Cohesionby RJ Phillips Halliday and Hasan (1976) identify two types of cohesion: Grammatical cohesion, including reference, identification, ellipsis and conjunction. Lexical cohesion, including repetition and collocation. He • Demonstrative pronouns (this. . That was the problem he faced. it or they). there was no one around who could help him.Grammatical cohesion • Reference • This often involves the use of third person pronouns (he. she. but he knew was born in Bombay. that) can be used similarly. • He couldn’t carry it on his own. • My father is a naturalised British citizen. • When a word refers back to somebody or something that has already been mentioned. this is called anaphoric reference.Anaphoric & Cataphoric Reference • A single word can refer to not only another word. . but also whole clauses or sentences. References forward are called cataphoric references. as in the example on the previous slide. .Example • In the following sentence is the reference anaphoric or cataphoric? • She ended the affair with me and cited the following reasons. Identification • This is the use of determiners such as the. this. . When my companion returned. • A ship appeared on the horizon. I pointed the ship out to him. The first use of the noun is usually preceded by the indefinite article. that in order to indicate that a noun has been mentioned previously. Ellipsis • When elements are omitted from sentence it is called ellipsis. . books and papers all over the desk. A bit of a mess. This becomes a cohesive device if an earlier part of the text allow us to deduce the missing elements. plates and cups under the bed. • There were discarded clothes scattered all over the floor. although etc. thus. • Johnny has promised to turn over a new leaf and meet his deadlines. but. Although I have yet to see any proof of this change. however. .Conjunction • The use of conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs as cohesive devices. Words used in this way include and. because. Then gingerly ran his fingers along the scratches and indentations along its side. • I have taken a long time over this decision. It • Sometimes the word is not repeated but a synonym is used. • He looked nervously at the damage to the was a difficult decision to make. . car.Lexical Cohesion • Repetition • At its simplest this can merely be the repetition of a single word. or longer passages of a text.g. • In a theatre review we would expect to find words such as actor. . such as the previous example.Collocation • This is the tendency for certain words to occur together e. director. Collocation can apply to short expressions. the adjective terraced collocates with the noun house. cast. audience.