FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETANADSEGMENTNE ZNAČILNOSTI ANGLEŠKEGA GLASOSLOVJA ODDELEK ZA ANGLISTIKO 2011/2012 ZAPISKI S PREDAVANJ DR. SMILJANE KOMAR IN IZPISKI IZ PREDPISANE ŠTUDIJSKE LITERATURE INTONATION Intonation is the melody of speech. This means that the study of intonation is mainly concerned with the rising and falling of the pitch of the voice. The prosodic characteristics of speech are: PITCH (height of voice) LOUDNESS/VOLUME TEMPO/SPEECH RATE/SPEED RHYTHM Intonation is concerned only with the pitch changes within an utterance and is thus a narrower than prosody or suprasegmentals. Speech without intonation does not exist (language without intonation sound literally inhuman – giving a robot-like effect). Intonation is an integral part of any language therefore part of the linguistic study. Intonation helps convey linguistic and pragmatic meaning – it is a bridge between grammar and meaning. It is important in communication because it provides additional meaning to what is supplied by the words themselves (It wasn’t so much what they said, but how they said it’’). Intonation varies considerably from one language to another. Intonation roughly performs 4 functions (has 4 different meanings): Emotional colouring, attitude (pragmatic) - tone Conveys grammatical/syntactic structure of an utterance (e.g. statements vs. questions) Textual function / discourse function (how text, either written or spoken, are structured coherence, cohesion. In speech (especially spontaneous speech) intonation adds to the organisation of a text) Socio-linguistic structure (shows you the origin of the speaker – dialects) Intonation has two important functions in the organization of the information in an utterance: TONALITY division into intonation units TONICITY the placement of nucleus in an intonation unit TONALITY CHUNKING OR DIVISION INTO INTONATION PHRASES (IP’s) TONALITY IS THE SYSTEM THAT DIVIDES SPOKEN DISCOURSE INTO SMALLER UNITS. In order to make themselves understood, speakers organize the flow of speech into smaller, meaningful chunks, called intonation phrases (IP’s). Each unit contains one piece of information. Tonality largely reflects and depends on the grammatical structure of a language, but it is also very much conditioned by the speaker’s perception of the context of interaction. Intonation phrases are also referred to as ‘word groups’, ‘tone units’, ‘intonation units’. The boundary between two successive intonation phrases is an intonation break. We regularly place an intonation break between successive sentences, usually between successive clauses, sometimes between successive phrases, and occasionally between successive words. We can even break within a word – though this is unusual and only used for special emphasis. Tonality basically signals to the hearer the syntactic as well as the information structure of the sentence. 1. SIGNALLING THE STRUCTURE NEUTRAL TONALITY : When one IP is realized by one clause (sentence): 2 EXERCISE Locate suitable intonation breaks in the following passage. I quite understand. We'll see you on Tuesday. 3 .1 Ambiguous syntactic structures In certain cases the division into IP’s can disambiguate the grammatical structure (the presence or absence of intonation breaks signals the syntactic structure of a sentence). || no. then. there are numerous cases where the comma in writing does not correspond to a boundary between IP’s. phrase. The competitors who finished | first received a goody bag. Oh. I love it. || I don't. though. which were very welcome. || I don't know. and Nell had some raisins. 1. I'm not sure. You can have cheese salad | or quiche. | salad | or quiche. you know. have little meaning – the utterance makes complete sense without them. It hasn't stopped him smoking. and single marks where appropriate within each sentence. After we’d rested there for a few minutes we were ready to continue our journey. Abso | lutely | de | licious! Bor | ing! Marked tonality requires some sort of context. Well. No. | and wool comes from sheep. word. || Wool comes from sheep.Milk comes from cows. I'm sorry. Delicious. I was talking to a chap I met | in the pub. Put double marks at the end of each sentence. two pieces of information = two IP’s MARKED TONALITY : When IP’s occur within a clause.2 Tonality & Punctuation Although tonality in speech plays a role similar to punctuation in writing. I was talking to a chap I met in the pub. Fortunately we had some chocolate with us and some bottles of water. Help keep the dog off! Help! | Keep the dog off! What's that in the road ahead? What's that in the road? || A head? Do you like pawpaw? -I'm sorry. ˝well˝. | cool | milk. Her health's pretty poor. ˝Oh˝. which we did with a new spring in our steps. When we got to the top we paused for a rest. or one IP covers more than 1 clause or sentence (division into IP’s does not follow the division of clauses): Milk | comes from cows. The competitors who finished first | received a goody bag. This will give teachers time | to prepare and mark work. or even syllable boundaries. Milk comes from cows. You can have cheese. I don't | like it. This will give teachers time to prepare | and mark work. ˝you know˝ etc. 1. | and then unscrew the base. 4 We’d better consider them individually. (searching) 2. General rule 1: intonation break after each sentence || or clause | When I cough. EXERCISE Insert intonation breaks as necessary: In the beginning of a clause: separate IP On Thursday evening | I'm having dinner at Patsy's. Vocatives in middle or final position (the function of drawing attention is less important/not really there): no separate IP This. (possibly ambiguous) He was looking | up the street. Robinson. Some components of syntactic structure are more likely than others to be made into separate IP’s. | is the young man I was telling you about. General rule 2: intonation break anywhere to make the grammatical structure clear He was looking up the street. Speakers can insert intonation breaks almost anywhere they want in order to make their message as clear as possible. First take the lid off. .2 Adverbials Adverbials. | it hurts my throat. Mother? 2. The water evaporated. Mr. We were really pleased with it. (direction) He was looking up | the street.1 Vocatives Vocatives are not an essential part of the clause structure (the clause would be grammatically complete even without them). are frequently given their own IP. | unfortunately. Their behaviour varied depending on their relationship to the rest of the clause: Adverbials modifying the verb or an adjective: not their own IP She quickly picked up the pencil. This explains why under some circumstances they are given their own IP. | but you must keep it a secret. too. | hopefully. This explains why they. We’ll finish them tomorrow. there are some strong tendencies exerted by the grammar over tonality. set off by intonation breaks. | I want you to take the left side. | could I have a word? Jenny and Peter.2. CHUNKING & GRAMMAR Tonality varies considerably according to the style of speech. Have you got your passport. Vocatives are treated differently depending on the position they’re in: Vocatives in initial position (their function is to draw attention): separate IP Linda. | naturally. too. I'll tell you. However. often stand apart from the basic clause structure (the clause would be grammatically correct without them). They’ve all vanished. The water evaporated naturally. I mentioned several people named Charles. | she's getting divorced. (= not the other houses) Non-defining: separate IP Look at that house. Charles. I'll pay you back soon. Charles is a vocative. | honestly. There are two kinds of relative clause: Defining: no IP She's my sister who lives in Canada. I assure you) 2. 2 interpretations: *The relationship between two usually consecutive nouns or noun phrases that refer to the same person or thing and have the same relationship to other sentence elements. I'm rather disappointed. | will have to accept it. | near the bus stop. and this one is my colleague rather than my cousin 5 . lives with me. (honestly modifying talked = How did she talk to me?) She talked to me. whereas in speech the distinction is achieved by intonation breaks. | who lives in Canada. In the middle of a clause: may have their own IP Well we could | this year | do something different.3 Defining and non-defining items In writing the distinction between defining and non-defining relative clauses is marked by commas. Ambiguous She talked to me honestly. | Charles. (honestly modifying She talked to me = She DID talk to me. Sentence adverbials (adjuncts) that modify the whole clause or sentence: their own IP Apparently. Technically | we have to reject it. The rest of us. (= 2 pieces of information: colleague. an actor’ is an example of apposition. In the sentence ‘My son. (= a particular one of my various colleagues) This is my colleague. (= I have more sisters) Look at that house near the bus stop. I just can't take him seriously. At the end of a clause: Adverbs of manner: integrated into the clause structure She dances beautifully.Under the circumstances | we've got no choice. | frankly. (= my only sister) The same rule applies to appositions*: This is my colleague Charles. | unfortunately.’ the phrase ‘My son. name) This is my colleague. an actor. (= which is near the bus stop) She's my sister. 6 . If the parallel words or phrases are placed in contrast by the speaker. (contrast) Ambiguous. Parallel words and phrases: separate IP if emphasized I come on Mondays. we run them together in the same IP. Heavy noun phrases (=long. are you? 2. then they too are likely to be separated by an intonation break. | couldn’t we? It wasn’t a disaster. | E. and can optionally be disambiguated by the insertion of an intonation break: old men and women (ambiguous: who is old?) old | men and women (= both are old) old men | and women (= men are old) Strings of letters or numbers: one IP unless explicit/very clear A: How do you spell to seize? With a string of letters or numbers there are equally two possibilities. after each item. | Wednesdays | and Fridays. | was it? Constant-polarity (copy) tags: no IP Close the window. You’re ready to go. Speakers usually make a distinction between reverse-polarity tag. there is likely to be an intonation break after each component if there are more than two components or if the components are heavy. there if often an intonation break between the subject and the rest of the clause or sentence. If we think they will be B: S. 2. If we think they may be unfamiliar to the hearer or need to be made especially A: What was that again? clear. | Z. where the tag is negative if the main clause is positive and positive if the main clause is negative. (emphasis) I’m not going to repeat the mistake I made last time | this time.2.5 Tag questions Not all tag question have their own IP. important lexical items). please. Since the grammatical subject of a sentence is often just such a NP. consisting of several words.6 Heavy noun phrases A noun phrase (NP) is particularly likely to have its own IP if it is heavy (=long. | E. we can make the message easier for the hearer to process by placing an intonation break B: S. E.4 Parallel structures With parallel words or phrases. would you. I. Z. and constant polarity tags. (emphasis) I can see a sort of tree | and the outline of a person. E. (emphasis) I want to buy some fruit | some milk | and some bread. Reverse polarity (checking) tags : own IP We could do it tomorrow. consisting of several important lexical items) when a grammatical subject: own IP The people I’ve been talking to | were quite definite about it. | I. where both the tag and the main clause are either positive or negative. familiar with the hearer. The decision whether to treat each enumerated item on a list as a separate IP is to a large extent left to the speaker’s perception of the context of interaction. some coordinated structures are potentially ambiguous. or if there is no need to be particularly explicit. (objects) More important | is the question of what we do next. | he can do what he likes. (complement) I chose Veronica. (subject) His rudeness | I shall ignore. The stressed syllable between that word becomes the nucleus or nuclear syllable of that particular IP and bears the tone. In other words. while the rest of the clause is the comment or rheme. then tonicity is a system by means of which speakers decide on the focus of information. Sometimes the context of interaction requires topicalization of other sentence elements. Topical status of the subject & other sentence elements is signalled: In various syntactic ways By choosing an appropriate tone By giving it a separate IP Cleft & pseudo cleft structures As for Jeremy. In this sequence the subject is the topic or theme. with focus on I for contrast between my and someone else’s choice) What they didn’t like | was the noise.7 Topics English has a fixed SVO (subject.e. in every IP speakers have to select one word which they find most important for the meaning. All such instances require their own IP. 1. Thus. BASIC PRINCIPLES Each IP contains ONE item which is particularly important for the MEANING The STRESSED syllable in that item is called NUCLEUS The NUCLEUS bears the nuclear TONE 7 .London and the southeast | will have showers. the focus of information. which means that they occur in the initial position of the clause preceding the grammatical subject. (cleft) It was Veronica | that I chose. || The rest of the country | will be dry. (pseudo–cleft) Getting caught | is exactly what I’m trying to avoid. i. object) order of sentence elements. If tonality is a system by means of which speakers organize their messages into intonation phrases. such as objects ot complements. (subject) Martha | will have to wait. (not cleft) It was Veronica that I chose. (cleft. a marked theme is always followed by an intonation break. || But his actions | I cannot forgive. (pseudo–cleft) A: I suppose you’ll criticize his callousness? B: No his callousness | is what I shall ignore. verb. 2. TONICITY NUCLEUS-PLACEMENT TONICITY IS THE SYSTEM WHICH GOVERNS A RANGE OF POSSIBILITIES FOR THE PLACEMENT OF THE MOST PROMINENT SYLLABLE (THE NUCLEUS) IN AN INTONATION UNIT. (=five oh six) 2. NEUTRAL TONICITY In order for an IP to be neutral in tonicity. most verbs and most adverbs. she got a C. extra length and loudness. the nucleus generally goes on the last one: In the exam. the nucleus is the last accent in the IP. I want to buy a lemon.1 On or near the last word The nucleus is usually located on or near the last word of the intonation phrase. In an IP there may be other accents besides the nuclear accent. My room number is 506. In doing this the speaker chooses the tonicity of the intonation phrase. modal verbs Neutral tonicity: N is located on the LAST CONTENT WORD 2. By definition. only the section up to the nucleus is in focus (=narrow focus). She just started a new relationship. In a string of several letters or numerals. the syllable that is more prominent than others and bear the nuclear tone.2 Content words and function words Content words: N typically on the last content word in an IP Content words are words that have meaning that can be defined in a dictionary: nouns. 8 .Within each intonation break. articles. If so. adverbs Function words: pronouns. the nucleus should occur on the last lexical item. The bridge is about to collapse. separate word. so the general tendency is for the nucleus to be towards the end of the IP. This also implies. we select one word as particularly important for the meaning. Any other accents come earlier in the IP and are called prenuclear. auxiliary verbs. names of letters and numerals are treated like meaning. Content words: adjectives. adjective. prepositions. The most important decision the speaker makes in selecting an intonation pattern is to decide where the nucleus goes: which is the word to be accented. nouns. In this case. I can’t hear you. that the information of the whole intonation unit is in focus (=broad focus) MARKED tonicity means that the nucleus is not placed within the last lexical item but within an item which comes earlier in the intonation focus. This is where we place the nucleus (or nuclear accent). the nuclear accent is the last accent in the IP. provided that the last word in an IP is important for the Initials. Tonicity can be either: NEUTRAL tonicity means that the nucleus is places within the last lexical item in an intonation unit. 2. The nucleus is the syllable where one of five English tones is realized. lexical verbs. The syllable is made prominent though pitch change. Could you tell me the time? It is only if the words towards the end of the IP are for some reason not accented that the nucleus will go on an earlier word. Christmas ‘Eve (BUT: ‘Christmas present. De.3 Compounds Single-stressed compounds: N on the first element Most compounds in English are single-stressed (=front-stressed). . and which may not have exact equivalents in other languages: pronouns.Leicester ‘Square 3. we accent content words but not function words) Function words are words whose meaning may need to be explained in a grammar rather than a dictionary. articles. I’ve lost my credit cards. names of institutions such as hotels and schools: the . 5 GROUPS: 1. i. proper names of people: .leather ‘jacket.Goldsmith’s ‘College.pork ‘chop. Function words: no N (=generally speaking.Town ‘Hall. ‘carrot cake): . All single-stressed compounds behave as if they were single words. ‘Christmas card) 5. . prepositions.Marlborough Ho’tel 4. auxiliary verbs. the nucleus will still go on the first element: Credit card bill ["["credit card] bill] It does not matter whether a single-stressed compound is written as one word. . Ask her what that noise is. Where’s your grandmother? Open compounds (two-word compounds) Is that my library book? They were playing video games.Bailey’s ‘Restaurant. . It’s well past your bedtime.kitchen ‘window.toria ‘Road. . 9 . I need some new running shoes. Are you still at high school? At ten we have a physics class. modal verbs 2. Double-stressed compounds: N on the second element Also called end-stressed or late-stressed. .James Mc’Gregor. Nested compounds (one of the elements of the compound may itself consist of more than one element. If the outer compound is single-stressed. proper names of roads and public places (except those ending in street: ‘Oxford Street): Vic. compounds in which the first element names the material or ingredient (except those ending in juice or cake: ‘orange juice. or as two words. . the main lexical stress goes on the first element. compounds in which the first element names the place or time: . the .Festival ‘Hall.e. or hyphenated. There are some ham sandwiches.cheese ‘sandwich: .nise ‘Harris 2. Put the grass in the wheelbarrow.Oxford ‘Avenue. The first element may also be accented: It was Christmas Eve.I’m very annoyed with her. What’s going on here? -Selena’s had a heart attack. 4. The nucleus goes on the last lexical item: What happened next? -Everyone burst out laughing.2 Synonyms. it represents additional help in conveying the information structure. BUT: Tina Rodman and Jane Rodman. Do you like ball games? -I’m quite fond of football.3. If the last lexical item contains old information. (wash the clothes = doing the laundry) Shall we walk there? Yes I like going on foot. When all pieces of information are new information.1 Information status The location of the nucleus is strongly affected by whether the words in the utterance contain old or new information. Information status is the status of how we want to express our ideas. we use neutral tonicity. A green chair and a blue curtain. pieces of information. 3. Do you like whist? . THE OLD AND THE NEW 3. Tina Rodman and Jane Stuart. The opposition between neutral and marked tonicity is closely related to the opposition between broad and narrow focus. even if they contain new information. BUT: A green chair and a blue chair. hyponyms Old information can also be repeated using synonyms: no N Shall we wash the clothes? Oh I hate doing the laundry. (walk = going on foot) Hypernyms: no N Malaria | and other tropical diseases. hypernims. the N is on the last lexical item: Yes madam? -I’d like a gin and tonic. Hyponyms: because you narrow down the meaning of a word or phrase already mention by using a hyponym. The focus is dynamic – the speakers constantly shift the place of the nucleus around. though always in agreement with the development of the interaction and their perception of given.Oh I like most card games. Repeated words. implied and new information. The nucleus is always located on new information. In addition to syntax. BROAD AND NARROW FOCUS Another way of analysing the linguistic function of tonicity involves the notion of focus: the concentration of attention on a particular part of the message. Broad focus: the whole IP is in focus To give a stretch of utterance broad focus. it is accented and attracts the nucleus. the N moves to the left and is placed on the first lexical item which does contain new information How about a gin and tonic? -I’d prefer a vodka and tonic. 10 . do not become N. | but have you finished your essay? (contrast between started and finished) Philip | can run faster than Jim can. reciprocal & indefinite pronouns True reflexive pronouns (myself etc. Narrow focus: only part of the IP is in focus The nucleus shows where the focus domain ends. the hearer is left to infer the other term in the contrast: I don’t know what you’re complaining about. I know what Peter wants. The above examples are all examples of explicit contrast. From his point of view |… If you want to know what I think |… Idioms or set expression with fixed tonicity Good for you! Blow me! (=I am very surprised) Search me! (=I don’t know. Pronouns & demonstratives: acquire N if they are placed in contrastive focus: I’m as surprised as you are. | but how do you feel? If you ask me. If the contrast is implicit. Any following material within the same IP is unaccented: You may have started your essay. 5. these two items can be either grammatical or lexical. they presuppose a previous context in which these sentences are uttered. and the intonation indicated that we are concentrating attention on the relevant part (Mary): Who brought the wine? . The speaker can make an explicit or implicit contrast between two pieces of information. (implicit contrast between the addressee (you) and some other possible complainant who may have better grounds for complaint than the addressee). In bellow examples the focus domain is just the item Mary. | but I can’t receive one from him. I’ve no idea) Final demonstratives tend to convey new information and attract the nucleus: Look at this! Who’s that? I’d like some of those. Have you hurt yourself? 11 . -Mary brought the wine. please. | … The contrast between me and As far as I’m concerned | … others is not explicitly expressed In my opinion | … implicit contrast and is therefore implicit. It is used to put two items in contrast.Mary. | but what do you want? I can send a fax to him. -I think it was Mary that brought the wine. Reflexive.): do not attract N She feels rather pleased with herself. I know how she feels. Contrastive focus A particular kind of narrow focus. -Mary did. | … If you ask me. did he? Prepositions Usually do not attract N unless brought into contrastive focus Look at this button. 6. no. B: Are you? A: You’re quite wrong. / Not really. A sentence fragment without yes or no: N on the auxiliary A: Have you finished? B: I have. She’s not very enthusiastic herself. no way as direct answers to yes-no questions take N A: Have you finished? B: Yes. N goes on the polarity word in tag questions A: We’re nearly ready.): do not attract N Can you see anyone? Can I get you anything? I’ve just read something really funny. Polarity questions & tags Yes. / Oh sure. At least Phil and Sue are talking to each other.Emphatic: may attract N I’ll write to him myself. o De-accent the initial yes or no A: Have you finished? B: Yes. sure. What’s it for? 12 . Nucleus on function words In some cases the nucleus always falls on a function word even when the focus is broad. Reciprocal pronouns (each other. preceded by yes or no: o 2 IP’s A: Have you finished? B: Yes. I have. isn’t it? Wayne didn’t call. I have. / Definitely. anything etc. B: Am I? It’s a beautiful day. Indefinite pronouns (someone. one another): do not attract N I think we all ought to help one another. you know. / No. definitely. why were you looking at my letters? She doesn’t smoke . (= I keep hallucinating) What are you going to tell people? (= What are you going to say?) They’re really going places. but nevertheless do not receive the nucleus. anyway. would you like some? Reporting clauses Reporting clause follows quoted words: N on the appropriate item among the quoted words “How are you doing?” he asked. BUT NOT NUCLEAR Some categories of lexical items may occur in the final position in the IP with broad focus. too. I keep seeing things. How would it be if we met for lunch? The man over there who is he? When was it that you came back from Canada? Function words with N Function words which regularly attract N: too. Anyway. Who is it? Tell me who it is. Anyhow. (= They’re really successful. that woman etc. anyhow. places. 6. Who’s she with? A: You know my essay? B: Yes. I’ll come. B: Oh. people.) Plural or mass nouns.) Have a word with the guy! (= Have a word with him) I can’t stand that woman! (= I can’t stand her. 13 . what about it? Wh + to be Direct or indirect wh-questions with the pattern: wh-word + be + pronoun: N on be How are you? Tell me how you are. We’re going to the beach. either.That’s Mary. anyhow A: I’m going to the library. the man. either. but let’s try it anyway. I’ve got to be going now. Can you see any? I’ve got lots of milk left . as well. Why don’t you come along as well? I don’t like Jim. Empty words & pro-forms General nouns with vague meanings: things. This idea may not work. FINAL. and I don’t like Tammy. not nowadays. the pro-form does not attract N A: Could I borrow some sugar? B: I haven’t got any. We need some cards. PHRASAL VERBS Phrasal verb: verb + particle (adverb or preposition) = primary stress on the particle → N on the particle How are you getting on ? The prisoner broke down. I’ll leave you to carry on. Pomfrey live here? Did you see Big Brother on television last night? There’s a fly in my soup. These tunes carry attitudinal and emotional meaning.“I don’t believe it. Does a Mr. of which only the nucleus or the tonic syllable is obligatory. IP = (PRE-HEAD) + (HEAD) + TONE + (TAIL) 14 . In final position when they are obligatory: they attract N Put it on the table.” she explained. Adverbs of time & place In final position (although they contain new information) do not attract N I had an unexpected visitor yesterday. However. Intonation plays a crucial role in the expression of the grammatical and the attitudinal meaning of an utterance. The next month she passed away. In other words. The structure of an intonation phrase is composed of maximum four elements. grammatically relevant intonation phrases which have a particular and complete intonation structure or a tune. Write the details in the book. In that case. B: May I look at them? Are these the books I sent for? Which of them can you really rely on? TONES AND MEANINGS THE PITCH MOVEMENT REALIZED ON THE NUCLEUS IS CALLED THE TONE. 7. an IP may contain more than just one (obligatory) accent. Longer utterances are divided into shorter. Phrasal verb: verb + adverb + preposition → N on the adverb She felt that her mother-in-law always looked down on her. the head extends from the first accent to the last syllable before the nucleus. then. The syllables which follow the nucleus are called the tail. the first accented syllable in the IP constitutes the beginning of the head of the IP. The pitch movement realized on the nucleus is called the tone. The pitch movement realised on the nuclear syllable is called the nuclear tone. Prepositional verb: verb + preposition = primary stress on the verb → N on the verb A: Here are the photos. whereas those preceding the head are referred to as the pre-head. it seems that the English language uses five different pitch movements or tones. but the additional two do not vary in pitch movement.e. 15 . The fall rise and rise-fall tones are complex tones (include two pitch movements). 3. almost to the bottom of the pitch range. If there are any syllables following the nuclear tone. Anything else is just a variation of these tones1: 1. 1. i. between the mid and the high part of the pitch range. 4. 2. they form the tail and are always low and level in pitch. regardless of the intonation model. (low/high) FALL () (low/high) RISE () FALL-RISE () RISE-FALL () LEVEL () The high/low fall. 2. 1 Arnold and O'Connor distinguish 7 different tones. but pitch height.Various intonation models of the English language recognize different number of nuclear tones. `wonderful _wonderful 'wonderful? 7wonderful? ˇwonderful ^wonderful >wonderful high fall low fall high rise low rise fall-rise rise-fall level pitch range FALLING TONES For the simple fall () the pitch of the voice starts relatively high. HIGH FALL ( ` ) The voice falls during the word from a high to a very low pitch. the high/low rise and the level tone are all simple tones (include one pitch movement). EXAMPLE: _lovely _Then we’ll see what happens. and then moves downwards. EXAMPLE: `lovely `Then we’ll see what happens. However. 5. LOW FALL ( _ ) The voice falls during the word from a medium to very low pitch. you mean. between the low and the mid part of the pitch range. the former a low level one. the nucleus is followed by a tail.e. the falling part of the tone is realized on the nucleus. FALL RISE ( ˇ ) The pitch of the voice starts as high as for the simple fall. 3. on the contrary. rises to a high pitch and then falls to the bottom of the pitch range. If. 16 .RISING TONES For the simple rise () the pitch of the voice starts relatively low. 6. RISE FALL ( ^ ) The rising part starts at a mid pitch. The difference between the fall and the rise is that the latter has a rising tail. moves downwards almost to the bottom of the pitch range. EXAMPLE: ˇMine. EXAMPLE: 'All of us? 'Chicken? COMPLEX TONES 5. LOW RISE ( 7 ) The voice rises during the word from a low to a medium pitch or a little above. then the realization of the fallrise is spread over the tail. and then moves upwards to the mid to high part of the pitch range. and then moves upwards again reaching the mid part of the pitch range. EXAMPLE: 7All of us? 7Chicken? 4. HIGH RISE ( ' ) The voice rises during the word from a medium to a high pitch. ˇMine. In other words. If the IP consists only of the nuclear syllable. The low level pitch is usually not reached until the second syllable of the tail. As with the fall-rise. the realization of the rise-fall is spread over the nucleus and the first one or two syllables of the tail. then the two pitch movements have to be realized on that syllable. i. whereas the rising part begins towards the end of the tail and extends to the last syllable of the IP. this means that the speaker has not said everything yet. if the context is marked. the difference between them is of attitudinal nature. It is difficult to discuss the grammatical meanings of tones separately from the attitudinal and discourse meanings – when discussing the grammatical meaning of tones. the simple rise is used in declarative questions which have the syntactic structure of a statement but have the function of polarity or yes-no questions: She "speaks Swahili? 17 . we have to presuppose the use of tones is unmarked or neutral. some other tone is used. According to Wells there are two generalizations regarding the uses of default tones. EXAMPLE: >Actually. FALL RISE The default tone in statements is a FALL which signals syntactic and semantic finality. Default tones occur in unmarked contexts of interaction. Typically. If a statement is said with a non-fall. ^Take physics then. wh-questions and commands is a fall. DIFFERENT MEANINGS OF ENGLISH TONES Intonation is multi-functional. STATEMENTS default: FALL marked: RISE. The second generalization claims that the default tone of utterances consisting of two IP’s has a fall on the main part and a non-fall on the subordinate or dependant part. whereas a rise is a default tone in yes-no questions.EXAMPLE: ^ Wonderful. 1. MID-LEVEL 7. exclamations. The first one claims that the default tone in statements. She won "two thousand pounds. It can be either the simple fall or the complex rise-fall. neither rising nor falling. "John adores her. LEVEL ( > ) The voice maintains a pitch between high and low. (But not his singing) Daddy thinks | it’s "too expensive. the fall-rise often expresses semantic non-finality where the remaining part of the message is implied in the context of interaction. 2. QUESTIONS The default tones used in various questions are different. The implication is usually a contract or a reservation. | I’m "going to buy it.When the fall-rise is used in statements it means that the IP which bears this tone is part of a larger syntactic structure. encouraging) 18 . Are you? 3. suggests) marked: fall (appeals for approval) "Dame Judi Dench played Lady Bracknel. WH-QUESTIONS default: fall "Which way is the Covent Garden? YES-NO QUESTIONS default: rise Have you "ever been to Slovenia? TAG QUESTIONS default: rise (asks for information. Well I "like his acting. In addition to this non-finality. (But Mummy may not agree. | didn’t she? "Dame Judi Dench is a magnificent actress. GREETINGS. | isn’t she? (Am I right?) (I’m sure you agree) INDEPENDENT ELLIPTICAL QUESTIONS default: rise (keeps the conversation going) I’m "thinking of taking a break. EXCLAMATIONS. FAREWELLS EXCLAMATIONS default: fall "What a pity! How "very nice of him! I "don’t believe it! "Welcome to Brighton! COMMANDS default: fall marked: rise (soothing.) We "could meet on Monday | but "later I’m away. INTERJECTIONS. Sometimes the implied message is explicitly pronounced in the following IP: No matter "what you say. COMMANDS. FAREWELLS default: rise "Good night."Stop that noise! "Come to Daddy! "Don’t worry.head head I could have kicked myself. It was an unusually dark night. dear. || "See you tomorrow.The pre-head consists of any syllables before the stress syllable of the first accented word. "Blow your nose. pre. PRE-NUCLEAR PITCH PATTERNS The part of the tune preceding the nucleus is called the pre-nuclear pattern. INTERJECTIONS default: fall marked: rise (encouraging) Thank you. Good morning. whether the latter syllable is the nucleus or the beginning of the head. It can be divided into two parts: the PRE-HEAD the HEAD THE PRE-HEAD . businesslike) rise (personal. encouraging) Good morning. My goodness! A: Oh mary! B: Yes? GREETINGS default: fall (formal. the low pre-head and the high pre-head: the low pre-head the high pre-head 19 . nucleus pre-head nucleus tail There are two types of pre-head. If there are other accented words. If there are other accented words in the head. THE FALLING HEAD The first syllable of the falling head is rather high in pitch and any following syllables gradually carry the pitch lower.THE HEAD The first pitch-prominent pre-nuclear segment is called the head = the head begins with the stressed syllable of the first accented word (before the nucleus). The low head is symbolised by placing the mark [ ! ] before its first stressed syllable. THE LOW HEAD All the syllables are said on the same low pitch. 3. the mark [º] is placed before the stressed syllables of each of them: 20 . I can’t be ˇcertain. It always precedes the fall-rise tone. The symbol for the falling head is [] placed before the stressed syllable of the first accented word in the head. It was" easier than I ex`pected. There are four different types of head: 1. Where’s John? head nucleus The pre-head and head may occur together or separately. or they may not be present at all if the nucleus is the first syllable of a word group. !Someone’s ∑bound to ∑come a∑long 7soon. !Don’t’ be 7silly. their stressed syllables are preceded by [ ]. The high head is always level (the high level head). It !ought to be ∑perfectly 'clear. THE HIGH HEAD All syllables are said on the same rather high pitch. The high head is symbolized by placing the mark ["] before it. If there are other accented words in the head they have [º] before their stressed syllables: "Why did you ºtell me you ºcouldn’t `come? 2. a high pre-head or no pre-head at all. 9. 2.Everyone’s ºbound to ºsee it ˇsometime. 4. THE TAIL All syllables following the nucleus are called the tail. 21 THE LONG JUMO THE HIGH BOUNCE THE JACKNIFE THE HIGH DIVE THE TERRACE . THE RISING HEAD Its first syllable is low in pitch and any following syllables gradually carry the pitch higher. the total number of basic pitch patterns will be 105. THE LOW DROP THE HIGH DROP THE TAKE-OFF THE LOW BOUNCE THE SWITCHBACK 6. some of the patterns occur very much more frequently than others 2. some patterns which are different have differences of meaning so slight that they would be very difficult to define in any very helpful way Any tune which means substantially the same can be usefully grouped together. It only occurs before the high-fall tone. So a tone groups is unified and distinguished from all other tone groups both by the attitude it conveys and by the pitch features of its tunes. The symbol for the rising head [] is placed before the stressed syllable of the first accented word in the head. 4. The stressed syllable of any other accented word in the head is marked with [º]: How did you ºmanage to do `that? Don’t `pay him. it may have one of the four different kinds of head or no head at all. If every one of these parts of a tune can be combined with every other part. 5. 7. But it is not necessary to deal with 105 or more different units for two reasons: 1. In Arnold’s and O’Connor’s Intonation of colloquial English ten tunes are described: 1. and it will have one of the seven nuclear tones (with or without the appropriate tail). It’s absolutely in`tolerable. 8. The seven nuclear tones correspond to the seven tune endings: high fall ending rise-fall ending low rise ending high rise ending fall-rise ending mid-level ending TUNES AND TONE GROUPS A simple tune may have a low pre-head. as the following specification makes clear. 3. the tunes in a tone group also have one or more pitch features in common. 10. Such a grouping of tunes all conveying the same attitude on the part of the speaker is called a tone group. Besides expressing the same attitude. Don’t ˇfall. non-echo questions: tentative. calmly patronising urgently warning with a note of reproach or concern recommending a course of action but with a note of critical surprise disclaiming responsibility. brighter than when said with the take-off scornful protesting. otherwise: sympathetically interested echoes: greatly astonished. calling out to someone as from a distance . reserved with head: very strong mildly surprised.PRE-HEAD HEAD TONE STATEMENT WH-QUESTION YES-NO QUESTION COMMAND INTERJECTIONS THE LOW DROP THE HIGH DROP THE TAKE-OFF THE LOW BOUNCE THE SWITCHBACK THE LONG JUMP THE HIGH BOUNCE THE JACKKNIFE THE HIGH DIVE THE TERRACE (low) (high) low fall (low) (high) high fall (low) (low) low rise (low) / (high) (high) low rise (low) (falling) fall-rise (low) (rising) high fall (low) (high) high rise (low) (high) rise-fall (low) (high) high fall + low rise (low) (high) mid-level no head: detached. urgent brisk. reassuring. not unfriendly. controlled with head: very serious. antagonistic very emotive. casual either echoing the listener’s question or light and casual impressed. disclaiming responsibility in non final word groups: marking non-finality. without conveying any impression of expectancy impressed. encouraging. challenging. businesslike. trying to elicit a repetition. reluctantly or defensively dissenting. very strong suggesting a course of action and not worrying about being obeyed beginning with don’t: appealing to the listener to change his mind. airy encouraging further conversation. hint of great selfconfidence. echoes: disapproving. nonfinal: casual n on the interrogative word: calling for a repetition. otherwise: interested and concerned as well as surprised willing to discuss but protesting the need for settling a crucial point questioning. echoes: astonished protesting. but lacking any suggestion of disapproval or puzzlement. hurt. despair. cool. flat. reserving judgement. expressing plaintiveness. lively. gushing warmth in non final word groups: marking non-finality. grim with head: categoric. challenging. concerned. complacent. reproachful. antagonistic. without conveying any impression of expectancy. sometimes sceptical disapproving. without conveying any impression of expectancy no head: uninterested. in echoes: questioning grudgingly. interested n on the interrogative word: wondering. often friendly. sceptical genuinely interested echoes: greatly astonished. serious. exhortative soothing. unsympathetic with head: searching. surprised querying all or part of the listener’s command or interjection. weighty. word: echoing. without conveying any impression of expectancy. censorious. calmly warning. full. disclaiming responsibility no head: detached. hostile with head: serious. sometimes calm airy. calling out to someone as from a distance in non final word groups: marking non-finality. otherwise: interested and concerned as well as surprised protesting. gushing warmth no head: unemotional. expressing gladness regret. persuading no head: calm. intense. despair. protesting 22 challenging. guarded. calm. as if suffering under a sense of injustice impressed. deprecatory soothing. reserved. somewhat unpleasantly surprised appealing to the listener to continue with the topic of conversation. yet encouraging. without conveying any impression of expectancy in non final word groups: marking non-finality. not so reserved or self-possessed as with the low-drop sometimes reserving judgement. selfsatisfied. considerate. n on the following int. awed. expressing plaintiveness. judicial conveying a sense of involvement. but with no critical intention in non final word groups: marking non-finality. urgent willing to discuss but not urgently. surprise very emotive. admitting. but with no critical intention querying all or part of the listener’s command or interjection. puzzled otherwise: very calm but resentful n on the interrogative word: puzzled. light. sometimes a hint of accusation intensely encouraging. sometimes hostile pleasing. unsurprised. causal. reserved.