ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN A NUTSHELLCopyright David Cooper 2012 1 English Grammar in a Nutshell is an ideal and compact self- study guide for students who are learning English at all levels. It is a handy companion for use in English classes. It is also an ideal tool for the teacher to use. The grammatical structures are easily explained with easy to follow examples of how and when they are used. “ I would like to dedicate this book to Juan Carlos, my dearest friend and would also like to thank all of my students for giving me the motivation to write this book. David Cooper 2 CONTENTS Verb Tenses Simple Present Present Continuous Simple Past Past Continuous Present Perfect Past Perfect Past perfect Continuous Future tenses Going to Simple future – will Future continuous Future perfect Future perfect continuous Verbs not used in continuous tenses Auxiliary verb DO Passive voice Modal verbs To be/get used to Used to Causatives Conditionals Prepositions Reported speech Irregular verbs American English vs British English Question words 3 SIMPLE PRESENT Formula: Base verb The simple present tense is used for situations which are permanent and also regular and repeated actions and facts. Examples: I play tennis every Saturday. He works in a hospital. The earth is round. Regular action. Permanent action. A fact. The simple present can also be used for future plans especially when using timetables and itineraries. Example: The train arrives in London at 4pm. Note! ALL verbs in the third person end in s or es in the simple present tense. Examples: She plays the piano. He studies English. Structure: + ? base verb Don’t/doesn’t + base verb do/does + subject + base verb 4 PRESENT CONTINUOUS Formula: To be + verb + ing Note! In the formula, only the verb TO BE changes according to the person, 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. The ING form does not change. The present continuous tense is used to express actions happening at the moment of speaking. It is also used to express future actions. Examples: I’m writing a letter to my parents. He’s playing football. They’re watching TV. I’m visiting my sister next week. We’re going to the movies tonight. Action happening now. Action happening now. Action happening now. Future action. Future action. Structure + ? is/are + verb + ing Am/is/are not + verb + ing is/are + subject + verb + ing 5 SIMPLE PAST Formula: Base verb + ed ( regular verbs) The simple past is used to express completed actions which happened at a particular time in the past and which have now finished. Example: We went to France on vacation last summer. They watched a DVD last night. (Irregular verb) (Regular verb) Irregular verbs change form in the past tense while regular verbs end in ed. In the simple past tense there is no s or es in third person. Structure: + ? base verb + ed Didn’t + base verb Regular verbs did + subject + base verb 6 PAST CONTINUOUS Formula: Was/were + verb + ing The past continuous tense expresses actions which were not finished at a particular time in the past and indicates how long an action continued. It is often used to express an action which was happening in the past when a second action interrupted it. Examples: I was living in London at the time. I was taking a shower when the phone rang. Finished action. Interrupted action Structure: + ? was/were + verb + ing wasn’t/weren’t + verb + ing was/were + subject + verb + ing 7 PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE Formula: Have/has + past participle The present perfect simple tense is used to express actions which began in the past and continue into the present time. Since is used to express the starting point. For is used to express the duration. It is also used to express an action which was completed in the past but the time is unknown or not important. Examples: I’ve seen that film three times. She’s had flu for over a week. We’ve had our dog since it was a puppy. Structure: + ? have/has + past participle have/has not + past participle have/has + subject + past participle This tense suggests that an action is complete while the present perfect continuous suggests that the action hasn’t been completed. 8 PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS Formula: Have/has + been + verb + ing The present perfect continuos is also used to express actions which began in the past and continue to the present time. Since is used to express the starting point. For is used to express the duration. This tense usually emphasizes how long an action has continued and suggests that the action is temporary. Examples: I’ve been studying English for three years. He’s been living in Italy since 2010. Structure: + ? have/has + been + verb + ing have/has + not + been + verb + ing have/has + subject + been + verb + ing 9 PAST PERFECT Formula: Had + past participle The past perfect tense expresses actions which happened before another action at a particular time in the past. It is also used to make the order of the actions clear. Examples: 1. When I got to the cinema, the film had started. 2. The students had left the class before the bell rang. Notice! In the first example the first part of the sentence uses simple past because this was the second action. In the second part of the sentence the past perfect is used because this was the first action. In the second example, the students had left the class was the first action and before the bell rang was the second action. Structure: + ? had + past participle hadn’t + past participle had + subject + past participle Notice! HAD does not change in third person. It remains the same in ALL persons. 10 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS Formula: Had + been + verb + ing The past perfect continuous tense is used to express that the first action continued for some time or was not finished. Example: The customers had been waiting for a long time before the waiter arrived. Structure: + ? had + been + verb + ing hadn’t + been + verb + ing had + subject + verb + ing 11 FUTURE IDIOMATIC FUTURE Formula: be + going to +base verb The idiomatic future is used to express personal intention, meaning that the action has been considered in advance and some plans have been made. It is also used to make a prediction based on information. Examples: I’m going to have a party. Are you going to get married? I think I’m going to be sick. SIMPLE FUTURE Structure: Affirmative: Negative: will + base verb won’t (will not) + base verb The simple future tense is used to express a future fact or prediction. It is also used to express a sudden decision or to make a promise or threat. It is also used to express a strong probability. Examples: She’ll be thirty tomorrow. It will be sunny tomorrow. I’ll help you with your homework. I’ll call the police! “There’s someone at the door”.” It’ll be Clive.” Fact Prediction Promise Decision Probability 12 SHALL Shall is used to make an offer or request. Example: Shall I reserve a table? FUTURE CONTINUOUS Structure: Affirmative: Negative: will + be + verb + ing won’t ( will not) + be + verb + ing The future continuous is used to express an action which will be in progress at some point in the future. It is also used to express an action which will happen as a matter of course. It is also used to express a request for information rather than a request for action. It is also used to express a strong possibility. Examples: I’ll be living in Venice this time next week. The exams will be taking place next Friday. Will you be leaving soon? I’ll be playing soccer on Saturday. An action in progress at some point in the future. An action taking place as a matter of course. Request for information. Strong possibility. 13 FUTURE PERFECT Structure: Affirmative: Negative: will + have + past participle won’t (will not) + have + past participle The future perfect is used to express a future event which will be completed by a time which is further into the future. Example: Because of global warming, the sea levels will have risen by the end of the 21st century. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS Structure: Affirmative: Negative: will + have + been + verb + ing won’t (will not) + have + been + verb+ ing The future perfect continuous is used to express the duration of an action as seen from a point in the future. Example: I will have been living in Mexico for 15 years next September. 14 VERBS NOT USUALLY USED IN CONTINUOUS TENSES admire adore astonish be believe belong consist contain deserve detest dislike doubt envy exist fit forget hate hear imagine impress include involve keep know lack last like love matter mean owe own please possess prefer reach remember satisfy seem sound stop suppose surprise survive suspect understand want wish 15 AUXILIARY VERB DO DO is used as an auxiliary verb when making negative statements or when asking questions when the verb to be is not in use. In the simple present it takes the es form in the third person. In the simple past DID is used and does not change in the third person. Examples: Do you like chocolate? Does she play the piano? We don’t study Chinese. He doesn’t work in a bank. Did you watch TV last night? Did she do her homework? Note! When the auxiliary DO/DOES/DID is used the s or es does not appear on the main verb. It appears on the auxiliary. 16 PASSIVE VOICE Structures: Simple present: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Present continuous: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Simple past: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Past continuous: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Present perfect: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Past perfect: Example: Active voice: Someone had broken the window. Someone has stolen my car! My car has been stolen. had + been + past participle The men were hunting a lion. A lion was being hunted. have/has + been + past participle Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. was/were + being + past participle Someone is following me. I am being followed. was/were + past participle They produce tequila in Mexico. Tequila is produced in Mexico. am/is/are +being +past participle to be + past participle 17 Passive voice: Simple future: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: The window had been broken. will + be + past participle They will build a new bridge next year. A new bridge will be built next year. Future with going to: be going to + be + past participle Active voice: Passive voice: I’m going to give an exam next week. An exam is going to be given next week. The passive voice is used to put emphasis on the object affected by the action rather than on who does the action, therefore the object becomes the subject of the new sentence. In the passive voice, the person or thing doing the action is known as the agent in the passive sentence but is only needed if it is important that we know who or what did the action. Example 1: Active voice: Passive voice: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. (agent) The agent is needed in the above example because we need to know who wrote Hamlet. Example 2: Active voice: Passive voice: They produce tequila in Mexico. Tequila is produced in Mexico. In this example the agent is not needed because we know that someone produces tequila and therefore it is not important. In order to make an active voice sentence passive, we need to look at the tense of the main verb. Once we have established which tense is used, then the change can take place. Example: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. ( wrote is in the simple past tense), therefore we need to put the verb to be into the simple past tense followed by the past participle of the verb write (written). 18 Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. So the verb to be is the key verb which changes according to the tense of the main verb. MODAL VERBS CAN Structure: + ? can + base verb can’t + base verb can + subject + base verb Can is used to talk about an ability or possibility but it is not used with an infinitive. Can’t (cannot) is the negative form. It is also used when asking for permission. Examples: I can speak English. He can finish work early today. I can’t fly. Can I leave early? BE ABLE TO Be able to is used with the infinitive and means the same as can. Not be able to is the negative form. Examples: I am able to read. He is not able to finish early. COULD Could is only used to talk about general ability in the past. Couldn’t refers to both general and specific ability. It is also used when asking for permission. Ability Negative possibility Ability Possibility Impossible Asking for permission 19 Examples: I could read when I was four. I couldn’t swim until I was twelve. Could I borrow your dictionary? Could is also used to talk about how things might have been different. It can also suggest criticism. Examples: He could have been a vet. ( But he didn’t want to become one). You could have let me know you were going to be late! (But you didn’t let me know). CAN and COULD do not take s in the third person. MUST Must is used to express that you are certain about something that is true or is going to happen. Must not is the negative form. Example: It must be Sheila’s umbrella. She was the only one with an umbrella today. Must is also used as an obligation, personal recommendation or strong suggestion. Examples: You must try that new restaurant, it’s very good. You must phone first. You must see a doctor. HAVE TO Have to is used to express an impersonal obligation. Example: You have to have a license before you can drive a car. Recommendation Obligation Strong suggestion 20 SHOULD and OUGHT TO Should and ought to express advice or recommendation. They are also used to express obligation. Examples: You should see a dentist. You ought to clean your bedroom, it’s a mess! Advice Obligation MAY May is formal and is usually used when asking for permission. Example: May I go to the bathroom? MIGHT Might is formal when used to ask permission. It is also used when you are not sure about anything. Examples: Might I make a suggestion? I might go out tonight. Asking for permission Not sure 21 TO BE/GET USED TO To be / get used to is used to express things that we are accustomned to or have been accustomed to doing them. Example: When you live in a city you are / get used to the noise. To be / get used to indicates that something isn’t strange or new anymore. After using be / get used to you cannot use the infinitive (to make, to walk, etc ). Notice! Do not confuse I am used to …. And I used to…. They are different in structure and meaning. USED TO Used to is used to express something that was done regularly in the past but is no longer done. It cannot be used in the present. It is also used to express something that was true but is not true anymore. Example: I used to go fishing when I was younger. 22 CAUSATIVES HAVE / GET SOMETHING DONE Have / get something done is used to express that we arrange for somebody else to do something for us. It is also used to express that something happens to somebody or something, and usually isn’t good. Examples: David had his house painted. Sara had her passport stolen. (somebody painted it for him). (her passport was stolen from her). Structure: Subject + have +object +past participle 23 CONDITIONALS ZERO CONDITIONAL The zero conditional expresses conditions which are always true. Structure: Examples: If you heat ice, it melts. When you see him, say hello for me. If / when + present form + present form or imperative FIRST CONDITIONAL The first conditional expresses conditions which are very possible in the present or future. Structure: If + present form +future form or imperative Example: If I don’t leave now, I’ll miss the bus. SECOND CONDITIONAL The second conditional expresses conditions which are impossible or improbable in the present or future. Structure: If + simple past / past continuous + would / could / might + infinitive Example: If you won the lottery, what would you do ? 24 THIRD CONDITIONAL The third conditional expresses unreal conditions in the past. Structure: If + past perfect simple or continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle Example: I could have gone to live in Australia if I had wanted to. ( I didn’t want to live in Australia, so I didn’t go). MIXED CONDITIONALS The conditionals can be combined in a variety of ways and the most common are: 1. Unreal conditions in the past with an unreal present or future result. Structure: If + past perfect / continuous + would / should / could / might + infinitive Example: If I had driven faster, I could be there by now. 2.Unreal conditions in the present with an unreal past result. Structure: If + past simple / continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle Example: If I spoke Spanish, I might have gone to live in Mexico. Notice! In written conditional sentences, when the If clause comes first in the sentence, it is followed by a comma but when the main clause comes first, a comma is not used. 25 PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE Prepositions of place are used before nouns to indicate where something is. Examples: The school is next to the library. He is standing behind the door. Common prepositions of place: behind between in front of opposite on above below on top of under inside in next to outside inside PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT Prepositions of movement are used to indicate where something is going. Examples: She climbed up the wall. He is driving towards the airport. Common prepositions of movement: towards through to under up along into back down from out of 26 REPORTED SPEECH Reported speech is used to report what somebody has said. When it is introduced with a verb in the past tense, most of the verbs used in direct speech change to agree with that verb. Examples: “I am thirsty,” Jean said. Jean said she was thirsty. Direct speech. Reported speech “Can I have some water?” asked Peter. Peter asked if he could have some water. Notice! Direct speech Reported speech Generally, all present tense verbs change into the past tense, and all past tense verbs change into the past perfect tense. Examples: “Jane went to Mexico last summer,” Mike said to Tina. Mike told Tina that Jane had gone to Mexico the previous summer. Direct speech Reported speech Notice! Past perfect tenses and modals do not change. Examples: “I hadn’t noticed that,” said John. John said that he hadn’t noticed that. “Would you like some tea, George?” asked Cynthia. Cynthia asked George if he’d like some tea. Direct speech Reported speech Direct speech Reported speech 27 IRREGULAR VERBS INFINITIVE be become begin break bring build buy catch choose come cost do drink drive eat fall feel fight find fly forget get give SIMPLE PAST was/were became began broke brought built bought caught chose came cost did drank drove ate fell felt fought found flew forgot got gave PAST PARTICIPLE been become begun broken brought built bought caught chosen come cost done drunk driven eaten fallen felt fought found flown forgotten got/gotten given 28 go have hear hide hold hurt keep know lead leave let lose make meet pay put read ring run say see sell sing sit sleep speak went had heard hid held hurt kept knew led left let lost made met paid put read (red) rang ran said saw sold sang sat slept spoke gone had heard hidden held hurt kept known led left let lost made met paid put read (red) pronunciation rung run said seen sold sung sat slept spoken 29 spend stand steal swim take teach think wear win write spent stood stole swam took taught thought wore won wrote spent stood stolen swum taken taught thought worn won written 30 AMERICAN ENGLISH vs BRITISH ENGLISH There are a few differences in grammar between American English and British English. The present perfect or simple past can be used. Example 1: American English I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it? Or I lost my passport. Did you see it? Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out. Or Brian isn’t here he went out. But in British English the present perfect is used for an action in the past with a result in the present. Example 2: British English I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it? Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out. 31 In American English the present perfect or simple past can be used in this manner: Example 1: I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink. Or I’m not thirsty. I just had a drink. Example 2: “What time is she leaving?” She has already left. Or She already left. Example 3: “Have you eaten yet?” Or “Did you eat yet?” But in British English the present perfect is used with just, already and yet. Example 1: I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink. Example 2: “What time is she leaving?” She has already left. Example 3: “Have you eaten yet?” Also, many verbs which end in ise in British English are spelt with ize in American English. 32 Example: organize organize British English American English The past participle of the verb get in British English is got. But in American English it is gotten. Example: Your work has got much better. Your work has gotten much better. British English American English Other differences between American and British English are: American on the weekend/on weekends on a street different from / different than write (somebody) British at the weekend/at weekends in a street different from / different to write to(somebody) Written American English also differs from written British English in the way some words are spelt: American center color traveled British centre colour travelled 33 QUESTION WORDS What…? What time… What…like? Why..? Where..? When..? Whose…? Which…? Who…? How…? How much…? How many…? used to ask about the identity or nature of an object, person or some matter or situation. used to ask for the time. used to ask for a description of someone or something. used to ask for a reason. used to ask about a place, location, direction. used to ask about a time period. used to ask about possession. used to ask about something in particular. used to ask about a person or persons. used to ask about the way or manner of something (how it was done). used to ask about quantity (uncountable nouns). Also used to ask for the price of something. used to ask about quantity. ( countable nouns). Examples: What’s your name? What is your family like? Where is the museum? Whose car is this? Who lives next door? How many brothers do you have? How much money do you have? How much is that jacket? What time is it? Why did you arrive late? When is your birthday? Which country do you live in? How do you get to school? 34 35 ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN A NUTSHELL Copyright David Cooper 2012 1 English Grammar in a Nutshell is an ideal and compact self- study guide for students who are learning English at all levels. It is a handy companion for use in English classes. It is also an ideal tool for the teacher to use. The grammatical structures are easily explained with easy to follow examples of how and when they are used. “ I would like to dedicate this book to Juan Carlos, my dearest friend and would also like to thank all of my students for giving me the motivation to write this book. David Cooper 2 CONTENTS Verb Tenses Simple Present Present Continuous Simple Past Past Continuous Present Perfect Past Perfect Past perfect Continuous Future tenses Going to Simple future – will Future continuous Future perfect Future perfect continuous Verbs not used in continuous tenses Auxiliary verb DO Passive voice Modal verbs To be/get used to Used to Causatives Conditionals Prepositions Reported speech Irregular verbs American English vs British English Question words 3 SIMPLE PRESENT Formula: Base verb The simple present tense is used for situations which are permanent and also regular and repeated actions and facts. Examples: I play tennis every Saturday. He works in a hospital. The earth is round. Regular action. Permanent action. A fact. The simple present can also be used for future plans especially when using timetables and itineraries. Example: The train arrives in London at 4pm. Note! ALL verbs in the third person end in s or es in the simple present tense. Examples: She plays the piano. He studies English. Structure: + ? base verb Don’t/doesn’t + base verb do/does + subject + base verb 4 PRESENT CONTINUOUS Formula: To be + verb + ing Note! In the formula, only the verb TO BE changes according to the person, 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. The ING form does not change. The present continuous tense is used to express actions happening at the moment of speaking. It is also used to express future actions. Examples: I’m writing a letter to my parents. He’s playing football. They’re watching TV. I’m visiting my sister next week. We’re going to the movies tonight. Action happening now. Action happening now. Action happening now. Future action. Future action. Structure + ? is/are + verb + ing Am/is/are not + verb + ing is/are + subject + verb + ing 5 SIMPLE PAST Formula: Base verb + ed ( regular verbs) The simple past is used to express completed actions which happened at a particular time in the past and which have now finished. Example: We went to France on vacation last summer. They watched a DVD last night. (Irregular verb) (Regular verb) Irregular verbs change form in the past tense while regular verbs end in ed. In the simple past tense there is no s or es in third person. Structure: + ? base verb + ed Didn’t + base verb Regular verbs did + subject + base verb 6 PAST CONTINUOUS Formula: Was/were + verb + ing The past continuous tense expresses actions which were not finished at a particular time in the past and indicates how long an action continued. It is often used to express an action which was happening in the past when a second action interrupted it. Examples: I was living in London at the time. I was taking a shower when the phone rang. Finished action. Interrupted action Structure: + ? was/were + verb + ing wasn’t/weren’t + verb + ing was/were + subject + verb + ing 7 PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE Formula: Have/has + past participle The present perfect simple tense is used to express actions which began in the past and continue into the present time. Since is used to express the starting point. For is used to express the duration. It is also used to express an action which was completed in the past but the time is unknown or not important. Examples: I’ve seen that film three times. She’s had flu for over a week. We’ve had our dog since it was a puppy. Structure: + ? have/has + past participle have/has not + past participle have/has + subject + past participle This tense suggests that an action is complete while the present perfect continuous suggests that the action hasn’t been completed. 8 PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS Formula: Have/has + been + verb + ing The present perfect continuos is also used to express actions which began in the past and continue to the present time. Since is used to express the starting point. For is used to express the duration. This tense usually emphasizes how long an action has continued and suggests that the action is temporary. Examples: I’ve been studying English for three years. He’s been living in Italy since 2010. Structure: + ? have/has + been + verb + ing have/has + not + been + verb + ing have/has + subject + been + verb + ing 9 PAST PERFECT Formula: Had + past participle The past perfect tense expresses actions which happened before another action at a particular time in the past. It is also used to make the order of the actions clear. Examples: 1. When I got to the cinema, the film had started. 2. The students had left the class before the bell rang. Notice! In the first example the first part of the sentence uses simple past because this was the second action. In the second part of the sentence the past perfect is used because this was the first action. In the second example, the students had left the class was the first action and before the bell rang was the second action. Structure: + ? had + past participle hadn’t + past participle had + subject + past participle Notice! HAD does not change in third person. It remains the same in ALL persons. 10 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS Formula: Had + been + verb + ing The past perfect continuous tense is used to express that the first action continued for some time or was not finished. Example: The customers had been waiting for a long time before the waiter arrived. Structure: + ? had + been + verb + ing hadn’t + been + verb + ing had + subject + verb + ing 11 FUTURE IDIOMATIC FUTURE Formula: be + going to +base verb The idiomatic future is used to express personal intention, meaning that the action has been considered in advance and some plans have been made. It is also used to make a prediction based on information. Examples: I’m going to have a party. Are you going to get married? I think I’m going to be sick. SIMPLE FUTURE Structure: Affirmative: Negative: will + base verb won’t (will not) + base verb The simple future tense is used to express a future fact or prediction. It is also used to express a sudden decision or to make a promise or threat. It is also used to express a strong probability. Examples: She’ll be thirty tomorrow. It will be sunny tomorrow. I’ll help you with your homework. I’ll call the police! “There’s someone at the door”.” It’ll be Clive.” Fact Prediction Promise Decision Probability 12 SHALL Shall is used to make an offer or request. Example: Shall I reserve a table? FUTURE CONTINUOUS Structure: Affirmative: Negative: will + be + verb + ing won’t ( will not) + be + verb + ing The future continuous is used to express an action which will be in progress at some point in the future. It is also used to express an action which will happen as a matter of course. It is also used to express a request for information rather than a request for action. It is also used to express a strong possibility. Examples: I’ll be living in Venice this time next week. The exams will be taking place next Friday. Will you be leaving soon? I’ll be playing soccer on Saturday. An action in progress at some point in the future. An action taking place as a matter of course. Request for information. Strong possibility. 13 FUTURE PERFECT Structure: Affirmative: Negative: will + have + past participle won’t (will not) + have + past participle The future perfect is used to express a future event which will be completed by a time which is further into the future. Example: Because of global warming, the sea levels will have risen by the end of the 21st century. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS Structure: Affirmative: Negative: will + have + been + verb + ing won’t (will not) + have + been + verb+ ing The future perfect continuous is used to express the duration of an action as seen from a point in the future. Example: I will have been living in Mexico for 15 years next September. 14 VERBS NOT USUALLY USED IN CONTINUOUS TENSES admire adore astonish be believe belong consist contain deserve detest dislike doubt envy exist fit forget hate hear imagine impress include involve keep know lack last like love matter mean owe own please possess prefer reach remember satisfy seem sound stop suppose surprise survive suspect understand want wish 15 AUXILIARY VERB DO DO is used as an auxiliary verb when making negative statements or when asking questions when the verb to be is not in use. In the simple present it takes the es form in the third person. In the simple past DID is used and does not change in the third person. Examples: Do you like chocolate? Does she play the piano? We don’t study Chinese. He doesn’t work in a bank. Did you watch TV last night? Did she do her homework? Note! When the auxiliary DO/DOES/DID is used the s or es does not appear on the main verb. It appears on the auxiliary. 16 PASSIVE VOICE Structures: Simple present: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Present continuous: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Simple past: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Past continuous: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Present perfect: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: Past perfect: Example: Active voice: Someone had broken the window. Someone has stolen my car! My car has been stolen. had + been + past participle The men were hunting a lion. A lion was being hunted. have/has + been + past participle Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. was/were + being + past participle Someone is following me. I am being followed. was/were + past participle They produce tequila in Mexico. Tequila is produced in Mexico. am/is/are +being +past participle to be + past participle 17 Passive voice: Simple future: Example: Active voice: Passive voice: The window had been broken. will + be + past participle They will build a new bridge next year. A new bridge will be built next year. Future with going to: be going to + be + past participle Active voice: Passive voice: I’m going to give an exam next week. An exam is going to be given next week. The passive voice is used to put emphasis on the object affected by the action rather than on who does the action, therefore the object becomes the subject of the new sentence. In the passive voice, the person or thing doing the action is known as the agent in the passive sentence but is only needed if it is important that we know who or what did the action. Example 1: Active voice: Passive voice: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. (agent) The agent is needed in the above example because we need to know who wrote Hamlet. Example 2: Active voice: Passive voice: They produce tequila in Mexico. Tequila is produced in Mexico. In this example the agent is not needed because we know that someone produces tequila and therefore it is not important. In order to make an active voice sentence passive, we need to look at the tense of the main verb. Once we have established which tense is used, then the change can take place. Example: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. ( wrote is in the simple past tense), therefore we need to put the verb to be into the simple past tense followed by the past participle of the verb write (written). 18 Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. So the verb to be is the key verb which changes according to the tense of the main verb. MODAL VERBS CAN Structure: + ? can + base verb can’t + base verb can + subject + base verb Can is used to talk about an ability or possibility but it is not used with an infinitive. Can’t (cannot) is the negative form. It is also used when asking for permission. Examples: I can speak English. He can finish work early today. I can’t fly. Can I leave early? BE ABLE TO Be able to is used with the infinitive and means the same as can. Not be able to is the negative form. Examples: I am able to read. He is not able to finish early. COULD Could is only used to talk about general ability in the past. Couldn’t refers to both general and specific ability. It is also used when asking for permission. Ability Negative possibility Ability Possibility Impossible Asking for permission 19 Examples: I could read when I was four. I couldn’t swim until I was twelve. Could I borrow your dictionary? Could is also used to talk about how things might have been different. It can also suggest criticism. Examples: He could have been a vet. ( But he didn’t want to become one). You could have let me know you were going to be late! (But you didn’t let me know). CAN and COULD do not take s in the third person. MUST Must is used to express that you are certain about something that is true or is going to happen. Must not is the negative form. Example: It must be Sheila’s umbrella. She was the only one with an umbrella today. Must is also used as an obligation, personal recommendation or strong suggestion. Examples: You must try that new restaurant, it’s very good. You must phone first. You must see a doctor. HAVE TO Have to is used to express an impersonal obligation. Example: You have to have a license before you can drive a car. Recommendation Obligation Strong suggestion 20 SHOULD and OUGHT TO Should and ought to express advice or recommendation. They are also used to express obligation. Examples: You should see a dentist. You ought to clean your bedroom, it’s a mess! Advice Obligation MAY May is formal and is usually used when asking for permission. Example: May I go to the bathroom? MIGHT Might is formal when used to ask permission. It is also used when you are not sure about anything. Examples: Might I make a suggestion? I might go out tonight. Asking for permission Not sure 21 TO BE/GET USED TO To be / get used to is used to express things that we are accustomned to or have been accustomed to doing them. Example: When you live in a city you are / get used to the noise. To be / get used to indicates that something isn’t strange or new anymore. After using be / get used to you cannot use the infinitive (to make, to walk, etc ). Notice! Do not confuse I am used to …. And I used to…. They are different in structure and meaning. USED TO Used to is used to express something that was done regularly in the past but is no longer done. It cannot be used in the present. It is also used to express something that was true but is not true anymore. Example: I used to go fishing when I was younger. 22 CAUSATIVES HAVE / GET SOMETHING DONE Have / get something done is used to express that we arrange for somebody else to do something for us. It is also used to express that something happens to somebody or something, and usually isn’t good. Examples: David had his house painted. Sara had her passport stolen. (somebody painted it for him). (her passport was stolen from her). Structure: Subject + have +object +past participle 23 CONDITIONALS ZERO CONDITIONAL The zero conditional expresses conditions which are always true. Structure: Examples: If you heat ice, it melts. When you see him, say hello for me. If / when + present form + present form or imperative FIRST CONDITIONAL The first conditional expresses conditions which are very possible in the present or future. Structure: If + present form +future form or imperative Example: If I don’t leave now, I’ll miss the bus. SECOND CONDITIONAL The second conditional expresses conditions which are impossible or improbable in the present or future. Structure: If + simple past / past continuous + would / could / might + infinitive Example: If you won the lottery, what would you do ? 24 THIRD CONDITIONAL The third conditional expresses unreal conditions in the past. Structure: If + past perfect simple or continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle Example: I could have gone to live in Australia if I had wanted to. ( I didn’t want to live in Australia, so I didn’t go). MIXED CONDITIONALS The conditionals can be combined in a variety of ways and the most common are: 1. Unreal conditions in the past with an unreal present or future result. Structure: If + past perfect / continuous + would / should / could / might + infinitive Example: If I had driven faster, I could be there by now. 2.Unreal conditions in the present with an unreal past result. Structure: If + past simple / continuous + would / should / could / might have + past participle Example: If I spoke Spanish, I might have gone to live in Mexico. Notice! In written conditional sentences, when the If clause comes first in the sentence, it is followed by a comma but when the main clause comes first, a comma is not used. 25 PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE Prepositions of place are used before nouns to indicate where something is. Examples: The school is next to the library. He is standing behind the door. Common prepositions of place: behind between in front of opposite on above below on top of under inside in next to outside inside PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT Prepositions of movement are used to indicate where something is going. Examples: She climbed up the wall. He is driving towards the airport. Common prepositions of movement: towards through to under up along into back down from out of 26 REPORTED SPEECH Reported speech is used to report what somebody has said. When it is introduced with a verb in the past tense, most of the verbs used in direct speech change to agree with that verb. Examples: “I am thirsty,” Jean said. Jean said she was thirsty. Direct speech. Reported speech “Can I have some water?” asked Peter. Peter asked if he could have some water. Notice! Direct speech Reported speech Generally, all present tense verbs change into the past tense, and all past tense verbs change into the past perfect tense. Examples: “Jane went to Mexico last summer,” Mike said to Tina. Mike told Tina that Jane had gone to Mexico the previous summer. Direct speech Reported speech Notice! Past perfect tenses and modals do not change. Examples: “I hadn’t noticed that,” said John. John said that he hadn’t noticed that. “Would you like some tea, George?” asked Cynthia. Cynthia asked George if he’d like some tea. Direct speech Reported speech Direct speech Reported speech 27 IRREGULAR VERBS INFINITIVE be become begin break bring build buy catch choose come cost do drink drive eat fall feel fight find fly forget get give SIMPLE PAST was/were became began broke brought built bought caught chose came cost did drank drove ate fell felt fought found flew forgot got gave PAST PARTICIPLE been become begun broken brought built bought caught chosen come cost done drunk driven eaten fallen felt fought found flown forgotten got/gotten given 28 go have hear hide hold hurt keep know lead leave let lose make meet pay put read ring run say see sell sing sit sleep speak went had heard hid held hurt kept knew led left let lost made met paid put read (red) rang ran said saw sold sang sat slept spoke gone had heard hidden held hurt kept known led left let lost made met paid put read (red) pronunciation rung run said seen sold sung sat slept spoken 29 spend stand steal swim take teach think wear win write spent stood stole swam took taught thought wore won wrote spent stood stolen swum taken taught thought worn won written 30 AMERICAN ENGLISH vs BRITISH ENGLISH There are a few differences in grammar between American English and British English. The present perfect or simple past can be used. Example 1: American English I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it? Or I lost my passport. Did you see it? Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out. Or Brian isn’t here he went out. But in British English the present perfect is used for an action in the past with a result in the present. Example 2: British English I’ve lost my passport. Have you seen it? Brian isn’t here. He’s gone out. 31 In American English the present perfect or simple past can be used in this manner: Example 1: I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink. Or I’m not thirsty. I just had a drink. Example 2: “What time is she leaving?” She has already left. Or She already left. Example 3: “Have you eaten yet?” Or “Did you eat yet?” But in British English the present perfect is used with just, already and yet. Example 1: I’m not thirsty. I’ve just had a drink. Example 2: “What time is she leaving?” She has already left. Example 3: “Have you eaten yet?” Also, many verbs which end in ise in British English are spelt with ize in American English. 32 Example: organize organize British English American English The past participle of the verb get in British English is got. But in American English it is gotten. Example: Your work has got much better. Your work has gotten much better. British English American English Other differences between American and British English are: American on the weekend/on weekends on a street different from / different than write (somebody) British at the weekend/at weekends in a street different from / different to write to(somebody) Written American English also differs from written British English in the way some words are spelt: American center color traveled British centre colour travelled 33 QUESTION WORDS What…? What time… What…like? Why..? Where..? When..? Whose…? Which…? Who…? How…? How much…? How many…? used to ask about the identity or nature of an object, person or some matter or situation. used to ask for the time. used to ask for a description of someone or something. used to ask for a reason. used to ask about a place, location, direction. used to ask about a time period. used to ask about possession. used to ask about something in particular. used to ask about a person or persons. used to ask about the way or manner of something (how it was done). used to ask about quantity (uncountable nouns). Also used to ask for the price of something. used to ask about quantity. ( countable nouns). Examples: What’s your name? What is your family like? Where is the museum? Whose car is this? Who lives next door? How many brothers do you have? How much money do you have? How much is that jacket? What time is it? Why did you arrive late? When is your birthday? Which country do you live in? How do you get to school? 34 35