THE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE EXAMINATION IN THE HISTORYOF THE ENGLISH LITERATURE Semester VII Specialty-Romanian/Russianand English Faculty ofPhilology 1. Origins and evolution of the English novel andsocio-cultural context of the first half of the XVIIIth century. 2. Periods and particularities in Daniel Defoe’screation. 3. The eclectical nature of Moll Flanders. 4. Themes in Moll Flanders. 5. Samuel Richardson and the beginnings ofpsychological prose in the English literature. 6. Clarissa - an epistolarynovel (Social context and plot). 7. Themes in Clarissa. 8. Characters in Clarissa. 9. Henry Fielding and the adventure novel. 10. Characters in Tom Jones. 11. Themes in TomJones. 12. Laurence Sterne and English sentimentalliterature. 13. Tristram Shandy-a parody of contemporary tradition and forerunnerof pre-modern tradition (Social context and plot). 14. Englishliterature at the end of the XVIIIth century-the beginning ofthe XIXth one. The origins and particularities of the EnglishRomanticism. 15. William Blake – a representative of the EarlyEnglish Romanticism. 16. The literary and critical contribution of LakePoets- William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge 17. Periods and particularities in George Gordon,Lord Byron’s, creation. 18. Style and symbols in Childe Harold's Pilgrimmages. 19. Late English Romanticism: Percy Bysshe Shelley. John Keats. 20. The socio-cultural context of the Victorianperiod. The particularities of the Victorian novel and the English Realism inthe XIXth century. 21. Charles Dickens and Bildungsroman‘stradition in the English literature. 22. Caracters and narrativestructures in Greal Expectations. 23. William Makepeace Thackeray‘s contributionto the evolution of English Realistic novel. 24. Vanity Fair –a socio-cultural panorama of the Victorian period. 25. Periods and particularities in CharlotteBronte’s creation. 26. Women’s socio-cultural status in JaneEyre. 27. Themes in Jane Eyre. 28. Periods and particularities in EmilyBronte‘s creation. 29. Characters in Wuthering Heights. 30. Themes in WutheingHeights. 31. Thomas Hardy and the traditionof tragedy in the Victorian prose. 32. Characters inTess of the D 'Urberville 33. Themes in Tess of the D 'Urberville 1.Historical Context After the turbulent years of the 16th and 17th century, 18th century came as a relief. After the Stuarts, a succession of Protestant kings rules Britain. However, a monarch would never again influence arts and culture in manner of Elizabeth I. The power in the state shifts towards Pariliament, and the social standards and taste are dictated by the middle class. This literary period was influenced by the neoclassical trends from the continent, and the translations of classic Greek and Roman poets. The 18th century is often called ‗The Age of Reason‘. Literature was dealing with reason, not feelings, and a comfortable town life was preferred to the wild nature. A shift from poetry and drama towards the novel. According to the taste of the constantly rising middle class. Background ——18th century Neoclassical period(1660----1798) In short, it was an age full of conflicts and divergence of values The eighteenth-century England is also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. Its purpose was to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and artistic ideas。 The age of enlightenment: Enlighteners held that rationality or reason should be the only, the final cause of any human thought and activities. They called for a reference to order, reason and rules. As a matter of fact, literature at the time, heavily didactic and moralizing, became a very popular means of public education. The age of enlightenment----Famous people： John Dryden, Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift ,Daniel Defoe ,Henry Fielding, Joseph Addison Enlightenment Literature British novel - realistic - designed for literate British society - providing greater understanding of human nature Henry Fielding - Tom Jones Daniel Defoe - She Stoops to Conquer Women write also - only form of expression Jane Austen - Pride and Prejudice a newly rising literary form ----the modern English novel ,mid-century of 18th contrary to the traditional romance of aristocrats, gives a realistic presentation of life of the common English people. pioneers : Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Laurence Sterne, and Oliver Goldsmith. The Rise of the English Novel The Restoration of the monarchy (1660) in England after the Puritan Commonwealth (1649-1660) encouraged an outpouring of secular literature Appearance of periodical literature: journals and newspapers Increased leisure time for middle class: Coffee House and Salon society Literary Criticism Character Sketches Growing audience of literate women Fathers of the English Novel Samuel Richardson 1689-1761 Pamela (1740) and Clarissa (1747-48) Epistolary Sentimental Morality tale: Servant resisting seduction by her employer Henry Fielding 1707-1754,,,,,, Shamela (1741) Joseph Andrews (1742), and Tom Jones (1749) Picaresque protagonists “comic epic in prose” Parody of Richardson Historical and social Background The 18th century is a period of comparatively peaceful development in England. After the Glorious Revolution, England entered the Golden Age. The state power passed from the king gradually to the Parliament and the cabinet ministers; therefore, capitalist system was established in England. A vast expansion abroad of British colonies in Asia, Africa and North America and Acts of Enclosure at home caused the Industrial Revolution Themes of Moll Flanders Greed The major recurrent theme in the novel is that of greed — a greed which leads Moll to prostitution. A second aspect was her ruthless pursuit of money. pursued her goal of obtaining security in life. Her resourcefulness and conniving brought her release from prison and her transportation to Virginia. thievery. She was a forceful. She steals from children and from people in distress. There. She was attractive and so vain about her appearance that she was easily convinced men were in love with her. When the first one dies she muses. indeed. Although she is in love with the eldest brother. She easily consigns her children to the care of their grandparents and considers herself lucky.. a wealthy plantationowner. 4. Moll sees people as commodities — her relationships with them as business transactions. According to her theory." She takes money for prostitution. resolute young girl who obtained her way in most things. Sentimental .Psychological Realistic/Naturalistic . her numerous husbands and lovers. vain and fearful of poverty. . the heroine of the book. One aspect of this determination was Moll's drive to marry a rich man." She chooses husbands on the basis of their affluence or social class. left me a widow with about £1200 in my pocket. and a ruthless pursuer of ill-gotten wealth. the rise and flourish of modern realistic novel in the middle years of the 18th century. which he offered me for my consent to marry his brother. Gothic.Character AnalysisMoll Flanders Moll. she has few qualms about taking money from him. She then accepts a bribe from him to marry his brother Robin. and this. . Science Fiction. "My two children were. . . And only when she is too old to do otherwise does she repent. and the appearance of gothic novel and the sentimental and pre-romantic poetry and fiction in the last few decades of the 18th century Types of NovelsPicaresque Epistolary. The result of the acts she performed to achieve these goals was the transformation of a beautiful innocent young girl into a hardened middle-aged criminal who was finally captured and sent to Newgate Prison. in a year's time. a young girl in poor circumstances had the right to find support as best she could. Regional.The 18th Century English Literature The development of the literature in this period can be summarized as: the predominance of neoclassical poetry and prose in the early decades of the 18th century. persistent.Social . Moll. Adventure. her increasing hardness of heart. her favorite husband. with Jemmy. Her evolving theory was that if England had provided properly for orphans she would not have fallen into bad hands and thus needed to fend for herself before she could be trained to make her way honestly in the world. and moral disintegration. with what I saved of the money he formerly gave me and about as much more by my husband. Mystery. Magical Realism 3. was born in Newgate Prison and abandoned at about a year-and-a-half. Moll often moralized about her fear of poverty. Throughout the novel we see Moll's dual nature — a penitent woman reproaching herself for her misdeeds. taken happily off of my hands by my husband's father and mother. her criminal activities. Historical . she was able to become. her greed. "I had preserved the elder brother's bonds to me to pay me £500. . Defoe itemizes the booty of Moll's first criminal venture: " . the lace very fine. The terms he uses in the novel are very often economic. It is a factor which precipitates her decision to steal rather than remain poor and exist only by the honest labor of her needle. . This was a decision which the social environment of the day forced on many people. consider them too harshly for they are protagonists in the constant battle for survival which society imposes on the poor. I found there was a suit of childbed-linen in it. "Moll Flanders has no interior life at all. half-hearted and insincere. thus. and what course I ought to take. In journalistic fashion.6d. a good smock. our knowledge of her inner life suffers. She says. The occasion of Robin's marriage proposal causes Moll to say to the elder brother.. 18s. with some other linen. in money." .. Lacking true moral persuasion these repentances are. the reader is able to approximate what is Moll's economic standing. insists that he is writing the book as a moral lesson to "give the history of a moral life repented. but I could not think of being a whore to one brother and a wife to the other. We cannot. and never till now I resolved to tell him of it. capitalistically oriented England. Her first repentance comes when Robin asks her to marry him: "I was now in a dreadful condition indeed. Repentance The theme of repentance is a recurring one in Moll Flanders." Actually. how things stood with me." Again Moll considers what to do when she realizes she is not as bad as the people living in the Mint. for I was a stranger to those things. I began to consider here very seriously what I had to do. It is also a strong motif which runs through Moll's five marriages and numerous lovers. Moll Flanders can be considered a good example of the criminal of that time who is forced into a life of crime by social conditions which leave few other alternatives. Her will at times seems to be completely enslaved. She lacks moral strength. It is evident as the book unfolds that Moll has not been "led astray. there was a silvery porringer of a pint. and in the mug." In fact. in a paper. She constantly entertains the desire to repent. In fact all her actions are in some way linked to her vanity. not from any reflection of conscience. Moll's repentance seems more like regret for having underestimated her chances for a better arrangement. Kenneth Rexroth notes. "Upon serious consideration. her moral fiber is quickly overcome on several occasions by the slightest pressures or inducements. Throughout the story Moll considers or reflects on the path her life is taking. It is vanity that determines Moll's behavior in the first part of the book. "I was not wicked enough for such fellows as these yet. very good and almost new. and the material facts with which her character is constructed do not increase her individuality. for indeed now I began to consider things very seriously. Vanity An important theme of Moll Flanders is that vanity is the force that prevails over virtue. in the Preface. Defoe was writing in a new. and now I repented heartily my easiness with the eldest brother. and three silk handkerchiefs.It appears that Defoe consciously manipulates the reader to view Moll as a covetous individual. Moll's vanity facilitates her seduction by the elder brother." She has very shrewdly calculated the course of her life. They are chosen as facets of her typicality. To have played the genteel lady would have meant a life of poverty for Moll. ." But Moll seems to flourish in her life of crime and actually the lesson we learn is that to survive one must fight with the weapons one has. at nearly any point in the book. with direct recordings of Moll's business and criminal transactions. until the end. a small silver mug and six spoons. On the contrary." Defoe. Unfortunately. I seemed not to mourn that I had committed such crimes. He often portrays her as moralistic. hardened my heart. we see a meaningful contrast between Moll's character and that of the governess. I was penitent. but that I was to suffer and this took away all the comforts of my repentance in my own thoughts." This passage clearly shows another shallow repentance by Moll. Whatever regret Moll has is weak indeed: "with all my sense of its being cruel and inhuman. for example. she has been able to commit the crassest of criminal acts. Yet it is evident that Defoe meant us to sympathize with Moll. many of her partial repentances dissipate into further scheming.When the gentleman at Bath rejects any further contact with Moll. as I thought. it was repenting after the power of further sinning was taken away. and began now seriously to reflect on my present circumstances. that having divorced a whore. when she steals the bundle from the burning house. not in the least. who." After her Lancashire husband leaves and Moll is back in London alone she says that "here being perfectly alone. To say that she is a thief with a soul is to credit her with more depth than Defoe really shows us. for even after the shedding her heart quickly hardens against her victims and she continues their victimization. she marries him and after his death begins her criminal career. and we are able to sympathize with her because he portrays her as a very likeable woman. When Moll is first committed to Newgate she makes the following statement: "Then I repented heartily of all my life past. But Defoe still reveals to us sentimental aspects of Moll's personality that we cannot ignore. ." After she is delivered of another baby and receives a letter from her London bank clerk saying he wants to see her again Moll is "exceedingly surprised at the news. for example. I could never find in my heart to make any restitution. motivated by greed. . . Note that the tears Moll weeps from time to time are merely an emotional release rather than a sign of true repentance. and the reflections I had made wore quickly off. And perhaps even then Moll is really worried about being hanged. We have seen that." She appears to reproach herself just before she marries him: "Then it occurred to me. In fact. is well-liked by her contemporaries." Hardening The question as to whether Moll ever really becomes a hardened criminal is an interesting one. poverty. Moll does not appear to really repent until quite some time after her talk with the pastor. but nothing offered. 'What an abominable creature am I! and how is this innocent gentleman going to be abused by me!' How little does he think. as it was an offense against God and my neighbour. no peace. Even during her stay in Newgate. when she steals the necklace from the child in Aldersgate Street. a former crook who seemingly has truly repented. despite her thieving and prostitution. We never really see Moll's inner life that completely. not that I had sinned. The very fact that she insists on securing her inheritance shows how the possession of earthly goods has much deeper meaning for Moll than does the acquisition of spiritual well-being. and for the fact. I had leisure to sit down and reflect seriously upon the last seven months' ramble I had made. as I have said. she reports "I cast about innumerable ways for my future state of life. he is throwing himself into the arms of another!" Nevertheless. no. She fears not for her spiritual state but for her physical being. As can be noted. . but that I was to be punished for it. Defoe uses irony ingeniously in the passages telling us of Moll's thoughts during her various crimes. . and began to consider very seriously what I should do. she feels she is actually doing the child a favor: "The thought of this booty put out all the thoughts of the first. but that repentance yielded me no satisfaction. as I said to myself. and seems to like them as well. . because. This is shown. . Ironically Moll's energies are too consumed in maneuvering herself out of a bad situation to worry seriously about saving her soul. . This novel was Pamela. who tended to favor novels more than men did. though. The rise of the mercantile class of the eighteenth century contributed to increased reading among women and servants. for indeed. for it neither leads her to curtail the particular crime she is bemoaning. Richardson‘s first novel was written almost by accident. He liked to help women with the composition to their love letters and was asked by a publisher to write a volume of model letters for use on various occasions. I was hardened now beyond the power of all reflection in other cases. He was inspired to write a novel in the form of a series of letters (epistolary novel)." Moll is shown as most compassionate in her relationships with her various lovers and husbands. She seems to truly love the elder brother. as well as the House of Commons‘ Journals. SAMUEL RICHARDSON (1689-1761 A professional printer who took to novel-writing when he was fifty. And when she marries his brother Robin. I had given the parents a reproof for their negligence in leaving the poor little lamb to come home by itself. asking what she should do when faced with her master‘s sexual advances. Her second spouse is a rake. my own case gave me no disturbance compared to this. poor Robin never learns of the affair. Richardson‘s friends enjoyed this plot and asked for more of it. Novels had a bad reputation at the beginning of the century. Richardson was asked to construct a set of ―familiar letters. marriage to her would-be seducer. for as I did the poor child no harm. I only said to myself. Moll is in Newgate. and it would teach them to take more care of it another time. . but when she learns Jemmy is there too her remorse and sense of guilt are genuine. nor does it prompt her to offer restitution. Her life of crime is constantly colored by her good humor. "I was overwhelmed with grief for him. a novel which should implant a moral lesson in the mind of his readers (he thought of these reader primarily as women). or Virtue Rewarded. Criticism: virtue = commodity to be sold to the highest bidder. Virtue Rewarded in 1740.‖ models to help country people write to their families. and I loaded myself with reproaches on his account. . The last affair left no great concern upon me. . Some of these letters were supposedly from a servant girl to her parents. are widely considered to have helped legitimize novels as serious literature. most of which were political in nature. as I have said above. yet it really touched me to the very soul when I looked into this treasure. Her relationship with Jemmy seems to be full of love and compassion. Richardson‘s novels claimed that they entertained in order to instruct and were realistic and decent rather than scandalous fantasies. He printed several periodicals. Pamela resists clinging tightly to her code of honour and her reward is. which describes the assaults made on the honour of a virtuous housemaid by an unscrupulous young man." Defoe didn't want us to condone the action and condemn the parents. compassion and sense of loyalty. or. Countering this. As a printer. but she treats him well and helps him escape from his creditors." Moll is an ambivalent character. along with those of Defoe and Fielding. She nurses her men when they are sick and loves them when they are well. to think of the poor disconsolate gentlewoman who had lost so much by the fire. newspapers the Daily Gazeteer and the Daily Journals. 5. and he published Pamela. under sentence of death. This is shown in her robbery of a woman whose house is on fire: "This was the greatest and the worst prize that ever I was concerned in. She is a criminal — but a sympathetic one. they were considered feminine ephemera. Frequently Moll feels remorse — but it is a hollow remorse. ultimately. such as the Tory publication the True Britain.and my own necessities made me regardless of anything. Richardson‘s works. silly if not dangerous. Through ironic humor he gives us insight into Moll's attempts to rationalize her felonies. Richardson also set out to raise the social level of his story. it comes in below Proust‘s In Search of Lost Time but well above Tolstoy‘s War and Peace). and set up his own printing shop thirteen years later. Samuel Richardson was the son of a carpenter and had little formal education. Major issues addressed in Richardson‘s first writing venture would infuse the rest of his work as an author—namely. or. leaving a bold mark on the British novel and on European culture as well. coffeehouses were becoming popular. most notably Fielding‘s Shamelaand Haywood‘s Anti-Pamela. the importance of morality in an increasingly debauched society and the new complications of a rising middle class. Pamela was a new form of fiction writing altogether. the demand that the story end with a wedding signified that his readers were blind to the novel‘s moral structure. Richardson‘s first novel was written almost by accident. explicitly modeled on Clarissa. Around this time. Released in serialized form.6. Clarissa‘s first two volumes were published in 1747. That same year. but it has proved much less influential over time than either Pamela or Clarissa. this lengthy index includes extracts and paraphrases of moralistic sayings on topics like ―repentance‖ and ―adversity. The rise of the mercantile class of the eighteenth century contributed to increased reading among women and servants.‖ Samuel Johnson included many quotations from Clarissa in his 1755 Dictionary of the English Language. after the deaths of five children. This book was admired by such readers as Jane Austen. Its moral precepts formed the themes of church sermons as well as newspaper debates. and all seven were in print by the end of 1748. Johnson called Clarissa ―the first book in the world for the knowledge it displays of the human heart. asking what she should do when faced with her master‘s sexual advances. ou la Nouvelle Heloise. Worst of all. and even waxworks. The novel won much admiration. as well as the House of Commons‘ Journals. but all of these come from the ―Collection‖ rather than the text. Richardson died in 1761 in London. such as the Tory publication the True Britain. In 1733. Richardson undertook a more ambitious project when he began Clarissa. wrote a replacement ending. newspapers the Daily Gazeteer and the Daily Journals. others. but Richardson was disappointed with some aspects of its reception. Richardson‘s novels claimed that they entertained in order to instruct and were realistic and decent rather than scandalous fantasies. Richardson joined the trade as an apprentice in 1706. your impatience would be so much fretted that you would hang yourself. at least one woman. is two hundred pages longer than the first. In Germany. Novels had a bad reputation at the beginning of the century. and he published Pamela. a guide to moral behavior for men who worked as apprentices. To Richardson. writing a story that is less of a conduct book and more of a Christian parable. Lady Bradshaigh. Richardson married in 1721 and. In the year of Richardson‘s death. while in America John Adams declared in 1804 that ―democracy is Lovelace and the people is Clarissa. Lovelace‘s character is also much nastier in the third edition. operas. lost his wife ten years later. Along with revising Clarissa. Virtue Rewarded in 1740. He printed several periodicals. Following this success. He takes his goal of moralizing through entertainment further than he had in Pamela. he adopts the language of the upper classes and sprinkles the novel with members of the peerage. Clarissa is believed to be the longest novel written in the English language (internationally. and he almost immediately began revising in an effort to control this response. As a printer. Sir Charles Grandison. and argue. and Diderot an Eloge de Richardson. Some of these letters were supposedly from a servant girl to her parents. that she was a tease. while Clarissa‘s is even purer. Instead of the voice of a spunky servant girl. Pamela also received its share of criticism and parodies. including editorial footnotes that interpret the characters‘ actions and motivations. financial troubles forced him to find paid work in the printing business. Richardson‘s works. resulting in a more complex plot as well as a much longer novel. . most of which were political in nature.‖ To this date. Jean-Jacques Rousseau published Julie. Richardson was asked to construct a set of ―familiar letters. he remarried and had four surviving children with his second wife.published in 1751. Richardson‘s friends enjoyed this plot and asked for more of it. the value of Clarissa lay much less in its plot and characters than in the moral sentiments it encoded. an exercise in instruction through entertainment. who tended to favor novels more than men did. According to Richardson. Richardson rounded out his novelist‘s career by publishing a book with a male protagonist. there are four principal writers in Clarissa. are widely considered to have helped legitimize novels as serious literature. The novel was an instant sensation. Countering this. and they served as places where men of different professions gathered to read. while its plot and characters inspired musical adaptations. talk. Richardson also added a table of contents that summarizes each letter and compiled a ―Collection of Moral Sentiments‖ to add to the final volume.‖ models to help country people write to their families. Derbyshire.Clarissa Context Born in 1689 in Mackworth. Before the last volumes were published readers besieged him with letters begging for a happy ending.‖ For Johnson and many other contemporary readers. While almost all of the letters in Pamela are written by Pamela. he published The Apprentice’s Vade Mecum. silly if not dangerous. Although his parents hoped he would enter the priesthood. Goethe and Lessing claimed Richardson as an influence. along with those of Defoe and Fielding. The third edition ofClarissa. in 1753–1754. Some readers thought Clarissa was too prudish. continuations. the villainous rake. and after Richardson stuck to his tragic plan. Organized by category. readers adored Lovelace. they were considered feminine ephemera. Some historians have located the rise of a democratic public sphere in these coffeehouses and in the periodicals that were read in them.‖ but he also noted that ―if you were to read Richardson for the story. His intention. she will withstand his contrivances and remain a model of goodness. Anna Howe. Clarissa refuses to consider marrying Solmes and carries on a clandestine correspondence with Lovelace. The eighteen-year-old Clarissa Harlowe is universally loved and admired. Clarissa is innocent and virtuous and does not see through Lovelace‘s tricks. this time successfully. Arabella‘s jealousy combines with the resentment of their brother. Clarissa.‖ rather than marriage. even to save herself. Lovelace fails to reform and is killed by Clarissa‘s cousin Morden in a duel. comes to pay court to Clarissa‘s sister. he says. but at the same time it damages her health and cements her conviction of his wickedness. but she prefers the idea of death to that of marrying such a criminal. she is in Lovelace‘s power. The other members of the family are avaricious and eager to improve their standing in the world. She continues to seek reconciliation with her family. She also continues to secretly correspond with her best friend. sensing the danger. One of Lovelace‘s plots gone wrong allows him to accidentally discover Clarissa‘s location. Clarissa escapes. Clarissa‘s virtue has a powerful effect on Lovelace and sometimes sways him away from his bad intentions. and Lovelace regrets his action. until she is barely able to leave her room. Mrs. the implication is that parents need to shepherd their daughters away from danger. and she begins to prepare for death. forbids her from corresponding with Lovelace. A duel between the two. beautiful young woman who is brought to tragedy by the wickedness of her world. The Harlowes finally see how wrong their treatment of Clarissa has been. Lovelace‘s friend Belford becomes Clarissa‘s protector. The contrast between the dashing and wicked Lovelace and the boring but good Hickman exemplifies the ease with which this mistake can be made. possessing great wealth but little status. Belford takes on the project of collecting the letters that tell Clarissa‘s story so that it can be an example to protect other women from similar fates. puts her affairs in order. The trouble starts when Richard Lovelace. enjoying the ―contrivances‖ he invents to keep Clarissa in his web. Her health steadily worsens. a dashing libertine. There. respectable men. Finally suspecting Lovelace‘s vileness. Hickman. Sinclair drugs Clarissa and Lovelace rapes her while she is unconscious. Once Clarissa has been raped. Once Clarissa has run away. she refuses to compromise any of her strict tenets of behavior. As she continues to resist marriage to Solmes. Arabella. considered an exemplary woman by everyone around her. thus abandoning her principles. James. and gain full control over her. who holds a grudge against Lovelace from college days. Clarissa goes temporarily mad. . is to force Clarissa to compromise her strict morals. 7.Plot Overview Clarissa tells the story of a virtuous. The family becomes suspicious of Clarissa. After several battles between his wicked heart and his protesting conscience. and even orders a coffin. expressing forgiveness for everyone in her life and joyful anticipation of heaven. but also thinks he will try to rape her again and see if he can get her consent. Lovelace is an adept manipulator. in which Lovelace wounds James but spares his life. With remarkable equanimity. leads young women to prefer libertines to sober. Finally Lovelace takes advantage of Clarissa‘s fear of a forced marriage by tricking her into running away with him. but they remain adamant. Anna. and James and Arabella marry badly and are miserable for the rest of their lives. keeping Lovelace away but mediating between him and Clarissa. for leading her into disaster. and commands her to marry a horrible rich man named Roger Solmes. she stops eating and no longer worries about worldly problems like reputation. Furthermore. Harlowe die soon after. At the same time. sully her reputation. crystallizes their hatred. and Clarissa becomes the victim of their greed. and sets the family against him. so his goal is to force her into ―cohabitation. Mr. She finally dies. Lovelace repeatedly tests Clarissa‘s virtue as a means of testing the character of the entire sex: if Clarissa is truly an exemplary woman. Her reputation is ruined and her family refuses to forgive her. Her parents are also to blame. The Harlowes are an up-and-coming family. Without suspecting that she is playing into his hands. Clarissa is unaware that this is a brothel and the women she meets there are whores. Clarissa is increasingly confined. Lovelace is now truly determined to marry Clarissa. and Mrs. but Lovelace finds her and tricks her back to Mrs. but he hates the idea of marriage. appoints Belford her executor.‖ This misconception.Themes The immoral rake versus the innocent heroine Richardson identifies the moral of his novel as a contradiction of the precept that ―a reformed rake makes the best husband. as their autocratic measures push her right into Lovelace‘s web. Sinclair‘s brothel. because young girls are unlikely to escape it on their own. He is in love with her. Sinclair‘s house. where he secures lodgings at Mrs. Clarissa makes her will. The rape has failed to put Clarissa fully in his power because she has never compromised her virtue. When she awakes. He begins to talk with more seriousness about marrying her. Clarissa blames her pride. Belford. however. Having been involved with (and ruined by) Lovelace in the past. runs away. she goes with him to London. but is attracted by Clarissa instead. and the other good characters are rewarded with happy marriages. these women are jealous of Clarissa and encourage Lovelace to rape her. in thinking she could reform Lovelace. Lovelace‘s joy in intrigue and the whores‘ instigations seal Clarissa‘s doom. If she had accepted the estate.The madam of a London whorehouse. He has a history of seducing many women. handsome. Despite his lifestyle. This. Belford has a conscience. Although at first Lovelace seems a reasonable means of escape for Clarissa. Sinclair . Sinclair‘s prostitutes. Clarissa dies. As a whole. in jail) and only in planning for death does Clarissa seem to gain complete control over the future. especially about her concealed feelings for Lovelace. but he also sees her as a challenge for his powers of seduction.Character List Clarissa Harlowe . especially after Clarissa inherits an estate upon her grandfather‘s death. Hickman. She sometimes teases Clarissa. all Clarissa desires is the right to personal happiness and her parent‘s consent. although he continues to be Lovelace‘s friend. John Belford . Clarissa is repelled by Mrs. Mrs. however. Anna Howe . Mr. Clarissa cares more about her family‘s acceptance than about the property. for instance. and sometimes her foil. and his exposure to Clarissa gradually puts him on her side and against Lovelace. by everyone around her. Arabella). sends Lovelace a letter about Morden‘s trip to France. 8. Anna is vivacious and flippant in contrast to Clarissa‘s seriousness.A dashing rake. and several passages discuss the hopeless position of any girl who gives any encouragement to a rake. but the two men write to each other in a secret shorthand that only they know. Belford and Lovelace have a habit of correspondence that echoes that between Clarissa and Anna. her confidante. Clarissa would have achieved independence from her family and the oppressive society in which she lives. so that at many points it looks as though vice is rewarded while virtue is punished. because it allows her to go to heaven. His admiration of her virtue is an additional instigation for him to try to conquer it. Lovelace is of good family. Lovelace ensnares her in hopes of conquering such an exemplary woman: all of his machinations further his mission to control her and triumph over her sex. The individual versus society Clarissa‘s great struggle is for a sense of autonomy in a society that prohibits women from wielding any power whatsoever. all of whom subsequently either died in childbirth or became whores. Clarissa is noted for her exceptional beauty. She is considered an ―exemplar. have Clarissa arrested and his spy. An aura of sin surrounds her. as Richardson tells us. and highly accomplished. including her mother and her suitor. At the start of the novel. an old-fashion match marked by chivalry and grace. is only realistic. Belton) or suffer horrible marriages (James. his coconspirators. receives the rewards in the end that were initially intended for Lovelace. Good people get married (Anna. Sinclair. enormous. She also spends most of the novel physically confined by others (locked in her parents‘ house. This allows them to freely discuss their libertine activities. her struggle for autonomy is also a struggle with herself. Belford. Mrs. also a rake. Sinclair. Sinclair‘s house. She treats everyone. with a freedom that is sometimes offensive or cruel.‖ a model of female behavior. and wicked. while bad people die in misery (Lovelace.Lovelace‘s best friend.Clarissa‘s best friend. the protagonist of the novel. even though she believes her to be a respectable widow. but her death is happy and she insists that it is actually a reward. masculine. Harlowe. in Mrs. and accomplishments.A virtuous young woman. a model of character and reform. and she particularly enjoys taking care of the neighborhood poor.Clarissa‘s innocence is continually contrasted with Lovelace‘s diabolical talent for manipulation. the antagonist of the novel. such . Hickman. On the other hand. by contrast. Belford). her inherent loyalty to them and to social mores prevents her from doing so. Robert Lovelace . Clarissa is trapped by both factions of society: the fledgling and insecure bourgeois family and her already aristocratic suitor. their fates are delayed. She has very strict ideas of duty and morality. Lovelace‘s demise is inadvertently triggered by the actions of friends and accomplices. Both are intended to help him but instead provoke his downfall. it quickly becomes clear to her that his intentions are even more prohibitory to her independence. he has actually been subject to twists of fate that highlight his punishments and his ultimate poetic justice. The Harlowes intend to use their daughter to heighten their rank in the bourgeois community. her older brother and sister are jealous of her. Although Lovelace seems to die honorably in a duel. Mrs. virtue. He loves to write and does so with great skill. Joseph Leman. in Lovelace‘s arms. too. That both men reach appropriate ends is evidence that Clarissa‘s sense of justice is truly poetic. The rewards of virtue and the punishments of evil With the exception of Clarissa. Sinclair is a monstrous creature. He is in love with Clarissa. intelligent. But he assures us that there is always justice in the end. In this sense. and Mrs. Although Clarissa is so endearing that most people can tolerate her obvious superiority. brave. but she respects and loves her completely. the novel provides a cautionary lesson for young women and their parents and brands rakes as the scourge of society. every character in the novel is either rewarded or punished on earth. Clarissa‘s inheritance presents her with an opportunity for independence from both her family and a future husband. Although the other characters do not have to wait for death to provide justice. the family is esteemed for the merit of its individuals. Lord M.Clarissa‘s sister. Arabella is inferior to Clarissa in beauty and character and suffers from the shadow of her younger sister. . one of Lovelace‘s accomplices in deceit. Aunt (Dorothy) Hervey . Sally and Polly were ruined by Lovelace and want to see Clarissa suffer the same fate. Sr. is Arabella‘s maid and treats Clarissa rudely. Tomlinson is an expert actor and convinces Clarissa of his sincerity. envious and bad tempered.Clarissa‘s cousin and a trustee of her estate. although she was responsible for most of Clarissa‘s education and sense of morality that grow into such impressive virtue. In addition to their high social position. Mrs. All are decent people. Anna constantly mocks Hickman for his over-formal manners. loving but passive. Moore. While not a bad woman. She resents Clarissa for causing trouble in the family. Mr. Mrs. and Betty.The false name of Patrick McDonald. Sinclair is instrumental in the ruin of Clarissa.Whores in Mrs. Mrs. Their mockery helps keep Lovelace on the path of wickedness. Joseph Leman. and respected in society. He spent several years at the famous Eton school and took a degree in letters at the University of Leyden in Holland. He came from an aristocratic family and was well educated. but he patiently persists in his suit. Morden is abroad for most of the novel. Mrs. Lady Betty. Howe. Hickman . James Harlowe.Clarissa‘s nurse. while the Harlowes wait for him to arbitrate their conflict. Mrs. Antony Harlowe. Howe . Captain Tomlinson .Clarissa‘s uncles and aunts.Father of Clarissa. Mr. romance. she is a shallow and selfish one..Anna‘s mother. 9. He is comparable to Lovelace in bravery and skill and also has somewhat of a shady past. Harlowe will not defy her husband. is faithful to Clarissa. and Patty Montague . Widow Bevis. even as she pities her situation. He is concerned with money above all else. refined. Arabella Harlowe . Mrs. Jr. a pious woman. by contrast. Dorcas Wykes . Howe struggles for control over her daughter and forbids her from helping Clarissa.that as soon as Lovelace enters her house he finds all of his good intentions slipping away. Betty Barnes. His nearly seamless incorporation of drama. but he plays it perfectly nevertheless. Fielding infused the novel with compassion. Uncle (John) Harlowe. Norton has fallen on hard times. mistreating his servants and even his family when it helps him advance in the world. Lovick . his girlfriend. and he most frequently appears off-scene. Colonel Morden .Servants of the Harlowes. Hannah. Smith. Sinclair‘s brothel. Hannah Burton . He is anxious about his family‘s newfound wealth. satire. Joseph also works for Lovelace as a spy. Harlowe‘s bad temper is attributed to his gout. Mrs.Keepers and guests of houses where Clarissa stays. courted by Antony Harlowe. Except for the money he would bring into the family. James is neither very brave nor very intelligent. Mrs. Lady Charlotte. although they return to some extent when he is away. despite the risk of incurring the anger of Mrs. reputation.Henry Fielding is the greatest novelist of the 18th century and is one of the most artistic that English literature has produced. but he is fiercely proud and responds violently to anything that he perceives as threatening to his reputation or prospects. and epic into his works helped distinguish the novel as a new and unique genre quite distinct from its early influences.A rich. (Judith) Norton . unappealing man. proud. vexing and incensed outside the main action of the novel. Roger Solmes .Clarissa‘s older brother. (James) Harlowe. even when she disagrees with him. . and resentful. Mr. and James. Sally Martin. Arabella overvalues money and reputation and is therefore doubly resentful of Clarissa‘s inheritance. . Polly Horton. ugly. Mrs. Arabella.Lovelace‘s relatives. well-bred. (Charlotte) Harlowe . When Clarissa leaves home. Harlowe. respectable but unexciting. He has qualms about playing the part Lovelace has given him. Like her father and brother.Anna‘s suitor. Well educated and well-bred. The all love Clarissa but will not help her against the wishes of Mr. Mrs. They have heard of Clarissa‘s virtue and would like to include her in their family despite her lower social rank. Fielding is often considered one of the most significant contributors to the development of the English novel. authoritarian and unforgiving. Solmes is a completely inappropriate match for Clarissa.Clarissa‘s mother. although some are deceived by Lovelace and work against Clarissa. and social position and will tolerate no disobedience from his children. Hickman offers help. ambitious. The fact that Blifil has few redeeming qualities makes Tom compassion for him at the end of the novel—after the revelation that Blifil kept the secret of Tom's birth to himself—even more commendable.Bridget Allworthy is the mother of Blifil and Tom. Mr. Squire Western % . Waters) is the student of Partridge whom Allworthy banishes for being Tom's mother—at the end of the novel we learn that Jenny is not Tom's mother. Sophia Western % . Western's sole aim in the novel is to improve the Western name by marrying off Sophia to the richest. Affectionate at heart. Allworthy is just what his name implies . generous heroine and the daughter of the violent Squire Western.Partridge is the teacher whom Allworthy accuses of being Tom's father. Although she protests to Mr. Allworthy's only fault (which ironically propels much of the plot) is that—due to his goodness—he cannot perceive the evil in others. and she treats people of all classes with such respect that one landlady cannot believe she is a "gentlewoman. Although pathetic. by constantly incarcerating her. a "bastard" raised by the philanthropic Allworthy.Character List Tom Jones % . is the novel's eponymous hero and protagonist. Sophia lavishes gifts on the poor. her filial duty to her father. The moral yardstick of the novel. where Tom saves her from a robbery. his hypocrisy soon exposes itself—Blifil pretends to be pious and principled. conservative country gentleman. Although he appears at first to be a virtuous character. Jenny Jones % . altruistic behavior. her seduction of Tom in Upton suggests otherwise. his novelsJoseph Andrews. since the Squire is a caricature. Blifil's dearth of natural human appetites—he at first does not desire Sophia—does not distinguish him as a virtuous character. but rather provides a depressing picture of what humanity would be like if devoid of passion.Jenny Jones (Mrs.Blifil is antagonist to Tom Jones and the son of Bridget Allworthy and Captain Blifil. Tom's handsome face and gallantry win him the love and affection of women throughout the countryside. and a heightened sense of realism. and cowardly. However. Although Bridget's affection wavers between Blifil and Tom as the boys mature. an exciting undertaking involving risk and physical danger. and peppers his speech with curses. Partridge . and her hatred for Blifil through her courage and patience. Allworthy at the end of the novel that she has led a virtuous life. a friend of Western. He is a kind of comedic Harlequin character (Fielding even compares him to Harlequin). Tom Jones.Mrs.Squire Western is a caricature of the rough-and-ready. Mrs. Waters" at Upton. Western prides herself on being adept at all intellectual pursuits—from politics to philosophy to feminism to amour—yet her ignorance reveals itself on numerous occasions (she thinks that Socrates lectured to students instead of engaging in conversational debate). the Squire's insistence on Sophia marrying Blifil has less to do with greed than with his stubbornness and adherence to tradition. Tom cannot help forgiving Partridge." Sophia manages to reconcile her love for Tom.Sophia Western is Fielding's beautiful. Similarly. Partridge remains a loyal servant to Jones and deserves his reward at the end of the novel.Tom Jones. Squire Western's speaks in West Country dialect. Mrs. the Squire nevertheless acts with extreme violence towards his daughter Sophia. Mrs. Partridge has a passion for speaking in Latin non sequiturs.comedy. His dignified. her very white breasts attract Tom to her. but greed governs him. is a caricature of the artificial city lady who always acts out of expediency. his good heart and generosity make him Fielding's avatar of Virtue. Western.Mr. Master Blifil . Although Partridge creates problems for Tom and Sophia by boosting Tom's reputation and defiling Sophia's to all and sundry. Allworthy % . Jenny reappears as "Mrs. Fielding does not intend for us to judge these actions too harshly. An unattractive lady who resents beautiful women. and even verbally and physically abusing her. Bridget marries Captain Blifil because he flatters her religious views. most prosperous man she can find. . bumbling. though natural air induces characters to assume that he is a gentleman—which ultimately turns out to be true. along with Allworthy. as its main storyline 10. The adventure novel is a genre of novels that have adventure. and Amelia are generally considered his major works. who always has the best of intentions. Sophia's natural courtesy can be contrasted with her Aunt Western's artificial manners. his imprudence and his lack of chastity) prevent him from being a perfect hero. She eventually marries Parson Supple. she becomes devoted to Tom before her death—largely due to his good looks and gallantry. Western % . Although Tom's faults (namely. Allworthy has a reputation throughout England because of his benevolent. Bridget Allworthy % . Like Tom. Although Jenny does not possess the beauty of a Sophia. the foil of her brother Squire Western.all worthy. It takes a little time for Tom to convince Nightingale not to abandon Nancy. he defects to Tom and Allworthy's side. Always operating out of expediency." a "Romance. For example.Molly Seagrim is the rugged. is less sinister than the latter. as the active hero who saves damsels-in-distress and plans on fighting for his country. Fielding's characters cannot be distinguished by "masculine" or "feminine" traits: in this novel both men and women fight and cry.The ironic. he uses artifice himself in the construction of his novel. Tom. however. Molly Seagrim . Square. Mr. although a foppish city gentleman. points to her malicious nature—she thinks of no one but herself. fulfilling verbal commitments. Black George . Miller carries through on her promises and becomes Tom's biggest advocate to Allworthy. Mrs. Miller . Thwackum.Nancy Miller is the daughter of Mrs. easily allows himself to be manipulated by Lady Bellaston. Fitzpatrick becomes admirable. She is trusting and loyal." Yet. Thwackum . seeks only his own good. Black George's loyalty to and love of Tom nevertheless emerges. Fielding subtly suggests that cataloguing fiction is silly. Feisty and active. Although of dubious moral tincture (Black George steals and lies). and a relative of Sophia.Thwackum is the vicious tutor of Blifil and Tom who constantly beats Tom and praises Blifil.Harriet Fitzpatrick is Sophia's cousin and the wife of Mr. she is nevertheless selfish and contrives against Sophia in order to improve her relationship with Squire Western and Mrs.Lady Bellaston is a London lady. He justifies his questionable behavior (such as making love to Molly Seagrim) by contorting his philosophical notions. since Nightingale is caught up in his image in London. meaning "war" in Latin. is the embodiment of the very active type of Virtue that Fielding esteems. Lady Bellaston carries out a vengeful battle against Tom and Sophia with the utmost glee.Mr. In terms of genre.Themes Virtue as action rather than thought Fielding contrasts the concept of Virtue espoused by characters like Square and Thwackum with the Virtue actually practiced by Jones and Allworthy." In another example of broken stereotypes. when Dowling realizes that Blifil will not be able to reward him for his efforts. Square . Molly enjoys the company of men. Dowling . Pretty and charming. Feisty and aggressive. The tension between Art and Artifice Although the narrator upholds the value of natural art in his characters. Western. intrusive narrator can be assumed to be Fielding himself since he reflects on his process of creating Tom Jones.Lord Fellamar is a suitor of Sophia who.Black George is the servant who is favored by Tom. Fitzpatrick. he often closes chapters by hinting to the reader what is to follow in the next chapter. Harriet Fitzpatrick % . though he has a conscience. Indeed. Miller who becomes Nightingale's wife. Fielding cannot decide whether his novel is a "philosophical History.Lady Bellaston . The impossibility of stereotypical categorization Fielding's novel attempts to break down numerous boundaries. unfeminine daughter of Black George who seduces Tom. Nightingale . 11. whose passionate.Nightingale. To his credit. Narrator . Nancy Miller . when he admits to initiating the duel with Tom at the end of the novel. who claims to value Religion above all else. Nightingale transforms and follows Tom's principles of Honour—that is. Lord Fellamar . through these confounded musings. The stem of her last name "Bella-". possesses the laudable traits of loyalty and compassion—although not always in affairs of love. although a foil to Thwackum. shifty lawyer who becomes a friend of Blifil.Mrs. or he warns the reader that he is . Dowling is a shrewd. Square's virtuous transformation at the end of the novel allows Allworthy to forgive Tom. Fitzpatrick % . and that he would rather think of himself as "the founder of a new Province of Writing. Mrs. Miller is a faithful friend to Tom and the most caring and concerned of mothers to Nancy and Betty. Fitzpatrick is a rash Irishman whom Harriet Fitzpatrick casts in the light of an ogre chasing her across the countryside.Mr. lusty personality leads her to dabble in intrigues.Square is a philosopher who lives with Allworthy. and fights fiercely for her rights. Mr." or an "epi-comic prosaic poem. His two major novels. However. meant to arouse curiosity and maintain interest in the volumes to come. Composed of nine "Books" originally published between 1759-1767. and anecdotes. the son of an army officer. the novel is highly unconventional in its narrative technique--even though it also incorporates a vast number of references and allusions to more traditional works. Among the most famous sentimental novels are Laurence Sterne's Sentimental Journey The novel was extremely popular and influential and helped establish travel writing as the dominant genre of the second half of the 18th century. were written near the end of his life. The title itself is a play on a novelistic formula that would have been familiar to Sterne's contemporary readers. For its time. Book Summary Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy is narrated by the title character in a series of digressions and interruptions that purportedly show the "life and opinions" — part of the novel's full title — of Tristram. Sterne promises us his "life and opinions. he prevents us from suspending our disbelief and giving ourselves up to the "art" of the narrative—instead. Tristram Shandy bears little resemblance to the orderly and structurally unified novels (of which Fielding's Tom Jones was considered to be the model) that were popular in Sterne's day. irony with tender feeling. The numerous cliffhangers and anticipations Sterne put in the closing chapters of each installment are conventional features of serially published works. instead of giving us the "life and adventures" of his hero. at the age of 55. it is through Tristram's relating the actions. Gentleman and A Sentimental Journey. sentimentalism. though it was also criticized for being bawdy and indecent in its frank treatment of sexual themes. Sterne settled in Yorkshire and remained in England for the remainder of his life. and sensibility. sharp wit is mixed with gaiety. Sterne's tale rapidly moves away from the narrative of travel to become a series of dramatic sketches. Sentiment also became a favorite style among those expressing non-mainstream views including political radicalism. With A Sentimental Journey. which included only the final Volume 9. The book is less eccentric and more elegant in style thanTristram Shandy and was better received by contemporary critics. philosophical musings. as he sets off on his travels through France and Italy. The book recounts his various adventures. The questions Sterne's novel raises about the nature of fiction and of reading have givenTristram Shandy a particular relevance for twentieth century writers like Virginia Woolf. who is slyly represented to guileless readers as Sterne's barely disguised alter ego. relishing his encounters with all manner of men and women-particularly the pretty ones. each containing two volumes except the last. Unlike prior travel accounts which stressed classical learning and objective nonpersonal points of view. and opinions of his family members — . Sterne wroteTristram Shandybetween 1759 and 1767. in a series of self-contained episodes. Yorick. ironic incidents. Tristram Shandy was enthusiastically received from the beginning. He became a clergyman there. Throughout the 1770s female travel writers began publishing significant numbers of sentimental travel accounts. which is to be distinguished from sensibility. Samuel Beckett. a journey without a destination. The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy. of manners and morals over classical learning. was a fashion in both poetry and prose fiction beginning in the eighteenth century in reaction to the rationalism of the Augustan Age. After graduating from Cambridge University. Tristram Shandy. and James Joyce. as well as his masterpiece. usually of the amorous type. 1768. A Sentimental Journey is a novel without a plot. The book was published in five separate installments. The narrator is the Reverend Mr. and then married a woman with whom he did not get along. A Sentimental Journey emphasized the subjective discussions of personal taste and sentiments. Sentimentalism. 12. In such a way." What sounds like a minor difference actually unfolds into a radically new kind of narrative. the novel has more to do with Shandy family members and their foibles and history than it seemingly does with Tristram himself.The sentimental novel or the novel of sensibility is an 18th century literary genre which celebrates the emotional and intellectual concepts of sentiment. Sterne forged a truly original style and established himself as the first of the stream-of-consciousness writers 13. Fielding constantly entices us to reflect on and review the process of construction.going to omit a scene. It records the adventures of the amiable Parson Yorick. reminiscences. He died in March. beliefs.Tristram Shandy Context Laurence Sterne was born in 1713 in Ireland. Book 7 concerns an older Tristram traveling in France for health reasons. the window falls). Sees poetry as the highest expression of imagination. Again. values myth. Books 8 and 9 revolve around Uncle Toby's affair with the Widow Wadman. numerous digressions and interruptions are spread throughout these two books. values the lessons of the past. and his paternal Uncle Toby — that the reader gets a clearer picture of Tristram's character. which gave rise to sharp conflicts between capital and labor. who is concerned about Uncle Toby's supposed groin injury and seeks to find out just how injured his groin is. and in the imagination. (5) Political reforms and mass demonstrations shook the foundation of aristocratic rule in Britain Characteristics of American Romanticism Values feeling and intuition over reason. "Tristram" is the worst possible name for a child). (4) In England the primarily agricultural society was replaced by a modern industrialized one. these events actually take up very little of these first six books' action. Historical background (1) Romanticism as a literary movement appeared in England from the publication of Lyrical Ballads in 1798 to the death of Sir Walter Scott and the passage of the first reform bill in the Parliament in 1832. his mistaken naming (according to his father prior to Tristram's birth. and opinions concerning family history. and his circumcision (while urinating out a window. The book seems isolated from the story that precedes and follows it. Reflects on nature‘s beauty as a path to spiritual and moral development. and Tristram through his mother. (3) The Industrial Revolution brought great wealth to the rich but worsened the working and living conditions of the poor. as in earlier books in the novel. Finds beauty and truth in exotic locales. Shandy. seeks the beauty of unspoiled nature. diatribes. Champions individual freedom and the worth of the individual. Shuns the artificiality of civilization and seeks unspoiled nature. values feelings over intuition. values individual freedom." and they come to him in a disjointed fashion). However. values the power of the imagination. legend. "What is all this story about?" 14. Place faith in inner experience and the power of imagination.primarily his father. values poetry as the highest expression of the imagination. finally asks. his birth (with a smashed nose that supposedly bodes ill warnings for his future). Prefers youthful innocence to educated sophistication. ironically. Books 1-6 revolve around Tristram's conception (the novel begins the evening of his conception). Instead. values youthful innocence. is the point — Tristram is relating his "life and opinions. and folk culture . Mrs. Walter Shandy. finds beauty in exotic locales. Englishliterature at the end of the XVIIIth century-the beginning ofthe XIXth Time 1798 The publication of Wordsworth and Coleridge‘s Lyrical Ballads 1832 Sir Walter Scott‘s death and the passage of the first Reform Bill Definition • A revival of ancient Greek and Roman classical art • Emphasis on the special qualities of each individual • A change from outer world of social civilization to the inner world of the human spirit 1. Equality and Fraternity. Looks backward to the wisdom of the past and distrusts progress. The Romantic Period . the supernatural. and Uncle Toby's penchant for military fortifications to the point that readers today might easily become frustrated with Tristram's inability to get to the point (which. Walter Shandy's hypotheses and theories. the supernatural realm and the inner world of the imagination. the narration is continuously interrupted by stories. (2) The American and French revolutions greatly inspired the English people fighting for Liberty. Economically Influences of the Industrial Revolution • Agricultural society replaced by a modern industrial one • The capital class came to control • Sharp conflicts between capital and labor Literary trends Views of Romantics in their creation of literary works • Negative attitude toward the existing social and political conditions • Individual as the very center of the life and all experience Artistic features (1) Characteristics in the literary works • Passive or escapist ramanticists who focus their attention on matters such as love. Byron • Great attention to the spiritual and emotional life of man William Blake 1757-1827 Songs of Innocence William Wordsworth 1770-1850 Lyrical Ballads.T. e. Society and Education in Du Contract Social and Emile 2. Coleridge and Southy • Active romanticist who try to strengthen man‘s will to live and raise him against life around him against any yoke or restraints. Childe Harold‘s Pilgrimage Percy Bysshe Shelly 1792-1822 Queen Mab. Coleridge 1772-1834 Lyrical Ballads. The Prelude. I wander Lonely as a Cloud S. Kubla Khan George Gordon Byron 1788-1824 Don Juan.g. Historical. Ode to the West Wind . Historically Influences of French Revolution Rousseau’s new ideas about Nature. Wordsworth.I. Shelly. Prometheus Unbound.g. social and cultural background 1. e. death. especially in his work on the marriage of heaven and hell. the concept of the 'Byronic hero' – a defiant. Innocence and experience are symbolised in the tiger and the lamb. a worshiper of the ideal. Harold was Byron's alter ego. and used ordinary words to express his personal feelings. although the poet was widely condemned on moral grounds by his contemporaries. The poet answered his critics with satire English Bards and Scotch Reviewers in 1808. 16. Lord Byron. music. which opened with Coleridge's 'Ancient Mariner. the poor. he never lost touch with reality. for which people are responsible. Success came in 1812 when John Murray published Byron's first two cantos of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. Their ideas were centered around the origins of poetry in the poet and the role of poetry in the world. Byron's first collection of poetry. 1798: the publication of the Lyrical Ballads (a joint project of Wordsworth of Coleridge): revolution in English poetic style. George Gordon. William Blake must be considered as a representative personality of Romanticism. William Wordsworth started with Samuel Taylor Coleridge the English Romantic movement with their collection Lyrical Ballads ( 1798). was likewise the most fashionable poet of the day. His poetry must be situated in an exceptional place concerning English literature. His conception of poetry hinges on three major premises. Lyrical Ballads. which is characterized by the exaltation of the artist. the mimetic and pragmatic element of poetry replaced by the expressive. and these theoretical concepts led to the creation of poetry that is sufficiently complex to support a wide variety of critical readings in a modern context. directly and simply but without sentimentality. he is depicting a mythology of modern world. His definition of poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings arising from "emotion recollected in tranquillity" was shared by a number of his followers. are constantly seeking the sublime 17. and sometimes conflicting. He created an immensely popular Romantic hero—defiant. Blake defied characterization by school. Wordsworth wrote a preface to Lyrical Ballads in which he puts forth his ideas about poetry. a huge European movement. he named Alexander Pope as his master. Wordsworth composed his first masterwork. He created his own cult of personality. Wordsworth focused on the nature. and painting has been immense. He exerted a great influence on English romanticism. novel. opinions about what constituted well-written poetry. He is a pre-romantic and also a visionary author. children. brooding on some mysterious. He is also a Romantic paradox: a leader of the era‘s poetic revolution. Hours of Idleness (1807) received bad reviews. melancholy young man. unforgivable in his past. to many.In Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794) the world is seen from a child's point of view. Byron's influence on European poetry. Wordsworth asserts that poetry is the language of the common man: Coleridge and Wordsworth valued artful poetry. common people. which are described poems that reveal a consciousness of cruelty and injustice in the world.' Wordsworth and Coleridge both had strong.15. Encouraged by Coleridge and stimulated by the close contact with nature. he seemed the model. WILLIAM WORDSWORTH and SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE (Lake Poets) William Wordsworth (1770-1850): a turning point in literary history. . The poet made his intention clear: showing the two contrary states of human soul. always in quest of the absolute . haunted by secret guilt—for which. opera. born in London in 1757. As a supreme creator.William Blake is an English poet and artist. At the same time no poet has been more sensitive or responsive to the realities of the human condition and of his time. When many poets still wrote about ancient heroes in grandiloquent style.notorious of the major Romantics. melancholy. it is an expression of the melancholy and disillusionment felt by a generation weary of the wars of the post-Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. but Byron also recognized Nature’s dangerous and harsh elements. parallels.18. The run-on lines move vigorously. the use of apostrophes. questions.g. and here he sees nature not just as a refuge from the cold indifference of society but as a life form which is fused with and a part of his own being. The poem describes the travels and reflections of a world-weary young man who. Nature was a powerful complement to human emotion and civilization. Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage looks to Nature as a refuge from human conflict. Yet unlike Wordsworth.‖ (Mellown The power of Nature To Byron. while at the same time showing Nature’s potentially deadly aspects in the harsh waves that seem to threaten to flood the dungeon.Childe Harold's Pilgrimage Cantos 1 and 2 – (March 1812) Recounting Byron's travels between 1809 and 1811 …. He idealizes women he knows in his opening stanzas to the first three cantos ofChilde Harold’s Pilgrimage. natural beauty was often preferable to human evil and the problems attendant upon civilization. the seething fury of the natural world. the ``loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow'' (stanza 45) betokening the grand isolation of the romantic genius. isolated and melancholic. but sees there. and the futility of war. exclamations. Byron had come briefly to adopt a Wordsworthian stance. e. The folly of "love" Throughout his life. Byron resistant and Canto 4 -. the evils of injustice. Unlike Wordsworth. Transience. which paradoxically made him a fickle and unstable lover to many women (and men). Through Shelley. or cynical and bitter. (Mellown) Canto 3 -.g. in the later cantos he endowed the stanza with a new speed and flexibility. . Byron sought the perfect object of his affections. Injustice. even now Byron often found in nature not so much a mystical communion as a symbol of his own mind. looks for distraction in foreign lands. they depict an exotic landscape endowed with the interest of recent political and military events…. Certainly. “The Prisoner of Chillon” connects Nature to freedom. a medieval title for a young man who was a candidate for knighthood. In a wider sense. disillusioned with a life of pleasure and revelry. But the chief interest lies in the attitude to nature. amid the avalanches and volcanoes. It was published between 1812 and 1818 and is dedicated to "Ianthe". who idealized Nature and essentially deified it.in 1818. Byron saw Nature more as a companion to humanity. the first representation of Romantic Hero. E. Nature ―Description of Waterloo leads Byron to expound on characteristic themes: the vicissitudes of earthly existence. the transiency of joy. Childe Harold's Pilgrimage: Style the Spenserian stanza ―Although in the first two cantos he followed the consciously archaic style of 18th-century imitators of Spenser such as James Thomson. turning them into muses who inspire their respective narratives. His poetry reflects this tension. The title comes from the term childe. and hyperboles themes War. Childe Harold's Pilgrimage is a lengthy narrative poem in four parts written by Lord Byron.in 1816. although usually with the weight being on the side of capricious love. Percy Bysshe Shelley also died quite young. the careers of all three were cut short by death so that the writers of the first generation were still on the literary scene after the writers of the second generation had disappeared. Coleridge. with the exception of Blake. and his short verse poems (including ―Ozymandias‖ and ―Ode to the West Wind‖). born in 1785.He focuses attention on the subject of his poetry not on himself as poet . and fresh forms produced a body of literature that was strikingly different from the literature of the eighteenth century. Practically all of the seeds of the new literary crop had been sown in the preceding century. He was one of the main figures of the second generation of romantic poets along with Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. a novel which Percy Shelley is himself now credited with coauthoring). Lamb. outside of their letters. Keats and Shelley belong to the second generation. Keats had a very short life. The major writers of the second romantic generation were primarily poets. the second generation was born in the last decade of the 1800s. such as Queen Mab and the Triumph of Life. they produced little prose. John Keats was an English Romantic poet. Percy Bysshe Shelley is among the most respected and admired of the second generation of English Romantic poets. Ode to the West Wind Along with Lord Byron and John Keats. Best known for his extended visionary poems. who was older than they were by a few years. most notably in the series of odes. but that is not to say that the eighteenth century had no influence on the romantic movement. Scott. though. Of the writers of the second generation. His most celebrated works include Ozymandias. but Keats and Shelley had relatively few readers while they were alive. He is perhaps best known. Although his poems were not generally well-received by critics during his life. Blake. his reputation grew after his death. The chief writers of the first generation were Wordsworth. The first generation was born during the thirty and twenty years preceding 1800. and Hazlitt. Literary critics often see this as a tremendous tragedy given his early potential. The combination of new interests. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular and most analyzed in English literature. dying when he was 25. Percy Bysshe Shelley was born at Field Place. Sussex. All three were influenced by the work of the writers of the first generation and.19. the son of a well-to-do landowner. falls between the two generations. despite his work only having been in publication for [1] four years before his death. more fame than any of the other romantic writers. new attitudes. as the husband of the novelist Mary Shelley (author of Frankenstein. Another striking difference between the two generations is that the writers of the first generation. Southey.Keats is a poet of ideas . along with Byron. the 'second generation' of English Romantic poets consists of Lord Byron. with perhaps the exception of Scott. It was not until the Victorian era that Keats and Shelley became recognized as major romantic poets. Traditionally. all gained literary reputations during their lifetime. The romantic period includes the work of two generations of writers. in 1792. only Byron enjoyed fame while he was alive. Shelley is also famous for his once controversial and radical political ideals and his often-proclaimed social idealism. The essayist Thomas De Quincey. at the age of 30.The poetry of Keats is characterized by sensual imagery. ironically. so that by the end of the 19th century he had become one of the most beloved of all English poets. John Keats and Percy Bysshe Shelley John Keats‘ Ode on a Grecian Urn and Ode to a Nightingale are among his most well known works. It was a time of unprecedented demographic increase in England. a more pessimistic view.20.Far-reaching new ideas created the greatest outpouring of literary production the world has ever seen. 1830-1901 period of stability and prosperity for Britain.Population of London expands from two million to six million. .. illusion and reality the writers were critical and attacked the superficial optimism and self confidence of the age .Enormous changes occurred in political and social life in England and the rest of the world.. Queen Victoria and the Victorian Temper Ruled England from 1837-1901 Exemplifies Victorian qualities: earnestness.the development of SENSATIONAL to catch the attention. the emergence of modern nationalism.too many details. to create suspense and expectation Victorian Literature is often divided into 3 stages Early -Victorians Mid-Victorians 1860.excessive length . The population rose from 13.528 million in 1901. British society extremely class conscious. Generally emphasized realistic portrayals of common people.Victorian people suffered from anxiety. moral responsibility.episodic structure .897 million in 1831 to 32.obliged to maintain the interest so the reader went on buying the periodicals ..Increase in wealth. the Middle East.... domestic propriety The Victorian Period was an age of transition An age characterized by energy and high moral purpose Novels’ main characteristics: Published in instalments they were cheaper and also read by the lower classes. a sense of being displaced persons in an age of technological advances.The scientific and technical innovations of the Industrial Revolution. and the European colonization of much of Africa.Impact of industrialism. sometimes to promote social change. The Victorian Period .Shift from ownership of land to modern urban economy. coincidence and incidents as the writer could modify the story according to the necessity and success ... A Time of Change London becomes most important city in Europe.. it focused on the clash between man and environment.the sense of dissatisfaction and rebellion prevailed a new sort of realism which rejected any sentimental and romantic attitude. Literature seen as a bridge between Romanticism and Modernism.World‘s foremost imperial power.1880 Late-Victorians : last 20 years of Victorian Age and Edwardian Age ---------. his dreams and their fulfilment. and the Far East changed most of Europe. who contentedly leads a blacksmith‘s life at the forge in the marshes. Dickens’ style of writing is filled spaces. he strives for education both in respect of knowledge and manners in order to cover up his commonness and coarseness. and his second wife Biddy everybody entertains expectations related either to themselves or in part to the main character. . 5. in respect of Pip‘s moral purification and his catharsis from false and hopeless desires the circle appears to be not as closed or as smoothly rounded as it looks at first reading. Dickens even explicitly writes at the end of the first and second volume: ―This is the end of the first [second] stage of Pip‘s development. His writing is RHYTHMIC and designed to be read out loud. Dickens loved words. Pip‘s definition of a gentleman is based on social class. Thirdly. Apart from Joe. style Dickens’ descriptions show a wonderful eye for DETAIL. David Copperfield. D. He gave English literature some of its most charming and amusing characters: Oliver Twist. However. Pip’s three stages The organisation of the novel into three volumes conspicuously indicates the three stages of Pip‘s development. lacking a real family.‖12This is Hobsbaum‘s debatable conclusion. His characters are really “humors” – exaggerations of one human quality to the point of caricature. Secondly. used DIALECT and brilliant sections of DIALOGUE and EXAGGERATION . 4. Dickens gave public readings of his novels. he is concerned with the problems of crime and poverty. Nothing but disappointments? ―If young Pip sets out to London as a picaresque adventurer. I will examine this later when analysing the implications of the two endings to the story. The tone becomes SENTIMENTAL.[ The plot of a typical English Bildungsroman can usually be divided into three stages in the hero‘s development: childhood. he devotes all his energies onto developing into a gentleman.21 Charles Dickens 1812-1873) The greatest and most perfect Victorian story-teller. His novels are all animated by a sense of injustice and personal wrong. old Pirrip comes home to the marshes as a defeated hero. 7. Pip‘s four great expectations at the same time correspond to the characteristics of the Bildungsroman: Firstly. and is famous for his use of METAPHORS and SIMILES. he searches for identity and security. The title Great Expectations is perfectly devised. Nicholas Nickleby. The effect is COMIC or heart-breakingly 6. youth and maturity. experiences the metropolitan life of London during his youth and finally the circle closes with the mature Pip returning home to the forge. 2. 3. prestige and money.in literary criticism.‖11 These three stages are presented as follows: Pip lives his childhood with his sister and her husband Joe at the forge in the Kent marshes. a Bildungsroman is a literary genre that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth to adulthood and in which character change is thus extremely important. He included lots of powerful ADJECTIVES. and included lots of REPETITION and long LISTS. From the early 1850s. therefore. and now she has a vendetta against all men. she repeatedly warns him that she has no heart. Joe is petty and ambitious. Biddy represents the opposite of Estella. Pip begins the story as a young orphan boy being raised by his sister and brother-in-law in the marsh country of Kent.A simple. they meet again in London. and even they are terrified of him. Joe is attacked and becomes an invalid.Pip‘s pompous. Pip‘s ―uncle-in-law. he becomes Pip‘s secret benefactor. and a tender caretaker of his ―Aged Parent. He is malicious and shrewd. training her beautiful ward to break men‘s hearts. She keeps a spotless household and frequently menaces her husband and her brother with her cane. he consistently acts for the benefit of those he loves and suffers in silence when Pip treats him coldly. As a young woman.Pip first meets Herbert Pocket in the garden of Satis House. But there is more to Jaggers than his impenetrable exterior. Orlick is a slouching. however. Mrs. cruel. not Miss Havisham. Joe is a stern and overbearing figure to both Pip and Joe. Joe— solely out of love for Pip. as a pale young gentleman. cynical. is Pip‘s secret benefactor. He loves her passionately. (He is actually Joe‘s uncle and. Dolge Orlick . and Herbert becomes Pip‘s best friend and key companion after Pip‘s elevation to the status of gentleman.‖) A merchant obsessed with money. . Joe‖ throughout the novel. and of Pip‘s own social class. he is hard. Joe stays with his overbearing. Estella is Pip‘s unattainable dream throughout the novel. Jaggers is privy to some dirty business. and somewhat unrealistic at heart. Magwitch escapes from prison at the beginning of Great Expectations and terrorizes Pip in the cemetery.A fearsome criminal. Herbert Pocket . Years later. Joe .‖ but Pip and his sister both call him ―Uncle Pumblechook. Miss Havisham‘s cousin. and he subsequently devotes himself to making a fortune and using it to elevate Pip into a higher social class.Jaggers‘s clerk and Pip‘s friend. since Magwitch. Mrs. Mrs. both morally and socially. eccentric old woman who lives in a manor called Satis House near Pip‘s village. oafish embodiment of evil. Miss Havisham .22. she is usually cold. in the southeast of England. Pip also has a powerful conscience. sarcastic. and before the novel begins he helps Miss Havisham to adopt the orphaned Estella. the village blacksmith.Pip‘s brother-in-law.‖ He is the son of Matthew Pocket.The protagonist and narrator of Great Expectations.‖ She also forces them to drink a foul-tasting concoction called tar-water. he will shamelessly take credit for Pip‘s rise in social status. After Mrs. and he later almost succeeds in his attempt to murder Pip. He often seems to care for Pip. and he deeply wants to improve himself. keeping a decaying feast on her table. Throughout most of the novel. Estella . he consorts with vicious criminals. At work. Great Expectations Character List Pip . Uncle Pumblechook . Wemmick .Pip‘s sister and Joe‘s wife. As one of the most important criminal lawyers in London. romantic. Herbert nicknames Pip ―Handel. Throughout the rest of the novel.‖ Biddy . Pumblechook is responsible for arranging Pip‘s first meeting with Miss Havisham. at home in Walworth. and obsessed with ―portable property‖. moral. She deliberately raises Estella to be the tool of her revenge. known only as ―Mrs. Abel Magwitch (“The Convict”) . but. Biddy moves into Pip‘s home to care for her. Joe. Herbert challenges him to a fight. even though he has nothing to do with it. Joe Gargery . she is plain. Miss Havisham was jilted by her fiancé minutes before her wedding. Although he is uneducated and unrefined. hurting people simply because he enjoys it. kindhearted country girl.Miss Havisham is the wealthy. though she sometimes seems to consider him a friend. Pip is passionate. and he tends to expect more for himself than is reasonable. when. the wife of the village blacksmith. he is jovial. Jaggers smells strongly of soap: he washes his hands obsessively as a psychological mech-anism to keep the criminal taint from corrupting him. which she calls ―Tickler.Miss Havisham‘s beautiful young ward. and hopes to become a merchant so that he can afford to marry Clara Barley. her fondest wish is to be something more than what she is.The day laborer in Joe‘s forge. He is responsible for the attack on Mrs. Joe‘s quiet goodness makes him one of the few completely sympathetic characters in Great Expectations. arrogant uncle. She is manic and often seems insane. Wemmick is one of the strangest characters in Great Expectations. makes a deep impression on him. Jaggers . funding Pip‘s education and opulent lifestyle in London through the lawyer Jaggers. Biddy first befriends Pip when they attend school together. flitting around her house in a faded wedding dress. Behind the scenes. kind. and surrounding herself with clocks stopped at twenty minutes to nine. abusive wife—known as Mrs. Pip‘s kindness. foreboding lawyer hired by Magwitch to supervise Pip‘s elevation to the upper class. wry. As they grow up together.The powerful. and uninterested in him. Wopsle‘s aunt is the local schoolteacher. and the narrator. Pip does not want to be poor. developing an understanding of Pip‘s character is perhaps the most important step in understanding Great Expectations.) and his essential love for all those who love him. etc. On the one hand. In Chapter 48. Drummle eventually marries Estella. Though she represents Pip‘s . here. with Pip and Drummle. As the focus of the bildungsroman. when Pip the character is a child. and the sense of superiority this gives him makes him feel justified in acting cruelly and harshly toward everyone around him. Pip realizes that she is Estella‘s mother. rarely giving himself credit for good deeds but angrily castigating himself for bad ones. This skillfully executed distinction is perhaps best observed early in the book. and manipulative. Pip‘s idealism often leads him to perceive the world rather narrowly. there are really two Pips in Great Expectations: Pip the narrator and Pip the character—the voice telling the story and the person acting it out. As a character. gentlemanly outlaw who contrasts sharply with the coarse and uneducated Magwitch. His longing to marry Estella and join the upper classes stems from the same idealistic desire as his longing to learn to read and his fear of being punished for bad behavior: once he understands ideas like poverty. Because Pip is narrating his story many years after the events of the novel take place. He is also the man who jilted Miss Havisham on her wedding day. Pip is at heart a very generous and sympathetic young man. Drummle is a minor member of the nobility.Compeyson . kind heroine of a traditional love story. one who darkly undermines the notion of romantic love and serves as a bitter criticism against the class system in which she is mired. Mr. After receiving his mysterious fortune. Pip‘s main line of development in the novel may be seen as the process of learning to place his innate sense of kindness and conscience above his immature idealism. Pip‘s two most important traits are his immature. and that his behavior as a gentleman has caused him to hurt the people who care about him most. is his secret benefactor shatters Pip‘s oversimplified sense of his world‘s hierarchy. When Pip becomes a gentleman. Estella is cold. or social.The church clerk in Pip‘s country town. she is miserable in their marriage and reunites with Pip after Drummle dies some eleven years later. unpleasant young man who attends tutoring sessions with Pip at the Pockets‘ house. Pip As a bildungsroman. Pip has a deep desire to improve himself and attain any possible advancement. Estella Often cited as Dickens‘s first convincing female character. Startop . Miss Skiffins . he immediately begins to act as he thinks a gentleman is supposed to act. Pip‘s desire for advancement largely overshadows his basic goodness. Wopsle . Dickens takes great care to distinguish the two Pips.Wemmick‘s beloved. romantic idealism and his innately good conscience.A friend of Pip‘s and Herbert‘s. his idealistic wishes seem to have been justified. Wopsle moves to London and becomes an actor. Great Expectations presents the growth and development of a single character. whose thoughts and attitudes shape the reader‘s perception of the story. Once he has learned these lessons. Estella is a supremely ironic creation. Compeyson is responsible for Magwitch‘s capture at the end of the novel. imbuing the voice of Pip the narrator with perspective and maturity while also imparting how Pip the character feels about what is happening to him as it actually happens.An oafish. and he gives himself over to a gentlemanly life of idleness. Unlike the warm. Sometime after Pip becomes a gentleman. however. Raised from the age of three by Miss Havisham to torment men and ―break their hearts. On the other hand. and eventual wife. As a result. moral. Bentley Drummle . and his tendency to oversimplify situations based on superficial values leads him to behave badly toward the people who care about him. whose actions make up the main plot of the novel. ignorant. Startop helps Pip and Herbert with Magwitch‘s escape. takes tutelage with Matthew Pocket.‖ Estella wins Pip‘s deepest love by practicing deliberate cruelty. a fact that can be witnessed in his numerous acts of kindness throughout the book (helping Magwitch. Molly . for example. Mr. and immorality.Jaggers‘s housekeeper. Not long after meeting Miss Havisham and Estella. Pip matures into the man who narrates the novel. Pip the narrator judges his own past actions extremely harshly. But the discovery that the wretched Magwitch. completing the bildungsroman. As a character. secretly buying Herbert‘s way into business. winsome. Later. The fact that he comes to admire Magwitch while losing Estella to the brutish nobleman Drummle ultimately forces him to realize that one‘s social position is not the most important quality one possesses. Pip the narrator gently pokes fun at his younger self. Startop is a delicate young man who. Compeyson is an educated. ignorance. cynical. to Pip‘s chagrin. but also enables us to see and feel the story through his eyes.A criminal and the former partner of Magwitch. better known to himself and to the world as Pip. Pip is by far the most important character in Great Expectations: he is both the protagonist. or immoral. Mr. not the wealthy Miss Havisham. which leads him to treat Joe and Biddy snobbishly and coldly. Philip Pirrip. whether educational. Names are not always consistent. I have been bent and broken. Dickens nevertheless ensures that Estella is still a sympathetic character. Mrs. she is raised by Miss Havisham. She is redeemed at the end of the novel when she realizes that she has caused Pip‘s heart to be broken in the same manner as her own. through experience. Dickens gives the reader a glimpse of Estella‘s inner life. but she also seems not to want to hurt him. Miss Havisham immediately begs Pip for forgiveness. Estella is actually even lower-born than Pip. and human foibles. ―Suffering has been stronger than all other teaching. she repeatedly warns him that she has ―no heart‖ and seems to urge him as strongly as she can to find happiness by leaving her behind. Miss Havisham is determined never to move beyond her heartbreak. and thus springs from the very lowest level of society. 23 William Makepeace Thackeray was an English novelist of the 19th century. Miss Havisham is completely unable to see that her actions are hurtful to Pip and Estella. psychology. and she wears only one shoe. In this way. but she is certainly one of the most memorable creations in the book. in some cases. time sequences are not clear. she had not yet put on the other shoe. . she is the daughter of Magwitch. she has only caused more pain. Instead. . . a man of great inner nobility. He was famous for his satirical works. From that moment forth. was published (1847-48) in serial form without sufficient time for revisions by Thackeray. Estella does not seem able to stop herself from hurting Pip. Dickens uses Estella‘s life to reinforce the idea that one‘s happiness and well-being are not deeply connected to one‘s social position: had Estella been poor. Any curiosity aroused concerning a character will be satisfied by the time one has finished the story. the moment when she first learned that Compeyson was gone. However. And rather than marrying the kindhearted commoner Pip. Occasionally. she learns. Vanity Fair. is also called Glorvina O'Dowd. and advancement in society may change rank and title. By giving the reader a sense of her inner struggle to discover and act on her own feelings rather than on the imposed motives of her upbringing. obsessive cruelty. Finally. Ironically. vengeful Miss Havisham. and by the vast number of characters. Over a hundred years ago when this book was written. subtitled ‗A Novel without a Hero‘. for example. Vanity Fairfascinates the careful reader. as Pip learns near the end of the novel. a satirical novel of manners. Estella marries the cruel nobleman Drummle.‖ Miss Havisham The mad.first longed-for ideal of life among the upper classes. As she says to Pip. painful marriage to Drummle causes her to develop along the same lines as Pip—that is. . Glorvina. She stops all the clocks in Satis House at twenty minutes to nine. Miss Havisham is an example of single-minded vengeance pursued destructively: both Miss Havisham and the people in her life suffer greatly because of her quest for revenge. she might have been substantially better off. life among the upper classes does not represent salvation for Estella. The modern reader may be bewildered by the rambling. to rely on and trust her inner feelings. he will have no trouble following the six main characters through changes of fortune and. 1847-1848 the first major work published by Thackeray under his own name appeared in monthly installments. Bute Crawley is sometimes Martha. as if she were Major O'Dowd's sister. who destroys her ability to express emotion and interact normally with the world. is not exactly a believable character. Miss Havisham adopts Estella and raises her as a weapon to achieve her own revenge on men. the coarse convict. who treats her harshly and makes her life miserable for many years. Miss Havisham‘s life is defined by a single tragic event: her jilting by Compeyson on what was to have been their wedding day. which helps to explain what Pip might love about her. particularly Vanity Fair. Despite her cold behavior and the damaging influences in her life. a wealthy dowager who lives in a rotting mansion and wears an old wedding dress every day of her life. In spite of the confusion. a panoramic portrait of English society. some of whom appear only as names. sister of Peggy O'Dowd. she has become her own woman for the first time in the book. rather than achieving any kind of personal revenge. but—I hope—into a better shape. because when she learned of his betrayal. reinforcing the novel‘s theme that bad behavior can be redeemed by contrition and sympathy. readers had time to savor Thackeray's various digressions into morals. she is victimized twice by her adopted class. of outlook. sometimes Barbara. Promotion in military status may change titles. In the final scene of the novel. 24. With a kind of manic. Rather than being raised by Magwitch. Estella‘s long. Well aware of himself as flawed. and appearance. After a period working as a journalist in Paris on his stepfather's newspaper he returned to England and began his career as a writer. also. These values morally crippled and emotionally bankrupted every social class from servants through the middle classes to the aristocracy. material goods. It would be impossible to catch the sly irony." Though Thackeray set his novel a generation earlier. Thackeray was really writing about his own society (he even used contemporary clothing in his illustrations for the novel). this condensation must leave out many incidents and commentaries by the author. He had a keen eye for things that were pretentious and hypocritical and he believed that his moral duty was to remove the mask that affected people used to conceal the real nature of their thoughts and intentions. and kindness. He aimed not only to expose the false values and practices of society and its institutions and to portray the selfish. because of the length of the book. This double aim is reflected in his description of himself as satiric and kind: "under the mask satirical there walks about a sentimental gentleman who means not unkindly to any mortal person. the tongue-in-cheek humor of Thackeray's remarks on the human race without reading Vanity Fair at sufficient leisure to realize its subtle meanings. Becky and Amelia. including the aristocracy. callous behavior of individuals. This set of notes does not attempt to take the place of reading the book. in "Vanity Fair" (1847) he attacked the belief that the meek and the mild receive what they deserve. but also to affirm the value of truth. He had a dark. The story then follows them throughout their lives.For the purposes of this study. His story in fact has a happy ending. Of necessity. . Becky is ambitious and shrewd. however he gives way to the dilemma that many Victorian writers faced-depict life as it really is or as it should be. the church. For this reason. High and low. and determined to get what she whatever she wants. Vanity Fair is considered a classic of English literature and one of the great works of satire in all history. and ostentation had corrupted society and how the inherited social order and institutions. At the end of the book. His gift as caricaturist enabled him to capture th essential features of life and social behaviour. justice. Thackeray saw the writer as serving a necessary function–to raise the consciousness of his readers. regarded only family. Thackeray saw how capitalism and imperialism with their emphasis on wealth. the military. He shows us the contrary. William Thackeray (1811-1863)was born in Calcutta (India) bu spent his childhood in Egland where he was educated. individuals were selfish and incapable of loving. power. and the foreign service. although friends. While Amelia is sweet and unimposing. The book mainly concerns two young women. the book has been divided into the original installments as published. he identified with the self-centered and foolish characters he portrayed in Vanity Fair. He came to see himself as a Satirical-Moralist. He did so in "The Luck of Barry Lyndon" (1844) and "The Book of Snobs" (1848). who. rank. the student is urged to read Vanity Fair for himself. with a responsibility both to amuse and to teach. and how and with whom they end them. This he attempted in "Pendennis" (1848). sarcastic and misanthropic view of life. He was a realist whose aim was to depict things the way they are. are very different from one another. The object of his attacks were the upper and middle classes. she says that "the more he bought me. Brontë gave up writing poetry at the beginning of her professional career. unwillingness to submit to a man's emotional power and willingness to speak her mind were fostered by some female characters in the novel. Nonetheless. through word and deed. and let it dash its hoof at my chest‖ (Chapter 8). John proposes marriage. Yet. acting as Rochester's mistress) and shows that she can break from the emotional power that Rochester wields over her. 27." which would have included her familial connections. economic status and beauty . independence.. freedom of choice. she experimented with the poetic forms that became the characteristic modes of the Victorian period—the long narrative poem and the dramatic monologue—but unlike Browning. Rochester. only two of her poems are widely read today. dignity or independence. . which exhibits her courage. Her fear of losing her autonomy motivates her refusal of Rochester‘s marriage proposal. We are precisely suited in character—perfect concord is the result‖ (Chapter 38). By this deed. .. Included in this novel are the two songs by which most people know her poetry today.. Two of Jane's actions are the most explicit in proving her role as a feminist. or any other whom I truly love. did not take to the streets with her feminist ideals. she was subject to the generally accepted standards and roles that society had placed upon her.25 Although Charlotte Brontë is one of the most famous Victorian women writers. In fact. As Jane says: ―I am my husband‘s life as fully as he is mine. In the mid-nineteenth century. yet she lacks emotional sustenance. but she expressed her view of women's equality almost subconsciously. . Jane believes that ―marrying‖ Rochester while he remains legally tied to Bertha would mean rendering herself a mistress and sacrificing her own integrity for the sake of emotional gratification. . Jane must learn how to gain love without sacrificing and harming herself in the process. not just for romantic love... and these are not her best or most interesting poems.. she would have defied most of these cultural standards and proved herself a paradigm for aspiring feminists of her day." In other words. a woman would have carried the burden of "staying in her place. . the more my cheek burned with a sense of annoyance and degradation" . To be together is for us to be at once as free as in solitude.‖ The marriage can be one between equals. . the events of Jane‘s stay at Moor House are necessary tests of Jane‘s autonomy.e.. Jane's commitment to dignity. There. Like her contemporary Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Only after proving her selfsufficiency to herself can she marry Rochester and not be asymmetrically dependent upon him as her ―master. On the other hand. or to stand behind a kicking horse. She lived in a "world that measured the likelihood of her success by the degree of her marriageability. Yet if Charlotte Bronte's character Jane Eyre had truly existed in that time period. as gay as in company. over the course of the book. The second action is Jane's leaving of Mr. but also for a sense of being valued. Brontë's decision to abandon poetry for novel writing exemplifies the dramatic shift in literary tastes and the marketability of literary genres—from poetry to prose fiction—that occurred in the 1830s and 1840s. Her experience as a poet thus reflects the dominant trends in early Victorian literary culture and demonstrates her centrality to the history of nineteenth-century literature. her life at Moor House tests her in the opposite manner. teaching the poor.. Jane searches. she enjoys economic independence and engages in worthwhile and useful work. of belonging. Rochester's attempts to lavish her with jewels and expensive garments for her wedding. or Miss Temple. Although St. I would willingly submit to have the bone of my arm broken. Thus Jane says to Helen Burns: ―to gain some real affection from you. offering her a partnership built around a common purpose. of course. she both defies the Victorian expectation of submitting to a man's will (i. or to let a bull toss me. when she became identified in the public mind as the author of the popular novel Jane Eyre (1847). . Jane knows their marriage would remain loveless. The first is her attitude toward Mr. which did not necessarily provide her with liberty. Themes Love Versus Autonomy Jane Eyre is very much the story of a quest to be loved. jane Eyre. St. and it spurs one on to worldly efforts and achievements. Yet. she prays to God for solace (Chapter 26). She will not depend solely on Rochester for love and she can be financially independent. Jane can barely bring herself to leave the only love she has ever known. and a field for their efforts as much as their brothers do. sophistication. I am soulless and heartless? You think wrong!—I have as much soul as you—and full as much heart! And if God had gifted me with some beauty and much wealth. and she refuses to consider living with him while church and state still deem him married to another woman. like when he orders that the naturally curly hair of one of Jane‘s classmates be cut so as to lie straight. Social Class Jane Eyre is critical of Victorian England‘s strict social hierarchy. and extreme self-importance. and his hypocritical support of his own luxuriously wealthy family at the expense of the Lowood students shows Brontë‘s wariness of the Evangelical movement. they suffer from too rigid a restraint. Gender Relations Jane struggles continually to achieve equality and to overcome oppression. Brocklehurst. As she wanders the heath. Brocklehurst illustrates the dangers and hypocrisies that Charlotte Brontë perceived in the nineteenth-century Evangelical movement. Of course. and education are those of an aristocrat. Brontë‘s exploration of the complicated social position of governesses is perhaps the novel‘s most important treatment of this theme. Each tries to keep Jane in a submissive position. Ultimately. St. She strongly objects to Rochester‘s lustful immorality.Religion Throughout the novel. and their practical consequences. Three central male figures threaten her desire for equality and dignity: Mr. Jane is hesitant to marry Rochester because she senses that she would feel indebted to him for ―condescending‖ to marry her. she must fight against patriarchal domination—against those who believe women to be inferior to men and try to treat them as such. in Chapter 23 she chastises Rochester: ―Do you think. consequently. All three are misogynistic on some level. Mr. Many chapters later. Jane herself speaks out against class prejudice at certain moments in the book. in a community and in a family. Her spiritual understanding is not hateful and oppressive like Brocklehurst‘s. John Rivers provides another model of Christian behavior. Jane‘s understanding of the double standard crystallizes when she becomes aware of her feelings for Rochester. equal. For example. Edward Rochester. as it is now for me to leave you. Helen Burns. Even so. In addition to class hierarchy. For Jane. These achievements include full self-knowledge and complete faith in God. which appears most strongly in Chapter 17. Jane is only able to marry Rochester as his equal because she has almost magically come into her own inheritance from her uncle. She credits God with helping her to escape what she knows would have been an immoral life (Chapter 27). because I am poor. Jane articulates what was for her time a radically feminist philosophy: Women are supposed to be very calm generally: but women feel just as men feel. This last condition is met once Jane proves herself able to function. Rochester is blind at the novel‘s end and thus dependent upon Jane to be his ―prop and guide. Brocklehurst‘s proscriptions are difficult to follow. through the time she spends at Moor House. she puts her survival in the hands of God (Chapter 28).‖ However. and St. but his method of subjecting them to various privations and humiliations. she does not abandon morality. In her quest for independence and self-knowledge. John. Brocklehurst. seems to be Brontë‘s critique of Victorian class attitudes. glory. She encounters three main religious figures: Mr. Jane‘s distress. reject St. I should have made it as hard for you to leave me. and St. When her wedding is interrupted. and come to Rochester only after ensuring that they may marry as equals. and little. because Victorian governesses. Brocklehurst adopts the rhetoric of Evangelicalism when he claims to be purging his students of pride. His is a Christianity of ambition. Each represents a model of religion that Jane ultimately rejects as she forms her own ideas about faith and principle. were expected to possess the ―culture‖ of the aristocracy. Helen Burns‘s meek and forbearing mode of Christianity. but not his social. religion helps curb immoderate passions. although she loves and admires Helen for it. is entirely un-Christian. thus. Like Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights. spiritualism. who tutored children in etiquette as well as academics. John‘s religions do. Although Jane ends up rejecting all three models of religion. Jane‘s manners. John Rivers. between obligation to her spirit and attention to her body. Jane struggles to find the right balance between moral duty and earthly pleasure. as paid employees. poor and starving. plain. it is also important to note that nowhere in Jane Eyre are society‘s boundaries bent. Jane is a figure of ambiguous class standing and. Jane ultimately finds a comfortable middle ground.‖ In Chapter 12. or a belief in a Christian God. too absolute a stagnation. Mr. nor does it require retreat from the everyday world as Helen‘s and St. John urges Jane to sacrifice her emotional deeds for the fulfillment of her moral duty. Jane remains penniless and powerless while at Thornfield. offering her a way of life that would require her to be disloyal to her own self. she is his intellectual. they were more or less treated as servants. John Rivers. a source of extreme tension for the characters around her. obscure. Furthermore. they need exercise for their faculties. is too passive for Jane to adopt as her own. where she is unable to express her own thoughts and feelings. on the other hand. precisely as men would . Even before the crisis surrounding Bertha Mason. Jane must escape Brocklehurst. terminating his education and forcing him to work in the fields. he lapses into alcoholism and dissipation. Heathcliff falls into an intense. and constantly ill. her desire for social advancement motivates her to marry Edgar Linton instead. and often cruel man. Linton is raised in London by his mother and does not meet his father until he is thirteen years old. Nelly Dean . Hindley Earnshaw . Isabella Linton . Linton himself dies not long after this marriage. Heathcliff acquires a fortune and uses his extraordinary powers of will to acquire both Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. Ultimately. Edgar Linton grows into a tender. She has strong feelings for the characters in her story. his beloved Catherine. Hareton Earnshaw . Edgar‘s influence seems to have tempered young Catherine‘s character. The mother and the daughter share not only a name. A somewhat vain and presumptuous gentleman. Catherine marries Edgar Linton instead of Heathcliff.Catherine‘s brother.For clarity‘s sake. Catherine . and raises him as an uneducated field worker. Earnshaw. this full assortment of gentlemanly characteristics. sniveling. and compassionate woman. if they seek to do more or learn more than custom has pronounced necessary for their sex. She is given to fits of temper. when he goes to live with him after his mother‘s death. the orphan Mr. constant. or laugh at them.‖ ―cheerful. and occasional arrogance. and she is torn between her wild passion for Heathcliff and her social ambition. and she is a gentler and more compassionate creature than her mother.suffer. and he finds himself at a loss when he witnesses the strange household‘s disregard for the social conventions that have always structured his world. uses him to cement his control over Thrushcross Grange after Edgar Linton‘s death. Character List Heathcliff . Heathcliff assumes custody of Hareton. this SparkNote refers to the daughter of Edgar Linton and the first Catherine as ―young Catherine. When Hindley‘s wife Frances dies shortly after giving birth to their son Hareton. Lockwood . spoiled. and it is narrow-minded in their more privileged fellow-creatures to say that they ought to confine themselves to making puddings and knitting stockings. and. but shows a good heart and a deep desire to improve himself.Nelly Dean (known formally as Ellen Dean) serves as the chief narrator of Wuthering Heights. beautiful. Hindley begins to abuse the young Heathcliff.The son of Hindley and Frances Earnshaw. Earnshaw dies.‖ ―pleasant to be with. Edgar Linton . and their respective children (Hareton and young Catherine). Catherine falls powerfully in love with Heathcliff. Earnshaw brings home from Liverpool. who falls in love with Heathcliff and marries him. Earnshaw and his wife. to playing on the piano and embroidering bags. and daughter. impetuousness. like a character in a novel.‖ However. along with his civilized virtues. However. and Mr. Young Catherine . After his father dies and he inherits the estate. Hareton is Catherine‘s nephew. Illiterate and quick-tempered. he deals very clumsily with the inhabitants of Wuthering Heights. and often arrogant. He never returns her feelings and treats her as a mere tool in his quest for revenge on the Linton family. Heathcliff despises Linton.‖ and ―rich. he marries young Catherine. who gains power over his wife. the estate of Edgar Linton. Lockwood comes from a more domesticated region of England. sister. just as Hindley had done to Heathcliff himself. unbreakable love with Mr. Catherine is free-spirited. At the end of the novel. he serves as an intermediary between Nelly and the reader. assuming that she marries Hareton after the end of the story. However. Heathcliff. A powerful. A sensible.Edgar Linton‘s sister. 29. she ruins her life by falling in love with him. his resentful son Hindley abuses Heathcliff and treats him as a servant. treats him contemptuously. but cowardly man. goes on to become Catherine Earnshaw. but also a tendency toward headstrong behavior. Weak. fierce.Well-bred but rather spoiled as a boy. Earnshaw‘s son. Because of her desire for social prominence. As a narrator.The daughter of Mr. Hareton is easily humiliated. his vanity and unfamiliarity with the story occasionally lead him to misunderstand events. After Hindley‘s death.Heathcliff‘s son by Isabella. demanding. He is almost the ideal gentleman: Catherine accurately describes him as ―handsome.‖ The first Catherine begins her life as Catherine Earnshaw and ends it as Catherine Linton.An orphan brought to live at Wuthering Heights by Mr. she grew up essentially alongside Hindley and Catherine Earnshaw and is deeply involved in the story she tells. . After Mr. and these feelings complicate her narration. her daughter begins as Catherine Linton and. Earnshaw‘s daughter Catherine. proves useless in Edgar‘s clashes with his foil. She sees Heathcliff as a romantic figure. Thus Heathcliff uses Hareton to seek revenge on Hindley. by forcing him to marry the young Catherine. Catherine loves Heathcliff so intensely that she claims they are the same person. She brings misery to both of the men who love her. Heathcliff‘s humiliation and misery prompt him to spend most of the rest of his life seeking revenge on Hindley.Lockwood‘s narration forms a frame around Nelly‘s. intelligent. Linton Heathcliff . It is thoughtless to condemn them. Hindley resents it when Heathcliff is brought to live at Wuthering Heights. The Precariousness of Social Class As members of the gentry. thereby instilling her with social ambitions. silly wife. as adulterers do. but she refuses to adapt to her role as wife. She dies shortly after Heathcliff‘s arrival at Wuthering Heights.‖ meaning Catherine. the first half of the novel centering on the love between Catherine and Heathcliff. they held a nonetheless fragile social position. Earnshaw . however. or upper middle class. Ultimately. 30. how he spoke.The housekeeper at Wuthering Heights during the latter stages of the narrative.Hindley‘s simpering. the Earnshaws and the Lintons occupy a somewhat precarious place within the hierarchy of late eighteenth. but this passion is obviously one of the most compelling and memorable aspects of the book. and illiterate.Catherine and Hindley‘s mother. Catherine and Heathcliff‘s love. The social status of aristocrats was a formal and settled matter. who does not like Heathcliff to be allowed near her children. who neither likes nor trusts the orphan Heathcliff when he is brought to live at her house.A long-winded. followed by the aristocracy. Heathcliff. and unkind. and the rise of a new and distinct generation. Linton . The two do not kiss in dark corners or arrange secret trysts. to his embarrassment. either by sacrificing Heathcliff or embracing Edgar. who made up the vast majority of the population. then by the gentry. Frances Earnshaw . Moreover. wails that he cannot live without his ―soul. and that it is the source of most of the major conflicts that structure the novel‘s plot. Mrs. Catherine declares. held no titles. She teaches Catherine to act like a gentle-woman.Edgar and Isabella‘s father and the proprietor of Thrushcross Grange when Heathcliff and Catherine are children. possesses a seemingly superhuman ability to maintain the same attitude and to nurse the same grudges over many years. and their status was thus subject to change. he raises his son and daughter to be well-mannered young people. Catherine seeks a more genteel life. but over time he becomes a loyal friend to young Catherine and learns to read. fanatically religious. on the other hand. and is strangely asexual. possessed servants and often large estates. Joseph is strange. Mr.Mr. restoring peace and order to Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. upon Catherine‘s death. it is fitting that the disastrous problems of their generation are overcome not by some climactic reversal. stubborn. It is not easy to decide whether Brontë intends the reader to condemn these lovers as blameworthy or to idealize them as romantic heroes whose love transcends social norms and conventional morality. The book is actually structured around two parallel love stories. In Chapter XII she suggests to Nelly that the years since she was twelve years old and her father died have been like a blank to her. Themes -The Destructiveness of a Love That Never Changes Catherine and Heathcliff‘s passion for one another seems to be the center ofWuthering Heights. Earnshaw adopts Heathcliff and brings him to live at Wuthering Heights. Joseph . Their love denies difference. Edgar and Isabella. how many tenants and servants he had. Wuthering Heights presents a vision of life as a process of change. Mr. As she tells Catherine and Heathcliff‘s story. When young Catherine first meets Hareton he seems completely alien to her world. She dies shortly after giving birth to Hareton. condemning their passion as immoral. A discussion of whether or not a man was really a gentleman would consider such questions as how much land he owned. Early in the novel Hareton seems irredeemably brutal. that his neighbors did not share this view. Linton . The differences between the two love stories contribute to the reader‘s understanding of why each ends the way it does. and then by the lower classes. and whether his money came from land or ―trade‖—gentlemen scorned banking and commercial activities. Mrs. Mr. Zillah . and she longs to return to the moors of her childhood. Catherine and Heathcliff‘s love is based on their shared perception that they are identical.‖ while Heathcliff. while the less dramatic second half features the developing love between young Catherine and Hareton. because aristocrats had official titles. is rooted in their childhood and is marked by the refusal to change. A man might see himself as a gentleman but find.and early nineteenth-century British society. for his part. Members of the gentry. whether he kept horses and a carriage. Linton‘s somewhat snobbish wife. elderly servant at Wuthering Heights. savage. The most important feature of young Catherine and Hareton‘s love story is that it involves growth and change. Although the gentry. yet her attitude also evolves from contempt to love.Catherine and Hindley‘s father. who treats Heathcliff cruelly. . An established member of the gentry.Mr. ―I am Heathcliff. Earnshaw prefers Heathcliff to Hindley but nevertheless bequeaths Wuthering Heights to Hindley when he dies. In choosing to marry Edgar. In contrast to the first. At the top of British society was the royalty. Given that Catherine and Heathcliff‘s love is based upon their refusal to change over time or embrace difference in others. and celebrates this process over and against the romantic intensity of its principal characters. but simply by the inexorable passage of time. Nelly criticizes both of them harshly. given that it is stronger and more lasting than any other emotion displayed in the novel. famously. and he speaks with a thick Yorkshire accent. Earnshaw . the latter tale ends happily. and the unmarried living together. but finds her living with Alec.‖ joined the ranks of the social elite. Tess finds work as a dairymaid on a farm and falls in love with Angel Clare. Hardy was trapped in the middle ground between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. and between tradition and innovation. and their house. the d‘Urbervilles. northern farmer‖ and not that of a gentleman. It explored the dark side of his family connections in Berkshire. Hardy lived and wrote in a time of difficult social change. The Earnshaws. To ensure that readers would buy a serialized novel. They do not have a carriage. he hypocritically desert her. H. Tess becomes Alec's mistress. He became famous for his compassionate. This novel and the one that followed it. Hardy demonstrates his deep sense of moral sympathy for England‘s lower classes. the Durbeyfields. in the tradition of writers like Virginia Woolf or D. Nor can he be categorized simply as a Modernist. or ―new money. Thomas Hardy. between Victorian sensibilities and more modern ones.‖ faded into obscurity. The shifting nature of social status is demonstrated most strikingly in Heathcliff‘s trajectory from homeless waif to young gentleman-by-adoption to common laborer to gentleman again (although the status-conscious Lockwood remarks that Heathcliff is only a gentleman in ―dress and manners‖). as Tess‘s parents. particularly for rural women. In the story the poor villager girl Tess Durbeyfield is seduced by the wealthy Alec D'Uberville. novels were primarily a means of earning a living.Considerations of class status often crucially inform the characters‘ motivations in Wuthering Heights. on the other hand. its sales assured Hardy‘s financial future. he built a reputation as a successful novelist. as Lockwood remarks with great puzzlement. Hardy‘s views on the subject were appalling to . a clergyman's son. To him. But the novel also aroused a substantial amount of controversy. Hardy's work reflected his stoical pessimism and sense of tragedy in human life TESS OF THE D'URBERVILLES (1891) came into conflict with Victorian morality. which were his last long fiction works. agricultural nation to a modern. or ―old money. Heated debate and criticism over these two books helped Hardy decide that he would rather write poetry. murder. he first published his novels in periodic installments in magazines or serial journals. The last novels challenged the sensibilities of Victorian readers with situations that ruffled many a Victorian feather: immoral sex. In Tess of the d’Urbervilles and other novels. She becomes pregnant but the child dies in infancy. often incredible plots of many such Victorian novels. English poet and regional novelist. But Hardy cannot solely be labeled a Victorian novelist. writers often structured each installment to be something of a cliffhanger. Tess‘s family in Tess of the d’Urbervilles illustrates this change. when England was making its slow and painful transition from an old-fashioned. whose works depict the imaginary county "Wessex" (=Dorset). and his work reflects the conventions of serialization. repenting his harshness. Angel returns from Brazil. Businessmen and entrepreneurs. resembles that of a ―homely. industrial one. Perhaps his most famous depiction of such a young woman is in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. which explained the convoluted. The Lintons are relatively firm in their gentry status but nonetheless take great pains to prove this status through their behaviors. Tess kills Alec in desperation. Hardy‘s novel strongly suggests that such a family history is not only meaningless but also utterly undesirable. In fact. They marry but when Tess tells Angel about her past. Lawrence. they have less land. she is arrested and hanged. lose themselves in the fantasy of belonging to an ancient and aristocratic family. engendered widespread public scandal with their comparatively frank look at the sexual hypocrisy of English society. Hardy's career as writer spanned over fifty years. Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891) and Jude the Obscure (1895). illegitimate children. Like many of his contemporaries. Jude the Obscure (1895). often controversial portrayal of young women victimized by the self-righteous rigidity of English social morality. 31. who were determined to explode the conventions of nineteenth-century literature and build a new kind of novel in its place. Catherine‘s decision to marry Edgar so that she will be ―the greatest woman of the neighborhood‖ is only the most obvious example. Hardy published two more novels. as some families of the ancient aristocracy. Soon after Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891) was published. rest on much shakier ground socially. Hardy considered himself first and foremost a poet. In many respects. so stung was he by the criticism of his works that Hardy did not write another novel. After Alec's murder. He is a haggler/higgler. Eliza-Louise (Liza Lu) Liza Lu is the second Durbeyfield child. when he finally learns of Tess' past with Alec and her son Sorrow. where Alec is murdered. Tess is depicted as a person of near divine qualities when she baptizes . She is as likeable as a literary character found in all of English literature. Alec d'Urberville Heir to d'Urberville fortune who has Tess brought to The Slopes with the hope of seducing her. but we know that not all stories end on a positive note. who knows no bounds to debauch women. Not once during the novel does Tess exhibit any traits that take away from Hardy's portrayal of her as a good person. Character List Tess (Teresa) Durbeyfield The main character and heroine of the novel. Parson and Mrs. and even her attempts to change her appearance are not enough to hide her natural beauty. and he finally pays for his deceit with his life. Angel eventually returns to England to reclaim Tess but finds her with Alec. and uneducated — unaware that the world is rife with lust. She is attractive to all men. He is very hard and demanding. when Tess dies. Sorrow Durbeyfield/d'Urberville Tess' child with Alec d'Urberville. Izz Huett. by the end of the novel. It is Joan's plan to sent Tess to "claim kin" with the d'Urbervilles. and Modesty Durbeyfield The other Durbeyfield children. Joan Durbeyfield Tess' mother who does her best to raise her seven children. Angel remains with Tess until her arrest and agrees to take Liza Lu as his wife after Tess meets her fate on the gallows. John Durbeyfield Tess' father. we wish for a happy ending for Tess and Angel. leaving them destitute when he dies. who becomes Tess' husband. 32. the second farm where Tess works. cruelty. will not return from Brazil. a sixty-year-old widow who owns The Slopes. Readers come to understand her plight and her acceptance of the seemingly inevitable things that happen to her. Clare Angel's parents. She is beautiful and irresistible to men. Brooks Innkeeper at Sandbourne for The Herons. and Tess of the d’Urbervilles was met in England with widespread controversy. In the end. innocent. her husband. He ruins Tess and does not know that she has had his child until much later. drinks to excess. and Retty Priddle Tess' friends at Talbothays and Flintcomb-Ash. He convinces Tess that Angel. Further in the story. Uneducated and poor. Tess' younger siblings. who dies in infancy. Mr. Marian. Mercy Chant The woman Angel's family wanted him to marry. Richard Crick Dairy farmer who owns Talbothays Dairy. she is twelve years old when the novel begins and appears in only a few chapters. Joan fails to warn Tess of the desires of men and the meaning of love. After the wedding. Throughout the novel. Mrs. Farmer Groby Farmer in charge of Flintcomb-Ash. As a result. He is kind to Tess and Angel.conservative and status-conscious British readers. he leaves her and spends the next year in Brazil. She is also young. Cuthbert and Felix Clare Angel's brothers. she eventually marries Cuthbert Clare. All are also in love with Angel. He is the consummate playboy. Abraham. Hardy develops Tess as a character and describes her simple beauty. and vanity. Parson Tringham The minister who tells John Durbeyfield of his lineage. as Tess had asked. and is not a good provider for his family. a middleman who buys vegetables and poultry from wholesalers to sell to retailers. Angel Clare Youngest son of Parson Clare of Emminster. Hope. d'Urberville Alec's mother. Character AnalysisTeresa "Tess" Durbeyfield -Tess is one of Hardy's most sympathetic protagonists. Mrs. Liza Lu and Angel are united. he is shiftless. whose most promising son. but pagan injustice. he sees God as a creative.‖ or a frivolous game. does not even realize that they are interested in him. Mr. When Angel calls Tess names like ―Daughter of Nature‖ and ―Artemis.Sorrow before he dies. Changing Ideas of Social Class in Victorian England Tess of the d’Urbervilles presents complex pictures of both the importance of social class in nineteenth-century England and the difficulty of defining class in any simple way. is intent on becoming a farmer and marrying a milkmaid. 33. and Tess‘s final rest at Stonehenge at the end. The issue of class confusion even affects the Clare clan. His willingness to work side by side with the farm laborers helps endear him to Tess. was smoothly able to use his large fortune to purchase a lustrous family name and transform his clan into the Stoke-d‘Urbervilles. Generally. after Angel reveals that he prefers Tess. When. remind us of a world where the gods are not just and fair. and the President of the Immortals (in the Aeschylean phrase) had ended his sport with Tess. and this is especially evident when she is being courted by Angel at Talbothays Angel is a good man. Alec‘s father. The pre-Christian rituals practiced by the farm workers at the opening of the novel. an issue that is one of the main concerns of the novel. Angel is Hardy's voice of agnosticism and the views of religious "freethinkers. less blatant examples of women‘s passivity toward dominant men." Tess' beauty is balanced by her earthy elegance." The movement looks to associate with religion but without its formal ties to a church per se. For others in their misery. Thus. He begins his relationship with Tess by offering to tutor her in history or any subject of her choosing. to make up for her lack of higher education. Angel. dominates her in an unhealthy way. but whimsical and uncaring. These girls appear utterly dominated by a desire for a man who. as when Alec acknowledges how bad he is for seducing Tess for his own momentary pleasure. Christianity teaches that there is compensation in the afterlife for unhappiness suffered in this life. Certainly the Durbeyfields are a powerful emblem of the way in which class is no longer evaluated in Victorian times as it would have been in the Middle Ages—that is. the moral atmosphere of the novel is not Christian justice at all. but unhealthy obsession.‖ we are reminded that justice must be put in ironic quotation marks. Hardy calls the effect on her siblings as a "transfiguring effect" and that she looked "with a touch of dignity which was almost regal. Indubitably the Durbeyfields have purity of blood. Angel could be construed as a deist. Tess‘s friend Retty attempts suicide and her friend Marian becomes an alcoholic. The d‘Urbervilles pass for what the Durbeyfields truly are—authentic nobility—simply because definitions of class have changed. Christianity offers little solace of heavenly justice. This sort of unconscious male domination of women is perhaps even more unsettling than Alec‘s outward and self-conscious cruelty. but she is punished anyway. In the Victorian context. Sometimes this command is purposeful. but he cannot help but fall in love with a gentle girl. Nor is there justice waiting in heaven. just as she is unfairly punished for her own rape by Alec.‖ we feel that he may be denying her true self in favor of a mental image that he prefers." those who reject of "the tenets and traditions of formal religion as incompatible with reason. Alec‘s act of abuse. Mrs. Themes The Injustice of Existence Unfairness dominates the lives of Tess and her family to such an extent that it begins to seem like a general aspect of human existence in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. who seems more or less content in his life anyway. Clare. Thus. since it is not really just at all. Tess does not mean to kill Prince. in the man‘s full knowledge of his exploitation. yet for the parson and nearly everyone else in the novel. but his faith seems shallow and insincere. cash matters more than lineage. as pure and gentle as it seems. which explains how Simon Stokes. The converted Alec preaches heavenly justice for earthly sinners. What passes for ―Justice‖ is in fact one of the pagan gods enjoying a bit of ―sport. this fact amounts to nothing more than a piece of genealogical trivia. But there are other. Men Dominating Women One of the recurrent themes of the novel is the way in which men can dominate women. Angel substitutes an idealized picture of Tess‘s country purity for the real-life woman that he continually refuses to get to know. with no attention paid to fortune or worldly success. the most life-altering event that Tess experiences in the novel. The forces that rule human life are absolutely unpredictable and not necessarily well-disposed to us. and their acquaintance would not have been possible if he were a more traditional and elitist aristocrat. the three main characters in the Angel-TessAlec triangle are all strongly marked by confusion regarding their respective social classes. thus bypassing the traditional privileges of a Cambridge education and a parsonage. which makes their earlier schoolgirl-type crushes on Angel seem disturbing. but he rejects formal religion. She gently refuses. Durbeyfield never mentions otherworldly rewards. This devotion is not merely fanciful love. exerting a power over them linked primarily to their maleness. by blood alone. living force. His gentlemanly ways also come to the fore when he offers to carry all four dairymaids over a swollen creek when the girls are on their way to church. but the only devout Christian encountered in the novel may be the reverend. Even Angel‘s love for Tess. When the narrator concludes the novel with the statement that ―‗Justice‘ was done. that is. we are told explicitly. . is clearly the most serious instance of male domination over a female. in which.her identity and experiences are suppressed. Nevertheless. for just a moment. when the crowd of male police officers arrest Tess at Stonehenge. . albeit unknowingly. the accepted pattern of submissive women bowing to dominant men is interrupted. Of course. this act only leads to even greater suppression of a woman by men. a woman takes active steps against a man. for the first time in the novel. This pattern of male domination is finally reversed with Tess‘s murder of Alec. and Tess‘s act seems heroic.