of Drug Administration INJECTABLE: Subcutaneous. ■ ■ ■ ■ . Manufactured gel food (can mix in medications): Mazuri® Aquatic Gel Diet. Avoid with anorexic fish. College of Veterinary Medicine. Dip: Fish is submerged in a solution for 1 second to 15 minutes. not regular tank. used in raceways or narrow vats. stir. but continue aeration. Flush or flow through: Constant water flow. Fish may not have to be removed from their normal holding area. intramuscular. drain water. koi. Bony fish (most pet fish. skeletal abnormalities. Euthanize with tricaine methanesulfonate (>400 mg/L 15 minutes) or cut at base of cervical spine. Take radiographs of normal fish to establish technique and obtain normal views. GI impactions. Remove operculum to expose gills and then body wall to reveal internal organs. Kidneys can be a long single organ (trout) or divided into two regions (anterior and posterior. The kidneys are fused and lie retroperitoneally. others can be restrained by placing in plastic bag with a little water. ■ ■ ■ ■ NORMAL FISH ANATOMY Heart is two-chambered (one ventricle and one atrium). koi. Instruct owner to remove fish (preferably when moribund) and bring in ASAP . Grid is unnecessary. Dim room lights to reduce photophobia. fish in lateral recumbency on plate protected with plastic bag. Necropsy ■ ■ ■ ■ Dead fish autolyze rapidly. except sharks and rays) have a swim bladder that regulates Dorsal fin buoyancy. May be done without anesthesia. high-detail intensifying screens and detail film are recommended. foreign bodies. cichlids may require sedation. Caudal fin Swim bladder has either a single chamber (cichlids) or two chambers connected by an isthmus (carp. Obtain DV or VD views by rotating radiograph machine for a horizontal beam. or both.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 29 Radiography ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Use to diagnose swim bladder disorders. tetras). There is also a sinous venosus and bulbus arteriosis. Pelvic fin Anus . Some fish can be placed directly on the protected plate. Bring water sample in separate container. in catfish. Anal fin Pectoral fin goldfish. goldfish). For fresh-dead fish have owner place in plastic bag and refrigerate. Large catfish. dorsal to the swim bladder and ventral to the spine in most species. Take specimens for fresh evaluation (squash prep) and formalin fixation. 0 with 5-10 g/L sodium bicarbonate. Anesthesia is adequate if fish has only mild opercular movements. Endoscopic exam for sexing or diagnosis. MS-222) Make stock solution with 10 g/L of dechlorinated. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ CLOVE OIL (EUGENOL) Available at pharmacies. Store away from light at room temperature. Enucleation. koi). place fish in aerated recovery tank. ensuring gills are bathed with anesthetic water (90-160 mg/L. Seen as a line of dots or pits along scales. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Surgery MAIN INDICATIONS FOR SURGERY Correction of swim bladder abnormalities. Higher doses take effect more quickly. Obtain longer-term anesthesia using a recirculating anesthesia machine. Reverse or reduce anesthetic level by reducing anesthetic concentration or placing fish in fresh clean water. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . Implanting telemetry devices. recovery more prolonged than with MS-222. deionized water. Concentration of 25-120 mg/L will anesthetize fish. Anesthesia and Sedation TRICAINE METHANESULFONATE (FINQUEL ®. ANESTHESIA TIPS Anesthesia stages: excitatory. Concentration of 100-150 mg/L will anesthetize fish in 3-5 minutes (100 for most fish. 3 L/minute). sedation. Dilute in 95% ethanol at 1:9 ratio to make 100 mg/ml (1 g drug in 1 ml clove oil). lasts 30 days. 150 for larger cichlids. After anesthesia and procedures are complete. Removal of growths (neoplastic or parasitic). (using special filter or distilled water) buffered to pH 7. loss of equilibrium and loss of any reactivity.30 ■ EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Sensory lateral line system along body and head mediates responses through CNS. lower doses are appropriate for maintenance or long term. or chlorhexidine (1:40). Wipe incision area with a small amount of saline. gradual wasting 1-2 months after purchase. Apply povidone iodine ointment to closed incision before returning fish to recovery water. Anesthetize. When removing growths. Routine pre-operative antibiotics may reduce secondary bacterial infection (enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg ICe or oxytetracycline 10 mg/kg IM). strive for wide margins over complete primary closure. Suture pattern: simple continuous. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ SURGICAL TIPS Bipolar cautery helps control hemorrhage (caution in small patients to avoid damaging adjacent tissues). avoid. Reduce osmotic gradient to enhance healing: add salt to pond/tank at 1-3 g/L for freshwater patients.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 31 PREPARATION OF FISH Pre-op: evaluate with radiology and/or ultrasonography. with single or 2-layer closure. ■ ■ . Remove skin sutures upon healing (10-14 days). Common Medical Conditions FATTY LIVER DISEASE Fish fed methyltestosterone to enhance color. Remove scales from surgical area with forceps. Use small animal instruments and/or ocular or microsurgical pack and head loupe magnification. “Absorbable” sutures may not be absorbed in fish. Clear plastic drapes retain moisture and provide sterile field. secondintention healing is common. history of slowly fading color. simple interrupted. Cyanoacrylate irritates. Lack of mobile skin makes defects difficult to close. use monofilament to avoid bacterial colonization. Healing time is shortest and skin reaction is least using polydioxanone suture. Fish fed high-fat diet. or Ford interlocking pattern on skin. Swim bladder is fragile and can collapse if torn. Aspirate air from abdomen with suction when closing muscular layer. Use cutting tip needle. dilute povidone iodine (1:20). Control pain with butorphanol. then place on wet foam pad with “V” cut out to support fish. Keep fish moist with regular basting. visible bubbles in various tissues. Prevent by avoiding feeding dry food. Surface wounds disturb osmotic balance. Excess mucus production. skin erosions. inner ear disease. ignore (some can eat upside down). hemorrhage: Acidosis. Surgical removal is possible. Pale gills. Internal tissues of freshwater fish are hyperosmotic. sudden death: Gas bubble disease. gill erosion. sarcomas. Note: This can be normal behavior for air breathers (eg. Causes: supersaturation of water with air.32 ■ EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK ■ Differential diagnosis for color fading: liver disease. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . cold shock. Treatment: treat inciting cause. SWIM BLADDER “DISEASE” Affects fish with swim bladders. trauma. Secondary bacterial infection may occur. protozoa. stress. infection/rupture of swim bladder. SUPERFICIAL WOUNDS Caused by parasites. bubble-nesters (fish that build nest for their eggs from bubbles they produce). ■ ■ ■ NEOPLASIA Diagnosis: enlarged abdomen and/or growth. leaf fish). Most common tumors: benign epidermal hyperplasia (may be viral origin). skin inflammation. Caused by supersaturation. Treatment: change diet. lungfish. young goldfish frequently lose black markings. internal tissues of saltwater fish are hypo-osomtic. aspirate air and/or surgical correction. BUOYANCY PROBLEMS. surface-dwelling fish (eg. eels). Piping (gasping for air at water surface) indicates oxygen deprivation: Increase aeration. gill necrosis (noted at necropsy): Alkalosis. Many tumors in wild fish are skin tumors. aggression. congenital deformation. or prespawning chase in ponds or tanks with rough rocks. Feed 1-2 green peas per day (unknown mechanism). radiography. SIGNS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS Stress of poor water quality can predispose to any disease. GI disease (obstruction of pneumocystic duct by food). hypoxia. may result in loss of fluid balance and circulatory collapse. papillomas. poor prognosis. or soak flakes/pellets before feeding (reduces air gulping). Gas under skin. secondary infections. ■ ■ ■ HEAD AND LATERAL LINE EROSION SYNDROME (HLLE) OF MARINE FISH Superficial erosions of head. Salmonellosis. progressing down lateral flank to and including the lateral line. a human platelet growth factor. Hypoxia following inappropriate transport: Place fish in bag 1/3 filled with water. spinach. . Siamese fighting fish. removal of charcoal filter. death. Edwardsiellosis. CONSTIPATION Signs: Failure to defecate. anorexia. Encouraging results with topical application of Regranex®. ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR Bottom-sitting (normal in sedentary/sleeping fish). hatchet fish.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 33 ■ ■ moving fish from cold to warm water. Ponds: runoff or acid rain pollution. Laxatives: chopped earthworms. inflate bag with 100% O2. other vegetables. Cause: Using dry pelleted foods. defective pumps. Reduce aeration. especially in ponds. Hovering (normal in angel fish. which can cause skin lesions and allergic dermatitis in humans. ■ ■ VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY Poor growth. some cases respond to vitamin C supplementation. Etiology unknown. Aggression. Shigellosis. VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY Fraying and deterioration of tail and fins..3% magnesium sulfate salt to the diet. face. some fancy goldfish). Vibriosis. retinal atrophy. Treatment: add 0. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Zoonotic Potential ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Mycobacteriosis of aquarium fish is caused by Mycobacterium spp. Circling: damage to one eye or one fin. gas bubble disease. C&S Blood/kidney culture. trauma Exophthalmos Bacterial infection. bacterial (esp. necropsy CLINICAL SIGNS DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS Erratic swimming Chlorine toxicity. renal/hepatic/cardiac failure Tail walking (swimming vertically) Protozoal infection. tank-mate aggression MEDICINE Swelling/ascites “dropsy” Bacterial infection. nitrite or chloramine toxicity. necropsy Physical examination. biopsy. Aeromonas) infection. physical examination Blood/kidney culture. encephalitis/ meningitis HANDBOOK . or fin lesions Ectoparasites. too high. protozoa. acidosis. chlorine toxicity. bacterial gill disease Piping Temp. sepsis. hypoxia COMPANION Skin. bacteria. neoplasia. HLLE of marine fish R U L E O U T C H A RT . examine gill biopsies for intravascular air emboli Blood/kidney culture. chlorine toxicity. itching Ectoparasites Gill necrosis Koi herpes viral disease. necropsy/biopsy. sepsis EXOTIC Flashing. new tank syndrome.34 RULE-OUT CHART BASED ON CLINICAL SIGNS DIAGNOSTIC OPTIONS Water quality test. water quality test. rubbing. gill. sepsis.F I S H Sudden death Gas bubble disease. history. necropsy Water quality testing Skin/gill scraping. ophthalmic examination Skin scraping / wet mount Water quality test. tank-mate aggression. microscopic evaluation. gas bubble disease. fungi. oral treatment of others 35 . Changa). poor nutrition). exophthalmia. View motile aeromonads in tissue samples Antibiotic based on C&S DISEASES OF FISH Aeromonas hydrophila Motile Aeromonad Disease (MAD) Petechiae. green antibiotics terror (Aequidens rivulatus) BACTERIAL Opportunistic pathogen Many freshwater species (stress. inflammation of GI. surgical (Scatophagus. S U P P L E M E N T Koi herpesvirus Severe mortality. kidney. fins. circular. abdominal distension. koi Injectable antibiotic in affected fish. death Goldfish. ecchymosis. exophthalmia. may be self-limiting No proven treatment. quarantine new fish for one month DISEASE CLINICAL SIGNS VIRAL “Carp pox. white granular lesions on skin. Monoremoval of growths +/dactylus. skin/fin necrosis Blood/kidney C&S using heart-enriched 5% blood agar Aeromonas salmonicida infection (ulcer disease) Deep ulcers. distended abdomen. vent swelling. spleen. clusters SPECIES AFFECTED POSSIBLE THERAPY No treatment known. and body. brackish water Self-limiting. ecchymosis.F I S H DISEASES OF FISH DIAGNOSTIC OPTIONS Biopsy and histology Koi and carp Koi Electron microscopy/virus isolation. muscle. fins Marine. PCR testing Skin scraping: cells enlarged. acute gill necrosis Lymphocystis (an iridovirus) Hypertrophy. hemorrhagic septicemia.” a herpesvirus “Melted candlewax” lesions on head. 36 DISEASES OF FISH DIAGNOSTIC OPTIONS Skin cultures not usually rewarding. Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Vibrio (marine) Many species Topical antibiotic and/or antibiotic PO, IM, ICe. Identify cause SPECIES AFFECTED POSSIBLE THERAPY DISEASE CLINICAL SIGNS Bacterial skin infection secondary to wounds, stress Hemorrhage, ulcers, erosions EXOTIC Flavobacterium columnaris (“Columnaris disease” in freshwater fish) Identification of acid-fast organisms in impression smear or histologic section; culture; PCR analysis Many freshwater and marine species. This disease should always be on the differential list when fish are debilitated. Primary pathogen; blanched necrotic skin lesions, saddlelike marking behind dorsal fin; whitish split areas of fins, tail, face. Wet mount of tissue to visu- Many freshwater species. Antibiotics via immersion alize “haystacking” bacteria mollies, platies esp. or topically; potassium sensitive permanganate bath COMPANION DISEASES OF FISH Mycobacteriosis Emaciation, skin/fin ulceration; internal granulomas, anorexia, general unthriftiness Some anecdotal success treating with antibiotics such as enrofloxacin and rifampin. Clinician must consider the contagious nature of this disease and the zoonotic potential. Antibiotic based on C&S Marine fish Antibiotic based on C&S MEDICINE Pseudomonas and other Gram-negative bacteria C&S Necrosis of skin, fins; death Skin scraping C&S; blood or Many freshwater species kidney culture HANDBOOK Vibriosis Systemic hemorrhagic disease F I S H DISEASES OF FISH DIAGNOSTIC OPTIONS Wet mount; round/elliptic cysts Microscopically view fungal Saprolegnia freshwater hyphae, microconidia for only. Fusarium more Fusarium common in marine fish. Marine fish SPECIES AFFECTED POSSIBLE THERAPY Eliminate fresh fish from diet DISEASE CLINICAL SIGNS FUNGAL S U P P L E M E N T Ichthyophonus (sandpaper disease) Skin discoloration, multiple white papules, subcutaneous granulomas Saprolegnia or Fusarium Infects wounds, stressed fish; white cotton-like random growths, anorexia, lethargy Self-limiting; formaldehyde, salt. Manual removal + topical antimicrobial or povidone iodine. PARASITIC (PROTOZOAN) - See drug formulary for doses Skin scraping wet mount: bean to heart-shaped ciliates with oval macronucleus Skin scraping, wet mount; heart-shaped ciliate, slow circular motion, dies quickly Marine; clownfish, seahorses Formaldehyde + malachite green, antimicrobials for secondary infection DISEASES OF FISH Brooklynella See Chilodonella below. Skin: small discolored foci, epithelial slough, death Chilodonella Skin/gills, respiratory distress, excess mucus, death Freshwater tropicals, fish Formaldehyde, malachite farms green, salt 37 38 DISEASES OF FISH DIAGNOSTIC OPTIONS Skin scraping SPECIES AFFECTED POSSIBLE THERAPY Marine (optimum growth at Copper sulfate as 30°C, 31 ppt salinity) prophylaxis. Formaldehyde. Increase water temp 2-3°C q5-7d; move fish to clean water q7d to limit reinfection. Hyposalinity Formaldehyde; topical iodine; clean tank regularly to reduce organic matter buildup Remove by scalpel scraping Metronidazole Formaldehyde Formaldehyde; increase water temp 2-3°C q5-7d; move fish to clean water q7d to limit reinfection DISEASE CLINICAL SIGNS Cryptocaryon (Saltwater “Ich,” white spot disease) Skin irritation, whitish-gray nodules, excess mucus production, increased respiration EXOTIC COMPANION Epistylis (Heteropolaria) Pale white tuft-like lesions resemble fungus. Normal tank inhabitant, stressed or debilitated fish, look for Aeromonas Wet mount prep Leporinus Wet mount prep: Ciliated Freshwater, goldfish, crown atop long stalk, bell- bottom dwelling eg, shaped plecostomus catfish DISEASES OF FISH Henneguya White cysts on dorsal fins, gills; not harmful MEDICINE Hexamita (Spironucleus) Small, 5-10 micron, rapidly moving, sickle shaped Skin scraping; largest protozoa of fish, to 1.0 mm GI disease; normal GI inhabitant Wet mount prep of feces or Many, esp. freshwater intestine angelfish Freshwater, some marine Freshwater Ichthyobodo (Costia) Normal and diseased skin HANDBOOK Ichthyophthirius “Ich” Skin, gills, whitish gray nodules viewed on wet mount necrosis surrounded by hemorrhage +/. tail-walking. pale epaxial musculature S U P P L E M E N T Tetrahymena “Guppy killer” Normal tank inhabitant. death Disc-shaped protozoa. gills. death. esp. fins Formaldehyde Uronema See Tetrahymena Treatment usually ineffective 39 .F I S H DISEASES OF FISH DIAGNOSTIC OPTIONS Microsporidian spores in muscles Guppies and species in crowded aquaria Neon tetras and others SPECIES AFFECTED POSSIBLE THERAPY Remove diseased fish DISEASE CLINICAL SIGNS Plistophora “Neon tetra disease” White pale muscle. maintain proper hygiene DISEASES OF FISH Trichodina Skin.exophthalmus. radial symmetry. crowded goldfish Cull affected fish. denticular ring Pear-shaped protozoa viewed on wet mount Marine Freshwater and marine species. Pear-shaped protozoa Deep skin infection. . velvet disease. chitin inhibitors (diffubenzuron & lufenuron) Praziquantel Praziquantel COMPANION DISEASES OF FISH Cestodes (tapeworms) Metacercaria in & under skin. Skin scraping Freshwater. Organophosphates. goldfish and koi Marine (Amyloodinium) and freshwater fish Copper sulfate SPECIES AFFECTED POSSIBLE THERAPY DISEASE CLINICAL SIGNS PARASITIC (METAZOAN) . other New World cichlids Primarily marine. saltwater dips.See drug formulary for doses EXOTIC Amyloodinium/Oodinium (Dinoflagellate. pear-shaped cysts attached to underlying tissues Visible (transparent). glacial acetic acid dips (to remove juveniles). Severe gill infestations can cause problems. coral fish disease. pond-reared livebearers Oscars. red hooks. weight loss Fecal exam or observe proglottids Many Silver dollar fish. ulceration with secondary bacterial or fungal infection Manual removal. rust) Fine dusty gold appearance of skin. 5-mm worms (Grub) Physical examination GI-related.40 DISEASES OF FISH DIAGNOSTIC OPTIONS Wet mount skin scraping. gills. some freshwater MEDICINE Digenean flukes “salt & pepper disease” and “Grub” Primarily aesthetic. itching. gill biopsy. “Hole in the head”* disease Head & lateral line erosions Metronidazole may be of some benefit Manual removal HANDBOOK Isopods (Livoneca) Look like “pill bugs” on fish Visual examination *Syndrome has been partially attributed to Hexamita (Spironucleus) but many clinical cases don’t reveal these parasites. ulceration. “flashing” Argulus (fish louse) Skin irritation. esp. F I S H DISEASES OF FISH DIAGNOSTIC OPTIONS Visible 2 cm worm anchored to skin/muscle Freshwater. (Dactylogyrus = gill flukes. inactivity. loricarid catfishes None known Philometra (“red worm” disease) Blood smears Swollen abdomen See worms protruding from Guppies anus Trypanosomes Blood parasite 41 . in wild-caught animals. Fecal exam. ragged tail. fenbendazole or piperazine in food. mucus. asphyxiation. 2 2 Nematodes (many species) GI worms. visualize cysts Esp. glacial acetic acid or (haptor) H O dips. levamisole bath Nematodicides Wild fishes. hemorrhage Monogenean trematodes Gills: Hyperplasia. esp. death. ulcers. worm with hold-fast hooks marine Salt. Skin: Gyrodactylus = skin flukes) Localized hemorrhage. saltwater dips. rubbing. (anchorworm. praziquantel. esp. skin/muscle cysts Surgically remove large cysts. chitin inhibitors (diffubenzuron & lufenuron) DISEASE CLINICAL SIGNS S U P P L E M E N T Lernaea sp.1 . a crustacean) Localized irritation. goldfish and koi SPECIES AFFECTED POSSIBLE THERAPY Manual removal.0. DISEASES OF FISH Microscopic: 0.8 mm Overcrowded koi. Flashing. Organophosphates. fresh and Fresh or salt water baths. glacial acetic acid dips (to remove juveniles). 42 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Formulary ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ No drugs are FDA-approved for ornamental pet fish. Such measures will necessitate sound pharmacokinetics.org/view. An on-line database (www. ■ ■ DOSING ROUTES: Before using any drug in the water. but the clinician must also be familiar with the terminology applied to water borne treatments (below): ROUTES OF ANTIBIOTIC ADMINISTRATION FOR ORNAMENTAL FISH: Bath: Usually refers to a treatment in which the drug is dissolved in the water in which the fish are swimming. Adequate aeration is also important during any water treatment. Adding antibiotics to tank can be deleterious to natural. Systemic bacterial infections usually secondary to stress. With the recent passing of the Minor Use and Minor Species (MUMS) Animal Health Act. The ■ . What little information exists is based on clinical efficacy and in vitro trials using a number of different antimicrobials. discontinue chemical (eg. a variety of atypical methods are utilized to deliver antibiotics to pet fish. we are likely to see some dramatic changes in the availability of drugs for use in fish (it is likely that these changes will mean more “approved” drugs). poor water quality. beneficial bacteria. consult the following web address: www. A.fda. especially antibiotics (for more information on the FDA and the use of drugs in aquaculture. Relatively little research related to pharmacology has been reported in aquarium fishes. et al. and safety studies to support clinical use of antimicrobials and other chemotherapeutants in fishes. preferable to use dips. and frequently large numbers. The FDA is currently examining the wide availability of prescription drugs. Standard parenteral methods can and commonly are used to dose aquarium fish with antibiotics. Treat based on culture and sensitivity results. carbon) filtration during treatment as this will inactivate the drug. generally small size. 2005). Use caution (attention to runoff onto plants. efficacy. parasites/fungi/protozoa. into other water sources) when disposing of treated water or when changing water in outdoor ponds. salmonicida is an obligatory pathogen. Due to their aquatic nature.asp?art=aapsj070230) contains valuable information on pharmacokinetics in fish (Reimschuessel.aapsj.gov/cvm. This protocol is much easier to follow in a home or hospital aquarium than in a pet store or wholesale facility. Similar to dip procedure except fish may not have to be removed from their normal holding area. intradermal. Flush or Flow Through: Requires constant water flow. DRUGS AND DOSAGES: The majority of the current information on chemotherapeutics used in aquarium fish has been extrapolated from the aquaculture literature. intravenous. and. ideally they should be used daily for 5-7 days. as of October. Fortunately. et al. Topical: The medication is applied directly to the lesion. 2005. Indefinite Bath: Medication is added to aquarium and usually there is no water change or immediate retreatment. Oral: Medication is mixed with the food in order to treat the fish. Usually done by incorporating the drug into a gelatinized food mixture.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 43 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ treatment lasts at least 15 minutes and less than 24 hours. There are a number of reasons for this. Injection: The antibiotic is given by injection with the aid of a hypodermic needle and syringe. The chemotherapeutant is added to inflow area and fish are exposed to the drug as it passes over them with the water current. and intracoelomic (intraperitoneal). Routes may be subcutaneous. Most frequently used in raceways or narrow vats. There are currently only three antibiotics approved for use in fish intended for human consumption (Romet-30R. Dosage is normally based on volume of water and not on fish biomass. 1996). the veterinarian treating aquarium fish can apply current extra label drug use regulations when selecting and initiating antibiotic therapy. Water changes (at least 50%) should take place between treatments. Water volumes are usually smaller than those of bath treatments and drug concentrations are frequently higher. For larger fish patients. *When antibiotics are used as bath treatments. ■ . Aquaflor® – florfenicol). Terramycin for Fish®. intramuscular. An article summarizes the literature on this subject (Stoffregen. medication can be placed in a chunk of food and then fed or force-fed to the patient. most of which revolve around funding for sound pharmacokinetic research. Much of the literature dealing with antibiotic usage in aquarium fish is empirical and anecdotal.* Dip: Refers to a treatment in which the fish is submerged in a particular solution for between 1 second and 15 minutes. 2-0. anchorworm) desirable invertebrates). ® Anecdotal reports lufenuron (Program ) at a similar dose with good success. PO.18-0.22 mg/L) Caution: toxic to elasmobranchs and invertebrates COMPANION Dexamethasone injectable ICe. monitor levels daily and add more as necessary to maintain 0. IV or IM 2 mg/kg ICe or IV q24h x3d.F I S H MEDICINE Diflubenzuron (Dimilin®) (anecdotal evidence for lufenuron efficacy as well) Bath Parasitic crustaceans 0.5 mg/L x 5 hr bath q24h x5-7d. FISH FORMULARY USE Antibiotic Pain control Pseudomonas External protozoans DRUG ROUTE DOSAGE Amikacin sulfate (Amiglyde-V®) IM 5 mg/kg then 2. The formulary is a quick reference of drugs and dosages for the treatment of pet fishes by a licensed veterinarian.7 mg/ml injectable or tablets IM. Shock / cardiac arrest Epinephrine IM or ICe 0. ICe q48h x7-21d (dilute 1:1 with sterile saline to reduce Antibiotic irritation). with 20-30% water change 24-48 hr posttreatment F O R M U L A RY . 7d apart (very effective but may kill (fish lice. May require an EPA license to administer. with 50-75% water change between treatments. or 2. or 5 mg/kg PO 10-14d.25-0.01 mg/L q48h x 7d x 3 treatments. for shock: 1-2 mg/kg IM or intracoelomically Chlorine / chloramine toxicity. HANDBOOK Enrofloxacin (Baytril®) 22. anchorworm) Dimethyl phosphonate. Recent work indicates 10 mg/kg ICe x5d for koi at 20°C. bath 5-10 mg/kg IM.5 ml of 1:1000 . or 0.18-0. shock Parasitic crustaceans (fish lice.4 mg/kg EXOTIC Ceftazidime (Fortaz®) IM or SC 20 mg/kg q72h Copper sulfate Bath.1% in food 10-14d. ICe.5 mg/L q10d x 3.5 mg/kg q72h x 5 treatments Butorphanol IM 0.1-0.22 mg/L x14-21d (marine fish only. dip Bath: 0. trichlorfon (liquid form for cattle grubs) Bath 0.44 The formulary is not meant to be a complete listing of all drugs available to treat fishes nor has the information provided been proven to be safe and effective on all species. Trematodes in goldfish. Monitor fish closely for signs of distress. then 50% water change. Eugenol (clove oil) 1:10 with 95% ethanol (stock approx. parasitic crustaceans (fish lice.F I S H FISH FORMULARY USE Antibiotic Anesthesia. PO 100 mg/kg/d x14-21d. 100 mg/ml) Bath 25-120 mg/L are effective in freshwater and marine species and results are comparable to MS-222. anchorworm) Protozoa Glacial acetic acid Dip 2 ml/L 30-45 sec (test 1 fish for sensitivity) Hydrogen peroxide 3% Dip 70 mg/gal x 4 minutes 45 .2% (200 mg/100 g food) x3d. Caution: carcinogen. repeat in 2 wks Florfenicol IM 10-30 mg/kg q24h F O R M U L A RY .0 ml of 100% formalin [37% formaldehyde] in Protozoa. repeat in 2 wks. except that recovery may be prolonged S U P P L E M E N T Fenbendazole (Panacur®) In gel food In gel food at 0.F I S H Formaldehyde 37% (100% formalin) Bath or dip Bath: 20-25 mg/L (ppm) (1. Formalin is the only parasiticide approved for use in food fish. every other day x disease 3 treatments. alternative to MS-222 Intestinal nematodes Antibiotic DRUG ROUTE DOSAGE Erythromycin (water-soluble phosphate form) Bath or PO Bath: 200 mg/10 gal for 6-12 hr q24h. Or. may compromise biological filter. Encysted parasites like “Ich” and Cryptocaryon require several treatments. or PO or 50-100 mg/kg PO. removes O2 from water (increase aeration). Watch for resistance. Effective for some ectoparasites in koi as a 10-min dip at 100-150 mg/L. dip 100-250 ppm 30-60 min. fungal 10 gal [38 L] water) x 12-24 hr. Always change water between treatments. Caution: carcinogen . MS-222 (10 mg/ml buffered stock solution) 100-150 mg/L.1 . repeat daily x5-7d MEDICINE Oxytetracycline PO. IM.15 ppm for 12-24 hr +/. Metronidazole (Flagyl®) Bath or in gel food Bath: 10 mg/L q24h x3d.0. gills submerged HANDBOOK Povidone iodine solution and ointment Topical solution 1:10 dilution . Repeat as long as parasites are present.20 ppm formaldehyde.. 25-50% water changes between treatments. Bath Finquel®. 1 L of stock solution should be buffered with 3-5 g of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) F O R M U L A RY . or gel food 0. 10-70 mg/kg q24h ICe or bath Panalog® ointment Topical q12h for 30-60 sec with fish out of water.F I S H Nalidixic acid Bath 500 mg/10 gal for 1-4 hr for Gram-negative bacteria. can be toxic. Toxic to scaleless fish.46 FISH FORMULARY USE Internal nematodes Local anesthesia "Ich.wear gloves." fungal disease DRUG ROUTE DOSAGE Levamisole phosphate (Ripercol®) Bath 2 mg/L q12-24h Lidocaine 2% EXOTIC Malachite green (zinc-free) Bath 0. Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Wounds Wounds Nitrofurazone Bath 20 mg/L as 5 hr bath q24h. effective in 3-5 min. 30% water change. then repeat.2% (200 mg/100 g food) x10d External/internal flagellates Anesthesia COMPANION Tricane methanesulfonate. Inexpensive over-the-counter preparations are available for use in ornamental fish. S U P P L E M E N T Praziquantel Bath 5-10 mg/L x 3-6 hr. repeat in 7d. artificial sea salt.F I S H Salt (sea salt. repeat in 7d. dwarf cichlids. koi: salt @ 3-5 g/L for up to 1 mo as needed Caution: salt may be stressful to wild-caught discus. ICe or PO 5-8 mg/kg fish PO in food. used as a general tonic for stress. and control of external parasites DRUG ROUTE DOSAGE Praziquantel (Droncit®) tablets and injectable solution IM.F I S H FISH FORMULARY USE Internal cestodes or internal digenean trematodes (flukes) Ectoparasitic monogenean trematodes (flukes). kosher salt. or add salt to tank or pond at 1-3 g/L (1-3 parts per thousand) Freshwater tropicals: salt @ 1 g/L indefinitely (as preventive. reduces stress) 2-3 g/L will usually kill protozoa) Goldfish. repeat in 2 wks. Wounds 47 Silver sulfadiazine cream (Silvadene®) q12h for 30-60 sec with fish out of water. Avoid salts with anti-caking agents or other additives Add to tank Freshwater species: 4-5 min in 30-35 g/L seawater. solar salt). internal cestodes or internal digenean trematodes (flukes) Oodinium. or bath 5-10 mg/L x 3-6 hr.5 g/L. gills submerged . “Ich” Protozoa. corydoras catfish. Freshwater plants harmed at salt >0. move to new aquarium Quinine hydrochloride Bath 10-20 ppm indefinitely F O R M U L A RY . Marine fishes can be placed in a freshwater dip for 4-5 min. Certain smaller fishes may not survive this treatment. treatment is usually repeated several times with 25-30% water changes between treatments. ICe. If possible. the clinician must critically evaluate the information provided and stay informed of recommendations in the literature. protozoans Aerate well and monitor very closely.5 mg/L.F I S H COMPANION Triple antibiotic ointment Bath q12h for 30-60 sec with fish out of water. or 30 mg/kg PO q24h x10-14d. in all cases the clinician is responsible for the use of any pharmaceuticals. Wounds Trimethoprim sulfadiazine (Tribrissen®) IM. therefore.48 FISH FORMULARY USE Antibiotic DRUG ROUTE DOSAGE Tetracycline (frequent resistance) Bath or PO Bath: 250-500 mg/10 gal 3-6 hr. MEDICINE Although every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information presented herein (particularly doses). Most drugs used in exotic companion species are considered extra-label. in food or bath 30 mg/kg IM. gills submerged Water Dip or bath Many freshwater species will tolerate a 4-5 min dip in full strength (30-35 Ectoparasitic g/L) seawater. or PO (commercially prepared diet) EXOTIC Trichlorfon (Neguvon® and Malthion®) Bath 0. or bath 20 mg/L x 5 hr q24h F O R M U L A RY . or 0.2% in food x10-14 d. ICe q24h x7-10d. Effective in controlling crustacean ectoparasites A good broad-spectrum antibiotic. A biotest is strongly recommended when using these compounds. and few pharmacokinetic studies have been conducted. test treatment on one fish first. HANDBOOK . 250 ml) 5-gallon bucket(s) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ MEDICAL Centrifuge Complete dissecting kit Compound microscope Eugenol (clove oil) 1:9 with 95% ethanol (stock approx.7 mg tablets Epinephrine ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ .F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 49 Equipment and Supplies HUSBANDRY Air pumps Air tubing Assorted plastic totes/sweater boxes Assorted glass aquaria Assorted sizes of plastic fish bags Assorted nets Commercial dechlorinator Rubberbands Sea salt Sponge filters Water test kit Water sample bottles (plastic.7 mg/ml injectable Enrofloxacin 22. 100 mg/ml) Fish anesthesia machine Gram scale (to 1 kg) Kg scale (to 10 kg) MS-222 (10 mg/ml buffered stock solution) Oxygen tank with regulator Plastic surgical drapes Refractometer Sterile surgical pack(s) DRUGS AND OTHER COMPOUNDS Amikacin Assorted scalpel blades Atropine Calcium gluconate Ceftazidime Commercial dechlorinator Dexamethasone injectable Diflubenzuron Emeraid II Enrofloxacin 22. 3 cc. 26g Assorted red rubber catheters 5 French-12 French Assorted suture materials Assorted syringes: 1 cc. 60 cc with lure or eccentric tip 2.50 ■ EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Eugenol (clove oil) 1:9 with 95% ethanol (stock approx. 23g. 22g. 35 cc. 25g.5 ml blood collection tubes red top (clot tube) green (heparin) yellow (sodium chloride) Bullet tubes (eppendorf) 1. 100 mg/ml) Euthanasia solution Fenbendazole Furosemide Heparin 1000 u High energy/protein dog food (1 small can) Lidocaine 2% Lubricating jelly Lufenuron Metronidazole MS-222 (10 mg/ml buffered stock solution) 10% Neutral buffered formalin Nexaband® adhesive Nitrofurazone Nolvasan® (dilute and nondilute) Panalog® ointment Povidone iodine ointment Praziquantel tablets and injectable solution Sea salt (5 lbs [2. 12 cc.5 ml Coverslips Culturettes minitip portacult regular ARD bottle Fluorescence strips Glass slides .25 kg]) Silver sulfadiazine cream Sterile water Trichlorfon 8% Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole tablets 960 mg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ DIAGNOSTIC MATERIALS Assorted needles: 18g. 20g. 6 cc. NY 11722 Air pumps: * (Second Nature®) Willinger Bros. Inc Wright Way Oakland. Garden City. Hwy 90 West Ponce De Leon. NJ 07436-3121 Undergravel filters: * Power Filters (Dynaflo®. Inc 160 Oval Drive Central Islip. El Monte.. FL 32455 Water test kits: * Hach Company PO Box 389 Loveland CO 80539 800-227-4224 www. MA 02048 * Penn Plax. Aquaclear®) Hagen Corp Vansfield.com ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . NY 11530 Ultraviolet filtration: * Rainbow Plastics 3242 Meeker Ave PO Box 4127. CA 91734 Diatom filters: * Vortex Innerspace Products PO Box 168.F I S H ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ S U P P L E M E N T ® 51 Kimwipes Microcentrifuge with putty Microhematocrit tubes Microcontainer tubes (serum separator) Nonsterile 2x2 and 4x4 pads Nonsterile gloves Paper towels Plastic pipettes Tongue depressors Material Resources PRODUCTS AND SERVICES Heaters: * (Visi-Therm®) Aquarium Systems 8141 Tyler Blvd Mentor.hach. Inc. OH 44060 * (Heetmaster®) EG Danner Mfg. com Chem Aqua PO Box 2457 Oxnard CA 93033 www.pondrx.com National Ornamental Goldfish Growers Association (NOGGA).argent-labs. 6916 Black’s Mill Rd.org American Fisheries Society: www. www. Inc.ftffa. or veterinary drug supplier Argent Chemical Laboratories 8702 152nd Ave NE Redmond WA 98052 www.52 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK * Gilford Instrument Lab.org ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ INDUSTRY RESOURCES: American Cichlid Association.fisheries.iaaam. www.chemaqua. www.org .lamotte.org Associated Koi Clubs of America.com FISH DRUG DISTRIBUTORS Any local pet store. Inc 1110 Florence Way Campbell CA 95008 ■ ■ ■ ■ Other Informational Resources NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS International Association for Aquatic Animal Medicine (IAAAM): www.org Florida Tropical Fish Farmers Association (FTFFA).cichlid. OH 44074 216-774-1041 800-445-3673 * La Motte Chemicals PO Box 329 Chestertown MD 21260 800-344-3100 www. www. www.appma. Thurmont.ofish.org American Pet Products Manufacturers Association. pet supply retailer. MD 21788 PH: (301)271-7475 Ornamental Fish International (OFI). Inc/CIBA 132 Artino St Oberlin.akca.com Dyna-Pet.com * PondRx www. fishweb.F I S H ■ ■ S U P P L E M E N T 53 Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council (PIJAC).com Aquarium Fish PO Box 57900 Los Angeles CA 90057 213-385-2222 www. Aquavet (University of Pennsylvania & Cornell University).famamagazine.com Freshwater and Marine Aquarium PO Box 487 Sierra Madre CA 91025 818-355-1476 www.ufl. AquaMed (Louisiana State University).tfhmagazine.org University of Florida Tropical Aquaculture Laboratory.koiusa.com ■ ■ ■ ■ .aquariumfish. www. University of Georgia: 3-day course on koi medicine POPULAR MAGAZINES Tropical Fish Hobbyist One TFH Plaza Neptune City NJ 07753 908-988-8400 www.htm ■ ■ ■ ■ COURSES IN PET FISH MEDICINE University of Florida: 2 week course on warm water fish diseases. CA 92046 888-660-2073 www.ifas. www.com Koi USA Magazine PO Box 469070 Escondido. North Carolina State University: 3 day course on pet fish medicine.pijac.edu/Facilities/RuskinLabPics/RuskinLab. Cain DK. . J Fish Dis 9:163-167. Loomis M. Takase K. Harms CA: Building a fish anesthesia delivery system. Weisse C. Soto CG. and thiopental sodium in the carp. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. WB Saunders Co. Treves-Brown KM: Applied Fish Pharmacology. Ogawawara T. 645. 1997. In: Carpenter JW (ed). Miller RE (eds). Hrubec TC. 2005. Lewbart GA. Harms CA: Anesthesia in fish. Brenden RA.62(3):337-342. Sladky KK. Klide A: Use of pneumocystoplasty for overinflation of the swim bladder in a goldfish. 2005. 48:341-351. 2003 Harms CA. Dodrecht. Harms CA. Plasma biochemistry reference values of wild bonnethead sharks. Philadelphia. Exotic DVM Magazine 1999. 2005. Carassius auratus. personal communication. 55(3):221-226. Matzkin Z. Aquaculture 1995.221(5):690-3. Kirk RW (eds): Current Veterinary Therapy XII. Lewbart GA: Fish. Elsevier Publishing. et al: Anesthesia and recovery with tricaine methanesulfonate.158163. Huizinga HW: Pathophysiology of experimental Aeromonas hydrophila infection in goldfish. Carcharhinus plumbeus: Standardization of complete blood count techniques for elasmobranches. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 29(1):7-12. Ross T. Kishimori J. CLINICAL PATHOLOGY REFERENCES Arnold JE: Hematology of the sandbar shark. Segars A: Plasma biochemistry reference values of wildcaught southern stingrays (Dasyatis americana). J Am Vet Med Assoc. Kishimori J. Boylan S. Smith SA: Hematology and plasma chemistry reference intervals for cultured tilapia (Oreochromis hybrid). 2002. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 34(2):115-123. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company. Groff JM. Lewbart GA. and Colavecchia M: The use of clove oil as an anesthetic for rainbow trout and its effects on swimming performance. Swanson C: Behavioral and clinical pathology changes in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) subjected to anesthesia and surgery with and without peri-operative analgesics. In: Bonagura JD. Comparative Medicine. Cyprinus carpio. and A Segars. Hikasa Y. Swanson C. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Anim Pract 2:741-776. 1999. Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4. eugenol. Stoskopf MK: Anesthesia of pet fishes. Comparative Medicine 55(3):221-226. Cardinale JL. Small Animal Practice. Harms CA. Lewbart GA: Comparative efficacy of tricaine methanesulfonate and clove oil for use as anesthetics in red pacu (Piaractus brachypomus). 2000. McKinley RS. In Fowler ME and Miller RE: Zoo & Wild Animal Medicine Current Therapy 4. Boylan S: Behavioral and clinical pathology changes in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) subjected to anesthesia and surgery with and without intra-operative analgesics. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(4):471-476. Britt T.1365-1369. Zinkl JG: Hematology and clinical chemistry of cyprinid fish. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co. 1995.1(2):25-28. Exotic Animal Formulary. 1986. American Journal of Veterinary Research 2001. In: Fowler ME. 136:149-152. Harms C. 2005. Harms C. Burhanuddin CG: Clove oil as a fish anesthetic for measuring length and weight or rabbitfish (Siganus lineatus). Harms CA. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 5-29. 2000. 2002 Sep 1. Stoskopf MK. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science 1986.54 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK References/Further Reading ANESTHESIA/ANALGESIA Anderson WG. pp 158163. Weber ES. 1998. The Netherlands. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 31(3):111115. 1999. Sphyrna tiburo. Lewbart GA.17:301-307. 2004. Anesthesia in fish. Swanson C. Exotic Animal Formulary. Squibb E. IA. 1991. Khoo. Radiographic diagnosis. 39(4):318-321. Mashima TY. 2nd Ed. 1988. Bonagura (eds). Rupiper DJ: Exotic Animal Formulary. 2005. MK and LJ Forrest. Papich MG. Shotts EB. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 30(2):50-52. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound. Carpenter J (ed). LH. pp 5-29. 1997. deGuzman E. Noga EJ: Biopsy and rapid postmortem techniques for diagnosing diseases of fish. Elsevier Publishing.1208/aapsj070230. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 128:680-686. Stoskopf MK. p 882. Lewbart GA: Fish. Shaikh B. J Small Anim Pract 22:345-366. Krum H. 2004. 2000. WB Saunders. Reimschuessel R. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Lewbart GA.34:178-180. Rad.969-977. Philadelphia. DIAGNOSTICS Bakal RS.102: 187-190. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 33(2):74-83. 2005. Iowa State University Press.21:364-368.18(2): 349-364. II: Blood chemistry values of juvenile red pacu (Piaractus brachypomus). including blood cell morphology. Lewbart GA.13(6). 07(02): E288-E327. p 367. Lewbart GA. Noga EJ: Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment. 1993. Lewbart GA. Vet Clinics of North America Small Animal Pract. Lewbart GA. Whitt-Smith D: Pharmacokinetics of florfenicol in the red pacu (Piaractus brachypomus) after single dose intramuscular administration. Iowa State University Press. Brooks D. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound. Lewbart GA: Medical management of disorders of freshwater tropical fish.. Burnley VV: Hematologic reference intervals for koi (Cyprinus carpio). Philadelphia. Love NE. 1988. 2001. 28:317-319. 2005. Vet Clinics of North America Small Animal Pract. Vet. AAPS Journal. cytochemistry. 1999. . Berry CB: Imaging a spinal fracture in a kohaku koi (Cyprinus carpio): Techniques and case history report.226(5):784-788. Gratzek JB: An overview of ornamental fish diseases and therapy. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 1997. Pet fish radiography: technique and case history reports. Stoskopf. Kirk. Hodsdon C: Fish Drug Analysis-Phish-Pharm: A Searchable Database of Pharmacokinetics Data in Fish. Ames. 1998. TW: Fish cytology and hematology. Huml. Noga EJ: Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment. Smith TA.18(2). Stewart L. Papich M. 2000. Brady T. 1998. DOI: 10. Tocidlowski ME. 1988. Butkus DA.1369-1374. Bullock GL: Rapid diagnostic approach in the identification of Gramnegative bacterial diseases of fish.401-426. 1981. Stoskopf MK: Hematologic study of red pacu (Colosomma brachypomum). Fish Pathology. Campbell. 1995. 1993. Tripathi NH. Compendium on Continuing Education. Grindem CB. Wang C. Hirokawa K. 2005. FORMULARY/PHARMACOLOGY Carpenter JW. Lewbart GA: Pharmacokinetics of oxytetracycline in the red pacu (Colossoma brachypomum) following different routes of administration. WB Saunders Co. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 26(3):119-125. Vet Clinics of North America Small Animal Pract. Lartimer KS. Noga EJ: A simple catheterization method for systemic administration of drugs to fish. Avtalion R: Comparative clinicopathological responses of striped bass and palmetto bass to acute stress. Shotts EB: Bacterial Culture and Evaluation of Diseases of Fish. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2001.18(2): 365-374. and ultrastructure. Doi A. WB Saunders Co. 1976. Lewbart GA: Emergency pet fish medicine. and GA Lewbart. Coleman AK. In Current Veterinary Therapy XII. Love NE.38(1):24-29. Stoskopf MK: Fish Medicine. and Ultrasound.F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 55 Noga EJ. Sakamoto K. RA. Iowa State Press. Erne Enterprises. New York. Lewbart GA (ed): Self-Assessment Guide to Ornamental Fish. WB Saunders Co. In Current Veterinary Therapy XII. Stoneville. Oxford. 2001. Roberts RJ (ed): Fish Pathology. Stoskopf MK: Anesthesia of pet fishes. Noga EJ: Fish Disease Diagnosis and Treatment. Exotic Animal Formulary. Gloucestershire. 221(11):15721573. Ferguson HW: Systemic Pathology of Fish. Saint Erne N: Advanced Koi Care. Gratzek JB. 1993. Marietta. FURTHER READING (GENERAL REFERENCES) Brown L: Aquaculture for Veterinarians: Fish Husbandry and Medicine. Lewbart GA: Fish. 2005. Mosby-Yearbook. 1999. 2nd Ed. Johnson EJ: Koi Health and Disease. 1365-1369 . NY. MO. Osney Mead. British Small Animal Veterinary Association. Ltd. New York. Ross B: Anaesthetic & Sedative Techniques for Aquatic Animals. Ames. Johnson Veterinary Services. Gloucester. Kirk. Elsevier. 2002. Jensen JW: Calculating Treatments for Ponds and Tanks. PA. GA 30068. Pub #103. Iowa State Press. Stoskopf MK (ed): Fish Medicine. Heathcott BL. Carpenter J (ed). UK. 1995. Iowa. MS. Vet Clinics of North America Small Animal Pract. Masser MP . 2000. Pergamon Press. 2000. Treves-Brown KM: Applied Fish Pharmacology. DC. 1993. 1989. 1992. Wildgoose W: British Small Animal Veterinary Association Manual of Ornamental Fish 2nd Edition. Butcher RL: Manual of Ornamental Fish. Tetra Press. Washington. 2001. MS. Oxford. . Ross LG. Philadelphia. Blackwell Science. Ames. #410. 3805 Robinson Rd. 1993. Matthews JR: Aquariology: The Science of Fish Health Management. Ostrander GK (ed): The Laboratory Fish. 1999. Saunders. Manson Publications. 1991. 1998. JAVMA. Wise JK. Pub. Academic Press. Stoneville. National Academies Press. PA. 1994.56 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK Stoskopf MK: Taking the history. Plumb JA: Health Maintenance and Principal Microbial Diseases of Cultured Fishes. 1996. NY. Louis. 1988. BSAVA. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center. England. Masser MP . IA.283-391. Springer. 2003. Jensen JW: Calculating Area and Volume of Ponds and Tanks. Southern Regional Aquaculture Center. National Academy of Sciences: Nutrient Requirements of Fish. Gonzalez ML: Results of the AVMA survey on companion animal ownership in US pet-owning households. 3rd Ed. Bonagura (eds). Philadelphia. 1991. St. London & Iowa State University Press. UK. 1997. 18(2). WB Saunders Co. F I S H S U P P L E M E N T 57 NOTES . 58 EXOTIC COMPANION MEDICINE HANDBOOK NOTES .