Essentials of English Morphology

Jelisaveta MilojevicESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY EXPOSITION OF CONCEPTS AND WORKBOOK APPLICA TION CONTENTS Foreword .................................................................... i 1. Basic concepts ...................................................... 1 Language and linguistics. - Language : system and structure. - Language strata. - Language structure. Morphology. -Grammar. - Contrastiveness. - Syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis. - Lexical morphology. Inflectional morphology. 2. Morphological structure of English words........... 7 Word. - Lexemes, word-forms. - Morphemes, morphs, allomorphs. - Identification and classification of morphemes. -Affixes, prefixes, suffixes. - Derivational and inflectional affixes. - Markedness. - Roots, stems, bases. Valency of affixes and stems. - Derivational and inflectional paradigms. - Aims and principles of morphemic analysis. 3. Productivity............................................................. 23 Word formation. - Transfer of meaning. - Metaphor and metonymy. - Lexical rules. - Types of lexical rules. -Properties of lexical rules. - Limited productivity. -Acceptability. - Diversity. - Semantic open-endedness. -Recursiveness. - Bidirectionality. - Lexicalization. - Types of lexicalization. - Phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic lexicalization. - Productivity as a cline. Language creativity. - Lexical innovation. - Neologisms. Nonce-formations. - Obsolete and archaic words. - Stunt words. -Nonsense. - Phonetic motivation. - Jargonization. - Analogy in word-formation. Morphological processes.7. 127 . .. .. ..Shortening of spoken words. . . . .. Idioms...Functional approach to meaning.Semantic equivalence and synonymy.Fully assimilated loan words. Phraseology . ...Poetic diction. .. -Criteria of synonymy. 9.. ... .Grammatical categories..Indian English.Loan words. . .Initial. .... Incompatibility... ... -Back-formation...Homophony.. .. . ......Functional styles... ...Thematic meaning. -Part-of-speech meaning. .....Pseudoanglicisms. ... .Classification.. ...Fixed similes.Scottish English.Metaphor.Unassimilated loan words. ..Folk etymology.... .Graphic and sound-form of homonyms..... Origin of English words Native words... 65 Word meaning. Contrastive analysis Affixation.. Stylistic varieties of English vocabulary ..Transformational analysis.....Conceptual meaning.Verbal collocations.. . . .Thematic groups.. .. 8...Cognates. ......Hyperbole.. ........Nature of semantic change.... Lexicography ..........Not completely assimilated phonetically. . -Structural meaning of the pattern... ... ..Puns..Cliche.. Canadian English..Australian English.189 Standard English variants and dialects. .Minor morphological processes.Prefixation..... final.Compatibility..Doublets. Collocative meaning........Distributional analysis and cooccurrence. -Irish English. 6.Hyponimic (hierarchical) structures.. .. ..... Regional varieties of English vocabulary....Lexical meaning relations. -Anglicisms.. 5.. .. ....... -Polysemy and homonymy.Netspeak..Associative meaning......Word play.. ... Differential meaning...Grammatical meaning.. Assimilation of loan words...... Change of meaning. . ...Graphical abbreviations.....Proverbs.....Slang.. 205 213 225 228 229 Types of dictionaries....... Inflectional suffixes. . . .Other types of semantic change.... .Types of meaning.Interchangeability and substitution.... -Taxonomy. -Stylistically marked and stylistically neutral words........ 169 Set expressions...........Neo-classical compounds.Typical semantic relations.Distributional meaning.Partially assimilated loan words..American English....Colloquial words and expressions. .. . -Metonymy... . . ..Litotes........ . -Euphemisms...Political correctness..Semantic contrasts and antonymy...Affective meaning..Prefixal and suffixal derivatives.. -Miscellanea of composition..False cognates........... . Acronyms..Classification of suffixes. . . both-ends clipping..Blending..Ethnic slurs.179 Registers.... .. Selected dictionaries.. -Connotative meaning. .... ... and familiar quotations. sayings. Social meaning....Not completely assimilated semantically...107 Immediate constituent analysis.. Not completely assimilated grammatically.... Selected electronic dictionaries Subject index .. .Partial conversion.. Selected bibliography. ...... ... Dysphemisms..Compounding...Componential analysis. ..Classification of homonyms. . 11. 10... Methods and procedures of morphological analysis. .....Conversion....Bloopers.Origin of borrowing...... ....... -Concord / government / agreement..Reflected meaning......Source of borrowing..International words........ ....Derivational compounds. . . . ... . . .... ....... .... ... .. . Meaning of compounds: motivation.... Lexical semantics... ......Referential approach to meaning. .. .. -Classification of prefixes... -Reduplication..Suffixation..49 4..Pejorative / derogatory words.Main problems in lexicography. .Shortening. Meronymy..Etymology.. some of the examples I acquired . from British. Origin of English words. Regional varieties of English vocabulary.Z (Belgrade: Papirus.Z. Lexical semantics. 9. Methods and procedures of morphological analysis. and. 2. Australian and Canadian newspapers. and it is equally crowded with facts. from poetry and fiction books in English. Stylistic varieties of English vocabulary. 10. Lexicography. Russian. expertise. to focus on a word per se. Morphological processes. 3. needless to say. to concentrate on workbook application coupled with theoretical exposition of concepts. 11. 6. 8. 5. The book Essentials of English Morphology has two principal interests: firstly. On the other hand. Basic concepts. The examples come from different sources: from over 30 major English language dictionaries. It is based on over 130 selected references (books and articles published in: the English. Phraseology. 4. Morphological structure of English words. German. it as an offshoot of the previous book: it builds upon the intellectual capital and the theory presented in it. and secondly. and the Serbian language) presented in Bibliography section. American. Productivity.FOREWORD Essentials of English Morphology: Exposition of Concepts and Workbook Application is meant to be complementary to my previous book: Word and Words of English: English Morphology A . The book gathers around the following topics: 1. French. 7. and its relation to other words in syntagmatic context as well as in the paradigm. 2000) in the sense that it concentrates on the application side of theoretical enunciations presented in the dictionary of English morphology terms: English Morphology A . and curiosities. British radio and television. from the Inter Net. and also for some most wonderful examples with which he generously supplied me. puns. hence a good deal of vacillation here and there. 16) where he enunciates his idea about what language is: 'Language is nothing but a set of human habits. the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings.through personal communication with friends and colleagues with whom I share fascination with words. using arbitrary symbols in conventional ways with conventional meanings. The divergencies would certainly be greater if it were not for the fact that the chief purpose of language is to make oneself understood by other members of the same community. My thanks also go to Professor Marica Presic (of the University of Belgrade). a mathematician and artist. My task has been eased by the help of Professor Thomas F.. and especially to impart them to others. and patience I have trusted for over twenty years. I also wish to acknowledge my debt to two scholars who initiated me into the study of words: Professor John McH.I hope this book comes up to their expectations. I express my thanks to the reviewer. this presupposes and brings about a more or less complete agreement on all essential points. Grainne Orlic for their scrutiny of the manuscript. George Allen & Unwin. BASIC CONCEPTS 7 • Here is a quotation from Otto Jespersen's book Essentials of English Grammar (London. Mrs. How does Jespersen's idea about what language is correlate with what you learn from the following dictionary definitions of language: 'Language is a body of words and systems for their use common to a people of the same community or nation [.' Comment on Jespersen's definition of language. and language style (the title of the book in particular).. for her stunning gift cover-design. reprinted 1979. Magner (of the Pennsylvania State University) . to keep to myself all the responsibility for anything that may have gone wrong.a wonderful scholar and a friend whose expertise.]. This time my gratitude goes to him for his answers to my questions on: word play. needless to say. p. It would be a relief to think that half of the joy I feel at the moment goes back to him. gender. Sinclair (of the University of Birmingham) and Professor Draginja Pervaz (of the University of Novi Sad) .. As with other habits it is not to be expected that they should be perfectly consistent. Jelisaveta Milojevic 1. devotion. and. it is communication by voice. No one can speak exactly as everybody else or speak exactly in the same way under all circumstances and at all moments. I shall be more than happy to share the credit for all that is good about the book Essentials of English Morphology with all the people I have mentioned so far..] any set or system of such symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by a number of people who are thus enabled to . [. Professor Vesna Polovina (of the University of Belgrade) and the language-editor. Pay special attention to the italicized words and phrases (they are not italicized in the original text). and how much space is given to word-formation. . feelings. 2000)? How does the system of rules in the domain of lexis relate to the system of rules operating in the domain of syntax? • Morphology is traditionally divided into inflectional morphology and word-formation. the study of the words and grammar of a particular language' (Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary). you mean all the words which are used in a particular language at a particular time. Belgrade: Papirus. 'Language is human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas. and syntax. morphology. 'A language is a system of communication which consists of a set of sounds and written symbols which are used by the people of a particular country or region for talking or writing in. • • • What is meant by language system? Explain the concepts of system and structure referring to language. How about hybrid forms. and desires by means of a system of sound symbols' (OUP Dictionary of Current English) What do these dictionary definitions have in common? Which of the definitions is the most simplistic? • Linguistics is the science of language. In what way then are language and linguistics related? • Language can be looked at from the structural point of view implying the notions of system and structure. • • • 8 What is morphology? Look the term up in the dictionaries of linguistic terms and compare these definitions to the textbook definition given in: Word and Words of English (Belgrade: Papirus. Milojevic: Word and Words of English. What is contrastiveness? Illustrate contrastiveness in morphology. 2000). if you talk about the language. What is grammar? Give different linguistic dictionary and grammar book definitions of grammar and comment on them. such as participles and gerunds? • Take a close look at any six grammar books that you can find in your Departmental library and say how much space is devoted to inflectional morphology.communicate intelligibly with one another' (The Random House Dictionary of the English Language). • What is a syntagmatic chain? Provide illustrations of syntagmatic chains in phonology. • Explain the importance of the principle of contrastiveness in morphology and in the domain of lexis in particular. • What is a minimal pair? Provide illustrations of minimal pairs in morphology. Illustrate. It can be seen as a system of sub-systems operating on the inventory of particular structural units. What is inflectional morphology? What is word-formation? What principles of language organization do you think are behind such a division? • What are demarcation problems concerning the distinction between inflectional morphology and wordformation? Provide examples. How do you understand the definition of grammar saying that it is the system of rules and procedures formulated as algorithms operating on the inventory of language units? • What is the grammar of words (see: J. Comment on this. Name structural units characteristic of each language stratum. Name language strata. -like. • Give lexical paradigms which include the words which share the following suffixes: -ery.. • Give four sets of words (i. 5.e.. monopolize. the book is on the desk..): • What is a lexical paradigm? Give four examples of lexical paradigms. -oholic. -ly. -less. lexical paradigms) which share the same root morpheme. house. media-friendly. 3. men refuse to acknowledge them. -y. every day television consumes vast quantities of creative work. PR-friendly . 2. the tobacco industry spends vast sums of money on advertising. weather man. camping is the ideal way of spending a holiday. 4. de-. humanize. the book is on the shelf. unhappy. • Give lexical paradigms which include the words which share the following prefixes: pre-.. glorify. under-. ready-made clothes are hard to obtain. re-. • Give examples of inflectional paradigms which share the following grammatical meaning: number. -er. • What is an inflectional paradigm? Give four examples of inflectional paradigms. happy.. -ful... -able. person. nationalize. user-friendly. 6. . notify. milkman.. • Add as many examples as you can to the following lexical paradigms. the mouse is on the table. unusual.scape.. • • • • What is the minimal number of members which constitute a paradigm? Give four examples of two-member paradigms (either lexical or inflectional). beautify.Having in mind the following definition of the paradigm: paradigm is a set of language forms which are possible alternatives at every point of a selectional axis of language structure provide possible alternatives at every point of the following syntagmatic strings (e. the book is under the table. the wallet is on the table. case.. etc. unsportsmanlike. over-. make.. postman. irreversible... irresponsible. . 9 1. -dis.g. the candle is on the table. man. The book is on the table: a book is on the table. Television encourages passive enjoyment. • Give lexical paradigms which include the words which share the following root morphemes: sleep. Give four examples of multimember paradigms (either lexical or inflectional). when women prove their abilities. irregular. tooth. the book lies on the table. Provide examples to show that such a definition is problematic (instances of compounds. 8. There's no doubt that the motor-car often brings out a man's very worst qualities. Haven't the old lost touch with all that is important in life? 4. People who are normally quiet and pleasant may become unrecognizable when they are . MORPHOLOGICAL OF ENGLISH WORDS STRUCTURE • What is a word? What would be a rule-of-thumb definition of a word? • Give an orthographic definition of a word. 2. What are the implications for automatic speech recognition and machine translation? • How many orthographic words are there in the following examples: 9. 2. Comment on it. instances of idioms and contracted forms). of words involving polysemy and homonymy. Old people are always saying that the young are not what they were. 1. Can anything be right with the rat-race? 3.7. .behind the wheel. they are ill-mannered and aggressive. willful as two-year-olds and utterly selfish. They swear. Go home and count your blessings . Charlie and Susanna went off to their room. 17.Go home immediately and count your blessings .) without producing ungrammatical output. Words are elements which have positional mobility. square on a toothpick.' Susanna's eyes widened. You've upset him!' Charlie looked away from her and bit his lip. blessing cannot be interrupted by the insertion of. • Having in mind all criteria upon which a word can be defined. Name other principles upon which a word can be Other language material. dictatorship . Comment on the problem of 'stops' in a definition of a word which relies on the pronunciation criterion. 10. 1. they cannot change their position freely without producing ungrammatical output (cf. Give more examples to prove this. 13. 'Dad left Ray some money. The morphemes as word constituents appear in a rigidly fixed sequential order.* shipdictator. However. 14. 12. • Having in mind all criteria upon which a word can be defined. 5. however.' Susanna said. may not be true. 1. I'd rung up beforehand to book a table. 15. 'What for?' Charlie asked. i.This.' he said quietly. What are the implications relevant for automatic speech recognition and machine translation? 2. 'Because he's frightened. / do not know this.' (Leonore Fleischer: Rain Man) 7. *eduneducate). this may not be true. can be inserted at word boundaries (cf. they can change their position within a syntagmatic chain (e. . 3. 'What money?' she asked. 2. All words do not have an equal mobility potential. 9. Provide examples to support this statement.5.g.This I do not know. The table of contents and several papers with different 12 . 'He's never been away from Wallbrook before. Susanna looked at Charlie with an angry expression on her face. 3. 11. defined. -er. say. Identify the morphemes. Is a word a language universal? Are there languages where there are no words? 4. He sat up and saw that Raymond was watching TV and eating pizza. *ededucateun. 18.Go straight home and count your blessings). 16. 7 took Raymond. so *blessering is impossible). A lot of money. Words are the elements of structure which resist interruption by the insertion of other language material (e. Charlie was in bed. uneducated *educatedun. i. 8.g. identify the words in the following text. 'and I'm keeping him until I get my money. 19. Give more examples to show the impossibility of insertion at morpheme-boundaries and the possibility of insertion at word-boundaries.e. Say how many words there are in every sentence. She tried to keep an open mind and an open heart on such subjects: she was open-minded and openhearted. 'Go and talk to him!' she said.e. . however. Charlie cut the pizza into tiny squares and put each 6. identify the words in the following text. their. it are semantically regular components. a wet blanket. market. inseparable. bird-watcher. the whys and wherefores. Elisabeth. Viking. 25. down. someone. refer. they also resist interruption and the re-ordering of parts. and. nanotechnology. State the number of morphemes of which the words consist. stand on in: don't stand on the chair and don't stand on ceremony. beautiful. • Define word-and-paradigm approach to morphology. there. film. Let sleeping dogs lie and don't trouble trouble till trouble troubles you have almost the same meaning. Compare the following: put up in the examples: put up your hand and to put a person up for the night or to put up with something. a. their. microscopic. 32. recount. sister-in-law. he. mass-production. cone-shaped. beautifully. 21. • Idioms. Apply a substitution test to show that the idioms are semantically simplex. the. Comment on this. untreatable. if. is an idiom which is lexically complex but semantically simplex (its meaning is 'secretly'). bright-eyed and bushy-tailed. fall out in the examples: the baby fell out of the push-chair and to fall out with someone. blue-eyed. drip-dry. lest. gobetween. substitutability. • Lexical words are open class and grammatical words constitute a closed class.born yesterday. have to fulfil two requirements: first. In the example: They are selling their films at the festival's market but they are doing it under the table the words: they. wealth. 5. that they be lexically complex. 30. glasshouse. rephrase. in the wind. Say whether the following words can be classified as simple or complex. flatbottomed. The number of grammatical words is finite and that of lexical words is potentially unlimited. under the table. tenth. Use the following idioms in sentences of your own. and second. up. on the carpet charts and tables were scrolled and left on the table. blow the whistle on • What is word-based morphology? Discuss. 20. go. clergy person. impolite. position mobility. • What are lexical words (full words or content words)? What are empty words (functional words or functors)? 28. troubleshooting. blow your top. Ruth. scissors. fighter-bomber. train-spotting. • Say whether the following examples represent lexical or functional words: 29. 26. but. extravagantly. do. festival. pocketful • What is a lexeme? Comment on the definition. traditionally described as expressions whose meaning cannot be inferred from the meanings of their parts. Test the words for their regularity. that they should be a single minimal semantic constituent. / loved the colour of her hair: she was amberlievable. self-assertiveness. scratch your head. sell. 4. 23. not 13 . carry the torch. concentrate. • Words can be mono-morphemic (in which case they are referred to as simple) or polymorphemic (in which case they are referred to as complex). however. plentiful. 27. or. Some people say that soaps are written by the half-educated for the half-witted. 31. dead wood. All idioms are elementary lexical units and they exhibit internal cohesion characteristic of single words. reconsider. at. 24. 6. pretty. the. • How does the definition of a word work with reference to phrasal verbs and idioms? 22. • • What is a morpheme? In what way can we say that it is a language unit that correlates form and meaning? • Divide the words overlordship and unsportsmanlike into morphemes. coverage. A Dictionary of Daffy Definitions by Rosalie Moscovitch. lives (pi. ladylike. eatery. plentiful. teaspoonful. cooked. bottoms up. sophisticated. Consider the following examples taken from What's in a Word. childlike. blowing. sham pane) 37. 35. at bottom. p.). • • Does a syllable have linguistic relevance? What is the difference between a morpheme and a syllable? • 34. too many cooks. blown. • What does the word transparent mean in reference to a lexeme? Illustrate. blows. refinery. p. taming. cooks. blow (п. pocketful. blew. gadgetry. Houghton Mifflin Company: Boston. tamer. bottom. bottoms. By which word do we refer to phonological or orthographic shape of a language unit? Can morphemes and syllables coincide? 42. living. pun). warlike. bilateral. bagful. ® What does the word opaque mean in reference to a lexeme? Illustrate. 14 . blackberry. live (adj. cushion the blow. complicated. businesslike. p. 43. tamed. 31 Maximum: a very fat mother 47. 9 Caesar: Grab that woman! 44. cooking. cook (п. blow. weaponry. 37 Perverse: poetry by a very contented cat 48. bakery. trickery. bitter. live it up. 11 Champagne: artificial window glass (compare: 36. 51 Zulu: bathroom at the London animal park 39. 40. • In the following examples say whether we are dealing with transparent or opaque lexemes. carriage. too many cooks spoil the broth. bizarre. tamest. 1985. brewery. Comment on the humour that you find in the explanations (see: word play. gooseberry. lives.). strawberry. cook. lived. live and breathe. blow off. bilberry. you live and learn. tameness. coinage. cook the books. stairs. tamely. of life). mouthful. tame. drainage. p. tamer. come to blows. 45.• What does 'arbitrary' mean in reference to a lexeme? • In what form does a lexeme appear in a dictionary? • • What is a citation form? Give citation forms of the following paradigms: live. p. soften the blow. beautiful. • 41. 12 Condescending: The prisoner is going down 38.). live and let live. leakage. bet one's bottom dollar. 46. What is a word form? • What are the terms by which we refer to the realization of a morpheme in speech or writing? • What do morphs and allomorphs have in common? • What are allomorphs or morph variants? Illustrate. duplicated. jewellery. • 33. p. bla:ntf . black-eyed. and distribution (e. • Compare the words in the following groups of examples. 59. {table}: free morpheme. lemon-squeezer. 64. {s}: bound morpheme.wider. hopped. • Consider the following examples. fighter-bomber. 15 . mind-reading. in-laws. extra-mural.g. high-jumper. half-starved. open-hearted. lu:si .• Give two paradigms illustrating allomorphs which are grammatically conditioned. tables = {table}. criss-cross. pit . poorest.dorisiz.wum^nz.deeper. doorstopper .egg-beater. {er}.baker.day-tripper. three-cornered.filips. Say which allomorphs have been phonologically and which grammatically conditioned. 56. stopped. dsiis .maker .window-dressing. house-warming. breaststroker. wuma^n . sophisticated. worker .cheaper . 51. bathe. oversimplified. down-hiller.irrational 65. handfuls. worker . lookers-on. 49. love's a fan club with only two fans 50. well-meaning. Identify the morphemes. unwanted -undelivered. kidney-shaped. filip . derivational suffix. impossible .inexpensive. 58. travel-sick. bathed. hairdresser . function. crash-landing. liz . overwhelmed. meibl . stronger. cheese-slicer . • How many allomorphs of the morpheme {possessive} are shown in the data? Say whether they are phonetically.impolite -illegitimate . base.pits. wanted. morphs and allomorphs. 52. • Give two paradigms illustrating allomorphs which are lexically conditioned. base. stage-manager. maik . In each case say whether we are dealing with the same or different morpheme.lu:siz. inseparable . long-jumper. stopped . zig-zag. worker = {work}. semi-productive. What are they? What kind of a morph is /hauz/? What conditions the choice of the allomorph? • 55. selfopinionated. father-in-law. {er}: bound morpheme. deeper -longer . salt-shaker. overwhelmingly. of one and the same morpheme? 63. In which cases are we dealing with different realizations 62. passer-by. members. travel sickness How many morphs are there in the word-form /pa:5z/? What lexeme is realized in the word-form /pa:3z/? Which morphemes are realized in the word-form /pa:Sz/? How many allomorphs does {path} have? What are they? What kind of a morph is /pa:5/? What conditions the choice of the allomorph? 60. semi-skilled. poorer. • How many morphs are there in the word-form /hauziz/? What lexeme is realized in the word-form /hauziz/? Which morphemes are realized in the word-form /hauziz/? How many allomorphs does {house} have? 54.hopped. brimful. longest. underestimated. Identify the morphemes. better-looking.bla:ntfiz. 53.irregular . Identify the morphemes and classify them according to their meaning. longer.maiks. blotting-paper. {work}: free morpheme. paths. trouble-shooting.illiterate . « Consider the following examples. wholeheartedly. benches. go-go. merrygo-round. self-assertiveness. inflectional suffix).liziz. tea-spoonful.meiblz. 61. {s}. books. coldblooded. grammatically or lexically conditioned? 57. good-looking. g. {indicative}.shrank shrunk. 71.tigers : 75. 77. • • What is a replacive morph? Illustrate. • What is a portmanteau morph? What does the word portmanteau mean? Identify portmanteaus in the following examples. rung. Are there any overt indicators of {past} in the words: shot. • Provide the suppletive form or forms of: good.teeth.sheep : reindeer16 . • What is a discontinuous morph? Illustrate. a number of different morphological properties realized in a single morph. child. women's.men.struck . reduced. 76.g. little.g. shut the box Derivational morphemes with the same denotative meaning may differ in connotation only. -s in sleeps signals three morphemes simultaneously: {third person}. her.70. let. brother. hit. {ed} in wanted can mean {past tense}. 72. shut. Compare these four pairs of paradigms: tiger .fish or fishes. castle . Identify replacive morphs in the following examples: foot . {past participle}). bet. or {ed} in has wanted {aspect}. tooth . What is a marker? What is an overt marker? What is an exponent? Illustrate. beetle . presidents'. mouse.beetles : fish . swine . etc. seek. will be captured. rang. What is the meaning of {'} and {'s} in the examples: parents'. watches.g. semantic markers. children's. • What is suppletion? What are suppletive forms? 73. 66. split. sought. ring. sheep . president's. • this. illustrate ablaut (e.women.sunk. • Illustrate the following: a single morphological property realized by several morphs. shed. stylistic markers. man . 79. generals'. Pay attention to the instances of grammatical homonymy (e. tooth. put.swine. recast. grammatical categories do they represent? Which 78. thrust? 80. beat. Explain and illustrate the following: grammatical markers. woman. shrink . strike . slit. man in ten-man expedition is not marked for plural number).sank . • What is a zero morph? • What is exponence? • State whether the following is true or false: the morphs are the exponents of the properties. • Give four examples to show that root morphemes do 68.).bred.stricken. Illustrate. or {past tense} {subjunctive}. whom. (E. 81.feet. {present tense}.castles: deer. not have grammatical meaning and therefore are not grammatically marked (e. breed . reset. sink .deer. him. louse. set. What is markedness? Explain and illustrate the distinction that is made between marked and unmarked. woman . 74. {singular number}. 69. smashes. bad. burst. ox. • What is ablaut? Give four inflectional paradigms to 67. microscope). influential. typify. neuroscience. 85. Not many banks are on the banks of the river which flows through our town. bil in bilberry. underestimate. and change as a noun meaning 'the money you receive when you pay for something with more money than it costs'). maladjustment. 91. 90. open-mindedness. palatable. v-necked. 84. technophobe. malnourished. Don't trouble trouble till trouble troubles you. • Sometimes the root can be an obligatorily bound morph (e. Egyptologist. overdo. • In words which are composite there can be two or more roots. tele in telephone) or there can be two bound morphs as roots (e. ill-equipped. sleeplessness. clerical. extraterrestrial. • What is root in reference to word-formation? Illustrate. Identify bases in the following words: 86. medicinal. Add some more examples to the cranberry and fishmonger paradigms. 97. componential. He mopped the floor.g. outdistanced. thimbleful. joyriding. mop as a noun and mop as a verb. summing-up. ill-tempered. also change as a noun meaning 88.g. megazoo. oversimplified. played as a form of a regular verb represents two different morphological concepts: 'past simple' and 'past participle').94.g. Illustrate. 96. facial. Your small change makes big change. extrasensory. Two members of a grammatical paradigm can be realized by homonymous word-forms (e. 93. Give more examples to support this. that's what I did! Bottled in Scotland. nationalize. looker-on. sensational. untouchables.g. • Identify roots in the following examples: 103. inconsolable. 'difference'. neologism. unmanned. redistributed. in the word factual и is a surplus element which does not realize any morpheme whereas in personal there is no such element). 102. • What is a base in reference to word-formation? Illustrate. 87. outmanoeuvring. 99. 83. extraordinary. • A unique morph is one which only occurs in a single combination of morphemes (e. 95. Provide more examples. biosphere. unsupervised. residential. oversimplified. You can find the mop in the corner. neo-classical. He was cornered and could not escape. illegitimate. topdrawer. realized by homonymous word-forms (e. Two members of a lexical paradigm can be 100. comical. Which members of the paradigms are marked for plural number and which are not? 82. externalize. conceptual. emotional. Identify these examples and these elements (e. Discuss the following examples: 89. Remote corners of the Earth. tribal. 101. cran in cranberry. superman. What is syncretism? Illustrate. terracotta.g. 92. 17 . formal. sensual. reinforcing. 104. monger in fishmonger or monger in warmonger). Give some examples of irregular verbs which exhibit no syncretism. opennecked.g. • What is an empty morph? Among the following examples there are those which contain surplus wordbuilding elements which do not realize any morpheme. unimaginable. 98. I bottled him. clinical reindeer. 110. apprehend. make a group. blah-blahing. paper. • • The following words. What is stem in reference to word-formation? Illustrate. untouchables. acquit. at. 114. make. impress. dishwashers. cut down. make a donation. god. prospect. go against. woman's. on. weariest. lawn-mowers. convert. going. head. house.117. washing. pry.). enterprise. by. meaning: 'see. workers. 105. vice-chancellors. sleep. simplest. walkabouts. sell. help. make a grant. make it. make your day. What is a word cluster? • Give a list of words constituting word families gathered around the following root-morphemes: bag. introspection. lawnsprinklers. divert. suppress. make laws. make friends. love. make a night of it.g. man. unbelieving. put off. disambiguates. drink. look' in: respect. 106. 115. turn aside or from. side. play. 18 . lookers-on. make love. make a telephone call. hunt.). push' in: pressure. disambiguated. 108. Here are some examples of some common Latin roots and the examples containing these roots: • What is a word family? Illustrate. money. Identify the rootmorphemes. Think of other words based on each of the three roots listed above. inspect. kind. run.) 107. fight. make an offer. near. make: make money. acquiesce are all descendants of the same common root. children's. express. kill. unequaled. The words: quietus. depress.g. stop. walk. sweep. realize. dog. 112. • The root has both synchronic and diachronic relevance. + Past Participle). break. body. give. comprehend. room. good. find. sped. verbalized. make you do something (V + О + Inf.) 122. prize. farm. Identify stems in the following examples: 118. unaccountable. moon. gun. Demonstrate how aptly the following words are combined with other words to give collocations (e. oppressor 111. 121. sea. • Define lexical valency (or collocability). work. quiet. take. Pair these words with the following: uproot. postpone. stone. question. keep. make an arrangement. 116. do. vert. make a loan. shop. hand. introspective. vaporizing. swim. parading. passers-by. surprise. introvert. month. make a line. dance. day. meaning: 'press. quiescent. press. unearthly. make a name for yourself. make clear (V + Adj. write. which seem unrelated. cut. make rules. make a circle. green. unilateral. meaning: 'turn' in: divert. shoe. eradicate. derive from the same Latin root and involve the idea of seizing: prison. water. prettier. impression. climb. real. make a day of it. etc. deduce. « Work out the meaning of the following words: support. old. oppressive. oppose. Find out which. comprise. make the best of something. follow from. revert 113. make: make a point (V + O). house. etc. revert. reduce. door. wash. suspect. look into. 119. one 120. unemotional. • Define grammatical valency. Demonstrate the aptness of the following words to appear in specific syntactic patterns (e. make yourself understood (V + О refl. inspect 109. spy. stand by. go back to. unhappy. -ness. come. unacceptability. unrehearsed. laugh. unnaturally.123. unbuilt. -ed. uncomfortable. dis-. all-. unpleasantness. unwritten. 126. unaltered. -ing. -ful. -ее. -ify. uninviting. fly. -age. put. -let. -scape. after-. untrusting. extra-.): 125. -ary. do. -ly. have. -ize. un : unable. meet. unofficially. uncomfortably. take. cross-. • Demonstrate the aptness of the following affixes to appear in new words (e. -ism. -ery. unwillingly. kick. bring. change. -able. -less. unalive. unwillingness. undisturbed. turn. catch. unacceptably. -er. bad. ungentlemanly. fore-. half-. unloved. unacceptable.g. good. 19 . unaware. unalterable. double-. de-. etc. more. 124. counter-. unbeaten. full. 127. -ability. self-. uncertainly. act. • Illustrate the use of metaphor in everyday language (e.g.128. Give some examples to illustrate this (e. open-hearted. hard-fisted. she is the apple of my eye). • A metaphor is a powerful mechanism which triggers neologisms. etc. and (2) 'a Russian vehicle drawn by three horses harnessed side-by-side'? What is a metaphor? Illustrate. .a very informal word for cocaine). etc. nations. 129. gray economy. PRODUCTIVITY What is word-formation? • What is meaning transfer? What is its relevance for language productivity and word-formation? • Would you say that there is meaning transfer in the following example: troika (from Russian) having the meaning of (1) 'a group of three persons. • • 20 3. united in power or acting in unison'. red-handed. blackmail. • What are petrified metaphors? Illustrate. Victor is a pig. snow.g. Comment on the examples such as: weak-kneed. feel under the weather. foxy. animal metaphors (e.g.). to save for a rainy day.• 21 Give some examples of weather metaphors (e. etc. clear the air. rat . fat cat. pig oneself.g. resembling the sound of brass instruments. literally 24/7 refers to the number of hours in a day and the number of days in a week. Compare the following sentences: He went to look for her in her office but got a 404. 1. made of or resembling brass (literal meaning). the word could be metaphorically extended so that it can be used in some completely unrelated contexts. brazen. 3. and 180 degrees as metaphors. Identify the category to which they belong (e. 4. leaden v. gray in colour. dull. Find out the meaning of the following: silver bullet. According to the examples given what does yellow metal symbolize? The gray metal is used as a metaphor for what? • How do you understand these three idiomatic expressions: born with a silver spoon in your mouth. nerves of steel. the Iron Chancellor (Bismarck). golden parachute. 404 meaning 'someone or something missing'. • • • • Here are some metallic words used as metaphors. golden handcuffs. 3. to make dull or sluggish. 4. a policy in direct contradiction with the Olympic movement. impudent. lacking energy. Give some examples to illustrate this. green fingers.) 1. white lies. red herring. etc. The government went 180 degrees on their strategy).). etc. Leaden adj. it comes from the Internet jargon and alludes to the error code given by the Web server when a page you are looking for is not found. Brassy adj. 2. While Olympic committee volunteers have shown poor management skills.• • race. iron will. which prohibits women from becoming members. 1. lifeless. bold. 3. gold rush. 2. Use them in different contexts. In what way would you resolve the paradox? • • • 24 • 'Ward's credibility is now under siege. pretentious. inert.g. words derived from the names 22 . 1. and every silver lining has a cloud. Previously. • In what way can metonyms be classified? Illustrate.' Here are some numeric terms used as metaphors: • What is metonymy? • Metonymy triggers the formation of many new words. iron curtain. made of lead (literal meaning). 26 Jan 2003) and work out the meaning of tin ear. the Iron Lady (Dame Margaret Thatcher). Having in mind the concept of semantic transfer explain the potentially paradoxical sentence: Red Square was white. and By the time I came back to my desk my computer 404-ed. • • • Use: 404. 24/7. 24/7 comes from the business world and it indicates complete availability (e. colour metaphors (e. golden handshake. He needs 24/7 attention). • Here is another metallic word used as metaphor. 780 degrees turn comes from geometry and when used as metaphor it means 'complete refusal' (e.g. he had drawn criticism for failing to disclose that he was a member of Augusta National Golf Club. gold brick. Read the passage (The New York Times. silver lining.g. every cloud has a silver lining. 2. heavy. to be in the red. management types have had a tin ear for effectively running a sports union. showy. • Here is a list of some metonyms.g. • 6. boycott. Cyrillic. oxford. macadam. • • • • • What are eponyms? • Give some examples of the words derived from a person's surname (e. this came to be shortened to Gyptians. medusa. astrakhan._ is a trademark used to describe a type of vacuum cleaner. Aladdin's cave. The expression alludes to one of Jesus's apostles. decibel. ________. Christmas. bikini. __________________________________________________ • • • • • Something may be described as being___________if it is trivial or trite.____An is a long quest or wandering that is full of adventures. • • The word tantalize. The expression derives from the name of the simple-minded cartoon character____________created by the American film producer Walt Disney. The name is based on the legendary fourteenth-century Spanish aristocrat and womaniser. Achilles' heel. the names of measures. sandwich. mackintosh. • 10. v. sandwich.___A is an instance of the unintentional confusion of words that produces a ridiculous effect.): • • Tesla. kelvin. joule.) • There are a number of stereotyped and cliche phrases containing eponyms (e.g. • • 24 • 1 • A is a man who tries to seduce many women. reglan. • 8. volcano.________________A doubting is someone who is sceptical. • • • There are a few sentences with explanations of some eponyms. The word_______was substituted for the name God by analogy with the expressions good day and good night. Davis Cup. if it is 23 . cardigan. • 4. particularly someone who refuses to believe until he has seen proof of something. tr. the ancient Greek epic poem by Homer. • 3. was condemned to stand in Hades chin deep in water and under fruits that receded whenever he tried to drink water or eat the fruit. malapropism._____Л box is a source of great troubles. Amazon. The wandering people known as__were thought at one time to have come from Egypt. • • • • • • • • Abraham's bosom. things named after their place of origin. • 2. • 11. • 9. boycott. lawrencium. Find out where the following eponyms derive from. In time. one good and the other evil. mackintosh. etc. and so were called Egyptians. the Greek god of love. from which came the present word________. the conventional expression said as two people part. was originally a contraction of the phrase 'God be with you'. Quixotic. platonic. rugby. etc. Achilles' heel. The word comes from the name of the character Mrs Malaprop (the French mal a propos)._______________The phrase__ and is used to describe a person who has two separate personalities. etc. • 5. a king of Lydia. Oedipus complex. America.________. . • 7.____________The word derives from Eros. meaning 'to torment by showing something desirable but keeping it out of reach' derives from Tantalus in Greek mythology.) Give more examples. champagne. daltonism. Bloody Mary.g. Adam's apple. The word comes from the _____________. newton. who refused to believe in Christ's resurrection. Tantalus.• of people. Fill in the blanks using appropriate eponyms. vandalism. partying.g. Different processes are productive to a different degree: some are fully productive (like some inflectional processes). usually yellow or green' named after La Grande Chartreuse mountain where this liqueur was first made. Give some examples of semi-productive processes. stage-manage. drip-dry. predetermine. • A process (word-forming or inflectional) is said to be productive if it can produce new words and word-forms. Ghetto. such as phonological or morphological. • 24 24 . meaning 'a situation or environment characterized by isolation. weatherman. honeymooner.) > soldier (v. cardigan. oversimplify. Cambridge) or words derived from names of places (e. consumerism. palm meaning 'a tree with long pointed leaves resembling an outstretched hand'. Illustrate. it meant 'a foundry for artillery'. overgeneralize. Nepalese. bidirectionality.g. Chartreuse means: 1. of how a word may come to mean something entirely different as it travels through time: first. • Limitations on productivity can be purely linguistic. linguistic. and petrification. restriction' is a typical example of meaning transfer. Illustrate. chartreuse. semantic open-endedness. yellowish green'. dry-clean. frequently. Burmese. • What is potential acceptability? Illustrate. some are semi-productive (like word-forming processes). palm meaning 'the inside of your hand' > • visionary. and 2. genetics. accessible.• opened. • Explain the properties of lexical rules. well-adjusted. a rule of conversion. then difficulties that were previously unknown or under control are unleashed. subtraction or composition). a place of concealment') often used in the phrase go to Jericho? • In what way are the rules which account for the creative aspect of the lexicon referred to? • What are the types of lexical rules which explain lexical productivity? • Classify the following examples according to the type of lexical rule (a rule of morphological derivation (involving: addition. ghetto. gobetween. 'liqueur. recursiveness. Samaritan). soldier (n. 'light. a rule of semantic transfer) which explains the way in which they have been created (e. • • Explain and illustrate actual acceptability of lexical entries. multi-layered. inferior status. divorce + ее > divorcee. mackintosh. Name some suffixes which have stopped being productive and which have no synchronic relevance. isolated people'. a rule of conversion. greenery. window-shopping. then when Jews were forced to live there it came to mean 'isolated area.g. a rule of morphological derivation. cradle-snatcher (meaning 'someone who marries somebody much younger than himself). Oxford. digestible. vice-like. then it was the name of the Venetian island. and some are no longer productive. a rule of semantic transfer): • 12. such as: limited productivity. bikini. crane (meaning 'machine for lifting').). • • Toponyms are place names (e. diversity. What is the story behind Samaritan and Good Samaritan? What is the story behind Jericho (meaning: 'a place out of the way. Name some processes which are fully productive. • There are certain restrictions on productivity (nonlinguistic and linguistic). Someone who is carried away by the impracticai pursuit of romantic ideals and who has extravagant notions of chivalry is sometimes referred to as__________. massproduce. ladylike. foolish. bias. walkman. woollen. smoothtalking. • • air-conditioning. Consider the following example: 25 . soft-pedalling. soft-soaping. Say which rules have been applied successively to generate the following words. earthen. sleepless. sleeplessness. snowcapped. unrewarding. unrivalled. • Recursiveness as a property of lexical rules refers to the successive application of different word-generating rules so that the output of one lexical rule can be the input to another lexical rule (e. bronzen. gingerbread man. penny-pinching. Apply different rules to the following entries to generate other words: man. coalen. immunization. personalization. business. gold-laced. camel-man. different rules applied to the entry sleep generate: sleepy. • • • The ability of one morphological process to potentiate another by creating a base suitable for that other process to apply to is referred to as potentiation. countryman. house. moisten. • Recursiveness can also be observed in semantic transfer. ashen. Can you provide any explanation for those gaps in the paradigms? • • • • • • permit permission permissivene ss permissible permissabilit y permissioner • • • • permitment permital permitter permittable • • • • • • • • • commit commission commissiven ess commissible commissibilit y commissione r commitment committal committor committable • • • • • • • • • • • transmit transmission transmissive ness transmissible transmissibilit y transmission er transmitment transmittal transmitter transmittable • • • 24 paper man. unscheduled. silken. operational. one-liner. Compare the following lists of words and mark those which are potentially possible but yet non-existent in the English language. cameraman. yesman. potentially acceptable or unacceptable. oaken. • • • • The morphological component of language generates many words some of which are actual words (which make up the explicit lexicon) and which are part of the implicit lexicon together with the words which have been filtered out since they have never been used by the speech community. back-street abortionist. air-conditioner. topranking. incorruptible. beigen. delivery man. indefatigable. leaden.• etc. coalman. aluminiumen. off-whiten. toy man. prohibition + ist > prohibitionist). home. black.g. memorized. oneparent families. snow-covered. ill-treated. play. happy. front-man. barman. make. • Say whether the following examples are: actually acceptable.g. conserve. organizational. Identify both input and output forms. old-age-pensioners. knock-kneed. Illustrate. businessoriented. better-looking. prohibit + ion > prohibition. keep. major. pain. sleepiness. handyman • • • • • • What is open-endedness? Consider the following examples and read into them any information that you need to understand them. waxen. discman. unsophisticated • • A great number of different rules can be applied to the same lexical entry to generate new words (e. wooden. white. weatherman. oversleep. power-sharing. hard-liner. blacken. auburnen. sleeper.). wine. whiten. drive. worm. • • deepen. egg-beater. kidney-shaped. golden. harm. -ion. cradle-snatcher. head-hunt. • • Compare the following pairs of affixes as to their degree of productivity: • • 24 by-pass. Marcus Tullius Cicero. glasshouse • State whether the following words have been generated by the process of addition or subtraction. blending and back-formation. pre-. wheel-chair. greenhouse. hang-glider. spoilsport. day-tripper. daybreak. -ment. neighbourhood. killjoy. Cambridge succumbed in 1990. easy-chair. tape-recorder. hangglide. phonologically. heartbreak. happy-go-lucky. investigatory. mind-reading.• • • Ciceronian. spin-dry. quasi-. White House. forcefulness of expression. toy box. morphologically. and syntactically lexicalized. push-chair. redskin. extremism. hit. Illustrate. 2002) • Words can be semantically. shortening and blending. But outraged Oxonians unleashed volleys of Ciceronian oratory. • • • paper man. basement. bakery. forgiveness. Analyze the italicized words in the following text from the point of view of recursiveness in semantic transfer. whiteness.' (Тага Pepper. -ity. marked by ornate language. of or relating to Cicero. conservationist. composition in nouns and composition in adverbs. Harvard's business school dates from 1908. adj. red herring. • What is lexicalization? Consider the following examples. housekeeper. conservationist. brain-washing. fallingoff. stage-manage. flat-footed. mess. September 2. derivation in verbs and back-formation in verbs. telephone box. egg-beater. motherhood. Roman statesman. -hood. Oxford's Business Blues. left-overs. width. and writer (106-43 ВСЕ). Provide examples for each type of lexicalization. Newsweek (New York). jailbreak. impossibility. top-drawer. dryclean. stagemanagement. meaning: 1. gift. mass-produce. tongue-twister. strength. cutpurse. lip-read. spring-board. • Classify the following words according to the type of lexicalization: • • • • • • Lexical derivation is a two-directional process: the morphemes can be either added or subtracted. edit. • • • • 'Oxford University mooted the idea of establishing a business school. go-between. -ist. arguing that the groves of academy should be out of bounds to commerce. etc. derailment. • • • Compare the following pairs of word-formation processes as to their degree of productivity: • • composition in verbs and derivation in verbs. aircondition. passer-by. bottom-feeder. baby-sit. 2. -ness. in the style of Cicero. foolishness. keepsakes. -ful. The word is a metonym (an eponym more precisely) derived from the name of Cicero. de-. department. sky-dive. fictionalized. -y. -ery. hand-wash. twigloo. brotherhood. orator. re-. 26 . turn-overs. Tell the difference between possible meanings of the words and their lexicalized meanings. killjoy. tumble-dry. break-neck. widowerhood. • -er. falsified. faceless. song. prompting 500 black-gowned dons to storm into the 17th century Sheldonian Theatre in protest. • 34 • What is language creativity? • • Comment on the following nonce formations: 27 . farmer or farm tenant. When a word is no longer in general use but it is still in the language we call it an archaism.a person that looks after horses. carjacking. chain-smoker. Internet. • • BFE. Explanation of their meaning is also given. baldric). orienteering. based on the observation of a 'shooting 28 . sky-diving. hope-nots. guestworker. Context and source: 'My car is parked BFE!' (Conversation) • • cometised. fishburger. media-friendly. • • • • • ADO AFFINITY AFORE AFRESH AGUE • • • • • • • • • • ABASE ABHOR ACQUIT ERE DAMSEL • • • • • FUSS TO HOLD GUILTLESS BEFORE ANEW A MARRIAGE ALLIANCE HUMBLE FEVER DESPISE BEFORE LADY • • • What are stunt words? • • • Here are some examples of stunt words. drop-dead. did-not-finishers. clergyperson. teleprompter. monoboarding. ostler . twig loo. bargain-hunter. DVD. art-for-arter. perestroika. soap. Blairism. chaindrinker. teleshopping. Here are some obsolete words and their modern counterparts juggled. have-nots. dark-green. cordwainer -shoemaker. junk mail. wait state. eco-friendly.• What is creativity or lexical innovation? Which forms may this method take? • What is a neologism? Illustrate. mouse potato. CD-ROM. done that. tickler and tickle-ee. disco. Analyze the words and find out what is 'stunt' about them. Old words may stay in the language but they acquire a new stylistic meaning (e. 'very far away: beyond f. e-mail. jokethon. canyoning. body-piercing. hah-hahed. What do they mean? • • • Explain the following neologisms from the point of view of word-formation: • • abortuary. decaf. F-word. acronym. karaoke. Used to describe Netscape when it freezes or jams. snowboarding. hopefuls. mouse potato. Britpop. jet set.g. wiskify.. damsel). car bra. been there. stage-diving. CD.. nouvelle cuisine. tree hugger. cardboard city. prenup. chocoholic. how-do-you-doers. bodice-ripper. clergyperson. rollerblade. magicienne. nofly zone. Here are some examples of obsolete words (the first word in the pair): yeoman . gyro. IFOR. adj. PR-friendly.g. KODAK. snowsurfing. Leonardomania. breakdancing. smaze. cable-readyness. chairperson. adj. • • • 34 • What are nonce words? What is the difference between neologisms and nonce words? • blah-blahing. techie. Match the words in column A with those in column B. Clintonomics. Egypt was chosen somewhat arbitrarily as a country on the opposite side of the world. no-go area. e-mailer. • Here are some new words and expressions that have come into English since 1980: taxable. Clintonite. • Obsolete words are the words that have dropped out of the language (e. cable-ready. script-write.ing Egypt'. The Dolmphious Duck by Edward Lear. A POEM • • • If I grow a moustache for you will you grow a ffectionate • for me? • S. n. 109. "L I from A Learical Lexicon (from the works of Edward Lear compiled by Mura Cohn Livingston. are head scarves this season's must-haves. 'the acute form of eaters coma. "E e. Here are some examples and extracts taken from Hair magazine (1997.. analyze the following poems and extracts from poems {After Some Thought. op. (Conversation). Dimitrijevic ed. p. The Complete Nonsense Book By Edward Lear. pages indicated by letters of alphabet). twenty-four hopefuls taken to the catwalk. There was a Young Person of Crete by Edward Lear. • • • disconfect. anklet. Netscape is cometised. (Conversation). p 349. 1985. sunsational. a. celeb style. 23. n. Poetry with Pleasure. no pagination. 'the mistaken notion that the more you press an elevator button the faster it will arrive'. you are amberlievable. v. "G g. Context and source: 'I felt like I was on the disorient Express for good this time. • • • disorient express.. somehow assuming this will remove all the germs'. (Conversation). The Pelican Chorus and The Quangle Wangle's Hat by Edward Lear. 'to sterilize the piece of candy you dropped on the floor by blowing on it. taken from N. Context and source: 'I've got eaters death and I don't think I can get up from this chair'. p. • • • • elecelleration. Analyze the words in bold type. 1998). taken from Nonsense Songs by Edward Lear. A Poem by S. Smederevska Palanka: Invest Export. 1912.' Newsweek. looking glam. Turner. taken from Lady Strachey. in the upper right corner of a Netscape browser.' (Internet Newsgroup). 'a state of confusion'. 1996. • • • 34 ringlets. cit. characterized by difficulty in standing up and walking after an extremely large meal'. London and New York: Frederick Warne &Co.. best Having in mind the notion of nonsense. What is nonsense? • AFTER SOME THOUGHT. Ltd. dos and don'ts. s. • • Comment on Easter Eggstravaganza from the point of view of word-formation. dyeing for change. Context and source: 'Oh geez. Mead & Company. We italicized the words that are nonsensical. New York: Atheneum. New York: Dodd. Turner 29 .star' or a comet that appears on the Netscape button. chop-o-holics. 11/14/96 • • eaters death. no page number. ed. n. wristlet. and lace. and jelly. Pelican jilll We think so then. So that nobody ever could see the vace Of the Quangle Wangle Quee. Quangle Wangle. Quangle Wangle Queel" • • IV • . Lear • • • THE QUANGLE WANGLE'S HAT • • • • • • 30 With ribbons and bibbons on every side. But his face you could not see. and bread. Are the best of food for me! But the longer I live on this Crumpetty tree. Lear • • • • • • • • There was a Young Person of Crete. The plainer than ever it seems to me That very few people come this way. "Jam. • • E. and buttons. And bells. and Mrs. Pluffskin. • • • • E. • The Quangle Wangle said To himself on the Crumpetty Tree. and loops. • I ON the top of the Crumpetty Tree The Quangle Wangle sat. On account of this Beaver Hat.• • • The Dolomphious Duck. • • Ill • • • • • • • • • • But there came to the Crumpetty Tree. And that life on the whole is far from gay!" Said the Quangle Wangle Quee. "Did ever you see Any spot so charmingly airy? May we build a nest on your lovely Hat? Mr. No other Birds so grand we see! None but we have feet like fins! With lovely leathery throats and chins! Ploffskin. and we thought so still • • E. That ombliferous Person of Crete. Mr. who caught Spotted Frogs for her dinner with a Runcible Spoon. Whose toilette was far from complete: She dressed in a sack spickle-speckled with black. And they said. For his Hat was a hundred and two feet wide. Mr. Canary. Lear • • • PELICAN CHORUS • II • • • • • • • • • • • KING and Queen of the Pelicans we. grant us that! О please let us come and build a nest Of whatever material suits you best. • • • • • 31 And besides. The Snail and the Bumble-Bee. • • And all of them said. the duck. with a Corkscrew leg). to the Crumpetty Tree Came the Stork. and the Owl. . "We humbly beg. The Frog and the Fimble Fowl. (The Fimble Fowl. We may build our homes on your lovely Hat. Quangle Wangle Queel" • "G g 32 .• 40 Mr. Quangle Wangle. grant us that! Mr. In what way do you see word play and nonsense related? 11.e. What meanings can be read into these words? 5. And the Dong with a luminous nose. And the small Olympian bear. a wonderfully lovely view over the river Temms & the surroundiant landskip.): • • 40 33 . . On the broad green leaves of the Crumpetty Tree.though the Equal-noxious gales will doubtless come in disgustable force. And the Pohble who has no toes. "Ее • Define analogy in reference to word-formation? The winter seems all gone for the present .g. Comment on Lear's intent to mix up the tenses in the last line of PELICAN CHORUS. • • • VI • • • • • • • • • • And the Quangle Wangle said To himself on the Crumpetty Tree. part-of-speech) meaning on the basis of their distribution (i. Find the examples of alliteration. 10.e. . • • • • • Answer the following questions concerning nonsensical words in the texts quoted: 1. Are these words registered in any English dictionary? 2. And the Orient Calf from the Land of Tute. Assign word-class (i.. Monicagate is based on Watergate.• • • • • V • • • • • • • • • • And the Golden Grouse came there. All came and built on the lovely Hat Of the Quangle Wangle Quee. 6. Find the examples of ablaut." Its Coast scenery may truly be called pomskizillious and gromphibberous. Find the examples of rhyme words. being as no words can describe its magnificence. their position in the syntactic string). etc. Find out the word or expression upon which they were modelled (e. "When all these creatures move What a wonderful noise there'll be!" And at night by the light of the Mulberry moon They danced to the Flute of the Blue Baboon. who played the flute. 8. 9." • An analogical formation is a new formation clearly modelled on one already existing lexeme.. And all were as happy as happy could be. Choose one of the poems and translate it into Serbian. And the Blue Baboon. And the Attery Squash. tab/escape is based on landscape. 7." some examples of analogical formations in English. On the basis of their phono-morphological shape would you say that these words can be said to belong to the English language? 3. 4. Analyze these words from the point of view of word formation. With the Quangle Wangle Quee. and the Bisky Bat. Here are • • "LI . pant. • 11. • • • • What does phonetic motivation refer to? • What are onomatopoeic. chocoholic._____If you . • 2. snore. it makes a series of short spitting • sounds. but you only • • 12. breathe in slowly. • • • Some forms are coined because of chance phonetic resemblance (e. they suck smoke into their mouth and blow it out again. hiccup • • 9. they cry in a noisy way. She began to weep in_. stammer. rollerblades. you speak very quietly so that you cannot • easily be heard. ambisextrous is based on ambidextrous). 6. orienteering._________If you are you are breathing loudly and quickly with • your mouth open because you are tired. Match the following examples with the words on which they are based: • • wargasm. guesstimate.. mouse potato.___________________her cigarette. gasp. eelionaire. furrious. purrfect. oceanarium. sunsational. burp.• lakescape. stutter. usually caused by small amounts of liquid being forced out. The train_slowly through the tunnel. washeteria.__________If someone a cigarette or pipe. sob._____________________________She looked calm and relaxed. chatterday. shrimpburger. 8.. cough. seascape. sniffle. gyrocopter.g. mutter. When someone _____. 4. 7. often because you are complaining about something or because you are speaking to yourself. catisfaction.________________She has a slight . Don't hurry._________________If someone has a . amberlievable. don't_. ceilingward. imitative or echoic words? Here are some words related to the sounds made by mouth and nose. If you _ you breathe very noisily when you are • sleeping. 34 . • • • 10. • • 13. and so they often hesitate or repeat it two or three times. notice it when she's tired or upset.____________If something . sniff. 5. choking sobs. cashaholic. • breathing in short breaths. splutter.___You when your throat is irritated or sometimes when • you are embarrassed or want to attract someone's attention. burr. • 3. stage diving. skyscape. fishburger. chop-o-holic. 1. discman. they find it difficult to say the first • sound of a word. 40 • • • • • puff. roofscape. From these words choose the correct one to fill in the blanks. or out of breath after a lot of physical effort. such as a heavy object makes • when it falls onto a carpet. The barrel exploded with a thunderous______. slam. it makes a sound like a small bell • ringing or like thin glass breaking and falling to the 14. A bonfire__in one of the gardens. bang. it beats 17._____If you someone who is giving a performance or a •___________________speech. 3. tinkle. you say it goes______. 23. the silence broken only by the the clock on the mantelpiece. uneven floorboards____. hiss. rumble. 12. hum. They eyed each other. A menacing______of distant thunder. There was a__of brakes. 26. 16. Bursting into__of laughter. rustle. rattle. If you__you make a sound like a long's'. 18. for example at a football match. small bell makes. peal. • 27. He__his papers. bong. crackle. for example because you are very frightened or happy. 40 of strongly and rather • quickly. • 15. She went out__the door behind her. • it • makes high-pitched noises which you cannot control • because you are feeling a strong emotion. 5. as you do when you • have got a cold or when you are crying._________________________You sometimes get if you have been eating or • drinking too quickly. thud.________If you___________________________________ a baby you pat it on the back and cause it__________________ • after it has had a drink. 1. 15. plop. your voice_____. The bell_____once. roar. ground. Air conditioners are costly and tend to___.________________________If someone has a .__________If you . tick. If. loud sounds that • are made by hard things hitting each other. you shout ' ' or make other loud sounds to 35 . 14. deep sound such as the sound made • by a big bell. • • 16.. 11. • 20. 24. crash. squeal. A___is a long.• 6. The continual___of machine-gun fire. The___of dishes being washed. rat-a-tat. clatter. you draw in air through your nose hard • enough to make a sound. 4. 8. A door__open nearby. sizzle. boo. • • • From the following list of words for different sorts of sound choose the right one to complete the following sentences and phrases: • • squeak. 19. A__is a wooden instrument that you shake to make a • loud tattling sound. When you want to describe in a childish way the sound a • 7. Applause began to crash all round me. The boys used to__on the doors with sticks. 9. Rotten. The_____of the masculine voices in the smoky room. If something_______. 21. A__is a continuous series of short. ting-a-ling.___________________When your heart . they speak English with a • regional accent in which 'r' sounds are pronounced more noticeably than in the standard way of speaking. thump. • 13. especially when you have a cold or are trying not to cry.__________If you . 10. creak. 2. crack.. • • 18. you sniff repeatedly. A__is a dull sound. 22. when you are speaking or singing. 17. 25. ting. eagles. •I • wish however. crow. that I could hijackerplane to the Ignated States of Neon where I'd crashland perfectly in the deserted airport of your heart. flies. grunt purr. cocks. • Analyze the language of the following poem. and I thank you most kissingly. pigeons.. Turner • • 40 (Dimitrijevic. twitter. roar. lions. Poetry with Pleasure. cry. mew. monkeys. etc. • usually with your fist. neigh. ducks. cows. swans. Focus on the word-formation processes which have been activated to achieve this unique idiosyncratic effect of • the language used in the poem. p.) (1996). you hit them hard. • 30. birds twitter. wolves Define and illustrate the mechanism of meaning transfer. bees hum. it makes a hissing sound like the • sound made by frying food. like the sound made by • something light dropping into water without a splash. buzz. gobble. cats. coo. hum. howl. • This • you did. trumpet. gibber. too much money away from me. The verbs: howl. lambs. 28. you smiled me that you'd return all of a mystery moment and would airletter me • every few breakfasts in the meantime. (ed. • 29._A is a soft gentle sound.• • • indicate that you do not like them or their performance. hiss. doves. frogs. sheep. grunt. elephants. cats purr. e. What is the role of meaning transfer (or semantic shift) in word-formation? • • S. bleat. scream._____________If something . 42) 36 . N. mice. dogs. croak. • • • • Before leaving. turkeys. bow-wow. pigs. • Here are some onomatopoeic verbs which denote the cries of several animals. and stayed there for quite a few missed embraces. horses.g._____If you someone or something. squeak • • • ONE SUMMER The animals: apes. • • • One summer you aeroplaned away. geese. birds. goats. quack. Match these verbs with the names of the animals (which are also listed). snakes. moon. So pleased was Midas with the shining of the yellow metal. winter. was far better off than King Midas. room). water) and those of Common Germanic origin (summer..g. . • • Text(1) • • 'Did you ever hear of such a pitiable case in all your lives? Here was the richest breakfast that could be set before a king.) But this was only a passing thought. house. whose fine food was really worth its weight in gold. that he would still have refused to give up the Golden Touch for so small a matter as a breakfast. The poorest labourer. brother. Find the examples of native words in the following text..• • 4. storm. ground. ORIGIN OF ENGLISH WORDS • • • • • • • • • A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. rain. Just imagine what a price for one meal! It would have been the same as paying millions of money for some fried fish. (. an egg. mother. ice. wind.) How many days could he live on this rich food? (.. and its very richness made it good for nothing.. sitting down to his crust of bread and cup of water. The native words are subdivided into those of the Indo-European stock (e. son. sun. and very sadly too. that he again cried aloud. so great was his hunger.a potato. a hot cake. and the difficulty of his situation.' thought Midas. and a cup of coffee! 'It would be quite too dear. Our pretty Marygold could bear it . Still. based on the word classes of surrounding words in the sentence. A Wonder Book. a sheet. p. Russian. English. bitter or sweet. with a sweet and sorrowful wish to comfort him. 4) clause-level parsing. 3) homograph disambiguation. usually of canvas. Illustrate the difference between source of borrowing and origin of borrowing. threw her arms lovingly about his knees. 2) morphological analysis. which allow assigning features to nouns and transformations on syntactic structures'. c. 5 0 . 7) combining noun and verb groups. The analysis stage of the system has eight subprocesses: 1) word identification. 1987. and trying.. precious Marygoldi' cried he. liberty n. a reddish yellow. (Sergei Nirenburg. Cambridge University Press. 1967. • 1. of trampolin < Sp < It trampolino springboard < Gmc: see trample + ino) 2. The • What do we mean by source of borrowing in comparison to origin of borrowing (by which we mean the language to which the word may be ultimately traced)? Here are four dictionary entries taken from The Random House Dictionary of the English Language. attached by resilient cords or springs to a horizontal frame. He felt that his little daughter's love was worth a thousand times more than he had gained by the Golden Touch.5 1 ) • semantic disambiguation subprocess uses semantic dictionaries. She sat a moment looking at her father. 5) noun group analysis. He bent down and kissed her. French.' (Nathaniel Hawthorne. narang < Skt naranga) 39 . 'My precious. Longmans. and 8) semantic disambiguation. pp. to find out what was the matter with him. 6) verb group analysis. a freedom from despotic government or rule (ME liberie < MF < L liberias) 3. edible citrus fruit (ME < OF . The homograph disambiguation subprocess uses a weighted heuristic to estimate the likelihood of word class. with all the might of her little wits. ed. Then. she started from her chair. and running to Midas. orange n. • • Text (2) • • 50 'The machine translation project SUSY was derived from a Russian-German prototype system that had been developed in the 1970's. 36) What is the approximate proportion of native to foreign words in text (1) and text (2)? Compare these proportions and see if you can come up with any explanation of the difference between them? • What are loan words? • • • Pinpoint the native words and the words of foreign origin in the following text. It attempts to generalize that system by adding multilingual capabilities (German. The basic MT methodology of SUSY is transfer. Sp naranja < Ar naranj < Pers. but the main goal of SUSY is MT research rather than development of an operational system. But she made no answer.• • no longer. and Esperanto). trampoline n. Machine Translation. used as a springboard in tumbling (var. Explain the use of the word taboo in the following example.Sanskrit. 'a medley or miscellany' (in e.Arabic. chintz. but they're off the scale when it comes to priorities'. Gmc . salads. Guess which.Middle English. • Here are some words for clothes with Indian origin: bandanna. khakis. a diagram representing this belt (< L zodiak(us) < Gk zoidiakos) • • • • • Key: < descended from. Skt .Persian. But why would you? Former tycoon Dennis Kozlowski did. The Joy of Cooking. • •_________1. jodhpurs. The prices are not out of line. • Take the Oxford Dictionary of New Words and search it for more words coming from Japanese. • • Give your own examples to illustrate the use of taboo in English. Look this word up in your dictionary and see what examples are provided to illustrate its usage. • Many of the everyday English words such as bagel. 2002). The New York Times Book Review.4. IT . (Leonard Stern.Germanic. klutz. the age of air bags. He also spent $2200 on a wastebasket. • • • In the following text there is one word which comes from Persian. MF -Middle French.Latin.. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences using these words. How Safe is Safe Enough?. and kibitz are terms from Yiddish. cashmere. and designer Hubert Givenchy. such as hors d'oeuvres. from. whose client list includes ex-AOL Time Warner honcho Robert Pittman. Iman.especially in New York.' (Maria Puente: USA Today.Greek • In the following text two words have been taken over from Japanese. Michael Douglas. 50 'This is. • Taboo is a word borrowed from Tongan. Sp Spanish. an imaginary belt of heavens. • • A certain favoritism.g. Jun 23. Gk . Ar . The Vancouver Sun. Which are they? • • 'Believe it or not. instead of something fabulous to eat. Oct 8.Old French. 'a buffet featuring various dishes. a custom-baked potato' (Thomas McNamee. ME . 2001) • Smorgasbord is a word taken over from Swedish (smorgas meaning 'bread and butter' and bord meaning 'table'). even in the absence of baksheeshpocketing headwaiters.Italian. nearly $3000 on coat hangers and nearly $6000 on sheets. is a square of silk material with red or yellow 40 .. is indispensable to restaurants that expect to maintain a steady clientele . L . fish. dungarees. Look these words up in your dictionary and say what they mean. as a verb it means 'to avoid or prohibit something as taboo'. where every other big shot seems to demand the best table and. coroner inquiries and consumer product testing'. and 2. after all. you can buy a $6000 shower curtain for your home. divided into 12 • • constellations and signs of the zodiak. bicycle helmets. 2002). and drunk-driving taboos. zodiak n. Sep 27. derived from. pajamas. 'annual smorgasbord of music and cabaret').. OF . As an adjective it means 'forbidden or banned'. This word has two meanings: 1. Pers . of warning labels. David Bowie and his model wife. says Bilhuber. etc. shah. cloche. pince-nez. Anyway? The Economist (London.g. start. 3. e. atelier. are overalls of coarse cotton material. and 2. toque. 'distress'. from Italian agitare ('to agitate') • means: 1. and fellow have become fully assimilated) others retain their foreign character in spelling. metallurgy. kamikaze. wright. orgy? • • 50 • While many borrowed words which linguists call loan words become naturalized (i. pronunciation. kibbutz). agita (Americanism. Say whether they have been fully assimilated (in the sense that they are indistinguishable from native words) or only partly assimilated: not assimilated semantically. karate. •__________2. usually worn round the neck. 'heartburn'. 'Public accountability of ministers and senior civil servants has. angular characters' 41 . kebab. 'confussion'. espionage. • • • • assimilation • Here are three more words from the major source languages of English. 2. surgery. If something goes badly wrong. •____________4. 2. been relaxed. to put it mildly.e. nota bene. macaroni. boss. mezzo soprano. sari.she on Long Island. After growing up in the New York suburbs . street. Falco and Mr. 1999). • • Here are these three words in their respective contexts: 1. not assimilated grammatically. New York agita to the roles. Would you say that the following words share the same root: ergonomic. 2.• spots. bacilli. 'cat') + Jammer (distress) has the following meanings: 1.g. covers. husband. 'anxiety'. 6. chevapcici. The name for riding breeches is__________. Tucci bring a more earthy. ballet. cadenza. energy. buffet. betise (from French betise 'stupidity. not assimilated graphically. wall. matter. the minister in whose orbit the betise has occurred rarely makes a public apology. their morphological make-up and grammar (e. finish. • 3. Here is a list of words which have come into English from other languages. he in Westchester County . and 2. sheik. 'Ms. caftan. ultimately from Latin bestia 'beast') in English has two meanings: 1. nyet. face. Mar 20. The name for loose-fitting jacket and trousers for sleeping is __________________. meaning. there are examples of words which in several respects sport.___________A shawl is the one made of the fine soft wool • of Cashmere goats. Pants made of khaki are called • • • The word erg (n. phenomena. kitsch. troika. 'stupidity'. partly or completely assimilated. not completely assimilated phonetically. figure. 1.the two have made careers playing incomplete. sombrero. work. 7. 'hangover'. is kind of cotton cloth with printed show incomplete simultaneously: designs • used for curtains. karma. let alone resigns' (Europe: What's Wrong With Nepotism. katzenjammer (from German Katzen (plural of Katze. neglige. and 3. melange. furniture. nonsense'. 'foolish remark or action'. kibbutz. preecis. crises. wine. creche. expose. cheese. trampoline. cloche. puree. 5. purdah.) meaning 'the unit of work or energy in the centimeter-gram-second system' comes from Greek • ergon ('work') and it derives from the Indo-European root werg-. 'stupidity'. 'confussion'. puree. chevapcici. • ergon ('work') and it derives from the Indo-European root werg-. 2. left him with an 'uneasy feeling' . energy. metallurgy. 'anxiety'. 'Public accountability of ministers and senior civil servants has. wright. Would you say that the following words share the same root: ergonomic. pronunciation. finish.a kind of cosmic katzenjammer -about whether the concordance will survive new and more precise tests' (James Glanz. expose. troika. wall. • • Here are these three words in their respective contexts: 1. mezzo soprano. • Discuss these three words in terms of the degree of assimilation. pince-nez. buffet. wine. 3. But he also listed open questions that. street. Say whether they have been fully assimilated (in the sense that they are indistinguishable from native words) or only partly assimilated: not assimilated semantically. purdah. not completely assimilated phonetically. phenomena. 'Ms. macaroni.(John Leland. Layers Of Clothing Fall Away. creche. bacilli. trampoline. karma. and fellow have become fully assimilated) others retain their foreign character in spelling.g. kamikaze. cloche. nonsense'. 'hangover'. and 3. After growing up in the New York suburbs 42 . preecis. and 2. neglige. agita (Americanism. DC). cloche. 2. not assimilated from Latin bestia 'beast') in English has two meanings: 1. surgery.g. orgy? • • sport. espionage. partly or completely assimilated. husband. meaning. to put it mildly. If something goes badly wrong. 1999). been relaxed. face. there are examples of words which show incomplete assimilation in several respects simultaneously: 3. 'distress'. Cosmology: Does Science Know the Vital Statistics of the Cosmos? Science (Washington. caftan. their morphological make-up and grammar (e. 'heartburn'. betise (from French betise 'stupidity. the minister in whose orbit the betise has occurred rarely makes a public apology. nyet. ultimately • Here are two words in English which come from German. cheese. kibbutz. Anyway? The Economist (London. cadenza. 1998. grammatically. not assimilated graphically. start. New York agita to the roles. 'foolish remark or action'. kebab. Aug 4. boss. Mar 20. melange. 'cat') + Jammer (distress) has the following meanings: 1. Here is a list of words which have come into English from other languages. atelier. work. ballet. crises. and 2. sombrero. Nov 13. figure. from Italian agitare ('to agitate') • means: 1. Falco and Mr. karate. kibbutz). 2002). nota bene.e. shah. he said. Discuss these two words in terms of assimilation (kind of assimilation and degree of assimilation). Tucci bring a more earthy. • • • • While many borrowed words which linguists call loan words become naturalized (i. let alone resigns' (Europe: What's Wrong With Nepotism. matter. sheik. 2. Find out in what respects they have or have not been assimilated. kitsch. toque. • • 50 • • Here are three more words from the major source languages of English. sari. 1. e. 'Peebles compared the intense activity in cosmology over • the last few years to 'a really good party'. katzenjammer (from German Katzen (plural of Katze. The New York Times. coffee. from Spanish: embargo. prologue. linen. from Arabic: sultan. and 2. tundra. and other possessions that a bride collects for her marriage'. kiosk. nyet. he said. • • Loan words not assimilated in any respect and which exist alongside their English counterparts are called barbarisms. is 1. mosquito. n. bonanza. n. from Finnish: sauna. frankfurter.g.: war's game) n.a kind of cosmic katzenjammer -about whether the concordance will survive new and more precise tests' (James Glanz. origami.the two have made careers playing incomplete. from Turkish: yoghurt. karate. elite. fiasco. kulak. mea culpa. confetti. culpa. e. perestroika. lasagna. is 1. -acquaria. acquarium. cobra. addio (Italian) . etui. fez. slalom. or trousseaus. kasha.g. But he also listed open questions that. n. left him with an 'uneasy feeling' . ballerina. n. sg. faux pas. Comment on the degree of grammatical assimilation of the word having in mind its two • • International words are words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one source. from French: automobile. theory. 2002). developed for teaching military tactics to officers • • 50 • • ergo. igloo. pi. 43 . he in Westchester County . harem. theatre.g. acquariums. Here are some examples of barbarisms. e. lasso. Nov 13.g. vis a vis. interview. caraway seeds. pot-au-feu (French) .) came into English from French. pi. judo. Find their English counterparts. cocktail. ad libitum. mea maxima culpa • Discuss these three words in terms of the degree of assimilation. caftan. pi. au contraire. angular characters' (John Leland. played on a map or miniature battlefield. The New York Times. DC).plurals. Discuss these two words in terms of assimilation (kind of assimilation and degree of assimilation). etc. a colourless liqueur flavored with cumin. chauffeur. mammoth. 3. bonsai. waltz. delicatessen. (2) krieg spiel (from German Khegsspiel. from Dutch: yacht. The meaning of the word is: 'the clothes. spaghetti. etude. etc. pi. weekend. au jus. karaoke. sg. tsar. Cosmology: Does Science Know the Vital Statistics of the Cosmos? Science (Washington. from Greek: drama. from Norwegian: fiord. from Russian: bistro. anorak. tenor. paradox).)? . Caraway seed. ski. casino. algebra. hamburger. • • « Here are two words in English which come from German.she on Long Island. 1998. cipher. (1) kumel n. lit. cruise. from German: kitsch. from Eskimo: kayak. from Portuguese: marmalade. boutique. The word trousseau n. balalaika. autochthon.clear soup (English). from Italian: ghetto. mufti. cosmonaut.. n. blitz. guerilla.good-bye (English). kvass. siesta. • In English there are borrowings from many languages. bandit. sputnik. 'Peebles compared the intense activity in cosmology over • the last few years to 'a really good party'. au courant. (trousseaux. avant garde. super. soprano. kimono. Find out in what respects they have or have not been assimilated. harakiri. This word is considered to be rather old-fashioned. poodle. e. How about other examples of the words with double plurals (e. ships. from Japanese: tycoon. Find more examples of internationalisms. Aug 4. Layers Of Clothing Fall Away. macho. a game using small figures and counters that represent troops. How about crocodile tears? What is the history of crocodile tears? What is the history of the words: marshal. meaning 'strong enough to resist or withstand attack' as in an impregnable fortress comes from Middle English. • • What is etymology? • • Name two etymological dictionaries of the English language. dates from the 18th century. The Scottish version that was then accepted in the standard language in its meaning of 'attractive'. etymologically speaking: the words capital and cattle are cognates. its earlier meaning. sherbet. Look up the word broker in an etymological dictionary (The American Heritage Dictionary for example) and find out about its original usage and the history of its change in usage. they are etymologically different. and miser? Words which have developed different meanings despite deriving from the same word are known to etymologists as doublets. Here is an interesting etymology of the word glamour according to Professor Thomas Magner (personal communication). The English word glamour derives from the Scottish version of grammar. they are false cognates or false friends. especially in a narrow strip'. Thus. English cold is a cognate of German kalt. Would you say that cattle and chattel are cognates? False cognates. bazaar. as an egg' and is related to Late Latin impraegnatus 'made pregnant'. they have completely different origins. Here is the story. • • • 50 Etymology is an account of the history of a word. • • • False cognates or false friends work across languages as well: the English words eventually and actual are not in 44 . Look up the word chattel in an etymological dictionary and say if it is related to the word cattle. the word screed in its modern usage seems to be leaning toward a meaning of 'a tonguelashing'. however. screed is a doublet of shred. e. steward. Are any of the words that are listed used in your own language? Would you say that the words listed have become international words? paper or cloth'. The standard language also maintained the original grammar. The word screed entered standard English as a variant of the Old English word screade which was pronounced much like the modern English word shred and it had exactly that meaning. The words impregnable 1 and impregnable 2 have separate ancestries. derived from Latin caput. Look up the following words in an etymological dictionary and say if they are related: scission and scissors. are words that appear to be related but are not.g. from Middle French imprenable and it looks to be a cousin of impregnable (semantically related to impregnate). Find out the story behind the following doublet: drag and draw. this latter impregnable is an adjective which means 'susceptible of impregnation. Despite its etymology. As grammar was associated with learned people the ordinary folk regarded it with awe. also known as false friends.pseudonym. 'exotic'. from Persian: caravan. Take the following example: the word impregnable. the 'long strip' meaning survives in the construction industry where a screed is a long piece of wood used for smoothing plaster. this current usage strays far from the word's original meaning defined in modern dictionaries as 'a long piece of writing'. 'a long list'. its even earlier meaning was 'a long strip of • Cognates are words which are 'related by birth' or 'of the same parentage'. 'a piece cut or torn off. one more example: a man raising capital and the one raising cattle are not doing something very different. vikend or klub in Serbian.emisija (e. English words apron and orange were also made by false splitting.eventualno (Serbian) • emission (English) . poluklinika. eradicate .any way related to the Serbian words eventualno and aktuelan. insensitive . and stanza come from: Spanish. tasten. 45 . The following words: embarazada. Give some more examples of anglicisms across the languages that are familiar to you. • • Here are three pairs of words: 1. • Words or meanings are changed to match an incorrect origin for different reasons.g.senzibilan (Serbian) eventually (English) . they are in no way related to aktuell or eventuelt in Norwegian either.English and Serbian in particular. e. femirati se.publika (Serbian) • 50 Folk etymology is change in the form of a word or phrase based on a mistaken assumption about its composition or meaning. cutlet from French cotelette (double diminutive for 'rib'.uproot. Find out if the words that make a pair mean the same. In case of kinezi-terapija (wrongly interpreted as: 'therapy practiced by the Chinese') and moralno (wrongly interpreted as: 'something that must be done. milk. Think of your own examples. 2. and spices. buldozder. in televizijska emisiija) • (Serbian) • diet (English) . served over toast' is also Welsh rarebit derived by folk etymology. A. S. kvarijes. The most amusing are mishearings such as the one which made cockroach of Spanish cucaracha and Bob Ruly (the name of the town in Lousiana.g. svirena.) of French bois brule. U.unfeeling. Here are some examples of false friends working across different languages . German. and Italian respectively. so 'little rib'). The phrase an umble pie itself was made by false splitting from a numble pie (numbles are edible animal entrails). jocular reasons or perhaps the attempt to make the name of the dish less insulting to the Welsh)? Here are some Sebian words and expressions derived through folk etymology: kompaktibilan. With which English words do you think they can be associated? Try to figure out their meaning. Find out the story behind the word cellar in salt cellar. meaning 'a dish consisting of melted cheese. • • sensible (English) . Look the words up in their respective dictionaries. incurable . ekspreso. • • • Anglicism is a word. sentimentacija. as in shamefaced for shamfast ('bound by shame'). ekspres kafa. Can you see which criteria for the division we have in mind? Give your own examples if possible. associated with morati) we are dealing with the type of folk etymology derivation which is different from the one illustrated by the examples such as: svirena and kvarijes. Find the words and phrases they are related to.unbeatable. • Humble pie meaning 'humiliation in the form of apology' as often used in the phrase to eat humble pie derives from the phrase an umble pie changed by folk etymology by resemblance to the word humble. Which reasons do you think are behind this change (e. The name for Welsh rabbit.dijeta (Serbian) public (English) . Find out in what way. idiom. weekend or star in French. 3. usually mixed with ale or beer.g. woodchuck (' a marmot') for the American Indian word wuchak (the name for a marmot found in America). or characteristic feature of the English language occurring in or borrowed by another language. vokmen. triler).g. Analyze the following words in terms of degrees of morphological adaptation: foto-sesn. lizing. • • What are pseudoangliscisms? Provide illustrations. Has the meaning of the English word been widened? Some English words have been taken over but they have been assigned meanings which they do not have in English (e. or better known.g. rok. Analyze the word sponzor in terms of semantic adaptation. supermarket. atacment. intervju. menadzment. and (2) revolvirajuci akreditiv. diler. Analyze the following words from the point of view of semantic adaptation: ploter. foto-sesn. erkondisn. Analyze the following anglicisms in the Serbian language: lizing. It is a result of literal translation from another language (e. • • Caique is a name for a translation loan. lider). second degree adaptation involves phonological adaptation of the affix (e. roughly: good + spell. • • • • Compare revolving credit in business English and its equivalents in the Serbian language: (1) revolving akreditiv. nokautirati. triler. 2. bajpas. remiks. komercijalna banka). Add your own examples to the list. klub. desk. marketing. spot. dajdzest. dolar). dijeta. laser. barmen. sejker. frontmen. • • Disketa. more powerful. pejsmejker.g. or an athletics meeting. sajt. marketing. bestseler. an important person or organization that supports the actions and beliefs of another person or organization in order to make them more popular. monitor. • • 50 There are three levels of semantic adaptation: zero level of adaptation means that the imported word keeps its original meaning (e. fri lens.g. Here are some examples of anglicisms in the Serbian language. minic. rasista. lider. dzingl. third degree adaptation means full integration into the morphological system of the Serbian language (e. pop. Can you think of some more examples of English words which have a different meaning in Serbian due to wrong interpretation? Analyze the word dragstor in Serbian. bar. diskmen. 3. marker. • Three degrees of morphological adaptation can be • distinguished in Serbian: zero degree of adaptation (e. konvertibilan. which is a direct translation of the 46 . hamburger. brifing. frontmen. the meaning of the English word can be narrowed or widened (e. vestern.. menadzer. a theatrical production.g. plejbek. stilista. Here are the meanings of the word sponsor (n. establisment. stilista. a person who agrees to give a certain sum of money to someone who does something special for charity. rimejk.. What are the meanings of the word sponzor (n.• compare: tandem in English and Serbian and bar in English and Serbian).g. morphological and semantic. skrinsejver.) according to the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary: 1. surfovanje Internetom. diet set. haker. bilbord. testirati.g.) in Serbian? Note the following meaning in the Serbian word: 'a man who patronizes a young woman in return for sexual favours' (the word for such a young woman is sponzorusa). printer. cips and insert in Serbian). stajling. a person or organization that pays some or all of the expenses connected with something such as an event. • • • • • Anglicisms can be analysed on three levels: phonological. kambek. Comment on the degree of morphological adaptation. kaseta. the word gospel comes from an Old English compound. Here are two German caiques: Fernsprecher for English telephone and Fernsehen for television.elements of the Latin ev-angel: 'good message'). • • The English concrete poetry is a literal translation from either the Portuguese poesia concreta or the German konkrete Dichtung. translation loan. Here is an example of concrete poetry for your enjoyment.e. Find some examples of Serbian words and expressions which are literal translations of an English word or phrase (e. panel diskusija in Serbian is an 50 example of caique i. 47 . The English expression: marriage of convenience is a literal translation from French: mariage de convenance. Find more examples of English caiques of foreign words and expressions. It means: 'poetry that uses the physical arrangement of words or letters on a page for visual effect to add to the meaning of the poem'.g. compare: panel discussion in English). The derivationally primitive word is the base and the derived form the paronym. Poetry with Pleasure (N.. honeymoon n. 27) 48 5. LEXICAL SEMANTICS . the relationship between: white and whiten. simple. Dimitrijevic. make. those with a zero affix (e. . • Paronymous relations apply also to zero-derived paronyms. McGough. mature. i. ed. organize.e. -mop v. What are the paronyms which correspond to the following words: do. write and writer). entail. conclude. mop n.g. train.g.• • • What is the name for the branch of morphology that studies meaning? • Which elements of structure is lexical semantics • concerned with? Do smaller elements of structure such as prefixes and suffixes lend themselves to the study of meaning? • The relationship between one word and another belonging to a different part of speech and produced from the first by some process of derivation is called paronymy (e.). It is assumed that the derived form is semantically more complex.honeymoon v. Provide your own examples of zero-derived paronyms.. woman. complex. p. R. • 49 What are the key-points of the referential theory of meaning? What is the referential approach to meaning? What does referential meaning refer to? . etc. attractive: a handsome house.a tall driver with a 66 handsome face. It is a handsome place with green lawns and tall trees. considerable. .a rather handsome rug.. 1. • • • 3. A handsome situation.. age. obvious or commonsense meaning of a sign. New York) 2. 4. Analyze these definitions in terms of denotative and connotative meaning. and imposing appearance suggestive of health and strength. He was a tall. emotional. 3.. Most semanticists argue that no sign is purely denotative so that no strict 50 . {Random House Dictionary of the English Language.g.g. having pleasing proportions. action. These associations: cultural. a handsome woman. in practice this distinction cannot be made in an easy. ample. e.. 2. garden. Collins. handsome 1. 4. etc. neat.. .. 2. gracious. Random House...g. adj. In the case of words the denotative meaning is what dictionaries aim to provide. {The Random House Dictionary of the English Language. literal. etc. a nebulous concept. event. of or resembling a nebula or nebulae. 5. The term connotation is used to refer to the socio-cultural and personal associations of the sign. especially with features that are large and regular rather than small and delicate and that are considered to show strength of character.... generous: a handsome compliment. either because you do not have enough information about it or because it is not properly organized. or arrangements. are typically related to the speaker's social position. having an attractive.handsome big apartment buildings. 3. The rate of return on these farmers' outlay was a handsome 57 per cent. well-proportioned. as of shapes. London and Glasgow)... nebulous. and so on. 5.. / still had a nebulous notion of an afterlife. e. London and Glasgow) • • • While theorists find it useful to distinguish connotation from denotation. 4. 1. cognitive or conceptual meaning can be alternatively used for referential meaning? • There is the difference between meaning and concept and meaning and the thing denoted. He had a handsome dinner given in his honour. 2. good-looking: a handsome man. hazy. dexterous...g... Collins.. nebulous An idea that is nebulous is vague and difficult to • • talk about. cloudy or cloudlike. e. that is handsome is large and well made with an attractive appearance. A building. • Denotation tends to be described as the definitional.. sex. e. dark. is pleasing to you because of particular good qualities that it has. colors. or confused. nebular. A man who is handsome has an • attractive face with regular features. handsome. forms. graceful: a handsome speech. indistinct. adj... Find examples to support this statement.. A woman who is handsome has an attractive..g...• • Would you say that denotative. 3. New York) • 1. • and undeniably handsome man..a strikingly handsome woman. or liberal in amount: a handsome fortune.. {Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. Random House. Here are two words and their definitions taken from two different dictionaries.. vague. A handsome sum of money is a large or generous amount that is often more than you expected. smart appearance. e. etc. relationships.. and unquestionable way. ideological.. Compare the definitions on these grounds.. {Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. 3. Instead. Changes of style or intonation may suggest different connotations. How does it compare to definitions 3. instead. But note the use of woman in the following situation: There's a woman at the door! It has a negative connotation and. Connotations can develop into new denotations. • • Tropes such as metaphor generate connotations. woman.can you tell why? Find some other examples which show that connotations are socially variable. Where is the line separating a bird and a nonbird? Is turkey a bird? Is bat a bird? What is an animal? Are fish animals? Peaches are said to belong to the category of fruit but plant biologists say they are roses. Compare definitions 2. however. 2.1. Who is right? What is the difference between nouns and verbs? What about hybrids like gerunds and participles? • • Categorial properties are not simply present or absent. • • Members of a category must contain all the properties defining the category. Generally speaking. it would be more appropriate to say that a member of a category may have varying degrees of a given property (e. non-PC English speakers . and more semantically open in their connotations than in their denotations. evening star. Say hello in three different ways using three different intonation patterns and state which connotations are implied in each case. 2. However. or pronouncing the same word using different intonation patterns. Provide more examples to illustrate this graded membership situation.2 and 3.2. the proper way of saying this would be: There's a lady at the door!. what is a penguin?.3? • • • • • • • Collocative meaning is what is communicated through association with words which tend to co-occur with another word in a syntagmatic chain.division between denotation and connotation can be made (See 2. definition 1. • • Some linguists provide examples to prove that semantics is conceptual and not perceptual (cf. such as when using different typefaces for exactly the same text. On the other hand. had more negative denotations and more negative connotations in the past than it does now. See 3. what is a bat?. 2. feminists would feel very much against the use of lady in this situation by ordinary. what is a goose?. what is a platypus?). Having this in mind interpret the following statement: denotation can be regarded as a digital code and connotation as an analogue code. Illustrate. Connotation is not only a paradigmatic 'associative' dimension -syntagmatic associations are also a key factor in generating connotations. 51 . and 2. • © Both connotations and denotations are socially and culturally variable and they change over time.5 in the previous exercise and analyze them in terms of their collocative meaning. for example.g. They are also said to be more stable in their denotative meaning and more variable in what they connote. • • 66 Words are more 'polysemic'.4.morning star). What about penguins and ostriches? They do not fly so are they still birds? What about a sparrow that has lost both wings? Is it still a bird? • • The concepts can be said to be clear but the borders demarcating these concepts are not crisp-clear but fuzzy. Comment on this. it is normal to say: There's a man at the door! and not There's a gentleman at the door!. definition 2 in the previous exercise). a sparrow is a prototypical bird. • Changing the form of the signifier and keeping its denotation intact can generate different connotations. 1. set (3) cast. (3) webzine. (2) securities. 4 U. insincere. distrain. What does the pronunciation s'priisieit tell you about the status of the speaker? 4. parol . connotative. Word geography is concerned with the regional distribution of words for various notions (e. neddy. nag. by scaling our remarks according to politeness (e. Gee. hypertext. What is their local regional distribution? language. Here are seven sets of words identical in their conceptual meaning and different in their social meaning. 2. tiny. Net Speak). or in less direct ways.g. Aha. educated. chuck. Say whether the following idioms belong to British English or American English: small beer. ass. variation according to singularity (the style of Shakespeare. of T. abode. This kind of meaning is called affective meaning. Sit down!. very formal. off the boil.g. morpheme. general. nigger. Classify the words according to the criterion of status. ring someone's bell. (7) bracelets. This happens in cases of multiple conceptual meaning of words. pronkus.g. Consider the following sets of words from the point of view of their social meaning and classify them according to the criterion of province: (1) linguistics. State their meanings in general everyday English (e. have another bite at the cherry. Take each and every word and say if it is: poetic. injunction. S. Give some examples to illustrate affective meaning. minor. his attitude to the listener. home. nirrup. depone 'to declare under oath'). please!. formal. Will you be so kind as to sit downl). quota. vulgar. cowstable in north-east Nottinghamshire and east Lincolnshire. Some people's reaction to a compound 52 . the language of cartoons. contemporary English). south Herefordshire. slang. 5. handcuffs. innuendo. 6. mailbombing. fussock. pragmatics.g. variation according to province (legal English. wee. set (5) blow smoke up someone's ass. elements of language. colloquial. Reflected meaning refers to the situation when one sense of a word is part of the speaker's response to another sense. sarcastic. The attitude can be expressed overtly by the choice of words (e. whose main function is to express emotion. There are. offensive. colloquial. Eliot). Set (1) steed. dicky. locution. business English. lexis. It largely relies upon other types of meaning: denotative. You idiotl). slang). slang.g.• • • Social meaning has to do with social circumstances communicated by means of a word or some other piece of language.'spoken statement'. cow-house and cow-shed are widespread mostly in the Midlands and south while various local expressions also occur. chiefly interjections. debit. Here are some words for 'donkey': cuddy. allophone. shareholder. Sit down. Yippee. set (4) diminutive. beast-house in Monmouthshire. variation according to modality (classroom English. a speaker can be: polite. set (2) domicile. variation according to time (the language of the 16th century. invoice. voir dire. offensive. ironic. slip through the net. LAD (Language Acquisition Device). or his attitude to what he is talking about (e. rude. horse. variation according to status (formal English.g.). literary. The following dimensions of socio-stylistic variation can be recognized: variation according to dialect (geographical or social). moke. the language of jokes). baby66 • • Language reflects the personal feelings of the speaker. Here are some law words: en banc. e.g. residence. or stylistic. FAQ (frequently asked question). gee-gee. throw. etc. e. set (6) Negro. phoneme. however. like Hurrah. blow smoke in someone's face. The word appreciate can be pronounced a'priijieit and a'priisieit. • • 3. payee. it also refers to the order and arrangement of the morphemes in a word. extra-long. hopeful . fruit market -market fruit. child problem problem child. I do not know this. e.e r i n : doer. mad. garden rock -rock garden. cheese-slicer. . to show that the order and arrangement of words or morphemes in a sequence is significant in the sense that it brings out the difference in meaning (referred to as distributional meaning). egg-beater. extracurricular. red herring. sugar beet. and why it is difficult to use erect and intercourse in their usual innocent senses? • • Functional approach to meaning maintains that the meaning of a linguistic unit should be studied only through its relation (syntagmatic and paradigmatic) to other linguistic units and not through its relation to either concept or referent. dislocate -*locatedis. red carpet. erect. Compare the meanings of extra. Find pairs of words. 4. How about words such as: cock. They made him learn the commandments by heart. and intercourse? Having in mind what you know about reflected meaning explain why it is that the farmyard sense of the word cock has been replaced by rooster. family problem . kiss. The meaning associated with this kind of situation is referred to as thematic meaning. worker. red-handed. . windowwasher. sugar cane. Compare the meanings of sugar in: to sugar your drink. John has a kite-shop.This I do not know. Dear can mean: (1) 'expensive'. maker. . sugarcoated. Thematic meaning is a matter of choice between alternative grammatical constructions.g. What I hate most is insincerity. stress. such as: ring finger . extramarital.*fulhope. and intonation. • Two key concepts of the functional approach to meaning are context and distribution.finger ring. • • • The semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes is 53 . The meaning that is more frequent or more familiar has dominant suggestive power. red wine.g.Insincerity is what I hate • most. but also (2) 'beloved' so that one can use the meaning of 'expensive' and allude to the meaning of 'beloved'.The kite-shop belongs to John. their thematic meaning is different: • 1. sugar daddy. extraterrestrial. also the meaning of red in: red hair. compound in the sense: (1) an area of land surrounded by walls or fences as in military compound. Give more examples of the unacceptable words due to the violation of order rules. blue sky .sky blue. and the meanings o f . take. (2) compound interest meaning interest that is calculated not only on the original amount of money that has been invested but also on the interest that is earned. focus and emphasis. Messages can be organized so that they differ in terms of ordering. as red as a beetroot. extrasensory. 2. etc.problem family. The following sentences can be said to have the same cognitive meaning -however. • • • 66 Provide your own examples to illustrate thematic meaning. 3. .in: extra-large.when used by a linguist may be conditioned by the everyday meanings of compound. e. Use the following words in different contexts and show how their meaning changes depending on the surrounding words: put. to sugar the pill. Violation of distribution rules of the morphemes within a word can produce ungrammatical forms. words.He was made to learn the commandments by heart. Context is the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word. to be in the red. State different meanings of the words and morphemes in their respective contexts. sandwich-maker. Distribution refers to the position of a word in relation to another word. red meat. Red Cross. or (3) two chemical elements forming a compound. I tried a thousand times.e. proper or improper'. elephants.something happening very suddenly as in: he fell for her like a ton of bricks. sneezing. it seems. gone. but people make them to sound impressive or to emphasize something. These statements are not literally true. Buckminster Fuller. to me. Here are some more examples: What is part-of-speech meaning? Having in mind the definition of part-of-speech meaning (i. a tempest in a teapot. • Litotes is a deliberate understatement which is generated by denying the opposite or contrary of the word which otherwise would be used (e. the word forms: elephant.e. 66 (i. • Find examples of hyperbole in everyday language. I was climbing the wall when the idea suddenly hit me. 4. • • 'Twas brillig. man. children. • Find examples of hyperbole in poetry. 2. • • • • Assign word-class meaning to the words in the following poem. The difference is that a hyperbole is an exaggeration. sneezes. the case meaning in nouns (child's. • (Lewis Carroll. All mimsy were the borogoves. e. and architect. fox). The left hand does not know what the right one is doing. Re-word the phrases in the examples given using ordinary words and not hyperbole. Give two paradigms illustrating the grammatical meaning of number. 1871) • Identify metaphor in the following sentences: 1. engineer. • • • • • • Hyperbole is a figure of speech which is an exaggeration.g. I almost jumped out of my skin. goes. woman's. going. designer. parents'. soldiers'). like a ton of bricks. People use expressions such as: / nearly died laughing. And the mome raths outgrabe'. child's. from Through the Looking-Glass. E.g. the meaning a word has by virtue of its form class). 3. • • • Grammatical meaning is the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words. 1895-1983).g. that made my toes curl. I'm all tied up. (R. not a bad singer meaning a good singer. rat.barges can be 700 feet long. children's. Give a set of word forms with the grammatical meaning of tense. and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe. elephants' have one and the same core meaning component denoting: 'a giant. four-legged animal with a trunk'. not many meaning a few. 5. State the lexical meaning recurrent in each of the following sets: go. He is an absolute pig (snake. child. men. To see this kind of meaning find six examples of minimal pairs and state the distinguishing meaning component in question. man's.g. split one's sides with laughter. sneezed. not a noun. e. It is often confused with a simile or a metaphor. e.g. Her husband is his right hand. part-of-speech) • 54 . a storm in a teacup. men's. • • о • Lexical meaning is the component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit. went. I was hopping mad. is a verb. like a ton of bricks . not unhappy meaning happy). his feet were as big as a barge looks like a simile but it is actually an exaggeration . comment on the following: • 'God. elephant's.referred to as differential meaning. sneeze. which is no small achievement. though deviating from beauty. • Litotes can be used to make a modest assertion. today it means 'irritable. A few hundred years ago a gale was a gentle breeze. • Litotes can be a means of expressing modesty (downplaying one's accomplishments) in order to gain the audience's favour as in the examples: • • New words are formed. After he has learnt the truth he will not long remain ignorant of his feelings toward her. Although a mish-mash the dish was not at all disagreeable to the palate. and some dictionaries (like Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary) quote just this latter meaning. or energy'. Today the word decimate has evolved to mean 'large-scale damage. The word officious (from Latin officiosus 'dutiful') used to mean 'ready to serve. 2. or it can become an intensifying expression. Running a marathon in under two hours is no small accomplishment. Avalanches are not rare in the Swiss Alps in winter. Having this in mind explain the difference between these statements: 1.1. obliging'. • • • Depending on the context and intonation litotes can either have the effect of understatement. • • • Find the examples of litotes in the following text: • • A figure lean or corpulent. it meant foolish or stupid. Comment on the meaning of the words: 55 . 3. Hitting that pole obviously did not do your head any good. The word feisty (from ME and OE fisting 'breaking wind') used to mean 'spirited. tall or short. The word decimate. and existing words change. 2. 2. • 66 • Illustrate further this use of litotes. full of courage. She has a doctorate and three children. from Latin decimatus (past participle) and decimus (meaning 'tenth') used to mean 'to kill one out of every ten soldiers' and decimation was a method of punishing mutinous legions in the ancient Roman army. which may contribute to make them on the whole not unpleasing. • 1. may still have a certain union of the various parts. or ill-tempered'.g. using • not improperly rather than correctly or best in the following example: This genre can be termed not improperly the melodrama of romance. Here are two more words that have changed their meaning in time. old ones wither. and nice was not a compliment. Find an example of your own. today the word officious means 'excessive eagerness in offering unwanted or unneeded help or advice'. Avalanches are common in the Swiss Alps in winter. or to destroy a large number of a group'. e. • • г 78 56 . The Wall Street Journal (New York). South Africa). from Old English Pharaon. • • 5. 1998 • • 4 'Roxeline. from Latin. They can change their meaning through elevation as in marshal or degeneration as in knave. May 23. More important is the fact that Ethiopia.fiddle. violin . Australia). June 13 2002 • 6.• decimate.is not the real issue. e. new.remote but fertile and said to contain gold . Provide examples of cognitive synonyms (which are incapable of yielding sentences with different truth conditions). and also through hyperbole as in kill. DNA analysis may help resolve whether a strain of typhus borne by lice helped decimate the troops.. Look up these words in an etymological dictionary and see for yourself how the meaning has changed through time. Word meanings change through metaphor or metonymy (as in crane and scepter respectively). e. hyponymy. e. but that meaning has been created through metaphoric extension. Sep 14. Baltic Soil Yields Evidence of a Bitter End to Napoleon's Army. was a feisty character in a comic play that Haydn wrote some music for. Find out what is the story behind the word mandarin in English. I'm Wolfgang and I'll be your composer. 2002 • • There are different lexical sense relations. similar in their denotative meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts. A synonym is a word or expression which means the same as another word or expression.) has the following meaning in Modern English: 'a title of an ancient Egyptian king'. ancient and proud.' Greg Sandow. It can also mean: 'a tyrant'. 'Winter grain crops across the state have been decimated by the conditions. synonymy. working for the good and safety of the community.g. The Economist (London).' Cecile Greyling. a nearly complete military hat . 'The bough of cherries some officious fool Broke in the orchard for her. First the designation was for the 'palace' but later the word was used to refer to the 'king' (in the same way the White house and a US President can have the same referential meaning in modern English but mind the fact that in this case the change of meaning through metonymic transfer has synchronic relevance). big. How would you qualify the type of change that has occurred? • Historically. officious. with little relief expected and hopes now pinned on summer crops.' Michael Wines. Aug 27.. • Here is an example of a word that has changed its meaning through metonymy: Pharaoh (from Middle English Pharao. words can change their meaning through litotes as in astound. Sep 7. etc. rather than the rude and officious revenue officers they have become. from Egyptian pr-'o 'great house'. has its main access to the outside world controlled by small.in one case. for instance: He plays the fiddle entails He plays the violin. 'Workers are collecting the few scraps of uniforms . 2002 2. The word Pharaoh (n. The Daily Telegraph (Sydney. and feisty as they are used in the following sentences. My Last Duchess. compatibility. East Cape News (Grahamstown. 2002 3. Teacher Launches Petition Against Traffic Department Repression. Never Rains But it Sprinkles. royal -regal. from Hebrew par'oh. Synonymy means sameness of meaning.' Robert Browning. the white mule. The use of a member of a synonymous pair can be contextually restricted so that it is context-dependent. from Greek. A more technical definition of synonyms is that synonyms are words different in their pronunciation.g. it turns out. HI. 1842 78 • There are no real synonyms and there is always some difference of meaning between the words and expressions which are said to be synonymous. 'If (the petition) demands that the traffic officials of Grahamstown return to being polite public servants.' Africa: The New Princes Fall Out. 1. incompatibility.to be analyzed for parasites. feisty Eritrea. His Royal Highness but not 57 .' Mark Scala.g. The New York Times. 'The disputed territory . cradle-snatching Br. leave of absence . leave of absence and time off differ stylistically . surety contract. Find their equivalents in colloquial English.) • 78 58 . • • • • • • • Some words and expressions are used in different registers (language variants that are subject-dependant). etc.ability. • • • • • • Some words and expressions are used in different styles and registers.one is formal the other is not.inexpensive. reconsider -review. -candy store Am. otici Води па istinu. like a kid in a sweet shop Br..g. mercy killing • • • Some sets of synonyms belong to different dialects. E. Re-phrase them using neutral.g. Find more examples of dialectal synonyms. American English. outstanding capital expenditures.. defraud. also: blow smoke up someone's ass is a very informal. E. Here are some words which are used in business English: pass the entries. E. recreate . Here are some examples of dialectal synonyms: sweet shop Br.leisure. . dense . Give some more examples of euphemisms in the English language. henceforth. It is a figure of speech in which an unpleasant or coarse phrase is replaced by a softer or less offensive expression.*His Kingly Highness or *His Regal Highness.. E. dense . to British English. recreation . E. even offensive expression for the neutral hypocritical or insincere.stupid. Find out what these words and phrases mean. impeachment. like a kid in a candy store Am. E. cheap .bright-eyed and bushy-tailed. e. skratiti za glavu. E. • Colloq uial death • Give six examples of euphemisms in the Serbian language (e. they are denotationally similar but they are favoured by a particular language variant to suit best the relations among speakers. equivocal. to sustain injury / loss / damage. Here are some words and expressions that come from legal English: de novo. etc.. -robbing the cradle Am.slip through the cracks or fall through the cracks Am. Fill in the gaps in the table below with the words which belong to a particular language style.g. . Formal • • • • fatality • • • iniquito us • posteri or • veterin ary surgeon • • • • piles • • • pee • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • omnisci ent • • • stupid knowall Inform al comfy dense Offen sive Nigger politic o • • • • • • Words which have stylistically negative connotation are substituted by their circumlocutionary synonyms which • are also called euphemisms. E. common-core English words. A euphemism can have a metaphorical sense as in the substitution of the phrase push up the daisies for die (cf. E. disclame.fall Am.thick. lively .time off. aggravate. slip through the net Br. defame. parent company. Use the following pairs of hypothetical synonyms in different contexts and see if they are interchangeable or not: capacity .restore. relieve oneself instead of urinate or to put to sleep instead of kill). de jure. zaobici istinu. A euphemism is a way of referring to something unpleasant so as to make it appear less unpleasant (e. Leave some cells empty if necessary. E. E. subject matter and expressiveness. mirisati travu sa donje strane in the Serbian language)..g. autumn Br. normal gratitude 7. 9. C. depressed. sufferer from fictitious disorder syndrome 2. old-age pension. stupid. Ministry of Defence. E. reutilization marketing yard • • 78 A. G. fisheye soup for tapioca pudding. low IQ. junkyard. • A Dysphemism is a statement which is intended to sound much worse than reality. This is not a non-risk policy. substantive negative outcome 10. • Dysphemism (the opposite of a euphemism) is the substitution of a harsher. When the mob laid hands on the fugitive they did not stand on ceremony. plastic. 2. open exchange of views. 3. die. someone whose parents have never been married to each other 59 . H. G. Both banks are for sale to strategic investors. companion animal. offensive. D. he is still among the living. The Prime Minister was economical with the truth. Could you please regularize your bank account? We had a frank. grey whiskers and all. B. to be gathered to one's fathers. to go on strike. to join the great majority. C. See if you can do the following quiz. temporarily displaced inventory • Match the following euphemisms with the words and phrases they refer to.g. Instead of pushing up daisies. bitch for woman. depricating. bribe. pet. bag of ice cubes. Already half the economy is linked to underperforming. negative gain in test scores 5. pass away. H. I. talk. death. to come to an untimely end. so-and-so. • Consider the following sentences. I. withdrawing our services. • • • Give two examples of euphemisms in English belonging to political jargon. loony bin for mental hospital). 8. stolen goods. D. synthetic glass 6. under the weather. pushing up the daisies. sex maniac. A. manly man. disabled. Political campaigns make great • Euphemisms. 6. Give some examples of death euphemisms in the Serbian language. 5. lower income brackets. brat for child. • Here are some English expressions about death: pass away. dead. an old cripple. With all due respect. have a dialogue. 26 May 1996). J. 1. 10. B. Ministry of War. Find more examples of dysphemisms in English. objectionable person. F. J. failed. 7. lower test scores • • Answers: 1. • The rebel fighters were neutralized. ugly or otherwise unpleasant locution for one relatively neutral or more attractive in sound or meaning (e. they hanged him from the nearest lamp-post. poor.• • Take any text (chosen at random) from a British newspaper and search it for euphemisms. F. The company is in a non-profit situation. • • • 4. What do the following euphemisms refer to? Rephrase the sentences. loss-making state companies. taking industrial action. disadvantaged senior citizen. Match the euphemisms from 1 to 10 with the plain English versions from A to J (taken from: "It is Fundamentally True That the Terms Below Are in English". go the way of all flesh. The New York Times. Dysphemism is an antonym of euphemism. vegetarian leather 8. liar. love child • American English is awash in euphemisms and doublespeak. to breathe one's last. E. sub-optimal 3. retirement pension. 4. vinyl. • Words and phrases they refer to. In the Yugoslav federation "tiny Montenegro figures as a statistical afterthought with a share of no more than 2 to 6 per cent in anything". thermal therapy kit • 9. I think your figures are misleading. The problem is that most enterprises are over-manned and undercapitalised after a lost decade of war and sanctions. • A pejorative word or expression is one which is derogatory and shows disapproval (e. etc. junk food. usually mixed with ale or beer. 4. • A Dysphemism and a euphemism are often two sides of the same coin (e. grammar Nazis. pencil pusher. that ethnic slurs occur in every language and in English they are used in speech rather than in writing. Find parallel examples in the Serbian language. To_______means to 'divide (a country. Give some examples. • 2. Find some examples of dysphemisms belonging to political jargon. • 5. as a speech. raise hell.g. entertainment.g. They reflect a certain malice and they denigrate some nations due to traditional hostilities between the English and the French or e. etc. verb or an adjective related to a nation: • 1. Go_____with somebody means to share expenses. the villain of the place • What is a pejorative word or expression? • What does derogatory mean? • Name two suffixes which often have derogatory force. quarrelsome. Dick and Harry.g. The name of a dish consisting of melted cheese. blow smoke up someone's ass. e. mannish).to other people's funerals. etc. and spices. • 9. Identify words and expressions which are derogatory. • • 78 French leave ('to leave without permission'). is referred to as_______. Chinese wall ('a strong barrier. the Dutch or the Irish. every Tom. Roman holiday ('an entertainment event where pleasure is derived from watching gore and barbarism'). kick ass. ineffectual states'. 6. • 8. grind your teeth. 'Always go • Fill in the gaps by using a noun. • • 'If you go to pro-Yugoslav rallies they're all toothless illiterates.g. Irish bull ('a ludicrously incongruous statement'. however. Anything very complicated or perplexing is called_________ • puzzle.g. 3. a rule prohibiting exchange of confidential information between different departments of an organization. cradle-snatcher. • Consider the following sentences and portions of text. • • 60 . Go to pro-independence rallies and you find young people with children on their shoulders'. served over toast is_______rabbit. • • • Here are some cliche phrases employing various nationalities. handwriting. and even offensive. otherwise they won't come to yours'. Sale at which the price of something is set far beyond its real value and then reduced by the auctioneer until a buyer is found is_______auction. territory. Dutch courage ('that obtained by drinking spirits') use of dysphemisms. milk. a guerrilla in neutral language can be called freedom fighter by some and a terrorist by others).___________Take a leave is to do something or to go away • without giving a notice. • language police. at which each • person pays for himself. to prevent its use in illegal gain'). typically a financial one. evil empire. like.) into •________________small._ _treat is a meal. One should bear in mind. hell-raiser.____________________Anything unintelligible. e. The noun related to this verb is________. It's all______to me. kinglet. Find neutral words or expressions for the following dysphemisms: ruthlessly exploited. To talk to somebody like a_______uncle means to lecture • him severely. 7. 'If I could drop dead right now I would be the happiest man alive!' is an example of an___________bull. • 10. • • • Goth. • Here are two more ethnic slurs: • • Here are some examples of phraseology to avoid.g. clear and descriptive. • As civilizations decline. neutralize for kill). The Scots pray on their knees on Sunday but on their neighbours the rest of the week.g. Find more examples of politically correct words and phrases in English. osobe sa invaliditetom) • What is homonymy? • What would be a rule of thumb definition of the difference between homonymy and polysemy? • Look up the word pupil meaning 'a young person who studies in a school' and the word pupil meaning 'the black part in your eye' in four dictionaries and see if they are treated as homonymous or polysemous. even offensive. Hispanic. What is implied by the first example? Note the pun: pray . the term being more in tune with current effete sensibilities. e. and at their worst they can damage the causes they claim to benefit (cf. and deserving ridicule and that the words to be avoided are. euphemisms such as hard of seeing. they become increasingly concerned with form over substance. why is the adjective . sightless. • Comment on the PC phrases from a linguistic point of view.prey in the second example. 78 • There is a variety of euphemisms in referring to blindness or blind persons. 2. Use this word in a sentence. tall. n. • • • Say whether in the following examples we are dealing with polysemy or homonymy: 61 . Euphemisms and politically correct language can be pretentious. one of a Germanic tribe who invaded the Roman empire during the third. stupid. a student with dyslexia instead of a dyslexic student. see whether they are treated within one and the same headword or not. • Political correctness with reference to language means rejection of discriminatory language and use of words and phrases which are considered socially appropriate. The Germans never make a small mistake. people who are blind. people who are blind or persons with a visual impairment instead of blind people. e. means 'a rude or uncivilized person' (from Goth. harmless and respectable. Today the two words have doubled in size. the use of physically challenged for handicapped. At the time of the First World War they called it shell shock: the term was simple. Latino. What is your personal response to politically correct language? • What are politically correct terms and circumlocutions for the following: short. African-American. ridiculous. on the contrary. inner city. and alternative suggestions: • Persons with a disability or individuals with disabilities instead of disabled person. people with blindness. • • Work out the meaning of the slurs. visually impaired. e. fourth and the fifth centuries). visually challenged. it was called combat fatigue. How do you feel about these euphemisms? • Find the examples of PC words and expressions in the Serbian language (e. The word is an eponym and its meaning is derogatory.g. unobjectionable. A generation later.g. Some people feel that politically correct euphemisms are unacceptable. • Find the words to which the following PC words correspond: black.noun combination like dyslexic student considered to be undesirable and more offensive than the phrase: a student with dyslexia? 1. persons who are deaf or young people with hearing impairments instead of deaf people. straightforward. ghetto. and there is even an acronym PTSD : post traumatic stress disorder. particularly with respect to language. /ЬЕП/. 3. ® Homonyms can be subdivided into homographs and homophones. /tju:z/.: back. /flu:/. deal meaning 'to trade or do business' and deal meaning 'to behave in a specified manner'. date. n.): • • • shoe. /aed/. n. /sti:l/. table. Find more examples of homographs and homophones in English. 8. in a manor of speaking. /ka:st/. break.pupil. п. 62 . (ЪэИ. №:/ . come.  /dig*/. • Compare the following paradigms and say whether we are dealing with total or partial homonymy. its and it's). pupils. /?:/. site . dew. places. pause. 1. (as in tables and graphs): table. quay ('a long platform beside the sea or a river where boats can be tied up and loaded or unloaded'). tables . /rein/.back. Take the words given and think of other words that rhyme with them (e. (as in a pupil of a painter): pupil. backs. pat. /ЬЗ:9/.  /wit//. hate. 'According to the fairytale the gentleman in the te//coat and the bow tie took the bow. meaning 'barren land' and desert. /ЬЕЭ7. n.g.1. deal meaning 'to distribute cards' and deal meaning 'to treat. 'The young man who lives next door and I shall go to a pub with live music' 78 • What follows is a list of homophones in phonetic transcription. Homophones are the words pronounced in the same way but with different meanings (e. /medl/. etc. late. 4. /sait/.' 2. (as in the pupil in your eye): pupil. e. /?:?/. /bai/. field. • • State the difference homonymy. /kxs/. v. places. meaning 'to abandon').' 3. backed . /шей/. • • • 1. backs .' 'It was painM to her to learn that her son deliberately broke a pane of glass in the neighbour's window. might.key ('a piece of metal which you place in a lock and turn in order to open it'). flu and flew. floor. (as in kitchen table): table. time. height. adv. /basnd/. right. so words can rhyme when their spelling is very different. 'When he entered the living room he could see live coals and pieces of wood were still gently burning. • • • Consider the following examples and comment on the italicized words in terms of homography and homophony. /mainaV. • What do you ask twin witches? Which witch is which? • Marriage is the mourning after the knot before.g. n. deal meaning 'a business transaction' and deal meaning 'a board or plank'. 2. /dju:/.. /??:?1/. /??:/. deal meaning 'to treat. place. 'I won't tell a soul that you have a hole in the sole of your 5. write. /si:lirj/. v. tide. win.' That son of his enjoys lying in the sun: 'You should wind the rope around the tree to secure it against the wind: 'You are not allowed to say that aloud: • • • me. pupils . п. n. Each sound-form represents at least two words different in spelling and meaning. v. sea. pupil. 2.back. bread. Homographs are the words which have the same spelling yet they have different meanings (e.table. Identify the words which correspond to the pronunciation forms given. light. to handle' and deal meaning 'to take action'. 6.g. /??:??1/. tables.: place. to handle'. 4. praise. placed .   /??:?????7. back. /????/. backing. weight eight. • • • Having in mind what you know about homophony explain the following puns: • A man's home is his castle.sight. /Ы. pet.: back. tell.g. /brauz/. 3. /eid/. 7.: place. /?????/. desert.place. /rig/. • English spelling is not phonetic. between total and partial 4. placing. g. p. tender for 'effeminate'). my dog is a champion boxer. Turner MURDER • • They called him • a murderer but I thought he was simply breath taking.' • • • • • • 78 According to this definition is there a crisp-clear distinction between pun and word play. • Comment on the following definition of the pun (quotation from Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language. 1993): • • 'Pun .mail woman? • Analyze the following examples of word play: • Civilization . Merriam-Webster Inc. for you never know how soon it will be too late' (Ralph Waldo Emerson.that's when two monkeys beat up another monkey because he has been monkeying around. • • • Analyze the following text (Marie Claire. • Breath taking' is a form of word play but more particularly a pun. ed. • When two egotists meet. 1803 . the dog was furrious.g. a play on words. May 1997.the humorous use of a word in such a way as to suggest different meanings or applications or of words having the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. Maine. it's an I for an I.1882). Explain. and an example of a pun or word play involving meaning similarity (e.. 23). 1996. Springfield. • • • • • 'You cannot do a kindness too soon. • • S. cats are purrfect pets. Turner Give some examples of homophoneous words used for the sake of word play. 63 . posterior for posterity. tender meaning 'effeminate'. writer and philosopher. • • Discuss the examples of word play in the following poems (the examples are italicized). Why is it that there is no pair mailman . Give an example of a pun or word play Involving sound similarity (e. Does this example of pun involve sound similarity or meaning similarity? What can you say about a ffectionate as a form of word play? • The following example illustrates play on words. • What is pun? Illustrate. drum meaning 'buttocks'. • • • If I grow a moustache for you • will you grow a ffectionate • for me? • • S. 'purrfect' pets for 'cats'). Editor in Chief: Philip Babcock Gove. Say which examples illustrate puns or word play involving sound similarity and which of them illustrate puns or word play involving meaning similarity.• Reading whilst sunbathing makes you well-red. • Consider the following pair of examples: postman . AFTER SOME THOUGHT. justice meaning a 'whore'. p. 64) from the point of view of word play.post woman. Poetry With Pleasure. A POEM • • (Poems taken from: Naum Dimitrijevic. sorry, gentlemen, only one carrion allowed per passenger!' • • STAYING FAITHFULL • • • Marianne Faithful! met Mick Jagger at 17 and survived their love affair. Thirty years later, is Marianne still mad about Mick? 7 was the love of his life and he of mine'. 'Now I have men in my life who really love me'. • Find the examples of word play in the following text (Marie Claire, May 1997, p. 16): • • STOP TEARING YOUR HEART OUT • • Nothing is more damaging to your hair than yanking a comb through wet tangles. So we created Aussie slip detangler to rinse them away without added weight. So put an end to fraying and flyaways. Slip detangler clears the tangles out of your morning. • • • Here is some more word play from Keep 'Em Laughing. Jokes to Amuse and Annoy your Friends, by Louis Phillips, Viking: New York, 1996, p. 24. Base your comments on what you know about ambiguity, homonymy, and homophony. • • Poet: / put my whole mind into that poem. Editor: Blank verse, I suppose. • • Passenger: Driver, will this bus take me to Broadway: Bus Driver: Upper or lower? Passenger: All of me, I hope. • • • Maryhelen: After Minnie Mouse fell into the river, how did Mickey Mouse revive her? Caroline: How? Maryhelen: He used mouse-to-mouse resuscitation. • • • Explain humour that you find in the following jokes. Base your explanation on what you know about puns and word play. • • 78 Two vultures board an airplane, each carrying two dead raccoons. The stewardess looks at them and says: 'I'm • (carrion - dead animals; carry-on - piece of luggage) • There was a man who sent ten puns to friends, with the hope that at least one of the puns would make them laugh. Unfortunately, no pun in ten did. • • (compare: no pun in ten did and no pun intended) • • • Here are some more examples of word play. (The examples are taken from the text entitled: Thought provoking ideas. "Some Old Some New, All Borrowed To Make You Blue" which appeared on the Inter Net. All the examples have been approved of by native speakers.) Clever-read the examples carefully, and provide linguistic explanation based on what you know about homonymy, homography, homophony, ambiguity, and word-formation processes. Bear in mind that some examples of pun cross word boundaries. 1. A bicycle can't stand on its own because it is two-tired. 2. A backward poet writes inverse. 3. In democracy, it's your vote that counts. In feudalism, it's your count that votes. 4. With her marriage, she got a new name and a dress. 5. Show me a piano falling down a mine shaft, and I'll show you A flat minor. 6. When a clock is hungry, it goes back four seconds. 7. He often broke into song because he couldn't find the key. 8. A lot of money is tainted. It taint yours and it taint mine. 9. A boiled egg in the morning is hard to beat. 10. He had a photographic memory that was never developed. 11. A plateau is a high form of flattery. 12. The short fortuneteller who escaped from prison was a • small medium at large. 13. Bakers trade bread recipes on a knead-to-know basis. 14. Santa's helpers are subordinate clauses. 15. Marathon runners with bad footwear suffer the agony of defeat. 16. The poor guy fell into a glass-grinding machine and made a spectacle of himself. 64 tells of William Tell, who shot an arrow through an apple while standing on his son's head. • • • Find some examples of word play which appear in commercials and advertisements on TV and in • magazines (British and American). • Find some examples of word play in cartoons (British and American). • The fragments of texts listed below contain some examples of bloopers. Identify them and having in mind what you know about: homonyms, homophones, homographs, word play, and pun analyze these bloopers providing some linguistic explanation. (A blooper is a slang word for a blunder, a gross, stupid or careless mistake, especially one made in public; the bloopers quoted come from a collection of bloopers compiled by teachers throughout the United States and communicated to me by Thomas F. Magner in the text entitled: The World According to Student Bloopers). 4. The greatest writer of the Renaissance was William Shakespear. Shakespear never made much money and is famous only because of his plays. He lived in Windsor with his merry wives, writing tragedies, comedies and errors. In one of Shakespear's famous plays, Hamlet rations out his situation by relieving himself in a long soliloquy. In another, Lady Macbeth tries to convince Mac-beth to kill the King by attacking his manhood. Romeo and Juliet are an example of a heroic couplet. 5. Then the Spanish gorrilas came down from the hills and nipped at Napoleon's flanks. Napoleon became ill with bladder problems and was very tense and unrestrained. He wanted an heir to inherit his power, but since Josephine was a baroness, she couldn't bear him any children. • 1. Without the Greeks, we wouldn't have history. The Greeks invented three kinds of columns - Corinthian, Doric and Ironic. They also had myths. A myth is a female moth. One myth says that the mother of Achilles dipped him in the River Stynx until he became intolerable. Achilles appears in "The llliad", by Homer. Homer also wrote the "Oddity" in which Penelope was the last hardship that Ulysses endured on this journey. Actually Homer was not written by Homer but by another man of that name. 6. The sun never set on the British Empire because the British • 2. Then came the Middle Ages. King Alfred conquered the Dames. King Arthur lived in the Age of Shivery. King Harold mustarded his troops before the Battle of • Hastings. Joan of Arc was cannonized by George Bernard Shaw, and the victims of the Black Death grew boobs on their necks. Finally, the Magna Carta provided that no free man should be hanged twice for the same offense. 3. In midevil times most of the people were alliterate. The greatest writer of the time was Chaucer, who wrote many poems and verse and also wrote liter-ature. Another tale 78 Empire is in the East and the sun sets in the West. Queen Victoria was the longest queen. She sat on a thorn for 63 years. Her reclining years and finally the end of her life were exemplatory of a great personality. Her death was the final event which ended her reign. • Here are some more bloopers picked up from some signs in Africa (the source is Inter Net). Provide linguistic explanation (on the basis of what you know about ambiguity, semantic clash, analogy, etc.) of the humour in the examples given. 1. On one of the buildings of a Sierra Leone Hospital: 'Mental 2. 3. 4. 5. Health Prevention Centre' In a Namibian nightclub: 'Ladies are not allowed to have children in the bar' In a Zimbabwean restaurant: 'Customers who find our waitresses rude ought to see the manager.' On a window of a Nigerian shop: 'Why go elsewhere to be cheated when you can come here!' On the grounds of a private school in South Africa: 'No trespassing without permission' • 65 • • An acrostic is a series of written lines or verses in which the first, last or other particular letters form a word, phrase, the alphabet, etc. These letters spell out a hidden word or message. Acrostics can be said to be the most complete type of deletion since it is only a single letter per line that remains. Acrostics also have to do with word play. In William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream the following passage, spoken by Titania, spells out her own name: • • • • • • • Thou shalt remain here, whether thou wilt or no, I am a spirit of no common rate, The summer till doth tend upon my state; ANd I do love thee. Therefore go with me. I'll give thee fairies to attend on thee; And they shall fetch thee jewels from the deep... • Children yet, the tale to hear, Eager eye and willing ear, Lovingly still nestle near. • • It's a Wonderland they lie, Dreaming as the days go by, Dreaming as the summers die: • • Ever drifting down the stream -Lingering in the golden gleam -Life, what is it but a dream? • • • • Here is the acrostic poem that concludes Through the Looking Glass written by Lewis Carroll. Find out for whom specifically the author wrote Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. • • • An anagram is the rearrangement of letters in a word, phrase, or name to form another word, phrase, or name (e.g. when you rearrange the letters in new door you get one word). Explain the following example of word play based on rearrangement of letters. • A: When is enough not enough? B: One hug. • • A boat, beneath a sunny sky, Lingering onward dreamily, In an evening of July- • The words: aboard, abode, and note, anagram into: abroad, adobe, and tone. Find the words and phrases into which the following words and phrases anagram: dormitory, Statue of Liberty, television set. • • • • Children three that nestle near, Eager eye and willing ear, Pleased a simple tale to hear• • • • Long has paled that sunny sky: Echoes fade and memories die: Autumn frosts have slain July. • • Still she haunts me, phantomwise, Alice moving under skies, Never seen by waking eyes. • Dirty room; Built to stay free; See? It's violent! • • Kangaroo words are marsupial words that carry smaller versions of themselves within their spellings (e.g. respite has rest, splotch has spot). How about: instructor, curtail, feasted, rapscallion? • • Tutor, cut, fed, ate, rascal • • • Frangible is a three-generation kangaroo word: in its pouch it has one word with the same meaning and that other word has yet another one in its pouch with a similar meaning. Identify the pouch words. • • • 78 Fragile, frail 66 pansy.handbag. other words change their meaning and become new words when spelled in reverse (e. mint. paper bag. doc . AVER + AGED = AVERAGED. IDEA + LIST = IDEALIST. rubbish bin. laundry basket. daffodil. WARP + LANE = WARPLANE. • • • Pangram is a sentence that makes use of all the letters of the alphabet (e. tulip are included in flower. Give more examples of sets of words to illustrate hyponymy. When talking about inclusion the upper term is the superordinate or hypernym and the lower term the subordinate or hyponym. support + the stuff of skeletons = fortitude 78 bag . BALM + ORAL = BALMORAL.g. soothing substance + spoken examination = Scottish 5.race car).g. marjoram. All sets are open so that you can add some of your own examples. The words which are part of a given taxonomy are related to each other through the relationship of generic hyponymy. basil. superordinates) which are representative of the words in the following four sets: 1. parsley.dustbin. thing you think + enumerate = dreamer box .• • Palindrome is a word that communicates the same message when the letters of which it is composed are read in reverse order (e. carrier bag • 2. BACK + BONE = BACKBONE. written reminder + move upward = learn by heart • • • • Hyponymy or inclusion refers to class membership. e. candy box. rose. 6. race car . daisy. rose. The quick brown fox jumps over a lazy dog is a sentence that employs every letter in the alphabet at least once). 4.g. e. bookcase. • What are co-hyponyms? Illustrate. MEMO + RISE = MEMORISE • • basket . etc. musical box • 1. or decaf -faced). shoulder bag. violet. 2. litter bin. State meaning relations holding between the members of the word family. picnic basket • case . level . wastepaper basket. e. teapot. shopping basket.g. When you are stressed you may reach for desserts. 6. 3. 67 . Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz. pencil case.suitcase. buckle +narrow road = Spitfire or Hurricane Key: 1. Palindromes make you say: Ah. sage. pansy. toolbox.bread basket. Oh. Here are some more examples: • • Pack my box with five dozen liquor jugs.g. boyfriend + neckware = seductive looking woman -BEAU + TIES = BEAUTIES). or madam) has the same meaning left to right and right to left. Explain the following examples of word play: • War is raw. pillow case • pot . daffodil. ho!.flowerpot. rosemary. • • cap 3. pedal bin • Find the lexemes (hypernyms.matchbox.g. daisy. • • Can you come up with your own pangram examples? • • • • Solve the left side of the equation to create two fourletter words. a lexeme flower is representative of a number of more specific words: violet. • Here are some words which designate containers joined with some other members of the same word family. coffee pot • bin . garlic. 5.cod. Tut-tut! Try to give some examples of your own! While a palindromic word (such as: civic. How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.level. Join them together to get the eight-letter word clued on the right side of the equal sign. seed box. declare as true + matured = calculated central tendency 4. ha!. queen. horse are included in animals. e. Antonymy is usually used as a cover term for: complementarity. compose. satisfy. Do we have to live in this MAUSOLEUM? These two languages are RELATED. table. This car is SKY-BLUE.2. sunflower. corn-flower. but in the more restrictive sense of gradable opposites. When talking about inclusion the upper term is the superordinate or hypernym and the lower term the subordinate or hyponym. Jamaica pepper. slipper. Find hypernyms of the following words: camel. leg. agree. Take the words: car. Words that are opposite are antonyms. daffodil. snowdrop. clover. employer. spring onion. Some of the words listed are included in garden flowers. rye. • Antonymy is the only meaning relation which can be signalled by a special morpheme (cf. chair. cow. probable. basket. use. Say what is entailed by the following: 1. animal. possible. clean dirty. dandelion. A useful test for taxonomy is: An X is a kind / type of Y (e. Elizabeth has a pair of SCARLET shoes. nutmeg. cabbage. • • • Hyponymy involves entailment ('follows from' relation).g. accurate. Identify the words which are hyponyms (subordinates) of garden flowers and those which are hyponyms (subordinates) of wild flowers: iris. • • What follows is a set of words representing flowers. 3. carnation. dog. coffee table. Turn the following words into their opposites by means of an affix: happy. building. egg-beater. orchid. ginger. cover. monkey is hypernym of chimpanzee and chimpanzee is hyponym of monkey. tank. lawful. This is an ELEPHANT. a daffodil is a type of flower. Madonna lily. thistle. jug. spinach are included in vegetables. ivy. spoon. bluebell. doll. • A major type of branching lexical hierarchy is the partwhole type (e.difficult. crockery. discrimination. A sentence containing a hyponym entails a parallel sentence identical to it except that it contains a hypernym in place of the hyponym (e. plate.unlucky. e. and incompatibility. hot cold.g. 3. bay leaf. 78 68 . 4. • Antonymy means oppositeness of meaning. • Taxonomy may be regarded as a sub-type of hyponymy so that the taxonyms of a lexical item are a sub-set of its hyponyms. cup. cutlery. herb. curry-powder. 10. bag. swiveling chair. tea. flower. 4.g. chilli. can. handsome . cacti.harmless).g. successful. pimento. bowl. marigold. 2. crocus. 6. proper. It can be exemplified by such pairs as: easy . 9. organize. pansy. sheep. legitimate. 7. ship. pan. vehicle. tense. plant. mobile phone.g. Add your own examples to the list of antonyms.g. pro-war. The president was ASSASINATED yesterday. e. boy. cake. legal. behave. 2. bin. hyacinth. 8. rice. attack. sparrow. • 1. mansion. goat. daisy. lucky . insect. knife. Peter kicked Paul : Peter hit Paul). hypertension. and head are parts of the body and: palm and finger are parts of the hand). He PUNCHED me. arm. primrose. black pepper.g. oregano. Apply the test proposed and provide your own examples to illustrate taxonomy. there are three chimpanzees entails there are three monkeys. barley. rosemary. espionage. harmful . narcissus. vanilla. oats. box. lily. cinnamon. wheat. 5. maize. white pepper. regular. reversible. mustard. She put her TEDDY beside her. Hyponymy is the type of lexical relation which corresponds to the inclusion of one class in another. interesting. She SNUBBED me. case.ugly. kitty. passion fruit is a kind of fruit). e. converseness. rose. I like BURGUNDY colour. violet. monarch. lettuce. useful. poppy. pot. polite. coriander. fork. The semantic relation between a lexical item denoting a part and that denoting the corresponding whole is termed meronymy. water lily. bird. school and house and pair them with the words which indicate their parts. lily of the valley. informed. • thyme. Find hyponyms of the following words: limb. others in wild flowers. give .tigress. novel . METHODS AND PROCEDURES OF MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 69 .local • • 6. wheel: blanket.lie. leaf and key are incompatibles. awake .g. dead . man . open . cat and pet fall under the superordinate animal. husband . black .g.book. husband : wife.shut. Which of them are not complementaries? • • • • • • 78 animal : lizard.wife.take. milk: book. pass . A pair of compatibles must have a common hypernym (e. husband and milkman belong to the category of human males). true -false. The sense relation between classes with no members in common is incompatibility (e.alive.fail). also: flower and sky).obey.g.asleep.closed. yesterday : today. stranger . Consider the following pairs of words and say if they are compatibles or incompatibles: • Complementaries are a basic type of lexical opposite. open . boy .day.house.man. • A pair of complementaries divide some conceptual domain into two mutually exclusive parts (e.white. command . lizard : frog. home . obey _ disobey. cycle . Consider the following pairs of words. tiger .woman. night . Lexical items related by compatibility are compatibles.• • Compatibility is the lexical relation which corresponds to overlap between classes. empty. heat . ness are said to be ultimate constituents. however. in lawlessness there are two cuts marked with a vertical slash: the first cut is between lawless and ness and the second between law and less). The word lawlessness. is a binary construction which can be divided into: lawless + ness.pull.sell.disassociate.g. enter . • The relationship of reverse antonyms holds between prefixal derivatives and the bases they are derived from. Combinations of the units are usually binary and the aim of the immediate constituent analysis is to segment structurally complex lexical units into two independent sequences called immediate constituents.wife. buy . advance .no. Add your own examples to the list. Successive segmentation results in ultimate constituents which cannot be further analyzed. • Minor types of antonyms are the antipodals and reversives. in .• Converseness refers to contrastive lexical relations involving logical reciprocity. enter . assent -descent. The hierarchical structure of the word can be represented linearly by means of cuts (e.g. overdone .cool. less. Add your own examples to the list. up -down.west. mount . e. The hierarchical structure of a complex word or word-form can also be graphically represented by a tree-diagram where branches indicate binary division of the complex structure and leaves show morphemic structure of the morphologically complex unit. associate .exit. Here are some more words which are reciprocal correlates: husband .unlace. head-foot. A tree-diagram of the word lawlessness would look like this: .g. e. lace .fall. hopeful hopeless. left . purchase . improve -deteriorate.sell.underdone.retreat. for example. • • • • 70 • • • • • Immediate constituent analysis has to do with the defining of the relevant relationships which hold between morphologically relevant structural units.dismount. e. rise . lawless itself is a morphologically complex binary unit which can be split into: law + less.g. In a pair of antipodals one member of the pair is an extreme in one direction and the other represents the other extreme.out. In the case of reversives one member of the pair represents movement in one direction and the other movement in the opposite direction. yes . e. fill . east .g. law and less are said to be immediate constituents and: law. ness. top -bottom. push . give -take. Lawless. ascend descend.leave. Say whether the following pairs of words are antipodals or reversives: north south.right. • 708 LAWLES SNESS • COFFEEGRINDER 709 . • • • • LAWLESS • • • 708 LAW -LESS • ■N ES S Immediate Constituents: cofTee. grind. grind. -er Ultimate Constituents: coffee. grinder. -er • • First cut between coffee and grinder Second cut between grind and -er 709 . underprivileged. passer-by. self-regulating. wax-painting. foxhunting. swimmingpool. unilaterally. oldfashioned. tongue-twister. midfielder. devaluation. belly-landing. theoretically. heartbreaking. self-centered. • • GRINDER • • • There is one particularly frequent pattern present in compound adjectives: the one which consists of adjective. unimaginable. encapsulate. dishwasherproof. COFFEE-GRINDER COFFEE GRIND • In the case of grammatically marked words it is the • inflectional suffix that is cut off first (e. irreconcilable. honeymooner. Represent the hierarchical structure of the words using tree-diagrams. long-jumper. enthronement. re-creation.g.g. pig-headed. inaccurately. noun or numeral plus noun plus the -ed suffix. humming-bird.g. mismanagement. misrepresentation. shop-soiled. well-behaved or yet another combination of two elements the second of which is a participle. well-mannered. irreproachable. The immediate constituent analysis of such words of the 709 . lead-poisoning. four-cornered. unequaled. say how many cuts there are. irregularity. half-starved. unobjectionable. outermost. e. outrider. skippingrope. window-dressing. unhygienic. dissatisfied. There is another type of combination similar to this: an adverb plus derivative in -ed. triple-jumper. heart-shaped. well-meaning. shoulder-bag. water-skiing. killer-whale. deactivate. unambiguously. teaspoonful. uneducated. Identify the constituents: immediate and ultimate. decomposition. unidentifiable. hypersensitive. air-conditioning. sleepiness. Can you say why? • • 708 • Here are some more words for you to analyze by means of immediate constituent analysis.g. undernourished. sitting-room. undernourishment. incoming. mind-reading. differentiation. e. recreation. blotting-paper. maladjusted. weekender. e.• • Apply immediate constituent analysis to the following words (identify immediate and ultimate constituents. daydreaming. Say where the cuts -ER are. sleeplessness. in handcuffs or teaspoonfuls the first cut is between handcuff and -s and between teaspoonful and -s respectively). overgeneralization. outgoing. dislocated. conservationist. walking-stick. enslavement. oversimplifying. window-shopping. undoubtedly. environmentalist. disapproval. dishwasher. Here is an example: • The words to be analyzed: egg-beater. developmental. salad-spinner. use tree-diagrams to represent the hierarchical structure of words): overwhelmingly. indicate the position of cuts. green-eyed. riding-horse horse-riding. full-throated. lady.g. • • • 110 • Morphological analysis can take the form of distributional analysis. e. silver-plated. takeover. feedingbottle . bird-cage and cage-bird). turn your ankle. tongue-twister. cat.market-fruit. -let in piglet follows the base. coldblooded. onlooker. full-flavoured. full-blooded. -like combines with nouns to form adjectives which describe things that are similar to whatever the nouns refer to: childlike. producer-director.bottle-feeding. bird-like. take in: take a book. welladjusted.new brand. double-glazed. clock. hunting-man . pre-retirement. hard-fisted. cutting diamond diamond-cutting.pet-house. Consider the following pairs of words. boat life . turn a page. take a chance. however. pronationalist.ring-finger. polish ing-paste. typewriter. baby. turn a somersault. open-minded. resource-poor. prison-like. one-sided. dishwasher-proof. brand-new . The identity of distributional pattern.man-hunting. unwillingly. clawlike. 74 . Distribution refers to the position of a lexical unit relative to other lexical units of the same level (e. Consider the following words and state their distributional patterns: unrealistic. water-tap .e. dis. turn your attention. good-natured. and wheelchair is a compound noun of the type noun plus noun). blue-blooded. • • Knowledge of the distributional patterns can be used productively.in disbelief takes the position of a prefix which means that it precedes the base. high-jumper. belly-landing. half-cooked. low-spirited.tap-water. ski-jumping. Finger-ring . fruit-market . Compare the following examples: • • pre-delivery. turn a knob. poststructuralism. See how the change of the pattern changes the meaning of a word. weighing-machine. ice-dance. bottlegreen . house-pet . to form new words. double-breasted. Form adjectives with this meaning using the following nouns: animal.• patterns mentioned above proceeds along different lines. pre-examination.g. • • • • TWO TWO-SIDED • STARVE -ED • • HALF- A word has a different lexical meaning depending on its distributional pattern (cf.overtake. i. midfielder. does not necessarily mean that the words have the same meaning (cf. sportsmanship. kidney-shaped.green bottle. undoubtedly. pushchair is a compound noun of the type verb plus noun. take a call). State the meaning of the word turn in the following constructions (of the type: turn plus direct object): turn gas. open-hearted. take a look. fainthearted.lifeboat. dog-eared. turn a cartwheel. dress-maker. double-glazed. • • • Here are some more words for you to analyze: darkhaired. rewrite. e. wine-taster. by? What is the collocate 110 of what in What is this all about? What is the collocate of who in Who did he do it for? What is the collocate of raining in: Is it raining hard? Cats and dogs. ice fall. e. sugar-rich. cash-rich. sucking-bottle . reconsider.*bodyem.driving-wheel 7. flower. (your) hair.windfall 8.housebreaker 10.playtime 11. re-read. pepper. • Distributional patterns are part of language competence which enables decoding (i. salad. sword-dance . The following words are structurally the same. spin. A collocate of a particular word is another word which often occurs with that word. grind. to collocate) with other words with which it shares the same semantic component. information-rich. © Form nouns of the type egg-beater (the pattern being: noun in objective case plus the verb plus the -erwith the instrumental meaning) using the following elements: cheese. nationwide. keep. walking part-walking-shoe 3.blotting-paper 12.*ermidfield. understanding of the word on the basis of the familiarity of the constituent elements and distributional pattern). dog.g.e. EEC-wide. slice. state-wide. a lot. make. lemon.'the machine used for bottle washing'. kidney. reading-book . (the) talking. (the) cooking. • If fibre-rich means 'having a high amount of fibre' and if energy-rich means 'containing a large amount of energy' what do the following words mean: carbon-rich. honey. front. make. prison-breaker . remarry. Words: bottle-washer and bottle-washer are the same from the point of view of their structure and distributional pattern. continent-wide. squeeze. 1.g. doorstopper. Interpret the meaning of the following sets of words: reallocate.'person who does the washing of bottles' and bottle-washer . coffee. sea-fight . etc. egg. midfielder . census.door-keeper 6. wash-day .wine cooler 2. play-time . at.e. doll. rediscover.kill-time 14. however. cut. dream. reappear.wash-house 13. re-examine. prize-fight . rename. redefine. fat-rich.• clown. Provide your own examples to illustrate this. reprint. Apply transformational analysis to disambiguate them. • • • • Transformational analysis is a kind of morphological analysis which has to do with the repatterning of wordstructure so as to bring out the difference in meaning of the words which are structurally the same. worldwide. embody . (your) teeth. grind. badly. What can be a collocate of: put. reeducate. rebuild. daisy. writing-paper.sea-fight 16. • Co-occurrence means aptness of a word to co-occur (i. *miderfield. Reveal the difference of the logical structure and meaning. sandwich. reconstruct. citywide. Co-occurrence and distribution can be seen as synonymous. grinding-wheel . cow.time-killing 4.ice-dance 5.bullfight 75 . a little. a collocate of do can be: something. dagger. well.dancing-girl 15.sucking-pig • 17. re freeze. vitamin-rich? • Violation of the rules of a distributional pattern can result in an ungrammatical word. mercy-killing . (the) room. reunite. planet-wide. moon.reading-lamp 9. they differ in meaning and this can be easily shown by resorting to transformational analysis: bottlewasher. (a) service. playground . much. car. *fieldermid. desert. dancing-shoe . reopen. hook. ill-designed. bakery. tranquil. intercontinental. carpet-sweeper. greenery. explain. keep. which individualize the word. snow-drift. armful. powerful.18. Apply transformational analysis to the following sets of words and say which meaning relations hold among them. legendary 2. greenkeeper. vacuumcleaner. milkman. street-cleaner. bus-driver. sandwich maker 2. fictitious. boastful. heart-ache . e. game-keeper. graceful. machinery 13. invented. daydream . yearly (b) animal-like.heart-break 19. chimney-sweeper. innkeeper. breadwinner. snow slide.feeding-bottle 20. interplanetary. famous. assemble 4. ill-suited. energetic • • • • Apply transformational analysis to the following sets of words and see if they embody the same logical pattern. the common semantic denominator) shared by the following words: (a) daily. winery 12. house-cleaner. difficult 11. brewery. 1. feeding-time . 'profession' marker in: postman. lawn-sprinkler. • Morphological analysis can take the shape of componential analysis which has to do with semantic decomposition of word-meaning which can be broken into two kinds of semantic components: semantic markers (semantic features shared with other words. stinkweed. holiday maker. share 5. hopeful • • • • • • • 110 • Transformational analysis is instrumental in discovering meaning relations (synonymy. artillery. snow-fall 7. over-confident. demonstrate 7. lemon-squeezer 5. gold-finder 8. useless 10. childlike.g. mean. ill-timed ill76 . characterless. monthly. e. window-cleaner. bullfighter. lead-poisoning 9. space-heating. bottleful.daybreak 1. lawn-mower. blazing-star. gather. ill-chosen.e. hook-like (c) airless. water-cooling 6. bookseller. sword-dance. economy. unprofitable. congregate. sword play. shameful. keep. match-maker. fabled. chimney-sweeper. bookbinder. clergyman. gunnery. effective. • • 1. maintain 6. ex-president has all the characteristics of a president except that it has the characteristic 'used to be the thing referred to by the noun'). apple-grower. extravagance 12. street-sweeper 4. fortune-teller 11. overestimate. snow slip. chair maker. overeat. Identify the semantic marker (i. quarterly. quiet. lawn-edger. overdue 14. interterritorial (e) ill-adapted. state 8. meaningless (d) inter-city. stingy. jugful. egg-slicer. ill-educated. hyponymy. oppositeness. bird-like. brewery. air-condensing. overrule 15. carpet cleaner. generous 9. coffee maker. air-cooling. weather man) and semantic distinguishers (semantic features which are distinctive. over-cautious. glow-worm 10. non-existent 3. roomful. sea-quake. teaspoonful 16. dew fall. barman. republic. brainless. easy. bar-keeper. earthquake. air-flow. bakery. egg-beater. justify. hourly. overpower. wool-cleaner 3. cannery. flawless. bagful. over-anxious. weekly. competent. operative. informed.g. cloudburst. superordination) between the words. doll-like. (f) addressee, appointee, deportee, detainee, employee, • examinee, interviewee, trainee (g) belly-down, face-down, head-down, nose-down, top-down • (h) coverage, drainage, leakage, linkage, marriage, spillage • (i) comfortable, fashionable, honourable, knowledgeable, pleasurable, valuable • (j) class-bound, culture-bound, home-bound, snowbound, wheelchair-bound • • 2. Identify the semantic distinguisher (word-specific distinctive feature) upon which the following minimal pairs are established: (a) frog - froglet; isle - islet; owl - owlet; pig - piglet; star-starlet (b) economics - macroeconomics; objectives - macroobjectives; structure - macro-structure (c) automatic - semiautomatic; conscious - semiconscious; dark - semi-dark, divine - semi-divine; official - semiofficial; skilled - semi-skilled (d) confidence - self-confidence; assurance - self-assurance; satisfaction - self-satisfaction (e) carbon - carbon-rich; energy - energy-rich; mineral -mineral-rich; sugar- sugar-rich; protein - protein-rich (f) activate - deactivate; centralize - decentralize; colonize decolonize; materialize - dematerialize (g) ceremony - post-ceremony; examination - postexamination; Freudian - post-Freudian; impressionism -post-impressionism; medieval - post-medieval • (h) agent - sub-agent; branch - sub-branch; class - subclass; culture - subculture; editor - sub-editor; species sub-species; type - subtype • (i) cab - mini-cab; camera - mini-camera; city - mini-city; expedition - mini-expedition; dress - mini-dress • G) judgement - misjudgement; calculation - miscalculation; representation misrepresentation; management -mismanagement 110 • Consider the following sets of words. Each set consists of the words identical in morphological shape but different in meaning. The sets fall into two sub-sets according to the difference in meaning of their members. Identify semantic markers and semantic distinguishers. Separate 'sheep from goats' (e.g. the set: foolery, knavery, snobbery, brewery, fishery, piggery can be divided into two sub-sets: foolery, knavery, snobbery and brewery, fishery, piggery on the basis of the fact that they have different common semantic denominators: 'behaviour' and 'places' being their respective semantic markers). 1. bribery, butchery, bravery, buffoonery, roguery, delivery, flattery, trickery 2. bakery, cannery, fishery, nunnery, crockery, greenery, 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. jewellery, machinery extra-bright, extra-fine, extra-hard, extra-hot, extraEuropean, extra-marital, extra-small, extra-terrestrial ever-available, ever-changing, ever-decreasing, everbriefer, ever-closer, ever-greater, ever-shorter addressee, internee, absentee, cohabitee, devotee, payee, retiree, returnee, trustee acceptable, admirable, comfortable, pleasurable, identifiable, profitable, enjoyable, valuable ambassadorship, authorship, membership, comradeship, friendship, kinship, partnership, relationship under-capacity, undergrowth, undersea, underproduction, underarm, underclothes, underground, undersurface, understatement • • • Words refer to things and concepts which belong to semantic categories (sometimes to more than one category). Categories, on their part, can be seen as a conglomerate of components. The meaning of a word 77 can be seen as the sum of the semantic features it has and which are included in its semantic description, i.e. its definition. Category features assign the word to a semantic category, e.g. a fly belongs to the category [INSECT]. Function features assign a usual state or activity to the word, e.g. a fly flies [FLY]. Property features list the properties distinguishing the reference of the word, e.g. an insect which is black and has two wings [BLACK], [WINGS]. The semantic entry for the word for fly may be expressed as: 5. shorthand is a way of writing which uses signs instead of letters or words and so makes it easier to write down what someone is saying at the same speed as they are talking 6. utensil is a tool or object that you use in order to help you to cook or to do other tasks in your home. 7. keg is a small barrel used for storing something such as beer or other alcoholic drinks. • • Fly: [INSECT], [FLY], [BLACK], [WINGS] 8. kettle is a covered round container with a handle on the top and a spout on the side, that is used for boiling water. • • Consider the following dictionary definitions of words as they are presented in the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. Express the semantic entry for each word giving the sum of: category features, function features and property features. 1. lighthouse is a tower containing a powerful flashing lamp that is built on the coast or on a small island or rock in the sea; lighthouses are used to guide ships or to warn them of danger. 9. notation is a set of written symbols that are used to represent a system of thought such as music, logic, or mathematics. • • • • • The term componential analysis is a method of analysis which has to do with reducing the meaning of the word to its ultimate contrastive elements. The sense is broken down into its minimal components. One way to represent the senses is to write formulae in which the dimensions of meaning are expressed by feature symbols (e.g. woman: +human +adult -male; boy: +human -adult +male). These formulae are called componential definitions. Give componential definitions of the meaning of the following words: man, girl, people, goose, gander, dog, puppy, cow, bachelor, spinster, child, adult. • It can be said that two meanings or two componential formulae are incompatible if one has at least one feature contrasting with a feature in the other (e.g. the 2. muse is an imaginary force which helps a person to do something, especially to paint or to write poetry or music, by giving them ideas and inspiration; a muse is often imagined to be a woman. 3. mussel is a shellfish that lives inside a dark-coloured shell which has two sides that fit tightly together; mussels are often gathered for food. 4. scrapbook is a book with blank pages into which you stick pictures, newspaper articles, etc. in order to make a collection. • 110 10. nose is the part of your face which sticks out above your mouth; it is used for smelling and breathing. 78 language units are identifiable in terms of contrasts i.e. the conceptual meanings are organized largely in terms of contrastive features. The notion of paradigm builds upon this assumption (cf. different notions of chair, deck chair, swivel chair, armchair, electric chair, folding chair). Why is it that the words: deck chair and steamer chair do not make a minimal pair? Why is it that the words: magnolia and tulip tree do not constitute a minimal pair? Why is it that the words: ice-breaker and ice-skater make a minimal pair (identify the main contrastive feature upon which the distinction is made)? meaning of man is incompatible with that of boy because of the clash between +adult and -adult). Provide componential formulae of the following words; compare them; isolate the contrasting features and demonstrate incompatibility: woman, man, plant, hammer. • • 110 Meaning inclusion or hyponymy is the relationship which exists between two meanings if one componential formula has all the features present in the other formula (e.g. boy is hyponymous to youngster because the features making up the definition youngster +human and +young are both present in the definition boy). Check if the meaning relation of hyponymy holds between the members of the following pairs of words: woman -grown-up; woman - human being; woman - female; magpie - collector; mainland - land; clatter - noise; basket - container; ape - primate; gateau - cake. Using componential formulae we can show the synonymy of two words by assigning them both the same componential definition (e.g. both adult and grown-up have the same definition: +human +adult and therefore we say that they are synonymous; the difference in style (adult is formal and grown-up colloquial) has not been taken into account). Check if the members of the following pairs of words are synonymous: kidnap - abduction; haemorrhoid pile; kill - murder, nullify - invalidate; petty - trivial; perspire -sweat; informal - casual; magnolia - tulip tree; provide -supply; deck chair- steamer chair. • Two principles are at the basis of all language organization: the principle of constituent structure and the principle of contrastiveness. The first principle is the one by which larger linguistic units can be broken into smaller units (e.g. words into morphemes); the second principle maintains that the • • Morphological analysis can take the shape of contrastive analysis. At the level of lexis contrastive analysis aims at discovering the features of sameness and difference in the meaning structure of correlated words in a pair of languages which are contrasted or in a pair of language variants within one and the same language. Languages differ as to the way in which they classify reality by means of words, e.g. the Serbian word krevet is bed in English but the English word bed is: krevet in Serbian, but also: nocenje (as in: bed & breakfast), spavanje (as: in bed time), leja (as in flower bed), korito (as in: riverbed), podloga (as in: gravel bed), etc. On the other hand there are words with zero correspondents in another language (e.g. the Serbian word cevapcici has no correspondent in English and the English word efficient has zero correspondent in Serbian). Consider the following words in English: keep, beginning, beat, beam, base, balance, baby, teacher, professor. Find their Serbian equivalents. Demonstrate 79 • English: with open arms and cordially correspond to the Serbian word srdacno. with open arms. playground .nosila. in the arms of Morpheus. discover.prstenjak. wedding ring -burma.happiness and leather . and reveal will fit. pong . beautician 123 . snow . Who "'revealed the telephone?). Make comments based on what you know about contrastive analysis.skin translated into Serbian as sreca and kola respectively. Who ^discovered the telephone?. Find appropriate contexts into which the words constituting the pairs will fit. 6. opanak). father -daddy.g.stink.cocaine. Any armlike part or attachment as in: the arm of a record player.spit. ice-breaker . An inlet or cove: an arm of the sea. • Find English words which have zero correspondent in • Serbian (e.perspire. anon . at arm's length. The forelimb of any vertebrate. Also consider the following phrases with the word arm: arm in arm. • • • Apply contrastive analysis to the following pairs of words to show the difference in stylistic meaning: • sweat . pismonosa. rukovodilac. The words are presented in pairs. saliva . Find some other examples of English and Serbian words to show many-to-one correspondence between the members of the pair. • 722 English: director corresponds to the Serbian words: direktor. 7. • Serbian otkriti can be: invent. Find some more examples of Serbian and English words to show one-to-many correspondence between the members of the pair. Who invented the telephone?. a sleeve of a garment: the arm of a coat.usisivac. stretcher .you and I. esp. • • • • Find Serbian words which have zero correspondent in English (e. reveal in English but the English words cannot be used indiscriminately (e.g. array . you and me . 5. 4. might: the long arm of the law.wise. Power.clothes. 3. dancing teacher . Find appropriate contexts into which the words: invent. A covering for the arm.presently. reditelj. The upper limb of the human body. Find some other examples of English and Serbian words to show one-to-many correspondence between the members of the pair.igraliste. • Serbian: neizmenljiv is: unalterable and unchangeable in English.ledolomac. ring-finger . Consider the following meanings of the word arm in English: 1. birdwatcher). 2. sagacious . Say in which cases we are dealing with the same word-formation patterns and in which not. discover. • • • Here are some English complex words and their Serbian translation equivalents. Compare the words constituting a pair from the point of view of their motivation. • • vacuum cleaner .g. postman postar. What are the corresponding Serbian words and phrases? • Here are two pairs of English words: fortune .• • • the fact that polysemic words of different languages are not co-extensive (meaning that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the words constituting the pair) and the fact that there is the difference in contextual scope). An administrative branch of an organization as in: a special arm of the government.ucitelj plesa. spring board . vec da obezbedi savrsenu ravnotezu culnih i intelektualnih sposobnosti. carrier-pigeon .krojac. teacher . lawn-mower . but also communication. glass house .gimnasticar. gymnast .e. • • 722 Article 92 of the Company Law prohibits the possibility that the members of the Managing board in two companies in rival position are the same people. Od nasih istoricara moramo ocekivati precizniju analizu drustvenih uslova koji su dali umetnost и proslosti. Compare the following pieces of text and assess them from the point of view of translation equivalence: • • Clanom 92 Zakona о preduzecima utvrdena je zabrana da clanovi Upravnog odbora и dva preduzeca и konkurentskoj delatnosti budu ista Ilea.spremacica.• kozmeticar.golub pismonosa. • • Moramo poceti ispocetka. da osigura prvi uslov stvaralackog doba. This prohibition is imperative i. daydream .otirac. According to Article 439 the breach of the clause concerning rivalry We must begin again.staklena basta.sanjariti. krojacica. housekeeper . obligatory and it is not contractual (as a part of the Foundation Contract. blacksmith . nastavnik. And from our educationists we must expect a remodelling of the educational system which will preserve and refine man's innate sensibility. ensure the first requisite of a creative age. kao procesa koji se odigrava izmedu coveka i coveka jer umetnost nije samo stvaranje vec i opstenje.zora. a ne kao ugovorna (u Ugovoru о osnivanju. Clanom 439 predvideno je novcano kaznjavanje za privredni prestup zbog krsenja klauzule konkurencije iz clana 92 Zakona о preduzecima. not merely in the individual artist. staklenik. • • • • • • • • Contrastive analysis is important in translation. From our psychologists we must expect a more exact analysis of the creative process in man. Statutu Hi slicnom aktu).kucepazitelj.kosilica. the Statute or a similar act). uciteljica. kao sto je и vecini drugih evropskih zemalja. judoist. skromno.dzudista. strpljivo. but as a process occurring between man and man. doormat .odskocna daska. Od nasih pedagoga moramo ocekivati da obrazovnom sistemu daju takav oblik koji ce sacuvati i profiniti covekovu urodenu osecajnost sa ciljem da prakticno delovanje и zivotu ne bude vise nespretno i neadekvatno. but by securing a perfect equilibrium of the sensuous and intellectual faculties. green house -staklena basta. pazikuca. for art is not only creation.kovac. and such is the case in the most part of other European countries. Od nasih psihologa moramo ocekivati precizniju analizu stvaralackog procesa ljudi uopste a ne samo pojedinog umetnika. From our historians we must expect a more exact analysis of the social conditions which have produced art in the past.politicar. Ova zabrana utvrdena je kao imperativna. nastavnica. abortive or destructive. cleaning lady .ucitelj. politician . daybreak . judo player .producent stated in the Article 92 of the Company Law will be penalized (money penalty for the breach of law by a business company). 123 . modestly. staklenik. dressmaker . to the end that the practical activities of life are no longer clumsy and inept. patiently. producer. da se napusta Hi da bude destruktivno. waterproof -vodootporan. expect. public. underneath.Here is an insert from the film. Palo je vece i senke su postale duze. textbook-writing. Take the following English words: eventually. under. Dela govore snaznije od reci. Illustrate. are referred to as confusable words? Take the following English words: bar. . • • The ability of one morphological process to potentiate another by creating a base suitable for that other •_______________________________________proce ss to apply to is referred to as____________________.Actions say louder than words. avoid and prevent. 6.The dog lost its host. • • Provide examples of derivatives representing what is called a first degree derivation (e. Evo jednog inserta iz filma.Evening fell and the shades grew longer. inflectional) affixes? Can a prefix have grammatical meaning? Give a list of grammatical (inflectional) suffixes in English. Ova informacija potice iz pouzdanog izvora.e. Apply contrastive analysis to spot the difference in meaning. and second degree derivation (e. One • morphological process potentiates another one in the way that its output provides the input to another. . sensible. kalkulator. testing). . • • What are derivational affixes? Name some. sympathy. Apply contrastive analysis to assess the appropriateness of the translation. fairly. 7. p.• • • • • 1. drugstore. What are suffixal derivatives? Illustrate. • • What are grammatical (i. calculator. • Here are some Serbian sentences translated into English.Hamlet starts reciting his famous monologue when he is alone on the scene.derived from believe by means of two affixes). Sedeo je u hladu. readiness -derived from ready by adding just one affix). rob and steal. • • • 124 Contrastive analysis is important in methodology (language teaching. rather. beneath.g. . unbelievable . . between and among. . Apply contrastive analysis to explain the mistakes in the English translation due to wrong interpretation and false pairing. • Here is a passage from Herbert Read's The Philosophy of Modern Art (London. Hamlet pocinje da govori svoj cuveni monolog kad je sam na sceni. 8. If you were an English teacher and if your students were Serbian what would be your typical-error prediction on the basis of the contrastive analysis? Why is it that the words: bring and fetch. actual. wait for. MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES • • • • • • • • Give a definition of affixation. 5.He was not accepted to college. Compare them to the Serbian words (anglicisms. 4. The words to be compared are italicized. tandem). Pas je izgubio gazdu. 2. Illustrate. bar. look forward to. • 82 . and quite. Faber & Faber. below. Nije primljen na fakultet. 3. .g. • 7. decorate. hope.This information comes from a reliable well. and tandem. • • What are prefixal derivatives? Illustrate. .He was sitting in the shadow. 69) and its Serbian translation. embark. civilized. insensibility. • • • • • • 124 • Semantically prefixes can be mono.g. employed. locate. in-. quiet. gentlemanly. legal. decentralize. hypocritical. Here are some prefixes for you to classify as class-changing or class-maintaining. assemble. limitable. de. infect. organize. Say to which class every single example belongs. humidify.or dis. ultra-. print. librarianship. usual. readable. calculate. desirable. Explain and illustrate. unblushing. musical. calculation. ex. thinkable. e.in extramarital is class-maintaining in that it does not change the word-class of the derivative (both the base and the derivative are adjectives). hurtful. • The prefix mis. misbehave. appropriate. • Here are some examples of prefixal and suffixal derivatives. half-circle. biased. humidity. prove.e.or dis-: • • • • • Prefixes which shift a word to another category are called class-changing prefixes. dis-. satisfied. humorous. replaceable. extra-. co-authorship. demi-witted or semi-circle. literate. possess.they are nouns). il. half-. lawful. agreement. understand. tidy. tea-spoonful. penetrable. • • • recognizable. efficient.in ex-husband (both the base husband and the derivative ex-husband belong to the same word-class . responsible. irrelevant.is foreign). • • • Make the following words negative by adding un-. appoint. Provide your own examples to demonstrate the difference. means the exact opposite to what is stated in the base. Here are three prefixes meaning 'half: semi-. and demi-. i. believe. unpredictability. democratize. beatable. approve. connect. legitimate. written. ill-. possible. order. invigorate. ultrasophisticated. bi- • • • different. un-. the distinction is made between prefixes of native and foreign origin (e. use. Prefixes which do not change the word-class of a word are called classmaintaining prefixes. uncompromising. regular. headmastership. anti-. armament. usable.and polysemous. place. prepared. definable. The prefix dis-. incline. applicable. behave. probable. oriental. ir-. im-. ex-. official. understanding. disbelief ('not believing'). emotional. polite. integrate • 83 . but something wrong'). ante-.g. reasonable.g. legible. show-offish. misinterpretation. quote. unite. en. repressible. ultra-powerful. table-spoonful. management. decomposition. able. unadvised. Compare: misbelief ('believing. certain. agree. willing.is native and super.in de-ice {ice is a noun and de-ice is a verb). faithful. semiwitted.generally means that something has been incorrectly performed. un. credible. comfortable. however.in enlarge {large is an adjective and enlarge is a verb).to the following words: • mis-. bejewelled • Diachronically. unprecedented. can you say: halfwitted. proportion. unadvisedly. en-.• • State the criterion upon which the distinction between prefixal and suffixal derivatives is made. Add mis. conduct. convenient. demi-circle? Give your own examples. satisfy. believable. agree. lucky. logical. e. appear. Which are foreign and which are native? Are they interchangeable. also extra. direct. proof. limited. irreconcilable. place. accessible. bearable. removable. be-. organization. frivolous. please. uttered. behaviour. desirable. overtake. opposite to compose). -wear.g. overtime. off-field. retirement • • 124 • Adverb particles can be used as prefixes. self-confidence.g. bring up -upbringing. words which begin with the re sequence which cannot be treated as a prefix (e. down. -ripe. -cry. do . -spring. review. self-assured.input. release. reunite. -pour. Here are some words which belong to class (1) and you are asked to add your own examples: self-approval. demistify.'write again'.outlet. -fed. restore. -fit. i. selfanalysis). overrule.g. • • • Here are some words with off-.is very productive in forming nouns from nouns or adjectives from present and past participles (e. Split them into two sets: (1) where re. Say in which cases this off.. descale. self-awareness. -line. -dressed. rephrase -'phrase again'). redistribution. • • • -hearted. -line.is a prefix suggesting 'repetition'. defrost.g. -anxious. -come. This prefix can also mean 'the removal of something' (e. de-ice . selfservice. -set. off-line. return. nouns or adjectives by adding the particles: up. off-season.g.g. -eager. off-peak. decompose .g.can mean (1) excess (e. reopen. whatever is specified in the base' (e. and (2) where re has changed or lost its original meaning. however. off-guard). -duty. Prefixes which are correlated with functional words. self-respect. -confident. -indulgence • • off-campus. -burst. self-restraint. restrain. reservation. -right. off or on as prefixes (e. off-screen. research). -developed. -break. -manned. 84 . reproduction.words meaning 'attitude' (class 2). depoliticize • • • • • The prefix re. -flow. over. off-stage.'separate into its parts. There are. and (2) power (e. Continue the paradigm: self-confident.downfall. overcoat. It has two basic meanings: (1) something done to or by yourself (e. Here are some words starting with re. reactor. out. overlook.g. -root. reapear.. recommendation. reduce. decolonize. -cast. reconstruct.overdone. dehouse. -populated. self-inflicted. overseas. • over. overhear oversee. rewrite . estimate -underestimate.is extremely productive in forming verbs and their related nouns.g. -roar. -write. reprint. -fond.g.'to remove ice from'). -pay. Here are some self.g. self-employed).e. de-bone. -print. -charge. or reverses. over-anxious.. renaming.. re-allocate.to the following words and say to which class they belong according to the meaning of the prefix.overdo. self-important). • • • • • debug. regenerate. fall . reconsider. self-satisfied. It means a repeated performance (e. off-track. rebuild. remarry. in. -exposure. and (2) attitudes (e. offshore). shoot off . underdone. self-discipline. put in . -bringing. overturn).• • The prefix de. let out . done . deactivate. decouple.combines with verbs to make new verbs to mean 'the opposite effect of.offshoot. prepositions and preposition-like adverbs are sometimes termed semibound prefixes.g. repossess. Add de. -fall. remarriage. off-balance. under. self-regulating. -keep. Would you say that the following words belong to either class? • • overall. overcook). Make verbs. off-key self. and in which cases it means (2) that something is not the case (e. de-feather.means (1) position (e. look on -onlooker). recollection. -paid. Note that a final у is replaced by T before adding -ness. -ish in yellowish does not change the word-class of the initial adjective and the derivative is also an adjective. ex. Provide some examples. -ish. hard. Illustrate. king. post-. • • aggressive. professor. Four of the examples. weakness.g. • As to their origin suffixes can be native (e. happy. craftsman. • sub-. -ship and -dom. foolish. bore. kindness. • These three suffixes are used to make abstract nouns from the names that refer to people. • • • • • The suffix -ness is highly productive in making new abstract words from adjectives. girl. words ending in -man also have -ship.all belong to the category of locative prefixes. sick. • Suffixes which shift a word to another category are called class-changing suffixes (e. • Suffixes can be mono.and polysemous. martyr. Illustrate. scholar • There are some examples of nouns ending in -ness. • • Suffixes can have lexical or grammatical meaning in which case they are called inflectional.g. duke. witness • 85 . woman.• fore-. chairman. leader. and a realm or territory. have a different meaning from the one specified in the previous exercise ('state or quality described by the adjective'). mother. comrade. • 124 -hood refer to states. lonely. idleness. Suffixes which do not change the wordclass of a word are called class-maintaining suffixes (e. champion. These newly formed nouns refer to the state or quality described by the adjective. -ize in nationalize shifts an adjective to the verb category. sad. Give a definition of a suffix. child. intra-. Name inflectional suffixes in English. ante-. also -let in froglet where both the base and the derivative belong to the same word-class . gentleness. editor. fellow. parent. Make abstract nouns from the adjectives listed bellow using -ness. -dom) or foreign (e. -fy in beautify shifts a noun to the verb class). trainee. careless. Which are these words? • • happiness. bitter. relation. madness. ambassador.are prefixes of time and order. ill. -ation. blindness. the names for members of a family have the suffix -hood. forgiveness. conditions. father. inter-. drunken.they are nouns). however. black • • part-of-speech Here are three noun suffixes: -hood. Give some more examples of native and foreign suffixes. or the periods of time in which something is experienced. business. member. bold. Give examples of your own to show the difference between those two classes of suffixes. free. star. nouns ending in lord. pre-. trans. likeness. -able). lovely. gangster. youthfulness. attractive. Give your own examples to show this meaning of the prefixes quoted. lively. partner. consciousness. aware. knight. empty. weak.g. white. man. • Make new nouns from the words listed bellow using these suffixes. lady. ugly. open.g. unlikely. the suffix -dom in nouns has two meanings: a state or condition. • Classify suffixes according to their meaning. apprentice. words ending in -er / -or usually have -ship. French -ienne and 86 . Africa. elite. difficult. it can have a 'species' marker (e. long. baker. and all kinds of phrases on the general meaning basis: 'he who or that which is connected with or characterized by his or its appurtenance to'. violin. neurology. right-winger • • beautiful. -ian are also used to form nouns associated with people (e. theology. give. bake. mountaineer). dead. orate. strong. dangerous. Syria. wood-pecker. backhander. science. The suffix -er can be added to compounds and syntactic phrases (e. intelligent. worker. Christ. Give the correct abstract nouns which correspond to the adjectives listed bellow. diner. When it is not possible to add this suffix to a noun. go-getter. In its agentive meaning the suffix -er can take the form of -or.Londoner . sing. grow. all-rounder. -ar (e. downhiller). auction. two-seater. piano. computer. and -ее (e. policewoman. zoology. fiver). psychiatry. see. murder. Add the ending -eer or -ее to these words: • • address. wait on -waiter). wind-surfer. proud • Add the correct suffix (-er. deport. Italy. humble . interview. new. lie. salad-spinner. -ar) to the following words: sail. Here are some words ending in -er. Add the correct suffix to the following words (make appropriate adjustments). Algerian). Analyze their structural pattern. Formations in -ness are sometimes not necessary at all. brave. race. wood-pecker).g. • Suffixes -ist and -an. Londoner. bottom-feeder. true. cheese-cutter). commander. wide. dry. liberate.g. It can be added to a numeral (e. govern. New Yorker. European. weigh. Hungary. counter.• • • Suffixation in -ness is so productive that many abstract words are formed in this way despite the fact that there are already existing words with the same meaning but different morphological shape (compare: humble -humbleness. profit. hard-liner. islander. law.snowboarder). Most often the -er has agentive or instrumental meaning (e. train. triplejumper. • • • Noun-forming suffixes -th and -t are no longer productive. Paris. deep.g. history. Austria. substantive or verbal. refuge. narrate. appoint. absent • • • -ess combines with nouns that refer to a woman or a female animal. long-jumper.humility). examine. botany. to a numeral. ideal. terror. diet. Australia • • • Here are two more suffixes used for people: -eer (e. This suffix can also be added to a noun in which case it has several meanings (compare: commissioner . weekender. detain. employ. beauty. hot • • • • 124 • -er suffix can be tacked on to almost any base: simple or composite. West-Ender. physics. generous. motor.g. extreme. pass by . baroness but woman-writer) or after the noun (e. skateboarder. judo. Nouns can be derived from a phrasal verb by means of the suffix -er (e. high-jumper.g. type.g. politics. cleaning lady). novel. Say in which cases -ness formations are also possible. cartoon. courageous. wide. teen-ager. highlander. make. refer. trust. divorcee).g. engine.g. • • baker. four-wheeler. cooker. donate. abortionist. high.g.passer-by. certain. femininity is indicated by woman or lady put before the noun (e. art. Give the nouns which correspond to these words: • high.g. potter.g. liberator. economics. -or. backbencher. beggar). warm. Classify them according to their general meaning. nationalism. terrorism. contribution. bucket. • • 124 awful. liberation. Add your own examples to the following list. attention. feminism. Add some examples of your own. alcoholism. disposition. graceful. • • beautiful. imagination. tiger. violinist. glass. • -ition.g. dentist. spoon. formation. forceful. investigation. prevention. mailman. cheerful. The most common variations of the spelling of -ion are: -ation. conductor. fruitful. Make the feminine form of these words: • • • • author. lion. Marxism. policeman. fiancee). symbolism. house. plate. codification. teacher. duke. brimful. • • • • action. consumerism. heroism. sack • • -ful also combines with nouns in order to form adjectives which. fiance. wrongful • Can the following words be said to belong to the -ion group described in the preceding exercise? • • • affection. handful . merciful. postman. hooliganism. realization. singer. Add your own examples to the following list: Thatcherism. Make any changes in spelling if they are necessary. consumption. in this case. host. very effective or done with great force). creation. Give your own examples of the words in -ful indicating 'the amount contained'. basket. lawful. speaker. patriotism. and -tion. shameful • • • Say whether -ful in the following words can be interpreted to mean (1) amounts and measurement or (2) characteristics and qualities. painful.-e are also possible indicators of femininity (e. mission • -ism can be found in nouns referring to beliefs. count. manager. fateful. combination refers to the process of combining and exploitation is the process of exploiting). realism. bottle. comedienne. dish. • • • pocket. murderer. box. magician. prince.g. and -ize. completion. cup. explanation. simulation. panther. Negro • • • • The noun suffix -ful can be added freely to many words to indicate the quantity held by what is expressed by the noun (e. steward. -ate. priest. god. chairman. bag. division. pan. cook. Catholicism. room. joyful. information. arm. • 87 . heir. governor. presentation. -fy (-ify). vandalism • • • • The following are verb-forming suffixes: -en.'the quantity held by the hand'). saucer. waiter. teaspoon. if something is powerful it is very strong. Here is a list of words with this meaning. reduction.g. actor. definition • • • • • -ion combines with verbs to form nouns which in this case refer to the state or process described by the verb (e. harmful. addition. describe someone or something as having the characteristic or quality mentioned to a very high degree (e. extremism. deceitful. delightful. tablespoon. boastful. or to behaviour related to such beliefs.g. Make verbs from these words by adding appropriate endings. grateful. Add -ful to the words listed bellow. mayor. -sion. mouth. decision. contemplation. complication. sun. quickly. character. hospital. flavour. false. active. but frightful: *frightless. simple. -like has the meaning of 'resembling or in the manner of (e. quarrelsome) or 'causing someone to feel a particular emotion' (e. fear. smoke. and -less makes adjectives with opposite meaning of 'lacking something'. miserable.g. regular. trouble. badly. name. lively. equal. just. profitable. costly). Here are some words 88 .mannish. comfortable. Classify the following words according to the meaning of the suffix. childlike childish. saint. fearsome). sense. heaven. naturally).g. burden. solid. beauty. fat. -able can also mean 'qualities' (e. bulk. lady.g. agreeable. knowledgeable. war. blame. dependable. -full makes adjectives with the meaning of 'having'. Note that there is no equal number of words in all three sets. bother. adventure. amiable. fruit.g. woman. sympathy. care • • • -ly suffix can form adverbs (e.• • strength. and (3) those where neither is the case. but it can also form adjectives (e. Form adjectives from the following words: • • • blood. hair. brotherly. immune. thick. dirt. intense. loath. digestible). • • • seaman. play. green. love. power. brother. sociable. womanly . stupid. meaningful . cat. man. The following words fall into three classes according to the meaning of the suffix: (1) those with the meaning of 'possibility.womanish. business. faithful: faithless. breath. *lifeful: lifeless). purpose. dust. plastic. pain. Here are some words for you to classify as to whether they can or cannot form the -ful : -less pair (e. awe. time. horror. child. Compare the members of the following pairs of words and state the difference in meaning. sharp.g. Godlike). sex. respect. venture. sleep. rest. tranquil • Adjective suffixes -у and -ly have the general meaning of 'having the quality of or appearance of what is specified in the base. air. washable . need. something that is fashionable is in fashion). imaginable. (2) those with the meaning of 'having certain qualities'. yellow. familiar. honourable. child. speech. capable • • There are some less common adjective suffixes: -like. taste. commercial. hope. length. considerable. lonely. clear.g.g. noise. taste. worth. • possible. trust acceptable. valuable. In this case we say that it is derogatory. and -worthy. world. kind. hard.g. harm. help. dog. grease. heart. lone. preferable. penny.meaningless). • manly .g. colour. life.g.g. -worthy has the meaning of 'worthy of (e. Make adjectives from these words using the appropriate suffix: • • The suffix -able (-ible) is extremely productive in modern English and it can be added to a very large number of nouns and almost any transitive verb to mean 'able to be' (e. mouse. old maid . thirst. leisure. -some is added to verbs and nouns to mean 'attributes and characteristics' (e. When it is added to the names of persons it means 'having the bad qualities of. friend • • • The adjective suffix -ish has different meanings. machine-washable. thought. equally. flower.'that can be washed').old-maidish • • • • • • 124 • Adjective suffixes -ful and -less can be said to have opposite meaning (e. stone. itch. praiseworthy). The form -ible is found in French and Latin borrowings (e. pink. bush. deep. admirable. life. tolerable. -some. a drop. of paper. boastful show-offish The quantity: a grain. discothequenik. hamlet. molecule. particle. heavenly. freckle. of air. globule. bracelet. • • • • • • • What does diminutive mean? Name some suffixes that are used to form diminutives in English. catkin. clearly. duckling.g. northerly. slowly. nestling. 89 . a fragment. etc. of pottery. Match the quantity to the substance (e. of hair. a drop of rain. dolly. cottage. fishburger. maisonette • Smallness can be expressed by the use of suffixes but it can also be implied. Give more examples to demonstrate the productive force of the suffixes used. fatherly. Analyze their derivational pattern. • • • From the point of view of stylistic reference suffixes can be: stylistically neutral (e. pamphleteer. pocket. • Explain their meaning: • • 124 booklet. easily.g. eaglet. starlet.womanish. Inflectional suffixes. Tommy. of meat. piggy. normally. of wood.): • • • Here are some recently coined English neologisms: consumeritis. of bread.unmarked within a lexical and an inflectional paradigm. a morsel. -er in worker) and stylistically marked (e. of blood.ending in -ly for you to divide into two groups according to their part-of-speech meaning: cheaply. e. kitchenette. • The following words indicate small quantities. Illustrate.g. hillock. a blade. earthly. a speck. of wind. of a cigarette. kitten. Give a list of inflectional suffixes in English. cutlet. of rain. exactly. finally. Illustrate. a crumb of bread. a breath. perfectly. a scrap. functors or empty words. -ish in childish). Provide examples. froglet. of grass. a pinch What is grammaticalization? What is markedness? What are markers? Explain the dichotomy: marked . a puff. kid. leisurely. Comment on the suffixes used. chicken. Zippergate. hanky.childish.g. functional words and word order are markers of grammatical relations. Lizzie. kindly seedling. How many inflectional suffixes are there in English? • childlike . sweetie. State the difference between the members of each pair from the point of view of their stylistic reference. suckling. • • Say which English suffixes can be said to have derogatory force. properly. baby. • What is a declension and what is a conjugation? What are grammatical words? These words are also known as functional words. frequently. piggie. • • The substance: of salt. of fossilized bone Suffixes in English can have lexical or grammatical meaning. maiden. of dirt. a lock. of cloth. Give some more examples of words implying smallness. telegenic. The following words all have diminutive endings. jokethon. deary. a crumb. bullock. deadly. of snow. rapidly. Give some more examples of stylistically neutral and stylistically marked suffixes. womanlike . • Compare the following pairs of words. droplet. rigidly. a chip. lambkin. of information. • • What does generic number mean? Illustrate. Illustrate. Say when the category of person is inherent and when it is overtly marked. Illustrate. aspect and voice. gender. in some pronouns and in some verbs. 90 . Give some examples. Provide illustrations. Name those which are marked by functional words. • • 124 • The category of degree is represented by unmarked forms. • What are the exponents of plural number in nouns: in writing and in pronunciation? • • State the rules governing the use of -s and -es in writing the grammatical morpheme meaning 'number'. How many allomorphs does the grammatical morpheme meaning 'third person' have? Name the allomorphs and state the rules. • • Give the rules regulating the writing and pronunciation of the 'number' suffix in verbs. Illustrate. • • • • • Name grammatical categories which are marked by inflectional suffixes.• In English grammatical categories are the following: person. • in what way are the inflectional degree suffixes realized in writing? State the rules. degree. What are the exponents of comparative degree? What are the exponents of superlative degree? • • • • Say something about comparison by inflection. • • Give some examples of plural and sungular invariables (pluralia tantum and singularia tantum). Define the grammatical category of person. Say with which parts of speech these grammatical categories are associated. number. case. Can they be found in adjectives or participles? Do the modals encode the category of number? • • In the preterit there is just one example which encodes 'number'. Grammatical expressions of number can be found in most nouns. tense. Different grammatical categories operate within different word-classes. Are there personal inflections in Modern English? • • What are the rules that govern phonetic realization of the grammatical morpheme meaning 'number'? Illustrate? • • Some plurals have meanings which are not found in singulars. comparatives and superlatives. Illustrate. Which grammatical categories are marked by inflectional suffixes together with functional words? A single morph which simultaneously represents a bundle of several different grammatical elements is referred to as a ____________________morph. Which one is that? • • What is the term generic person used for? Illustrate. modality. Illustrate. definiteness. • • • • What are the exponents of the grammatical morpheme meaning 'third person' in writing? Give the rules. • Define the grammatical category of number. g. e. manipulated. glided. • Divide them into three groups corresponding to three allomorphs which realize the past tense marker. Illustrate. Give the definition of the grammatical category of gender. cook. him is definite. hopped. Find examples to support this statement.determiners for third person singular show feminine -masculine . Give some more examples.g. poet -poetess). State both writing and pronunciation rules.g. oneself is indefinite. 124 There are nouns with dual gender. writer. Illustrate. reduplicated. artist.neuter gender oppositions. • • • • • Define the grammatical category of case.g. surfaced. • What kind of gender is called referring gender? Illustrate. English nouns have a two-case system. Illustrate. possessive. To which word classes does the category of case relate? • • • What is tense as a grammatical category? • • State the rules which regulate the realization of the -sending in the third person singular indicative of the present simple tense. reflexive and emphatic pronouns and possessive Define the grammatical category of definiteness. • • Some words in English are inherently marked for definiteness. Which are they? State the rules. • Here are some verb forms with the past tense marker. Illustrate. compensated. lulled. Personal. brimmed. overpowered. • • divided. • • As for pronouns in English they have either two or three cases. Illustrate. • • There are three allomorphs of the genitive morpheme in English. snubbed. Give some more examples. What does it denote? • • What are the exponents of definiteness? • • What are the allomorphs which realize the definite and the indefinite article. concluded. Give the rules. predominated. Illustrate. • Case relations can be shown by case endings. e. Give more examples. • • • In what way are the inflectional degree suffixes • realized in speech? Are there any allomorphs? Illustrate. Give some examples. • In what way is the genitive inflection written in English? State the rules. • Gender in nouns is represented either by lexical oppositions of formally unrelated words (e. her is definite. • • • State both writing and pronunciation rules which regulate the realization of the past tense marker in regular verbs. • From the point of view of morphological marking. 91 . • Gender distinctions in English are also expressed by pronouns and determiners. whoever is indefinite. Give a few paradigms to support this statement. seemed. lord -lady) or by lexical oppositions of formally related words with overt morphological gender markers (e. 2. • In English the progressive aspect is marked with the auxiliary verb be plus the main verb with the -ing inflection. From whom did you get it? • Concord refers to the situation when two or more lexemes are obligatorily marked for the same morphological categories (e. terrify. do. • What is voice as a grammatical category? What are the exponents of passive voice? Which class of verbs is associated with the use of passive voice? Provide examples to illustrate the opposition active . bridged. • 1. smoothed. • Find the examples illustrating government in the • following sentences. wiped. desire. detest. managed. 6. guided • Define the grammatical category of modality. hurt • • • The rules governing the realizations of the {ed} inflection as part of the verb form called past participle are • identical to those governing the realizations of the inflectional suffix {ed} with the grammatical meaning of the 'past tense'. banged. 4. sabotaged. He is a dear friend of mine. I had a message from her. • What do we mean by agreement in grammar? What other two terms are related to it as its subordinates? • What does government mean in reference to English grammar? Provide illustrations. laughed. coached. • Some verbs in English do not allow the use of the progressive. understand. Pinpoint such verbs in the following group of examples. estimate. • Which modality features are traditionally referred to by the term mood? • The English verb has three moods. like. 5. Explain and illustrate. feel. horrify. hate. move. analyze the following text from the point of view of concord. Give a few pairs of examples to illustrate this distinction. Formulate these rules and provide illustrations. • Major distinction within the category of aspect is made between perfective and imperfective aspect. Of two forms showing concord the use of one necessitates the use of the other. reduce. delete. 3. regarded. By what term is the inflected form traditionally referred to? • In what way is the {ing} realized in speech and writing? • What are the changes that occur in writing when the stem and the inflectional suffix -ing are joined? Provide illustrations. • Two types of modality can be distinguished: epistemic and deontic. Having in mind the definition of concord. compare: a boy has and the boys have .g. It was a serious blunder of yours. renovate.the words in the first phrase are marked for singular number whereas the words in the latter phrase are marked for plural number). Which are they? • Define the grammatical category of aspect. pat. played. dislike.canned. bequeathed. served. I talked to him. identifying the 92 .passive. prefer. know. To what class of verbs do they belong? • • • 124 hop. mailed. occurred. air-conditioned. It was very considerate of you. ' The state of the machine translation art in the mid-1980s is encouraging but not yet satisfactory. Analyze it from the point of view of agreement. e. n'existe pas.prema drugom. Ajoutons que le nombre de lecteurs de la presse quotidienne a baisse d'un quart entre 1980 et 1990. a veliki dug pravi neprijatelja. Speaking plainly. 1996. CUP. • What are other terms which refer to the process of conversion? • What is a technical term for a word which is the output of the process of conversion? 93 . / can be combined only with am and vice versa). p. 197) morphological categories for which the words which make the text are marked. • The following text is in the Serbian language. 124 Ima ljudi koji nisu imali nista drugo nego ugledne prijatelje. (Sergei Nirenburg. she. 1998. At the same time. Blagodarnost je osecanje inferiornosti Le Frangais typique que Ton caricature si souvent coiffe d'un beret. ed.g. Mali dug pravi duznika. Comment on this. Stoga su anticki pisci i istakli red: sve je zajednicko medu prijateljima. on achete moins d'un milion de berets par an et la consommation de pain n'est plus que de 120 grammes par jour.). Prozaik. can combines with: /. Pour illustrer la diversite de Tesprit frangais. is high and growing in our informationsaturated world. Analyze it from the point of view of agreement. je citerai le general de Gaulle qui disait de ces concitoyens: « Comment voulez-vous gouverner un pays ой Ton produit plus de 400 sortes de fromages ? » (Transcriptions. • On the basis of the texts you have just analyzed (and which have been chosen at random for the sake of illustration) answer the following question: what is your general impression on the versatility of the agreement rules in English. to je ne traziti blagodarnost za ucinjene usluge.g. Jer blagodarnost bi bila smetnja zajednickoj sudbini medu prijateljima. he. even between two specific languages. technological and especially conceptual advances are evident in this renascent field of study. kojima je to za zivot bilo dovoljno. un journal a la main et une baguette sous le bras. 270) • • • • • • The following text is in the French language. Machine Translation. 1987. En France. xiii) • • • • • • • • In the text above find the examples of unilateral concord (when the relation of two elements is unilateral in the sense that one element can be combined with several other elements. и prirodi covekovoj lezi da blagodarnost ne odvodi и ljubav nego и potajnu mrznju. Research and development activities directed at building such systems can be united under the headings 'machine translation' and 'machine-aided translation. (Jovan Ducic: Blago cara Radovana. Conversion is sometimes referred to as zero derivation (derivation by zero affix). find the examples of bilateral concord (if one word necessitates the use of the other. etc. we don't have systems that can adequately translate texts devoted to a reasonably broad domain of discourse. you. Mame Imprimeurs. or at least help human translators. Veliki uslov prijateljstva. a svaki dug pravi nezadovoljnika. • • The demand for computer systems that can translate texts among various languages. e. p. p. Serbian and French? Conversion in morphology is the process which produces lexemes which change their word-class without the addition of an affix. metaphor. help.g. cover. • > frog n. deverbal substantives indicating an instrument of the action: move. ship v. Provide more examples. • • • Conversion (or shifting) has to do with the shift of grammar (i.. to honeymoon means 'spending your honeymoon somewhere'. > soldiery. nobody п. • Even affixes can be used as bases for conversion. e. go-between п. simple and complex words can be input material to the process of conversion. limp п... Here are some examples of verb to noun conversion for you to classify according to the following semantic and logic criteria: deverbal nouns meaning the instance of the action. so the meaning of the noun honeymoon is incorporated into the meaning of the the verb to honeymoon and it is for that reason that the noun is considered to be more basic and therefore we are dealing with noun-to-verb conversion).e. deverbal nouns indicating the agent of the action. intransitive > walk v. On the other hand there are words in English which have the same shape and which belong to more than one part of speech (e.. • • • • • 124 Minor kinds of conversion are. from phrases to adjectives... Provide illustrations. turn. Provide illustrations. Transformational analysis can be used to decide on directionality of conversion (e. • All part-of-speech classes can be input material to the process of conversion. doubt п... box v. ups and downs. encore v. blends. Consider the following examples and apply transformational analysis to decide on the directionality of conversion: the whites. for example: conversion from affixes to nouns. • 94 . busy v. the hopefuls.g.• Conversion is a deliberate shift into another word-class (e. clipped forms.. Provide illustrations. • • Name major kinds of conversion. Illustrate. tea n. rebel. • • • • Directionality of conversion has to do with assigning priority to one word-class as the starting point in the process of conversion. Adjectives denoting a quality common to a group of people may denote such people as a group. (meaning 'a French person'). panic v. • Illustrate.. > kiwi n. metonymy).. get-away. break-down. floor v. uncountable > tea n. cradle v. catch. generalization of meaning. drive п.g. permit... Provide illustrations. a daily. • • Superlatives can be used as nouns. (meaning 'a New Zealander'). veto n.. kiwi n. > mop v.. fall-out п. nouns denoting object or result of the action. > skin v. transitive. there is love which is a noun and love which is a verb). in he soldiered his way through the crowd). French п.g. countable (as in the teas of China). The decision is based upon semantic criteria which are given priority. skin n.. Identify the type of shift in the following examples: mop n. • Compounds. back-derived words. > veto v. soldier n. frog n. acronyms. dump. fall-out. from verbs to adjectives.. nouns denoting place of the action. the deaf. handcuff v.. > honeymoon v.. empty v. the deaf. honeymoon n. cheat п. etc. functional shift) and shift of meaning • (specialization of meaning. cure. Provide more examples to show the difference. converted nouns from stative verbs.. walk v. derivatives. .g. to bone. winter. then adj. belly-land. • • • Explain the difference between complete and partial conversion. ski.He tried to cushion the fall). land v. Provide more examples. chance. refund.g. to box). Provide more examples. regular п. ugly п. screw. walk v. host. • ► Here are some examples of disyllabic noun-verb A number of compound verbs are formed by conversion. scalp. • • • Identify the type of conversion in the following examples: 1. to empty.g. • • Illustrate the principle approximate conversion. Belgrade adj.. commercial п. Balance . (as in Belgrade fair). 2. stage. break-down.. panic. Provide examples. milk. • • » Read the following nouns: abstract. soldier. box v. He will repair it. motor.g. insult. bicycle. gray. press-up. e • 95 .. Say if they differ in stress. 2. • Verbs converted from nouns may denote: action (e.g. to vocation. film. intransitive can shift to the transitive class as in: He offered to walk me home). .... • • • » When verbs are converted into nouns. • • • 124 kinds of alteration 1. cushion . • pairs..g. to fork). to fish. honeymoon v. lust. to dirty. Autograph. • • • > Verbs can change their subsidiary class due to conversion (e. e. photograph. con'duct v. to stagemanage. place (e. peel. to idle.. balloon. bomb. tower.. remake.g. nail. field. side-step. to dust). export.).g. parade. telescope. x-ray. tea : teas (meaning 'different kinds of tea'). to can. to busy. support -support. to dim. referee. to yacht. to better. Here are two more examples for you to comment on. to whip. (as in an off chance). (as in the then Miss of the World). land. It is the why of the crime that interests the police. cradle. holiday.. conflict. censor -censor.'digest п. » Consider the following examples and say if they represent the instances of complete or partial conversion: floor v. cradle. release . suspect.• Uncountable nouns can become countable nouns (e. Provide more illustrations. to spotlight. 'conduct п. dog. instrument (e. If you snow someone you talk in a flattering and insincere way in order to deceive them. elbow. crusade. hammer. supersonic п. • • • » What do we mean by approximate conversion? • » • in Consider the following examples and identify the type of conversion: summit п. rich п.. to honeymoon). • • Consider the following examples and identify the type of conversion involved: to bald. dfgest v. He was hissed off the stage.dispute. convertible п. import.release. refill. to still. newly marrieds n..g. dispute . the stress usually shifts from the second to the first syllable (e. extract. transport. weekend. time (e.g. the how you leave to him. deprivation of the object (e. off adj. Classify the following converted verbs according to the semantic and logic criteria: ape. • • » Use the following verbs in context (e. nurse. to butcher).balance. a fellow with bad manners. as cold as marble. jealousy. a walk of three miles. a timid fellow.to je kad dva majmuna izlemaju treceg zato sto se majmunise. as bright as silver. a lady with auburn hair. a person clever in small thefts. an open handed man. as clear as crystal: crystal-clear): • • • • • • as black as coal. a commoner with the red blood. a gentleman with gray hair. a monastery 96 . a fellow with the heart of a chicken. stained with blood. a boy with an oval face. covered with earth. as sharp as a razor. written by hand. as cold as stone. a book where the corners of the leaves have been turned down to mark particular pages : a dog-eared book): • • • • Civilization . a jacket with a colour of coffee. having eyes as keen as the lynx. a girl with a round face. a job to be completed in a year. a light-fingered person • Rephrase the following so that you use a compound adjective (e. piano music played by four hands. a river which is six hundred miles long. a girl with dark eyes. as smooth as glass. having the eyes like Argus. laced with gold. as white as snow. shoes with rubber soles. soiled while in shop. a journey of two thousand miles. a sofa which is covered with leather. a generous man. swept by the wind. a report having two pages : a two-page report). a man with big shoulders. drawn by a horse. lit by the moon : moon-lit): • a girl with green eyes. as firm as a rock. • • • • financed by the state. plated with silver. a chicken-hearted fellow. a delay of a quarter of an hour.g. lit by the candles. murder committed in cold blood. a hat with a narrow brim. driven by the wind. knitted by hand. made by man. a lady who is well dressed. trained in college. born in New York. shoes with high heels. an interval which lasts fifteen minutes: a fifteen-minute interval): • • a hat having three corners. a walk which takes half an hour. • Find another expression for the following so that you use a compound adjective (e. a stingy man. having no enthusiasm for the business in hand. famous all over the world. covered with leather. a man with a quick wit. a left-handed compliment. the green-eyed monster. halfhearted.• • Having in mind what you know about conversion compare the following Serbian graffiti with its English translation equivalent focusing on the words in bold type: • • • Civilizacija . a compliment of doubtful sincerity. made by a tailor. a girl with gray eyes.g. a man with an open heart and open mind.g. surrounded by the police. a lady with the blue blood. shoes with low heels. a girl with blue eyes : a blue-eyed girl): • • • 124 • • Rephrase the following so that you use a compound adjective (e. as green as moss. a banknote worth 100 dollars. lined with trees. • Key: a double-minded man. Mind that the measuring word is always singular because it is the unit of measurement (e.g. a man who weighs twenty stones. • Rephrase the following so that you use a compound adjective (e.that's when two monkeys beat up another monkey because he has been monkeying around. a man whose mind wavers between two or more courses of action.g. a building with a hundred storeys. as blue as the sky. a close-fisted man. controlled by the state. • Rephrase the following so that you use a compound adjective (e. a leave lasting three days. a performance lasting two hours. covered with snow.g. the ..... deck lounge : lounge deck. Note the difference between nonce formations and institutionalized compounds.. a gadget for slicing eggs...-beaten face. an up-to-. lively.. way but his speech was very . boat deck : deck boat...-drawn-out argument.. a machine for mowing grass. • • boat life : life boat.-school tie is the mark of a high social class. a final desperate struggle is referred to as a . laboratory research: research laboratory.g.. this problem should be solved on a day-to-..clothes to . and focus between the following pairs of constructions: the room is .. I shall always remember this never-to-be-...-fitting dress. a machine for purifying water.. a pass which expires at the end of two weeks.. fruit market : market fruit.healthy and energetic (a jocular comment on a person's general condition and spirits) : bright-. he kept us all bored by his ..he spoke in a matter-of-fact voice): • State the importance of word order in composition. he stole it: he was caught red-.g. child problem : problem child..-to-wear suits... a drip-. horse show: show horse. moment. the watch is . .g. • What is differential meaning? Explain the difference in structure and meaning between the following pairs of constructions: • • • 124 the duchess was devastated by the divorce : the divorce devastated duchess. both equally dangerous is referred to as a edged sword.. Note that there are also some institutionalized compounds expressing the same idea (e. horse race : race horse. the air-company charted the flight: the air-company charted flight... a gadget for slicing cheese. cage bird : bird cage. a situation with two options. . a man with a . a river which flows slowly • • Fill the blank spaces with some common compound adjectives (e... voice . meaning..-proof. flower garden : garden flower.-the-point..-educated man. she came in wearing a .. pet shop : shop pet... • • • Find the examples of compound words in the following text. finger ring : ring finger. State their word-formation pattern and their part-ofspeech meaning.. a bird which flies high. and . a railway carriage of the first class. he carried out an extensive research: he is ... the case so strong that it cannot be challenged is referred to as a . life in the country is simple and very down-to-. they washed the silk dress by hand: a hand washed silk dress • • • • Explain the difference in structure... version of a computer program.. she was praised for her .. a gadget for slicing eggs : an egg-slicing gadget: egg-slicer).. • • • • • • a job which consumes a lot of time. • 97 .... a man who suffers a long time.-proof.-tailed. a car which is moving fast: a fast-moving car).. a machine for cutting grass. he graduated from a university: he is .Her. they knitted the pullover by hand: a hand knitted pullover. • • • Rephrase the following so that you use compound adjectives with present participle (e.-informed. basis.. I prefer made-to-.-iron case. he is an out-and-. built in the thirteenth century.. some people speak in a round-. dress.-ditch effort... a car with a rating of 20 horse-power. he spoke in a matter-of . a gadget for cutting cheese..-thought-out argument.. A tom-tom is a long narrow African or Asian drum that you play with your hands. 11. plates. they type without looking at the keys on the typewriter. 31.• 124 1. The bride wore a full-length ivory wedding gown with three-quarter length sleeves and a 20-foot train. She became quite sought-after as an afterdinner speaker. The dialect of the area has a sing-song intonation. 29. and Molly wears a pale coffee raw silk dress with lace overlay. A draining-board is the place on a sink unit where things such as cups. 4. His research took him among the down-and-outs in the city of Liverpool. Catherine and Molly model bridesmaid dresses Catherine wears a powder-pink raw silk flower fairy dress with pale-pink tulle and an apple blossom headdress. / knew she would never get too big headed because she is so well grounded. 34. 26. 9. are put to drain after the washing up. 27. 30. 42. She wanted to be more than a hanger-on. When somebody touch-types. 21. She had a drawstring bag and the trousers with a drawstring waist. a camp follower. 40. Some of the food is very good. We sell a lot of down-market books. She couldn't get to the meeting so she sent me as her stand-in. Tom was ashamed seeing his grease-stained hands. He became completely tongue-tied. 12. 48. 45. 24. This country has the most poverty-stricken and downtrodden population in the world. Don't be too downhearted. and some of it's plain ordinary. Daisy wears a backless cowl neck top with crystals. wink-wink rumours that have appeared in broadsheet and tabloid newspapers over the last two years. 3. 43. 6. 36. 20. Inflation could be down to 8 per cent or thereabouts. star-shaped creature with five arms that lives in the sea. some of it's so-so. I'm trying to arrange a stand-in lecturer. 2. Tracy wears a silk sweetheart two-layered corset in pastel check and Catherine a wedding dress in lavender silk taffeta with a strapless boned bodice. Mrs. which is often found near slow-moving or still water. with the added idea of courage. To be high-minded is to be of noble mind. 37. Victoria wore an unusual one-sleeved dress in a black and white animal-style print. You must toilet-train the child. 33. 32. 41. 18. Another great bag by what's-their-name! • • • Illustrate the process of recursiveness in word formation in the following examples. There will be a similar downturn in manufacturing and industry. He had much more down-to-earth reasons. A fifteen day bus tour of Scotland with a plan-as-you-go itinerary. 23. He stood still with his eyes downcast. After much soul-searching the union called off the strike. 46. He was quite a show-offish and stand-offish person. and high-spirited is similar. Eight police outriders escorted the minister's car. 28. 14. 38. My uncle is quick witted like my grandfather. While-U-wait service. The article then listed a series of nudge-nudge. 8. 10. 44. insinuating the Prime Minister was having an affair. To show the difference 98 . The soil from the river banks is washed downstream. 22. 'She sells seashells on the seashore' is an English tongue-twister. Already the landscape has a depopulated and dreamlike air. 16. Pringle came to give me a hand with the spring-cleaning. 13. 39. 25. Hollywood star pictured with on-screen wife • Penelope Cruz. A pick-me-up is a drink that you have in order to make you feel healthier and more energetic. He offered some tongue-in-cheek advice about keeping out of the rain. 19. 5. etc. cutlery. This was a soul-destroying job. A starfish is a flat. 47. 17. A dragonfly is a brightly-coloured insect with a long thin body and two pairs of wings. 7. 35. 49. beautifully crafted to hold all of your keepsakes. High-principled and high-toned have this meaning of high-minded. 15. The two schedules dovetailed together without friction. This artistically detailed tile topped jewelry box contains three multiple sized ring holders. walking stick. computer processing speed. kill-joy. hunting ground. Juxtapose different interpretations to show the difference between them (e. kill-time. grasshopper. washing-machine.g. housetraining. hard-hitter. which groups: walking leather shoes. standing-ground. • • • • shock absorber. roller blades • • • • climbing plant. road safety centres. saddle leather riding boots. dancing girl. folding door. and 'species'. sucking-bottle. • • bottle-washer. house-warming. snake-charmer. bullfighting. housekeeping. climbing-boot. e. bird-watcher has a 'habitual' marker. hard-liner. three-cornered. sleeping pill. sleeping partner. in-line skates. lawn mower. cold-blooded. windowdressing. humpbacked. 'habitual'. liberal party members. washing-house. Note that there are homonymous words like. rocking chair. cutpurse. primitive / art exhibition): dirty work overalls. crease resistant machine washable drip-dry fabrics. dressmaking. best-dressed. bottle-washer.g. kill-time has a 'purpose' marker. swivelling chair. wrong-doing. bird-trainer has a 'habitual and profession' marker. brain-twister. all-rounder. gold-plated. sleeping-car. kidney-shaped.g. mercy-killing. The examples listed fall into two distinctive groups. special night show. sucking-pig. Highlight the difficulties that may arise when doing the translation.safety centres. grave-digger. and rove-beetle has a 'species' marker. video cassette recorder. • • Disambiguate the following. card player. 'habitual and profession'. dancing bear: a bear who dances. drinking straw. • • • • Translate into your mother tongue the following. housebreaking. spring cleaning. bake-house. dancing bear. window-cleaning. dancing partner. sneeze-weed. dancing-shoe. feeding-bottle. shooting star. food poisoning. dancing shoes : shoes for dancing). primitive art / exhibition. lie detector. weeping-elm. weeping-willow. blotting-paper. dish-washer (having a 'purpose' marker) and dish-washer (having a 'habitual and profession' marker). dogeared. electrical garbage disposal equipment. hunting-dog. primitive art exhibition : 1. light-hearted. starting-point. roller skates. hundred-percenter. writing-paper. mocking-bird. mouthwash. flycatcher. bookbinder. hunting-spider. standing-bed. hunting-field. modern art exhibition. high-heeled. drinking water. down-hiller. systemic connective tissue lung disease in meaning of the different types of examples resort to transformational analysis. readingroom. gambling house. a kitchen fitted with a stainless steel sink. blotting-paper. Saturday shopping guide. stink-bird. single-handed. washing-powder. wind speed and direction. hunting-party. dancing-girl. sharp-eyed. answerphone. tape recorder.g. 2. shooting jacket. humming99 . world hunger relief scheme. window-shopping. wishing-well. skipping-rope. air freshener. he stood the red wine bottle on the bench beside him. time-killing. speed indicator. folding machine. ironing-board. grave-digger. e. fire-eater. frying pan. road Divide the following examples into four sets according to the semantic markers: 'purpose'. drinking chocolate. washing-day. catch-fly. gambling-man. walking shoes. trouble maker. • • 124 Disambiguate the following examples of the V-ing + noun combinations resorting to transformational analysis (e. windowwasher. drawbridge. blood poisoning. washing-powder. drinking-man. freedomlover. sleeping bag. fly-catcher. housebreaker. special delivery service. cooling. woodpecker. folder. Мех.door-keeper swing swing-door • • • • • • • DOOR (scraper. reading. gambling. wrapping. coffee table. suck-egg. mac. Ben. riding. ref. ma'am. printing) • WATER (drinking. Add to the list some of your own examples. fastener.e. Shortening (or sometimes referred to as clipping) can take the shape of final clipping (where the end of the original word is clipped). sailing. washing) GLASS (blower. polish. sandwich maker. maker. cablegram. honey-guide. finder. sitter. post. serigraphy.bird. Liz. radioscopy. jogging. fab. guide. innkeeper writing. reading. washing. hydropathy. sea. diplopia. work. breaker.g. clothes. • drinker. bus. weather. work. mailomat. carrier. clipping) they belong. perm. slaughter. keeper. painter. work. leg-puller. work. wishing-well. pleasure-seeker. informal): sis. tracing. • breaking. syncope (where the middle part of the word is left out). cavedweller. keeper. hotel) • PAPER (blotting. mail. Example: • DOOR (keeper. Liz. both-ends clipping (where final and initial clipping are combined). police. plane. drawing. cooler. painting. owner. bindery. climbing-boot. Nick. seller. making. work. magnifying. dream. clip. doc. tracing paper. man. room. dreamer. • cleaner. cotton-picker. turncoat. green-keeper. merchant. • maker. prize-fighter. gents. hang) BOOK (binder. folding. black. knife. lab. breather. news. power. coal-digger. walking-shoe. race. spy) • SHIP (battle. hospital. tuning-fork. skiing. warming. nanotechnology. printing. keeper. show) • HOUSE (bake. Aussie. Here are some clipped forms in English. building. specs. stop. living room. Cinema. wrapping-paper. rat. Shortening means the reduction of a word where one part of the original word is subtracted. hair-splitter. sleeping bag. radioluminescence. water-breather. shop. • rocking. slip. pay. swing) keeper . Pat. shoe. looking. technophobe. seed-feeder. stall. cleaning. putting it either before or after to make an attested compound word. taming. lady-killer. holder. • wheel) • BED (standing. coke. and sometimes informal. • • The usage of the word obtained by clipping and of the original word is different: clipped words are generally considered to be less formal. technophile. store) • • • • • Combine the words in capital letters with each word from the list in brackets. There seem to be no phonological or spelling reasons on the basis of which the subtracted part can be predicted. feeder. walking) • HORSE (tamer. running. owning. builder) • SHOE (dancing. garbage. ref. revolving. pearl-diver. night-worker. carrycot. flow. mike. 124 Here are some neo-classical compounds (formed from elements of the classical languages): Scientology. ski-runner. Say to which category of shortening (i. milk. prof. builder. biophysics. collecting. prom. knittingneedle. gym. bag) MAN (ginger bread. flag. fridge-freezer. flu. boxing-glove. warmer. comfy. neurolinguistics. spokes. Consider the following examples of clipped forms and assign a language style marker to them (e. account. cutter. fall. worker. phone. mat) DAY (break. cutter. 100 . keeping. co-op. glass-blower. ad. radiometeorgraph. sleeping-suit. initial clipping (where the beginning part is subtracted). money. pub. eating. peep. vet. case. fridge. treecreeper. softener. shine. otorhinolaryngology. bartender. g.. A. www. J. I. radar. Provide more examples to illustrate this way of word forming. daily paper > daily (compare: daljinski upravljac > daljinski. NB. PIN. and mobilni telefon > mobilni in the Serbian language).. P. Read the following: D. . cf. Ltd. popular music > pop. p. К. M. V.. Consider the following pairs of examples and say which other process are combined with ellipsis: final exams > finals. F. GB.. O. Mr. NATO.g.. S. How do you understand the following comment that appeared in an American newspaper: 'Can we ABC while we MTV?' • • • Netspeak abounds in acronyms and clippings (e.g. RSVP. а. /■mistaV). CD.. i. P. VCR. Ellipsis in morphology is the omission of a part of a word or parts of words or phrases. Find some more examples.. A. Various other processes are often interwoven with ellipsis. in a letter or a fax: c/o. 101 . • Here are some abbreviations with 'ordinary' pronunciation (e. RSVP. and 2. PS. Ellipsis may result in a change of lexical and grammatical meaning and the new word belongs to a different part of speech. M. A-bomb. AIDS. UN.Master of Arts).e.g. Initials and clipped elements can be combined with fullword elements (e. PTO. UN. M. S.g. ext. /bi:bi:si:/). J.. OPEC. PTO.. NATO. C. A. т. AIDS. V.. e.. т. • • 124 Rx is a noun meaning: 1. SARS.. UNESCO. I. DVD. • • • • Here are some clipped forms. Say what these abbreviations mean. laser /leizaV) and some initial abbreviations with the alphabetical reading retained (e.g. Б.. laser... • • • Here are some abbreviations that you can see on an envelope. S. a prescription. It is an abbreviation of Latin recipe meaning 'take'. H. and Hx 'history'.g. What are the codes for 'treatment' and 'symptoms'? • • What are acronyms? Provide some examples. Young people in the States do not seem to be interested in reading books nowadays.. Provide more illustrations..Dx 'diagnosis'. R. В. a solution to a problem. permanent wave > perm. H. preliminary examinations > prelims. CD). enc. A. OPEC. U. e. SARS. Rx also has a few cousins. в. PR officer). О. etc. С. UNESCO.g. т. • • Ellipsis is defined as the omission of a word or words considered essential for grammatical completeness.. • • • There are some abbreviations which appear in writing but which are pronounced as the full word (e. I. Match them with their corresponding undipped forms (e. • • • • • • promenade concert > prom; taximeter-cab > taxi-cab > taxi; cooperative store > co-op. • Abbreviations receive the plural and possessive case inflections (e.g. M. P.-s, M. P.'s). Give the verb paradigm of O.K. • Acronyms can be used atributively (e.g. TV program, UN vote). Provide more illustrations. • • • Two types of blends can be distinguished: additive (e.g. guesstimate - guess and estimate) and restrictive (transformable as a head word and a modifier, e.g. spam spiced ham). Consider the following examples and say to which type of blends they belong: actorexia, televangelist, cinerama, positron, mimsy, Benelux, Euroasia. • Instead of ballute (balloon + parachute) combinations such as: paraloon or balachute are equally possible. However, it is only ballute that is attested. Can you say why? • There are blends created of phonaesthemes, i.e. elements based on the principle of expressive symbolism (e.g. flimmer < flicker + shimmer). Provide your own illustrations. Here are two examples of compound blends. screenager < screen + teenager, celtuce < celery + lettuce. Provide examples of nominal compound blends, adjectival compound blends, and verbal compound blends. • Blending is compounding by means of clipped forms. The result of blending is a blend or portmanteau word. • There are two meanings packed up in a single word. Can you work out the meaning of the initial undipped forms entering the process of blending in the following examples: smog, brunch, sexpert, amberlievable, motel, foolosopher. • There are blends created as suffixed words (e.g. washeteria, fishburger). Give more examples which belong to the 'teria' and 'burger* paradigm. Here is a word that appeared in an advertisment in Hair magazine: ansafaxacopyphone. What do you think it means? Think about the processes of shortening and blending. • • • Cockney rhyming slang belongs to the general category of blending. Provide illustrations. Blends seem to be on the rise in terminology and trade advertisments. Take some British and American magazines and search them for blends. • • Back-formation is the word-forming process which involves deletion of actual or supposed affixes (e.g. stage-manager > stage-manage). It is also called reverse derivation or retrograde derivation. Analyze the following examples of back-formed words: blockbust, baby-sit, dry-clean, mass-produce, lip-read, stage-dive, burgle, sculpt, edit, typewrite, vacuum-clean. • • Metanalysis means re-interpretation of a particular structure counter etymology. In what way are backformation and metanalysis related? 102 • • Phraseology is the study of word-groups the members of which are functionally and semantically inseparable. What is the term by which we refer to such wordgroups? • What is the difference between phraseological units and variable word-groups? Provide illustrations. • Say if the italicized phrases are free and variable or fixed and invariable: • • The most productive type of back-formation is derivation of verbs, and composite verbs in particular, from compounds that end in either -er or -ing (e.g. • thought-reading > thought-read; housekeeper > housekeep). Provide more examples of this type of backformation (e.g. house-warm, vacuum-clean, etc). • • • Here are two pieces of text from the magazine Hair (Feb. - March 1998). Analyze the italicized words from the point of view of word-formation processes. When thinking about back-formation bear in mind that the process is heavily based on analogy. • • Style: After applying strong-hold mousse, hair was diffuser-dried, then blow-dried smooth. To style, hair was gathered up, pleated, twisted and pinned into place. The ends were backcombed and spritzed with hairspray. • • Style: After blow-drying the fringe smooth, rough-dry the remainder of the hair and work wax throughout, pushcombing to create a sexy tousled effect. • 1. When you lose your purse or lose the game do not lose 2. 3. 4. 5. • • Phraseology is interested in cliche, idioms, proverbs, and familiar quotations. Provide illustrations. • What is a cliche? Illustrate. • How does a cliche compare to some other types of stereotypical formations? To what language style do • cliche words and phrases belong? • • • Reduplication is the word-forming process which produces reduplicative compounds that fall into three main groups: reduplicative compounds proper (e.g. blah-blah), ablaut combinations (e.g. chit-chat), rhyme combinations (e.g. boogie-woogie). Here are some examples of reduplicative compounds for you to classify: mumbo-jumbo, pow-wow, helter-skelter, hurdy-gurdy, hurlyburly, hocus-pocus, tiptop, mish-mash, lovey-dovey, pingpong, sing-song, flip-flop, zigzag, hah-hah, murmur, teenyweeny. • 766 your temper] Have a look at the reverse side of the tailcoat. The reverse side of the medal is that they will leave us in the cold. We left the beaten track in order to see some more exciting sites. The scientist left the beaten track and came up with a new theory. 8. PHRASEOLOGY 767 • • Cliche formations fall into different categories. State which they are and provide examples (e.g. bottom feeder individual word; creme de la creme - phrase; pie in the skyrhyme based on assonance, etc.) • • 5. ...the Rubicon 6. Judas' ... • Here are some commonplace comparisons. Insert the word which is missing (e.g. as hungry as a ... - as hungry as a hunter) • Here are some examples of cliche. Divide the examples into five sets: individual words, phrases, proverbs and sayings, rhymes based on assonance, rhymes based on alliteration: • • • accidents will happen; add fuel to the flames; all things considered; it's all Greek to me; ants in your pants; the back of beyond; to beat about the bush; big-wig; I was not born yesterday; buzz word; not to be fit to hold a candle to someone; cliff-hanger; loose canon; every cloud has a silver lining; two's company- three's a crowd; off the cuff; don't let the grass grow under your feet; don't look a gift horse in the mouth; ugly duckling; fat cat; keep your fingers crossed; to make someone's hair stand on end; to make a mountain out of a molehill; name-dropping; namby-pamby; neither fish, flesh nor fowl; pie in the sky; when in Rome do as the Romans do. • • • In English there are a number of stereotyped and cliche phrases containing eponyms (e.g. Achilles' heel, Adam's apple). Finish the following cliche phrases by inserting the appropriate word: 1. 2. 3. 4. 170 cut the Gordian ... as ... as Methuselah Hercules' ... The ... of Damocles As ... as coal, as ... as ink, as ... as a day, as busy as a as changeable as a as ... as a frog, as cold as as cool as a as ... as a fox, as ... as a door nail, as deaf as a as deep as a as ... as a bone, as ... as dust, as drunk as a as easy as as fat as a as ... as a pancake, as ... as a daisy, as ... as a king, as ... as a dove, as ... as a feather, as like as two as mute as a as ... as the hills, as ... as a ghost, as ... as church mouse, as ... as a peacock, as ... as lightning, as ... as a Jew, as ... as a razor, as ... as the grave, as ... as glass, as ... as honey, as ... as a wafer, as thin as a as ... as a toad, as ugly as a as ... as a drowned rat, to follow like a ... • • • According to the language style fixed similes are not neutral and they should be used with care. Would you say that they are informal and humorous? • • • • Here are some fixed similes with like: drink like a fish, sleep like a log, etc. Rephrase the following sentences which have the like construction so that you explain what they mean. 1. He never misses a thing: he has eyes like a hawk. 2. The manager was like a bear today. 3. I won't take her with me to a party again! Last time she was like a bull in a china shop. 4. Your criticism was like a red rag to a bull. 104 over and over. Keep . He was beautifully brought and so were all his brothers and • sisters. to now. in any case. the grass! • • Adverb particles can be found in imperatives and exclamations.. dead and gone. Which other expressions with this and that do you know? • Here are some fixed expressions used as sentence modifiers: if the worst comes to the worst. e... • on and off. at any rate. 11. short and sweet. put. on the contrary. on and on. take. at all events. 4. as luck would have it.. odds and ends. slow but sure. hit and miss. and bring. I wonder what he is . flesh and blood. sooner or later. She was heavily made . give and take. rough and ready. do not smoke during take. He was taken . Look out!. your mind. the long and short. good or bad.. Their meaning can be transparent.. great and small. Use these expressions in context. back and forth. him the moment I saw him. make. 14. Use these phrases in context. • put + off > put off meaning to cancel). up and down.. 9. be.. Consider the following examples that are ambiguous in the sense that two interpretations can be assigned to them: the 105 . • By idiom we understand peculiar uses of particular words and phrases which have become stereotyped. that's that. 7. Add the correct particle in the following sentences: 1. You can't sit on the fence forever. 8. 10. Learn these adjective -adjective combinations by heart: for better for worse. fair and square. more or less.. Please. • • • Some common verbs combine with prepositions or particles to form verbs (often referred to as phrasal verbs) with new and often unpredictable meanings (e. in and out.. 5.... if all else fails.. first and foremost. 12... over head and ears. the stove before leaving the kitchen. heart and soul. in all probability. sink or swim. rack and ruin. I took . Put. 13.. brake.g... through fire and water.. The order of the elements within the idiom is fixed and the meaning of it is not equal to the sum of the meanings of the parts. on second thoughts. Here are some phrasal verbs formed from: do. Learn these idiomatic pairs by • heart: Alpha and Omega. His car broke . Make . high and dry. cut and dried. turn.• • • Here are some two-word fixed expressions (the words are usually connected by and or or): here and there. rough and ready. now and then. 3. come. through and through. • • 170 • Sometimes two nouns go together making a fixed idiomatic collocation.. 2.. New regulations came . • • There are certain adjectives that often go in pairs. rich and poor. free and easy. He did . part and parcel. this is it. Hands off!. two weeks ago.. slow and steady. drunk or sober.g. wine and dine. sword and shield. on the whole.. with the safe. part and parcel. in all likelihood. the house and made . sheep and goats.. Here are some cliche examples: Get out!. 6. unexpectedly. pick and choose. tooth and nail.. skin and bone. Use these phrases in context. Their order within the pair is fixed and the phrases should be memorized as such. with all his bad habits. past and present. He is capable of anything. through thick and thin. • Everyday language is full of fixed expressions. We applied for the scholarship but they turned us . on the other hand. by her story.. He broke . all or nothing. Be off! Provide more illustrations. bag and baggage.. in other words. A small fish in a big pond 4. Unemotional. Identify the structural pattern of the following idiomatic phrases: an apple of discord. Have bigger fish to fry 9. chickenhearted man. She hardly socializes at all: she's a bit of an odd-ball. Feel awkward or ill at ease because you are in an unfamiliar situation 5. Difficult to identify. unfriendly and unsympathetic 9. 8. Not interested because you have something else to do 7. Neither fish nor fowl 11. All went down the drain. Find out the meaning of the following idioms: black sheep. blue stocking. His political ideas are very much middle-of-the-road. Give more examples to show inappropriateness of the literal interpretation of the idiom. 6. 1. 5. a bed of thorns. • Here are some idiomatic adjective and noun phrases • and their meaning: animal spirits 'natural cheerfulness'. a Jack of all trades. arch look 'a sly. some gloriously OTT. 2. 4. another catches cold. 7. Dutch courage. white lie. Like shooting fish in a barrel 10. Before I got involved in this I used to think that mountaineers were a little bit round the bend. They were left out in the cold. These are. free lance. interesting. • • • 4. the ups and downs of life. • Idioms are typically metaphorical: they are metaphors • that have become petrified or fossilized (e. Not interested because you have more important. The weaker side has no chance at all of winning 4. cold shoulder (in to give one the cold shoulder). Somebody 106 . Keep your chin up! What have you got up your sleeve? She was skating on thin ice. A cold fish 5. storm in a tea cup). There are plenty more fish in the sea. high flier. Say in which context only idiomatic meaning would be appropriate.g. sleeping partner. diamond wedding. or profitable things to do 6. slow coach). red-letter day. Drink a lot of alcohol 8. State these two different meanings in each case. double-minded man. ordinary middle-of-the-road people who want the usual things out of life. 2. quixotic project. a house of mourning. 1. Say in which context literal meaning would be appropriate. queer fish. Some are subtle. a fish out of water. A fish out of water 7. swan song. to have green fingers. A big fish in a small pond 3. She has a tongue. black sheep. When I look at models with all that over-the-top makeup. Have other fish to fry 8. or understand 2. bad blood 'vicious temper'. • • 1. significant look'. 3. Provide more examples.• literal and the idiomatic one. the ins and outs of a thing. for the most part. a bed of roses.g. leap year. I 3. What do these idiomatic phrases mean? Use these phrases in context. He has the Sword of Damocles hanging over his head. cold feet (in to have cold feet). wet blanket. 5. when they see you in the morning?' Each design is very different in style.There are still many other people you can be happy with 3. birds of a feather. blind alley 'a lane closed at one end'. A big fish 2. 'What happens when you take your face off. cold war. small talk. crocodile tears. • • • There are instances where literal meaning does not make sense (e. the man in the street. French leave. 6. Drink like a fish 6. classify. • 170 Match the following fish idioms with their meaning: • 1. • • Find out what the italicized idioms mean: think. When one person sneezes. hush money. play gooseberry. get out of bed on the wrong side. • Here are some English words and phrases whose meaning you can't work out on the basis of your knowledge of the meaning of their constituent parts and of your knowledge of the pattern used in the formation of a particular word or phrase. open someone's eyes. Here are some eye idioms for you to say what they mean and to use them in context: before your eyes. 8. hoce biti. кот opanci. trla baba Ian da joj prode dan. bullish. In all honesty he will trick you. и biti nekoga и pojam. eye-opener. You earn your bonus by the correct answer. igrati na jednu kartu. have a finger in every pie. The show was excellent: the music was great and the costumes were out of this world. overcook. drop you. drop a brick. out of a clear blue sky. up to your eyes. Players write down the meaning of a word or phrase. I think you should challenge his opinion and not dance to his tune just because he is your superior. cheat you. to have green fingers. have eyes in the back of your head. dva losa ubise Milosa. • • salad days. acid test. • • 170 • Translate these English idioms into Serbian: by the skin of your teeth. siroke ruke. I hate to say it. if you pay peanuts you get monkeys. deveta rupa na svirali. • 6. ne mrdnuti ni prstom. • • Translate these Serbian idioms into English: drveni advokat. bacati biser pred svinje. 10. Kate thinks she is the bee's knees. throw you to the dogs. radio Mileva. • Say what these sentences mean: • 1. feast your eyes on something. the bush telegraph. and pony show. pig-headed. Dutch courage. Somebody who is one of the most important and influential people in a small organization or social group 11. keep your eyes peeled. 4. ne lipsi magarce do zelene trave. trim your sails. 5. 9. lose your marbles. French leave. there's no smoke without fire. jump out of your skin. red herring. Somebody very important and powerful. I think he has no feet on the ground and this idea of his is only a pie in the sky. only have eyes for someone (for something). okrenuti curak naopako. кот obojci. We say that such words and phrases are idiomatic. lovebirds. sheepish. a smart cookie. by choosing the correct answer and by creating the believable fake answer! The game may include some other ways for players to have fun. clockwork. sitni sati. laugh your head off. a wolf in sheep's clothing. shoot yourself in the foot. cover your tracks. not very important because they are part of a much larger organization 10. 3. grapevine. hothouse. ni riba ni devojka. tempestuous. greenhouse. a fishing expedition. His career was ruined and everything went to the dogs. svako zlo ima svoje dobro.• beat your chest. keep your eyes open. koliko ti dusa hoce. push up the daisies • • You can play the following game. wet your whistle. A player may be allowed a minute to describe a phrase to another player without using any of the words in the 107 . use you. learn the ropes. When they showed her in everybody was in a state of shock: she was dressed up like a dog's dinner. but this paper of yours is a dog's breakfast. with your eyes glued to something. have a bee in your bonnet. bije да baksuz. I was not impressed at all although it was meant to be a dog 7. 2. dusa od coveka. podviti rep. the salt of the earth. with your eyes closed. glass-house. can't take your eyes off someone. nece biti. It was a horrific accident and they survived by the skin of their teeth. Express their meaning in a non-idiomatic way. hard disk. 4. prompt. duopsony. duopoly. oligopoly. log out. easy go. hardware. reset. especially in its vocabulary. e. 11. monopsony. monopoly. So you must lie. nummary. house work. Better late than never. old-fashioned. A group of words joined together by the common subjectmatter they are related to is referred to as a thematic oniomania. Collins. very informal. slang. 2. • • • • • 170 • • To which thematic group do these words • • From the point of view of the subject matter. capital punishment. informal.g. Provide examples. 1. log in. etc.group. • Vulgate (n. format. or Longman. • • • Here are some English proverbial sayings. STYLISTIC VARIETIES OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY Register refers to the domain of communication (its subject matter) as reflected in language. Words that fit equally well any register and any style are called stylistically neutral (or unmarked). Give more examples to illustrate the following thematic groups: musical apparatus. non-standard. redeem • • • • belong? purse. output. 108 . safe.g. 8. Players may also use their acting or drawing skills. Oxford University Press. from vulgus (the public)) means everyday. All his geese are swans.) (from Late Latin vulgata editio (popular edition). banking. mouse. to err is • human. Too many cooks spoil the broth. to be or not to be. 7. piggybank. familiar. pre-empt. premium. wallet. As you make your bed. offensive. save. phrase. Prevention is better than cure. bank • Take a dictionary of quotations and find six examples of familiar quotations (e. poetical. oligopsony. A stitch in time saves nine. multitasking. medicines. gardening. bit. past participle of vulgare (to make public or common).g. camping. 5. 9. 10. Words that fit only certain social occasions are considered to be marked and they are labeled: formal. 12. Birds of a feather flock together. Rome was not built in a day. informal or substandard speech of a people. byte are all joined by the subjectmatter of computing. 6. 3. language breaks into a variety of registers. etc) and search them for the words which belong to the styles mentioned above. emptor. You shouldn't put all your eggs in one basket. What can't be cured must be endured. • Look up the following words in a dictionary and say by which thematic group they are joined. A rolling stone gathers no moss. Take two English language dictionaries published by different publishers (e. and as for the social circumstances of speech process it breaks into a variety of functional styles. colloquial. to forgive divine). Easy come. chip. input. 9. software. tools. Find their equivalent sayings in the Serbian language. • Taboo words are those which are proscribed by society as improper and unacceptable. Patient till paradise. and nosegay. Find more examples in which the word woman is inappropriate. Kabir. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language. There is a man at the door. Where is the place for anything else? 3. • 1. • • • Feminists do not like the use of the word Miss. long-expectant eyes. let my country awake. in my eyes reddened by love How can collyrium be applied? Within 170 • • Take a close look at the following definitions of slang • taken from The Oxford English Dictionary. are sent forth. and Emily Dickinson respectively. There is a man at the door. There are two words which can be marked 'poetic'. 1912). damsel). • • 1. But when we are trying to get the attention of a waitress we say: Oh. Find non-poetic English equivalents for: tarry. You are the bows from which your children. Which are they? What are their non-poetic equivalents? • • • • • • • • • • • • Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high Where knowledge is free Where the world has not been broken up into fragments By narrow domestic walls Where words come out from the depth of truth Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way Into the dreary desert sand of dead habit Where the mind is led forward by thee Into ever-widening thought and action Into that heaven of freedom. K. collyrium. My nosegays are for captives. Missl (and not: Oh. artificiality of language norm. For life goes not backward nor tarries with yesterday. • • There is a kind of taboo on using the word woman {lady is more appropriate). : There is a *woman at the door. • • • Read the following poem by Rabindranath Tagore {Gitananjali. CasselPs Dictionary of Slang. Fingers denied the plucking. 2. ere. • What are euphemisms in comparison to taboo words? • Comment on political correctness in relation to taboo words. eve. Dim.g. Comment on this having in mind what you know about language usage. as living arrows. Msl). 2. Provide examples. preferring Ms. • • • Some words can be said to belong to poetic diction (e. my Father. and nosegay as they are used in the following examples taken from the poetry of: Kahlil Gibran. Compare the definitions and comment on them from the point of view of language norm and 109 . Consider the words: tarry. Compare these two pairs of examples: • • them dwells my Beloved. V.: There is a lady at the door. Sethi. collyrium. Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. vivid. pointed. wet behind the ears • • Neutral equivalents: the police. money for old rope. (OED) 2. very informal usage in vocabulary and idiom that is characteristically more metaphorical. Consider the following slang words for gifted pupils: brainiacs and cram artists... bent. elliptical. phrases. spit & polish. hard or sticky sweets'. of mocking and confirming (Cassel's Dictionary of Slang). a grand. commonly used in talk but not suitable for good writing or formal occasions. have great success. (The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. considered as bellow the level of standard educated speech. expressions and meanings that are informal and are used by people who know each other very well or who have the same job or the same interests. Explain the following slang words from the point of view of wordformation: talent meaning 'sexually attractive girl'. mates. language of a low or vulgar type. and ephemeral than ordinary language 2. jaw-breakers 'cheap. Slang n. Above all it is the language of the city . meanings of words. slashed. Slang n. to tell nothing. hidden. hit the jackpot. cracksman 'housebreaker'. blending grualt < grunge + alternative music. • What is another term (borrowed from French) which seems to be synonymous with slang? • What is the difference between slang and argot • according to The Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary? • What is the difference between colloquial speech and slang according to The Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang? 170 How do you see the concepts of idiom and slang related? • • Irony. the bottle. Tommy Tucker. cruel. words. the young. Slang is the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of low or disreputable character.g. The language of the rebel. • 5. terrific. Slang is not considered suitable for formal social situations or serious writing (Collins COBUILD). Say which definitions are overtly proscriptive and which are proscriptive by implication? • • 1. the marginal. etc. the despised. witty.. playful. Look some slang dictionary up for some more examples which illustrate this point. the coppers. 4. humour and metaphor are characteristics of slang (consider the examples like: pre-stiff meaning 'someone close to death' or a prune meaning a 'dehydrated patient'). Speech and writing characterized by the use of vulgar and socially taboo vocabulary (The Random House Dictionary). lots of money. the outlaw. Kiwi. lifer. wife.. capable of both including and excluding. OUP) 3. • • • There are some examples of slang and informal English. derivation as in posey (an adjective from pose meaning 'pretentious'). it is most often cruel due to its pejorative attitude. to die. Can you think of some other examples? • • All of the productive morphological processes that are in use in the English language are present in its slang as well (e. broke. Slang consists of words. 1. turn one's toes up. • • Slang does not spare anyone.the urgent. Match the examples with neutral equivalents. baa-lamb meaning 'tram'.. spent 110 . grassed on me. Slang is the counter-language. • Examples of slang and informal language: keep one's lip buttoned.language purism.language of a highly colloquial type. blew the money. lid. quid. so-and-so.. old woman.. shortening or abbreviation as in fan(atic). stacks of dough. the money recklessly. 5. Other examples of rhyming slang are butchers for look (cf. Tom Cruise will go to next week's Academy Awards with Penelope Cruz. What a drag?. stiff.______________I'm scared at the sight of him. I can't eat the ice-cream. Australia). make it. brand new) Put one of these words into each gap to intensify the meaning of the adjective. 7. the loo. though scheduling conflicts may move it to another hotel and the band may be eighty-sixed. boiling. Adam and Eve rhymes with believe. If an adjective it means 'sold-out'. dead serious. holy friar with liar. He's___idle. china for mate (cf. If a noun it means 'an undesirable customer. • • • It is noon already and Peter is still in bed. a hat. jaw-breaker. inexperienced. solid.______________This soup is cold! You should complain to the • waiter! • 9. a New Zealander. 8. Take a look at the following piece of text and consider it from the point of view of language style. How come? Raspberry tart was a code for fart and then the rhyming part was dropped. I must have been_asleep.. • Travis also notes in the Post that. To help you: it rhymes with nix. etc. objectionable person. supper. swelling. trouble and strife with wife. Best-known rhyming slang was used by London Cockneys. April fools rhymes with stools. one sentenced for life. He's got a lot of hang-ups. china plate). To throw out. furbishing. Comment on the stylistic value of the italicized words. the courage. friends. To refuse to serve a customer. a thousand pounds. more-ish. bone. If you want to feel_awake. apples and pairs). • 10. it's frozen___. in-laws. sick. et al.' the Kiwi-born columnist waxes. 2. wide. take a cold shower! You have lovely shoes. 2. This is • subconscious. one who is denied service'. dishonest. 'I think it's very gutsy of him because the Oscars will be crawling with Aussies and they might give Tom the Oz equivalent of a Bronx cheer because he's a bit unpopular with them for dumping Australia's sainted Nicole.' 111 . money easily obtained. apples for stairs (cf. to pig oneself. Who's pinched my book?. I didn't hear the bell. informed the police. jerk. brand. Sainted?' (Peter Holder. is a toponym (after Bronx. with no money. I was bored_____ from beginning to end. much of a muchness. Sydney confidential. 6. contrary to UK reports. cool. The Daily Telegraph (Sydney. 1. 18 March 2002) • • • Read the following two pieces of text taken from two American papers (The Los Angeles Times 19 Jun 1997 and The Seattle Times 13 October 2000). stone (e. • • 'He says the show will go on next month. butcher's hook). 4. he just frightens me. Careful with the milk! It's_ _hot. 3. 'great' • • • What do the following examples of slang or informal English mean? • What a rip-off!. mess about.g. Are they__new? I have been worried__about you! The performance was a total disaster. pin-up girl. pound. • 170 • • The following words can be used in informal English to intensify the meaning of the adjective: fast. NY) meaning 'a rude sound indicating disapproval made by sticking tongue partly out between the lips and blowing air out' has the synonym raspberry. bull and cow rhymes with cow. If a verb this word means: 1. • • • Bronx cheer n. There is one slang word in each text for you to pinpoint. to monkey around. Veronica . It is interesting that Netspeak inspires grammatical and vocabulary changes in the process of assimilation (e.) . cybercafe. Cyberians. identify word formation processes and comment on the grammatical aspects of the words given. flame (n. rather than slang. say > yes).'thanks in advance').) and mailbombing . such as happiness or sarcasm (e. the most interesting feature of Netspeak is its morphology. Search a slang dictionary for some examples of military slang. everybloody! (bloody used as part of wordplay in Benny Hill Show). cyberculture. Here are some examples of Netspeak words which you are asked to analyze from the point of view of • word formation. 5.g. : ) or © ) or by all-caps to indicate shouting. eponyms (e. LOL (laughing out loud) 13. functional shifts (e. 2. FWIW (for what it's worth) 11. cybercrime. Linguistically.g.g. FYI (for your information) 12. abso-bloody-lutely.'the act of sending massive amounts of e-mail to a single address in order to disrupt the system of the recipient'). compare: e-mail . cyberish.g.g. Internet and cybercafe) and there is an ever growing number of Netspeak words which have spilt over into our off-line lives. • • • Back slang is created when a word is spelled backwards (e.g. cyberpunk. Hello.g. 3. e-cash. Some Netspeak words have become international words (e. cyberspace. emoticon 9. FAQ . cybernaut.'an angry answer'.g.g. • Here are two more back-slang words: tekram.snail mail). derivatives (e.'different protocols for searching the Internet').'to respond angrily'). Building words by metaphorical extension is ever so present in Netspeak and metaphor is a powerful 1. What are their 'normal' language counterparts? • • 170 Netspeak is usually classified as a dynamic jargon in and of itself.• mechanism which triggers neologisms (e. smiley 10. top o' reeb > pot of beer. Creativeness is also shown by special symbols (called emoticons) to express emotions. Serbian: surfovanje. also every bloody as in e. Internet. 6. It is the speech of people on the Internet and it is spreading rapidly into advertising and business. Clues are given when necessary. hypertext). Gabriel. Think of some other interpolations that mark the words as informal and slang. cyberartist. cyberlaw. cyberphobia 7. TIA . cyberlawyer. e. modem mantra • 112 .) .'frequently asked question'. e-commerce. 'David enlists the help of his friend Richard Lewis to buy a bracelet for his wife from a jewelry store that 86ed him. emag. cyberart. It abounds in acronyms and abbreviations (e. mailbomb (v. • A difference can be made between general slang and special slang (used only by some specific social or professional group). rather than native: krstariti Internetom for surf the Internet and skrolovanje for scroll for which there is no translation equivalent in Serbian). It is heavily based upon technological vocabulary used by computer programmers and actually all users of computer networks.g.g. 4. netiquette yahooligans webpaedia hactivist (hacker + activist) BTW (by the way) cyber.g. There are quite a few analogical formations in Netspeak (e. flame (v. Provide examples. e-mail 8.' • All bloody interpolations are considered to belong to slang. worshipper. sidewalk. wardrobe. whiskey. braces BrE. Analyze these examples. cab. bonnet. home office) 17. • Here are some words which belong to both American and British English. (British English): • • • • • Provide your own examples of Netspeak words you have encountered while using the Internet. vacation. pronunciation. queue. Use the past in place of the perfective in the following examples: 1. However. line. flavor. plough. engine driver. fall. mailbox. sysop (system + operator) 15. baggage. aerial. MorF (mail or female) 18. cookie. The two languages differ (sometimes considerably) in: spelling. tin. puncture. Match the words in A. rubbish. garbage. grammar. candy. SoHo (small office. blow-out. luggage. truck. round trip. trunk (of car). eraser. engine driver. boot. • Here are some common American words and their British counterparts: railroad. can. letter-box. baby carriage. curtains. lorry. movies. taxi.g. • • • • 170 10. return. pavement. apartment. vigour. ROTFL (rolling on the floor laughing) 20. • A. autumn. flat. telnet 16. worshiping. sweets. catalogue. bug • Say if the following words belong to American or British English on the basis of their spelling: nationalize. Provide American versions of the following British-English words: colour. petrol. programme. Scotch tape. www 22. railway carriage. REGIONAL ENGLISH VOCABULARY VARIETIES OF The two broadest national standards are British and American English. elevator. He's never seen the sea. program. README file 19. suspenders AmE railway. yard. railway car. garbage man В.14. hood (of car). lift. worshipping. lorry. antenna. webliography 23. whisky. centre. they mean different things for American and British speakers (e. Do the following exercises: American spelling is usually simpler. pram. closet. drapes. worshiper. engineer (on train). American English: gasoline. holiday. prologue. British English: dustman. I've already had too many 2. Sellotape • What is the spelling of the 'plural' morpheme in fiasco in American and British English? • There is some tendency in American English to use the past informally in place of the perfective. labour. Resolve the confusion which might arise between American and British English speakers when they 113 . (American English) with the ones in B. and vocabulary. taxi. rubber. when an American says purse he means what an Englishman calls a handbag but if an Englishman says purse he means what an American calls a wallet). Trojan horse (an illegal computer program presented as useful and funny but meant to be destructive when downloaded) 21. If someone is on the fiddle. The expression 'an Englishman's home is his castle' is used in____________English. you mean that they have peculiar ideas or are crazy. • • 3. the first floor. The expression is used in_________English. e. • • • • • • sick adj. wash up. you mean that they follow the course of action that is the most 7.g. He was showing some sick snowboarding moves. / am down to drive to San Francisco tonight. The expression is used mainly in ______________ • English. Whisky that is made illegally. ideas. or talk that are not based on reality. Foolish thoughts. • • • • Here is a joke for you. subway. great. • down adv. cool'. •___________________________________________ m oral or most correct. This expression is used in ______________ • English. If you say that someone has roos in their top paddock. • • Moonshine is 1.use words such as: bill. • ride n. This expression is used in___________ • English. motorcycle'. If you say that someone takes the high road. (Roos is short for kangaroos) This is an informal expression which is used mainly in_________________________English. There is one idiom which is used mainly in Australian English: which one is that? • 1.' Why didn't his friend find the joke funny? (Note the homophony of: can and can't in American English and homonymy of can 'be able to' and can 'tin'). 'car. My ride is parked in the garage.g. Say if the following idioms are used in British or American English. If you say that someone picks up their marbles and goes home. you mean that the first one is much better than the second. and 2.g. they are getting money dishonestly. 2. This expression is used in___________________English. If you get your feet wet you experience something for the •___________________________________________ f irst time. 'willing'. 'excellent. 6. pants. Look the word up in a dictionary and find out whether it is used mainly in American or British English. 'Fall on your feet' is used only in_________English. you mean that they leave a situation in which they are involved because they are dissatisfied with the way •___________________________________________ t hings are going. 8. 170 • Here are some of the Top 20 2003 College Slang Terms in American English: • 114 . If you say that one thing or person knocks spots off another. e. 5.' When the Englishman came back to England he told his English friend the joke and phrased it like this: 'We eat what we can and what we can't we put into tins. An Englishman asked an American: 'What do you do with all this fish?' The American replied: 'We eat what we can and what we can't we can. 4. e. g.• • bounce v. 'good-looking. likeable.g.. Find out other non-slang meanings of the word ghetto. e. e. That girl in the skimpy dress looks so ghetto. cool. trip п.. kulirati v. Hella is one of the examples. great'. as in: strasno lepo. Wassup. and tripovati v. attractive' (a generic positive). trashy'. hello'. • What is the meaning of: kul adj.g. 'Ever since I got my "F". e. in the Serbian language (these are slang words used by the young).g. TIGHT adj. & adj. money.g. sick and dope in American college slang. How do these words compare to strasno and uzasno in the Serbian language. e. to go crazy'. e. What are the other examples from the list of the American college slang words? • What is the meaning of awful and terrific in British English slang? Compare the meaning of these two words to the meaning of tight. • Comment on the word ghetto from the point of view of wordformation and meaning transfer in particular. 'dirty. let's go shopping tomorrow! • chill / chill o u t v. dog (dogg / dawg) n. bad. • • • • • • What up / what's up / wassup / wazzup 'a greeting. • • sweet adj. That concert was hella tight. Let's bounce. good. Comment on the word bling-bling from the point of view of word-formation.g. e. Dude. • • 170 And the most popular: 115 . expensive items'. This party is boring.g. uzasno dobro? Note that the Serbian words are not restricted to college slang. 'a friend or buddy'. 'to relax. e. No class! Sweet! • • hot adj. to hang out'. rest. 'wonderful. e.g. e. angry.g. 'jewelry. Ann was looking so hot at the party last night! • • ghetto adj. I've been trlppin'.g. fashionable'. cheap. Hey dawg. Mike! • • trip v. e. Bill is showing off his bling-bling all over campus. • • • A common way of forming slang words is by shortening or by using loosely pronounced forms of ordinary words. 'to leave'.. 'to become upset. 'great. Are these anglicisms in any way related to the English slang words cool and trip? bling-bling n. chill out! You won't get in that much trouble. low class. • • Here is some Irish slang: 116 • gur • header • holliers • holy show • horse's hoof • hacks • kibosh • letting on • mot • scarlet • scratcher • slagging • sleeveen • stocious staying away • He's been on • gur since Saturday from home. generally good-naturedly • She's a bit of • sly a sleeveen person. calculating • He was • drunk stocious this 195 . the jacks restroom • added the • He put the last straw. usually a child • mentally • Keep away unstable person from the header • holidays. kibosh on it break • 1 was just • pretending letting on • Have you got • girlfriend a mot? • I'm scarlet • blushing for you • He's always • bed in the scratcher • I'm only • making fun of slagging you someone. • Two weeks vacation time holliers for me • You made a • spectacle holy show of yourself • That's a bit • exaggerated of a horse's hoofl story think • I'm just off to • toilet. evening • • • 117 • A common way of making slang words is by using short forms or loosely pronounced forms of words. 195 . Take a look at the words listed above and pinpoint those formed in this way. janitor 'caretaker'. in fact. then comes the list of some words and phrases that Scots speakers in Ireland use. in to put the kibosh on something. examples of common English words which are. • Full shilling is an instance of metaphor in word-formation. Add other words to the list. Look up the verb give out in an English-English dictionary and see which meanings are given. Here are some common English words which are Scots: • • • • • • • • • • • • English word blackmail skullduggery heckle slogan flit weird golf flat gift of the gab hunker down • • • • • • • • • • • Original Scots black maill sculduddery hekill slogorne flit weird gowf flat gift of the gob hunker doon • • Here are the stories behind the words: blackmail. Here are some dialect words that are used in Scottish English: aye 'eye'. slogan. follow. rather. What are BritishEnglish slang words and expressions for 'lavatory'? How about British John and Irish jacks? • Stocious is legless in Irish slang. • • 2. glen 'valley'. Don't let on we went to that dance! Can this meaning be compared to the meaning of let on in Irish slang? Do you think that confusion may arise between British and Irish speakers? • Some words have a slang meaning which is different from their everyday meaning. ben 'mountain'. a language or a dialect is a combination of the languages and dialects in contact. drum 'whiskey'. 197 . Is the meaning the same in Irish slang? Let on is an informal expression in British English which means 'to tell something that was meant to be a secret'. How about holy show? • • In British English kibosh. a situation or someone's plans'. brae 'river bank'. wee 'small'.g.• • Compare the Irish eat the head off with the British English bite someone's head off and snap someone's head off and find out if they mean the same. kirk 'church'. Scots is no exception. 'Black mailf was rent money taken from a landowner as protection against possible damage to the landowner's property. bonny 'beautiful'. The English language has borrowed many Scots words over the years. • • 1. is an informal expression which means 'to completely ruin an event. and flat: a) maill is Scots for rent. We present a 118 choice of dialect words typical of Scottish English. e. Is there the meaning 'to scold' to be found? • Jacks is an Irish slang word for 'toilet'. lassie 'girl'. Find out British-English slang words and expressions for 'drunk'. loch 'lake'. • No language or dialect evolves in isolation. Scots. • • • • • • • • • • • • Some words and phrases used in Ireland by Ulster Scots: Scots word wean greet glar quare bachle keech • • • • • • • Meaning child to cry.b) slogan comes from the Scots word slogorne which meant 'a • battle-cry used by a clan to identify and locate other clan members'. devil-may-care quality while British has a distinct may-l-please. .g. the interview appeared on the Internet. E. • • 3. that Australian English is a kind of substandard species and deserves extinction. the phrase "Fooding and lodging" a common sign in front of a 'hotel'. apologetic tone to it. chest Br. to weep mud large. American English has a back-slapping. • • • Find out the etymology of the other English words that are listed above. wearunders. с) flat was originally another term for 'landing'. What do these two words mean? • • 119 • While bureaucrats still use archaic British phrases.) Here are some words which are more common in Indian English than British English.. and also the Internet). many Indians would prefer the more formal British tone and tenor. Indian English has improvised and innovated so much so that it is referred to as Hinglish. Ramananda Sengupta.a generic term for any kind of • • There are two views on Australian English: the first. E. Comment on the author's views. undertrials. . fleetfoots. or rum . The truth is that Australian English is interesting for its rich store of idiosyncratic words and expressions and for its unique ways of word-building (e. Indian English is considered to be more formal than British English and it has preserved some language characteristics which would be appropriately qualified as belonging to poetic diction (cf. smoke > *smok. the common man. • • • liquor from bootleg to Scotch whisky). Eve-teaser. The passage is about the difference between American and British Net English. Here is an extract from an interview with an Indian.' • • In India. There are 15 national languages recognized by the Indian constitution and these are spoken in over 1600 dialects. that Australian English is an endangered species. There are a lot of words and phrases used in Northern Ireland which can be found in the Scots dictionary.g. a kind of pidgin English that draws from Hindi and other local languages (e. However. *smok + о > smoko meaning 'coffee break' or milk + о > milko 'a person who delivers milk' or beaut < 197 . big a clumsy person you don't want to know • We are sure that you know the meaning of bonny and lass. 'British English by contrast is very correct but distant in the sense that there is no effort to befriend the net user. by metonymic transfer it came to refer to the apartments whose doors opened out onto the 'flats'. English continues to be the official working language. international editor for Outlook Magazine. most of the younger educated people are familiar and comfortable with the American usage (they get familiar with American English via MTV and CNN that have large viewership in India. Find British English words which match the following Indian words: nab. it eventually came to mean any catchword or catchphrase.miscreant Indian E. bandit Br.bosom Indian E. and the second. wowser.beautiful 'great' or a blend ecorat < economic rationalism. 120 197 . tinnie. the leg opener 3. chico roll. minimum chips. How about this example: little boys is the name for 'cocktail frankfurters for children'. macchiato • • • Comment on the morphological make-up of the words listed. down the gurgler. woop woop. Where did they take you when you were in Oz? • • • • Shark biscuits is an Australian neologism for 'novice surfer'. He is interested in farming bizzo. Find out what these words and idioms mean. and idioms and phrases: happy as a bastard on Fathers' Day. dobber. dead marine. razoo. • • 1.g. Australian terms for coffee: flat white. Comment on the word from the point of view of word-formation (meaning transfer. Here are some core Australian words: bludger. brass. miserable as a bandicoot. • • 2. optic (as in 'optic nerve') is rhyming slang for perv so that to have an optic is to ogle). 3. • • • • • • What do you think the italicized words mean in Australian English: • acting now will save a stitch in time saves time in the long run nine above board • open to inspection to do something with the accidentally on purpose • purpose hidden afters • pudding or dessert • a failure or someone also ran who achieves nothing argy-bargy • to argue words as sure as eggs • definitely at the end of the day • in the end Aussie • Australian offsider • assistant off your face • exceedingly intoxicated • a male who Ocker is very Australian oldies • parents Find out if some of the words or phrases listed above do appear in British English with the same meaning (e. chocolate crackles. pot. schooner. lollies 2. as useful as a sore arse to a boundary rider. silverbeet. in particular). Australian words for food: counter tea. Australian drinking terms: the middy. yakka. argy-bargy). Find the examples which illustrate the use of metaphor in word creation. We got bitten by mozzies at yesterday's barbie. • • Here are some Australian and New Zealand idioms and their meaning: • • • • • Here are some more Australian words taken from the Internet The Lonely Planet Australian Phrase Book: • • • • • • • • 1. he looks like a stunned mullet. How about a party when the oldies have gone for the weekend? • 4. off like a bride's nightie. fairy bread. short black. long black. she'll be apples. 2. -our is given precedence so: colour. 2. compleat or complete. 6. 4. 10. drugstore vs. e. moustache. favour. practice. marvellous. 4. 5.• • Ocker gives two derivatives: ockerism and ockerdom. it usually means 'don't you think'. Here are some characteristics of Canadian English: • • • First. Canadian bacon: This is what Americans call back bacon. What do Canadians prefer: running shoes (or runners) or sneakers? 6. Enroll or enrol? The double / is preferred so: enroll. Click is a Canadian slang for kilometre. some questions and answers concerning general rules for Canadian spelling: 1. College in Canada is halfway between school and university and most colleges grant only diplomas. railways: Canadians prefer railways. pharmacy: Canadians don't go to chemists when they need an aspirin. 3. 121 4. Last week I did dick all. Eh? A famous Canadian way of ending sentences. cigarette. Bill vs. sceptical or skeptical? • • • Here is some Canadian vocabulary. Do Canadians fill the tanks of their cars with gas or petrol? 2. © English is different all over the world. • • • • Answer the following questions: 1. Aesthetic or esthetic? The diphthong is preferred (but mind: medieval or mediaeval is undecided). Attorney vs. cauldron. marvelled. 7. tin: Younger Canadians tend to eat out of cans. The ways that Canadian English differs from American or British English are pointed out. pretence but -se is used when these words are used as verbs. check: Canadians ask for the bill. honour. Organize or organise? Canadian editors reject the British -ise preferring -ize ending.g. 6. 5. fries: Canadians use chips in spoken language but chips can also refer to what the British call crisps. 7. Cigarette or cigaref? The long forms are preferred: catalogue. lawyer vs. What do you think homo milk means? To help you. install. Centre or center? The -re is preferred. 1. The long strips that you eat for breakfast are called side bacon in both countries. Dick when used by the Canadians means 'absolutely nothing'. Chips vs. signalled. barrister vs. while older Canadians eat out of tins. • • Find out which spelling is right in Canadian English: adviser or advisor. Can vs. Boot vs. woollen. 8. lift: Canadians take elevators. Railroads vs. 14. fulfill. co-ordinate or coordinate. What would you find beside your plate on the dinner table in Canada: a table napkin or a serviette? 5. Elevator vs. Defence or defense? The -ce is preferred over -se as in words such as: defence. gray or grey. glamour. In Canada the distinction does not mean much: use lawyer to be on the safe side. Chemist vs. trunk: trunk is used by the Canadians. tap: Canadians turn on the tap. 13. 11. solicitor. Faucet vs. 12. 3. See the meaning of ocker in the table above and state the meaning of the derived words. this is called whole milk in the States. How does the word college in Canadian English compare to the word college as it is used in American English? • • • Humidex is a word often used by Canadian weather announcers referring to the combined effect of heat and 197 . Do Canadians go on holiday or on vacations? 3. 9. omelette. skillful. Comment on the word-formation pattern of the word. 122 197 .humidity or temperature. LEXICOGRAPH Y . The nickname comes from the loon on the coin. Which word-formation process triggered this word? • 11. Which word-forming process are we dealing with in this case? • • AWOL is the Canadian term for absent without official leave.• • Loonie or loony is a colloquialism for Canada's dollar coin. Like other reference works it has no predestined tactical role . 6 May 1987. 6). • Dictionaries can be: monolingual. That is a crucial point" (John Sinclair. The Dictionary of the Future. What is the criterion behind such a distinction? • Dictionaries which deal with contemporary vocabulary are called synchronic. and multilingual. Collins English Dictionary Annual Lecture given at the University of Strathclyde. What do we call those that deal with words in a historical perspective? .it is an auxiliary in the daily business of communication. What is lexicology? In what relation does lexicography stand to lexicology? • Comment on the following definition of a dictionary: 'A dictionary is a reference book of statements in words about words. bilingual. Find some other textbook and dictionary definitions of a dictionary. p.• Lexicography is the writing and compiling of dictionaries. compare them and comment on them. . never mind carry on about how love itself must evolve to GW0086 BR BR e the little urchin again. Sinclair. Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current Usage 4. Enciklopedijski englesko-srpskohrvatski recnik 6.]. English Pronouncing Dictionary • 9. Oxford English Dictionary • • • Would you say that the dictionaries of synonyms. Dictionary of Rhyming Slang 5. An account of the COBUILD Project in lexical computing. He felt the pressure of her br GW0002 BR BR JACMA. Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms 2. in developing their plans. homophones. Evans in his tormented mind cared nothing whether John liked the tower or Gwoo33 BR BR er bother with more? Why even mention love. his mind ceased to bed.• • • • Both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries can be general (if they present a comprehensive list of words of a given language) or special (if they cover only one particular segment of vocabulary).text reference number. New New Words Dictionary 8. eponyms.. proverbs. OOOn . Looking Up. W . AM -American cultural identity). Fifty years Among the New Words: A Dictionary of Neologisms 7. 36).' "Would you mind checking up?' "I'll ask his secretary oh.general corpus." And then Tom Barter's mind ceased suddenly to think in definite words. T GW0086 BR BR as if they were perfectly meaningless sounds. p. She didn't mind cigarette smoke any more. cliche. The raw text is called corpus and the linguistic observations form a database. Say if the following dictionaries are general or special: 1. London: Collins. BR British cultural identity. It may be better t GW0086 BR BR the first chance!" But Mr. Collins COBUILD English language dictionary 3. often mind children when the job is really beyond their GW 071 AM BR lasses and she paid for her own meals. A series of letters and numbers preceding each concordance line are intended to convey information about its origin (G . • • • So what are concordances? The concordances are a huge source of information about a language. and Russian. German. phrasal verbs are general or special? • 206 • • What are glossaries? If you find the following sentence in a foreword to a book: Glossaries are provided in English.written. had to bear in mind certain considerations arising from the new с GW0052 BR BR ?' "suppose he left it in the safe. She had no lovers [. If it is true that the whole structure of the database 125 . Г GW0081 BR BR who are impelled by their inner needs. Random House Dictionary of the English Language 10. ed. The database relies on the corpus. GW0034 BR BR ay inhibit the formation of an original idea in a mind capable of original ideas. how would you understand it? How do you understand this: Glossary of the Bible? Here are a few lines taken from Concordance Extract from the Main Corpus for 'mind' (J. 1987. as defined in The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English: 'having or causing a creeping of the flesh'. which 1. According to the definition (2) it is not the people who are creepy. New York. It was very creepy in the woods. Having in mind what you know about homonymy and polysemy comment on the dictionary treatment of the following pairs of words: bank n. 'woman's dowry'. Have the words been treated as polysemous. e. to mention the most famous ones) which use real citations.g.g. We've found a creepy caravan where a witch lives. 'a small round mark'. Bujas. where the dictionary will be a device through which the user will observe the living language. Take a look at the contrast: 1.e.e. Note the difference in meaning as specified in (1) and the one specified in (2). and dot n. London: Collins. one word with two different meanings.. S. • • The first definition is a commentary on a made-up example and the second is based on real English. and bank n. but something which they experience. as defined in The Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary 'something that is creepy gives you a strange unpleasant feeling of fear'. 5) • Different dictionaries use different presentation styles. There are other authors who think that it is a serious mistake to make the examples less important than the commentary either by concocting them or editing them too heavily. 'river bank'.' (John Sinclair. i.g. 6 May 1987. e. Not the frozen fillets of the printed citations nor the stuffed dummies of the madeup examples. Having in mind what has been stated above comment on the following opinion: • • 206 7 now turn to a glimpse of the future. numerous uses of brackets. College Edition. 1987 • • One of the main problems in lexicography is the selection of head-words. Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. Collins English Dictionary Annual Lecture given at the University of Strathclyde. p. Z. Some are notorious for the typographical eccentricities. 'establishment for keeping money'.g. Dr Johnson's Dictionary of 1755 and The Oxford English Dictionary begun by Murray in 1878. The ghost story made us all creepy. but the language as it is when it is being used. Hrvatskoili srpsko-engleski eciklopedijski rjecnik (1983 i dalje). Ristic et al. 1967 2. Look these words up in different dictionaries (e. i. Should the examples be real. Random House. Creepy adj. In comparison to the dictionaries characterized by this kind of professional mystique there are those whose presentation is simple and clear. Oxford and COBUILD) and see if the words have been treated in the same way. Beograd: Prosveta 2. Graficki zavod Hrvatske • 2. • • I think is the next target for progressive lexicography. Creepy adj. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language.rests upon the examples would you say that the dictionary is ultimately little more than a commentary on the examples? • One of the features of a dictionary is its selection of examples. two words with different meanings and having the same shape? 126 . The Dictionary of the Future. or as homonymous. drawn from the corpus or should they be made up by the lexicographer? There are dictionaries (e. This is the language through the dictionary. Compare the following two pairs of dictionaries and comment on their presentation: 1. This problem is related to the problem of syntagmatic and paradigmatic boundaries. Enciklopedijski englesko-srpskohrvatski recnik (1974). dot n. symbols and abbreviations together with different typeface. [FLY]. scientists use laboratories to do experiments or to do research 3. Look this word up in Co///A7s COBUILD English Language Dictionary and see which meaning of bet is number (1). and 'my bet is'. [SMALL]. Category features assign the word to a semantic category. A referee is also a person who gives you a reference. The semantic entry for the word for ladybird may be expressed as: • • • Ladybird: [INSECT]. The meaning of the word can be defined in terms of its synonyms or by context. round. in order to open a door. For example. to say that what you are saying is true or will definitely happen. function features and property features. e. Words refer to things and concepts which belong to semantic categories (sometimes to more than one category). I'm willing to bet'. [ROUND]. Express the semantic entry for each word giving the sum of: category features. Property features list the properties distinguishing the reference of the word. is a drink that you have in order to make you feel healthier and more energetic • Who are the most notable lexicographers of English? • What are the best known publishing houses that specialize in English dictionaries? 127 . [ROUND]. has black spots and can fly' [SMALL]. [BLACK SPOTS]. a referee is a person whose job is to control a sports match or contest. or to close it so that it stays closed • • 4. Function features assign a usual state or activity to the word. for example when you are applying for a job 2. [WINGS] Consider the following dictionary definitions of words as they are presented in the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary. Users of a language have a strong sense of the 'core' meaning of a word. However. [RED]. 2. Compare the entries for fuzz in the Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary and in The Random House Dictionary of the English Language and see if they are the same from the point of view of the order of meanings.• • • 206 • The problem of arrangement of lexical entries has to do with the problem of synonymy and sequencing. Dictionary definitions can be linguistic or encyclopaedic. is the one that appears in informal expressions such as 7 bet'. e. laboratory n.g. a ladybird belongs to the category [INSECT]. a cupboard. [BLACK SPOTS]. its definition. i. this meaning is not necessarily the most frequent. pick-me-up n. a ladybird flies [FLY]. 'an insect which is small. e. [RED]. [WINGS]. is a building or a room that contains special scientific equipment. a suitcase.g.e. the most frequent meaning of the word bet v. 1.g. The meaning of a word can be seen as the sum of the semantic features it has and which are included in its semantic description. etc. In a synchronic dictionary various senses are presented in frequency-based order. referee n. key n. 1. is a specially shaped piece of metal which you place in a lock and turn. Documents Similar To Essentials of English MorphologySkip carouselcarousel previouscarousel nextBauer, Laurie English Word FormationBonetNIDA Eugene Morphology the Descriptive Analysis of Words1-IntroSyntaxFinalEnglish MorphologyThe Effects of Phonological and MorphologicalOverview of English Morphology.docxMorphologyEnglish MorphologyIntroduction to English MorphologyTransformational Grammar of EnglishEnglish Morphology2012 Chiari DeMauro NVDBAn1 Elements of English Morphology CrainiceanuG. Penakova - English Morphology36_Euralex_Igor a. 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