ading SectionSection time left: 22:57You will read a magazine article about volcanoes. Answer the questions based on what you have read. Volcanoes have existed since the birth of the earth, and they have helped shape the continents as we know them. The word volcano is thought to have come from Roman mythology, specifically derived from Vulcan, the Roman god of fire who was thought to be Jupiter’s blacksmith and responsible for making arrows and shields. Vulcan also had a Greek equivalent, known as Hephaestus, whose name means “burning” or “flaming.” Volcanoes were featured in ancient poetry, where they are described as the blacksmith’s workshop. When a mountain erupted, the ancients thought it was caused by smoke escaping through the chimney of Vulcan’s workshop when he was at work. But what are volcanoes, really? A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s surface which allows hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape from the magma chamber below the surface. Volcanic eruptions can cause destruction and consequent disaster in several different ways. One is the volcanic eruption itself, causing harm from the explosion of the volcano or the immediate fall of rock. Then there is lava - molten rock or liquid rock - that may be produced during the eruption of a volcano. As it leaves the volcano, the hot lava destroys any buildings and plants in its path. Third, there is volcanic ash, consisting of fragments of pulverized rock, minerals and volcanic glass, which may form a cloud and settle thickly in nearby locations. When volcanic ash is mixed with water it forms a concrete-like material, and in sufficient quantity, ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight. Small quantities of volcanic ash will also harm humans if inhaled. However, the main danger to humans in the immediate surroundings of a volcanic eruption is pyroclastic flows. These are currents of hot gas and rock which can reach speeds of up to 700 kmh (450 mph) and temperatures of about 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). It is believed that the Roman town of Pompeii near Naples was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, and that heat was the main cause of death of people and not, as previously believed, the inhalation of ash. while the ash cloud was blown across cities all around the Southern hemisphere.One recent volcanic eruption causing chaos and disaster was the Puyehue-Cordón Caulle eruption in Chile in 2011. Ash poses a threat to aircrafts because once sucked into engines. creating travel chaos when airlines were forced to cancel hundreds of flights. ski resorts in Argentina had to be closed. a nearby river was contaminated and its temperature rose to 45 °C (113 °F) and pastureland in Southern Argentina was destroyed . Further. it can be transformed into molten glass by the high engine temperatures and can cause an engine to fail.500 people were evacuated from nearby areas. At least 3. that person is likely to take the next turn speaking in the discussion. Brown’s team takes the same approach as the Singapore team. for example. A critical part of the human-robot gap centers on communication. like robots. words are not the only influence on a listener’s understanding. A particularly important achievement of this software is how easy it is to add new commands. to look and act more human-like. tone of voice and facial expressions. five different users wore the ShapeTape jacket and used it to control a virtual robot through simple arm motions that represented commands such as forward. In tests. “It turns out that gaze tells us all sorts of things about attention. Recently. Brown focuses his work on replicating characteristics of human behavior in robots or animatronic characters. They break down each human cue or gesture into minute segments or sub- mechanisms – such as the direction of the eyes versus the direction of the head or how the body is oriented – which can be modeled. Brown is leading a team that is developing and creating various computer algorithms based on how people communicate without words. about mental states. Other subtle factors – such as tone of voice. When people really mean what they are saying. for example. Research also shows that when a person finishes saying something in a conversation and directs his or her gaze to one particular person. body language and eye contact – also have powerful communicative potential. When we talk with someone. Brown has focused his most recent research on human gaze. To convert these subtle cues of human communication into data and language that can be used by a robot. by demonstrating a new control gesture just a few times. When building robots for roles in teaching. These algorithms are then used to program devices. helping to bridge the gap between man and machine.” he says. about roles in conversations. Calling himself a human-computer interaction specialist. such as the length of time a target is looked at.Computer science professor Mark Brown appreciates the power of nonverbal communication. faster or slower. For example. a special jacket that uses fiber optics and sensors to monitor the bending and twisting of hands and arms. if a person focuses his or her gaze on a specific individual while talking to a group of people. These nonverbal cues tell people where our attention is focused and what we mean when we direct a question or comment in a conversation. backward. The next step in improving the gesture recognition system is to allow humans to control robots without the need to wear any special devices. Then certain temporal dimensions are added to the model. Some robotics researchers have focused on gesture. they might open up their eyes and look at the person they are talking to and really try to communicate their message or thought through facial and other cues. The researchers found that 99. the facet of nonverbal communication he finds most intriguing. a group of researchers in Singapore released a computer program whose algorithm recognizes human gestures quickly and accurately. Brown incorporates these . They tested the software by integrating it with ShapeTape.15% of gestures were correctly translated by their system. it communicates that what is being said is especially relevant to that individual. or have robots mimic people on a one-to-one basis. He believes that this kind of robot development has significant potential for assistive technologies. . Instead. reproduce them in many different robots and enable these systems to connect with humans as humans communicate with each other. he seeks to find key mechanisms which help humans communicate effectively. he wants to explore how a “smart” robot who communicates like a person might assist people with disabilities to lead fuller and more comfortable lives. Brown’s goal is not to duplicate a human being in robot form. For example. The research team has found robot- assisted learning improves when a robot teacher uses these visual cues.nonverbal behaviors in the control software. is appalling. the resources and the profits all go offshore. International corporations demand direct access to international markets and property in developing countries from their governments. those violations often make the free trade investment extremely profitable. the so-called “exploitative” wages international companies pay local workers are typically 50%-75% above prevailing rates in the host countries – and the work is almost always safer to boot. And new infrastructure built by international companies in order to do business does not disappear. free trade is far from being the inter-governmental cooperative endeavor it may appear to be. along with a profoundly disrupted society. namely. are indebted to business interests. leaving only the low-skilled jobs. however. the . The defenders. ranging from guano in the Pacific Islands in the 19th century to oil in Nigeria today. flatly reject the charge of economic exploitation — all benefits accruing to the investor and none to the object of investment. Low wages and long hours for low-skilled work make global companies financially viable. the environmental damage caused to developing countries by Western corporations’ resource extraction. the exploitation of developing countries by powerful international corporations. Most of the skilled labor is brought in from outside the country. developed countries benefit by investment in countries in which basic human rights violations are a fundamental part of the culture. The workers are worth the premium paid above local wages because the investing corporation has already made them more valuable as a result of their employment and training in new industries. Second. renowned British economist and stockbroker David Ricardo proved definitively in his law of “comparative advantage” that free trade benefits both parties despite disparities in wealth and power. Those on the other side of the debate say that in reality. Third. the heads of government in powerful Western nations. pretty-sounding names for a nasty business. Profit-makers have little or no regard for human rights or social cost. Indeed. international commerce or the media. Proponents perpetuate the view that foreign investment in developing countries is so helpful to those countries that it’s practically philanthropy. After a few years only the mess is left behind. who espouse free trade and foreign investment as pillars of democracy. while at the same time demanding protection of their interests in the form of trade barriers from their own governments. the roads. Local populations don’t benefit from the financial windfall created by the free trade inspired investment. particularly those involved in government. First. Defenders often point out that in developing countries. Nearly two hundred years ago. Indeed. free trade and foreign investment are euphemisms. with the result that free trade investment tacitly encourages anti-democratic governments in countries in which workers suffering under corrupt regimes are voiceless and desperate. say the attackers. What are the basic arguments people use to attack and defend free trade? The attackers cite three primary arguments against free trade. they contend.The phrase “free trade” is a flashpoint for many people. Concern for the environment is a polemical dodge: wealthy is healthy. and if rich countries also benefit by making that shift possible. Poor countries will clean themselves up if given a chance to become rich enough to afford the luxury of doing so. The real question is how best to bring wealth to poor countries. They enable the country to support more new industry employing local people at still higher salary levels. they clean up their backyards. As countries get rich. the people have lifted themselves out of their poverty to such a point that today they are. they argue. As to the issue of environmental damage as a result of free trade. by some measures.telecommunication networks. what is the harm in that? . the richest on Earth. the sewers and clean water supply are permanent assets. Hong Kong is the classic modern example of this cycle. Fifty years ago it was one of the poorest places on the globe. by dint of hard work and by embracing free trade and foreign investment. Yet. that rich nations have clean environments and poor nations do not. The simple fact is. defenders say that this is pure and simple nonsense.