Encyclopaedia of Tantra Vol III 275p

Volumen IIIS N C T C L O P A E D Iil O K W A W W m A SADHU SANTIDEV by VOLUME 3 COSMO PUBLICATIONS 1999 INDIA Allrights reserved. No past ofthispublication may be reproduced, o r stored in retrival system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission ofCosmo Publications, © Cosmo Publications First Published 1999 ISBN 81-7020- 863-7 (set) 81-7020-866-1 (volume 3) Published by fo r MRS. RANI KAPOOR COSMO PUBLICATIONS Div.of GENESIS PUBLISHING PVT. LTD. 24-B, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002, INDIA Typeset at Cosmo Publications Printed at Mehi a Offset Press CONTENTS — — — Agama-Sastra Spandasastja Pratyabhijna-Sastra Isvara-Pratyabhijna Siva-Sutra Spanda-K&rika Ahirbudhnya-Samhita MalinivijaottaraTantra MrgendraTantra NetraTantra Rudrayamala Svacchanda-Tantra Abhinavagupta and His Works Tantraloka KramaTantricism Philosophy of Kashmir Saivism Sex - Relationship and Spiritual Realisation — On Animal-Sacrifice Social and Religious Background 4. Tantra and Cultural Complex of India — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Tantra and Sekta Works Vedic Literature (including Upaisads) and Tantra Tantra and Mahabharata Tantra and Arthasastra Tantra and Purana Tantra and Samrti Tantra and Vedanta Tantra and Samkhya Tantra and Yoga Tantra and Ayurveda Tantra and Vaisnavism Tantra and Saivism Tantra and the Ganapatyas Tantra and Paficopasana Tantra, Buddhism and Jainism, Tantra and Sufism Tantra, Music and Dance Tantra, Art and Architecture Linear Representation Caves Stone Temples Images Tantra and Alphabet Tantra and inscriptions Sabda and Dhavni Value of Tantra—rise of Sahajiya Cult Regionl Tantra Influence of Tantra among common people 125 — — — — — — — 5. Elitist attitude towards Tantra Post-VedicThought*currents and Tantra Sects and Subsets to Tantra Unpublished Tantras of Bengal Tantras and their Details — — — — — — — 181 199 6. Tantras cited in the Haratattva-didhiti Works and Authors cited in the Tantras of Bengal Tantras Mentioned in the Sanskrit Works on Bengal Vaisnavism Pantheon in Bengal Tantra List of Mudras, Yantras and Mandalas mentioned in Bengal Tantra List of Kavacas mentioned in Bengal Tantra List of Hymns and Protective Mantras mentioned in Bengal Tantra 7. Tantric Devotees — — — — — — Ramprasad Kamalakanta Bhattacarya (C.1772-1821) Ramakrisana Vivekanaada (1863-1902} Vama Ksyapa (1838-1911) Ramakrishna Ray (d. 1795 A.D.; according to some, 1800) Buddhist Tantric Works of Bengal 241 — 8. Bibliography 253 K -'?. r ' . f V i |-'- I- 1 ~ ■a* y. j ■ ■.W ■ -1 1 --' M ty tf '■\,'i. mus^; ,>-. i 1 ■“; !C : * ' - ‘fTTTfitifini" i^" g * l,''t ' ' '. '' ' » Awr 1 “ 1 v ,ip -, b tu W JiH tif 7 ' V ^ -: ^ - ' ■ j™ '' — W fc a ii ju _ _ i ' :: . J jfflS ' W J v t j i T . J u r j t : n ■ 7 ^ * ' !*V ? « *' * • ; -, w a w w ** ., ^< " ‘ ,FL * ^ w '* s w - y .fttoatiasw**® .^ ^ Ira C w ' i i , 'j t - T.-^;*i tfr jj -„t. ^ 'ta ***G o i*ri*5 r :< f) -.JlTOstV :;• . H - t- .tx to & x r x ,i> ■;. -; rM ^ ' & p ± ) " ,vi = '. ^ t o l i j W ^ - s a S - * 'V -> C ' <- . ffl „■ ' Chapter 1 Saiva Works and Tantras of Kashmir Chapter 1 In common parlance, Kashmir is called Bhusvaraga (heaven on earth). It, indeed, occupies a unique position in India, not only in the panoramic scenic beauty, salubrious climate, but also in the realm of Indian culture. It produced polyhistors like Ksemendra (11th cen­ tury) and Abhinavagupta (c. the latter halt of the 10th cent to early 11th cent.). The system of poetics viz., Alamkara, R iti andDhvani, originated in this province.The founders of these schools were re­ spectively Bhamaha (c.7th—8th cent.), Vamana (8th-9th cent.) and Anandavardhana (9th cent.). As regards Rasa school, Kashmir may be said to have been the pioneer. In the D hvanaloka, Anandavardhana, for the first time, clearly stated rasa as the most excellent element of poetry. In later times Visvanatha (c. 14th cent. 1st half), in his Sahityadarpana, unequivocally stated rasa as the soul of poetry. The Rajatarangimol the Kashmirian Kalhana (11 th— 12th cent.) is practically the only work in Sanskrit, which can claim to be his­ torical. The Kashmirian Damodaragupta (8th-9th cent.) has created a new literary genre by his Kuttammata an erotico-comic satire on courtesans. We shall give a brief account of Tantric Saivism of Kashmir, which is unique in its philosophy. The celebrated Saiva school is called Trika (triad) which has been taken by different scholars to mean different things: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Siddha, Namaka, Malini. Siva, Sakti, Anu. Pati, Pasu, Pasa. Siva, Sakti, Nara. Para, Apara, Parapara. Abheda, Bheda, Bhedabheda. The literature of the Trika system, known as Trika-sastra, Trika- sasana, or Rahasya-sampradaya can be broadly classified as A. B. C. Agamasastra Spanda-sastra Pratyabhijna-sastra A. AGAMA-SASTRA Believed to have been revealed, it comprises eleven Tantras including Matini-vijaya and Rudrayamaia. In the early stage, these works were interpreted from the dualistic, even pluralistic viewpoint. The Trika system actually began with the Sivasutras, supposed to have been revealed to Vasugupta (c. 9th cent.) to refute the dualistic view. Samkaracarya (c.9th cent.) is said to have visited Kashmir. His visit supplied the impetus which resulted in the formulation of Sivasutras. Of the commentaries on the Sutras, well-known are the Vartika of Bhaskara {c. 11th cent.) and the Vimarsiniof Ksemaraja, identi­ fied by some with the aforesaid Ksemendra, by others with Ksemendra’s name sake who was a pupil of Abhinavagupta, mentioned earlier. With the firm foothold of the Trika system, some of the afore­ said dualistic Tantras were interpreted from the monistic point of view. Besides Vasugupta, several other scholar-devotees contrib­ uted to the development of Saivism in Kashmir. Of them, famous were Kallata {8th— 9th cent.) Somananda (end of 9th ce n t) Utpala (9th— 10th cent.) Bhaskara (c. 9th cent.), Abhinavagupta, Ksemaraia and Jayaratha (c. beginning of 13th cent.). B. SPANDASASTRA Spanda means vibration or activity of Siva. It is supposed to be the cause of all distinctions. This Sastra is based on the Sapndasutras, generally called Spandakarikas which are a sort of running commentary on the Sivasutras. The Spandasutras, attributed to Vasugupta by Ksemaraia appears to have been composed by Kallata, a pupil of Vasugupta. On the Sutras there is a Vrtti or Commentary by Kallata. C. PRATYABHIJftA-SASTRA For about a century following the development of the Spandasastra, there was a sort of interregnum in Saiva philosophi­ cal literature. The period that followed was marked by the onslaught of Bud­ dhism on Saivism. To contain the formidable joe, Kashmir devel­ oped the systematic philosophy of Pratyabhijna. It is so called be­ cause it regards recognition (pratyabhijna) ol reality as essentia! for liberation. This philosophy is based on the Sivadrsti of Somanada. Of the other works of this class, wellknown are Isvarapratyabhijan or Pratyabhijna-sutra or Pratyabhijna-vimarsmi or Laghuvrtt! by Abhinavagupta. author also of the pratyabhijna-vivrtivimarsini, a commentary on Utpala's Vrtti. Ksemaraja’s Pratyabhijnahrdaya is an important compendium. He has other works too. In the Kashmirian School of Tantra, five Makaras are not taken in the literal sense, but their substitutes are prescribed. We shall now take up the Tantras and Saiva works of Kashmir. ISVARA-PRATYABHIJNA It is by Utpaladeva. Son of Udayakara, he had a son, Vibhramakara, and a fellow student, named Padmananda. Accord­ ing to a tradition, Utpala was a native of Guptapura (Kashmiri Gotapora) n o t very faraway from Kalasripura (modern Kalaspur). Utpala, who perhaps flourished in the first quarter of the 10th cent. A.D., must be distinguished from Utpata Vaisnava, author of the Spanda-pradipika. Besides this work, Utpala is credited with the authorship of the following works: (1) Siddhitrayi— the triad comprising Isvara, Sambandha and Ajadapramatr-siddhi— these embody the main points dis­ cussed in the isvara-prabhijha. Vrtti on Sivadrsti and isvara-pratyabhijna—fragments avail­ able. Vivarana on the Isvara-pratyabhijna. Stotravali. {2) (3) (4) The isvara -pratyabhijna is divided into four sections, viz., (1) Jnanadhikara— dealing with cognitions. It has eight subdivi­ sions, viz., (i) Upodghata, (ii) Purvapaksavivriti, (iii) Paradarsananupapatti, {iv)Smrtisaktinirupana, (v) Jrianasaktimmpana, (vi)Apohanasakti-nirupana, (vii) Ekasrayanirupana,{v»)Mahasvarya-nirupana. Knyadhikara—dealing with activity. Its subsections are— (i) Knyasakti-ntrupana, (ii) Bhedabheda-vimarsana, (iii) Manatatphalameya-nirupana, (iv)Karya-karana-tattva-nirupana. Agamadhikara-discussing the 36 Tattvasof Saivism. Its sub­ sections are-(p)Tattva-nirupanar (ii) Pramatr-tattva-mmpana. <2) (3) (4) Ta^ t a^ H m9" hadhikara^ IS - Ses the essentia) nature C of the Highest Being, and recapitulates the substance of e foregoing Adhikaras. Its subsections are (i) Tattvarthanirupana, (n) Guruparva-krama-nirupana. , (/e /svara-pratyabhijna has a commentary by AbhinavaauDta Th f iStS in tW0 forms- one S o rte r (laghvi) and the other longer (brhati). The latter is supposed to be L i n ™ gloss by Utpala himself, which is now lost. . ...,The f° urth Adhikara is the epitome of the three precedino Adhtkaras. Its contents are as follows: Mahesvara alone is the soul o aK ta n g s . Abhinavagupta makes it clear that He is of the nature and^nSt0USr? h S W ° h ha® n° difference different places, times r Y 6' ! qUeSti° n may be P°sed—well, if Mahesvara alone made? Thp the bondage for releasing which this effort is Z f IS that’ ,hrou9h the of ego, people think 'I so and so . Again, the question may b e asked—whose bondaqe is it, who exists other than Isvara. The reply is the real nature of oneself being unknown, one is called a purusa. Purusa creates joy and sorrow. Isvara is Pati and men are Pasus. By practice in the prescribed manner pasus are freed—freed from animality and god­ lessness is seen. When one’s identity with God is realised one be­ comes jivanmukta. A liberated person feels that he is one with all things, whereas the fettered one fells otherwise. Paramasiva is be­ yond proof, because all the Tattvas are merged as Cit (conscious­ ness) in Him. One who realises Atman as Isvara and jhana and kriya as nothing beyond Him, knows what he desires and acts with this very body, he becomes Jivanmukta After death the becomes Paramesvara Himself. In conclusion, the author says that he has revealed the easy (Sughata) path declared by the Gurus in the Siva-drsti, Abhinava makes it clear that the path is stated to be easy because it is devoid of the path involved in external and internal rites and practices like Pranayama. One, following it, realises that Atman makes the world and absorbed in Sivahood attains Siddhi. Abhinava raises the question— if Atman exists, then there is no difference between its recognition and non-recognition. When there is sprout, the seed does not re­ main unrecognised. When there is sprout, the seed does not remain unrecognised. The reply is-there are two things, one external like the sprouts, and the other internal like love. The former does not necessitate recognition, but the latter does. In the realisation that * 1 am Mahesvara’ recognition is a must. The necessity of recognition is illustrated by a very convincing analogy. The husband may be present near the wife, but so long as she does not recognise him she does not get joy. Similarly though Visvesvara is in one’s Atman, His presence is unknown; as such there is no effect on the person concerned. So pratyabhijna is necessary. The author concludes the work by saying that it is written by him for the people who can attain Siddhi without effort. Abhinava states that it is accessible to all irrespective of caste, etc. SIVA—SUTRA As stated before, the Siva-sutras are traditionally believed to have been revealed to Vasugupta. It contains three sections a (prakasas), and a total of 79 Sutras. Bhaskararaya refers to thP Pradyumobhatta, son of his maternal uncle. Pradyumna taunhi the Kara says that, having obtained the samp fmm posed the Sutravartika at the request of his pupils Bhaskara in T e colophon to his Vartika, mentions Bhatta Divakara as his father h„ „ I he Siva' sf as were commented upon, besides Bhaskara Ksemaraja’s Vrtti is a running commentary. The contents of Siva-sutras are briefly as follows. stales^ S S r JnSCi0US" eSS “ “ W * * ««h A M * . The V artika * " and “ ; & T ; t v L n■ - d- * * « e Piise, s t s “ r ? %£7 ,s s s s r T e* * ■ x la h ® ®S are ^ a/as consisting in the letter forms of Siva Their bodies s s b k s s e s s s S s S ^ iS S S s with Siva, the universal soul. Samadhi-sukha (the job of concentra­ tion and meditation) is Lokananda. The Vartika identifies loka with the Eternal One, the soul of all; it is He who is joy. The attainment of the state of Cakresa takes place from the rise of pure knowledge which consists in the ralisation ‘I am all' (Sarvahambodha}, i.e., the identification of one’s ownself with everything. The state of Cakresa has been explained in two ways. It may mean the eight well-known Siddhiscalled Anima, Laghima, etc. Or, Cakra is Samvit (conscious­ ness); so the state of Cakresa means the possession of excellent knowledge well-known inYoga-sastra. Pure consciousness in Atman for the realisation of which mantra is necessary. Those, who are very powerful spiritually, can have the above realisation without Mantra But, those, who are less powerful require Mantra, Mantra is identified with Citta (mind) which, the Vartika, says, is Siva who is devoid of attrubutes, is omniscient and beyond the limitations of space and time. For success in mantra effort is necessary. The Vartika explains that mantra is the innate nature of the power of Cit. By incessant meditation on it Yogins attain success. Mantra-rahasya consists in the body in the form of Vidya. When the mind, turned away from the objects of senses, is fixed, in Cit, nescience (avidya) disappears. When true knowledge of the non-dual Supreme dawns, the state of Siva, called Khecari, arises. Khecari is derived thus. Kha is the sky in the shape of C it That which moves about there is called Khecari. As it leads to the attainment of the state of the one who is medicated upon, it is called the state of Siva (Sivavastha). Thus, Mudra(Khecari) and Mantra, as means to the goal have been stated. But, how to get the power arising from these? The answer in Guru who represents the Sakti of Sambhu. He explains the truth, and shows the way. Guru, leads one to the knowledge about the Kriyasakti (power of doing) of the Lord. The fire of knowl­ edge being burnt, the gross body, which is subject to the fruits of action, yields place to the divine body. The sustenance {anna) of this divine body is jnana that is true knowledge. Here Ksemaraja differs. He takes the body to mean the gross and subtle forms of it. Such body is offered to the fire of Cit. He takes Jnana in the sense of false knowledge that causes bondage. It is called anna as it is eaten up by Yogins. The jnana leads to the destruction of false knowl­ edge, and one perceives the illusory nature of things arising therefrom. Atmas has been identified with Citta which is enveloped by Jnana, i.e., perception of passion, etc., connected with the objects of senses. Maya (illusion) is want of discrimination with regard to the Tattvas. The idea is that attachment to the objects of senses is the obstacle on the way to the goal. True knowledge comes from the conquest of delusion (moha) The Yogin must be ever awake spihtualfy; this leads to jivanm ukti' Atman is called a dancer as it throbs according to different conditions. Of this dancer the stage is the inner soul. It may be seen that Atman and the Antaratman (inner soul) are different from each other. The Vartika makes it clear that, when there is outward (tehirunmesa), Atman is called a dancer. When there is inward wink (antarunmesat that very Atman is called Antaratman (inner soul). The senses are the spectators. The aspirant should contemplate the Bija or germ in the shape il Cit-Atman which is Supreme Power, the cause of all. A Yogin, being asanastha, easily sinks into the inner lake. Here asana ap­ pears to mean the greatest power derived from Sakti by which he gives up ail kinds of dhyana, dbarana and other activities, and, be­ ing turned inward, contemplates the Supreme Being alone The lake is the realisation of the Highest. The destruction of false knowledge by means of true knowl­ edge leads to the cessation of rebirth; this is jivanmukti. The text is Vidya-wnase Janma- Vinasah. Vidya taken by the Vartika in the sense of asuddha vidya {false knowledge). But, Ksemaraja takes it to mean correct knowledge. He interprets the sutra thus— Vidyaya avinase i.e., there being no destruction of true knowledge. By janma he means the senses which are the cause of action accompanied by igno­ rance and are full of misery. One, who has acquired the correct knowledge, becomes like Siva in life, and Siva Himself after death. The function of the body is the great festival (mahavrata) of a powerful person; this is Pasupata-vrata. The speech of one, who observes this vow, is japa. By this i/rata and japa the knowledge of Atman dawns on the pasus (people tied by the bonds of delusion, etc.); this dawning of knowledge is dana which ieads to the wearing out of the pasas or bonds. Then they become fit for Diksa which consists in dana (gift of mantra) and ksapana (wearing out of pasas.) A Kevalin is free from pleasure and pain, i.e., no thought of these enters into him. Moha is stated to arise from Abhilasa (desire). When Moha disappears, a person is freed from the fruit of action. A person, who is not liberated, is enveloped by a cloak (Kancuka) in the form of five gross elements. By the means, stated earlier, one becomes like Siva in this life, and one with Siva after death. The entire world is the manifestation of the iccha (desire) of the Lord. When a person, according to the instructions prescribed earlier, gets rid of the impurities, and again realises the Atman, he is reunited with the Lord. When he realises his identity with the Su­ preme Being, he becomes Siva, full of joy. SPANDA-KARIKA We have referred to it earlier. It consists of 52 Karikas, divided into three Nisyandas or sections called respectively Svarupa-spanda, Sahajavidyodaya and Bibhuti-spanda. It has a Vrtti or commentary by Kallata. The contents of the Karikas are briefly as follows. Siva, possessed of Sakti, creates the world by his unmesa (opening of eyes) and dissolves it by nimesa {closing of eyes). The question is— how is the Sivahood of a man, who is subject to re­ birth, declared? The answer is this.There is no obstruction to one in whom all this phenomenal world resides and from whom all this phenomenal world resides and from whom all this enanates. The idea is that as he is not enveloped {by delusion, etc.), there can be Sivahood even in the state of one who is subject to rebirth. His Sivahood is not covered in any condition of jagrat, svapna, susupti. He is beyond happiness, sorrow and delusion. He is neither grahya (that which can be taken) nor grahaka (one who takes.) When one's ego disappears, one attains the Supreme state. In such a condition, one becomes the knower and the doer; then one can do or know everything that is desired. There are two avasthas, one Karya, the other Kartrtva The former is destructible, the latter imperishable. It is only the effort for Karya that is effaced. One, who is unwise, thinks himself to be effaced when that effort is effaced. In reality, one’s own nature is not subject to destruction. The bhava, that is turned inward and is omniscient, is never effaced. That bhava as Cit remains. That Cit is felt by one who is well awake or fully possessed of knowledge Saprabuddba in all the conditions of Jagrat, Svapna and Susupti. Possessed of Supreme Sakti in the forms of Jnana (knowl­ edge) and jneya (object of knowledge,) the Lord shines in the condi­ tions of Jagrat and svapna In Susupti and Turya conditions He is perceived only as C it ' The Gunas, Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas do not envelop the in­ herent nature of the Yogin, These Gunas. obstructing the percep­ tion of the existence of 'Cit, cause the people of little enlightenment to fall into the fierce path of rebirth which is difficult to cross; be­ cause such people find Atman possessed of these qualities and not as Suddha (pura) and Buddha (enlightened). One, who always makes effort for the manifestation of the real nature of Spanda-tattva, even in the Jagrat state attains one's own nature caiied turya-bhoga. When a person becomes very angry, delighted or bewildered or when he runs, the rise of spanda is to be understood and should be learnt from the Guru. A man who, having left all other duties, is absorbed in spanda-tattva, realises the highest truth. In such a Yogin the moon (manas} and the sun (spana), having left the body, a replica of the universe, set in Susumna Nadi. Then, in that vast sky, devoid of the moon and the sun, a man, full of delusion by svapna, etc., remain confined in a state of sleep. When awakened he remains uncovered (by ignorance etc,). The mantras, which are powerful, having resorted to that power of Sakti, proceed in respective duties. With duties ceased, people,who are calm and free from the taints of Maya, are merged in that sky along with the devotees’ mind. So, as they are joined with Siva, they are said to be possessed of the characteristics of Siva. With that Atman, which is all-encompassing, there is no condition in the thoughts of word and sense that does not suggest Sivahood. So, the bhokta (enjoyer) himself is present everywhere as bhogya (object of enjoyment). One, whose mind is of this nature that it feels that all the world is pervaded by me and looks at every­ thing as sport, becomes jivannukta. A devotee, by means of mantras, becomes one with the deity of the mantra. This realisation of one’s own nature without the cover of false knowledge is the acquisition of ambrosia by a devotee. This, indeed, is the initiation to Nirvana that leads to the revelation of the true nature of Paramasiva. A yogin, in the condition of jagrat, finds, among various things, the very thing desired by him. In svapna also he sees the desired things. The fact that in svapna the heart is clearly manifested shows the independence of it; this is the penetration of the evil. Laying stress on effort the author gives an analogy. Even when the mind is intent, a distant thing is hazy. Due to effort it appears clearly. So also what really exists can be soon realised by resorting to Sakti, Another analogy is this. Atman per­ vades the body, a person can at once (eel the bite even of a small louse. So. one, who realises Atamn, acquires omniscience every­ where. GlanHdebility or decay) wears out the body. It arises from ajnana which is avoided by the knowledge of Atman. From Atman arises Bindu, Nada, Rupa (capacity for seeing in darkness), Rasa (taste of nectar in the mouth). These Siddhis, which are obstacles, appear to men very soon. It is the Yogins who have realised the identity of ali worldly objects with the Supreme Soul that can themselves know the real truth. One should be ever awake, comprehend by knowledge what is to be known and fix everything on one, i.e., the knowledge of the real truth. By so doing one is not tormented by Katas, etc., to be described hereafter. One who, being an object of enjoyment to forces like Brahmi arising from the mass of words, is led astray by katas in the shape of the letters beginning with katas in the shape of the letters begin­ ning with ka' such a person is called pasu. In him the nectar of the Supreme is absent due to the rise of memory at the sight of the objects of senses. Thus, he losses inde­ pendence and the capacity for going everywhere. The Sakti Brahmi; etc., are always ready to veil nature. Without word no knowledge arises. That kriyatm aka (active) Sakti of Siva, when not known,causes bondage in a Pasu; when known, it leads a person to Siddhi. By the perception of the subtle elements of Sabda, etc., tied by Puryastaka (Suksmadeha) due to the influence of manas. ahamkara and buddhi, the feeling of joy and sorrow arises. One, who is dependent on others, feels pleasure and pain. Due to the condition of the subtle body he becomes subject to rebirth. When a person fixes his mind on one, i.e., the gross or the subtle and effects destruction and rise of the aforesaid memory of subtle elements, etc., he becomes (bhokta) ; thus he becomes Cakresvara, i.e., the Lord of Matrs. AHIRBUDHNYA-SAMHITA It is a Kashmirian work in sixty chapters, which is supposed to have originated sometime after the fourth century A.D. Certain clues about its provenance are available. In the first place, Utpala Vaisnava of Kashmir appears to quote one stanza of this Samhita (XV 7 lb) in his Spandapradipika (ed„ p.41} with slight variations. Two passaqes of the Ahirbudhnya (XXVI.75 and XLV.53.) recommend or mention respectively the wearing, as an amulet, of a certain yantra (dia­ gram) drawn on a sheet of bhurja-patra (birch-bark) which was a well-known writing material in ancient Kashmir. In XXXIX.23, there is a reference to the sun shining after being freed from the obstruc­ tion by hima (snow,) a common, phenomenon in Kashmir. The story of prince Muktapida, occurring in the forty-eighth chapter of the Ahirbudhnya, appears to occur only in the Kashmirian Rajatarangini (IV.42) and nowhere else. All this tends to point to Kashmir as the place of origin of this Samhita. The above clues are, of course, tentative, and do not warrant to definite conclusion. According to F.O, Schrader, (Intro, to Pancaratra etc., p III) the Ahirbudhnya belongs to the class of Samhitas, the lower termi- n u s o f the dates of which have been fixed in the eighth century A. D. (Ibid, pp.21-22).The upperterminus is supposed, on some grounds, to be 300 A.D. (Schrader, op, cit. P. 114). It is in the form of a dialouge between Ahirbudhnya,3 i.e., Siva and Narada The Major portion deals with occultism4. A small por­ tion is philosophical. Some chapters deal with creation, and some with rules tor castes and asramas. it is mainly a work of the Pancaratra cult lull of mantras, and is slated (59 70). to follow Smakhya, Yoga etc. According to this work, mantras are threefold, Sthuia, (gross,) Suksma (Subtle) and Para (highest). These three kinds of mantras about the Tara or Taraka mantra, i.e, Om. A few important matters, dealt with in the Ahirbudhnya, are as follows: As regards Sakti, the work states that it is, at the same time, inseparable with and different form God. The one cannot exist with­ out the other. Power is twofold, vi2., power as activity and power which deter­ mines being as existence or King (Wiuf^saWfl.The bhuta-sakti may be considered as a moving idea (samkalpamyi murti), As regards the relation between God and jivas, it seems that, according to this work, the latter are supposed to return to God at the time of dissolution and remain in a potential form in Him. and become separate at the time of the creation. The emancipated jiva, however, enters into Him never to be separated. Even then it does not become identified with Him, but remains in his abode, it should be noted that, instead of the traditional ten Avataras, this work enumerates (v. 50-57) thirty-nine Avataras of Vasudeva.5 The work lays down the origin and development of the Vyuha repre­ sentatives,1Sankarsana and the like, from Vasudeva. M ukti is stated as the attainment of divinity. The means of attaining it is virtuous action without selfish motives. Like Tantras in general, this work, too, believes in the esoteric nature of mantras. These are the energy of Visnu as pure con­ sciousness. Nada, Bindu, Kaia, etc., are described. The evolution of the vowels and consonants has been dealt with. In the manner of other Tantras. this work also describes the nervous system . Coming to the objects and means of knowledge, the work speaks of Prama as definite knowledge of object as it really exists. The means by which this knowledge is obtained is pramana. To be identified with God is supremely blessed (hita) Dharma and Jnana are the ways leading to it. This knowledge is twofold direct intuition (Saksatkara) and indirect or inferential (paroksa) Dharma again is of two kinds, viz., one that leads directly and the other indirectly to the worship of God. This work gives (Chap. 39} a procedure of Mahabhiseka as a remedy against all diseases, as a means of destroying enemies and attaining all desired objects. It mey be pointed out that this work states (xii. 20-29} the sixtv topics of Samkhya. These, however, differ from those mentioned in the Raja-vartika quoted by Vacaspati. From Chapter xii 18-29 it appears that the doctrines of Kapila’s Samkhy-tantra were divided into two Mandates called prakrta and vikrta and that the two con­ tained 32 and 28 topics respectively. This work states {xii. 32-33) that Hiranyagarbha formulated oYoga-samhitas, one called Nirodhayoga and the other Karmayoga. The highlights of the contents of the Ahirbudhnya are qiven below. Speaking in a general way, we may state that half of the Samhita deals with ocultism, theoretical and practical, one-fourth with philosophy and one-fourth with other subjects. Chapter 1 Dialogue between Bharadvaja and Durvasas; the former’s enquiry about the mysterious Sudarsana-cakra of Visnu; Durvasas reveals that the solution of the problem was ob­ tained by Narada from Siva in the form of Ahirbudhnya Durvasas’ willingness to impart the dialogue between Narda and Ahibudhnya, in the form of Ahirbudhnya-samhita, in an abridged form (60 chapters), the original having been in 240 chapters. 2. Explanation of the word sudarsana (Vv. 7— ); it de notes Visnu’s will to be (syam itisamkalpah). darsana means preksana (perceptive thought), su (well, per fectly) conveying the idea of its being unobstructed by time and space. Power of Sudarsana. Explanation of he concept of Highest Brah­ man, definitionof the six gunas of God. 3. I dentification of Sudarsana with the Kriyasakti (active side, force -aspect of Lord) as distinguished from H\sBhutiSakti (formal side, matter aspect). Meaning of Sakti which is the subtle condition (Suksmavastha ) of any existence (bhava) recognisable by its effects only. Each manifesta­ tion of life (bhava) has a Sakti, but there is the omnipresent Sakti of God. Lakshmi is Lord's ‘vibration in the form of the world' connected with Him as moonlight with the moon, some­ times with the sum; different from Him only as an attribute (dharma) is from its possessor (dharmin) or existence (bhava) from one who exists (bhavat). Many names of Laksmi men­ tioned and explained. Sudarsana stated to be will (iccha) m the form of wisdom (preksa resulting in action (Kriya). 4. Bhuti-sakti(material cause) as cause of creation. Praiaya described at length. Unity of Narayana and His Sakti. 5-7 Account of creation (i) as adhara (base or support of the world during crea­ tion and dissolution (chapters Vill-IX). 8-12 Various forms of Sudarsana’s activity, viz. (II) as pramana, regulating principle during continuance of life (sthiti) in which it appears as the regulator of things (artfia) in chapters X, and of sound (sabda) as in chapter XI and XII. Diversity of Philosophic views (chap. VIII). Different opinions about creation: (a) Supposed by different persons to be effected by three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten or eleven ele­ ments. (b) Different people trace it back to an egg, a louts, fire, ‘another body’, vidya (true knowledge), Sunya (Void). 9. Description of Mahabibhutbcakra (Creation, Continuance, Withdrawal). 10-12 Description of Sthiti-cakra, Artha-adhvan and Sabdaadhvan. Pramana defined. 11. Necessity of Avataras, 12.8Description of five recognised philosophical systems,7 Trayi, Samkhya, Yoga, Pasupata and the Sattvata or Pancaratra. This chapter has a special importance as it names the Samkhya, described in it. as Sastiantra (System of 60 topics) which is the name of the oldest extant Samkhya treatise, viz,, the Samkhykarika, This chapter enumerates the sixty topics8 but does not ex­ plain them. Two kinds of yoga stated, viz., Yoga of Suppression (Nirodhayoga) and Yoga of Action (Karma-yoga), Pasupata system, described in it, is not identical with Pasupata usually referred to by philosophical authors, but with Agamic Saivism on which the later Saivite systems of both the north and south of India are based. There, however, appears, to be a vague hint (xiii. 14) at the less philosophical sects like Kapalikas, etc. Sattvata system stated to embrace 10 topics, viz., Bhagavat, Karman, Vidya, Kala, Kartavya, Vaisesika-kriya, Samyama, Cinta, Marga, Moksa. About the hetorodox systems (Buddhism, Jainism, etc.) xii. 51 characterises them as Sastrabhasa (pseudo-Sastras) designed by Gods or Brahmarsis for confusing the wicked. Several synonyms of Sudarsana are given; of these, Prana and Maya are noteworthy. 12/53 mentions some names (e.g. Umnmesa, Udyama) of of Sudarsana. 13. Statement of the objects of life; summum bonum is attainment of one's real nature, that is, the state of God (bhagavatta. bhagavanmayata v.11).Two ways leading to the highest goal —jnana and dharma, the latter lead­ ing to the former. Two kinds of true knowledge— saksatkaramaya(direct) and parotea (indirect), the lat­ ter being the cause of the former. Dharma also two­ fold— Vyavadhanavat(mediate worship) and Saksadaradhana (immediate worship) of Him whose manifesta­ tions (vibhuti) are all the gods. Vedie and Pasupata worship is of the first kind, Pancaratra worship is of the second type.Two mundane objects— artha and kama. These and dharma are dependent on one another in the sense that each may be the means to attain one or both the other two; dharma is the unfailing unstrument, not the other two. Moksa is not a means (sadhana) but an end in itself (sadhya.) 14. 15. Bondage and liberation discussed. Discussion of the question as to who is tit for the ob­ jects of life {purs arthas). More or less conventional treat­ ment of castes and the periods of life. Description of Mantramayi, kriyasakti. In Chap. 17,it is related how each letter of the alphabet has three Vaisnava forms, one Raudra form and one Sakta form. Description of diksa. Description of magical diagrams, called raksa or yantra, their merits and meditating upon Yantra-devatas. Mystic letters piay an important part in the chapter. Deal with worship. Outline of Yoga theory and practice. See infra. Spells enabling one to use 62 pravartaka-astras. Discussion whether or not arstras have a materia! form. Mode of worshipping Sudarsana-yantra. Detailed description of the image of the sixteen armed Sudarsanas by the King in times of danger, e.g., at­ tack by the enemy— First part. Origin and cure of diseases; cures are magical rites, 16.19 20. 21-27 2S-29 30-32 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. practically no medicine prescribed. 39. Description of Mahabhiseka which leads to the acquisi­ tion of all desired objects, cure of all maladies and de­ struction of all enemies. The story of the first intervention of the Lord to fight evil. Origin, Presiding Deity,etc. of anga-mantrasdescribed in Chap. 19. Means of a king’s knowing about the di­ vine weapons and black magic (abhicara) used against him and mode of counteracting them. Power of Sudarsana-man tra. See infra. Definition of ideal Purohita, Sudarsana-homa, corona­ tion. Description of Mahasanti-karman which can avert all evils, and secure welfare in this world and the next. Names of earlier kings who performed it. 40. 41. 42-43 44 45. 46, Chapters 33,42,45, 48, 49, 50— ancient stories intended to illustrate the effect of divine weapons and of certain amulets or talismans. 59. Explanation of Vaisnavite mantras (gross subtle and the highest). 59, 2.39-explanation of the first five stan­ zas of the Purvsa-sukta. A resume of the contents of this Samhita. Resume of contents of this Samhita which is charac­ terised as containing the statute (vidhi) of SmakhyaYoga in its totality, as being the essence to Tantras (tantra-sara) and as being meant for the members of the three higher castes. 60. There is a supplement which enumerates 560 names of Sudarsana arranged in groups according to the consonant of the alphabet with which they begin. MALINIVIJAYOTTARA TANTRA This Tantra is the form of the dialogue between Devi and Paramesa, the sacred teachings having being communicated to the sages by Kumara or Kartikeya. From the introductory portion of the work it appears that a work, Siddhayogisvari Tantra, comprised nine crore verses which interpreted the Saivite teachings according to Bheda, Bhedabheda and Abheda. Its huge bulk made it necessary to abridge it in three crore verses, the principal topic of discussion having been the path of yoga. This abridgement was entitled Matinivijaya. It was further shortened into 12,000 verses. The present work is regarded as the shortest form of this work. From the verse i-13 it seems that the earlier part of the S iddhayogisvarim ata was probably the Siddhantamata., The Malinivijayottara, belonging to the Agama class of works, is supposed to be of define authorship and is of unknown data. Jayaratha. in his commentary on the Tantraloka (Vol. 1, p. 35 of No.xxix of Kashmir Series of Texts, verse 17), observes that the Malinivijayottara is so called as, owing to the glory of Malini, it occu­ pies a prominent position among the schools of Saivite Tantras to all of which it is superior. Malini is also known by Mata. So, Malini is the generic tern for the series of letters of the alphabet. The usual order of Devanagari alphabet is called Parvamaiini, popularly known as Matrka or Siddha. When the vowels and conso­ nants are taken promiscuously, the alphabet is called Uttaramalini, chiefly standing for the order in which Na occupies the first place and Pha last. The Malinivijayottara, as M. Kaul remarks, has re­ served for itself the various modes of application of the Uttaramalini. for the mystic practices as Svacchanda Tantra does of the Parvamaiini, Abhinavagupta has explained the first verse of the Maiinivijayottara Tantra in his Malinivijaya-vartika as thoroughly as possible. The Vartika, as the very title suggests, is limited in scope. So, the points of Malini, which could not be taken up in the Vartika, have been discussed in Abhinava's Tantraloka. The Tantraloka is avow­ edly a detailed exposition of the above Tantra. To quote M. Kauls observations, "Abhinava says in the Tantraloka that the Malinivijaya is the essence of the Trika system which again represents the pith and marrow of the different teachings of the Lord enunciated in the different schools of Tantra. The Malinivijayottara consists of 23 Chapters called Adhikaras. The number of verses in the Adhikaras in order are 50 60 68 41,35,29,36,135,82,37,47,42,61,43,47,68,39,81,101,62,36,34,43! The total number of verses is 1267. We give below a rapid survey of the contents. The objects of knowledge are divided into two classes, viz, (1) Acceptable— Siva, Sakti, Vidyesa, Mantra, Mantresvara, Jivas. (2) Avoidable— impurity, actions, Maya, the entire world as the creation of Maya, The secret of success in the spheres of both matter and soul lies in the righl discrimination between the acceptable and the avoid­ able. The Supreme Controller of the universe is omniscient, all-do­ ing, all-sustaining and infinite. As desire at the time of creation, He evolves out of His ownself the eightfold Vijrianakevalas. He ordains for them the functions of sustenance, destruction, preservation and benefaction. For their spheres of action, he reveals seven cores of mantras with their respective ambits. All these mantras are the liv­ ing psychical forces; they fulfil the wishes of the Sadhaka by con* ferring on him the fruits that he deserves. The Self manifests itself in a fourfold way: Siva, Mantramahesa, Mantresa and Mantra. Siva, is Lord Himself. Vijnanakala is then Mantra by one degree due to the defilement of mala, and karman. Mala is imperfect knowledge from which springs the world, Karman is action is general. Virtuous Karman leads to pleasure, and the reverse of it to pain. Sakala denotes the anus of jivas in general, their fields being constituted by the totality of categories from kala to earth. Rudras, numbering 118 and headed by Angusthamatra, are appointed as Mantresvaras is accordance with their merits. They reward Brahman and others according as they deserve.The sages learn the sacred science of the knowable, both acceptable and avoid­ able, from Brahman, etc., and Manus do so from this sages. Of the seven crores of mantras, one-half has, according to the will of Siva, acquired immortality after favouring numbers of jivas. Each principle, from the earth to matter, can be viewed from fifteen distinct angles of vision due to the seven viewers considered to be either Sakti or Saktimanand to the principle itself. Those from Purusa to Kala can be viewed from thirteen standpoints due to the inapplicability of perceptibility to Sakata therein. Maya is looked at from eleven angles of vision due to the additional reduction of two standpoints up to the last principle of Siva which is without diver­ sity. The Guru ranking with Siva, is versed in all the above princi­ ples in their true perspective, reveals the potency of mantras. His mere touch frees the Sisya of all sins. He possesses the inspiration of the fivefold Rudra Sakti, viz. (i) (ii) unflinching devotion to Rudra the success of the mantra which can lead to the immediate acquisition of the desired object, (iii) control over all creatures, (iv) bringing all undertakings to completion, (v) poetic faculty. That inspiration of Rudrasaktis is Anava which can be ac­ quired by speech, conscious mental discipline, reflection, incanta­ tion and centres of the body, Sakta is that stage which can be attained by contemplation on the object of meditation along with speech. Sambhava is the name of that stage which is reached by deep and penetrating spiritual insight; in it, there is total absence of con­ centration on any particular object. The above kinds of inspiration can be interpreted in the light of five states, viz., jagrat (waking), Svapna (dream), susupti(deep dreamless sleep), turya (the fourth state, i.e., mantramahesa and luryatita (beyond the fourth state) i.e., Sivasakti.9 The synonyms of these five states are respectively Pindastha=Sarvatobhadra, Padastha=Vyapti, Rupastha=Mahavyapti, Pracaya=Rupatita and Mahapracaya. The threefold manifestation of the transcendental Self is aver­ age self, energy and Siva. These constitute the triad of fundamen­ tals which form the main theme of the Trika philosophy. As M. Kaul observes, “it covers the entire field of Tattvas of Saivism, the Atman overlapping as many as those beginning with and ending with earth the Vijnanakala; Vidya or Sakti, those form Mantra to Mantresvara and the rest constituting the state of Siva. From the point of view of evolution, the Tattvas are divided into four heads, viz., (i) Earthly, (ii) Material, (iii) Mayic, (iv) Saktic. The first is pervaded by Dharika Kala. It has a single Tattva. one letter, one world, one mantra represented by the letter KSA and the sixteen worlds. The second is pervaded by Apyayani Kala. Twentythree principles from water upwards and twenty-three letters. TA and others, are assigned to it. Included in it are five words five words, five mantras and 56 worlds. ’ The third is pervaded by the Bodhini Kala in which are seven principles, 28 worlds, seven letters, two mantras. The last one is pervaded by Utpuyini in which are three princi­ ples, three latters, eighteen worlds, one word and one mantra. The above four classes are presided over respectively by Brahma, Visnu, Rudra and Isvara. We find a description of how the inherent Sakti of Lord, at the cosmic stage, evolves as cognition and activity when He has the urge of manifesting the phenomental world. Jrianasakti is the fac­ ulty that leads to determinate knowledge as 'this is so and not other­ wise . Kriyasakti is the faculty by which the resolve ‘let such and such a thing come to light’ is carried out in action. Sakti appears as Purvamalini representing the entire gamut of the -alphabet from A to KSA. Paramesvara spurs Aghora to action. In accordance with the former's desire, the latter vitiates Maya from which proceed the different letters which, again, are the source of knowledge in general. Of the endless forms of Sakti, the chief are Apara or Ghoratari, Parapara or Ghora, and Para or Aghora. Apara, always surrounding the Rudra souls, drives jivas in their downward march by attaching them to the objects of sense. Parapara causes hindrance to the progress of jivas towards the goal of their life, and attaches them to the mixed fruit of pain and pleasure Para leads jiivas to the highest end of life, i.e., Sivahood. The Uttaramalini, in which also Sakti appears, has already been referred to. The three mantras, in respect of the above triad, are given in the phraseology of the different parts of the human organism. The assignment of the six systems of the path (adhvan) is essentialy the same in both the Purvamalini and the Uttaramalini. As mentioned above, the latter differs from the former in order of the letters of the alphabet. Verses IV. 19-27 state the application of the three mantras of Para, Apara and Parapara. The knowledge of the acceptable and the avoidable is a must for the attainment of Yoga which means the union of the individual soul and the universal. Like Jnana, Yoga leads to the goal o( life, stated before. Jnana is of three types according as it is derived from what is heard, what is contemplated and from the living realisation oMhe reality. The first is concerned with it as is delt with in the scriptures. The second requires a deeper study of those texts in their totality with the object of picking out the fundamentals. The third marks the final stage of the truth-seeker; it is possible on the previous stage being fixed. The Yogin has to pass through four stages on the path of Yoga, In accordance with the degree of divine inspiration, he is designated as Sam prapta, Ghatamana, Siddha and Siddhatam a. He is Samprapta who has received initiation through a successionof teach­ ers, and lives up to it. Ghatamana is one who repeatedly restrains his mind, withdraws it from outward objects anrim n™ nt * the truth. When a opr*tnn hw ™ « concentrates it on S T T L " iu d,o— * x s ,'n s r iLd p 1 ,h if ,e 0 e ™ ^ " ^ 3 ^ if 8 'h n T * * " ? ° ' ,he °< Rodha^m) omvyals, (xxlV) Nal, (xxv) e s r s s r r r ^ r r T- “ h Considering himself as akln^n^* ^ “I? de#ies at ,he orm of vivify himself with the vital enemi! ^ ’ 10 - s he should am Hp' in q j 9y of consciousness consistina in ‘I am H e . In accordance with M atrka-nm *a hQ ^ 9 ,n 1 F in a th.hehdS J° ■ e T ’ ^ ^ As regards external or physical worship, he should worship Ganesa as three-eyeed, elephant-headed and dwarfish. This is to be followed by the contemplation of Siva as seated on the sixfold seat of Ananta, Dharma, Jnana, Vairagya, Aisvarya and Karnika, as bearing a sward, a shield, fierce-looking, having massive jaws, and eye-brows knit together and surrounded by the eight deities (Matrkas). Then he should commence the sacrifice with two vessels of gold, one big and the other small, and two canopies of white cloth over them, Indra and other deities are to be invoked to ward off evil influence. The smaller vessel is passed round, and its water allowed to trickle down. Then the Yajna-kunda is to be prepared. The tire, carried in a copper container or an earthen pot, should receive the several ceremonies of birth, etc. He should perform homa with mulamantra recited one hundred times and the ancillary mantras ten times. The homa being over, he should go to sleep. The disciple has to observe the following vows: 1. He would always offer worship to his deity, fire, preceptor and to the goddess. 2. He would not eat anything without offering it to them. 3. He would not use the property dedicated to the deity, guru and Candi. 4. He would not be idle, and must avoid useless pursuits. 5. He would be firm in the practice of Yoga or in the recitation of mantra. When the preceptor is convinced of the sincerity and fitness of the person seeking initiation, he {the preceptor) should get the mystic diagram drawn on a carefully selected piece of ground n accordance with the rules laid down in the Malinivijayottara-tantra. In the centre of the diagram, he should worship Bhairava, and pray to Him that He may reside in his body so as to make him qualified for initiating the disciple. After this, he should feel that the six kinds of the Path are presided over by Bhairava, that the divine spirit has entered into his body and that the cloaks of mala, concealing his kinship with Siva, have been shed, thus laying his body completely bare to him. At this stage, he should consider himself indentified with the disciple and with the path in which the disciple is to be initiated by the holy faith, ‘I alone am the Supreme Reality; this entire universe is in me; I am the prop and support of if all’. The unity of the Sisya, Guru and the world in one ultimate reaard tn mT3? ' S°.farabou{the external ^ P e c t of initiation. With gard to the internal aspect, the preceptor has to bring the Jiva of his disciple from outside into his own self. Then the preceptor has to r ,' P0K er 5 him’ and m0ve rt uPward from W Cakra ♦ real S Brahmarandhra. The disciple, thus united tinn nf ? 0C K W tbe Supreme Realit* witnesses the destruc­ tion of his bondage of Maya. Thencefonvard, the disciple is never subjected to rebiirth and never becomes a Pasu. If the initiated disciple feels a strong urge to acquire mystic perform'ancp1 ^ ^ 9U,dance fram his Preceptor regarding the DhvtPTnn. f S° mef enances ,eadin9 *0 that purpose. If the neo­ phyte longs for the attainment of the state of Acarya, he should receive initiation of a higher order. The disciple hasTo believe s^lv cere y that his body has been burnt by the glowing fire of enerqy thaf h h°m/ 00t t0 head throu9h the medium of Mahamudra. After at, he has to regard himself as having an ethereal form purged of the impurities accompanying the principle of materiality. k H Th0 + C(-PtlOn’ Mthin the Person>of div'ne inspiration is betork □enf I? ° f ('} haPPiness' <"> awakening of the serpent-power. (nt) tremor in the body, (iv) sleep and (v) intoxication. The preceptor, who has acquired control over the principles constituting the world, must carefully ascertain the penchant of the r ann h ! ST £ S £ £ »«h a P 'M p ls. before guiding him in me Lay to “ p' i" ° iple ,h,0U9h wf,ich he is sure "> * * P^ CeS’ ! Ui{ab'8 for Yogic Practices, are a cave or a cell w hout the dm and bustle of wordly life and having scenic beauty. Such a place must be free from all evil contaminations. One, aspir­ ing to be a Yogsn, must be self-controlled and experienced in pranayama. All sense-activities must be kept under control He must overcome sleep, anger and restlessness of mind; he must be abso­ lutely invulnerable to pain. If such a person continues to follow the method, adopted for different dharanas, he will c$rtainy conquer the entire Cosmos. MRGENDRA TANTRA The Mrgendra-tantra, available in print, contains two sections, called Vidyapada and Yogapada. The Tantra belongs to the Rudra class of Tantras. The system of philosophy, taught in it, conforms to the Pasupata system, tt is of a late date having been compiled at the instance of Hari Singh, King of Kashmir, and pubished in 1930. The Tantra has a commentary by Narayana Kantha, son of Vidyakantha and grandson of Sasikara Kantha and father of Rama Kantha. Narayana quotes from the Isvarasiddhi of Utpaladeva, a famous writer of the 9th century A.D.; this fixes the upper terminus of Narayana's date. The cognomen Kantha is typically Kashmirian. So, he appears to have belonged to Kashmir. THe Vidyapada is divided into thirteen patalas which describe the three fundamentals, viz., pasu, pasa and pasupati. These are the three main categories. This section deals also with the theology of the dualistic Saivas. The Yogapada deals with the eightfold path of concentrative practice which helps the acquisition of various pro­ phetic powers. The three fundamentals are described as follows: Siva is omniscient, the doer of all, and is free from the imper­ fection caused by defilements. He is always busy with the fivefold function, viz., evolution, sustenance, involution, potential preserva­ tion and assimilation. The five mantras, relating to the five names of Pati and operative respectivley in evolution, etc., form the promi­ nent parts of his body and the body as a whole. Isarta occupies the place of the head thus indicating supreme mastery over the whole of creation, Tatpurusa occupies the position of the face which is the symbol of the innermost essence of all organic and inorganic life. Aghora or Ghora consitutes the heart, and represents the vitalising principle of the Univrse.Vamadeva occupies the private parts of the body; this implies manifesting the world of creation. The body, as a whole, is represented by Sadyojata, and implies the power of creat­ ing manifold forms at will. From the text we learn that the old Saivltes had to struqqle hard to rationalise the worship of the personified Lord Siva. Pasu (fettered being) is like the Lord devoid of his perfection in knowledge and action, and having the limitations bringing him down to the lowest position in life. He is pesistent in his desire to evolve. As a result, by gradual evolution through higher forms of life, his bonds of materialism become weak. At last, the individual soul rec­ ognises the radical opposition of matter, and casts off its domina­ tion never to come back to its fold again. The fetters {pasa) are fourfold-Pravrti, Isabala, Karma and Mayakarya, an innate defilement resulting from the good and bad actions, concrete or abstract. Maya means that into which the world dissolves, and remaiins potentially at the time of Dissolution, and out of which it develops at the time of creation. The fourth pasa is influence that Maya exer­ cises over the soul in fetters. The work isanabridgement of the Kamika Tantra. Indra is said to have received the doctrine of Kamikagama while wearing the armour of the shape of the shape of a lion (Mrgendra). This is why the Tantra is called Mrgendra. Reference to the frequent use of surgical instruments in op­ erations, as in pasu-taksana-prakarana {verse 18), has led some scholars to think that the work originated in the age of Susruta or later. The present form of the Susruta-samhita is generally placed in the seventh century A.D.; the Samhita is believed to have origi­ nated a few centuries before the Christian era, and appeared in the early centuries A.D. NETRA TANTRA The editor, M.S. Kaul, staes that it appears to have been writ­ ten on the model of the Svacchanda-tantra which is, therefore, ear­ lier. The Netra is of the nature of a manual dealing with the mode of initiation to the worship of Siva in the name and form of Amrtesvara and Mrtyujinnatha. The Tantra is so called as the mantra, peculiarto the deity glorified in it, occupies as important a place among mantras as the eyes in the human body. In a sort of prelude, the philosophy of the eyes of Siva, in His embodied form, is discussed. Bhairavi’s enquiry is as to how the eyes of the Lord simultaneously perform the contradictory functions of protection and destruction and how the third eye, usually regarded as watery, could emit fire tht reduced Cupid to ashes. In response, Bhairava says’ : My real nature ... expresses itself in the trinue form of will, wisdom and work. It is only because of this triple manifestation of my real nature that the votaries adore me as the three-eyed. My eyes symbolise the three centres of the physical light commonly known as the sun, moon and fire. As the real nature alone central­ ises all powers, and as it only shines eternally through them, the apparent contradiction between protection and destruction loses it force, and, therefore, the same eye can favour or frown. The work, commented upon by Ksemaraja, consists of 22 Chapters [adhikaras) the contents of which are briefly as follwos: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Exposition of the unity of real nature Mystic statement of Amrtesvara-mantra Method of offering sacrifices Initiation to the worship of the deity The anointing ceremony Gross from of divine meditation Its subtle form Its supreme form Some forms of the deity Attendants of the deity 10, 11-12, Worship according to Uttaramnayaand Kulamnaya 13. 14. 15. 16. Openness of the worship to all human beings Supremacy of the mantra over other mantras Its protective efficacy Various objects attainable by the worlship of Amrtesvara * amulets with different! ends 18, 19. 20. 21. Amrtesvari and mode of Her worship Purificatory rites for the obsessed Yoginis and their functions Nature and significance of mantras Glorification of Amrtesvara-mantra 22. RUDRAYAMALA sastra"^? (orJ amala) belongs to the Kashmirian Agamasastra. It (S in srxty-six chapters and over 6000 verses m S ? n S vaH n R metre' I* 'S Supposed to have been narrated by Bhairava h vidS, K is stated, in the colophon, to be a*he Dha^the^Rudrayamala.h m it S S S ' in the c T n part of P a s c a ^ n a Highlights of its contents are as follows: 1pPSSI = = t S S 5 = « = 5 ™ J t = Z £ Z X . z ° : ~ M v J » lJT [ra CuntainS (Para,a 17‘ ve™e 4) an eulogy of the AtharO K u ia k u m L Z ^ * ; 3 , 1 t : ’ J ^ he s.am e Ps? b * " • * , « » c a k T s a M ^ T “’T 21' 58‘ 7° ^lively'wNtM he^x oak,as and Sahasnra along with petals ( dala) and lettes assigned to each. Verses 51-53 mention Kamarupa, Jalandhara, Purnagiri, Uddiyana and certain other places as Kalika-pithas. Though a Wra devotee is said, in some other Tantras, to be endowed with high moral and ethical qualities, yet the Rudrayamata (28.31 -36} provides that a Vira should worship the wife at another or his own wife burning with the fire of passion and gay with wine. SVACCHANDA-TANTRA This work is of the Agama class. It belongs to the Trika sys­ tem of Kashmirian Saiva philosophy, It is one of the leading Tantras of Daksinacara, and one of the best mantrasastras. The very title of the work indicates its main attitude. Svacchanda' means Free wilt2. It refers to the free and pure CH. So, it is purely monistic. It radically differs from the Mrgendna and MafangaTantras of Daksinacara, which represent the dualistic school of philosophy. The topics of the different chapters indicate the contents. It is mainly ritualistic, and deals with the usual Tantric topics. It is a noticeable feature that it does not dwell upon the six cruel acts of Marana. etc. Its accent is on upasana (meditation) and kriya (ritual). From the introductory remarks we learn that it is an abridge­ ment of the original work comprising a hundred crore verses. The work is of unknown authorship and date. It has a commentary, called Uddyota, by Ksemaraja (11th. cent A.D.). From references, in this commentary, we learn that there were earlier commentaries including the Brhattika of which the au­ thor was Bhullaka Rajanaka, a typically Kashmirian name. Ksemaraja, who is mentioned in verse 5 of the introduction to his commentary, gives a monistic interpretaton which, as he him­ self states in the concluding verses, supersedes the dualistic inter­ pretation of earlier ommentators. From the concluding verses of the Vivrti on Stava-cintamani we learn that he lived at Vijayesvara {modern Bijbihar or Vyajibror.) a city about 30 miiles east of Srinagar in Kashmir. Ksemaraja was a pupil of Abhinavagupta who lived in the latter half of the 10th cen­ tury or early part of the 11th. Ksemaraja was the author of several other works whose number is over a dozen. The Svacchanda-tantra contains 15 Chapters called c The contents are indicated below: m a le s . IMantroddhara II. III. IV. V. VI. Arcadhikara Adhivasa Diksabhiseka-prakasana Tattvadi-diksa-prakasana Pancapranavadhikara Abhyantarakaladhikara VII. VIII. Amsaka-nimaya-sambandha-sat-nirupana IX. Abhista-siddhi-sadhana X. Bhuvanadi-diksa-nirupana XI. XII. Tattvadhava-srstyadj-nirupanatattvatattva-sthiti-nirupana Dharanadrkramena tattvanam saksatkara-nirupana-32 XIII. Yagaradhana XIV. Mudra-laksana ABHINAVAGUPTA1 a n d turaJ HeTa°sUS h is w o r k s n inrtiSr h T ' i,arary and CUl' Abhinava appears to have been Atrigupta who lived in Antarvedi at the time of king Yasovarman (C. 730-40 A.D.) of Kanauj. He mi­ grated to Kashmir at the time of king Lalitaditya (C. 725-61 A.D.) Abhinava's grandfather was Varahagupta, and father Narasimhagupta, alias Cukhala. His brother was manorathagupta and motherVimalakala. Abhinava flourished in the second half of the tenth century A.D. He names several teachers who are stated to have enlight­ ened him on various subjects. The names of his Gurus are given below with the subjects taught by them against their names: Vamanatha dualistic Tantra Bhutiraja — Brahmavidya Bhutiraja-tanaya — Dualistic-cum-monistic Saivism Laksmangagupta — Krama and Trika Darsanas. Laksmanagupta2— Pratyabhijna. Besides the above, he refers to other teachers also under whom he studied other subjects. Abhinava’s philosophico-Tantric works are the following: Bodhs-pancadasika, Isvara-pratyabhijria-vimarsini, Maiinivijayavartika, Paramartha-sara, Paratrimsika-vivrti, Tantrasara, Tantra-vatadhanika. Besides the above, Abhinava is known to have composed some hymns containing the esentials of Wrika philosophy, meant for popularising the main tenets of the system. The following hymns may be mentioned: Anuttarastika, Anubhavanivedana, Bhairava slava, Dehastha-devata-cakra-stotra, Krama-stotra, Mahopadesavimsati, Paramartha-dvadasika, Paramarthacarca. TANTRALOKA It is a huge work in 37 Chapters, called Ahnikas. It has a commentary, called Tantralokaviveka, by Jayaratha who is described as Rajanaka Mahamahesvaracarya. He appears to have commented also upon Ruyyaka’s Alamkarasarvasva. From his commentaries we learn that his father was Srngaranatha whose other son, ’? ! £ ■ au" ,oriship ° ' ,he < — » * Pumamanoratha (M inister of king of Kashmir) Pumamanoratha (Minister of king of Kashmir) Utpala I Prakasaatha Dharniamma unamaratha Surya'ratha Manoratha Utpalaratha Amrtaratha (Minister). Disciple of maternal uncle,, Bibhuiidatta, son of Kamamaladatta and grandson of Laksmidatta Sivanatha Sakratha Sammaratha (Accepted office under Gubnnaratha king Uccala, I but resigned Srng^ranatha after sometime). (Minister of Rajaratha) Disciple of Subhatadatta, son of Tribhubanadatta, grandson of Visvadatta) Jayaratha (Pupil of Samkbadhara) Nandiratha I r Lankaratha The names of the Chapters are as follows: Vijnanabhedaprakasana, Anupaya-prakasana, Sambhavopayaprakasana, Saktopaya-prakasana, Anavopaya-prakasana, kalatattva-prakasana, Cakro-daya-prakasana, Desadva-prakasana, Tattva-prakasana, Tattvabheda-prakasana, Kaladipradarsana, Adhvopayogaprakasana, Saktipata-pradarsana, Diksopakramaprakasana, Samaya-diksa— prakasana, Prameya-prakasana, Viksipta-diksa-prakasana, Samksipta-diksa-prakasana, Sadya* utkranti-prakasana,Tuladiksa-prakasana, Paroksa-diksaprakasana, Lingoddhara-prakasana, Abhiseka-prakasana, Antyesti-prakasana, Sraddha-prakasana, Sthandila-puja-prakasana, Lingarca-prakasana, Parva-pavitrakadi-prakasana, raksana, Mudraprakarana, Ekikaraprakasana, Unnamed (deals with the diversity of means of attaining paramesvara who is but one). Sastrasammelana, Ayatikramanirupana, Upadeyabhavadi-nirupana. In this work, Abhinav mainly follows the Malinivijayatantra. The historical importance of the work is that it gives some biograph­ ical and autobiographical information. it deals exhaustively with all mattes, ritualistic and philosoph­ ical, relating to Saivism. It is a systematic presentation of the Kula and Tantra sysems. Occasionally, it gives information about other systems, such as Krama etc. The names of the chapters indicate their contents. The highlights of the philosophical aspect of the work are as follows: The work reveals the profound influence of Tantra on Abhinava. But, it is clear that he has independent thinking and way of expres­ sion, He follows the authority of Saivagama though, in interpreta­ tion, he shows considerable originality.The approach of the author is non-dualistic. The author takes pains to establish that the sole reality is Cit. According to him, the cause of Samsara (rebirth) is non-knowledge, and knowledge is the sole cause of liberation. Non-knowledge is not want of knowledge which exists even in a clod of earth, but it has no rebirth. Non-knowledge is want of true or earth, but it has no rebirth. Non-knowledge is want of true or perfect knowledge. It grows from the reflection in the limited soul, blurred by the six kaficukas (cloaks or covers), viz. Kala, Kata. Niyati, Bala, Raga, Avidya. True knowl­ edge is acquired by one whose animality has worn out, and who has attained the best consciousness. Diksa destroys non-knowledge, but salvation takes place af­ ter death. Liberation in life (jivanmukti) is also possible when non­ knowledge is dispelled by knowledge arising from the comprehension of the non-duality of the Supreme Being, and from listening to the Sastras. True knowledge is superior to Diksa. Non-knowledge is divided into two kinds, that pertaining to purusatman (paurusajnana) and that belonging to intellect (bauddha-jnana), the former growiing with the body and the latter due to ignorance of Sastra. Even when paurusajnana wears out, salvation is not possible so long as the other kind of ajnana is not removed. That is why, even after death, one who received Diksa is not liber­ ated due ;o the presence of bauddhajhana. Siva is stated to be self— existent and manifest requiring no proof. He is eternal, immanent, devoid of origin and end. He is de­ scribed as sixfold. He is Bhuvana (the receptacle of enjoyment) Vigraha (assuming forms like Rudra), Jyoti Bindu like the round portionof the Kadamba flower or the throbbing eye-ball), Kha(void, Sabda (sound), Mantra (omkara). Devotees get the results accord­ ing to the aspects mediated upon, for example, one who thinks of Bhuvana becomes Bhuvanes'sa. Liberation of the highest kind is acquired by the knowledge of the above six aspects. The question is, if Siva is immanent, then why should He be contemplated as having six aspects? The answer is that the six aspects are by way of illustration only. He is both immanent and transcenental. Again, it maybe asked, if Siva is immanent, then how can be at once immanent and transcendental? The reply is this. A pitcher, reflected in a mirror, has its own separate existence. Similarly, Siva pervades the world of moving and non-moving objects, yet has a separats entity. So, He is both Sarvakrti (immanent) and Nirakrti (transcendental). Siva has infiinite Saktis like Iccha (desire); still He is stated to have one Svatantrya-sakli. The reason is that this Svatantrya-sakti is inseparable from Him; this single sakti appears differently ac­ cording to circumstances. It may be doubted— if God has svatantrya-sakti, then He is not one as the Sastra tries to establish non-dualism. The solution is that the condition (bhava) of a thing is its own Sakti in accordance with the difference of the result; thus, Saktiis not different from the thing itseit. So, Siva is One as the Sakti is identified with Saktimat (the possessor of Sakti). There may still be doubt—true, there is no difference between Sakti and Sktimat, But, the Saktis are mutually diffeent. So, diver­ sity arises. The dobt is resolved by saying that the same fire has different Saktis, e.g. burning, cooking etc. so Siva, having many Saktis is One; the diversity is only apparent, not real. Not only His Saktis. but also He Himself appears to be different according to bhavana (contemplation) and upadesa (instruction). The conclusion is that Sakti is the means (upaya) to the attain­ ment of the object (upeya), i.e., Saktimat. It may be objected that a thing is fully known in its entirety, not by its part, so, Siva cannot be known by Sakti. The reply is that a tree, which has rasa, rupa, etc, can be known by its rupa alonw. So also Siva can be known by Nada, Bindu, etc. Siva, possessed of cidananda (consciusness and joy), is the inspirer of the diversified world comprising thirty-six Tattvas. He can be realised by dhyana with a mind devoid of Siva. The significance of the term Bhairava is set forth as follows: He is so called as he maintains (bharanat) all, and makes sound (ravana). Again, he is called Bhairava as He does good to those who are bhiru (afraid); the cause of fear is samsara or rebirth. Or, Bhairava means One who resides in the heart of those who, having fear (bhi) of samsara, cries for help. Or, He is the cause of the rava or din of fear {bhi) of bhava or existence. Another significance is ingenious. That which impels the stars is Bhera or Kala (time). Its nature of momentariness, etc. is totally defeated by the class of beings, called Bheravas, i.e. the Yogins who, by their yoga, have devoured time. To them, He is manifest metaphysically; so He is Bhairava. He is so called as He is the Lord of those Bhairavas who move about in the sky and earth etc. making a shouting sound (ravana) for causing alarm to the people of the Pasu type. The significance of the word Deva has been stated thus One who plays {divyati) is Deva; this play is the ecstasy at the univrse encompassing everything from Siva to the earth. In other words, His play is the desire to excel all. Various other meanings of the verb divyati have been suggested; e.g. vijigisate (wishs to conquer), vyavaharati (behaves, i.e. appears in an illusory from}, dyotayati (shining or indicating things), stuyale {is eulogised), /ana//(knows). Siva is called Pati as he protects (pati). He is Siva as he is full of what is good (sreyomaya); there is nothing evil in Him. His three Saktis, Para etc. shine in creation, preservation, destruction and the fourth state (turya). Hence these appear twelve­ fold. Samvit is the only reality; it has o division. Then, how is there the division into jada and ajadal The reply is that difference arises due to the degree of mala (impurity) that covers it. Jnana is stated as upeya (objective). Then, what is the upaya or means to it? Jnana, being upeya, it cannot be upaya. Nor is ajnana the upaya. The means is the subtle jnana as distinguished from Sakta jnana etc. But, how the same jnana can be at once upaya and upeya? It is confusing to think of jnana as upaya and upeya. In reality, siva is upeya. But, he is extremely manifest, and does not require upaya. One there should be icchasaktifwiil-force) to know Him. If jnana is upaya, then how anava jnana (knowledge of the subtle) is called kriyopaya? The reply is that yoga and kriya are not different. When the desires of the mind are at rest, that is kriya. That jnana itself if kriya can be illustrated as follows: When a man thinks (I shall get', then the motion enters into the limbs. Jnana, indeed, leads to salvation. It may be objected that, beyond the knowledge of the independent Atman, there is no salva­ tion; i.e. this knowledge itself is salvation. Then, how can knowl­ edge and salvation be stated as cause and effect? The answer is that the nature of Atman is Samvit or Caitanya, its proper knowl­ edge is salvation. So, the statement of jnana and moksar as cause and effect, is not true; it is merely imaginary. The author refutes the Vaisesika view that Saktis reside in Siva in the same way as dharma resides in dharmt. His stand is that, if this position is accepted, then the statement that Siva is One becomes baseless. The author also rejects the view, expressed in dualistic Sastras, that the created beings are distinct from the Supreme Being. He holds that everything is Rudra-sakti. Some of the Saktis of Siva are infintie as they pervade everywhere. Others are limited as these are not present at all places. It is stated that vibodha or Samvid is both question and an* swer. It exists in both Guru and Siva; the difference in their body is unreal. The concluding portion of the chapter speaks of the good ef­ fect of studying the work, and sets forth the contents of it. Chapter ii, called Anupaya-prakasana, discusses whether Siva is realised by some means (upaya), The commentator makes the position clear. Siva does not become manifest by the means {upaya), but the menas appear through His grace. The author states that Samvid is the means of the outward manifestation of Kriya etc. Samvid is self-manifest. In the absence of it, the world would be jada without being manifest. It may be argued that, if external acts are not prescribed, then one may take to the knowledge of Guru etc. as the means. The author's reply is that all acts, external and internal, depend on Samvid so that these cannot be the means to it. Attention, concentration (avadhana) in this matter is of no avail; so, there cannot be any question of bhavana {meditation, contemplation) of which avadhana is the prereqisite.The author states that the attempts of those, who seek the Supreme by resorting to means {upaya), are futile. In describing the nature of the Supreme Being, it is stated that He neither exists, nor is it that He does not exist nor is He existentnon-existent. He occupies a position tht cannot independent inter­ nal and external means, supreme bliss, and secures the radiance of consciusness (cid-vikasa) which supersedes everything. To such a person, there is neither happiness nor sorrow, no fear nor scare He S a s ? r ^ r ^ T fra'r T dhyam ’ n° PUh Gtc' He need observe any Sastnc direction. The commentator quotes the Gita (iii. 17) wherein it is stated that one, who takes delight in the self, is content with the ROin . ° n ^ 0 f,PUre1C0nsd0USness' who visualises the Supreme ^ Being with the knowledge that He is not attainable by upayas (menas) becomes like Him. The commkentator adds that such a person be­ comes like a lamp kindled from another lamp (dipaddipam ivoditam) he question may be asked—as everywhere Diksa is stated to be e means to the attainment of salvation, how is it that here the atiammentof emancipation is stated to result from mere sight withTmtl^ f h 7 repli6S that thiS knowlecf9e of the Supreme Truth IS the principal yaga (sacrifice) etc. so that external yaga is secondary. The commentator quotes a verse which says that for such a person, there is neither Mandala norKunda norN yasaetc “ - ba,h0 at WI,L T^us- for him, there is no necessity of Diksa and the accessories of yaga etc. Abhinavagupta clearly states the comparative effectiveness of the various practices, and concludes that true knowledge is the highest of all; it makes one Mahasiddha and Yogisvara He savs (verses 42-43) that, in the list that follows, each succeeding item te superior to the preceding one: y Sthandila (place for sacrifice), Ture (a figure drawn or engraved Y nnT ( (knowtedcfe) f i pic,ure° rp a in ,e d ‘ “ I. « * > » ■ 'S medl1ated uP0f1)> P a ra n a (concentration) m 3ppearin9 in the mind lhrotJ9h yoga), Jnana One, with pure consciousness (nirmata-samvid), can visual­ ise the Supreme Reality without any formal training. But, one whose nhnfCIJ T ( 0SS 'S n0t pUre (anirrTjala*am vid}, requires the disci­ n pline of listening to the precepts of the Guru, study of Sastras etc These remove from his mind the cloud of apprehension and the ruth shines in the clear mind as one touches the rays of the sun that conquers darkness. The flashing of the great lustre of Siva in the mind has been said. Now is examined the independence of Siva. Himself shining, he makes everything shine. Beyond him, there is no universe. The Supreme Lord, being unobstructed in the sky of mind, shows crea­ tion and destruction. As in a clear mirror earth, water etc. are re­ flected, so ail the elements of the universe are reflected in cit. As the reflection pervades a crystal, which is clear on all sides, so, in cousciusness that is clear in all respects, Rupa etc. are reflected. Siva is inseparably connected with the Supreme Kaulika Sakti. Their combined form is called Samghatta which again is termed Anaendasaktifrom it the universe is created. This Sakti is variously called Kalakarsini, Matrsadbhava etc. Besides the above Cidananda-sakti, there is the Icchasakti which is superir to all other Saktis. This Sakti, being agitated, the Aghora Devis are born. Thus, Icchasakti is twofold, unagitated and agitated. Again, there is Jnanasaktiwhich is twofold according as what is to be known is more or less. Samvit or consciusness is both Ksobhaka (agiitator) and Ksobhana (agitation or that which causes agitation). That, with which iccha becoming one, becomes accomplisher of action, is called Ksobhadhara which the commentator explains as yoni. That, with which this oneness takes place, is the bhavas within the body or the letters beginning with Ka. The outward appearance of the universe, that is within, is called Bija or the chief cause. The Svaras (vowels) are also called Bija as they cause letters to appear. The udbhava (source) s called the desire of Bija to create; by this, the phenomenal world looks different from Cid-Atman.Jha\, by the unity with which the desire to create has fruition, is called ksobhadhara. From the Bija of the universe all the external world evolves. The supreme Spanda and joy become very wonderful due to the contact of iccha (desire) and unmesa flash). Jada (unconscious) is of the nature of limited manifestation. Bodha (consciousness) is untainted. The Saktis of the great ocean of Bodha resort, like waves, to the Atman. The wonderfuiness of the Saktis, resorting to Atman, is the manifestation of Kriyasakti. Kriyasakti, the substratum of the sun and the moon, havmq arisen, the undivided manifestation is called Bindu. That, which is called Sabda (word) whose essential element is sound and which resides in all creatures, remains inactive beinq divided as low and high. The sun, moon and fire have no lustre of their own exceptinq the brilliance of Samvit. The piacing of one’s own Atman on the Atman is called Vaisarqiki S thiti which creates and destroys. Siva is present everywhere as the doer through fatherhood and motherhood. M alini is the name of the supreme Sakti which is beautiful on account of the contact of Bija and /on/and the resulting appearance of various forms. The Supreme Sam vit is one attracting Kala (Bhairava). By the seeming separation from the Saktimat it as­ sumes the state of a couple; Sakti and Saktimat are separately cajfeo. Through the seeming separation threefold sound, viz. Pasyanti Madhyama and Vaikhari arise. Each of these has three forms viz’ Sthuia. suksma, Para. ' He is Visvesvara, Lord of the world, in whose Samvit-Atman this phenomenal world is reflected. He is restrained by the acquisi­ tion of the desired object. For such a person mantra, mudra, kriya etc. are not necessary. He becomes Jivanmukta. Such a person feeis— all this has emanated from me, ail this is reflected in me all this is identical with me. He feefs that he is Siva Himself who burns this world unreal like a dream. It is also realised that from Bodha arises the world of diverse objects, in Bodha it rests and the world, being destroyed, Bodha alone remains. For such a man bath, vow, bodily purification, dharana, mantra, sacrifice etc. are not neces­ sary. The question is— if these are not necessary, then how can the Guru favour him? Such a person is favoured by the very sight and spe ech of th e Guru. If, however, people, devoted to Siva, lack the aforesaid capaci­ ty, then he should receive initiation etc. The Supreme Lord has no veil. But, a veil of Maya shrouds Him. Those, who are versed in the Veda, Samkhya, Purana, Pancaratra, Bauddha Sastra etc. are bound by the ties of Maya so that they do not get knowledge about Siva. One, who listens to ignorant people and fixes the mind on a bad preceptor, is bound by Maya. The instructoins of a good preceptor are necessary for real knowledge. By Suddhavidya (pure knowledge) one is sanctified with strength; then one reaches the good path being free from obstacles. O f the three sources of knowledge, viz. Guru, Sastra and one’s ow nself, each succeeding is superior to the preceding one. One, in whome good reasoning spontaneously arises, acquires the righ to yogic knowledge etc. A Guru is Samsiddhika who is not trained by any other precep­ tor. Such a person gets Abhiseka by reflection, dlyana, japa, svapna and homa. By observing the prescribed rules in the worship of Candika for a month, one becomes Acarya. By a fortnight’s practice, one becomes Sadhaka, by a week’s observance one becomes Putraka and by four days’ observance one becomes Samayi. In such ob­ servance, Devi Herself initiates the devotee. One should serve the Guru in various ways. Then having re­ ceived Abhiseka, he becomes a Kalpita Acarya. When such an Acarya accidentally learns a superhuman Sastra without the help of Guru, he is called Kalpitakalpita. The acquisition of knowledge from a Samsiddhika is inferior. The Guru who, though Akalpita, gets re­ finement from somebody else, is Siva Himself.The knowledge, spon­ taneously acquired, becomes perfect by the study of Sastras and instructionof the Guru. The five accessories of Yoga, beginning with Yama, are not directly helpful in acquiring Samvit, because these are external. What is necessary for salvation is true knowledge. The questiioin may arise—are the three internal processes of dharana, dhyana and samadhi helpful? These are also not necessary for samvit. Then the question arises— if all these accessories of yama etc. ar useless, s S S S S k s s s s k c The independence of Samvit Is called Supreme Goddess ^ 50 called as She creates the five (pa™ *. Ksepa (outward manifestation of the self) M |ection of the identity of the manifested with tne self). Jnana Samkhyana (constant pondering that it is this, not that) G a ti ( g e t t in g |,k e a r e f le c t io n a t ( h e r e g | n a t u r e jn ^ rorm of Samvid) the end of reflect™, on the self, remaining only as sounding due to the obliteration of the knowl edge of identity with the self). She is also designated as Matrsadbhava, Vamesvari flowp e ’ e Y that can enjoy the fragrance, of the Ketaki ' summer. worship, as huge snow itself in high Chapter V is called Anavopaya-prakasana. s ta te d Some persons independently acquire refinement. It has been in connexion with Sakto-paya. Others, however, require other means. The means are many. Jiva is the Sakti of Siva Himsetf; it is present everywhere. Due to the flash of knowledge, Jiva is known y various names like Prana, Buddhi etc. . The material aspect of the Cit-body being suppressed, its real nature is felt, and il shines as the non-dual Samvit. In it, the yogin finds his own pure consciousness independently f Prana etc. as a person sees his reflection in a mirror as different from it. The threefold lustre (dhaman) of the great Saktimat, viz., mata (knower), mana (knowledge) and prameya {object of knowledge), should be contemplated as one. These three represent the Sakti of fire, sun and moon. These are known also as Para, Parapara and Apara. Each of these is threefold in accordance with creation, preservation and de­ struction. Their fourth form is above the limitation of creation etc. Thus, there are twelve forms. The yogin should contemplate the world as merged in Samvit from which creation proceeds. Siva is Saktimat, and the entire world is His Saktii. The great pervasion, in which there is no distinction of mata, mana and meya, is Cidananda which is free from material objects. Jagadananda arises when nothing excepting Samvit is perceived. One should mentally rest in it. The yogin having reached Trisulabhumii (located above Brabmarandhra), the meeting place of the three Nadis (Ida, Pingala, Susumna), should realise unity of the three Saktis of Iccha, Jnana, Kriya. He should gradually proceed through the suc­ cessive steps of bhrubindu nada, nadanta and reach Urdhvakundalini. There exist two Bindus of Siva, of the nature of will to create, which are beautiful by the essence of Spandana. There one’s mind should rest as in the belly of a fish. The will of the Supreme Lord to create is the Kaulika Sakti, Its agitation, rather the substratum of agitation, is the alphabet from KA to HA. The phenomenal world is the spreading out of that substra- turn of agitation. Though the will of the Lord is inherent in the Lord yet the separation of it is the world. d’ Sh0Uid know the wor,d as identical with Cit One should *■<lis,ress e,c' and « * * “ • * in the sell a n d r e S » s f f i S S ^ » S s = Bondage consists in looking upon the body^fc ^ A t m t n ^ untes ^axresa, i.e. he conquers the various Cakras , f A yo9 'n’ bY Poetising the Nada, arising in Srsti biia the s u p r e r S f e n c e 0" 6’5 " " One’s own Atman is Siva. iS the r6af S*™ *"-T h a t is The Tantrasara\s an abridged version of the Tantraloka whose bulk and profundity naturally necessitated the composition of a com­ pendium. The Tantravatadhanika is a shorter epitome. The Paramartha-sara deals with the essential principles of the Trika system, and is an adaptation of the Adhara-karika of Sesanaga Muni. The Malini-vjaya-vartika is a commentary on some of the ob­ scure verses of the Malin ivijaya -tantra, also called Sripurva Sastra. The portion, discovered hitherto, reveals a trenchant criticism of some important standpoints of Nyaya philosophy. The Paratrimsika-vivriti (or, vivarana) is a commentary on the Paratrimsika the text of which constitues the concluding portion of the Rudrayamala-tantra, and gives a resume of the whole of it. The Bodhi-pancadasika iis designed to enable the less intelli­ gent of the author’s pupils to have an idea of the essentials of monistic Saivism. It consists of 16 verses of which fifteen deal with the sub­ ject-matter, and the sixteenth explains the purpose of such a com­ position. The Is vara -pra tyabhijna- vima rsini. briefly called Vimarsini or Laghu-vimarstrit, is a commentary on the Isvara-pratyabhijhasutra of Utpalacarya. Of the other philosophical works of Abhinava, some are avail­ able in manuscripts while others are known only from references in other works. Abhinava is credited with the authorship of sevral hymns which are more philosophical than devotional.These hymns, in lyrical forms, set forth the quintessence of the Trika philosophy, and serve as a medium of popularising the abstruse doctrines and dogmas of par­ ticular sects.The well-known hymns of this class, attributed to him, are: Krama-stotra, Bhainava-stava, Paramartha-carca, Mahopadesavimsati, Anuttarastika, Paramarthcdvadasika, Dehastha-devatacakra-stotra, Anubhava-nivedana, a study of Abhinava's works enables us to trace the staaes of his spiritual attainment. He worked successively on the three sys^ h are known, in Saiva philosophical literature, as the Krama rtka (embracing Pratyabhijna as one branch), and Kuta. The kernel of Abhinava's philosophy is set forth in the followix9152) % - ^ / % m abhavan-nityai^ mula-karanam( Tantraloka, with inH h oUPrem8 principle- He is ever inseparably united with Sakti. Indeed, Siva is manifested through Sakti. Both are eter- KRAMA TANTRICISM1 No account of Tantra in Kashmir can be complete without an K r a Z lX l^ Ph. osoph, of Kashmir, it is also called „ Z T n T ', naya, Devatanaya or Devinaya, Kalinaya. T ya ° rMahanha. Mahanaya. Mahasara. An- 'n Kashmir-the krama system spread far and wide here s evidence of its travel as far as Coladesa (modem Kamaak) in the south. That this system was not confined to the limits of Kashmir is proved by its association with some Pitha-sthanas e q Oddiyana, Puma Pitha, etc. 9' mwth dat® and mode of ori9'n of ^ is system are shrouded in J n d n t m!,S CISm' W,th Jayaratha (a 13lh cent., beginning) we s and on terra firma about the early history of KramaTantricism In r t h mmentary (m ’ p' p- 192' 93> on Abhinavagupta's C° Tantraloka, he gives an account of the early history of the system. The Krama system is believed by some to datp hanu- tn thn l n l,lf k 18fh centLJrV d e varying degress of popularity and ^ nfn th; r ° d fr0m the 9th cen1ury to the 12th saw the hey­ day of this system. Afte that the decline started, and the process of the T ner e arreSt6d' iayaratha : ample t « t i “ no“ o r ib , S h " system.The Mahanaya-prakasa,a\tr buted by some to srvananda II, refers {8/180, 186. 187) to the IS Ia r : am° ng i,S W owere ,hemsel'' « bmkantha ( 1575-1625 A.D.), author of a Mahanaya-prakasa, refers r ■r,h b9 n goth ^ ^ 2 o e einin f e to the fast fading of the system and the loss of its grip over the people. The original Krama literature can be divided into two broad classes viz. revealed and non-revealed.Tothe former class belong some anonymous works and the Krama Agamas.The latter includes the non-Agamic works. The krama Agamas are Pancasatika or Devipahcasatika, Sardhasatika, Krama-rahasya, Krama-sadbhava, Kalika-krama, Krama-siddhi. The non-Agamic works are Krama-sutra, Siddhasutra, Mahanaya-paddhati, Kramadaya, Amavasya-tnmsika, Rajika. We know of at least forty-five notable personalities, including females, who contributed to the Krama system of philosophy by writing works, composing hymns or imparting lessons on Krama. The prominent among them are mentioned below chronologically along with the titles of their works, if any. Vatulanatha-sutra Vatulanatha (c. 675-725)1 (Historical personality doubtful) Niskriyanandanatha (c. 725*775) Vasugupta (c, 800-850} (Traditionally attributed) Chummasampradaya (i) Siva-sutra (//) Spanda-karika (Hi) Spandamrta (/V) VasaviTika (v) Siddhanta-candrika (No work exclusively on Krama. But, in some of his works, particularly the first two, he appears to have incidentally contributed to the cause of the Krama system) Kallata (c. 825-875) No exclusive work on Krama. But, incidental contribution in the works attributed to him) Spanda-karika (Authorship controversial) Proba bly identical with Spanda-sutra, mentioned by Bhaskara in his siva-sutravartika, 1,5 Spanda-vrtti (a comm, on the above Karika Spanda-sarvasva (probably title of the Karika and vrtti together) Tattva-vicara (probably) Tattvarthacintamani Pradyumna Bhatta (c, 850-900) Somananda{c, 875-925) (No work exclusively on Krama) Utpala (c. 900-950) (No work on Krama. But, from Jayaratha it is learnt that Abhinva received his lessons on Krama from a set of teachers including Utpala) Siddha Natha, called Stotrakara (c. 900-950) Bhaskara(c. 925-975) (Believed to have transmitted the doctrine of Siddha Natha to the next generation) Tattvagarbha-stotra Siva-drsti Supposed author of a Kramastuti rP ^ I L T ’? (<7 92? 975) to have w rite n on K am a, (Probably identical with though no work exists Laksmana Desika, author of the Sarada-tilaka) (Different from Utpala Vaisnava. No work exclusively on Krama] ^panda-p/ad^Dflra, comm, on spandakarika. In certain places, he appears to have been familiar with the Krama system . From the above work (Islampurkar's ed., pp. 48-50) it is clear that he has tried to interpret Spanda and Yoga concepts in the light of Ktama philosophy. His Krama leaning is discernible in his reference (Spandapradipika, pp. 49-50} his own work, Bhoga, moksapradipika. now lost. His contribution to Krama system is attested by two references; (i) Tantrasara of Abhinava ' (Shastri’s ed„ KSS, 1918, p. 30) (ii) Maha rtha -manjari of Bhutiraja I (c. 900-950) {Of four persns of this name, the one who is known to have been a teacher of Abhinavagupta is intended here) Mahesvarananda {TSS, ed., No, 66, 1919). Abhinavagupta (950— 1020) Kramastotra (990-991) Kramakeli, comm.on the Kramastotra of Siddhanatha. In some other works also, par tic ula rly -vijaya vartika .Paryantapancasika, Paratrimsika-vivarana, he deals with Karma philosophy. Ksemaraja (975— 1125) in his Uddyota comm, on Netra-tantra, he refers to Krama as a distinct sys tern. His Siva-sutra-vartika c\ear\y indicates (Vide vartikas on Sutras 1.6, 7,12, 17.22; II. 5, 6; 111.16, 43). Varadaraja (c. 1000— 1050) Alias Krsnadasa Hrasvanatha (c. 1025— 1075)Head of a tradition that produced impor tant texts like the Cidgagana-Candnka (sometimes attributed to Kalidasa} and Mahanayaprakasa. Cakrabhanu (c. 1050— 1100) Highly reputed as a Krama teacher. Highly praised by eminent scholars and greatly admired by Sitikantha. Cakrapani (c. 1050— 1100/ 1075— 1125) Bhojaraja(c. 1050— 1100) To him is ascribed, though not with absolute certainty, the Bhavopahara which is a Rramastotra. Perhaps wrote the Kramakamala, Somaputra {c. 1100— 1150) The author of the Cidgaganacandrika expresses indebtedness to him for re vealing the Krama secrets. Ramyade\/a (c. 1100— 1150) Authorof P arana comm, on the afore by said Bhavopahara. He states that he wrote six other works. Of these, the Akrama- kallotakarika appears to have been an independent work on the Kram a system. , , Srivatsa (c, 1125—75) (introduces himself as Kalidasa) Cidgagana-candrika, comm, on Kramastotra of Siddhanatha. Sivananda II (c. 1125^— 175 ) -1 Of the six works, attributed to him by his grand-pupil, Mahesvaranan* da, the Kramavasana, as the very title suggests, is on the Kramasys -tem. According to some, sivana­ nda wrote also a M ahanaya-prakasa which is to be distin guished from its namesake by sitikantha. Mahaprakasa (c. 1150— 1200) Esteemed teacher of Mahesvarananda. Author of several stotras mentioned in the Parimala comm, on Mahesvarananda’s Maharthamanjari. Jayaratha (c. 1150— 1200) His Viveka comm, on the first, fourth, thirteenth and twenty-ninth Ahnikas o f Tantraloka sheds considerable light on the history of Krama system. Mahartha-mahjan with its commen tary, Parimala. From the penultimate verse of the Parimala, he appears to have written a work called Krama. Be sides the two aforesaid works, he is known to have written nine other works Mahesvarananda (C. 1175— 1225) Sivopadhyaya (c. 17 2 & -1 775) Last noteworthy writer in the his tory of the Krama system. In his Vivrti on the Vijhanabhairava, he occasion ally passes remarks on the intricacies of the Krama system. The main features of the Krama system are as follows: A. It is sakti-oriented It reflects the emergence of the Sakta tendencies in the monistic Saivism of Kashmir. This resulted in the division of the system into two-schools: (i) one emphasising the supremacy of the Siva as pect; (ii) the other laying stress on the Sakti aspect of the supreme Consciousness. B. It leans towards monisttc-dualistic character of Reality It is called Bhedabh&dopaya as it inculcates the idea of dual­ ism or diversity within the framework of monism or unity. It seeks to discover unity in the phenomenal duality (bhede abheda). while the Pratyabhijna and Kula systems are con­ cerned wiith Reality as unity or the transcendent aspect of Reality, Krama is concerned wiith the immanent Reality; according to it, immanence is an essential expression of transcendence. Spritual uplift and salvation as synthesis of bhoga and moksa While the Kula system teaches Sambhavapaya, Krama advoctes Saktopaya, Kula and Pratyabhijna do not coun­ tenance the idea of progression; they believe in instanteneous and immediate self-reveltion.The essential feature of the Krama system is spiritual progression i.e. the progressive refinement of the Vikalpas. So, it equally stresses each step towards self-realisation. D. Positive epistemic bias While the Pratyabhijna and Spanda schools are more meta­ physical, the Krama is more mystical. Both Kula and Krama systems have esoteric and mystical look. But, the latter emphasises the cognitive and the epistemic aspect. This, indeed, is the fundamental value of the Krama as a system of philosophy. C. E. Linguistic peculiarity It prefers the Prakrit languages to Sanskrit as the medium of expression.There is convincing proof that the works like the Kramasutra, the Mahanaya-praksa, Mahartho-mahjorl', Prakrtatrimsika-vivarana, etc., were written in some forms of Prakrta or local vernaculars.1 Krama, as a Tantric system, depends on intuition, and discour­ ages dialectic. It does not merely argue, but experiments. It seeks fulfilment in the harmonious blending of intuition with practical realisation. Two phases of Krama Tantricism can be discerned. In the ear­ lier phase, there was a penchant for philosophical and intuitional issues. Of the four divisions of the contents of Tantra, Carya and Kriya were subordinated to jnana and Yoga. In the later phase, how­ ever, the ritualistic aspect came to the forefront. Experience is the pivot roiund which the Krama system re­ volves. The realisation of the oneness of the individual soul with the universal soul is the aim of this system of philosophy. The Krama system was divided into two sub-schools, viz. (i) Sahasa represented by the Vatulanatha-sutra and (ii) Chumma repre­ sented by the work, entitled Chumma-Sampradaya. The main theme of the Sahasa school is that a devotee’s real nature is realised by firmly clinging to the pre-em inent Sahasa (maha-sahasa-vrtya svarupalabhah/Vatuiandtha-sutra 1). Sahasa means a sudden unexpected event. According to this schools, the highest realisation or self-revelation takes place all on a sudden through divine grace; for this no previous preparaton is necessary. The exact meaning of Chumma is not known. It occurs in the Tantraloka (4/268, 29/37). Ksemaraja, in his commentary on the Svacchanda-tantra (15/1), says that Chummaka stands for the sys­ tem to which one adheres. The chief object of the theory of Chumma, which appears to be a synonym of Sarma (Vide Ksemaraja’s comm on the Svacchandatantra ; VI, p. 125) is to presserve the esoteric nature of the system adhered to. In the ultimate analysis, the Sahasa and Chumma appear to have no basic difference. The existence, at one time, of another sub-school of Krama is referred to in the Tantraloka (Ahnika 29).This unnamed school is a product of the combination of two theses, one formulated in the Devyayam aia and the other in the Madhavakula. A feature of sadhana, accordiing to this school, is the worship of one's line of preceptors along with pithas, Ksetras, etc. The Pithas have been assigned to the different parts of the body. This system requres the aspirant to reflect upon and, therefore, visualike the Pithas and the respective presiding deities as essentially identical with the self. PHILOSOPHY OF KASHMIR SAIVISM Here we shall give an account of the philosophy of Kashmir Saivism in a nutshell. Like other branches of the orthodox Indian philosophy, itrecognises the changeless Atman as the experiencing principle. It is called Caitanya or Cit. It is Paramasiva underlying everything. He is both immanent and transcendental. The universe is a manifestation of Paramasiva.This aspect of Him in called Sakti. It has many aspects of which the following are fundamental: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (V) Power of self-revelation— by it Siva shines. Power of realising absolute bliss and joy {Ananda-sakti)— satisfied in itself. Power of feeling oneself as Supreme and of absolutely irresistible will (Iccha-sakti). Power of bringing all objects in conscious relations with oneself and with one another (Jnana-sakti). Power of assuming any form (Kriya-sakti). With these powers Paramasiva manifests Himself or his Sakti as the universe. The manifestation of Sakti is called Udaya, Unmesa, Abhasana Srsti. This is followed by Pralaya. A complete cycle of Srsti and Pralaya is called Kalpa. The things and beings, constituting the universe, are called Tattvas. Besides the Tattvas recognised in Samkhya, this system recognises a few others. According to Smkhya, Purusa and Prakrti are the final realit.es, but they are derivatives in Kashmir Saivism The total number of Tattvas in this system is 36. The process of manifestation of the universe is this It k th» experiencing out of Parama Siva. It is similar to the psychic! proc S L ni h 2 I da,,y )iV6S ° f thinkiing and exPeriencing. The procesTis according to the exponents of Vivarta. The teachers appearanceof .he lu aspect, the cit aspect of Sakti in most manifest * Next comes SaktHattva. While Siva-tattva is the verv firs t lates thp m ama ^ 'Va' Sakth,attva checks, controls andreguates the movement of life, and acts as the principle of restraint From the Siva-Saktistale arises the Sadakhya-tattva i e the experience ‘I am’l am this. It is the beginning of activitv ’it k ’ fh ! frfh ,n ^ h,C.h .for,he first time- there is the notice of being In it the icchasakt, of the Divine is the dominant feature. form H eXT ? the A!svara' tattva Which the experience assumes a orm like This am I . It is so called as, in it is realised thp t nr-nr and the Glory of the Divine Being. Lordliness Finally, there is the Sadvidya staqe In it thp n ynorio^o < ■ K S S 5 - 1 — * Kancukas covering the reality. y y me SIX > The two principles of the limited individual subiect-object arP the Purusa and Prakrti. Purusa is put into sleep by Jaya by m ln s of the limitation of Kala, Niyati, flaga, Vidya and The all experience^, while remaining the same, produces a number oi Purusas who realise themselves as differentiated and separated from one another. Each of the numerous Purusas becomes an Anu. While the Purusa, who is sleeping as it were, experiences a vague and indefinite something, simultaneously with him Prakrti comes into manifestation. Purusa and Prakrti are only the limited representation of the factors on the two-sides experience of the Suddha Vidya state. For each Purusa, there is one Prakrti. In his experience of Prakrti, the Purusa has no specific feeling: there is no movement of thought or activity. Prakrti is in a state in which affective features are held in a state of equipose; the three qualities of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas are in a state of equipose. The three principles of mental operation are Buddhi Ahamkara and Manas. Manas desires ; it singles out a particular group of sensations from a whole crowd. Ahamkara gathers, and stores up the memory of personal experiences, identifies and assimilates the experiences of the present. Buddhi is that which enables one to picture the mental image of objects as of a cow. It is the impersonal or superpersonal state of consciousness or experience in a limited individual. In dealing with the means and general principles of sensible experience, this philosophy mentions five senses, five powers of action, and five general objects of sense-perception. The five bhutas are recognised as principles of materiality. Siva is the Saviour and guru, assuming this form out of his love for mankind. Pasu (literally animal) or the infinite host of souls belongs to Siva. The soul, distinct from the body is not created by Him; it is eternal. Individual souls are of three classes according as they are subject to three, two or one of the impurities. The web of bonds (pasajala), that ties the soul, is divided into avidya, karma and maya. Maya is the material cause of the world, unconscious in na­ ture, the seed of the universe. According to the Saiva Siddhanta, the universe consists of thirty-six tattvas including those of Samkhya. The stages of evolution are as follows : At first, Maya evolves into the subtle principles and then into the gross. The first principle evolved from Maya is Kala. It removes the impurities obstructing the manifestation of consciousness, and helps its manifestation according to karma. By Vidya the should acquires the experience of pleasure and pain. Mulaprakrti of Samkhya is itself a product according to the Siddhanta. Prakrti is the material of which the worlds, to be experi­ enced by Purusa, are made. From Prakrti evolve gunas which lead to the evolution of buddhi. The remaining process of evolution is like that of Samkhya. The world is not illusory. The world has a serious moral pur­ pose, God is always engaged in preserving the souls from the bond­ age of matter. The grace of God is the path of freedom. This school recognises jivanmukti. Though possessing body, the jivanmukta is one with the Supreme in feeling and faculty. He continues his body until his past karma is exhausted, and the deeds of the intervening period are consumed by the grace of God. The main ideas, contained in the principal works, are briefly stated below; the details may be studied in the accounts of respec­ tive works. According to the Kamakaia-vilasa, Adya Sakti is the seed of all that moves and is immobile. Parasakti is at once the seed and sprout as the manifested union of Siva and Sakti, She is very sub­ tle, and is manifested through the union of the first letter of the alphabet, i.e. A and the Vimarsa letter or Ha. Parasiva is reflected in the Vimarsa mirror of the mass of the rays of the sun. The Nadabindu appears on the Citta wall illuminated by the reflected rays. Two Bindus, white and red, are Siva and Sakti-who, in their mutual enjoyment, expand and contract alternately. They are the root of the creation of the word ( Vak) and meaning (artha) which sometimes unite and sometimes separate from each other. One, who knows the Vidyaof Kamakala, dealing with the Cakras of Devi, becomes liberated and identified with Mahatripurasundari. From the red Bindu, about the create, arose sound which is Nada-brahman sprout. From sound arose the five gross elements (bhutas) and letters of the alphabet. The white Bindu is also the source of these. The universe, from the minutes part to Brahman, consists of these five Vikrtis. The centre of Cakra is Para. At the time of evolution, it is transformed, and manifests itself as a triangle which is the source of the three Saktis, Pasyanti and others. The Mrgendra-tantra states that Siva is the doer of all and free from imperfections due to defilements. His functions are fivefold: evolution, sustenation, involution, potential preservation and assimi­ lation. Siva as isana, Tatpurusa, Aghora, Vamadeva and Sadyojata, performs different functions. The fetters {pasa), which tie human beings, are fourfold. They stand in the way of true knowledge and cause defilement. The Rudrayamala lays down seven modes of bhakti, which are stated to cause liberation to one while alive. It states that Siva is both Nirguna and Saguna, the former being distinct from Prakrti while the latter is associated with Prakrti. In it, the order of creation has been given. Saguna Paramesvara is stated as the first principle. Sakti is the creater of the worlds. As stated, in connection with Krama Tantridsm, the main fea­ ture that distinguishes it from the Pratyabhijna system is its Saktioriented monistic Saivism. Another distinguishing characteristic of the Krama school is its belief in spiritual progression, the gradual realisation of the Supreme Reality. FOOTNOTE 1. These are in the form s of Karikas, and are purported to explain what has been said, w hat is unsaid o r s a id in a d ifficu lt m anner. 2 Ksemaraja gives its etymological meaning as atati sattvadivrittyavaiambanena yonth samcarati; it goes from one birth to another by resorting to the qualities of Sattva, etc. Atman is stated as Anu. O ne o f the eleven Rudras is so called. In th is work, it is the nam e o f Siva H im self in His Sattvika form. The sig n ifica n ce o f the name is obscure. Ahi m eans serpent, and budhna bottom . Ih la te r Vedic texts, Ahi B udhnya is a lle g o rica lly co n n e cte d with Agni G arhapatya or D om estic Frre ( Vedic Mythology by M acdonell, p, 73). It should be noted that th e hymn in the Vajasaneyi Samhita (V.33) w hich mention Ahirbudhnya (G arha-patya Agni-com m .) contains the name of V isnu for several tim es, Chap. 52, 2— 88 deal with linguistic occultism o f such mantras on 3, 4, Om namo vasudevaya. 5, See O, Schrader, Intro, to Pancaratra and Ahirbudhnya-Samhita pp. 42-43. r ' 6. A nalyse d by F .O .S ch ra d e r in Das S astitantra in ZDMG, 1 914. 7. T he departure from the co n ve n tio n a l six system s of orthodox p h ilosophy is m arked. 8. D iscussed by S ch ra d e r in ZDMG, op, cit: 9. See M. K aul’s intro to Malinivijayottara Tantra, p. xxi for details. 10. See M.S. K aul's intro, to the Netratantra. 11. Daccan college MS. No. 667(i) of 1895-1902; BORI Cat of MSS, Vol. XVI on Tantra, p. 247. THe Rudrayamala w as said to be a huqe work in a lac and a q u a rte r stokas. 12. The w ork is so c a lle d as it eulogises, and in itia te s into the secret w orship of A ghora, the right mouth o f S vacchanda Bhairava. 13. Keynote of K ashm ir Saivism . 14. For details, see K.C. Pandey, Abhinavagupta. 1 5 .lt appears that tw o d iffe re n t persons had the same name. 16, For details, see N. Rastogi, The Krama Tantricism of Kashmir. O ur account is mainly based on this work. 17 ,The life-span of 50 years of those, whose dates are unknown, is merely a rough conjecture made by N. Rastogi. 18, It is interesting to note that the Buddha directed is followers to propagate his teachings in local dialects. Chapter-2 Sex-Relation and Spiritual Realisation Chapter-2 In all religions, particularly in the Vedantic systems of Hindu­ ism, sex-relation has always been regarded as opposed to spiritual progress. Vedanta says that kama or lust is the greatest ripu or hurdle in the path of spiritual progress and that the first duty of one desiring to enter into the field of true religion is to destroy this kama.' In Tantra, on the other hand, sex-relation has been prescribed as a mean for spiritual progress. Maithuna or sex-relation is one of the five ma-karas* declared by Tantra to be most helpful in the path of sadhana or endeavour for spiritual realisation. It is thus said that a Sadhaka or spiritual aspirant should take some woman as an associate for his spiritual practices. The woman should be beautiful, should have a clear idea of sex-sentiment and should necessarily be previously enjoyed by others. It is better if the women is herself a sudhika or spiritual aspirant.a Hired women also may be taken as associates. Women chosen or hired should preferably belong to any of the nine groups: Nati (dancing girl), Kapalini (daughter of a Brahmana-mother and fisherman-father}, Vesya (harlot), Rajaki {washer-woman}, Brahmani (Brahmana-woman), and the daughters of a Napita (hair-cutter), Sudra, Gopala (cowherd) and Malakara (flo­ rist).3One’s own wife or the wife of some other person may be cho­ sen for this purpose. Practice with one’s own wife is, however, looked upon as free from all blemishes.4 In some Tantras, sons, wives, sisters, female disciples or even daughters are also prescribed.5 But in general practice, such relatives are not chosen. The practices with women are to be performed at night in some secret place, preferably in a cemetery.6Women in manstruation are said to be highly useful for such practices.7 In cakra-sadhana or group-practice, women belonging to the aforesaid nine groups are * The five ma-karas are: madya (wine), mansa (meat), matsya (fish), mudra (cooked rice and vegetable) and maithuna (sex-relation). These are called ma-karas, since the words denoting the corresponding objects have ma-kara or the sound ‘m’ as the initial. taken as associates. Women from the low castes are also hired for secret P ^ ^ ^ re fs ra b ^n a c e m ^ e ^ —^ ^ m ^ d ^ k 'n i^ h t ^ o r v r t o l l said classes^ ^ P M * 3 9r° UP W“ h WOme" belon9in9 The Practices prescribed to be performed with women appear s Z T s Z ' T T° T to he? n r S e L T m SUmmari'y' 3 sao^ is ^ ? wor- 1. .P e ls advised a'so to embrace the woman and kiss and touch all her private parts. And while touching and kissino Z L T ° i ' r b ° ' [he- ” ° man' ,he « » » * * * d i , S ,0 m 2 mam/as or holy words rn prescribed number. Still closer physical p°esc? b ^6 S o ™ '? * w ? u ™ P3V 0ffenngS ° f f,0Wer' ve™ ' ’° " «*>. f d 'he ' en,ale assooia,e a'so lh a t if 1,10 w ° m a n c o u n te rp a rt h a n ­ enJoym ent, th e s a d h a k a sh o u ld s a tis fy h e r advised 10 perfwm ,heso « * a s « « » jn e s ever be performed with a feeling of lust or attachment If a person performs these practices with a feeling of lust or attachment he will o“ me Uivine Mother, and, Sa'd th? W° men are the manifestations ^ 7 d as such, they are to be respected anri or worshipped as different forms of the Mother. A sadhaka is advred :™ 5 s : rs s s opay homage and obeisance lo any wonan he c o n ,iL r o s s a ^ h e n 'l l ihTm m° n,ally- A9ain’ ^ use “ V ha,sh wo,d against any woman He always worship beautiful women and should always mix with ^ hem with respectTantra says that women are g o d d e s T i to be worshipped, and not to be enjoyed.1 2 ' nra„ , Ttiere are Passages in the Tantras which say that thouqh the practices prescribed above appear to be related to s e ^ th e y are t f " ot '* is held that the terms relating to S are to be the^r terhn'" ^ ' r P° PU'ar SenS83, but in their technical sense In etr technical senses, the said terms which seem to be related to ®**bebaviours ar0 aC,ually not so: on the contrary, they speak of some stages or behaviours of the self in its spiritual pursuit ^ A„ the terms denoting sex-behaviours and the private parts of our body are explained in these Tantras in a different way to suit them to some spiritual behaviour. Even the terms Vesya', ‘nati'eXc., which popularly denote some women of unchaste nature or of some low casts have been explained in these Tantras in a technical way to mean powers or stages of female spiritual aspirants of different gra­ dations,1 * In pursuance of this technical or inner interpretation, it is said that maithuna in Tantra does not mean union or relation with the members of the opposite sex. The Agamasara says that maithuna means the union of the kundalini-powet* lying at the base of the spinal cord with Siva lying at the top of the same cord. According to the Kularnava-Tantra, maithuna means the union between Sakti and Siva. The Meru-Tantra, holds that maithuna is the union of thej/Vaor the self in the form of prana or the vital air with Sakti or Power in the form of the nerve susumna. In the view of the Kularnava-Tantra and the Meru-Tantra what is called maithuna in nothing but the enjoy­ ment of the awakened kundalini.1 5 Now, many scholars accept the direct meanings of the pre­ scripts of sex-practices found in Tantra. Sadhakas are also there who practice accordingly. There are, again, scholars who accept not the direct meanings of the said prescripts but their technical ones i.e., according to this second group of thinkers, practices with women are not the desired meanings of Tantra.'6 But this view cannot be supported, as it will be clear from the following discussion that both the direct and the technical meanings will have to be accepted for two grades of sadhaks — the direct meaning for a sadhaka of low grade, the technical one for a sadhaka of high grade. One of the important aspects of the path of Indian spiritual pursuit is that it considers everything from two points of view — vyavaharika i.e. popular or outer and paramarthika i.e. real or inner. Thus, all the performances like offering of incense, flowers and leaves * Kundalini or self-power exists in slumber, as it were, like a snake in a coiled form at the bottom of the spinal cord. A sadhaka is required to awaken this kundalini and raise it to the top of the cord through the nerve susumna running within that cord. to the deities, worship of images, animal-sacrifice, oblations to the fire, sacrifices to the gods and the like prescribed in the scriptures ^ f ^ 'n b° th th6Se meani"SS - popular and inner. Ac* cording to the popular or outer meaning, the external i ites are to be performed properly, while according to the inner meaning, it is the only the inner or mental practices that are to be counted and not the external performances - In the Vaisnavism of Sri Caitanya, we find wo kinds of devotion, namely, vaidhi and raganuga. Of them the former is the pursuance of scriptural injunctions and is, therefore mainly concerned with external rites, while the latter is the pursu­ ance of natural attraction towards the Lord and is, therefore, mainly concerned with internal practices. Of these two kinds of practices the outer or popular one is meant for the sadhakas of low grade' while the inner or real one is meant for those of high grade. ^These two kinds of practices are, however, not co-exclusive of but com­ plementary to, each other, and, hence, both the outer and inner meanings of the prescripts are to be accepted. The external rites and practices are to be performed by a sadhaka of low grade* with­ out performing them, he cannot hope to rise to the higher spiritual level. A person who has reached the higher level of spirituality how­ ever need not perform the external rites; he is then to direct his T h ^ hnt h ° . r rdS the mner mGaning Df the Prescripts concerned Thus, both the meaning of the said prescripts being necessary, we cannot surrender the external meaning for the internal one. In a like manner, in the case of maithuna also, we are to accept both the mean'ngs of the prescripts. If we give up the popular or outer mean■mg n this case we shall have to follow the same principle in all wiS h S tTh 'n u LCaSe a" the ex1ernal Performances of religion m lt ’ WWCh iS n0t at 3,1 acceP!able- Hence, we must accept the primary meaning as well as the inner meaning of s ™ t a l upm Tan' ,a rea" V PreSC" beS SK"P ra<*“ * <or a lhe P^biem is that external performances like worship of mage, sacrifice, offering of flowers and leaves etc. are not contra­ dictory to the spiritual pursuit, and hence may be regarded as nec! ru 'S7 10 3 h'9her ,evel of spirituality. But sex-relation is accepted by all as quite contradictory to spiritual progress. How then, can it be regarded as step towards a higher spiritual life? In repiy, it is said that for spiritual pursuit, the scriptures prescribe two margas or paths — pravrtti-murga or the path ot enjoyment nivrttimarga or the path of detachment,1 The nivrtti-marga is a revolution 9 against normal human feelings or tendencies. It teaches a sadhaka to abandon everything that is not subservient to the summum bonum of life. Accordingly, a sadhaka is required to fight against the lower human tendencies like lust, greed, etc and to give up all enjoyable things related to them.2 This is the path taught principally by the 0 Jpanisads, the Vedantic schools and the system of Yoga.The pravrttimarga, on the other hand, says that a man need not fight against the normal human tendencies, but should pursue them in such a way that at the end these feelings are divinised.*’ A follower of the nivrtti-marga is to abandon all the aspects of life and the world that are opposed to the nature of the self or Brahman and to realise ultimately that all these aspects are but appearances of Brahman which exists everywhere.The aim of a follower of the pravrtti-magra is also to realise the world as a form of Brahman, but he tries to realise this Brahmahood of the enjoyable things from the very be­ ginning. He is allowed to enjoy all the enjoyable things, but, while enjoying them, he is advised to discriminate between what is sub­ servient to Brahma-knowledge and what is not. It is a method of taming the mind bit by bit by granting what it wants and at the same time giving it a scope to understand the futility of the sensual enjoyments, so that it gradually develops a tendency to give up sensual pleasures and to enjoy the divine element in the world.5 * Manu, therefore, says that eating of meat, drinking of wine and en­ joyment of sex are natural to all beings, and are, therefore, not blem­ ishes, though detachment from them beings forth great fruits. 2 3 Now, Tantra follows the pravrtti-marga or the path of attach­ ment. Accordingly, it does not teach the sadhakas to against the common human tendencies; on the contrary, it advises them to enjoy worldly objects with the feeling that all these objects originate from the Divine Mother and are invested with her bliss. The implica­ tion is that men are attracted to the worldly objects because these are endowed with pleasure. And as the Divines Mother is the only source of ail pleasures, the Mother is to be sought in and through the worldly objects giving as sensual pleasure. Accordingly, it is through the five makaras from which men derive the greatest worldlv pleasure, that we shall have to search for the divine bliss Tantra says. We are to rise through those things which bring 2 Z * This does not, however, mean that Tantra advises us to eniov things just as all the common human beings do. Tantra teaches us of to enjoy things as such but to enjoy the ‘divine elements’ in them. It is said that the enjoyment of things becomes blemishable 9 'S 0Vt1, otherwise il is not so.® Now from a psychological analysis, the Tankrikas have arrived at the conHu sion that the divine elements of the enjoyable things c ln be exoerT ®nn . ° n y when the m,nd-body is not disturbed by the feelinq of C Zse£ l : d ; he" ' eve" the physical c o S i t h o fe x fe te lS .. . n is path were bhoga or worldly enjoyment re-an T b'iSS and rfaes 10 a hi9her P'ane sei ° ^ r u ^ „ lb nX s ndear Urer Wh° haS " ° ' lM m t e mea" ' ' or ,he divya-sadhaka or divi ™ ende'SSu’rer a s o th /h a 's S 5 5 S 5 S S S = £ = £ S S ? 3 It is, of course, extremely difficult to pursue this path of yoga through bhoga. The Gandharva-Tantra says that this path is to be followed only by that person who has fully controlled his senseorgans, who is not sensually disturbed by the contact with the ob­ jects of enjoyment, and who is always absorved in the thought of Brahman.3 The Kutamava-Tantra says that this path is extremely 0 risky just like moving on the edge of a sword, or embracing the neck of a lion, or catching hold of a snake.3 For there is every possibility 1 of downfall in this path, though it can give fruit instantly, if pursued with proper self-control. Here we are confronted with a problem thus: spiritual practices are meant for self-control, and if that self-control has already been attained by a sadhaka, what is the need of these practices? To this, our reply is that, though the sadhaka may think to have attained self-control, his self-control, might not be complete or proper, and there might be possibility of downfall in future. And through the said practices, he finds a scope to test his power of self-control and to stabilise it on a firm footing, so that he is never allured by sense-enjoyment in future. But it does not end here. The end of spiritual pursuit is not self-control but the attainment of the highest spiritual bliss in the state of samadhi or trance, self-control being merely a pre-condition for the attainment of this bliss. After the at­ tainment of self-control, a sadhaka is required to direct his self­ power towards ‘active’ realisation of divine bliss.To be more accu­ rate, he is to raise his kundalini to the higher and higher planes and to divinise the whole world i.e. to realise divine bliss in all the enjoy­ able objects of the world. The practices of makra are highly useful for these purposes. And the practice of maithuna or sex-relation, in particular, is regarded as the highest means for both these pur­ poses i.e., for raising the kundalini to the higher planes and for the divinisation of the world.3 2 But the question is: is it possible for any person to come in close contact with the members of the opposite sex and at the same time remain free from sex-feeling? Our reply is that it is possible. In the lives of great saints, we find some acts which outwardly seem to be the expressions of lust, but, in reality they are the marks of the purest divine love whir r : r ple Cann0t even m nk ° l ,n the Pattl ofsP '^ a l progress the sadhaka or spiritual aspirant reaches a stage in which the whol wor d is divinished i.e. all things of the w o rld lre r e v e a l a t h T manifestations of the Lord. Whatever is beautiful or lovable is real ^e d by him as the expression of divine beauty or love as a result o A n d t h P d'V'ne bliSS iS enjoy0d by him In al' those objects And the pleasure accruing from sex-enjoyment becomes too nsin. n ificant when this divine bliss is enjoyed 3 To a saint whn ha* 3 reached this state, factors like natural beauty, membels 0Tthe oo m e a 'o u ^ t t v r '™ ' "* “ U" ' he ,ee"n9 01 h s <-•“ *» -o every person and is realised by e w ^ p T r ^ H r w e J e r beau^ul a i9 n f? f nn ,ove for her is never dominated by the feel? k se ptjre or divine feeling is prominent in it The same is the case with a mother's love for her son. Again L person s ta h ti by the dem‘Se ° f Some dearone is moved by the sight of some person related to the departed one. At such a m n . merit, the feeling of lust totally subsides; what remains is the feelina of divine love. Such facts are experienced in the normal We bS very Person^A saint by the incessant practice of self-control sim­ ply expands this ingrained sentiment; he has got nothing foreian to uman psychology. If a father can love his daughter with a pure and f n a " ^ 9, Wl y C0U,d hB n0' '° Ve ° ther ^ with ^ same fee, restrain the I™ ^ f° r ° ne who does never try to fn rn n i £ L tendencies of the mind, but is certainly possible orone who has practiced proper self-control. It may be said that even though such divine feelinas mav S°tm6 V ™ m° ments- is ^ t possible for these feelings to continue for a long time. In reply, we are to say that fo x h o le who for0D e r ^ n r ie 8' ° f Spiritua,ity' such feelin9s may be temporary, but h o persons whose spiritual progress has reached a particular heiaht S n rn ,n9l me aL,tomatic or mechanical. To clarify the posic e s t h ^ ' h V - SadH aka makes Pro9ress in his spiritual pracces, the kundalinhsakti or self-power at the centre of muladhara lying below the spinal cord gets up slowly from its slumber and rises upwards through the nerve called s u s u m n a . The more the k u n d a lin i-s a k ti goes upwards, the more divine feelings creep in and the lower sensual feelings disappear. When this k u n d a lin i-s a k ti reaches the centre called manipura lying parallel to the navel, the spiritual aspirant always remains absorved in the sea divine bliss. The enjoyment of the divine bliss by the spiritual aspirant of this stage is so mechanical that no feeling of lust can have entry into his mind. This is not merely a theory, but is practically true. Human history informs us of saints who have reached such a stage. Ramananda Raya, a close devotee of Sri Caitanya, used to bathe and dress some d e v a d a s is — women at the service of deities — in his own hands and mix with them in the closest possible way, but yet he was not at all moved by lust. This is clear from the fact that Sri Caitanya, a teacher and follower of rigorous self-control, has paid his highest tributes to him as a man from whom lust was com­ pletely rooted out.3 In the life of Sri Ramakrishna also we find simi­ 4 lar events. One day, by the order of his-lady-preceptor Bhairavi Brahmani, he had to sit on the !ap of a naked and full-grown girl. But even in this condition, he did not show any mark of sex-feeling; on the contrary, he behaved like a child.3 There are also examples of 5 numerous Tantrikas who were not at all moved by sex-feelings even in the closest contact with the members of the opposite sex. Mr. Pramod Kumar Chattopadhyay in his work T antrabhilarsirS adhusanga gives the description of some Tantrikas of this kind. He describes how a male aspirant and a female aspirant embraced each other in a naked position and were absorved in s a m a d h i. 3 Numerous 6 Vaisnava-saints have also been found who, in the closest contact with women remained unmoved by sex-feelings, And, we are sure, any person who has made some progress in his spiritual journey must have realised this truth. It can, therefore, be confidently as­ serted that it is quite possible for sainis reaching the peak of sa d h a n a or spiritual endeavour to remain free from sex-feelings, even in the closest contact with the members of the opposite sex, because, in that state, divine sentiment is so constant and mechanical that no worldly feeling can raise its head. REFERENCES 1. vide jahi satrum mahavsho kamarupam durasadam ~BG, 3, 43 , 2. diksitam yauvahaviram G upta-sadhana-Tantra, 4 .3 ' cf N ila - 8 a n G upta sadhana-T antra Chsand 4; ^5i - i a n t r a , c S s 5 and ^ ^ Y T T3r ra ^ 3 4 and o and 3- catatha oo!!a]aV SVa ^ lf [ap'tan^ a- b^ m a n , sudra-kanya catatha gopa)a-kanyaika. maakaraysa kanya ca nava kanyah prakirTant e a hTa J? ’ 2; dhanad va hinaja tatha — N iruttara5 21 2 GuP tesadhana-T antra, 1.11- 12; and Kum ara-Tantra. 4' ^ L Striyf m anya' Striyam vaP* PuJave' sarva-parvasu T Wijndama/a-ranCra, 5 .9; sva-kanam para-kantam va — Yoni-Tantra ^ l :H,Vay° nim Para' yonism va “ ib id ’ C h- 6. svakiya keva a jn e ya sarvadosa-vivarjtta — M ahanirvana-T antra, 6.14, a ^ t kanya' y° nim vadhu*Vorlinr> tathaiva ca. bhagini-yonim asrttya sisyani-yomm-asrayet — Yoni-Tantra, Ch. 6 . 6. vide K um arl-Tantra, 9 . 15. 7. vide ib id 5,14 and A n n ada-kalpataru-T antra, 16.8. 5. 8, yatheccham tattvam adaya samsthapya purato vrati — Mahanirvana-Tantra, 8.162; vide K ularnava-Tantra Chs. 6 and 11 N irutta- vS: ? “ d 237-8 P-K- Cha*to^ V * 9. ' C h . 1 Ch- 1°. v,de Yoni-Tantra, Chs. 2 , 3 and Sand G upta-sadhana-T antra, Ch. 1 l.kamuko na striyam gacchet K ularnava-Tantra, 8 . 110; yatha- karvamS^anr«i 3 f etsa pata^‘ ibid, 10.6 ; sanga-hinaihsada karyam sangena narakam vrajet — N iruttara-T antra, 9 .22 . 12^ r h 3tnya^ , pranah ^ eva vibhusanam. stri-sangina sada bhavyam - N ila-T antra, 11.122; stri-melanam sada karyam ma n a T aT a ®'12: pranamya manasa devim cumbanam sundarim nagartm drstva — N iruttara-T antra, Tan?™ H ^ a n 9 ana ,oke sa matr-ktila-sambhava— K ularnavarantra, 11.64; napnyam nanrtam bruyat kasyapi kula-yoginah- ibid. 11.62, 13 .v id e N iruttara-T antra. 14, 78-85 and Yoni-Tantra. 1 4 .w de N iruttara-T antra. 14. 78-85, 15.k u n d a tin i-s a k tih d e h ina m d e h a d a rin l, ta ya siv a s y a sam yogo m aithunam p arikirtitam — A g am asara: p ara-sakty-a m a-m ithunasam yogananda-m rbharah. ya aste m aithunam tat syat — KularnavaTantra, 5.112; susum na saktir-u d d ista jiv o , yam tu parah sivah tayos tu sangam o devah suratam nama kirtitam — M aru-Tantra. 16. vide J o g a j’banananda T irth a n a th a ’s Introduction to Yoni-Tantra. 17.v id e S atvadeva's P njatattva. P rem ananda T irth a sva m i’s Yajnatativa and M ahanirvana-T antra, 5.141-6; 2, 7 and 3.12. 18. raga-hin jan bhaje sa stre ra g g a y, baidhi-bhaki boli tare sarbasastre gay ... bidhi-dharm a chadi bhaje krsner caran — cc, M adhya, 22. 19. pravrttam ca nivrttam ca dvividham karm a vaidikam — Ma nu-Sm rti, 12 - 8 8 . 20.n iska m a m jnana-purvam tu nivrttam upadiayate — tbdi, 12.89. 21. jha cam utra va kam yam pravrittam karm a kirtyate — ibid, 12.89. 22. vide P.K. C hattopadhyay, T a n tra b h illa sir Sadhusanga, vol. I, pp. 39-40. 23. na m ansa-bhaksane do so na madye na ca m aithune. pravrttires bhu anam n ivrttis-tu m ahaphala — M anu-Sm rti, 5.56, 24. anandam brahm ano rupam ta c-ca dehe vibhavayet, tasyabhivyanjaksh panca-m akaradvah pra kirtia h — G andharva-Tantra, 27.36­ 7; vide P arasuram a-K alpa-sntra, 1.12; yair-eva patanam dravyaih siddhis ta ir-e va codita K ularnava-Tantra. 5.48. 2 5 .a ta eva yada yasya vasana kutsita bhavet, tada dosaya bhavati nanyatha dusanam kvacit — K autavatt-nim aya, Ch. 8. 26. bhoga-yogatm akam kaulam — K uiarnava-Tantra, 2,24 bhogo yoga vate — ibid, 2.25; bhogena laghate yogam — M atrka-bhedaTantra, 3,2. 2 7 .id a m acaranam devi pasor-na divya-virayoh — Y ogim -T antra, Ch. 6; d iv y a n a m c a iv a v ira n a m s a d h a n a m b h a v a -s a d h a n a m — M undam ala-Tantra, 2,59. 28. vide K ulam ava-T antra, 5.104 and N iru tta ra -T a n tra , 5 .3 4 . 29. vide Yoni-Tantra, Ch. 4. 30. vide G andharva-Tantra, 40.30. 31'b h u i^ H h I a “9amanat vyaghra-kanthavalam banat Tantla 2 ^ ^ nUnam asakyam kula*vaftanam - K u la m a va32 wde sa rva m tya ktva m ahesani stri-sangam yatnatas-caret — Guptasadhana-Tantra, 5.15. 33 a n cT l^e " Dat1a’ ^ S r' R a m a k lis fln a -d 0 v e r Upades, pp. 112, 152 34. vide C aitanya-caritam ria, Antya, 5 . 35' “ S arad3nanda’ $ n $ r i R am akr^ n a - lt la - p r a Sanga, vol. 3 6 ’237-8P' K ' C ha!t° p a d h ya y' Tantrabhita s ir S adhusanga. vol. t. pp. ON ANIM AL-SA CRIFICE In the Hindu tradition of worshipping some gods, or goddesses like Siva, Durga, Kali and others, there is a performance of pasuvaiior the sacrifice of some animal or animals belonging generally to the classes of goat and sheep. In this performance, the animal sacrificed is killed by chopping off its head and is offered to the god or goddess worshipped.Though this performance is looked upon as a religious one, there are many tender-hearted persons who do not like it and try to avoid the scene. The reason for this dislike is not difficult to understand. Worship is a manifestation of the pure and tender sentiments of man, while the act of killing an animal is a cruel scene which goes directly against those tender and pure sen­ timents. Hence, the problem before us is: Why has such a cruel act been regarded as a part of the pure performance of worship, or rather, of religion? This problem includes two questions: First, has this performance been really enjoined in the scriptures? Secondly, if it has really been prescribed in the scriptures, it may be asked, why have the sages having untainted knowledge and bearing love and sympathy for all creatures prescribed this cruel act as a part of religion? Our reply to the first question is that animal sacrifice has re­ ally been prescribed in the scriptures. In the Vedic sacrifices there was a kind of sacrifice called pasu-yaga or animal sacrifice. In this animal-sacrifice, the animal sacrificed was tied in a wooden frame called yupa and its head was chopped off, with all the necessary formalities, by a sharp chopper. After that, the vapa i.e. soft fat or marrow of the corpse of the animal was cut out, cooked and offered to the gods. In Asvamedha sacrifice, numerous animals — domes­ tic and wiid—were sacrificed and, at the end, the horse selected specially for this performance was sacrificed. Behind all these per­ formances, there are scriptural infunctions. According to some think­ ers, human sacrifice also was performed by the Vedic people in pursuance of scriptural injunctions. In Tantra, animal-sacrifice is more popular, as it is enjoined in clear terms by the Tantric scriptures more or less as an obligatory ritual. Here, we find injunctions for the sacrifice of animals like goat, sheep horse, buffalo, efc. There are injuclions lor the sacrifice of with the blood of the animal sacrificed. S0' " * a 9cneral P™ 1 6 *> Tantra to w o rs h ip ^ * Some interpreters hold that the animal sacrifice enjoined in :;n cr thP r bef rS a Symb° ,iC meanin9 and ,hat ,f should not be lP of chopping off the head of an animal In S S r ,CUlar,y in the Brahmartas' ^ e yajamana or sacrificeris called pasu or animal, and, hence, what is called pasuh is nothing but the self-surrender of the sacrificer to the aod worshipped The killing of an anim al in sacrifice o r ^ p s lr S S L 350.10 S 'mb° lise ,he destruction of the ripus or s p ila l S S l i ,e k '' ,t" 9er' g,eed e,c-or 01 0“ *« » and r i Z t ™ n s,.by ^ SW0" 1 o f know|C'lge According to the sym bolic rrterpreta ion of the second type, the words like *chaga', ‘go' ‘mahisa1 b S fa lo T 6 COn'eX' 01 a" i™ '-*K h fice do no, mean g ^T c o w evils o f ? , ln ° “ rJ 50p“ la r USag0, bUI s,and ,o r some spiritual s of man Thus, chaga stands for kama or lust; 'go’ for vak or speech; -mahisa- for kredha or anger and so on. H ^ e th T s l nf S S3h ° f these anima,s means the annihilation of the evils c lie may be"96'' PraC'“ °' «> on. as the mostoMh»hn » T blem 'S: * ” e aCCepl * * s',m bolic interpretation. most of the performances prescribed in the scriptures in connectinn with animal-sacrifice, and also some statements relating to this ritual i? authorftative works. will remain unexplained First’ rt will simply be an intellectual gymnastic to find out symbolic or fat o rm mean!n9s of aN the Performances, such as, collecting soft nnZ L°W the COrpse’ cookin9 ,he same, and so on Sec­ ondly, such an interpretation will render some rituals prescribed to rhnnnJ ?£SS2?SSrE7a df e ,h -"a '-s a c rific e . me’ S g ,e S S n r e » U ,S chopping Off the head of the animal the ^ 3Shed and pLJrified bV mantras, that the mantra S ^the head ofhthe animal, mU" ered 10 ,He n9h>ear stroke that a d ^ t ta is to be chopped off by one »*> animal. hat the god or goddess concerned is to be worshipped by the flow of ood oozing out from the animal, and so on. It will be unnatural if not impossible, to give symbolic interpretations to all these rituals Thirdly, the Mimansakas, with a view to giving a moral and logical support to the performance of animai-sacrifice. say that the vio­ lence prescribed in the Vedas should not be looked upon as vio­ lence. If animals were not actually killed in the Vedic sacrifices, this defence by the Mimansakas would bear no meaning. Fourthly, the Samkhyists have criticised the Vedic karma-kanda or path of rituals as sullied by acts of violence like the killing of animals etc. and, hence as incapable of showing us the path towards liberation, the summum bonum of life.This also shows that the system of animalsacrifice actually prevailed in the Vedic rituals and that it was not treated as a symbolic one. Hence, to explain the ritual of animalsacrifice simply as a symbolic one is but a distortion of facts. Does it mean that all the symbolic interpretations should be thrown away as without any value or truth? No, like the airect or popular meanings of the terms and injunctions relating to animal sacrifice, the symbolic meanings thereof are also to be accepted as having equal importance or worth.The point to be noted here is that, in Indian tradition, starting from the Vedic age up to this day, all the religious injuctions and performances are considered from two points of view— one is external or material; the other, internal or spiritual. The external or material view-point is concerned with the direct of popular meanings; the internal or spiritual view-point, with the sym­ bolic ones. Thus, from the material stand-point, ‘Surya’ means the sun, white from the spiritual stand-point, it means the self-manifest Absolute or Brahman. In the external sense, 'ya/zia'or sacrifice means offering oblations to the sacred fire etc., while in the internal sense, it means surrendering one’s individual self to the Universal Self or the Supreme Lord. In worship taken in the external sense, the wor­ shipper is to offer flowers, deleaves, sesamum-seeds etc. to the gods, while in worship taken in the internal sense, he is to purify his whole existence and surrender it with all humility to the god wor­ shipped. Likewise, in the external form of worship, the worshipper ts to kill animals and offer them to the gods, while in the internal form of worship, he is to destroy all the impurities or spiritual evils within himself by the cultivation of proper knowledge, and to dissolve his existence thus purified, to the bosom of the Supreme. These two kinds of meanings corresponding to the two view-pomts are to be accepted in all cases of religious performances. It goes aqainst the tne other. If, in the case of animal sacrifice, we are to Qive uo ,h have to follow the same principle in all racac That * n to Z Va c p n 0 ,heseSJSS5S; c e 'a y 1 exierna sense and adop, the internal sense only then we s M externa, performances o f s a ^ " be abandoned as without anv vaIu* Ann i ■ Z- in the te 2 « n H f^ h fr0m th6 3b0Ve tnat anima'-sacnfice prescribed or of d lte Z ,r i pe,s° ns 01 « e re n t mental altitudes or grades ^ 3 s = r ~ the rituals of karmaka r° 9 e nv’ T he Muctfons for the performance of e rituals of k a rm a k a n d a are meant for those who desire to get the fruits of their actions either in this life or in the life hereafter, and have no reference to the seekers of Brahma-knowledge. For a seeker of B ra h m a -k n o w le d g e , on the other hand, we find inactions for the performances of sravana or grasping the meanings of the Upamsadic □assaqes, manana or synthesising the seemingly contradictoiy s atements of the Upanishads and rtididyasana or meditating on the truth thus arrived at by intellectual examination. In the same way the scriptures contain inductions for animal-sacrifice and also inactions aqainst animal-sacrifice.The reason b e h in d this is that, our sasfras desiring to the lead the people of all types to the h ig h e s t plane of spirituality, have enjoined these different rituals and performances to suit the tastes of persons of different temperaments and grades. Another point to be noted here is that, an action or perform­ ance should not be looked upon as obligatory or as subservient to liberation, the summum bonum life, simply because it has been sanctioned by the sasfras. In the Vedas there are injuctions for the performance of abhicaras or black arts like killing some Personmaking someone insane, causing somebody's separation, bringing someone under subjugation, and so on. Here we cannot rega' d these arts as obligatory on the ground that they have been pre scribed in the Vedas. For these black arts have been prescribed only for those who want to have some selfish or material gam, they are not meant for a spiritual aspirant, since there ts no such injunc­ tion that one can attain spiritual sublimation by performing such arts In the same way, animal-sacrifice should not be regarded as obligatory or as subservient to spiritual uplift simply because it is enjoined in the sastras. in the view of Vacaspati Misra, there are injuctions in the Vedas, it is true, that by the performance of animalsacrifice and the like one can attain some desired fruits either m this world or in some other world, but, simultaneously there are a so statements in the Vedas that the sins associated with and a ^ u in g from these performances also have to be experienced by the per­ former of such acts. _ The view that ‘violence enjoined in the Vedas is no violence cannot be accepted at all on the following grounds: First, ih sa view held not by the Vedas but by the followers of the ritualistic aspect o the Vedas. Secondly, as argued by Vacaspati Misra, Vedic violence also entails with it the corresponding sins. Thirdly, it goes aoainst lencT ^ 0stablished ^ a" re^9 ions professing non-vio- « ,h .^ NT ' , We are COnfrontGd with the following questions- (i) For what kind of persons has the animaf-sacrifice been p re s c rib e d ^ Has ammal-sacnftce been declared as obligatory for spiritual uDlift? C If not obligatory, why has it been enjoined t ? t h i s c K e s T iO In reply to the first question, we are to say that animal-sacr, ftce has been enjoined in the Vedic scriptures for persons in w h o m whom ?hty ° f ° r r3JaS is predominant, and not for persons in whom the quality of sattva predominates. Persons of sattua-qualitv are naturally sympathetic to all animals and as such C c a n n S m e a n T h ^h T f of anima'^a cn f(ce.This is does not, of course mean that those who perform animaf-sacrifice are all of the quality o h^oualitv ofS; ^ / d ,hr Se Wh° d° n0t per1orm ^im al-sacrifice are he quality of sattva. For persons of sa/f^a-quality also perform V" pursuance of their family-tradrtion. and persons sons in whom the raas-quality predominates. In Tantra spiritual tvoe^of b06n dlV'ded in‘° ,hree according to the three - S ^ ° r mental attitUdes‘ The three of b h a v a s Z l atti udp‘n fto ° r ta masika' bhava i-e. animalistic attitude or the i ttitude of tamas- quality, (b) vira-bhava or rajas',ka-bhava i e hP S ° f , h e a n i ,u d e °f v*** (o C S ; sattvika-bhava i.e. the divine attitude or the attitude of sattva- aual ^T h o u g h these three bhavas are sometimes d e s c r S T s l e e a s p ir a n ts o f ra /a s -q u a lity . From the above considerations, we partly get the reply to the second question also.That is to say. animal-sacrifice is not obliga­ tory: persons of tamas- quality are not entitled to it, and persons of saffva-quality are not required to perform it. Moreover, scriptures have enjoined the offering of fruits, suggarcane, arum, gourd, etc. as anukalpas or substitutes for animal-sacrifice, which also clearly shows that animal-sacrifice is not obligatory. It may be argued that though this ritual is not obligatory for the aspirants of the quality of sattva or tamas, it may be so for the aspirants of the quality of rajas for whom it is enjoined. To this, our reply is that, even for the aspir­ ants of rajas- quality, animal-sacrifice is not obligatory: an aspirant of rajas- quality is not bound to perform the ritual: he is simply al­ lowed to perform it, if he desires. This Is clear from the fact that authentic works like the Mahanirvana-Tanira, the Sarads-tilaka etc, have not enjoined this ritual, and that great Tantrikas like Ramakrishna and others did not perform this ritual as a part of theif spiritual prac­ tices. Now, necessarily comes the third question: if animal sacrifice is not obligatory, why has it been prescribed by the scriptures? In reply to this question, we are to refer to the two distinct m argas or paths of religious practices enjoined in Indian sastras. These two paths are: nivrtti-marga or the path of renumciation and pravrttimarga or the path of enjoyment. Nivrtti-marga is a path of direct confrontation with the natural tendencies of man. Here the sadhaka is required to destroy his natural sentiments of lust, greed, desire, attraction etc. with a resolute mind and to dissociate himself from all the objects of enjoyment that are liable to arouse these senti­ ments. The soie aim of a follower of nivrtti-marga is to stick to the ultimate truth i.e. to realise the pure nature of the self and to give up everything that is not subservient to its. Pravrtti-marga or the path of enjoyment, on the other hand, teaches us not to destroy or fight against our natural tendencies but to pursue them in such a regu­ lated way that our mind is gradually accustomed to self-control. In this path, therefore, a sadhaka is given to enjoy all the objects that are normally allowed to social beings. It is, however, enjoined that while enjoying anything, a sadhaka should realise that the bliss de- rivedI fromthat enjoyment is a manifestation of the bliss of the Lord. And for this purpose, the sadhaka is advised to perform all his ac­ tions as a service to the Lord and to surrender everything to Him. If a sadhaka follows this path in a proper way, he will, at last realise the supreme bliss of the Lord, as a result of which all his worldly sentiments and desires will vanish automatically form his mind and he will learn to abandon anything that is not relevant to self-realisa^ n . This shows that pravrtti-marga or bhoga i.e. enjoyment ends in Z ° r u°Q Le’ renunciationf former being a means for he latter. Though, thus, pravrtti-marga is not the end, it is prescribed for those who, having unfulfilled desires at the bottom of their hearts cannot pursue the nivrtti-marga from the beginning. ' Now, the performance of animal-sacrifice as well as the ealinq of meat has been enjoined in the Vedic and the Tantric works from the view-pomt of the pravrtti-marga. This ritual paves the path to the highest spiritual plane by injecting bit by bit the idea of non-violence n o t kill™ thS Sf h a k a - F o rT a n tra e n jo in s th a t a s a d h a k a s h o u ld n o t kill a n y a n im a l, n o r s h o u ld he c u t e v e n a btade o f g ra s s fo r imself, and that he should eat the meat of only those animals that miunr^oT ?^ L° rd ° r the Mother' lf a sadfiaka follows this nH P P! r y’ *? mind W na,uralfV be directed towards the il1 Lord or the Mother, and when, through gradual progress, he rises to thP M1 ThSP'rlI U P' ! ne and rea,'ses the love and b,iss of *he Lord or at the Mother, his tendency to sacrifice animals naturally vanishes, Animal-sacrifice is thus not essential for spiritual uplift- it is a nnl’u p f f ° n *° n0rma' hUman tendencies ‘hose who have not not yet earn renunciation nor have cultivated proper non-violence K be m° re explicit’ anifnal-sacrifice is simply a means for bringing the people of lower tendencies to the line of sp,r uatem: ,h,s ritua! as such cannot help any person rise ,"°h e level of spiritual realisation. It has, of course, been said in some Tan ras that by vali or sacrifice one can attain liberation, But here the f V° t3ken the sense of self-surrender. 'n 'tS Symbolic or sP|ritual sense i.e. in From another stant-point, we may evaluate the merit of animal-sacrifice. Any person without prejudice will agree that we have T l no right to kill animals and that we kill animats simply because we have enough power, or because, being intellectually equipped, we know the tricks of killing them. All the great sages of humanity have realised that this practice ot killing animals is unjust and contradic­ tory to the divine feeling in man. They have at the same time real­ ised also that it is not possible to dissuade the whole mankind from killing animals and to inject the philosophy of non-violence in the hearts of all. Indian sages have therefore devised this practice of animal-sacrifice to check the indiscriminate killings of animals for their flesh. In this context, the method of killing the animal to be sacrificed is worthy of notice. It is ordained that the head of the animal to be sacrificed should be chopped off by one stroke only. This injunction puts restrictions to the cruel devices of killing ani­ mals. The point is that, the killing of animals for their flesh may somehow be defended as necessary for self-preservation, but there is no justification for inflicting pains and sufferings on animals for no gain of one's own. No reasonable man can put forward any logic to defend why man should inflict unspeakable pains and sufferings on animals at the time of killing them. One who has witnessed the scene of slaughtering a boar or some big animal and has pondered over it with a considerate, logical and sympathetic heart, will cer­ tainly feel the depth of the pains of those animals, on the one hand, and the depth of the cruelty of man, on the other. But the devil in man dances in joy at the cries and sufferings of the animals. The method of chopping off the head of an animals at one stroke at the time of animal-sacrifice tends to advise the human race that if at all man desires to kill an animal for its flesh, he should kill it by inflict­ ing the least possible pains on it. Chapter 3 Social and Religious Background Chapter 3 Before dealing with Tantra it is necessary to draw a pen-picture of the society in which it originated and developed. In the dim twilight of pre-history, we catch a glimpse of two distinct stages in the development of Indian life. The first was the Palaeolithic Age. In this age according to some scholars, people were like Negritoes whose descendants still live in Andaman Is'ands. The other stage is designated as Neolithic Age. People of this age used to live in caves, and decorated the walls with scenes of hunting and dancing. Nobody knows when civilisation dawned in India. Archaeologi­ cal discoveries have unearthed a highly developed civilisation in the Indus Valley. It is generally supposed to be pre-Vedic, and dated roughly in the third millennium B.C. From the mother-images in the ruins of Indus Valleys Civilisa­ tion it seems that Sakti was looked upon as the root of creation. An image of a deity, surrounded by beasts and seated in a Yogic pos­ ture, and engraved on seals, appears to be the precursor of the later Siva, the great Yogin, Pasupati etc. He has three faces, a headornament and two horns on two sides. Some suggest that the headornament with two horns, perhaps, anticipate the later trident. Some stonepieces appear like the phallus of Siva. It seems that natural objects like trees, stones and animals, etc., were worshipped. Perhaps serpents and Yaksas also were wor­ shipped. People had bhakti (devotion) towards particular deities. Some similarities between the Sumerian and Mesopotamian Civilisations on the one hand and Indus Valley Civilisation on the other have ted some scholars to think that the latter was the bor­ rower. There were commercial contacts no doubt between India and those countries, but which country was the borrower we are not in a position to say definitely. As we shall see later on the ruins of this civilisation reveal figurines of Mother Goddess, which are all but nude except for a short skirt the waist. Images of Mother Goddess can be discerned in terracotta figu­ rines unearthed in the Zhob and Kulli sites in northern and southern Baluchistan, belonging to about the fourth millennium B.C. The Indus Valley civilisation reveals also the symbols of linga and yoni which, perhaps, indicate the prevalence of fertility rites. According to some, the Vedic people were at first barbarous. They built up their civilisation after destroying the Indus Valley Civi­ lisation. Others think that the Vedic Arynas were highly civilised, and built up their own civilisation. They brought the pre-Aryan peo­ ple into their fold, and drove away the rebels. Some scholars hold that the Dravidians were the architects of the Indus Valley Civilisa­ tion, while others give the credit to the Aryans. Indian society consists of heterogenous elements. This is why there is great diversity in the languages, food habits, appearance, nature of the people and religious practices. The composite popula­ tion consists of the following kinds of people: 1■ Aryan or Indo-Aryan They are tall with bright complexion, pointed nose and speak Sanskritic language. 2. Dravidian Most of them live in South India with marked difference from the Aryans in physical features. Their languages are Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kanarese. These languages are not de­ rived from Sanskrit, but the vocabulary of some of them contains some Sanskrit words. Aboriginal tribes Kol, Bhil, Munda etc. They used to live in moun­ tains and forests. They are of short stature, dark complexion, and snub-nosed. Their lan­ guages are entirely different from those of the above. 3. 4. People of Mongolian features They are devoid of beared, snub-nosed, flat faced and have yellow complexion and high cheek-bones. Most of them live in the hilly tracts of the Himalaya and Assam. The society of the Vedic age is reflected in the four Vedic Samhitas, Brahamans, Upanisads and Kalpasutras. Broadly speak­ ing, their age extended from 2000 BC to 500 BC, according to model scholars. Women had an exalted position. Ghosa, Visvavara, Apala, etc., were female seers; there are hymns attributed to them. Vedic people were polytheistic fancying different deities be­ hind various natural phenomena. Polytheism gradually led to monothesm through henotheism which means that a deity, wor­ shipped for the time being, is looked upon as supreme. Monotheis­ tic tendency is noticeable in certain hymns, particularly the Hiranyagarbha hymn (X.121) in which the seer appears to think that, excepting Hiranyagarbha, no other God should be worshipped. Monism is voiced in a hymn in which one existing principle is des­ ignated as Agni, Yama, etc. Goddesses are fewer in number, and occupy inferior positions. The goddess of speech (Vagdevi) is, how­ ever, extolled highly (X. 125). She is stated to support deities like Mitra, Varuna, etc., give the devotees their desired objects. It is due to her influence that people eat, see, breathe, hear, etc. At her wilt she makes one powerful. A sort of Tantric religion appears to have run parallel to the Vedic. Some deities, very popular in Tantra, like Durga, Kaii, etc., got into the pantheon in Vedic times. For instance, Durgi another form of Durga, appears in the Taittiriya Aranyaka {X.17). Uma is met with in the well-known Uma Haimavati section of the Kenopanisad. Kali, Karali, Bhadrakali, typical Tantric deities, appear is Tantric scrip­ tures. Some Vedic texts associates sexual rites with sacrifice, presumably designed to secure fertility. A part of the Asvamedta sacrifice was the queen’s lying down with the corpse of a dead horse hofding its genital organ.' The dialogue between the priest and the queen, as recorded in the Vajasaneyi Samhita (XXIII. 22-31) recalls an earlir ritual in which a man, perhaps a priest, was to unite with the queen, and after the ceremonial sexual union was over, he was pul to death. The priest’s union with the queen is also found in the S atapatha Brahm ana (Uttaradhyayana Sutra, vi. 17) People used to believe that some mischievous demons roam about in the guise of dogs, owls falcons, etc. There was a popular belief that some demons move about in the form of roots of trees; this is inferred from the words Muradeva and Sahamula (Rgveda iii. 30.17). They were believed to cause various kinds of mischief, e.g., causing death of people and cattle, diseases, drying cow’s milk, obstructing the flow of rivers and showers of rain, causing drought, drawing out harsh words from people, etc. Some demons were sup­ posed to have hideous appearance, e.g., three heads, six eyes, three feet, red complexion, etc. (Rgveda i. 35.10, vii 104 15 X 14.9). ' ' ' Belief in ghosts and evil spirits in cemeteries is reflected in the Rgveda (x. 14.9), In a cemetery, people were enclosed by a circle which was supposed to separate the living from the dead and to prevent the premature death of the people (Rgveda X. 18.4). Two harmful deities, mentioned in this Veda, and Krtya and Nirrti. The former was believed to turn people blue or red and to cause rift between husband and wife. The latter was believed to cause various kinds of harm and even death. The pigeon was her accomplice (Rgveda i. 38.6, X. 85-28, X.114.2, X. 145.1). Yatudhana, perhaps, referred to such evil forces as caused various mischiefs including the theft of cow's milk. ‘ Vatu'seems to have become Jadu (magic) in Marathi, Bengali and new Indo-Aryan languages. The word V&tumavat probably referred to people versed in sor­ cery. The evil forces Sasarpati (Rgveda iii. 53.15, 16) Paksya or Paksiniheti (Ibid. x. 165.2, 3) were supposed to be capable of giving power. Female evil spirits, called Pisacis, are referred to (i. 133,5. iv. 33.3). Through God’s grace a barren cow gave milk, the wife of an impotent person got a child and wine flowed from the hoofs of a horse (i. 116.7,117.6), a formidable river became fordable (vii. 18). The cry of a Kapinjala bird to the right of a house was believed to foil the attempt of thieves and indicate the birth of a son or grand­ son (ii.32.3). The owl was regarded as the messenger of God of Death; its screech was ominous (x.165.4). The Rgveda contains mantras and rites for curing diseases, curbing demons, reviving dying people, remedy against omens, bring­ ing stray animals back, etc. Among the common people were such deities as Alasksmighna-devata (Rgveda X. 155), Rajayaksmaghnadevata (X. 161), Duhsvapnanasana-devata (i. 120-12) and Sapatnidhavana-devata (X. 145). At one place (iv. 25.9) it appears that Indra's image used to be worshipped for the destruction of enemies. The Atharvaveda contains many magic processes and rites for ensuring material comfort, long life, curing diseases, controlling people, causing harm to enemies, counteracting snak-poison, ward­ ing off ghosts, etc. There are provisions for wearing talismans for various purposes. These practices appear to foreshadow Tantric rites. The Vedic literature mentions a class of people called Vratyas. The defied Vedic religion, and were very powerful. The Atharvaveda deifies them. This Veda betrays belief in a larger number of imps and ghosts. Some evil spirits were believed to assume the forms of one’s father or brother before attacking him in dreams. The creatures of the Muradeva ciass were reckless. Those called Kimidins were sup­ posed to cause diseases and spoil cow’s milk (Av. i. 7,2; 25, 3,9, viii. 4,24, x. 16.1 ).s The Av. is a mine of information about sorcery, magic, etc. Magic was of two kinds, benign and malign. There were methods of counteracting the effect of magic (Av. 1. 2.27, ii. 11.3, vi. 13, 1-2). Gandharvas were believed to be fond of music and dance and association of women. They were supposed to assume the guise of dogs, monkeys, hairy youths and cause mental restlessness and addiction to gambling and destroy articles for sacrifice (Av. ii. 2.3, 4 iv. 37.1-2. 11 ). to enjo ^ h e m T r ir ,s K s^ ,r a,,ack wde$ * « ^ < *« ■ng me e«ec, of curses (Av. 1.23.22, , 47 3 c a .s d tL S r *a c s r s r i fe r r « ca" ^ r ™“ T 3r * v- »• * • > ■ « cure diseasesYnd^ender A bhfcJm a S r " 5 d®S'9ned to foil cursesmans were called Virudh ^ araabortlve' S°me important talis^ {AV. , ~ cause bad3dream^whic^forebo^ed N'ft'hut1, etc'’ were believed to The K ausika-suZ Z e 9 £ Z l V ™ ' ™ ' danger' even dea*H. counteracting the effect of barf h™ ° tl AV" contains rites for this purpose in the AV (e a iv a! ns ^ re aremany mantras for X. 3.6. XVI. 5 ) ' 9‘ ,V 17‘5’ W- 4 5 J - ™- 100.1. Ix. 2.2.3 ; ‘ were c e l T S e S n e a t o ? " T n° ' " * * " om " ^ c . There don. and sovereignty. Some talismans w eleTO am 'foM he?' “ T ing virility in men. The object of thP H t J ° " ,n w° men and increas­ e s ^ impart youthful beauty to men. ' 03 Subha^m karana, Symbolic magic was a noteworthy fe a tu re Tho The cutting of the grass into two pieces was d ei^T ed to d S t h e hostile forces into two parts and to leave them in disarray (1 ■6.10). The burning of a dead ichneumon foreboded the slaughter of en­ emies (40.7.39. 54). Before leaving for trade the merchant used to keep a ball of cowdung on the body of the Purahita, and asked himllhow is the day? He replied—auspicious and conducive to for­ tune {i. 1S). The AV. contains some charms and magical rites for prevent­ ing snake-bite and counteracting the effect of venom. V. 13 is sup­ posed to resume the effect of snake-poison. Some words like Taimata, Apodaka. Aiigi, Vilgi. Urugula, Asikni, etc., (AV. v. 6, etc.,) used in this connexion, appear to have been borrowed from non-Aryan lan­ guage. The Kausikasutra lays down some processes believed to en­ able a person to know future events. For example, the groom of a bride will come from the direction from which crowds approach (xxxiv. 24). In selecting the bride for marriage, she will be asked to pour a handful of consecrated water. If she pours it in the right, she will be considered fit for marriage (xxxvii. 11-12). There are some instances of superstitions. The burying of some articles at the crossing of four roads ensures the destruction of enemies (AV. v. 31.8). Serious consequences are foreboded by birds like crows, pigeons, etc., falling on a person with pieces of flesh in their beaks (46,4, 6,51.7).The newly wedded wife will take a Brah­ min boy on her lap at the fathe: -in-law's house; this will ensure the birth of her son {AV. xiv, 2—22, 23). A child's teeth appearing in the lower jaw first foreboded evil result on the part of its parents. A mantra (vi. 140) was supposed to counteract the effect. Some Brahmanas reveal certain crude practices. For instances, in Asvam&dha sacrifice, the queen, wrapped in a cloth, used to be laid beside the dead horse. The queen prayed to that animal for transferring its procreative capacity to her (Safapafha xiii. 5.2, Taittinya 3-9). After the cremation of a corpse, the people attending the fu­ neral had to pass through a yoke, made of the wood of a holy tree. J S 2 T E X , " " h ,e,hyh 1 'o c — • e e " 0 uh attached t<Mhem 10 ™™ >» < « • » » i h° iS S f S S d u C S S f t S ^ T ” * * « ^ d e s s e s i„- iS referr6d '° " SOme Sutra ” '° 'te (e-9- s = s 3 ^ 5 s £ s S s S s s s = s 5 s = There is mention also of Vaksas and Nagas, Asuras are mentioned as hostile to Raksasas. Asuras are stated to have reported to sinful acts. A class of females, called Apsaras (nymphs) is mentioned as demi-goddesses. The chief characteristic of the Mahabharata (present form c. 4th cent.) society was the popularity of Vaisnava and Sakta reliqions.These two make a departure from the conventional allegiance to the Veda. The Pancaratra sect of the Vaisnvas and the pasupata of Saivas gained a large number of adherents. The Mbh. reveals many departures from the traditional Brahmanical religion. Draupadi furnishes an example of the trans­ gression of the ideal of a woman having a single husband. Both the epics testify to the prevalence of moral laxity like illicit connexion of men and women, their pre-marital relatioi. etc. Though there was Brahmanical predominance, people of other classes, by dint of excellence of qualities, became objects of high esteem- this is especially true for the Mbh. age, Krsna himself was a non-Brahmin. Vidura of a comparatively inferior caste was highly revered for his exemplary character. In the epic age we find that the Ramayana (Ram) refers to tree-worship (2.55.25-26), The Mahabharata (Mbh) shows that peo­ ple used to believe that every house had a presiding demoness who had to be propitiated (Sabha 18.2) This epic reflects some superstitious beliefs. For example, the siqht of a jackal in the battle-field was ominous (3.23.10). Also ominous was the fall of a headless trunk there (4.34.32). Among other omens and portents were: etc., the fall of a burning meteor, tears in the eyes of camels, asses unusual birth of animals as that of an ass from a cow etc, Among auspicious signs were pleasant mind, unaccountable pleasant feeling in mind, trembling of the left hand or left eye of a women. Good and bad dreams are referred to (Ram. 2.4.17, 3.73.33 etc.) 2.10 29-30? 2-5B.34& c^ BS '° P0- — d b* « * * * < •* Un d o r ® t c ^ Z r H„UPPOSed'° haVe bolh mate and ,e™ te S th« t < was surrounded by mother goddesses havina the forms of various birds and beasts. It seems that he was o S S ! 84. eeT s e c t s '6 ^ 3" (Amnyaka 2/3‘21' SalVa 43-45. Anusasana S° Ciety ComprisGd the s aiva, Sakta and Vaisnaya Pyranas and Upapuranas are a mirror of the society in d i S t6SH T rB comp,led or composed. The dates of Puranas are f to de,ermine wi1h Precision. Broadly speaking the major A D and ^ in the Period between the second century A V . and the sixth. In this connexion, it should be noted that in the em p e rio d T ' anaS’ dif,erenl ChaP'e,S composed^' differ^ fhrpp ' ^ e centuries preceding the following the birth of Christ three ant'-Vedic re^gfons became widely popular among the masstion to L Im a i/ Sni' j aifllS,TI 3n Asivak,sm- Semi-Vedic devoT h e viz amnnn th tT ■ br° ad' i ' * idsd i"<° <»o main sub-sec,s. Bhagavata. Bhagavatism became very popula x z g z z z r ' S h a ^ " a~ u ms The Vaisnavas allowed freedom to women and SudrA* in Taii buaras used to worship Visnu directly. fees Ike n S ? n « USed 10 raS° rt *° Some rePrehensible pracThey included the foreigne “ w t“ n C8S,eS and * * « °> their fold, and gave women and Sudras the right to worship deities personally. Among them the Kapalikas were the most abominable. Wearing matter locks, decked with bones, they used to hold blood­ stained human heads in their hands and wear sacred threads ot hair or fur. They used to wander with garlands of human bones. In the Sarvadarsana. samgraha of Madhavacarya (14th cen­ tury) Saivas are divided into four sub-sects. The Puranas tell us that the political supremacy of Nandas, Mauryas, Andhras etc. dealt a severe blow to the traditional Brahmanical religion. Sudra kings personally performed Asvamedha sa c rific e . The above kings extended liberal patronage to Buddhists and Jains. The Buddhists taught mendicancy and the Jains severe aus­ terity. These two religions allowed great freedom to women and Sudras in religious matters.The edifice of Vamasrama-dharma crum­ bled for two more reasons; one was the incursion of foreigners from the north-west and the other the spread of Tantricism among the masses. The onslaught on Brahmanical religion continued up to the ascendancy of the Guptas in the first quarter of the fourth century, Tantricism spread mainly through Vaisnavism and Saivism. There were many Buddhist Tantras too.Tantric influence made itself felt approximately from the fifth century onward. Gradually Tantra had its impact on Purana and Smrti. Tantra preached that the Veda, Smrti, Purana and Agama were meant respectively for the Satya, Treta.' Dvapara and Kali Ages. There appears to have been rivalry between Hindu and Buddhist Tantras. For instance, the S a k tis a m g a m a -ta n tra (Kalikhanda I, 17-19) states that Devi mani­ fests herself for the destruction of the Buddhists and other heretical sects. With the decline and decadence of the traditional Brahmanical religion many people embraced Buddhism, and hailed Tantra. In this deplorable condition of the Brahmanical society the Brahmanas made desperate attempts to rehabilitate their religion. Brahmanas, versed in Vedic lore, were allowed to receive gifts from prostitutes and Sudras who were ordinarily looked down upon. As stated a b o v e , Tantra infiltrated into Smrti. Among the mak- In the religious contour of medieval India thp rkp nf r m trnri, ^ I 9 0 Va,snaV)S™ that already prevailed he introduced a new emotonalism that swept away the L J Z lices. belie,S and ''a,l0l,s prac- - - b a b ^ T ^ T r r r ^ fo e s n 9^ — — » < r nu n » = S £ £ £ £ S s s The Puranas contain copious references to Saiva and Saivism On the religious life of India the influence of Sufism was not negligible. Influenced by Vedanta and Buddhism. Sufists preached loving devotion to God and love at all. They lay stress on initiation by guru. They put greater emphasis on emotional ecstasy than on knowledge acquired by discrimination. The foregoing survey of the society shows that seeds of Tantra were sown in hoary antiquity. As early as in the Indus Valley civilisa­ tion we find Sakti who appears to be at the root of creation. In the Veda we meet with the goddess of speech who is the upholder even of gods. In the Kena Upanisad, Uma Haimavati is represented as omnipotent, even more powerful than gods. In the Puranas the great power of Sakti is stressed.Thus, the predominance of Sakti in Tantra had a long continuous process of development. The rise of Vaisnavism, Saivism and Saktism had their strong impact on the society. Thus, the way of future Tantra as a departure from the conventional Brahmanical religion was paved long ago. The Puranas and Buddhism allowed greater freedom to women and Sudras ; thus the ground was gradually prepared for their free­ dom inTantric rites and practices. Belief in ghosts and goblins marked the Indian society ever since the Vedic age. We find the prevalence of magic, both white and black, since the Vedic times.The Atbarvaveda appears to have the deepest influence onTantric practices. Caste-rigidity was gradually relaxed and finally disappeared in Buddhism and other heterodox faiths. This probably resulted in the liberal outlook of Tantra which broke the caste-barriers. The idea of liberation (mukti), taught in Tantra, perhaps owed its origin to the orthodox Brahmanical religion and the orthodox sys­ tems of philosophy. The ideal of enjoyment {bhukti) might be im­ bibed from the heterodox and hedonistic school of Carvaka. From Yogasastra Tantra probably derived yogic practices. In this respect, both Raja-yoga and Hathyoga may have influenced Tantra. Tantra had its own philosophy such as looking upon the body as a micro­ cosm and performing Sadhana through the medium of the body.The union of the Kulkundaliniw\h the thousand-petalled lotus in the head penetrating the cakras is regarded as the consumation of Tantric Sadhana, Tantra developed its own ethics and discipline. It appears that, despite the wide and deep influence of Tantra on the society, and in spite of the recognition of some Tantric prac­ tices, particularly Diksa. and of the Tantric Mandates, Madras Yantras, Nyasa, etc., in Brahmanical society obloquy against Tantra was not only insidious, but quite explicit. For instance the Kurmapurana (1.12,261-262) holds that some Sastras, including Bhairava, Yamala, Vama, opposed to the Veda and Smrti were for­ mulated by Devi for deluding (mohanartham) the world and were based on ignorance. The Devibhagavata does not categorically condemn Tantra but expresses reservations against it. It declares (xi.1.25) that so much of Tantra as is not opposed to the Veda is authoritative, but what runs counter to the Veda is unauthoritative. . .uTh°.U9h th0 Tara~ L btiakti-sudharnava ( Taranga 6) tries to make out that this passage of the Kurma-purana is meant only to glorify the Veda and not to denigrate Tantras the opprobrium is obvious. It is curious that the Sarvadarsana-samgraha of Sayana or Madhava {14th century A.D.) does not include Tantric philosophy although it deals with even the heretical schools. It may be assumed that by the time this work was composed Tantric practices degenerated into moral depravity and fell into disfavour. Various evidences show that the heyday of Tantricism, both Hindu and Buddhist, was from the seventh to the twelfth century A.D. The testimony of Kalhana shows that, already in the tenth century A.D.Tantricism began to wane, or at least many of the Tantric practices repugnant to the cultured dis­ appeared in Kashmir (Raja-tarangini, vi. 12). The provision in Tantra for keeping Mantras secret like the paramour of one's mother seems to point to the fact that the followers of Tantra were conscious of the sense of repugnance to it prevailing in the Brahmanical community. The provision in the Kuiarnava (xi. 83) that Kuiacara should be a close preserve like coconut water and the statement that one who is at heart a Kaua behaves like a Saiva outwardly, and like a Vaisnava in the assembly of men seem to point to the some conclusion. To what a deep abyss ot depravity Kuiacara sank is attested Laksmidhara, almost the latest commentator of the Saundaryalahart. Under verse 41 he gives a horrid picture of wanton lascivi­ ousness in the name of religion. He expresses his disgust by con- eluding that such things do not deserve to be even remembered (not to speak of being practised). We have already referred to the prevalence of Saivism in the society. As this religion spread over practically the whole of India, we shall deal with it in some detail.3We have seen that, among the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilisation, there is the image of a deity, which appears to be the forerunner of the later Siva. Siva does not appear in the Veda as a god. We meet with Rudra who, according to some, is a god of mountains and forests, 'a god of the horrors of the tropical climate,’ according to Hillebrandt. He is looked upon by E. Arbman as a primitive popular deity, the prototype of Siva. In the Yajurveda ( Vajasaneyi Samhita, 3-63), Siva is an adjective of Rudra. This shows how the fierce Rudra mellowed gradually. In the Svetasvatra Upanisad, Siva is no longer an epithet of Rudra, but Rudra-Siva is one god. In course of time, various appellations of Rudra like Isana, Pasupati, Bhava, Mrda, Sarva, Mahadeva, etc., developed. The opinions of scholars are divided as to whether or not the origin of Saivism can be traced to the Vratyas who are mentioned in Vedic literature (e.g. Atharvaveda, XV. 2) and were certain, perhaps eastern, Aryan or non-Aryan tribes living beyond the Brahmanical fold and creating disturbances to the Brahmanical rites and rituals. Numismatic evidence* testifies to the fact that native and for­ eign rulers in the pre-Christian and early centuries of the Christian era became ardent followers of the Saiva cult. The Gupta rulers were usually of Vaisnavite leaning. But, at least one of them, Vainyagupta, was a devotee of Siva. Some of the ministers and high dignitaries under the Guptas became Saiva. As time rolled on many temples in honour of Siva were built and numerous Ssva-lingas were set up. The worship of Lingas be­ came widely popular.The epics, some Puranas and Saiva Agamas refer to various type of Lingas, their classification, etc. From the seventh century onwards different sub-sects of the Saivas appeared in the religious scene of India. From literary and epigraphical sources we learn of the following sub-sects: Pasupata, K arun ika -sid d ha n tin (or K ath a ka-sidd h an ta), K apalika (Mahavratadhar, according to some), Kalamukha (Mahavratins, ac­ cording to some), Kaladamana. ’ The following groups of Saiva sects appear to have existed in the early medieval period: Siddhanta School—following the Puranic doctrine Agamic Saivas 1. Tamil Saivas of the Far South 2. Lingayats or Vira-sivas 3. Kasmira Saivas C. Pasupatas 1. Kapalikas 2. Kaiamukhas Saivism prevailed, in greater or less degree, throughout India. But, two great schools can be distinguished, one Kashmirian and the other South Indian. As already stated, the followers of the Siddhanta school at* tached great importance to bhakti, and adhered to the Puranic doc­ trine called Siddhantamarga. Of the various sub-sects of this school the most popular was the Mahamayura. ' The epigraph ic records testify to the genealogy of several Acaryas of this school. According to this school, the ways to liberation differ For ex­ ample, the Lingapurana emphasises Yoga while the Sivapurana stresses bhakti and accords a secondary position to Yoga. In hold­ ing bhakti as the most essential element, this school comes close to the bhakti school of Vaisnavism. The Sivapurana further advocates renunciation of worldly Karman as a means of progress towards the goal. This is possible with or without the help of the Guru. The Linga suggests good deeds like construction of Siva tem­ ples and installation of Siva-iingas as a means to the attainment of liberation. The Pasupata doctrine appears to have been first preached in accordance with a tradition recorded in the Mahabharata (Santi, Chap. 349). Information about the Pasupatas is contained mainly in the A. B. p a s u p a ta - s u tr a of Kaundinya, Saddarsanasam uccaya and K u rm a p u ran a (Uparibhaga, Adh. 37). The lay worshipper is required only to recite the simple mantra om namah sivya. The naked bache­ lor ascetic, ascetic, the ideal Pasupata is, however, to observe an elaborate procedure. Besides smearing the body with ashes, he is to perform the severe austerity with five fires {one on each of the four sides and sun over-head). In the Kurmapurana, Siva is represented as a naked lunatic with a grotesque appearance. In the early centuries of the Christian era Pasupatas were divid­ ed into two schools, viz. Lakulisa which was Vedic and Heterodox which was non-Vedic. In course of time, these schools were fused into one; their merger probably was complete in the post-Gupta pe­ riod. Some information about the Pasupata doctrine and philosophy is available in Sankara’s Bhasya on the Brahmasutra {I1.2). The Pasupatas hold that the five categories, viz. effect, cause, union, ritual, end of pains were taught by Pasupati, the operative cause, to snap the bonds of the animal. Madhava, in his Sarva-darsanasamgraha, says that the Pasupata system mainly treats of the five categories of the Pancarthika system, viz. Kriya (effect), Karana (cause), Yoga (union of the individual soul with the Supreme soul), Vidhi (rites), Duhkhanta (termination of misery). Kala is the unconscious, and is dependent on the conscious. It is divided into cause the effect. The conscious spirit (pasu) is of two types; one not free from bondage and the other is the spirit from organism and organs. Karana is Pasupati, the creator, preserver and destroyer. Madhava makes it clear that duhkhanta of the school is not mere cessation of misery as in Samkhya, but the attainment of supremacy or divine perfection. The Kapalikas,5 worshippers of Kaplin or Siva, and the carri­ ers of Kapata (human skull) appear to be a sub-sect of the Pasupatas. The Puranas (e.g. Linga, IX, Kurma, XVI. I) and epigraphical records (e.g. Bhavanagar Inscription, pp 186— 87,208 f.f., Indian Antiquary, IX, p. 174) include the Kapalikas among the Saiva schools. Thev are sometimes called Somasiddhantins or Siva Sasanas. The Kurm l (XVI. I) characterises them as Veda-vahya or outside the ambit of the Vedic religion. The earliest literary reference6 to Kapalikas, is, perhaps, con­ tained in the M aitri Upanisad (vii, 9) which characterises them as thieves with whom association is prohibited. The Bharat samhita of Varahamihira (C. 5th-6h century AD) is an early scientific work to describe Kapalikas. Though originally worshippers of Siva, they appear to have worshipped Camunda too, as is attested by Bhavabhuti in his Matatimadhava (Act IV), They adopted Tantric practices; sometimes they outdid Tantra by resorting to acts of a more horrible nature. They adopted Vamacara, Some of these practices were wearing garlands of human bones, taking food and wine from human skulls, offer of human flesh to fire, free association with female Kapalikas. eatinq (he rem­ nants of a dog’s food, etc. They held on their body the following six things, called Mudras (a term probably borrowed from Tantra): Kanthaka or Ghantika (neckace) Rucaka {an ornament), Kundala (ear-omament), Sikhamani (crest-jewel), ashes to be smeared on the body and the sacred thread. Kapa/a and Khatvanga are the two minor Mudras. They believed that, by means of Mudras, one could attain the highest bliss. ,, They believecl that the goal could be reached by meditatinq on the Atm ans upposed to reside in the seat of the female organ. The Kapalikas believed in the Samkhya doctrine of Prakrti, M ahat etc and also in a kind of Yoga on the syllable Om.The ultimate aim was liberation and cessation of sorrow. u sastras were known as Bhairavastaka, Candrajnana. Hrdbheda-tantra, Kalavada. They thought that one should not aspire after salvation in which there is no pleasure7 . The Natha-teachers Jatandharinatha and Kanhapa called them­ selves Kapalikas in the CaryagitikoseP. The travelogue of Yuan-Chwang (7th cent AD) and some inscrip­ tions9testify to the fact that, in Punjab and North-western India, the K apalika subject was very popular. Kapalikas appear to have lived in several other regions of In* dta. Kamarupa in Assam and Nepal were their favourite centres. There is a record1 of the grant of a village near Nasik for the worship 0 and maintenance of Kapalikas. Sankaracarya is reported to have met them at Ujjain1 ’.Thus, it seems that they were ubiquitous. Kapalikas may be broadly divided into two classes, Brahmanical and non-brahmanical.The former discarded the dread­ ful practices and even the very Kapaia:2that was their emblem, and recognised the Veda and the caste-system.The latter rejected both. While the Punjab and the neighbouring lands were the home of Brahmana Kapalikas, South India was the main stronghold of nonBrahmana Kapalikas. Laksmidharasays that the Digambaras and Ksapanakas were the subsects of Kapalikas. Saivism was a powerful and popular religion in South India, Its prevalence there dates back to a period before the Christian era. Fro/n its opposition to Buddhism and Jainism it gathered strength and superseded those faith about the fifth or sixty century A.D. It developed a distinct philosophy, called Saiva Siddhanta, about the eleventh century A.D. Though Saivism developed independently in Kashmir and in the south, yet there are prominent similarities between the two sys­ tems. We set forth below the salient features of southern Saivism. Lrterature Some Tamil works like the Tolkappiam constitute the sources of southern Saivism. Besides, the twenty-eight Saiva Agamas espe­ cially the parts dealing with jnana (Knowledge), the hymns of Saiva saints, and the works of later theologians are the principal sources of Saivism. Of the Saiva Agamas, the chief is the Kamika. The Saiva Siddhanta was based on the twofold tradition of the Vedas and the Agamas. A reconciliation of the two was attempted by Nilakantha (14th cent. AD) who interpreted the Brahmasutra in the light of the Saiva system. He generally accepts the standpoint of Ramanuja and raises his voice against the absolute identity or ab­ solute distinction of God on the hand and the souls and the world on the other. Siva is Supreme with his consort, Amba, having the con­ scious and unconscious entities as this body. Appaya Diksita’s com­ mentary, Sivarkamartidipika, is highly valuable. The Kala (or, Kalamukhas), so called perhaps because they marked their foreheads with black streaks, was a sub-sect of the Lakulisa Pasupatas.There are evidences, mainly opigraphical,’3to prove that they acquired an influential position in South India, par­ ticularly, in the Karnataka region, in the period roughly between the ninth and the early thirteenth century A.D. Some epigraphs and the Sribhasya (II.2.36) of Ramanuja (b. 1017 AD) throw light on their dress and doings. Who founded this sub-sect, when and how cannot be deter­ mined. It is possible that Kauruspa, one of the four disciples of Lakulisa, was the originator of the class.1 4 Some Mysore inscriptions inform us that they migrated from Kashmir; the reason of the exodus the unknown. Unstable political conditions, coupled with repeated Muslim invasions, might have forced them to find pastures a new. They are stated to have resorted to practices even more hide­ ous than those of the Kapalikas. They took food from skulls, be­ smeared the body with ashes, ate ashes, drank wine. Ramanuja, who describes them as Mahavratadharas and Logudadharas, tell us that, besides the above practices, they ate the flesh of dead bodies. They had matted locks, and bracelets of Rudraksa seeds. From inscriptions we learn that they managed big educational institutions, called Mathas, which were attached to Saiva temples and enjoyed the patronage of kings, governors or feudatory chiefs. Some of them, eg., Sivesvarasakti, Vamasakti and Kriyasakti, were Rajagurus or royal preceptors. The Kalamukhas appear to have been divided into two major schools, called Sakti-parisad (-parse) and Simha-parisad (-parse). The time and reason of their decline and eventual disappear­ ance cannot be determined with precision. It is, however, a fact that the revival of the more progressive Lingayats and the Vira-saivas in the twelfth century AD considerably eclipsed the glory of the Kalamukhas. The other Saiva sects of the Far South, of which the most popular were the Sanskrit School of Siva Siddhanta, the Tamil Saivas and the Vira-saivas or the Lingayats, got a firm foothold from the sixth century onward. These schools come under Agamic Saivism according to Farquhar.The main difference between Agamic Saivism and the Saivism of Kashmir lies in the fact that the Trika system of Kashmir, though agreeing with the Agamas in principal problems, adopts the doctrine of Samkara so far as the identity and oneness of Brahman, the individual souls and the world are concerned. Farquhar distinguishes between the Sanskrit and Tamil schools as follows. The Sanskrit school, with its literature in Sanskrit and Brahmanas as chief followers, holds the Vedantic view of Ws/sfac/vaffa.TheTamil school, with its non-Brahmanafollowers andTamil literature, holds the Vedantic view of Advaita or Bhedabheda ac­ cording to some. This view is challenged by some on the ground that there were Brahmana followers also of the Tamil school. The doctrine of the Agamas, on which Tamil Saivism is mainly based, is on the three following main principles, viz., Pati (Lord), Pasu {individual soul) and Pasa (world as bondageJ.The entire sys­ tem has four padas (feet), viz., Vidya (learning), Kriya (rite), Yoga (meditation) and Carya {morality).The Lord is different from the souls which are not independent and the fetters which are unintelligent. God, the omniscient, is the universal agent. Inference establishes the existence of the agent knowing the fruits of action. He is free from the fetters like Mala, action. His body is constituted by the five forms of Sakti, viz., Isana, Tatpurusa, Aghora Vamadeva and Sadyojata, His body, the result of his will, is the cause of the five operations of grace, obscuration, destruction, preservation and pro­ duction. The liberated souls become Siva. Saivas differ in their ideas about the state of the soul in libera­ tion. According to some, the defilement of the soul can be removed leading to a permanent release from all bonds. Others think that the S ’s if F ^ ^ S S S S r S = S ~ - " ^ " - E ^ l S S S J £ S = E Z X H S ^ ^ = = » (W=n^ '^ ^ ^ pears to be derived Irom Z ^ Z T ^ khya f i o n t ^ s ^ r ’' ■ ■*■« ■*“ S n S n h .’ C T Sed hiS G/te9 ° ^ under a Vaisnavite Sena ° 9 o belonged to a family that migrated from Karnataka1 . 7 u aSaVa 'S not inclined to enforce the rigidity of the caste-sv^ torn. He says that the devotee of god is of the Mghesl caste T h appears to have close similarly with the idea expressed in the verse candalo'pt dvijasrestho hari-bhakti-parayanah, so well-known in Ben­ gal Vaisnavism. Basava does away with the Brahmanical sacrifices, the prac­ tices of bewitching people by charms and the science of astrology, Basava tried to place women, who were relegated to a low position, on an equal footing with men.The reformist zeal of Basava led him to advocate widow-remarriage and divorce. Another instance of the progressive outlook of Basava was the recognition of the dignity of labour. The large number of monasteries of this sect and the attitude to socio-reiigious equality are attributed, not on adequate grounds, by some1 to the impact of Jainism and Islam, and by others'9 to 0 Christianity which claimed a large number of adherents in the neigh­ bouring areas. In course of time, this school was split into four groups, viz. Samanya, Misra, Suddha and Vira. In Vira Saivism the role of Guru has been emphasised. A noteworthy feature of this school is that the followers are called jangamas (the moving ones). This word, perhaps, refers to the provision that they were asked to be constantly on the move, wandering from place to place. Use of ashes, wearing a necklace, holding a rosary of Rudraksa, drinking padodaka of the Guru, partaking of prasada i.e., the rem­ nant of the food, offered to the Guru or the food offered to a jangama, the recitation of the mantra Namah Sivaya, etc. are some of the duties of a Vira-saiva. The six stages in the path towards the union with Siva are bhakti, mahesa, prasada prana-linga, sarana andaikya (merging in the deity). A sub-sect of the Saivas is called Harihara.The adherents of this sub-sect make images in which Hari and Hara are combined. It seems that attempts at fusion of Saivism and Vaisnavism were at the root of this sub-sect. ment to the c ' 4 th ^ *° *” 8 SUpp,e’ be the earliest work to refer to the Hariha^a school. ^ (° were I t Z V ^ t T s T e * " d VaiS« to in some Puranas p 7 J !' fUS'° n appears to b* referred 187 ff), U n g a -p a rv a rd h a iM h m rB h ^ ' f % Skanda (V".2, 17, Purana (Adh. 83, 23 ff) makes Kntnn 6' 7,The Narartya Harihara.The Brhadharma (P urvakhsnrtTa^n assume the form of that no difference exists between ^ ° kas 39' 47) states water in two jars. The 1/&/L (Adh 25 2 6 ^7 ' ^ * " like are manifestations of Rudra thata,,lhin9s Kumara-samhila Adh 23 51 301 riL ro . ?if Purana (Sanatposile image ol Hahhara lhe " ° ,ship 0 lhe « » "• 1 shipped on a S iv a ^ a . * lha’ Vlsnu co,,ld be » '• Some Sa/Va Sam/j/tes a n d /to a mas e n £ » ? ■ » » . * , provide ■ < * lo r lh .e« 1 ^ j ? S S ^ The renowned Lingara/a TamnlP R ° * p of Har'hara images. India, e.g., Western araa® ° f h a r a f r o m ° fthe. W Orshi pof Hari ' harmony between Saivism and uLkm» C6m **The spirit of oped since the time o 7 e K K inou " T ’ S ™ *° haVe deve)gold co in - of this king depicts 1° 6*138 AD>-A and hands holding a goad whe’pi trw f ve' se' S,va Wlth four arms is c ie a r ^ a s s S rS 'hUnde^ The" heel The cause of the attempt at the fusion of the two cults per­ haps lies in the following circumstances. Buddhism took a firm grip over the people ever since pre-Christian times, Asoka gave a boost to it. Till the rise of the Guptas, Buddhism continued to flourish. There was a Brahmanical revival under the Guptas. Finally, the preachings of Samkaracarya sounded the death-kneil for Buddhism. The Brahmanas were ever anxious to resist the surging current of Buddhism and made desperate attempts, like the composition of Puranas and provision for a network of Vratas, to rehabilitate their religion in jeopardy. A sense of common danger perhaps prompted the various Brahmanical sects to close their ranks in order to offer united resistance to the formidable foe. This probably ted to the harmony between the otherwise disparate faiths. This syncretism tendency is noticeable also in the Pradyumnesvara motif in 'he time of king Vijayasena {12th century AD) of B e n g a li Here we find Siva, Uma, Laksmi and Narayana, carved on both sides of a statute.This is an effort to coalesce Hari-Hara, Laksmi*Narayana, Uma Mahesvara forms. The Sobhanesvara inscription2 bears out this 5 attitude. We shall deal with Kashmir Saivism in a separate chapter. There are many similarities between Kashmir Saivism and South Indian Saivism. But, in philosophical ideas the two differ. The differ­ ence may be expressed by saying that while the Kashmir school is idealist, the South Indian school pluralist in metaphysical approach. Saivism in Kashmir is chiefly philosophical, while that in the South it is mainly religious and r/fualistic. In the South school, God’s help is invoked for saving the sinner. But, in Kashmir, particularly at a later stage, resemblance with Sankara's doctine is noticed. Certain technical terms, such as Spanda, Pratyabhijna, used in Kashmir, are absent in the south. Despite fundamental similarities between the two schools, no case of the one borrowing from the other can be made out. It is interesting to note that, as we have seen before, South Indian Saivism appears to have been influenced by Kashmirians. Farquhar, thinks2 that Samkara, the south Indian Advaita ascetic, 7 influenced the Saiva leaders of Kashmir. The idea of worshipping Siva and Sakti, in an inseparable form name of Parvati, are directed of meditate on Devi, as sitting on the lap of Siva seated in the Mahapadmasana posture.2 6 f V3’S re'ati0n With his wife’ Gan9a- als° attracted the artists nf th i represf " led as being carried over the head of Siva The idea !" ^ Rama* ana (C- 2nd or 3rd ^ Mahabha^ (C. 4th cent. A.D.). Images of Gangadhara are found almost entirely in South India although the Ganges is a river of the northern region. 9 itv of S a iv ^m 9'3i" 9 accoum amP'y demonstrates the wide popularZ °1 2 7 '" I ' particu,ar,y in Kashmir and South India We have also seen that there arose many subsects. The E Ardhanarisvara, Uma-Mahesvara, Kalyana-sundara and Ganqadhara sufficient proof of the respective cults. But, no sect appears to n a S p° be Jan,ri°J The W0' shl« >ere 01 W p urasunS aa a n S to wnt A D U n d mo two broad classes. v,z.. Fierce (Rudra) and Quiet iSaum y-jT ,, ' " s “ eved hysom ethatttie Kusanas and Greeks conceived “ *> s c u l p t o r s , ^ GuD ta anA 1 * T it a finished form. Gupta age gave ” ! " * 19<>d and k in 'ma90S ° f Ardhanarisvara in South India, a notable one (11tM2thceV A D r Pte a' Tani0re’ da“n9 b3Ck '° 'he C°'a Peri0d M Bhavan^TsM ."'0 ^ " ° SbUitt " h°"°Ur° 'b°,h Vis™ =■* An example of the harmonising tendency is furnished bv Trimurti epresents Brahma, Visnu, Mahesvara. With the addition of Siva of Harrhara, the latter *a s called Ha^Hara Pllamaha. formi 1 &iva and Siva in the form ofin ,he epiC mo,if ° f Vis™ * ^ “ rum oi Visnu2 9 *>® T p r e S r ^ " ^ !?g a d*■ » - 5 5 S 5 nth n _i tlZ h.e Puranas a|so bear witness to this eclecticism. For exam­ ple, the Lmga Purana (Adh. 96, Sis. 11-12) says that Visnu and s Z are merged like water in water, milk in milk. It may be observed that the idea of pairing deities dates back to Vedic times. For example, in the Rgveda we come across such dual divinities as Mitra-Varuna, Agni-Soma, etc. Literary and archaeological evidence shows the harmonising 0{ Martanda (Surya)—Bhairava (Siva).There are remains also indicat­ ing the composite representation of Brahma, Siva, Surya.3 0 Besides the kinds of images, referred to above, there ars many images and figures of Ardhanarisvara (half woman, half man) per­ haps originating from the idea of purusa-prakrti. According to some, it represents, in a more convincing and vivid form, the Linga and Yoni, the symbol of creation. Another composite form of the above deities is represented by the figures of Uma-Mahesvara or Hara-Gauri.The origin of the wor­ ship of this form dates back to the age of the Mahabharata— (present form C. 4th cent. AD). Such images have been found at many places of Bihar, Varanasi, Mathura, Bengal. Kalyana-sundara is yet another composite form representing the marriage of Siva and Parvati.This marriage is beautifully repre­ sented in the Elephanta Relief. Another exquisite specimen is a well-known relief in the caves of Ellora. There are many literary references to Ardhanaisvara, some­ times by different names. Puspadanta, perhaps of the Gupta pe­ riod, refers, in his Mahimnastava, to it as dehardhaghatana (Avalon’s ed„ p. 53). Utpala's commentary on the Brhatsamhita (L VI 1,43) describes it as Ardhagaurisvara. A detailed description occurs in the Matsya Purana (Adh. 260, Sis. 1-10). An interesting story of the origin of the inseparable union of Siva and Parvati, in which human frailty is ascribed to divine being, occurs in the Kalika-purana (Chap. 45). Once the appearance of Parvati was reflected in the crystal-clear bosom of Siva.Taking it to be the figure of another lady Parvati became furious; as Bhatti says— na maninhsamsabate, nyasamgamam—no honourable lady brooks her husband's union with another lady. However, Siva succeeded in removing his wife’s suspicion. After that, Parvati wished to be in- separably connected with Siva in order to prevent the recurrence of such an unfortunate incident. In this connexion, it may be added that the bi-sexua! represents tran of deities has its origin in the Veda. For example, we may point out the hymns of the Rgveda m which there are dialogues of Yamayamt (Rgveda X. 10), Pururavas-Urvasi (X. 95 ). Brhadara^ ak0 Upanisad (1.4) speaks of the b,-sexual tman, the principal Purusa, dividing himself into male and female to n fb l n Upf n isa d ^ 1 7>described Prajapati as assum­ ing a bi-sexual form for creation. . Ardhanarisvara can be seen on terracotta seals3 1 and stales . Besides, there are many images3 3. When the conception of Ardhanarisvara originated cannot be Kt r j nedW; ? f ' ntyTheabOVe Stele rePreser|ts a figure of the 500 A D ^ n n t T ' ' A-D->-The Greek ^1hor, Stataeus (C. 500 A.D.) appears to refer to such an image. U , thZ l havef.elsewhere seen *hat, among the relics of Indus Valey, there is a figure looking like Siva in meditation. There is a mar­ ble statue at Mohenjodaro with its head, neck and body erect and otheT h ^ h6yeS ^ ° n the tiP ° f thG n° Se' Yo^ if1 some form or other, has been in vogue in India from pre-Vedic times. It was found in a manner even among non-Vedic people3 . 4 ,atf r 7a" tnc writers attempted to show that Tantra is r n r fn lr h i Rudrayamata (Ch. xvii) regards Supreme ddess as belonging to the Atharvavedic pantheon. The Kula-sastra IS stated, rn the Kularnava Tantra (II, 10.85.140-41), to be based on s °me Tantras. including the Parasurama-kalpasutra (III 30) men ,on the Rgved'c mantras I. 22. 20. 21, 1.154 . 2 , IV. 40 . 5 VIi &a. w , x. 184. 1-2 in connexion with the Pancamakaras. The Tantrasara of Krsnananda also refers to them. T . The Vedic Gayatri-mantra has been adapted for application in Tantric invocation to deities. Orthodox writers have attached an opC o in " Tan'a ™ ' he ° ' M m e Pura" as <*- Tantra can be branded as Nastika only in the sense that it does not recognise the authority of the Veda, but not as denying the existence of God like the Carvakas. Yamunacarya, in the Agama-pramanya, states that Tantras, not favoured by the Veda, are popular among people of low classes. Ksemendra, in his Desopadesa and Narmamala, refers, in a deroga­ tory manner, to Tantric rites, Apararka, commenting on the Yajnavalkya-smrti, quotes Smrti passages vehemently condemning the adherents of Tantra. Samkaa, in his commentary on the Brahmasutra, deprecates Tantra as run­ ning counter to the Veda. The Rudrayamala (Ch. xvii) regards Supreme Goddess as be­ longing to the Atharvavedic pantheon.The Kula-sastra is stated, in the Kuiarnava Tantra (II. 10, 85, 140-41), to be based on the Veda. In certain Vedic works, e.q.,Srautasutras of Latyayana (IV. 3. 17), Gobhila-Grhyasutra {II. 5. 6. 9-10), Taittiriva Aranyaka (IV. 7. 50.), to mention only a few, sexual intercourse is regarded as a part of religious rites. Drinking of wine appears (e.g. Satapatha Brahmana, V. 1.2.9; Aitarya, VII. 1.5. etc.), to have been in vogue in sacrifices. The Vajapeya and Sautramaniseem to be the precursor of the Cakra of theTantric devotees.The former, meaning Drink of Strength, used to be offered by warriors and kings; in it, besides Soma which was permissible, even the ordinary Sura used to be drunk. The Sautramaniwas a sacrificial ceremony in which, instead of the drink of Soma, Sura was offered to deities. It is recommended for one who has drunk too much of Soma or one whom it does not suit. Sura is also prescribed for a Brahmana desiring success, a banished king wishing the restoration of kingship, a warrior intent on victory and for a Vaisya desiring to acquire great riches. The Tantric attitude of doing away with caste-restrictions ap­ pears to be to the effect mat, in the performance of a sacrifice, the persons present become Brahmanas and the distinction of cases is obliterated. The mystic syllables phat, hum, etc., used in some Vedic texts (e.g. Taittiriya-Aranyaka IV. 27), correspond to the Tantric Hrim, Hum, etc. ’ The Vedic ritual of purifying the body by uttering mantras and touching the different limbs, supposed to be occupied by deities, (Aitareya Aranyaka, III. 2) naturally reminds one of the practice of Tantric Nyasa. It may be pointed out that Tantra is not totally opposed to the Veda. For example, the Mahanirvana (v, 197 ff.) prescribes Vedic mantras for certain Tantric rites. RV.i.22.20, viii 59.12, etc., are pre­ scribed for sanctifying the five makaras. RV. x.9.1-3 are prescribed in Namakarana.The Parasuramakaipasutra prescribes (x. 10) Vedic mantras as we have already stated. The Kuiarnava and some other Tantras praise the Vedas, use Vedic mantras. The Kuiarnava (xii. 33) cites the verse Yasya deve, etc., from the Svetasvatra Upanisad (vi. 23). ’ It is true that the cruel acts of Marana, etc., taught in Tantra, are opposed to the Trayi or the triad of Rg, Yajus and Sama-Vedas\ the Atharvaveda contains some sueh Abhicara rites. But, Tantra is not wholly anti-Vedic, as is attested by some orthodox Brahmanical works. For example, the Devibhagavata, as pointed out in connexion with Purana, holds that as much of Tantra as is not opposed to the Veda is authoritative. Devi, the Bahvrcopanisat refers to Para-sakti and Kadi Vidyas. P.V. Kane thinks that these minor Upanisads were composed with the deliberate object of boosting up Tantric authority in the orthodox Brahmanical society whose Tantras were generally looked down upon. Some Tantras acknowledge the authority of Upanisads in cer­ tain matters. For instance, the Kuiarnava quotes the Svetasvatara (vi.23) about the importance of guru. There is marked similarity between the basic principles of Tantra and some of Upanisadic doctrines. For example, the idea of saguna and nirguna Brahman of the Upanisads is found in many verses of the second chapter of the Mahanirvana. The Chandogya Upanisad (viii. 1.1) mentions 101 Nadis one of which penetrates the crown on the head; moving upwards by it a man attains immortality (viii. 6.6V The doctrine of Nadis is found also in the Kathopanisad (v i 16}.The Prasna Upanisad(iii.6-7) states that each of the 101 Nadis has 72 Nadis each of which has 1000 more. The Mundaka Upanisad (ii. 2.6.) may also be mentioned in this connexion. The Tantric conception of Nadis was, perhaps, bor­ rowed from the Upanisad. The Chandogya (viii.6.1) states the Nadis of the heart consist of subtle substance, brown, white, blue, yellow or red in colour. PV. Kane thinks that this might be the germ of the Tantric name of Pingata. The Maritrayani Upanisad (vi. 21) speaks of a Nadi going upward like the Tantric Susumna. The idea that Jivanmukti is attainable only by a vision of the deity worshipped, expressed, for instance, in the Parananda-sutra (p. 9, Sutras 3-8), appears to be an echo of the Svetas vatara Upanisad (iii. 8, vi. 15} which says tameva viditvatimrtyumeti. In some cases, even the words of the Upanisads are found verbatim in some Tantras. For example, nanyah panthah, used in the Parananda {pp. 6-7, Sutras 59), appear in the same passage of the Svetasvatara. ln'connexion with Jivanmukti, the Parananda uses the words na sa punar-avartate (p. 9, Sutras 3-8) which occur exactly in the same form in the Chandogya Upanisad {viii. 15). The words brahmavid apnotiparam, used in the same passage of the Parananda, are found in the Taittiriya Upan/sad (Brahmanandavalli). The reformist and revolutionary religious movements of the medieval age naturally welcomed certain liberalising factors in Tan­ tra, e.g., doing away with caste-restrictions, seeking God within human bodies, liberation through enjoyment, exaltation of women, acceptance of guruvada. These ideas became popular with heterdox faiths of Buddhism, Jainism and Carvaka philolosophy or Lokayata darsana. While some reformist organisations raised a voice of protest against the age old barriers of caste, etc., they remained within the Hindu fold. But, some recalcitrant groups totally snapped their ties with Hinduism. One such prominent group was the Sikhs. FOOTNOTE 1. Asvalagara Sraupasutra, X. 8.1 ff, Apastamta, XX., XXII; Katyayana, XX, etc. 1 2. It has been interpreted in two ways: (i) One who has phallus as one’s deity. (ii) One who plays with the genital organ. According to the Nirukta (iv. 19), the word denotes an unchaste, lustful person. 3. See P. Jash, History of Saivism, 4. Eg, J. Alien, Cat. of Coins etc.. in British M useum s, pp. 130-132, p. 307; Coins of Ancient India et., Cunningham, pt. 81, p-vii, fig. 3 . 5. See Sribhasya on Vedantasutra, II. 2. 35 ; Vedanta-Kaustubhabhasya of Srinivasa, II. 2. 37; Pancaratra-pramanya of Vedottama; Laksmidhara’s commentary on Saundarya-lahari, 6. For references in classical Sanskrit Literature, see the chapter on Tantric Elements in Sanskrit Literature. 7. See Prabodha-candrodaya, iii. 16 . 8. See Caryagitikosa 9. Eg. Nirmanda copper-plate of Sarvavarman (Corpus Inscriptionum indicarum, Vols. i-iv ; Epigraph of Udaipur (Annual Report of Rajputana Museum, 1922-23, p. 2; Epigraph of Hammira of Ranathambar; Epigraphia Indica, XIX, p. 47. 10. Jour, of Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, xjv, p. 26. 1 t.See Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, II. pt. I, pp. 27-28. 12. Vide Ramanuja’s Sribhasya, II, 2. 13. Eg. South Indian Inscriptions /Desai), xv, Nos. 32, 73; Epigraphia Indica, vi, pp 96, 97, xv, pp 156 ff, xviii, pp 161 ff, xviii, p. 189, xxiii, pp. 161 ff; Madras Epigraphicat Collections, 1907, No. 1289, 1914^ Nos. 441, 443, Bombay-Karmataka Inscriptions, II, 1964, etc. ' 14.See J.N., Banerjee, Pancopasana, Calcutta, p. 160. 15. Eg. Epigraphia Indica, XXI, p, 16 16. See Indian Culture, iv. No. 4, p, 431 17. See N. G, Majumdar, Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. Ill, p.p. 46-50,110­ 13. 1S.Tarachand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, pp. 119-29. 19. Madras Journal of Literature and Science, 1840, January, p. 145, 20. See Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, II, Pt.2, App B pp. 168­ 71. 21. Ibid, II, pt. 1 22. Vide P.L. Gupta, Patna Museum Catalogue 23. See K. C. Panigrahi, Archaeological Remains at Bhuvaneswar, p. 257. 24. See P. Gardener, British Museum Catalogue of Coins, p. 148, pt. XXVIII, 16. 25. See Majumdar, Inscriptions of Bengal, III, pp. 42-56. 26. See S.N. Rajagum, Inscriptions of Orissa, III, PI. II, p. 342. 27. Outline of the Religious Literature of India, p 198, 28. See C. Chakravarti, IHQ, VIII; V.S. Paihak. Saiva Cults in Northern India, p. 25. 29. Indian Antiquary, XVIII, p. 273 30. DHI, pp. 550-552 31 .E.g. Annua! Reports of Archaelogical Survey of India, 1913-14, p. 152, No. 764. 32. E.g. Jour. ofU.P. Historical Society, 1937, II, pp. 30-32, about a stele in Mathura Museum. 33. E.g. K.D. Bajpai, Sagar Through the Ages, p, vi. 34.Garbe in Ency. of Rel. and Ethics, xii, p. 833. Tantra and Cultural Complex of India Tantra and Sakta Works: These two classes of works are similar to a great extent. But, some distinguish between them in certain respects, P. V.Kane points to the fact that the Saktsa consider Devi as Supreme, but Tantras (including Buddhist and Jaina works are not confined to Sakti to Devi alone, Vedic Literature (including Upanisads) and Tantra: Some hold that Tantra is anti-Vedic or outside that Vedic tradi­ tion (Vedabahya). But, a close study reveals that there are some similarities between the two. Sakti in Tantra, according to some, has its precursor in Goddess Vak of the Devi-sukta of the Rgveda (x. 125); Vak is stated to associate with Rudras, Adityas and Vasus. Others, however, differ. Some discover the germ of many Tantric matters in the Veda. The Rgveda speaks of Sakti of God. The word Sakti oc­ curs in the Rgveda several times {e.g.i. 31. 18 iii, 31. 14. iv.22.8, v.31.6), etc. Though there is no provision for the worship of Sakti as a separate creative principle, protection, coutage, bounty, etc., are associated with Her. As Sakti is associated with Siva in later times, so females of Gods are mentioned in the Rgveda e.g., Indrani and Varunani are consorts of Indra, Varuna respectively. The RV mentions {vii. 21.5, x. 99.3) magicians who were prob­ ably non-Aryans described as adeva (godless) anrtadeva (worship­ ping false gods). RV. vii. 104 and x..37 show that people were afraid of black magic. According to some, Tantric elements are found in the concept of Mahanagni, the Great Naked Woman, occurring in the Atharvaveda. In one context, relating to marriage, Mahanagni is alluded to. The twin-gods, Asvtns, are required to protect the bride by their power with which they got the genital organ of Mahanagni sprinkled (AV. xiv. 1.36). In the same context, wine and dice also are stated to ,he 9e" “ - - » S r 9r “ ,0a" " 9 ,RVKNIa V-22 6; AV- 136 5 qi tn variam There is reference (AV.XX.136.6-RV Khila V = a 3 £ S S S = E 5 » s 1 ^ 1 r r 1 ° ccur in ’* s s 5 ^ ^ ^ £ 5 = = r parasya sakv-Vmdhaiva sruyate.This Energy is Adys SaM 2 M s s h ^ r s >s , r r r be, T ded as ^ b y m a n y ^ s c h o ^ a s ^ Z J In the Kenopanisad, which is a genuine work of this class, the legend of Uma-Haimavati, the Supreme power of Sakti, is illustrated. In connexion with miscellaneous Tantric works, we shall see how the Isopanisat has been interpreted from the Sakta standpoint. It may, however, be contended that Tantric ideas, which were of a later development, appear to have been read into an old work by a commentator of a very late age. Those, who believe that Tantra is very old, call it the fifth Veda whose authority is not less than that of the Veda/ Some hold that Tantra has only rendered Vedic rites easier and more suitable for practical life. For example, the homa of Vedic sacrifice is recog­ nised in Tantra too. The difference is that the external aspect of homa is not stressed; Tantra emphasises self-surrender which is the inner significance of homa. Kullukabhatta, a commentator of the Manusmrti quotes (un­ der Manu ii. 1) Harita who divides Sruf/into two classes, ciz.. Vaidiki andTantriki; thus, Tantra is regarded as Vedic. Some think that the concept of Sakti is derived from the Vedic idea of the forces (Sakti) of nature underlying the Vedic deities. As an evidence of the antiquity of Tantra, it is held that abhicara of the A tharvaveda was the p re cursor of Tantra. The Nrsimhatapaniyopanisad, belonging to Atharvaveda, is like a Tantra. That it was genuine appears to be proved by the fact that Samkaracarya commented on it. The origin of the doctrine of Nadis in Tantra can be traced in the Katha Upanisad(vi. 16) and Chandogya Upanisad (viii, 6.6). It is state that there are three hundred and one Nadis of the heart. One of these penetrates the crown of the head. The Prasna Upanisad (iii.6.7) holds that each of the above Nadis has seventy sub-nadis each of which has one thousand more. In this connection, the Mundaka Upanisad (ii, 2.6) also may be referred to. This Upanisad also refers to Kali, Karali.The Chandogya (vii,, 6.1) states that the Nadis of the heart consist of a subtle substance which is brown, white, blue, yellow or red. This may have been the basis of the name Pingala The Maitrayani Upanisad (vi.21) refers to the Nadi going upwards as the Susmna. In the Uma-Haimavati myth of the Kenopan/sad, attempt has been made to estiblish the non-duality of Sakti and Sktiman, a typically Tantric idea. The HiranyakesiQm yBsutrB mentions BhadrakaJi. As in the Aitareya Brahmana. so in the Nighantu (i.11) Vak is referred to as Nana(A/affna) which is supposed by some to foreshad­ ow the future naked form of Kali. G o d d e ss Nikumbhija of the Hamayana is regarded as a form a Tantric Sakti. « J hfl Sf r!!iCe f° Nikumbhi,a* bV Ravana's son, is considered as a black rite designed to destroy the enemy. Bhadrakal^ Sankhayana GrhVasutra (»-14.14) there is reference to The Buddhist Mahayana work, Suvarnaprabhasa, bears the impress of a Tantra. It is said to have been explained in China by Kasyapa Matanga during the reign of King-ti (58-75 AD}. There is no evidence of the Buddha having preached Tantric ideas. Tantric ele­ ments appear to have been incorporated into Buddhism long after the demise of the Master. The Chinese translation by Dharmaksema (414-433 AD) Paramartha and his pupils (552-557) and l-tsing (703) are available' The Mahamayun, which is of the Dharani, class, appears to have been translated, for the first time,into Chinese in the 4th cent AD The Suvarna-prabhasa and the Mahamayun are referred to by some to prove the high antiquity of Tantra. Some Trantras, e.g., Nirvahatantra, mention four classes ofgurus viz guru, parama-guru, parapara-guru, and paramesthi-guru Ac­ cording to the Nila-tantra (V.73,) Goddess Sakti is parapara-guru Siva is paramesthi-guru, one's preceptor is his guru and guru's. Some works e.g., Nila tantra V. 65,66, divides gurus into three class viz Divyauga (divine beings), Siddhaugha (sages) and Manavaugha (hu­ man beings). It appears to divide gurus in another way into two classes viz., Tanaguru (V.64) and Devaguru (v.71). Some otherTantras (e.g.Syamarahasya also give the above classification of gurus. It is stated that the names of male gurus should end in ananda (e.g Brahmananda). or-naf/?a(e.g.Matsyendranatha, Minanatha ) and those of those of the female preceptors in-am ba5 After naming some gurus, the Niiatantra characterises them as belonging to Tarinikula, i.e. a line of gurus imparting Tarini-mantra (V.B8). The position of the gurus among the Tantric Sadhakas is so exalted that he is regarded as even superior to one's father. The Niiatantra, for instance, cites the verse (ii. 146) of Manu, which extols the preceptor, imparting Vedic initiation to a person, as supe­ rior to the progenitor; obviously, it substitutes Tantric diksa for Vedic initiation. This Tantra, in another context, declares (V. 65) that the mantrada {giver of mantra is superior of one's father (janaka-dadhika). Indian culture does not set much store by the physical birth of fiesh and blood which is common to lower animals. It lays greater stress on intellectual and spiritual regeneration as more important than mere generating the mass of flesh.The wise Indians often expressed the sublime idea that the body is sure to perish (ekantavidhvamsi), whereas merits last through ages (kalpantasthayino gunah). Flesh and blood of the body are also called m antra (Raghava on SaradatilakaW. 95-96}. Some texts prescribe rules for rousing the consciousness of mantra$(PranatosiniIV.I, p.222, Gandharvatantra XXIX. 24-25). Some Works (e.g.Tantraraja XXXV. 64-66 Purascaryarnava VI, p. 526) provide that one should not only understand the simple meaning of a manfra, is the manifestation of the real nature of Sakti, and fell that he is merged in the essence of the object of his spiritual exercise. The ten ways of purifying mantras are janana, jivana, tandana, bodhana. abhiseka, vimalikarana, apyayana, tarpana, dipana and gupti(Krsnananda's Tantrasara, p. 52). One, who attains mantrasiddhi, acquires a peculiar brightness of the body and a lasting peaceful state of mind. Mantra-sikha is the name of a purifucatory flame, supposed to be roused within the body during the ascent of Kundalini. (Puras­ caryarnava, VI, pp 527-28). Raghavabhatta on Saradatilaka II. Ill speaks of the purification of mantras with pranayama according to the Yonimudra process and reciting them one thousand and eight times. The Kuiarnava (VI) lays down the process of purifying a mantra by citing the letters from left to right and right to left. In some texts, the body to God is called Mantratanu, Mantrayana is the name of Tantric Buddahism. Laghima (power of assuming excessive lightness), garima (power of assuming excessive heaviness), prapti (power of obtain­ ing anything at will), prakamya (irresistible will), tsitva (superiority over others) vasitva (power of keeping others under control.) There are lesser siddhis too. The greatest siddhi is mahanirvana or moksa. M a n tra 7 It occupies a very high place. God is conceived as mantra. Mananat Irayat it Mantrah—mantra is so called as it saves one from the bonds of rebirth through contemplation or knowledqe of the universe. The lifeless syllables of a mantra, being uttered in contact with Susumna, acquire infinite powers. Joy, will, creative power and peace are prominent in different mantras. Mantras, constituted by letters from ‘a’ to ksa, are called bija7 (Seed); it ts obtained by a disciple. The letters of the alphabet are Tantra and Mahabharata Some Tantras reveal high regard for the Bhagavadgita. For example, in connexion with Tattva-cakra, it is provided in the Maha­ nirvana (Viii, 214) that the Tattvas(Makaras) should be offered to the Highest Self with the verse brahmarpanam brahmahavir, etc of the Gita (iv.24.) ’’ There are two hymns, considered by some to be spurious to Druga in the Mahabharata one by Yudhisthira in Virataparvan (chap. vi) and the other by Arjuna in Bhismaparvan (chap, xxiii) Durqa figures not only in Purana, but also in Tantra. Thantric elements are present in the hymns. In the Vanaparvan, the names of Durga, among others, are Kali and Mahakali. In the Bhaismaparvan, the following are some of thp names of Durga; Kali, Kapali, Bhadrakali, Mahakali, Candi. These have, however, been excluded in the Poona critical edition of the epic. Some scholars think that the idea of Druga and worship were derived from non-Aryans. This epic contains (Sanf/chap. vii) a description of Asvatthaman’s worship of Siva in which the rites and practices are to a great extent, similar to Vamacara of Tantra. The Mahabharata reveals the influence of the doctrine of Sakti, As advised by Krsna, Arjuan propitiated Durga {Bhismaparvan, 23). for her blessing enabling him to achieve victory in the Kuruksetra war. In Arjuna's hymn to the goodness, Durga is called Sarasvati. The Pandavas invoked her blessing for their successful resi­ dence incognito for one year following the 12 years excite. In this epic, the goddess is varoulsy named as Kumari, Kali, Kapali, Mahakali, Candi, Kantaravasini, etc.The names are typically Tantric. Kumaripua is an essential item in Tantric rites. At first, the goddess was worshiped on the Vindhyas by the forest dwellers as Kumari. Soon after the come to be looked upon as the consort of Siva. In Yudhisthira’s eulogy of the goddess, she is characterised as Mahisasura-nasini, Vindhyacalavasini and found of wine and meat. The goddess's epithet, Vindhyacalavasini, occurs in the Candi too. She is also described as Kali.The goddess is also called Bhadrakali, Candi etc., in the Mahabharata. The following are some of the Tantric elements noticed in the epic: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) By the boon of a Brahmana Kunti’s acquisition of a mantra for bringing gods under control (Vanaparvan). Exchange of male and female conditions between Yaksa Sthunakarna and Sikhandini (Udyoga, 182). The restoration of mamsa-pinda, by Jara, eating flesh and blood, in the house of Brhadratha. (Sabha 18) Mention of fierce Matrkas in the Skandopakhyana of the Vanaparvan{90). Various legends about Uma-Mahasvara. (vi) Mention in the Tirtha section Vanaparvan; of the Saktitirthas. Devika (Kamakhya), Voni, Sakambhari, Dhumavati Kalika-samgama (confluence of rivers Kausiki and Aruna) Snparvata, Manikarnika, etc. The protective mantras of the epic remind one of Santh mantra of Tantra; e.g. Draupadi's expression of the follow ing good wishes to Arjuna; Prayahy-abighnaya...... .....S rith.... laksmih sarasvati ima vaitava panthasya palayantu dhanahjaya Vana, 33. (vii) jn uence o, the Sakti cult is obvious.,, s ^ Z e l e r , ' M hat the Harvams a which is more a Purana than an epic is believed In the eulogy of the goddess in the W aw am sa f59 h r i e ^ h e b t e M iS ° larS “ Tantra and Arthasastra 3 SUpf"em“ " '"to the Tantra became such a powerful force even in pre-Christian to e s that it inliltrated into the mundane science of p o % L s t e S id ™ S ? " J anT pert,aps’ did n0>« • * 'n those limes, but Tantric hi! la S V v r t e Z ^ ° M th c e m B c T In iT L ? ,? " , k j 4 of thls treatlse* there is reference to charms a9" ' 9rlpped ,be mind ° ' PopoT 1 'he M h *sssln, of Kaut%a of » m e nn this Pert0,med in a cem ele,y in 0 , d e r , 0 » « “"> # » love *> lied demon TKautilya refers ke 9° al' elcvarious rites forLt Li yw L ^ ” ” ! 'h'n9S “ (v. 2.59) to - o l f e r e d i r / a T fted demons, royaTfavour' S T S T c S ! ^ * * ' l° W ° f W me" ' Wea,t^ ° b l l J e Charms’ LJSed in such rites, were called u s T r t e m ^ f ’ br idKS m a s ‘ sorne and herbs were n mantras for the benefit of dacoits and adulterers named Manava-vtdya. These were believed to produce also the fol­ lowing effects: automatic opening of the door, inducing sleep in peo­ ple, making oneself invisible, etc. There was provision (iv.3) for the propitiatory worship of fire, river, rats, serpents, @ it was believed that the worship of hills on tc. special occasions could avert the attack of beasts and birds on the cattle. The practices, designed to get rid of epidemic diseases, in­ cluded the milching of cows in a cemetery, burning of a torso made of the powder of rice and some other grains. Tantra and Purana: Many of the Puranas reveal considerable influence of Tantra. The B h agavata appears to have been most deeply influenced. Among other things, this Purana prescribes (xi.3.47,49) the worship of Visnu according to Tantric rules. In xi 11.37, xii 11.2 etc., this Purana refers to Tantric cults of Visnu, Tantric diksa and some Tantric meth­ ods. Again, Pindasodhana, prescribed in this Purana, refers to Bhutasuddhi provided in Tantra. The Tantric mode of worship, full of mantras and kavacas, is similar to the Puranic mode. The difference is that the Tantric worshiper identifies himself with the deity worshiped. But, the follower of the Purna does not do so; he is ever conscious that he is finite with limited capacity whereas God is infinite with unlim­ ited power. The Devibhagavata holds (xi. 1.25) that as much of Tantra as is not opposed to the Veda is authoritative. This work empha­ sises (xi. 1.49) the importance of Guru in the verse gurur-brahma, etc. This Purana states {xi. 16.76) that Nyasa should be a part of Sandhya worship. It also mentions (xi. 16.9B-102) Mudras. The im­ manence of the Goodess is stated in the Devibhagavata, I1I.6 .The Padmapurana (vi. 85-26) and the Matsyapurana (266.29) attach great importance to Nyasa. All this shows the in flu e n c e to Tantra. Tantric mantra, mandata, mudra, nyasa, etc., infiltrated into Puranas. Some puranas betray an attitude of disregard, if not contempt, towards Tantra. For example, the Kurmapurana {1.12.261-263) states that Satras like Bhairava, Yamala, Vama, etc., opposed to Veda and Smrti were produced for deluding (mohaya) people.The Visnudharmottara contains Bijas and Kavacas. Section. I, Chap. 226 names over a hundred Mantras including that of Kali. Verse 237*20 refers to Vaisnava-kavaca. At the end of this chapter, we have Tantric formuP™katotkaia 'Matadomastra purvato raksa/Om hatm hat hat hatm, Om ciltcilt m ilim ilL., etc. I. 165 prescribes the application of Gayatriin the reverse order of the syllables in Abhtcara or black magtc against hostile persons. \ Wl^ Diksa' the A9niP ^ana {chaps. 27, 81*87 304,) sets forth many Tantric mantras and rites, ’ ™ Pura" a ordains (CCCL XXII-34) that the worship of the deihes Visnu and others should be in three ways, Vedic, Tantric and alone ^ ^ ^ lhe and the second f° r Sudras The Brahmanda-purana contains a portion, called Laiitasahasranama which is clearly Tantric. The Kalika-Purana devotes considerable space to the treat­ ment of mantras, mudras, nyasas. etc. ac nr0m( Puran,c quotations in Smrti digests and commentaries as well a s from certain Puranic texts it is clear that the Puranas arp replete with Tantric elements. ™ ra n a s are A passage from the Devi-purana, quoted in Apararka comiT ! 6 Yajnavalky ^ sm^ (Anandasrama ed., p.p 16 18 ) lays down the capacity for performing Tantric rituals as the essential qualification of one for installing images of deities. in D vi™ hatmya (a,so called Durgasaptasati Candi) include f ShP h '? Urana' )S no1hin9 but the glorification of Devi She declares herself as Supreme (Candi, chap. X). * i extolled in th® Puranas, has two aspects in one aL h 'S S,ao 6r ° f d8m0ns and’ in another- compassion­ ate to her devotees. She is a combination of the fierce and the tndPPH ri X osophy r " i th6 Creat° r‘ preserver and destroyer. She is th6 B' ahman ° f the Upanisad and Vedanta Some Tantras are important for the textual reconstruction of Puranic works. The KatyayanHantm gives a chapter w se S i s COnHntS f the inis iantra, the total number of verses is 578, A ccordtg to The Vamana-Purana (46), which is supposed to have been completed between about 900 and 1100 AD, glorifies the holy places where ancient Lingas are established. The twelve Jyotiiiingas are traditionally known to have been established at different places. These are mentioned in the Satarudrasamhita (ch.42). The worship of Sivaiingas has been widespread in India since very early times. In the Kasikhanda (94/36) of the Skanda-Purana (C. 800-1000 AD) thirty-six principal Lingas are referred to.B Tantra and S am rti Partly through Puranas and partly due to the compelling social conditions, Tantra influenced Smrti. Manu, the most authoritative Smrti writer, refers to abhicara and mulakarman rite for bringing oth­ ers under control. He regards these rites as singul. Nevertheless, the prevalence of such Tantric rites at the time of the Manu-smrti is obvious. The work, in its present form, is supposed to have been complied or composed in the period between the 2nd century co BC and 2nd century AD. Raghunandana (16th cent.) was the first Smrti writer of Bengal who recognised Tantric Diksa. It may be noted that, on the testimony of Raghunandana, we can infer that, at his time, the elaborate procedure for Tantric Diksa was much significant.0 Some other Smrti works also, like the Dharmasindhu, rely on Tantras for Diksa. Tantra and Vedanta According to Tantra, Kundatiniis the inner spiritual power dor­ mant within the human body. By Sadhana man can reach the stage when the human is transformed into the divine. Then jiva becomes Siva.The Upanisad prescribes means whereby jivatman (individual soul) is metamorphosed into Paramatman (the Supreme soul).The basic difference in approach is that, according to the Upanisad, the means of reaching the goal is bhavana (contemplation, meditation) whereas, according to Tantra, it must be accompanied by Kriya (ac­ tion). Tantra requires physical effort along with mental or spiritual power. Vedanta accepts the eternal Sivahood of jiva but Tantra holds that Sivahood is attainable by practices of special kinds. Like Upanisads, Tantra believes that creation is but the sport (Itla of the Supreme Being. Like Upanisads, Tantra is non-dualistic.1 0 Tantra and Samkhya Both recognise Purusa and Prakrti. THis tends to prove that Tantra is based on Samkhya philosophy. But, there is wide diver­ gence between the two. Unlike Tantric Siva, the Purusa of Samkhya ts not the Universal Soul; he is not the invisible, infinite, eternal Brahman. According to Samkhya, Purusas are many, and vary with individuals. Though staying with Prakrti he is inactive having no power to create anything. He is the passive onlooker when Prakrti carries on its creative activity. Sakti or Paraprakrti of Tantra is differ­ ent from the Mulaprakrti o\ Samkhya. According to Samkhya, Prakrti, consisting in the three quali­ ties of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas, are the source from which the material world emanates. Due to the proximity of Purusa, creation proceeds in the order of Mahat, etc. At dissolution, all the created objects merge into Prakrti which is eternal. In Tantra both Purusa and Prakrti are stated to emerge from the Supreme Being who is mskala. Prakrti is like creative energy by possessing which Brah­ man is called Sakala; these two are not absolutely distinct entities Creation is not possible without the union of Purusa (Siva) and Prakrti (Sakti). According Samkhya, the existence of God is not established But, Tantric religion is based on theism. Samkhya teaches us that, due to the union of Purusa and Prakrti, creation proceeds But ac­ cording to Tantra, creation is the sport (lila) of Brahman possessed of qualities (saguna), Brahman is not distinct from his Prakrti. So, Prakrti is not jada (unconscious). She is conscious, and by resort­ ing to her.Sag'L/na Brahman or Isvara manifests Himself in the di­ verse objects of the world. The Saradatilaka enumerates 36 tattvas including those of the Samkhya system. Like Samkhya, Tantra regards discriminative knowledge (vtveka} as essential for reaching the goat. Tantra and Yoga We have seen that a part of Tantra deals with Yoga. It appears that Yoga philosophy and Tantra exercised mutual influence. The Gherandasamhita, a work on Hathayoga, mentions (III. 1-3) twentyfive Mudras including the Khecarimudra. The importance, attached in it to Mudras, can be gauged by the fact that it describes them in one hundred verses. The Hathayoga-pradipika elaborately describes (III. 6-23) ten Mudras. The Sivasamhita, another work on Hathayoga, mentions (iv. 15-31) ten Mudras. An important Mudra in Hathayoga is the Khecarimudra described in the Sivasamhita (iv. 31-33,), G h e ra n d a s a m h ita (iii. 25-27} and Hathayoga-pradipika (iii,32-53). It differs from the Khecari described in the Jnanamava, described in the Hathayogapradipika (iii.15-23). The Vajrolimudra, described in the Hathayogapradipika (iii, 82-96), is vulgar. It was believed to pro­ long the life of a Yogin even after unrestrained sexual orgies. The Guhyasamaja (pp. 163-164) sets forth six accessories of Yoga ( Yoganga) omitting Yama, Niyama, Pranayama of the Yoganga and adding Anusm rti9.This Tantra introduced Yogic practices forthe quick acquisition of Buddhahood. An innovation of the Vajrayana Buddhism was the provision for the upasana of Sakti as means to liberation through Yoga. Tantra and Ayurveda These two branches of knowledge exercised influence on each other. Portions of some Tantric works are devoted to Ayurveda. Again, some Ayurvedic works adopted Tantric principles. For example, the Kali-tantra devotes Chapter XI to the causes of diseases. Diseases are divided into four kinds, natural, extraneous, mental and physi­ cal, In another way, diseases are classified as Karmaja (arisisng out of action,) Dosaja (caused by affected humour) and Karmadosaja (arising party from action, partly from faults.) Those which are caused by the natural-physical conditions are called natural diseases; e.g. hunger, thirst, wakefulness, death. Or, that which is self-caused is called natural; e.g. congenital blindness. That which is produced after birth or cause by injury and the like is called extraneous. Pas­ sion, anger, greed, delusion, fear, conceit, jealousy and depression are called mental diseases. Or, insanity, fainting, forgetfulness, re­ nunciation epilepsy, etc., are mental d ise a se s. D ise a se s like ~ ,k8 J undlce are ca,|ed physical. That which is caused as ^ ,s K - ^ S hdS 'n ^ PreVi° U bir1h is cal,ed Karmaja. Or that h S is Karniajajh t c h js not cured by treatment, but by suffer™' and expiation. Wind, bile and phlegm are affected by wrong food and njoyment5. A disease so cased is called Dosaja. That which is caused by action m previous life and affected humour is called Karmadosaja. Diseases have been further divided into three classes cannn? h ^ c u X ^ th S ^ ^ Wh'ch 'S to be endured and that which ™ ease firSt ° ne iS 0f tW0 kindS' tn f ™ 1 9eneral hygienic principles are /aid down. Applying wa* i r l 7 v 0f rCISf ' riibbin9 oil on the so,es of feet, putting orf into ears applicaton of oil on the head-these are stated to be a nT dotes against decay and disease, Decay is stated to be put off bv iTdNP9 ,1SPr 9' baSkin9 nearfire and enjoyment of young women f-1 r a n d a , - S n x n r e rtbath are stated to ° f 3 ta" k' applicati° "thp sandal paste, e exposure to air " ^ Water keep awav decav In <* rainy season, bath m warm water, avoidance of tank-water, moder­ n S Vme keep awaV decay. In autumn, avoidance of'the sun of walk in the sun, bath in a tank and moderate food keep awav decay. In the dewy season, bath in a tank, basking near fire in time cTo?heSW r k neW nCe( k00p aWay deca* ln winter wearing warm b put off d e S 'la T n n woman. d J king o ^ ™ ^ f " a le r When rice' bath in warm e S Z Z t Z S f * A ° efadousa ls re *-* chewi"9 ^ - eases1 ^ f° " 0W'n9 are ,he causes of senife decay and other disdry meat, enjoyment of an old woman, morning sun fresh curd, taken at night, enjoyment of a woman in monthly impurity. At one place, unclear bowels are said to be at the root of all diseases. At another, fever is stated to be the cause of all ailments. Bile phlegm, and wind are stated to be the cause of fever. One Bhavamisra, son of Mtsra Lajakana and a court-scholar of Akbar (16th cent.) is known to have written a book, entitled Tantrikacikitsa, which is stated to have been based on the Rasapradipa and Rasendra-cintamani of Ramacandra Guha1 ' Ayurveda appears to have developed in two lines, Vedic and Tantric. According to some, the latter prevailed in the pre-Aryan times. This method of treatment proceeded along two lines, one applying chemicals, particularly mercury, and the other poison. The former was used to cure diseases and arrest senile decay with mer­ cury, etc. The second way was dealt with in medical treatises known, as Tantra; e.g., Rasarnava-tantra, Rasendrasara-samgraha. resendracintamani, Rasa-hrdava, Rasaratra.eic., Works, called Aupadhenavatantra. Aurabhra-tantra, Nimitantra, Saunaka-tantra, Videha-tantra, etc., also belong to this class. The Tantric physicians, who used mainly chemical drugs, pre­ pared with mercury, sulphur, iron, gold, silver, etc., came to be known as Rasa-vaidyas\ drugs, prepared with mercury, were particu­ larly popular. P.C.Ray, in the H is t o r y o f Hindu Chemistry, Points out the deep debt of Indian chemical Science to Tantra. Nagarjuna's Rasaratnakara is the most celebrated work on al­ chemy. Other noteworthy works on alchemy and medicinal chemistry are Rasamava; Ffasaratnasamuccaya, Fiasarajalaksmi, Samgadharasamgraha, etc. Many treaties on alchemy and medicinal chemistry are re­ ferred to in Sanskrit chemical and medical literatures.These appear to be lost. Quite a number of such works are preserved in the Tibetan Tanjurand Kanjur. Tantra and Vaisnavism According to the Vaisnavas, Krsna and Radha are the two Supreme Realities, rather two manifestations of one Supreme Re- Sakti of> Tantra'ieV0 ^ ^ * ° are ° n,y another form of Siva’ W ? ahcaratra works of Vaisnavas show a close relation with Sakta Tantra in some respects. In Tantra, Adya Sakti is designated ® S°a kr. e (Y° n,l of everything. So, in the Ahirbudhnya-samhita q UC nates (51 54 2 ^ T ' ^ Ta" tra' th'S WOrk desi9‘ S d s ?o m i t h i i t 35 Tarl aSr 1133 Hrim■Like Tantra a9ai" ' ^ sides in M ulLhara “ ^ En6rgy **■ ^ n r ilh <e ° f Visnu and his Sakti' Laksmi and of their Benaal Vak Brf^ - s a m h ita , a highly authoritative work in Bengal Vaisnavism, is Tantric in character. Rupa Gosvamin the faRadU h\Tth°JtaR Hh0160^ B8n9al’ Sa/S W jfa b n ta m a n t-section on Jiva r l ^ 'S essence of M ahasaktiextolled in Tantra anrt k T mn' a famous’ f,9ure the Bengal school of Vaisnavism and Krsnadasa, a well-known biographer of Caitanya, have quoted a memaa on'the S aI r° m rv Tantra ” In his com­ mentary on the Brahmasaamhna, Jiva cites a verse on Radha from A d v T p r T r t i^ ; Z * tn’0S l° GStab,lsh Radha RadhaAdya Prakrti Sakti T these terms are used in Tantra. The as Mute fant? ’ CLJrrer,t ,n Bengal, may not be authentic. Nevertheless the ^ n t r a on' their cult to attract popular support. T tFa W3S S° P° PUlar that Vaisnavas had to write Tantras ^ T The Bhagavata-purana acknowledges (e.g., xi, 3 417 - 5 pg tion, etc. Sndharasvamin, in his comment on a Bhagavata passaae refers to Tantric authority on both bhukti and M ukti o•a,T m,te “ fTn a rs -a S The authoritative Vaisnava treatises of Bengal, by Rupa Jiva and other theorists, are replete with quotations from T a n ia s* T ^ r lt^ ^ h 3’ 'n h tHan-bhak!l'-v^ s a , makes extensive use of JS Tantras. This work also contains some Tantric formulas and rites. How deeply Tantra influenced the Vaisnavas is proved inter n t m an T ripti° n (423‘424 A' ° ) fou"d at Gangdhar in Malwa One Mayuraksa, whose Vaisnavite creed is attested by the inscrip­ tion (bhagavatah sriman mayuraksakah), on the temple, erected by him in honour of Visnu ( Visnoh sthanam), mentions, in the inscrip­ tion, Tantra (tantrodbhuta...) and Dakini(dakinisamprakirnam), famil­ iar in Tantra. The Laksmitantra, as pointed out on the discussion of this work, though a Pancaratra text, speaks of Vamacara which is Tantric. Tantric influence on Vaisnavism was not a one-way traffic, Vais­ navism also exercised considerable influence on Tantra. In the Isanasamhila, regarded as a part of the Kuiarnava, attempt has been made to establish the divinity of Caitanya. In the Gdhavatara por­ tion, regarded as a part of the Visvasara Tantra or Visvasaroddhara, there is a description of Visnu incarnated as Caitanya. In the list of Avataras, contained in the Urdhvamnaya-samhita, the Buddha is replaced by Caitanya, Portions of the Brahm ayam ala and Krsnayamala are styled as Caitanya-kalpa. An evidence of Vaisnava influence on Tantra is that Radha has been appropriated in such late Vaisnava Tantra as the Naradapancaratra. In the Ujjvala-nilamani. Rupa says that Radha has been established in Tantra (tantre-pratishita as the Hiadini Sakti of Krsna. Tantra and Saivism The Mahabharata (Santi, Chapter VII) contains a description of the worship of Siva, by Asvatthaman. It resembles, to a great extent, the Vamacara of Tantra. Tantras of Kashmir are predominatly Saivite. From various works we come to learn that Tanticism crept into the practices of some subsects of the Saivas. For example, the Kapalikas adopted part of the Panca-makara worship1 , their practices sometimes 6 resembling those of Viracara and Vamacara of Trantra.'7 TheAghorins or Aghorapanthins, members of a Saiva subsect, are reported to resort to certain practices even more detestable than the worst of the Tantric practices. They are stated to feed on animal excretion, corpses collected from funeral grounds, and insects rolling in a dead man's skull.1 8 Scriptures of Kashmir Saivism came to be regarded as authoritative works on Tantra. Some authoritative writers on Kash- mir Saivism, reputed in Tantric tradition are Vasugupta, Somananda Aoninavagupta, Ksemaraja, etc. The salient features of Kashmir Saivism will reveal affinitv wrth Trantnc ideas. It does not recognise the authority of the Vedas, and caste system is not observed. k ™ e u!|imate reality is Siva. The manifestation of the universe s effected through Siva’s Sakti who is not different from Him. Sakti the female principle, is inseparable from Siva as heat from fire. The ultimate goal of life is identity with Siva; this identity is liberation which means return to the original state, to the Absolute. i» » r®alisation is possible through meditation; no importance is attached to worship, rites and rituals and external; discipline By meditation he devotee has pratyabhijna, (recognition of his self as identical with the Absolute). It is explained by Madhavacarya in his Sarvadarsana-samgraha <p.90). As Abhinavagupta says, as soon as dualistic ideas are removed, jiva merges into Brahman or Siva as water or milk or milk into milk. Some of the practices of the Saiva sect, called pasupata appear to be tinged with Tantrism. The Atharvasiras t/pan/satf men­ tions Pasupata Vrata. An essential element of it consists in the ceremonial application of ashes in the different limbs of the devotee in the manner of Tantnc Nyasa. The Pasupata—sutra <1.21 ff.) speaks of miraculous powers like visualising from a distance, omniscience, etc., by supramental knowledge. ’ This sounds like the acquisition of Siddhis by Tantric rites. bonda?e^rl°°kU O O ’'';J/ra-aS'^"an w> |y P nG daSR d , l1d D, „ ln,t)ls commentary on the Brhatsamhita {e.d. Dvivedi, Lix 29) Bhatta utpala states that the scripture of the Pasupatas is called Vatulatantra, This is actually the name of a Siva Agama. Saivism had another stronghold in the South. The scripture of the school was called Saivasiddhanta. According to it, Prakrti, the material cause of the universe, in unconscious. As a potter, the efficient cause, requires clay as the material cause and the wheel as the instrumental cause, so also Siva, the efficient cause, requires Prakrti or Sakti as the material cause and Maya as the instrumental cause. The Saivasiddhanta had a Tantric offshoot, known as Agamanta Saiviam which flourished from about the 11th century. The followers of this school do not recognise Vedic authority nor do they believe in the caste-system and Brahmanical tradition. The recognise the value of guidance by a preceptor. Also recongised was diksa of which three kinds were distinguished, viz., Samaya {worship of preceptor and fire dedicated to Siva), Visesa (observing rites and yoga, Nirvana (way of knowledge). The followers of this school believe in Tantric rituals and cer­ emonies. Besides mantras, they recognise the different methods for achieving the eight Stddhis. Identification with Siva is regarded as the ultimate goal. A sect of Saivism, called Viras’avism, flourished in the Karnata­ ka region about the 12th century A.D. The object of the founder was to drive away the Jains from the regions as to establish an ideal society. They are indifferent to Veda, and averse to caste-system. Men and women are placed on an equal footing. Siva is both the efficient and material cause of the universe. Creation is the result of Siva’s Vimars'a-sakti (consciousness). Through his Sakti he is the material cause and, in his own nature, he is the efficient cause.There is identity between Sakti and Saktimnt as between attribute and substance. The emphasis on Sakti brings it close to Sakta-Tantric con­ cept, and so it is called Sakti-visistadvaitavads. The Female Principle, Sakti, dominates in later Saivism. We are not certain about the date of origin of the Pasupata sect. SivaBhagavatas are, however, referred to by Patanjali (c.2nd cent B.C.) in his Mahabhasya (T.2.76).This seems to be the first clear refer­ ence to a Saiva sect. Tantra and the Ganapatyas There was hardly any cult that was not influenced by Tantra. The simple reason is that Tantra was so popular that no creed or faith, aiming at popular support, could do without it. Whatever the origin of Ganesa was, he became a very popular deity under various designations like Vinayaka, Heramba, etc., His popularity was India-wide. He has travelled even beyond India, e.g., Java. He came to be looked upon as the giver of success (Siddhidata), remover ot obstacles (Vighnaraja), etc. In several sculptures, Ganesa is represented as associated with Matrkas. Some images show him in sexual union with His Sakti. There were several sub-sects of the Ganapatyas. According to the Mahaganapati-worshippers, Ganesa, in perpetual union with His Sakti, is the creator of the world and the highest reality. The worshipers of Ucchista Ganapati betray greater influence of Tantrism. The deity is represented as having Sakti in his lap, embracing and kissing her while he drinks wine with his trunk. The adherents of this cult indulged in free sexual intercourse among men and women. Drinking, non-observance of the caste-system and sacraments like marriage we're some of the features of their sect. Thus, Tantric characteristics are obvious. Tantra and Pancopasana The worship of the deities Visnu, Siva, Sakti, Ganapati and Surya is collectively called Pancopasana. The rise of this system was, perhaps, due to an attempt to counteract the anti-Brahmanical forces. These sects, themselves originally anti-Brahmanical, gradu­ ally came under the influence of Brahmanas. These sects agreed to worship their respective deities as Supreme without disregarding the deities of one another. In course of time, Pancopasana received a great impetus from the Brahmanical Sastras. Even Brahmanical Tantra recognised it. For example, the Tantrasara of Krsnananda approved pancopasana subject to the reservation that Sakti should be the central deity with other deities as peripheral. This form of worship was very popular among the masses, and, as such, Tantric elements found a fertile field for propagation. Tantra, Buddhism and Jainism Hindu Tantra is opposed to the fundamental principle of Bud­ dhism that non-violence is the highest religion. It thinks that it is not possible to live without some sort of violence. When we gather fruits, we commit violence to the tree. When we drink milk, we deprive the calf of it. Hindu and BuddhistTantras reveal both similarities and differ* ences.’9 Gods of the Hindu panthon are not generally recognised in Buddhism; some Hindu deities like Ganesa and Sarasvati are how­ ever, recognised. Corresponding to Siva and Devi (Sakti), the Bud­ dhists have Upaya and Prajha. The Buddhists postulate sunyata (nihilism) not recognised by the Hindus. As regards the goal and the means to its attainment, both have remarkable similarity. The im* portance of guru, mantra, mandala, etc., is recognised in both. Though Buddhist Tantra does not emphasis the cult of Mother Goddess like Hindu Tantra, yet it recognises Her. It is, perhaps, because the popularity of this cult was too much to be ignored. The cult of Sakti and Tantrism of the Hindus is much older than the earliest extant Tantric works of the Buddhists. It is believed by some scholars that the description of Tara in such works as the Tararahasya of Brahmananda and Tantrasara of Krsnananda is of Buddhistic orgin.*0 Some think that Nagarjuan the reputed Buddhist scholar of the seventh century, introduced the worship of Mahacinatara in India. It is believed that the mantra Om Hrim Srim Hum Phat was borrowed by the Hindus from the Buddhists. Hindu deities, represented as embracing these Saktis and names of Hindu deities ending in or beginning with "Vajra" betary Buddhistic influence. Chinnamasta and Kali, etc., are believed by some to be of Buddhistic origin. The six Yogangas (accessories of yoga), propounded in Bud­ dhist Tantras, appear almost in the same names in the Gitabhasya (iv 28) of Bhaskaracarya, commentator on the Brahmasutra-bhasya. Thus, the mutual influence of Hindu and Buddhist Tantras is obvious. But, it is not correct to say, as some do, that Hindu Tantra was modelled on Buddhist Tantra, As stated above, none of the Chinese travellers refers to the study of Buddhist Tantra in India. Excepting perhaps the Guhyasamaja-tantra and the Manjusrimulakalpa, there is hardly any Buddhist Tantra dating back to a period anterior to 650 A.D. whereas there is evidence of the prevalence of Tantric practices in India long before 600 A.D. The Rudrayamaia (17.119-25} states that the Buddha taught Vasistha the Kaula way of Tantra. This is pointed out by some as an evidence of Hindu Tantra having been derived from the Buddhists. This is described by P.V.Kane as a fabrication. According to B.Bhattacharya,2 the Buddha himself preached 1 some Trantric practices among the common people. In the Brahmajatasutta, monks appear to carry vessels of skulls or garlands of skulls. There is however, no positive evidence of the Buddha having him­ self preached Tantra. In fact, Buddhist Tantra appears to haveorigirlated after the demise of the Master. Some miraculous powers, e.g., transforming a dragon into an insect, sending fire to mendicants, affected with cold, the fording of rivers, etc., are attributed to the Buddha in some works; e g. Mahapadna-sutta, Patika-Sutta. It is, however, learnt from some Buddhist sources (e.g. Brahmajala-sutta, Digha-mkava, XXIV) that the Master condemned such practices as well as the false declara­ tion about the possession of such powers ( Vinaya Pitaka, Digha Nikaya, 1).These powers, recalling the Siddhioi Tantra, were, per­ haps, fabricated by later writers to boost up the glory of the Buddha, Tantric influence on Buddhism is borne out by some other liter* ary evidences too, unless we suppose all these to he later concoc­ tions. In the Majjhima Nikaya (ed. R. L. Mitra, p. 315), the Buddha is stated, in his early life, to have stayed in a cemetery using bones as his pillow. This may be supposed to have been written by someone to glorify the Master as one who braved the hazards, associated with the cemetery with its ghosts and evil spirits, in order to ascertain the truth. Or, it might be true of prince Siddhartha, before the attain* ment of Buddhahood, when he ran hither and tither in quest of truth, and indulged in various practices. In the Digha Nikaya, the Buddha is stated to have recom­ mended the indulgence of the pleasures of all the five senses as a prereqisite for the attainment of Nirvana. The Majjhima Nikaya (1.79) states the views of some Sramanas that sexual enjoyment with young female ascetics is a means to salvation. The Kathavatthu (Majjhima, PTS, I, P. 305) mentions sexual union as a way to salvation. These things are absolutely incompatible with the principles of Buddhism which enjoins moderation, the avoidance of extremes and cessation of desires as the sine qua non for attaining the goal. So, we may assume that these injunctions were fabrications pure and simple or the handiwork of a sect which comprised converts from the Hindu fold, initiated to Tantric practices. The same inference holds good in the case of the use of skulls as begging bowls by Buddhist monks (Cutlavagga, XXII11-2). The belief in the power of mantras in removing the fear of snake-bite (Cutla-vagga V. 10.2), wording off calamities and effect­ ing prosperity, and the mention of Sramanas earning a living by teaching spells for the preservation of the body, curing sterility, caus­ ing adversity to enemies, etc., clearly bear the impress of Tantra. The provisions for the preservation of the body and disciplin­ ing the mind, found in Buddhism, remind one of similar Tantric rules. Jainsim was also influenced by Tantra. For instance, the con­ cept of Mudra was accepted by the Jains. In fact, they attached great importance to it, as is proved by the fact that they wrote ten works on the subject, called Mudra-vicara andMudra-vidhL The Jaina rules for physical and psychological discipline re­ mind us of similar provisions in Tantra. Tantra and Sufism Wherever Sufism originate and flourished— in Arabia or Per­ sia— and whatever the time of its genesis, the fact remains that it made its way into India in very early times. Like Islam, Sufism established its stronghold in Sind. It had a great appeal to the masses, the lower echelons of the society, over whom the elitist or orthodox scriptures had little hold. By the 14th century, Sufism was closely woven into the fabric of Indian society. The salient features of Sufism are briefly as follows: there is no God outside human mind, scriptural injunctions are not essential for realisation of the highest truth, there is the easy (Sahaja} way of realising it; the human body is the microcosm of the universe. The means of understanding the relation of God with the individual and with the material world consists in tarigat (way) and marifat (knowl­ edge). The way has seven stages, viz., service, love, sacrifice, meditation, concentration, union and equation. Knowledge, helping God-realisation, is twofold, viz., iim (gath­ ered from experience, through perception, inference, etc.) and marifat (obtained through divine grace). The latter was regarded as superior to the former. Like theTantrics, the Sufis believe in Guru (Pir or Mursid). Thus, even to a superficial reader, the close similarity between Tantrism and Sufism will be obvious. Among the leading M uslim s, who follow ed Tantric rahasyasadhana (mystic devotion) were Gazi-Mian who, a contem­ porary of Sultan Mahmud (1 Oth-11th cent.), founded a sect. Some of the famous Sufi saints were as follows: Shah Karim of Sind (T7th cent). His preceptor was a Vaisnava, and his followers used the symbol Om of the Hindus. ’ Gind produced another saint Shah Inayat. A very popular saint was Shah Latif. Sufism was so popular that, in sind region, Hindus had Muslim preceptors and vice versa. The Jaina Matrkas, Vidyadevis, Yoginis, etc., recall the Mother Goddess cult of Tantra. Some jaina texts mention Tantric practices prevailing in some contemporary sects. In the manner of Tantra. Jainism aiso refers to magical rites like Satkarma, the potency of mantras, etc. The same reason, which was responsible for the association of miracles with the Buddha, was also, perhaps, responsible for similar things in connexion with Mahavira. The extreme rigidity and rigours of jainism made it less vulnera­ ble than Buddhism to the infiltration ofTantrism. Tantra, Music and Dance2 2 Tantra exercised influence on such a fine art as music. For example, the Sam gita-ratnakaraof Sarngadeva mentions (Chap. I. 2. 120 if) Cakra, Nadis, etc., within the human body. The idea of Nada, found in Sanskrit works (e.g. Samgitaratnakara, !,2, Iff, 163 ff) on music, has a colse parallel to that occurring inTantra.The idea of Vayu (e.g. Samgitaratnakara, 1.2.59 ff.) within the body, which is supposed in musicology to produce Nada in conjunction with fire, is also similar to that found in Tantra. Like Tantra, musicologists believe (e.g. Samgita-ratnakara, 1.2.149) that Kundalini or Brahma-sakti, coiling like a serpent, re­ sides in Adhara-cakra or Muiadhara, and that its gradual ascent through other Cakras up to sahasrara in the head is the highest fulfilment of Sadhana. It is believed (e.g. Samgita-ratnakara, 1.2.140 ff) that the soul, residing in certain petals of Anahata Cakra, desires success in song, etc. When resorting to certain petals of Visuddhi-cakra, it gives suc­ cess. Resort to some petals in Lalana also ensures success. Re­ sort to certain petals is stated to spoil music. The soul, resting in Brahmarandhra, becomes satisfied with nectar, and produces songs of a high order. Like Tantra again, the science of music recognises (e.g. Samgita-ratnakara, 1 .2..) several sheaths (Kosa) within the body, e.g., Annamaya, Manomaya. The Mudras (positions of the hands and fingers) are interest­ ing as they indicate various moods, sentiments, etc. These, per­ haps, originated in the Vedic period. In Vedic rituals, different handposes were used by the singer of Samans. Tantra prescribes vari­ ous Mudras, e.g. samkha (like a conch-shell), Mastsya (like a fish). In dance, many Mudras are prescribed by theorists of whom Bharata, author of the Natyasastra, is the earliest. It is difficult to say whether the Natyasastra was indebted to Tantra or the latter to the former. The date of Bharata is controversial. He is generally believed to have flourished earlier than the fourth or fifth century A.D. As we shall see, though Tantric ideas may have originated earlier, the com­ position of treatises on Tantra appears to have started about the fifth or sixth century A.D. Siva and Sakti are the pivots round which Tantric philosophy revolves. In fact, Hindu Tantras are generally represented as dia­ logues between Siva and Parvati. In works on music, Siva is gener­ ally venerated. Sarngadeva commences the Samgita-ratnakara with salutation to Siva who is considered as an embodiment of Nada. Siva is supposed to please the ears of the wise through the mind following the Vayu produced from Brahmagranthiwhere the Tantric Nadis, Ida and Pingaia are joined with Susumna. He is believed to reside in their heart. From Siva emanate Grama, Varna, Alamkara and Jati. Ragas and Raginis, the very basis of vocal music, are associ­ ated with Siva and Parvati. According to one tradition, one Raga emanated from each of the five mouths of Siva and one Raga from the mouth of Parvati. Raginis are supposed to be consorts of Ragas. Certain Tantras reveal close familiarity with vocal and instru­ mental music. For instance, in the Uddisa-mahamantrodaya, six­ teen musical instruments are referred to. The Vinatantra (No. 19) belonging to Yamalatantra, briefly traverses the entire field of music. The Yamalatantra describes twelve kinds of vina; of the thirty*two Yamalatantras, several deal with Gandharva, i.e., the art of music. The Kundisvara-tantra (Yamala, No. 18) and Trotala-tantra (Yamala, No. 28) deal with instrumental music. Tantra, Art and Architecture The relation of Tantras to music and dance has been discussed separately. Here we shall see what impact it made on sculpture*3, painting and architecture. Like good poetry Tantric art is simple, sensuous and impas­ sioned. The sculpture and painting, inspired by Tantra, may be said to be poems in stone, paper, etc. Tantra deeply influenced sculpture. In the sculptural delinea­ tion of Khajuraho (850-1050 AD), Konarak (13th cent.) Ellora (8th cent.} and at other places, Tantric influence is marked. Nudity, vari­ ous modes of coition, different ways of union of men and women are represented. Such Tantric influence is also noticeable in the Hoysalesvara temple (12 cent.) of Mysore, the temple-walls of Mid­ dle and West India, in this connexion, mention must be made of the depiction of sex-act at Sanchi, Amaravati and mathura. In the Lingaraja temple (11th cent.) of Bhuvanesvara, a couple is repre­ sented as naked and in an erotic posture. There are Tantric images at various places.2 4 Erotic influence, perhaps derived from Tantra, is noticeable in some terracotta figures also. In some seals, this is manifest. The RuparSeal (3rd cent. B.C.) shows the idea of copulation. A terracotta couple, found at Chandraketugarh (2nd cent A.D.), resembles the aforesaid figure in the Lingaraja temple. A Tamluk terracotta shows a couple in a state of sitting coital union. An interesting figure in painted terracotta (Tibet, 18th cent.) is that of Mahakala with a flay­ ing knife in his headdress and a skull-cup of blood in his hand. Various postures of copulation are represented in certain sculp­ tures in caves and temples of various places, e.g., Karla, Kondanl, Badami (old Vatapi), Pattadakal, etc. A pillar sculpture from South India (17th cent.) represents a devotee adoring the vulva of the great Goddess. Mithunas, regarded as an auspicious motif, are represented on some doors and at the entrance of monuments. Even gods have not been spared in the representation of erotic motifs. For example, a celestial couple in sexual intercourse has been represented in a wooden bracket panel from a temple car (South India, 18th cent.). In a temple of Khajuraho (C. 1000 A.D.), the erotic pleasures of heaven are depicted. It is rather puzzling to think why such erotic motifs should be represented in temples and other holy places. Tantra provides pancamakaras as indispensable for sadhana. One such makara, and an important one, is maithuna. This may have suggested the representation of such figures. There are other suggestions too. Some think that the extreme sexuality of the rich people, who constructed the temples, was at the root of these erotic sculptures. Others think that erotic representations were intended to at­ tract the common people to temples. A superstitious idea prompted the representation of such sculp­ tures, according to some. As nobody disturbs a couple in sexual union, so Gods would not destroy or damage the temples, contain­ ing representations of copulation, with thunder, earthquake, etc. Some think that these were designed to test the mental strength of those who were about to enter spiritual life. Another ingenious suggestion is that the depiction of sexual union would ensure fertility of land. As such union results in child­ birth. so the sculptural representation ensures the growth of crops. A noteworthy feature in sculpture is the representation of Mudras, perhaps under the influence of Tantra. Bhumi-sparsamudra, Dharmacakra-mudra, Varada-mudra and Abhaya-mudra are associ­ ated with the Buddha25, It is interesting to note that the representa­ tion of Bbumisparsa-mudra is found in such remote places outside India as Ceylon. Abhayamudra is found in the sculptures of Swat and Java. Tantric influence is probable in som e im ages, e.g. Ardhanarisvara representing Siva and Uma who are supposed to stand for Purusa and Prakriti or Unga and Yoni. It should be noted that some of the sculptures, inspired by Tantra (see Tantrayana Art) are absolutely free from eroticism. For example, mention may be made of the images of Tara in various form s, e.g. Arya Tara of Nalanda (C. 7th cent.), AstamahabhayaTara of Ratnagiri (C. 9th cent), Vajrasattva of Nalanda (C. 10th cent.), Heruka of Sarnath (C. 10th cent.), Mahamayuri of Ellora (Cave No. VII, C. 7th cent.), Vajrayogint of Bihar (C. 11th cent.), Pamasavari of Vajrayogini (Dacca, C, 10th cent.), to name only a few. Besides stone sculptures and terracotta figures, there are some figures in bronze (e.g. a Buddhist male destroyer of death, united with his female Wisdom-Tibet, 18th century), wood (e.g. South In­ dian Icon of the Divine Vulva stained with the coloured powders used to worship it; South Indian wooden bracket panel from a tem­ ple showing a celestial couple in sexual intercourse), Vogini with serpentine energy emerging from her vulva (South India, C. 1800 A.D.), worsipped as an emblem of the vulva of the Goddess, (South India, 19th century). In the domain of painting of various kinds also, Tantric influ­ ence is obvious in certain oases2 . Some manuscripts contain Tantric 6 paintings.There are also many paintings on paper, drawn in ink and various colours. Some are paintings on cloth. The art. influenced by Tantra, seems to have got an impetus from the thoughts on aesthetics which was highly developed by the Kashmirian Abhinavagupta {C. 1000 A.D.). In connexion with the Arya Manjusrimulakalpa, we have stated that it contains a portion on Patavidhana or picturedrawing. It may be noted that the Bengali artists, commonly called Patuyas, of whom those of Kalighat in Calcutta are very well-known, still follow the tradition of art adumbrated in the above work. The pervasive influence of Tantra included architecture also within its ambit. In this respect, Orissa deserves special mention. This province shows remarkable originality in temple-architecture of which the two major types are Rekha and Bhadra, The former is conceived as male and the latter as female. These two, joined to­ gether, are fancied as bridegroom and the bride whose garments are tied to each other27. The entire plan of a temple is Tantric in character. The sanctum sanctorum is called garbha (womb) where the main idol is placed. A sort of corridor, through which one has to enter, connects the porch with the gatbha. Many temples were built in honour of Yellamma2 , a local form 8 of Adi Sakti, all over North Karnataka and bordering regions of Maharastra, the most famous being the one at Soundatti, mentioned among the Saktisthanas in Devibhagavata? {6th cent., according to 9 some, 12th-13th cent, or earlier). From the many temples in honour of the Divine Mother, we can infer the wide prevalence and popular­ ity of Mother-worship since the 10th century A.D. Some West Asian shrines reveai sex-design.They are divided into three parts—the porch representing the lower and of the female organ leading up to the hymen, the hall corresponding to the organ itself and inner sanctum symbolising the uterus3 . 0 The Tantric conception appears to have inspired at least one temple in West Bengal. That is the Hamsesvari temple (completed 1814 A.D.) at Bansberia in Hooghly district of west bengal about fifty kilometers from Calcutta on the other side of the Ganges. The plan of this unique temple was chalked out by its builder31, Raja Nrsimha Devaraya, who was a Tantric devotee. The interior of the temple is like the six Cakras through which Kundalini, represented by goddess Hamsesvari, goes upward. Be­ sides the three well-known Tantric nerves, Ida, Pingala, Susumna, two more, viz. Vajraksa and Cithniare indicated within the temple by ladders. The aforesaid goddess is seated on a lotus which rests on a stem emerging from the navel of Siva lying on a Trikonayantra. The goddess has a human head in her lower left-hand and Abhayamudra in her upper right-hand, while, in her other hands, there are a sword and a conch. The very name of Hamsesvari is Tantric. Ham is a Bija, and Sa stands for Sakti. The two are locked (kilaka) together; the lock- jng is believed to lead to the highest realisation. In conclusion, it may be stated that, as D. Desai points out3 2, Tantric representations in art and architecture appear t have been inspired by a twofold motive. One was religious, as in the case of tefnples, The other, a secular one, was either to give a visual ex­ pression to the passionate feelings ol the artist or the sculptor or to gratify the lustful propensities of the sensual people. Examples of the latter are furnished by terracottas with sex-motif from Mathura, Candraketugarh and those unearthed in excavated historical sites. While Tantra may have provided the erotico-religious art and architecture, the Kamasutra, perhaps, played a significant role in inspiring the secular erotic designs to cater to the needs of the hedonistic or epicurean aristocrats or Nagaraka type of men. The increasing influences of Kamasutra was, perhaps, due to the rise and firm establishment of feudalism. Before the complacent labeling of all erotic art motifs as Tantric. we should bear in mind that esoterism is a marked characteristic of Tantric practices so that real Tantric devotees would not like to display ritualistic sex acts at pub­ lic places. Moreover, erotic representations though they are, they are not functionally related to Tantric Sadhana or worship. In this connexion, it may be noted that none of the Sakta pithas, the strong­ holds of Tantric rates and practices, has any erotic depiction what­ soever. Viewed historically, the sex-designs in art reveal different char­ acteristics in different ages. Of the extant specimens, the earliest ones date back to C second century B.C. During a few centuries since then, we see nude goddesses and females, goddesses associated with couples engaging in sexual union and making various toveposes, e.g. em­ bracing, kissing, etc. In the period between 400 and 900 A.D. secu­ lar crotic motifs appear to have been on the increase and Tantric influence gained ground. We learn from inscriptions of the fifth cen­ tury onwards about patronage extended by feudal chiefs and digni­ taries to Tantric devotees. The period, following 900 A.D. saw a spurt or explosion of erotic influence on art. During this period coarseness and vulgarity like orgiastic depic­ tions crept considerably into the realm of art. Below we give a list of some noteworthy objects of art depict­ ing erotic motifs. Linear Representation Daimad pot (Ahmadnagar district of Maharastra) — Chalcolithic period, phase III Indian Archaeology, A Review, 1958-59, Fig. 7 Caves Kupgaliu cave (Mysore) D.H. Gordon, The Prehistoric Background o f Indian Culture, p. 115. Buddhist caves of Kondana and Pitalkhora in West Deccan— depict mithuna—C. 2nd-1st cent. B.C. M.N. deshpande in Ancient India, XV, pp 69ft, 81ff. Eilora, Ajanta, Aurangabad, Terracottas and other objects found at Bhita, Jhusi, Kausambi in UP, Ter and Nevasa in Maharastra. Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh. Some terracottas of Kausambi and Bhita date from 2nd-1 st cent. B.C. Plaque from Awra— Mandasore district of Madhya Pradesh (C. 100 B.C. -300 A.D.)— Goddess Sri with couples, on both sides, en­ gaged in sexual intercourse, and pitchers. Some terracottas from Candraketugarh and Tamluk dating back to a period from C. 2nd cent. B.C. probably representing wine-pots, in front. M. Candra in Builetion of Prince o f wales Museum, Bombay, No. 9, p-25, fig-17 Stone: Monuments of Sanchi and Bharhut-mithunas associated with Sridevi. 2nd cent, B.C. The art of Mathura and Nagarjonikonda reveals a variety of Maithuna Motifs. TEMPLES Aihole, Badami, Mahakutes’vara, Pattadakal— depict poses of love-making. Puri, Konarak Many temples of Madhya different kinds of erotic scenes. Pradesh (in Jabbalpur, Gwatiior, Malwa regions) Rajasthan Gujarat, Maharastra, Mysore— Images ^3 Among the images, owing their conception to Tantra, the most well-known is that of Daksina Kali. The form of Kali-image, which is most popular among the Tantric worshippers, is this. Siva lies on His back with His male organ erect, and the goddess is seated on Him with that organ inserted into her organ in a woman-superior position. The offer of the severed head of the worshipper before the goddess is a feature common in the Pallava (C. 4th Cent. A.D. to end of 9th cent.) and Cola (c. 100 A.D. 3rd quarter of 11th century A.D.) periods of South India. Some other noteworthy images are those of Ekanamsa, the Matrkas, Dantura, Camunda, Varahi, Vagisvari, Mahamaya or Tripurabhairavi, Candi, Sarvani, theYogints. The Jains and Buddhista also have Tantric icons. Among the Jains, the most popular are the images of Yaksints, viz., Jvalamalini, Padmavati and Ambika. Images, inspired by Tantric Buddhism, are far larger in number. Among the images of males, w ell-know n are those of Ratnasam bhava, Am oghasiddhi, Vajradhara, Vajrasattva, Avalokitesvara, Samkhanatha, Lokesvara, Vagisvara, Hevajra, Yamanta orYamari, crowned with a string of human heads, Jambhala. T raiiokyavijaya, Manjusri, Among the females, the following are well-known: Kurukulla, having a garland of human skulls in one form, Paranasabari, TaranaParamita' CUnd3' The m° St popu,ar o i the fema)e deities is ft t m0n9 the Prajna"3 yUQa 90ds and 90ddGSS- verV popular is Heruka ha p0sltl0n>with his consort Nairatma (Sakti or , . ' n ° ne ima9e- He is represented as dancing on a corpse and having a garland of human heads, Tantra and A lphabet Shamasastri is of the opinion that the Devanagari alphabet u 3 n a i ° m th! I,ne‘ drawings or yantras of Tantra. The script schpt t h e S r T f CtS’ 'I38,686'1US6d in someTanlra- m Asokan Com m pntln K a t f ’^ ^ konod^ a v a ). In the Setubandha Commentary by Bhaskararaya, it is stated that sam pradayikas write E rn a triangular form. w > ^ ytKas Tantra and in scrip tio n s" fart i h U * Tantra W3S 8Xtreme,y popu,ar is Proved, inter alia, by the h )nscnpt,ons-which were meant for the public, Tantric ements have been included. For example, the Gangadhar Stone Inscription of Visvavarman of 480 a nd T a ^ra .^ ^ M 2 4 A‘D-) referS 10 Matrs < Mother goddesses) Sabda and Dhvani Tantra has made speculations about sound. It is of two kinds ihP ? h er.n p r T k In P1 ° f SOund’ As a matter o i fact, however, there Lnd Sabda is its ,n ■*W0 kindS ° f S0Und; dhvani ls the real thing f and manifestation. It is stated that the world of movable and immovable thinqs is linked up and pervaded by the Sakti in the form of dhvani. This Sakti is variously called by such names as Nada, Prana, Jivaghosa etc ^ (S iL l Vama' DhvanHs sound not conveyed by lettes of W,ma mean^ u c h letters representing d^- ^ lhatdl"erence0loelh 1 nis e This Sabda-sakti is identified with Kuiakundalini making indis­ tinct sound at the Muladhara. It is stated that a great Mantra repeats itself when inspiration and expiration through the circular movement of the vital air of jiva revolves round the wheel of Dhvani. Such a Mantra is called Ajapa. The consciousness in the Jiva is nothing but the eternally existing Sakti of Dhvani in the child in the womb. The vital Sakti of Jiva is only Dhvani in the form of Ajapa Mantra. Several stages of words have been conceived.The extremely subtle state is called para: it issues from the Muladhara. The less subtle state is called Pasyanti; in this state it reaches the heart. The still less subtle state is known as Madhyama\ it exists in conjunc­ tion with Buddhi. The gross state is called Vaikhari issuing from the throat. Value o f T antra— rise o f Sahajiya cu lt Tantra prescribed easier rites and rituals by reducing the rigour of Brahmanical practices. As states above, it gave greater freedom of religious performances to women and Sudras. The rigidity of the caste-system was relaxed, Tantra made a tremendous appeal to the mass. The reasons are as follows. It assured m uktithrough bhuktior enjoyment and not renunciation. It prescribed many practices designed to secure ma­ terial prosperity, long life, harm to enemies. Tantra permeated the society in such a way that even the orthodox Brahmanical Sastras could not resist its influence. Smrti and Purana recognised Tantric authority. Mandalas, mudras, yantras, nyasas, etc., came to be regarded as indispensable elements in religious rites. In Kali Age, the predominance of Tantra has been mentioned in the Kularnava and Mahanirvana Tantras. In Bengal, such was the impact of Tantra that the staunch orthodox Smrti-wi iter, Raghunandana, had to recognise and provide for Tantric initiation. It is Tantra that popularised the conception and worship of Kali. Tantra influenced Buddhism very deeply, and fed to the rise of ** s£ £ S S 3 3 S = z z s r -° Some Tantras reveal the ethical outlook of the people. Apart from the above, Tantras propound a distinct philosophy. £ F ,a ^^ ™ S k Ps w S S s ^ s s s a rs s rirs '~ of a Dasa King of Mehar, a holy place of the followers of Tantra in Tippera district {Bangladesh).The Satcakra-nirupanaof Nandarama is stated to have been written under the patronage of Harivallabha Raya. In some cases, we learn of the Tantric works written by au­ thors who are well-known in other fields. For example, Narasimha Thakkura, author of the Pradipa commentary on the Kavya-prakasa, wrote the Tarabhakti-sudhamava. From the point of view of literary history, Tantras have some importance. Some Tantras refer to other authoritative works on Tantra, some of which are lost white others are preserved in manuscripts. These references throw light on the relative chronology of the works cited and those citing them. Some information, important (or the history of Tantra literature and Tantric religion, is contained in a few Tantras, For example, the Paranandasutra*6 mentions the names of six Tantric teachers, and quotes three teachers. Regional Tantra Tantra is a literary genre. It includes works of the Saktas, Saivas and Vaisnavas. In Bengal and Deccan, Sakta cult became predomi­ nant. Saivism developed chiefly in Kashmir. South India was a strong­ hold of the Vaisnavas, though the number of Saivas and Saktas was not negligible. In northern and eastern India, Sakta devotees far outnumber the adherents of other faiths. There is also a Saiva sect in northern India. In Bengal and Assam, the Saktas are found in a very large number; the rest is Vaisnava. Time was when there were three major schools in India, viz., Gauda, Kerala and Kashmir. In the Gauda school, the Vama mode was held in the highest es­ teem. In this school, the five Makaras, in their original forms, are used. The devotees of this school immerse the deity in their own heart. The Kerala shool merely contemplate the Makaras, and no substance is used. According to this school aiso, the immersion of the deity takes place in the devotees’ heart. In the Kashmir school, substitutes of Makaras are ordained. Besides these schools, an­ other, called Vitasa is also known. If we are to believe the testimony of the Brhad Gautamya Tanfra , then it is evident that Tantric preceptors of different regions had different degrees of reputation. This work holds that those of the west are the best, those of the south are middling and those of worst KamaruPa are inferior and those from Kalnga are the Influence o f Tantra am ong com m on people it is not certain whether Tantra arose among the common peo­ ple, and gradually came to be recognised by the upper classes or it spread from the upper strata to the common people. Nevertheless we find Tantric practices, particularly Tantric deities, among the nonAryans, The Harivamsa states that Devi, as Kirati, used to be wor­ shipped by the Sabaras, Barbars and Pulindas. There are references to the worship of Devi by the Mlecchas and Dasyus3 8 Devi is often referred to as living in mountains and forests The Dev,purana (XVII.23) may be mentioned in this connexion. ' She is sometimes designated as Vindhya-vasini, Sabari (e q Gaudavaha, Verse 1.305). There is an impression among some people that Kamakhya was originally a non-Aryan matriarchal deity of Khasis, Garos3 etc. 9, The goddess, worshipped by the Chutiya Kings (C 13th cent) of Subansnri and Dihing river, was called Kucaikhati or Carrion-eater before whom human beings were sacrificed. She was later made identica! with Kali4 <VThis Devi came to be called Tamresvari who was believed to be identical with Dikkaravasini of the Kalikapurana4’ She has two aspects, Tiksna (fierce) and Laiita (graceful). In the lerce aspect, she is dark, pot-bellied, and wears matted locks Bebefore°he ^ n9S ° f Wme' meat' ^ 0 human beings were sacrificed Among the Bhuinyas of Bihar, a Devi, called Thakurani mai is worshipped. She is described as a blood-thirsty goddess, and' is now regarded as a form of Durga or Kali43. v a r io ^ M n ? ^ 0 th® Dravidians of South India, the worship of various Mother goddesses is widely prevalent4 . In fact, among 4 them female deities predominate. These deities are generally called Sakti. Whatever their origin, whether they had or had not any relation to the Aryan Sakti, in course of time most of them came to be looked upon as Durga or Kali. In the famous Minaksi temple of Madura, the male deity was called Cokkalinga and the female deity Minaksi. Gradually Cokkalinga was identified with Siva and Minaksi with his consort. Kali Ankamman is popularly believed to be a Sakti dwelling in the cemetery. She eats corpses45. Originally a rural deity, Candesvari is worshipped4 in 5 Nandavaram in Kurnaul district by the aborigines. Kali Ammen or Mother Kali is worshipped in some areas4', e.g.,Tanjore, Trichinopoly, etc. ' Mahakali is worshipped in some places for saving people from epidemics, She reminds one of Raksakali of Bengal. Kali-puja has been in vogue in Kerala from very ancient times, according to tradition, the puja of this deity originated among the aborigines. Bhadrakali is believed by common people to live in the cemetery. In Mysore, seven sisters, called mari, are worshipped. Mari means Sakti. They are regarded as wives of Siva. Before female goddesses goats, sheep, etc., particularly buffa­ loes, are sacrificed as before Durga and Kali in Bengal. ThewidespreadTantric ideas, perhaps, led to the introduction of the institution of Devedasts (temple-girls). Maithuna (sexual in­ tercourse) was one of the five essential things in a Tantric ritual. It was believed that gods are pleased with women. So, to provide deliqht for them the Devadasis were dedicated. It was their duty to sing and dance before the deities. In course of time, however, the system degenerated into prostitution at first covertly and then overt y. This custom probably originated and spread in South India, and, to a lesser degree, in some other provinces as in Bengal. The leaders of the society and the law-givers were Brahmanas. While making laws, religious or secular, they showed bias towards the three upper classes in general, and the Brahmanas in particular. Women and Sudras were subjected to tabooes. Those, who were repressed, had naturally a hankering for reli­ gious rites and a resentment against discrimination. As Tantra gave much freedom to these classes, it naturally found favour with them. E litis t a ttitu d e tow ards Tantra We have seen how and why Tantra became very popular among the masses. The upper echelons of society, born to, and nurtured in Vedic tradition, looked down upon Tantra with a sneering attitude, although the overwhelming popularity of this class of literature and the rites and practices, taught in it, compelled even the orthodox formulators of Sastra to accept some Tantric rites as part of their religion. The emphasis of Tantra on bhoga as against tyaga, so zeal­ ously advocated by orthodox Sastras, the inclusion in Tantra of wine and meat as essential recipe in Tantric rites, the relaxation of casterestrictions, etc., were unconventional. So, the people of the upper class, priding themselves on superior Aryan culture, detested Tantra. With the renaissance of the 19th century, as a result of the impact of western civilisation, a section of the intelfigentsia denounced Tantras as thoroughly despicable. In this denunciation, some west­ ern scholars spoke in one voice with some highly enlightened Indi­ ans. For instance, Wilson, Monrer Wiliams, Hopkins, to mention some of the stalwarts, looked upon Tantras as a debased form of Hindu­ ism indulging in barbarous and repulsive practices. Barth character* ises a Sakta of the left hand as a 'hypocrite and a superstitious debauchee’. The renowned Bankim Chandra Chatterjee found nothing but lechery, lust and liquor in the Tantric religion. R.L. Mitra describes Tantric practices as revolting and horrible. In the present century also, Tantra is more hated than under­ stood. Those, who look down upon it, do not go deep into the phi­ losophy of Tantras, and fail to miss it true s ^ iit. The malpractices, that have grown among theTantriks, make them blind to the sublime aspect of Tantra. Among the few admirers of Tantra is Charles Elliot who says that the general principles of Tantra breathe a liberal and intelligent spirit....women are honoured; they can act as teachers. Whereas Christianity is sometimes accused of restricting its higher code to Church and Sunday, the opposite may be said of Tantrism. Outside the temple its morality is excellent48. Sibchandra Vidyamava hits the nail on the head when he says—the general public are ignorant of the principles of Tantrasastra.The cause of this ignorance is the fact that Tantra-sastra is a Sadhana-sastra, the greater part of which becomes intelligible only by Sad/iana....The English books, by English writers, contained merely a reflection of what English educated Bengalis of these days had written. Both are even today equally ignorant of the Tantrasastra.4 9 Despite the general deprecatory attitude of the Brahmancial elites towards Tantra, the fact remains that many Brahmansas not only wrote treatises on Tantra, but practised Tantric rites. Most of the writers on Hindu Tantras were Brahmins. Not only the Indians, but also some highly intellectual people of the west looked upon Tantric Sadhakas with the deepest respect. Woodroffe, to whom we have already referred, became a disciple of the aforesaid sibchandra Vidyarnava who was a profound Tantric scholar and a devotee of with caliber. Notwithstanding the sneering attitude of the orthodox Brah­ mins towards Tantra, it is surprising to note that all the five most important constituents of the Brahmanical religion, viz., the worship of Visnu Siva, Sakti, Ganapati and Surya, collectively called Pancopasana, have Tantric rituals as essential parts of the religions practices. In these systems, the position of Tantra is parallel to the Vedic elements. This synthesis may seem to be anomalous. The fact seems to be that all the above five systems had a Tantric root, and as such, had a wide and deep appeal to the masses. The orthodox adherents of the Brahmanical faith could not do away with the systems which so firmly gripped the rank and file of the society. So. they adapted them, and added Vedic overtones. Post-Vedic tho u gh t-cu rre n ts and Tantra In post-Vedic India, we find a diversity of strands of thought. Some of these have similarity with Tantric ideas. It is, however, difficult to determine the extent to which Tantra influenced with sys­ tems and vice versa. In the early Vedic period, no Tantric text ap­ pears to have been composed. It should, however, be remembered that Tantric ideas, perhaps, originated among the iower echelons of the society as early as the Vedic period It is, therefore, worthwhile to examine the ideas similar to Tantra and other systems of thought. The Svetasvatara Upanisad declares the monotheistic con­ cept of Rudra-Siva who is identified with Brahman, Tantra also speaks in the same vein. We have seen in connection with Paricopasana that, in each of these systems, the deity with whom it is connected, regards him as the Supreme. The doctrine of Kala (Time) has been dominant ever since Vedic times. For example, the Atharvaveda (XIX.44) declares it as dominating everything.The Svetasvatara (VI. 6) considers it as the cause of the universe. The Buddhist doctrine of Ksanika-vada, the Jain Anastikaya (that which has no form) as the description of time testifies to its importance. Time is one of the categories of Nyaya-Vaises ika philosophy. In the Tantra, it is so important that the most prominent Tantric deity, Kaii, has been named after Kala. Kali is so called because She is supposed to have controlled time, past, present and future. Thantra is generally averse to the doctrine of destiny which plays a very important role in orthodox Brahmanical thought. It was, perhaps, due to the influence of Ajivikas, who recognised destiny, that Tantra recognised it. In Saiva Agama destiny is described as evolved from Asuddha Maya. Svabhavavada is the doctrine that everything is produced by nature. Traditionally it is sometimes equated with Carvaka and Lokayata doctrines. Tantric ideas have much in common with this theory. The idea that Bhutas or gross elements underlie every worldly thing, occurring in some works, notably the Svetasvatara, is found in Tantra also. The atheistic Carvakas do not recognise soul as independent entry apart from the body. This has similarity with Tantric. Dehatattva according to which the body is the microcosm of the universe; the preservation of the body in good health is an essential duty of a Tantric devotee. The Carvakas deny the existence of the other world beyond death. It may have influenced the Tantric concept of Jivanim ukti, liberation in life. Jaina Dohas reveal heterodox tendencies, and protest against external rites. The influence of the Sahajiya cult was so pervasive that even the Vaisnavas, who insist on punctilious adherence to ethical norms, could not escape it. There is a considerable bulk of Vaisnava Sahajiya literature.5 0 The Vaisnava conception of Krsna and Radha is regarded as corresponding to Siva and Sakti of Tantra and to Upaya and Prajha of the Buddhist Tantra. It may be noted that Tantra, particularly the Sahajiya idea, is found in all the religious systems of the medieval period. The concept of Sahaja is found in Sikhism which is antiBrahmanical, and denies caste-system. The Sikhs also believe in the absolute authority of the Gurus. The renowned medieval saints also appear to have been influ­ enced by the Sahajiya cult. For instance, the songs of Kabir, Ramdas and others betray Sahajiya ideas. Tulsidas was a devout follower of Brahmanism. In his Ramacaritamanasa, he contemptuously refers to the superiority claimed by Sudras who acted as teachers of Brahmanas. Not only Sudras, but also Telis, Candalas and other low-class people are referred to as gurus. These references testify to the wide influence ot Tantra. The Tamil copper-plate grant (1596) No. 75 of Sewell’s Lost refers to a Sudra priest and his many disciples. The almost India-wide protest against caste-system appears to have followed in the wake of the popularity of Tantra. In Southern India, the Tenkalais started a movement against this age-old sys­ tem, Tukaram of Maharastra, a Sudra, had many disciples of upper castes including Brahmanas. Caitanya and his followers boldly reacted against the system. The association of Caitanya with Yavana Haridasa is well-known. Gopalabhatta’s Haribhaktivilasa, an authoritative treatise among Bengal Vaisnavas, unequivocally raises a voice of protest against it. In its commentary (Berhampore ed., V. 491—93) Sanatana Gosvami vigorously vindicates the right of Sudras. Stalwarts like Narahari Sarkar, NarottamaThakur, etc., among the direct and favourite non-Brahmin disciples of Caitanya,were the gurus of even Brahmanas. The no-caste campaign of Caitanyaism was marked in Puri where caste-restriction is not only decried, but it is also regarded as sinful and unethical even to-day to make any discrimination among castes. For example, the Mahaprasada (remnant of rice-offering) of Lord Jagannatha can be served by low-class people even to staunch Brahmanas who can refuse it only at the peril of incurring sin. In Assam, Samkaradeva {1486— 1568) and his chief disciple, Madhavadeva, were Kayastha (a class of Sudras), but had a large number of even Brahmana followers. His sect was called Mahapurusiya. In course of time, it was split into sub-sects, called Bamunia, Moa-maria, Thakuriya. The second one believed in the pure Tantric mode. Ramananda (14th-15th cent), a north-Indian leader of the reformists, was a Vaisnava.The Sikh scripture, Granth-Sahib, quotes a song of Ramananda who says that God (Rama) is not to be found in the scriptures nor in any external object, but in one’s heart. This is clearly an echo of the Tantric Dehatattva. Among the disciples of Ramananda was Ravidas, a cobbler. Ravidas's unconventional ideas enlisted the devotion of many disci­ ples among whom Kabir was famous, and more celebrated was Mira Bai of Rajputana and Jhali, queen of Chittor.There were numer­ ous other followers and disciples of Ramananda. The aforesaid Kavir (b.c.1398) learnt the main Tantric princi­ ples from his guru. There are the futility of caste-system, external formalities of religion and lack of distinction between man and woman. Though a Muslim, he had many Hindu disciples. Kavir’s Dohasare popular among the people of all classes, high and low. Many of his songs are quoted in the Granth-Sahib. The spiritual descendants of some of the well-known saints founded minor sects which preached doctrines akin to those of Tantra. Among such sects, mention may be made of the following: a sect established by the Muslim disciples of Kavir at Maghar, a sect founded by his Hindu disciples at Varanasi, a sect called Khaki in north-western India founded by Kilha, a sect founded by Dharmadasa, a Baniya disciple of Kavir, at Chattisgarh, a sect founded by Malukdas, a disciple of Kavir, at Allahabad, a sect founded by Rajjab, a disciple of Dadu. A fanons sect, Parabrahma Sampradaya, was founded by Dadu (1544-1603), the most well-know exponent of Kavir“s doctrines. He made a collection of devotional writings from all forms of religion in about 1600 A.D. Nabha, an untouchable, was the renowned writer of the cel­ ebrated Bhaktamala in which he recorded the life and activity of the devotees of various religious persuasions. Among the other medieval saints, preaching liberal views influ­ enced by Tantra, mention may be made of Namadeva.5 Surdas 1 (1483-1563) Dharanidas (b, 1556), Laldas, Puran Bhakat, etc. Of the religious leaders, preaching unconventional ideas and practices is north India in the 18th century, a few were Bhan Saheb, a follower of Kavir, who formed a salvation army; Carandas (b.1703), born near Alwar, who formed a sect; Sivanarayana (b. 1710) born in Balia district; Pran Nath of Bundelkhand; Ramacandra or Sant Ram of Jaipur, founder of the Ramasanehi sect; Jagjivan (Iasi quarter of 17th cent,) founder of Satyanami or Satnami sect; Ghasidas, a Satnami leader and a leather-worker; Lalgir or Lallag, leader of Alakhnami sect of Bikaner region. Some of the above attempted to synthesise Hindu Muslim ideas. The Dasakuta movement of Karnataka discarded caste-system and external formalities. Similar ideas were propagated by Maharastrian saints like Jnanadeva, Namadeva, Ekanatha.etc. Though they did not start any movement, yet they enlisted adher­ ents to their faiths. The Mahanubhava sect of south India was strongly opposed to Brahmanical religion. The famous exponents were Govindaprabhu, Bhaskara, Kesavaraja, poetees Mahadamba, to mention only a few. Liberal Vaisnavism and Natha cult formed the bedrock of this school. Nathism, also known as Yogi-pantha, imbued with Tantric rites and Practices, to which we have already referred, was a very popu­ lar sect in Bengal, Orissa and Assam. The songs of Gopicandra, popular all over North-lndia, particularly in Bengal, were composed, inter alia, by Muslims, known as Bharthari. In Orissa, two sects, called Mahima-pantha and Kumbhiapantha, Which were products of the medieval religious movements, were very popular. The wefl-known Siddhacaryas, to whom are attributed the Caryapadas, also called Bauddha Gan O Doha, appear to have writ­ ten for the common man in popular language, using analogies and imageries taken from common life. Many of these Acaryas came from the lowest class, and, as such, were opposed to Brahmanism; such names as Dombi, Sabari, Tanti, Dhobi Kuthari, Karmara, Teli, etc. are indicative of their low origin. The Siddhas sometimes betray contempt for the Brahmanical system, and do not recognise caste-distinction. They recognise the divine power of the guru. Five brands of Siddha culture are Dombi. Nati, Rakaki, Candali and Brahmani. They represent five female forms of Sakti. Like Tantra-writers they emphasise Kayasadhana, the ultimate object of a devotee is to realise Sahaja, the basis of all existence, the source of perennial bliss.They recognise Jivanmukti. Thus, the Siddhacaryas advocate all the main principles of Tantra. In their case, Buddhist Tantra, rather Buddhist Sahajiya cult appears to have exercised the greatest influence. In the Caryas, the goddess known as Nairatma, Dombi-Candali, Sabari, etc, is identical with Sunyata orPrajna of the Buddhist Tantric System, known as Sakti in other Systems. The Natha cult, originating among the low-class people, shows the unmistakable impress of Tantrism of the various sects, viz. Saiva, Vaisnava, Sakta, Bauddha. It is, in fact, a composite cult drawing inspiration from various sources. T a ntric o ffs h o o ts {Also see Sects and subsects of Tantra) Tantra, produced several sects of which the principal ones were Kapalikas, Kaiamukhas and Mattamayuras. The first two were branches of Pasupata Saivism. They have no scripture. Information about them is gathered from the writing of orthodox religionists who have described them in disparaging terms and derogatory manner. They were worshippers of the Female Principle. They cast all conventional social values to the four winds; caste-system was ig­ nored. According to Ramanuja {Sribhasya, II, 2.35-36), the Kapalikas use six mudras, {viz. Kanthahara or necklace) Alamkara (ornament,) Kundaia (earring, Siromani (jewel for head), Bhasam (ashes,) Yajhopavita (sacred thread) all being made of human bones. Ac­ cording to them the attainment of highest happiness lies in con­ centration on the Supreme Soul seated in the female organ. Some of the barbarous practices of Kapalikas, like human sacrifice, etc,, are recorded in Krsnamisra’s drama, Prabodhacandrodaya. They are also described in Bhavabhuti’s Malatimadhava. Their stronghold was at Srisaila in the Andhra region. Some epigraphs refer to some sects which are, perhaps, Kapalikas and Kalamukhas. Some of the inscriptions are Igatpuri copper-ptate of Nagavardhana (7th cent). Nirmand copper-plate (7th cent) in Kangra, Inscription from Arsikore (Karnataka) etc. The Kalamukhas appear to have been a strong sect in the 9th— 11th centuries (vide N. Sastri, The Colas, Madras, 1955, pp 648—49). Epigraphical evidence of the 10th andl 1th centuries testifies to the existence of a Saiva sect inTripuri and neighbouring areas of Central India. This is called Mattamayura. A tribe of this name is known in the Mahabharata (11.32.4— 5).This sect appears to have flourished in the Pala period in Bengal (Vide N.N. Bhattacharya, Ancient Indian Rituals, pp.133-34). To this sect belong the works, called Somas'ambhupaddhatiand Isanas’ivagurudevapaddhati. Ac­ cording to H.Goetz, the several bas-reliefs of Khajuraho temples owe their origin to the inspiration of this sect (Arts Asiatiques), Tome V, Fasc. I pp. 35 ff.) S ects and Subsects to Tantra (A lso see T a ntric o ffsh o o ts) Brodly speaking, Hindu Tantra was divided into two schools, Saiva and Skata. Among the Sakta Tantras again, despite fundamental unity, there were differences which were mainly caused by the difference of the objects and modes of worship as well as of acaras. Sakta Tantras were broadly divided into two groups, Srikula and Kalikual. Again, there was a division based on Kadimata and Hadimata, Each of these two had subsects. In another way, we may divide Tantra into two classes— Pure Sakta works as those of Bengal and works with a Mixture of Saiva— Sakta approach, as some of the works of Kashmir. From another point of view, Tantras are divided into two class­ es, those following Samayacara and those toeing the line of Kaulacara, The former is believed to be coeval with the Vaidika marga and related to it. Gaudapada, Smakara, etc. are believed to have belonged to this school. The followers of Kaulacara were divided into two subsects. Purvakauta and Uttarakaula. According to the former, Siva and Sakti are known as Anandabhairava and Anandabhairavi. They are related to each other as Sesa and Sesi. According to Uttarakauias, Sakti is always predominant, and never ends. Siva appears as Tattva, but Sakti is ever beyond Tativa. From another standpoint Sakta Tan are divided into two classes; those based on Daksinacara and those on Vamacara.5 2 In different parts of the Saktisamgama, there is mention of some Tantric sects. A well-known sect of the Saiva-Sakta sect was Kapalika. It is generally believed that Kapalikas were so called because they used to carry human skulls (Kapala) or drink from them. There is, how­ ever, an inner significance of the name, as stated in the Prakas'a commentary on the Sanskrit drama, Probodha-candrodaya. They were so designated as they used to drink nectar or candri from within Brahmarandhra, known as Kapala. With this drink they con­ cluded the great Vrata (M ahavrataM ahavrata appears to be an­ other name of the Kapalika sect. The Soma-siddhanta, named by Sriharsa in Naisadhacarita (X.88), is considered by scholars like Gopinath Kaviraj6 to be the 3 same as Kapalika siddhanta ; Soma means Sa+Uma, i.e along with Uma. The’ Agama-pramanya of Yamuna Muni, Sivapurana, etc. name some Tantric sects. The famous Vacaspati Misra mentions four Mahesvara sects. Phallus-worship was, perhaps, in vogue among non-Aryans, and gradually infiltrated into the Aryan society. It is referred to in the Rgveda (vti, 21.5, X. 99.3). Hatred and fear appear to have been voiced by the seer who prays for protection against Stsnadevas Phallus-worship was in vogue among primitive peoples almost throughout the world. Phallic symbols of different kinds, representing the goddess and her male partner, have been found in the ancient lands of the Agean, Egypt and the sites of Semite civilisation. In India, the ruins of the Indus Valley civilisation at Mohenjodaro reveal designs of linga (male organ) and Yoni {female organ) which are supposed by some to have been used as amulets ensur­ ing long Iffe.5 At Harappa quite a few conical lingas and large rings, 5 probally representing the female principle, have been unearthed.5 0 FOOTNOTE 1. See S .A.D ange, Sex in Stone and th e V edic Mithuna, ABORt Diamond Jubilee Vol, p.p. 546 f,f. ’ 2. Ibid, p, 550. karma-pratipadakatvena atyantavitaksana eva (Prasthanabheda). 3. C.i.atharvavedastu yajnanupayukta-santi-paustika-bhicaradi4. See A. Avalon, Principles of Tantra, p. 41 5. N am es o f som e S outh Indian ladies, not nece ssa rily T a n tric Sadhikas, end in amba, e.g., R am abhadram ba, 6. 7. S e e Saradatilaka, I. 5 5 . II. 5 7 , VIU(Raghava's c o m m ), Gandharvatantra, XL. 10, Tantraraja-tantra, XXVI, 36-43. It is interesting to note that many pe oples of th e an cie nt tim es used to believe in th e m agic pow er of letters and words; no m atter w hether o r not these had any sense. E .J.Thom as w rites that spells, sim ila r to H indu and B uddhist types are found on O ld English Old High G erm an and Keltic ( History of Buddhist Thought, p. 185). E .g.B.C .M ajum dar, JRAS, 1905, p p . 355-362. 8. 9. Diksatattva in Smrtbtattva, II, pp. 645-659. tantrc.H, 11. Mrqendra- 10. In som e la te r Tantras, dualism is recognised; e.g 1 1 .See G. Haidar, Vaidyaka-vrttanta, p. 210. 1 2 .See J iv a 's Laghubhagavatamrta and his com m entary on the Brahmasamhita and Caitanya-caritamrta of Krsnadasa, Adi, Ch. iv. 13. See S.B. Das G upta, Sriradhar, Krama vikas, p, 332. 14. For references to o r quotations from T antras, contained in the six Sandarbhas o f Jiva G osvam in, see S .K.D e, Vaisnava Faith and Movement, 1961, pp. 418-419. 15. For a list of Tantras quoted or referred to by him, see S.K.De, Op.cit., IQ .B havisyap u ra n a , iv. 13.8,98. 1 7 .See J.N .F arquar, O utlines o f the R eligious L ite ra tu re o f India, p. 252. 18. See M. W illiam s, B rahm anism and Hinduism , pp. 87-88. 19. See introductory portion o f th e C hapter on W orks on Tantra. 20. See B. Bhattacharya, S adhanam ala, Introduction. 21 .tntro. to S adhanam ala, It, GOS, No.XI-1. 22. See Svam i Pranjanananda, Bharatiya S a m g ite r ttihas (in Bengali), I, pp. 300 ff. 23. See M. Lalou, Iconographic des etoffes p a in te s (pa ta ) dans le$ M anjusrim ulakalpa, India, 1930. On erotic sculptures, see D. Desai, E rotic S culpture o f India; K. Lai, The C ult o f D esire; V. Prokas, K h ajuraho; P. T hom as, K am akalpa, Incredible India, R. J, M ehta, K onarak S un-Tem ple. A lso see Tantrayana Art, ed. S.K. S arasvati, C alcutta, 1977; P. R awlinson, T antra;P . Rowson, erotic A rt o f the E a st;M . Anant, P lastic situation, M a rg , M a rc h , 1 9 6 5 ; J u n e , 1 9 6 3 ; A . R o y, S c u lp tu re s o f N agarjunakonda, Marg, M arch, 1965; S. K ram risch, U nknow n in India etc.; E. Zennas and J. A uboyer, Khajuraho-, R. Lennoy, The Eye o f Love; O.C. G anguli, M ithuna in Indian Art, Rupam, 1925, 1926. 24. See C unningham , A rch a e o lo g ica l S u rve y Report, IX th e tem ple of 64 Yoginis in Bheraghat. 25. See A. C oom arasw am y, Buddhu a n d the G ospel o f Budha, p.p. 35, 330; G runw edel, B uddhist a rt in India (trs. A. C. G ibson), figure 126, A. B hattacharaya, B u d d h ist iconography, Plate X X V Iil. M em oirs o f A rch a e o lo g ica l Survey o f India, No. 66, Plate XIII (g); V. Smith, H istory o f Fine A rt In India a n d Ceylon, Plate 113; N.K. Bhattasali, Iconography o f B uddhist a n d B rahm anical S cu lp tu re s in Dacca Museum , Plates VIII, XX, XXI. 26. See Tantrayana Art; Rawlinson, Tantra', S.M. Nawab, Jaina Paintings, Vol. I. 27. N.K. Bose, Canons o f O rissan A rchitecture, pp. 92, 154. 2 8 .Also called Rentika. The nam e Y ellam m a is derived from the Kannada term eltara amma (U niversal Mother). 29. See P.B, Desai, Kallachuris of Karnataka, 30. N.N. Bhattacharya, History of Tantric Religion, p. 376. 31. A ctua lly started by the Raja in 1799 A.D., it was com pleted by his w idow , ’ 32. Erotic Sculpture of India, pp. 16-17. 33. For descrip tio n s of T antric images, see N.N. Bhattacharya, Op cit pp. 382*396. Here we refer only to those having some pronounced T a n tric features. 34. See B.P. Desai, JOR, Madras, Vol. XIX. pp. 285-288. 35. For MS., see New Catalogus Catalogorum. 36. See A ccount o f this Tantra. 37. See P.O. Bagchi, Studies in Tantras, pp. 17-18; The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 321. 3 8 .For exam p le, R a g h u n a n d a n a ’s Tithitattva in c o n n e xio n w ith Durgotsa va. 39. The Mother Goddess Kamakhya, p. 17, 40. Ibid, p. 66 and Kirata-janakrti (C hatterjj), p. 56. 41. The Mother goddess Kamakhya, p. 64. 42. A Cultural History of Assam, I, p. 149, 43. Ency. of Religion and Ethics, II, p. 487, 44. See Ency. of Religion and Ethics, V, p. 6. 45. Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism, p. 18, 46. Ibid. pp 84-85. 47. Ibid. pp 41-119, 48. Hinduism and Budhism, London 1921, R eprint 1957, II, p 285 49. W oodroffe; Sakti and Sakta, 8th ed., Madras, 1975, p.p. 9 - 10, 50. See M .M .Bose, Post-Caitanya Sahajiya Cult. 51. T hree persons of this nam e are known to have lived inG u ru d a sp u r, B utandsahar and Marwar, 52. See Ac&ra 53. T antrik Sadhana O Siddhanta, I, p. 33. 54.This w orld has been in terpreted in tw o w ays:(1) those to whom phallus in God. (2) those who play with the genital organ, i.e. indulge in sexual pleasure. 55. M a rsh a ll,M ohenjodaro, etc., pis; xiii, 1,7; xiv 2,4, etc. 5 6 .M.S. Vat. E xcavations a t Harappa, II, 51, 53, 55 ft, 140. Chapter-5 Unpublished Tantras of Bengal We have given accounts of the published Tantras of Bengal along with the personal history of their authors. Besides these works, some are available in manuscripts, while others are known only from references to them contained in other works. In addition to these little known or unknown works of Bengal, which are mostly digests or compendia for ritualistic purposes, there are commentar­ ies by Bengal writiers on some well-known Tantric works. We set forth below the titles of the unpublished Tantric workd of Bengal with such details about their places of deposit, authors and contents as could be gleaned from various sources. The following abbreviations have been used here: AS Asiatic Society Catalogue, Calcutta. Catalogues Catalogrum byT. Aufrecht. CC IO India Office Catalogue, London. N Navadvipa Sadharana Granthagara, Navadwip, Nadiya, West Bengal. NCC New Catalogues Catalogrum by V. Raghavan. NM Notices of Skt. MSS, by R. L. Mitra. NP Catalogue of Skt. MSS. in Private Libraries of NW. Provinces. NS Notices of S kt MSS. by H.P. Sastri. SC (Government) Sanskrit College, Calcutta. SKR A Handlist of MSS. with Sarat Kumar Roy, 1-4. European Asylum Lane, Calcutta. SKRDC An Unfinished Descriptive Catalogue of the above collection. Handlist of Skt. MSS. in Sanskrit Sahitya SSP Parisat, Calcutta. A Handlist of MSS in Varendra Research Varendra Society, Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Catalogue of MSS. belonging to Vangiya Sahitya VSP Parisat, Calcutta. A Supplementary Handlist of MSS, in Vangiya VSP Sup Sahitya Parisat, Calcutta. Titles are in Devanagari Alphabetical Order Title Author References Remarks to MS, Abhijnana* Ramananda AS 3603 An extensive work ratnavali Tarkalankara G viii. A on the worship of 6211 NM Sakti. The AS MS. xi. Pref. 15 contains only fragVarendra ments of Chapters 1217 i-iv. AmarasamAmara Author, son of graha Maitra Visnvananda. For MS. and biogra phy of author, see underTantric Texts of Bengal. AgamaKrsnaAS 6209 Author, a candrika mohana viii. i. 6209 Kayastha of VSP p. 187 Purvasthali in and Intro. West Bengal. He pp. xxv-xxvi appears to have been well off and to have appointed Pandits for compiling works for himself. In this work, it is stated to have been compiled by Pandits. To Krsnamohana are attributed as many as eighteen works including the Kamalodaya and the Nitisataka; these two mention some of the eighteen works. Vide AS vii. 5250, 5251,5508-9; VIII. 6209; NS II. 41; VSP, pp. 125, 187. The Agamacandrika deals with rules of initiation and the worship of deities of the group of Mahavtdya. Agamacandrika Ramakrsna TarkaSamkara NM 1269 CCI.p.273 AS 6214 VSP SupNo.1879 Intro, p. xvii. From it we learn that the author was son of Raghunathaanda resident of Napada, popularly known as Daksina Navadvjpa, in Andul near Calcutta. It is a summary of Raghunatha's Agama-tattvavilasa.lhe date of compositiion of the Agamacandrika is m'jnivedanrpe sake, i.e. Saka 1647 {= 1725A.D.) Agamatattvavilasa Raghunatha Tarkavagisa SC 1053 AS Author, son of G viii. i. 6214 Sivarama. Written 1611 NM IX. in 1687 in 5 3186 (1st etc.) chaps; it deals NS 122 (5 with Tantric chaps) SKR 172 modes of worship and mantras for various deities. In the beginning, the author is stated to have consulted 160 works including the Tararahasya and Syamarahasya. Part of it printed. See Cat. o f Printed Books in British Museum. SSPA 1389 AS G 6582 10 IV. 2624 From the work it is learnt that the author was son of Yadavananda Chakravarli, grandson of Vidyasagara and great-grandson of Subuddhimisra. Author said to have obtained the title Vidyavagisa from his preceptor atVisnupura, situated within Mandarana. Date Adyakarana-tantra Anandalahari tika Vidyavagisa Mahadeva Vidyavagisa of composition— 1527 Saka {=1605 A.D.). Saide to have been written in Jahangir's reign. Vide Indian Cul ture, IV, p. 322. (Haribhaki Suddhodaya) Do Do Harinarayana Govinda Tarkavagrsa Srikrsna Tarkalankara Bhattacarya Amara Maitra SS G 3973 NS II 17 AS G 3694, 5204 NM X 3373 VSP 334 AS G 3905 Amarisamhita For MS. and biography of author, see under Tantric Texts of Bengal. KakaradiKali-sahasranama Kankalamalini tantra Karpuradi stavatika {Prabodhini) Do Pumananda Ramasvampa SSP 375. Ramakisora NS III 48 Dacca University Handlist, No. 3967 Author appears to have been a descendant of Sarvavidya. Yadavendra Bhattacarya Sanskrit College, Benares, 1916-17, p. 3 (No. 2624) with text NS III. 53 Dated 1375 A.D. Kamyayantro- Mahamahopa ddhara Kalikarahasya Kalrkadisahasranama dhyaya Parivrajakacarya Pumananda Pumannda NP V 138 AS VIII B 6643-46 Dacca University No, 552 B NS I 61 Travancore University No. 7799 Visvabharati 509, 510. NM IX. 2956 NS 1 60 . Varendra 979 Dacca DR 33 Author, son of Nyayavagisa. Kalitattvasudhabindu Kalisarvasvasamputa Kulapujanacandnka or Kulapujacandrika Kulamulavatara Kaulikarcanadipika Krama* candrika Kaliprasada Kavyacuncu Srikrsna Vidyalankara Candrasekhara NS II. 37 SSP 1 J. 53 . Samkara Ramaratna SSP411 Contains mantras applicable in Tantric rites. Author appears to have been the preceptor of the famous Cand Ray and Kedar Ray of Ratnagarbha NM I. 331 Sarvabhauma SC 761 Vikramapura, now in Bangladesh. He is also known as Gosvami Bhattacarya. Kramastava Gururajatantra Gurupadukastotratika Samkara Ramalocana SSP A 1183 Durgadasa Visvabharau Vidyavacaspati Annals 190 (b) VSP p. 267 SSP ill. U. 52 Dacca University MS. 1350 AS 3401, 6118, 5289,3917 A VIII. B. 6798 5799­ 6801,6802 Do (-pancaka) Gautamiyatantratattva-dipika Raghunandana Dacca University NyayapahMS. No. 1974, 2964 canana NS I. 97. Radhamohana VSP39{117), Author seems to 40(335) be identical with the Vaisnava author of this name, who wrote the Krsnabhaktisudhamava and commentaries on the Suddhitattva of Raghunandana and the Gautaman yayasutra. Radhamohana was a writer of the nineteenth cent, and a friend of Colebrookes, Vide VSP, p. 16. Cakra* dipika Ramabhadra ASG 141 VIII Sarvabhauma R 6622 Dacca University 187 A. 1884 Ratnesvara SC 633 Amara Maitra Quoted in Tantrasara Aufrecht's Bodleian Cat.95a. For MS and biography of author, see under Tantric Texts of Bengal. NM I 286 NS 1137 Composed in 1730 Saka (=1808 A.D.) in 12 Chapters. Cakra-dipika Jnana-dipika Jnananandatarangini Tattvaprakasa Siromani Jnanananda Brahmacari Tattvanandatarangini Tantrakaumudi Tantracandrika Pumananda AS Cat. VIII 6200 Author, perhaps identical with that of the yogakaipalatika (NS. I. 299). He is said to have been a resident of East Bengal (Bangladesh). Vide NS. I. Pref­ ace p. 21. Composed in 1626 Saka (=1794 Govindacandra SSP A. 11 84 Ramagati SenaAS 6274 Tantradipani Ramagopala Sarnia NS II 79 A.D.) in 11 Chapters. Author, a disciple of K a s in a th a n a n danatha otherwise known as Paramaniranjana. Tantradiptka Gopala pancanana ASG 5097 NS I 138 NM VI 2262 SC 874 NS I 139 NS II 80 Deals with diksa, purascarana, etc., and the worship of Tara and Tripura. Deals with worship of Kali and Tara. Author, grandson of Krsnananda Agamavagisa and son of Harinatha Bhattacarya. Tantrapradipa Tarrtrapradipa-prabha Tantraprakasa Jagannatha Cakravarti Sanatana Tarkacarya Govinda ASG 5641 Sarvabhauma Tantraratna Krsna Vidyavagisa ASG 10494 IO IV 2573 NMI240 SC 913 Tantrasamkespacandrika Tantra-sara BhavaniNS II 81 samkara Vandyopadhyava Ramananda Tirtha AS II A 48 Complete in 10 Chaps. On page 93, there is a quotation from the Sri-tattvacintamani of Pumananda. Author was a protege of Krsnacandra (eighteenth century), king of Nadiya. Tarar-canacandrika Tararahasyavrtti Jagannatha Bhattacarya Gaudiya Samkara ASG 6537 VSP 33-35 (108, 732,1267) IO IV 26038. See Cat. of Skt. MSS., Asiatic Society, Calcutta, Vol. VIII, p. xii NM IV 1607 Date 1737 Saka (=1815 A.D.) Krsnacandra, king of Nadiya, mentioned as the author’s patron, Tara-bhaktitarangini Kasinatha Taravilasodaya Tiksnakalpa Vasudeva Kavikankana Cakravarti ASG 790, 3455 Radhamohana NS II 90 Written in Saka 1732 (=1810 A.D.) Author, a landlord of Candrapratapa, in Dacca district (Bangladesh). Tripurar-canarahasya Daksinakalpa Diksa-tattva prakasa Brahmananda NM VII 2487 Haragovinda Tantravagisa Ramakisora NM I 291 Author, a member of the Sarvavidya family of Mehar (Bangladesh). Vide K. Sen, Cinmay Vanga, p. 173. Pancakalpataru Raghava Devasarma NS X3311 Author, son of Ramananda Tarkapah can an a. It is a digest on Tantric rites, and contains a fairly elaborate account of mystic mandatas and Durgapuja with those mandaias. For MSS. and biography of the author, see under Tantras of Bengal. Pahcamaveda-saranirnaya Haragovinda Raya Purascaranaprayoga-darsa Vasudeva Sarvabhauma VSP 39 (1309) Author identrfiedas Sarva-nandika sadhusagnikajnanananda bhattacarya tmaja. Purascarana-dipika Puras-camollasa-tantra pranakrsnavaisna-vamrta Biswas Candrasekhara CC I p. 340 SC 1058 Kasicandra Bholanatha Brahmacari SSP 1383 Composed for Pranakrsna in 1748 Saka (=1826 A.D.). Deals with Tantric rites of Vaisnavas. ASG 4660 Appears to be a part of Ramagati Sena’s Tantra- Bhavanirupana Mantrakosa candrika (Supra). Jagannatha Cakravarti VSP 43 (1548 Kha) NM VII 2378 In the second MS., the author’s name ends in Bhattacarya. In the contents are mentioned, in te r alia, Tantric b ija m antras and their Mantraratnakara Mahimnahstotra-tika Mundamalatantra Mudraprakasa Yaksini-tantra Yogakalpalatika Rahasyamava Lalitarahasya explanation. It also contains a brief account of the origin and nature of alphabet. Yadunatha Cakravarti ASG 6028 Raghunandana VSP 55 (1482) Nyayavagisa Nyayavagisa Ramakisora Aditya Ramagati Sena Vanamafi Acarya Rajendra Tarkavagisa SSP 774 NSI299 VSP 60(1408} VSP 64(753) A digest, in nine NM IV 1674 chapters, based on variou s Puranas and Tantras. In it attempts have been made io establish the SSP417 See D iksa ta ttva prakasa (Supra). predominance of Krsna. Varnabhairava Ramagopaia Pancanana NM I 280 Deals with origin of sound and the significance of letters starting with 'a'. In the last two MSS., the author’s name is Bhattacarya. Vasakaryamanjari Saktakrama Sivar-canamaharatna Saiva-ratna Syamakalpalata Syamakaipa-latika Syamapujapaddhati Syamaratna Syamar-canacandrika Rajarama Bhattacarya Pumananda Samkara Do Ramacandra ASG 3459 Kavicakravarti NS I 372 Mathuranatha Pub. Guptapalli Saka 1825 (with Bengali translation) Cakravarti ASG 5958 Indian Museum Collection No. 4590 NM I 377 For particulars about the author, see Kramacandrika (Supra). ASG 3463 NM V I2067 Varnabhidhana Yadunandana Bhattacarya SC 1492 ASG 8144 NM II 560 IO II 1046 Srinandana Yadavendra Vidyalamkara Ratnagarbha NM I 220 Sarvabhauma Syama- Kasinatha ASG 3540 santosana stotra Syamasaparya-vidhi Tarkapaficanana Kasinatha Tarkalamkara ASV vii 3603 Composed in Saka1699(=1777 A.D.) in seven chapters. AS 6628-29 Vagisa Bhattacarya Krsnananda Sri Krsna Vidyavagisa NM281 NM IV 309 VSP 85 (363) ASG 3881 Calcutta Sanskrit College IMS, 410 NS IV 308 Text of K arpurastotra and its Syamastavatika comm. Sritattvabodhini Satkarmadipika Durgarama Siddhanta- Satkarmollasa Satcakradipika Satcakradipika-tika Satcakranirupana Pumananda Brahamananda Pumananda Nandarama Tarkavagisa AS 6367 SC 446 With the author’s name are associ­ ated the works A tm a-prakasika (IO IV. 2400), Sam khya- prakasika (Ibid. IV 2457), etc. Author perhaps identical with the author of Svarupakhya- stava-tika. !n the Satcakranirupana, he has mentioned Harivailabha Raya as his patron. He appears to have flourished before Saka 1638 (= 1716 A.D.). Satcakrakrama-dipika Ramabhadra NS I 386 Sarvabhauma SC619 SatcakraPumananda bheda (Satcakra) Satpadyamala Ramarama Bhattacarya NS 1387 First part deals with the procedure of tenfold Samskara in accordance with Tantra. Second part deals with procedural matters relating to Sraddha in conformity with Tantric practices. NS iii 336 A biography of Sarvananda by his son. Account given by himself— SanatanaJaganmohana dharmanusthana Tarkalamkara Sarvananda-tarangini Sadhanamala Sundarirahasyavrtti Sivanatha Vinodacandra SSP 634 Ratnanabha Agamacarya Varendra AAS 6350 Brahmana, Maitreya. Son of Narayana, grandson of Mukunda, disciple of Gopinatha. Sundarisaktivaradanam Svarupakhyastavatika Adinatha Nandarama SSPA 1237 VSP 154 (1336 Ka) 155(1356 Kha) NS I 39. Chapter -6 Tantras and their Details Abbreviations DK W ET SK TT VK W Danakaumudiaf Govindananda, Bib. Indica, Calcutta. Durgotsa vaviveka of Sulapani, Skt. Sahitya Parisat, Calcutta. Ekadastiattva in Snvtitattva of Raghunandana. Sraddhakaumudict Govindananda, Bib. Indica, Calcutta. Tithitattva 'mSmrti-tattvaof Raghunandana. Varsakriyakaumudiof Govindananda, Bib. Indica, Calcutta. Vn3takalavivekadSu\apdri\. (In Devanagari a lphabetical order) Kapiiapancaratra DK-5,13,126,129,130, 180,192,204,205 DV-23 Gavaksatantra DV—12 Garudatantra VK-283 Gautamitantra VK-146 Naradapancaratra VK-150 Narad iya-samhita TT-51 V K -1 1 8 ,152,158,176,179 ET-74,85 Bhuvanesvaritantra VK-160 Matsysukta DK-206 DV-7,11,13,23 Mahakapilapancaratra DV-23 Yoginitantra VK-120,132,149,157, 175,372,440,441,442 RudrayamaJa SK-266 Nigamaparisista SK-53,317 VK-17 Purascarana-candrika Saradatilaka VK-118-21,126-28,134 136, 139, 145, 149. 150, 152, 153, 157,159, 162, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176, 190, 384, 385, 391,565 VK-157,284 SaradafTilaka?) DV-11 D K -9 ,1 0 ,68,74,75.89,112 124, 125, 126, 128, 130, 131, 141, 144, 146, 149, 150, 151, 153. 154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 164, 176, 178, 179, 180, 182, 185, 188,190,191. Swagama VK-76 Hayasirsapancaratra or Hayasirsa W -24 Tantras cited in theH aratattva-didhiti (In Devanagari alphabetical order) Little known works have been left out Agamakalpadmma Agamatattva-vilasa Agamadvaita-nimaya Agama-sandarbha Agamasara Uttarakamakhya-tantra Uttara-tantra Utapatti-tantra Umajamala Kankalamalini-tantra Kamala-tantra Kamalavilasa-tantra Kulaprakasa-tantra Kulacana-tantra Kutamava-tantra Kulavali-tantra Gandhara-tantra Gayatri-tantra Guptadrksa-tantra Gupta-sadhana-tantra Guptamava-tantra Guru-tantra Gotamiya-tarrtra Gaurijamala Katyayani-tantra Kamadhenu-tantra Kamakhya-tantra Kalikalpa-tantra Kakulamrta-tantra Kalikularnava-tantra Kalikrama-tantra Kalitantra Kalivilasa-tantra Kubjika-tantra Kumari-tantra Tantraraja T antrasagara-samhita Tantrasara Tantradarsa Tantrikadarpana Taragama Taratantra Tararahasya Tararhasya-vrtti Taramava Todala-tantra T railokya-sammohana-tantra Daksinamurtikalpa Daksinamurti-samhita Dattatreya-jamala Durga-kalpa-tantra Devijamafa Devyagama Navaratnesvaratantra Narayani-tantra Nigamakalpalata Nigamakalpasara Gheranda-samhita Cinatantra Jamala Jnanatantra Jnanamava-tantra Damara-tantra Tantra-kaumudi Tantracudamani Tantradipika Tantrapramoda Tantraratna Brhannifvana Brhannila-t Brhanmaya-t Btahmajamata Brahmanda-tantra Bhagavad-bhakti-vilasa tantra Bhuvanesvari-tantra Bhutasuddhi-tantra Bhairavajamala Bhairava-tantra Bhairavi-tantra Matsyasukta Mantratantra-prakasa Mahakalamohini-tantra Mahanirvana-tantra Matanila-tantra Mahalingesvara-tantra Mahisamardini-tantra Matrkabheda-tantra Mayatantra Malini-tantra Mundamala-tantra Nigamatattvasara Nityatantra Nibandha-tantra Niruttara-tantra Nirvana-tantra Nilatantra Picchila-tantra Purascarana-candrika Purascarana-bodhini Purascarana-rasollasa-tantra Phetkarini-tantra Brhat-tantrasara Brhat-todala-tantra Brhad-gautamiya-tantra Brhad-rudrajamala Vyomaratna-t Sakijamala Sakti-t Sakti-samgama-t Saktananda-t Sambhavi-t Sarada-t Sarada-tiiaka Sasvata-t Sikharini-t Syama-kaJpalata Syamarahasya Syamarcana-candrika Syama-saparya-krama Syama-saparya-vidh i Mrdani-tantra Meru-tantra Yogni-tantra RudrayamaJa-tantra Reva-tantra Lingarcana-tantra Varada-tantra Vamakesvara-t Vamadeva-t Varahi-t Vidyotpatti-t Vimaia-t Visvasara-t Visnujamala-t Vira-t Srrtattva-cintamani Sanatkumara-t Samaya-t Samayacara-t Sammohana-t Sarasvata-t Sarasvati-t Simhavahini-t Siddhalahari-t Siddhesvari-t Svacchanda-mahesvara-t Svatantra-t Hamsamahesvara (Hamsaparamesvara) Hayasirsa-pancaratra Tantric authors mentioned in the Haratattva-didhiti Tantradipikakara Pumananda Brahmanandagiri If Works and Authors Cited in the Tantras of Bengal (Arranged in English Alphabetical Order) N.B—The figures refer to the pages of the work against which these are mentioned. A. WORKS Title Tantra in which metioned with reference PV Kanda v P 344 S 41 T 611 P 12, 28 T 16, 35. 240, S 5 PV Kanda ii T 1, S 4 P 195 P 239, T 4 T 75 T 583 Acaracintamani Acarasara Adityapurana Adiyamala Adhyatma-viveka Agamakalpadruma Agamasamhita Agamasandarbha Agamasara Agama-tattva-vilasa Agamottara Title Tantra in which mentioned with reference T 37,38 P 349, S 8 , 18, 41 SU 124 SU 120 P 104, PV Kanda ii Agastya-samhita Agnipurana (Agneyapurana) Aksaya Anandapatala Annadakalpa Amava Bhagavadbhukti-vilasa Bhagavata Bhairaviya Bhairavatantra 3 Bhairavitantra Bharata Bhasya Bhavacudamani etc., Bhavasaravalai Bhavisyapurana Bhutabhairava Bhutadamara Bhutasuddhitantra Brahmajnanatantra Brahmajamala Brahmapurana Brahmasamhita Brahmavaivartapurana Brhacchamkara-vijaya Brhadyoni Brhannilatantra Brhat-stavaraja Brhat-todafatantra S44 P 181 P 9, S 39, 42 T 467, 511 P 63. T 461, 463, 4 7 2 .S 1 9 .2 1 , 1 SU 33, 66. SR 7 T9 S 18 S 10 P 511. T 153, 545. SU 24, 43, SR 5 TR 56 P 88. S 14.18 T 40. PV Kanda ii T 640. S 24 P 189. SS 8, 11, 17 P 22, 23. 24. 25 P 104, T 57, 384 T 686. S 183 T 693, 776 P 346 P 495 SU 57, 107, etc. P5 T 414 S 15 Tantra in which m entioned with reference T 20. S 21, 34. PV Kanda ii. SR 50 / (Sam hita) T 255 T 48,492, 708 P 62 Title Brhacchrikrama 20 Brhadgautamiya Camundatantra Caranavyuha , Chandahsara Chinnamastatantra Cidambara-nata-tantra Cintamani Daksinamurti Daksinamurtisamhita Daksinamurtitantra Daksinamu rtitantra Damara Dasapatali Dattatreyasamhita Devipurana Dharmapurana Dharmasamhita Divyacaratantra Divyatantra Ekavirakalpa Ganesa Gandharvamatiha 37, Gaurijamala Gandharva 18, Garudatantra Garuda Gayatritantra T itle T 51 SR 41 PV Kanda ii PV Kanda ii T375,377,404. S U 134 (Samhtta) T 160, 204 P 160, 204 P 206 SR 22 P 174 P 4 0 6 ,A P 110 S 14 T 351 PV Kanda i, iv T 575 T 50, 504, SR 33 SU 1 T 11. S (Gandharva) 5, 15, 18, 42 P 196, S 15, PV Kanda iii T 937. S 5, 13, 18, 37,42, 8,17, 20, 31 A T 622 S 59 P 83 Tantra in which mentioned with reference P6 P 162. T 7,114. S 44. PV Kanda P 182 P 178. T34,39. S 14,19,30,43, 45. A. SU 77,94, 99,205,2112 SR Gandharvatantra Ganesavimarsini ii Garudapurana Gautamiya 6 Gherandasamhrta Gira Gopalatapaniya Goraksasamhita Govindavmdavana Grahafamala Gupta-diksatantra Guptarahasya Guptamava Gupta-sadhana-tantra Gumdiksatantra Gurugita ®UrUtantra Hamsamabesvara Hamsatantra Hamsamahesvaia Hamsaparamesvara HanumatkaJpa a Pq gs P 8.198A T83 S 42 P 12 6 A P 144 g 31 SR48 T446.SR16 P 11. SU 36 , 76 , etc. ps ' ' ' pgg P94.SU 31,32,150 SU 67, 89 , etc PVKandarii SU 67,89, etc. T48. S 28 . „ , P73,.SR20 7757 Hastihrdaya-prabandha P292 Hathadipika PV Kanda vi Hayasirsa-pancaratra(Hayasirsa) P150.T6 Isanasamhita P22 ^ama* a Jnanadipa P17 97 SU7,14,etc. Jnanabhasya Jfianapradipa Jnanamava JnanamaJa Jnanasamkuli Jnanatantra Jnanesvari-samhita . p 27 S 1 yy 33^ P174.T2,127.S14,19.SU46 68 , etc. SR 2 T702 Pl77,PVKandav PV Kanda iv PV Kanda iv r Jnanottara Jyotistartva Kaivalyatantra Kalagnirudropanisat Kalika-kula-sarvasva-samputa Kalika (Kali) — (kulasarvasva) Kalikalpa Kalikapurana Kalikopanisat Kalihrdaya Kalikapurana Kalikulamrta Kalitantra P321,326 P49 P509 P184 PV Kanda iii, P 62. S 5. SU 49,82, 94,126 S41.SR32 T 486. SU 83,89,107,169 T46,51 SR16 T 147. PV Kanda ii S3,41.SR5 PV Kanda iii P230.T473,475,499,522,934. SU {simply Kaii) 109,111. S 31. SR4 P272.SU 136 SR7 PV Kanda iii T488 P321.326 171,302,365 P 17. T445. T 699 P12 P369 P 188 P 15. S 24. PV Kanda ii TR 23 P 91, 92, 149 P 94 P 26 P 182 P 449 Kalivilastantra Kalikrama Kalikulamrta Kalirahasya Kalottara Kalpa Kalpasutra Kalpasutratika Kalpataru Kamadatantra Kamadhenutantra (orKamadhenu) Kamakhya-muia Kamakhyatantra Kankalamalinitantra Karmavipaka Kasikhanda Kathopanisat Kaulatantra Kavyaprakasa Kedarakhanda Kramadtpika Kriyasara Kriyasara-samuccaya Krkalasadipika Krsnarcana-candrika Kubjikatantra Kukkuta Kukkutesvaratantra Kulacudamani Keralagama Kulamrta Kulamulavatara-kalpasutratika (or Kulamuiavatara) Kulanandasamhita Kulaprakasa Kularahasya Kularnava Title SR 34, 39 P 11 P 322 T 152, 167, 255, S 5 T 3, 75. S 4. P 7 T 3 P 243 P 179 P 6.T 5 5 ,381.S 10.S U 128.136, 138, 196, 206 SU 72 P 3 3 9 .T 586 P 157. T 6, 59, 20,37, 38. SU 58, 73, 92, 174, 207. SR 2 P 95 T 112, 130, PV Kanda i P 17. S 6 T 799 T7 1. SR 33 SU 103, 213 P 9. T 40. S 4 ,5 ,8 , 21, 23,33, 37, 44. A. SU 26, 400, etc. SR 5 Tantra in which m entioned with reference SR 50 SR 46 SR 11,32 PV Kanda v. SR 45 P 542, PV Kanda v. SR 22 SU 83, 105, 148, 178 T 115, 659 T 389, 396, SR 22, 41 Kulasadbhava Kulasara-samgraha Kulasambhava Kulasarvasva Kulasara Kulatattvasara Kulavali Kuloddisa Kufottama Kumari-katpa Kumaritantra Kurmapurana (Kaurma) Laghukalpasutra Laigapurana Laksmikularnava Lalita Lingagama Lingapurana Lingarcanacandrika Lingacanatantra Lingatantra Madhaviyasamhita Mahabharata Mahacina Mahakapila-pan^a-ratra Mahalingesvaratantra Mahanila Mahanirvana 225 Mahapherkariya Mahataranava Mahogra Mahogratarakalpa Mahisamardinitantra Malinitantra Maiini-vijaya Manasoliasa Mangalatantra P 542. PV Kanda v T 478, 482. SR 3 P 511. T 508, 934, 949. S 41. SU 27, 69, 135. SR 1 P 186. S 9 P S8 T 125 S 15 P 187 SU 167 T 958 P 240 P326. T 96, 656 TR 29 P 3 2 7 .S 41 TR 1 S 45 P 45. A TR 8 P 97 TR 30 TR 4 P 6. PV Kanda iv. A. SU 21, 222, T506 TR8 T 930.931 T930 P96.S7,31,39 T 125 P186.T14 S18.T318 S 26 Mantramuktavali Mantraprakasa Mantraratnavali Mantra-tantra-prakasa Mantratarangini Mantracudamani Mantradeva-prakasika Mantradeva-prakasini Mantramahodadhi Mantrakosa Manusamhita Ma rkandeyapu rana Matrkabheda Mat rkabbedodaya Matrkodaya Matsyasukta 4 Mayatantra Merutantra Mrdanitantra Mrtyunjayagama Mrtyunayasamhita Muktitantra Mundakopanisat Mundamaiatantra S4 PV Kanda iii SR 16 P 165. T 656. S 13 PV Kanda i T 191 T 203, 327 T 614 P 251 S 24, PV Kanda ii P 63 P 7. S. 3, 4, 8, 9, 39, 42 A SU 61, 87, 117, 194 P 27 P 17 P. 5 T 8,12,153, 508. S 6 ,41. SR T 379, 498, 532 P 21 A PV Kanda iv P 12 PV Kanda iv, vi P 451 P 5. T 14, 42. S. 22, 30,33. A. SU 48, 66, 191. SR 4 Nandi kesvarasamhita T 127. SR 3 Nandikesvara-tantra P 239 . Nandyavarta T 832 Narada-paficaratra P 18 Naradiyatantra T 246, 650 Narapati-jayacarya-svarodaya P 33, 104 Narayana-kalpa T 71 Navaratnesvara P 1 87 .71 1 ,96 ,41 8 . S 4 , 19, 20, Nibandha Narayaniya Narayanitantra Navacakresvara Nigama-kal pad ruma Nigama-kalpa Nigama-kalpalata Nigama-kalpananda Nigamananda Nigama-tattva Nigama-tattvasara Nilasarasvatitantra Nilasarasvata Niiatantra Niruttaratantra Nirvanatantra Nityatantra Nrsimhapurana Nrsimha-tapaniya Padarthadarsa Padmapurana Padmavahini Pancadasi Parakrama Parapancasika Paraparimalollasa Parasarabhasya Parimaiollasa Phetkarini Phetkariya Picchila T 15,20 P65,117.T18 T 188, SU 4,29, etc. P92,93,189 P 447,555. T 3. PV Kanda v. SU 33,85 SU 71,108 SU 76,129 SU23 SU 63,93 SU41.42 PV Kanda iv. SU 214,217,239 TR11 T488.TR 1 SR 2,51. TR 15. P 149. S 13,15. SU228,T.84,130 . P32.SU 32,35, etc. 1 P5.SU17.59,etc. P149 P 354 S4 P 43 P 180. T 65 (Padma), 762, 765. S 9 (Padma). A P 151 P 23 P 17 P 63 . P 12 T 72 P 61 P 13. T 556, 559. S 19, 33. SR 3 T 488, 511 P 93. T 556, 559. S 19, 33. SR 3 Phetkariya P icchila Pingala Prapaficasara Prayogaparijata Prayogasara Purana-Samgraha Puranscaranacandrika Parascaranalahari-tantra Purascaranarasollasa Radha Raghaviya Ramarcanacandrika Ratirahasya Ratnavali Revatitantra Rudradhyaya Rudray(j)amala etc. A. SU 145. SR27.TR 7 Sadanvaya-maharatna Saivagama Saktakramacandrika (tantraka) Saktananda-tarangini Saktikalpa Saktikagamasarvasva Saktisara Saktitantra Saktiyamaia Samayacaratantra Samayanka Samayankamatrka Samayatantra Sambhava T 488, 511 P 93. SU 41, 55, 56, 161 P 67, T 21, 30, 31 P 9 . 1 90, 197 P 360 P7 P 352 T 140, 158. PV Kanda ii P 185 P 6. PV Kanda i SU 9, 59 S 44 P 92. T 35 P 558 T 38, 40 P548 TR6 P 17.T5,7,16,26,30,34,5,6, P118 T36, P172 SU208.211,220 P27. PV Kanda ii TR1 P554 TR5 PV Kanda iii T 8. SI. PV Kanda v. TR 38 P64. T 954,961. SU 27,31, etc. T404.441 S19 T 4. S 10,12,15,16,37,45 T153 Samkaratantra Samketaca ndnxJaya Sammohanatantra Sanatkumaratantra Sanatkumariya Sanketapaddhati Saradatilaka Sarada Sarada-tika Sarasamgiaha Sarasamuccaya Sarasvata Sarasvatitantra Saravali Satkarmadipika Sautramanitantra Setumangala-tantra Siddhalahari Siddhantasekhara Siddhasarasvata Siddhayamala Siddhesvartantra Siksasutra Sivadharma Sivadiksa-tika Sivagama Sivarahasya Sivatantra Skandapurana Smrtisara Sodha-tantra Somabhujagavali A T506 P 93, T 94,127.315,43,32 T44.773 P 230. T (Sanatkumarasamhita} 31, 36,42,329 S12 P7.S20. PV Kanda ii 36,10,19,42,43,44,45 SR2 P92.T 4,54 T656. PV Kanda iii P115.S27,25 P223 T673.S20 P117 P287 S27 SU232 P113,179.T686.S42 T 13,530,680 SR 37 T 8,385,797 T490.SR35 P46 P186.T64,S14 S6 T937,961,SR40 P198 PV Kanda iii P 180. T 842. S 41 .A P 288,543 TR1 T 415,687 Sribijarnava Srikrama Sriramatapantya Sritattvacintamani Suksmasvarcdaya Sutasamhita Svacchandabhairava Svacchandasamgraha Svarodaya Svarodayatika Svatantratantra Svayambhuva-matrka-tantra Syamakalpalata Syamarahasya Taittiriyaka Tantradevaprakasika Tantragandharva Tantracudamani Tantrakaumudi Tantraraja Tantrarnava Tantrasara Taranigama Tapani Tarakalpa Tarakrama T arakula-sarvasva Tarasara Tarayoga Tarinitantra Tarapradipa Taramava S31 T2.9.42.T378 (samhUa). S 39. SR 2,34. S8 T 155. P 32, SR 20 P420 P322 ‘ P 63. T 402 T 536. PV Kanda i P105 P106 P 179. T 93,408 SR i T 603 PV Kanda ii P179.S1D. SU159 P448 S22 56,13,17,18,20 P234.T515.SR40 T374 T18 T5.SR19 P67 TR4 P61 T 826. TRI PV Kanda iii TR t TR6 TR81 T593 T5 T504,TR8 Tarini-nirnaya T aratantra Tattvabodha T attvananda-tarangini Tattvasara vi Tiksnakalpa Tithitattva Todalatantra Traipurisruti Tripurakalpa T ripurarnava T ripurasarasamuccaya Tripurasara Trisaktitantra Udayakarapaddhati Uddamaresvaratantra Urdhvamnayatantra Utpattitantra Uttarakalpa Uttarakhandoddisa Uttaratantra Vabhata Vaikhanasagrantha Vaisampayanasamhita Vaisvanarasamhita Vajasaneyasamhita Vamakesvaratantra Varadatantra Varaha Varahitantra Varnabhairava T 527 T 529 T 397 SR 15 P 3 9 .T 1 1 6 .S 5 .P V Kanda i, iv, PV Kanda ii P 21 P 173 T 379 TR 30 T 358 P 4 1 9 .T 139 T 362, 364 T 361 P 188, SR 9, 21 P 256 S 32. TR 1 PP 231 S 7, 24 PV Kanda iii P 511. T. 948. SR 5 P 28 P 199 T 3, 9, 34, 45. S 28 P 201 P 448 P 22. T 61, 410, 4, 555, 651. SU 36,80 P 47. SU 60, 63, 165 S 10 T 12, 13, 28, 32, 41, S 4, 6, 22, 27.SU 124. SR 32 PV Kanda ii Varnavilasatantra Vamoddharatantra Vasistha Vasisthasamhita Vasistharamayana Vastuyagapradipika Vijayamalini Vijayakalpa Virabhadratantra Vimalanandabhasya Vedantavrtti Vidyagama Vidyanandanibandha Viramitrodaya Virasarvasva Viratantra Visnudharmottara Visnuyamala VisLiddhesvara Visvasara Visvasaroddhara Visvadarsa Visvasvarakalpadruma Yajurvediya hiranyakesiyasakha Yamala Yogacudamani Yogarnava Yogasara P 131 P 49 T 72, 116 P 172, T 674 S 18 P 105 PV Kanda i T 946 PV Kanda ii S i P 16 T5 T 159 P 179 PV Kanda iv T 72, 475, 506, 516, SU 82, 100. SR 8, 40 P 346. S 42 T 40. S 9, SU 129 T 45, 54,66. S 15, 19,23, 27, 29. SR 20 (-mahatantra) P 13. T 22, 43. S5, 6, 13, 18,21, 28, 38. SU 58, 149, etc. T 685 PV Kanda ii PV Kanda iii P152 T 3,28, 32. SU 2, 77, etc., SR 13. TR 30 PV Kanda vi P28 P 323 Yogesvarodaya Yoginihrdaya Yoginijalandhara Yoginitantra Yogini Yonitantra B. AUTHORS Abhinavaguptacarya Amarasimha Baudhayana Bhadracarya Bhartrhari Dattatreya Durgasimha Gopinatha Tarkacarya Himadri Jabala Krsnananda Agamavagisa Madhavacarya Maitreya Narada Narahari Nityananda Purnananda Puspadanta Raghavabhatta Ramakrsna Pandita Ramalocana Vidyabhusana Rayamukuta Samkaracarya Smarata Bhattacarya P 431 A p 144, T 49,56. S 5, 8,29,30, 36, 37, 39. SR 46 T 388 P 8. T 7, 8, 34, 38, 41 SU 126 P 495. TR 1 P 41 P 11 P 111 P 318 P 46 P 117 P 11 P 11 P 321 T 10 P 75 T 83 P 18 T 17, 45 P 107 T6 SR 15 P 17 P 7, T 661. SR 2 P 36 P 105 P 11,35 P 12. T 515 P 277 Sridharasvami Susruta Udayabhanu Vidyanandasvami Vidyaranyasvami Yajnaparsva Yogiyajnavalkya NOTES 1. P 18 P 29 P 179 P 36 P 495 P 180 P 28 The following abbreviations have been used — A = Amari-samhita, as described in Vangiya Sahitya Parisat Patrika, vol. 58/3-4, p.41. P = Pranatosini, Vasumati ed., Calcutta, 1335 BS. PV = Pancama- veda-saranirnaya as described in Vangiya Sahitya Parisat Patrika, Vol. 59/3-4, p. 71. R = Radhatantra, ed. R. Chattopadhyaya, Calcutta, S = Saktananda- tarangini, ed. R. Chattopadhyaya, Calcutta. SR = Syamarahasya of Purnananda, ed. R.M. Chattopadhyaya, SU = Sarvollasa-tantra, ed. R.M. Chakravarti, Comil Ia, 1941, T = Tantrasara, vangavasi ed., 1334 BS. TR = Tarahasya, ed. J. Vidyasagara, Calcutta, 1896. III. Tantras Mentioned in the Sanskrit Works on Bengal Vaisnavism Some o! the important Sanskrit works, relating to Bengal Vaisnavism, contain copious references to Tantric works. This is particularly true in the case of the works dealing with the rites and rituals. For the present purpose, we shall collect the references to Tantras contained in the following works against which the respec­ tive abbrevations are noted, 1. Bhaktirasamrta-sindhu BS (The references are to the ofRupaGosvamin pages of the edition used.) (Murshidabaded., Radharaman Press) 2. Haribhakti-vilasaof Gopala HV (The refernces are to the Bhatta1 pages of the edition used here). (Ed. R. Vidyaratna, Behrampore, West Bengal) 3. Samksepa-bhagavatamrta SB (References are to pages). of Rupa Gosvamin (Murshidabad ed., 1303 B.S.) 4. Sat-kriya-sara-dipika, ascribed SD (References are to pages), to Gopala Bhatta2 (Ed. Gaudiya Math, Calcutta, 449Gaurabda). 5. Satsandarbhad JivaGosvamin (Tattva, Bhagavat, Paramatma, Radharaman press ed.) Srikrsna-ed. P.G. Gosvamin, Navadvipa, 1332 B-S. Bhakti— ed, S. Gosvamin, Calcutta, Saka 1822. Priti— ed. P. Gosvami, Noakhali). 6. Ujjvalanilamaniof Rupa Gosvamin SS (The Arabic numerals referto pages and the Roman figures to the Sandarbhas in the order shown here.) UN (Kavyamala ed., Bombay, 1913), The Gopala-campu of Jtva Gosvamin contains references to several Tantras all of which have been referred to also in his Sandarbhas. So, for the present purpose, we need not take1the Gopala-campu into consideration. (In Devanagari alphabetic! order) Asvasirah-pancaratra: Agama: Sameas Hayasirsa(q. v.) HV. 1.41 -42,79.82-83,154-55,267, 516-19,548,552,582-83,750, 789-790,807-09,811 -13,1170-71 1178-79 III.110-14 IV. 2-3,8-9,21-22 SB 393 SSIV. 76,255,271.335,565. V. 626, 634. VI. 477,958 Kramadipika: HV. 1.15-16,28,71,78,353,397-98, 405-06,519-20,723 IV. 5 UN 349 HV. 1.83-84,330-31,475,703 III.44,60,164,285 IV.21,30,32-33,67,184-85 HV. 1.58,192,236,237,432-35,462, 913,1146-50,1208,1344 II.9-10 III. 4,220-23 IV. 100-02 SS IV. 220,423. V. 547,640,651. VI. 959,1074 HVI.70,1176-77 III.183-84 IV. 12 Gautamiya: Gautamiya-tantra: Tantra: SB 374 UN61 BS21,24,111,170,187 Tantra-bhagavata: Tantrantara: Tantrikah: SS. I. 53, 72. IV. 224, 421 SS. V. 627 HV. I. 92-93 HV. II, 179 ' Trailokyamohana-paficaratra: Trailokya-sammohana-pancaratra: HV. 1.60-62, 71 -73,377-78 IV. 39-40, 46-49, 58, 60 SS. IV, 220. V. 523, 630. VI. 725 Navaprasna-pancaratra: Narada-tantra: Narada-pancaratra: HV III. 151 HV I. 85 HV. I. 20-22, 32, 34, 44-45, *123 125,151-152,199-201,233,286­ 287, 359-363, 436, 449, 552, 790, 822,1087-88,1352 IV. 13, 20,24-25,28-29, 35-36, 41, 52-53,54,68-69,175-76 BS 11, 23, 59, 107 SS II. 182, 257, 386. ill. 25, 127. IV. 299,466 V. 576, 595, 596, 628,629, 630,633, 640, 650 VI. 225, 246, 247 SS Mi. 33 HV. I, 187 III. 136 BS 218 HV III. 359 HV. I. 39,125-26, 267,349. 745-46, 777-78 II. 5-6 BS 36, 129, 213. 216, 217 SS III. 75, 80. V. 472, 625. VI. 417, 426 Naradiya-tantra: Naradiya-pancaratra: Narayana-pancaratra: Nigama: Pancaratra: Prahlada-pancaratra: HV. I. 907 SS VI. 239 SS IV. 305, 309, 567, 568. VI. 239, 564 1 BS 79 SS V. 628 Same as Tantra-bhagavata (q. v.) HV II. 106 SB 244 SS IV. 296 SS IV. 463, 567, V. 650 SD 39, 50, 108. HV I. 86 HV. I, 80-81, 126-34, 354, 1245 IV, 491 BS334 SSV.613,640 SD20,107 BS333 SS 111.71. V. 494,572,627 HV 1.65-70,75-76,189-91,365 HV IV. 23-25,27-28,31,406-10 SB334 HV. 11.16-17 HV 1.126,136,407,410,451 SB366 SD106 SB 25,190,209 SB 165,219 SSIV.272 Same as Hayasirsa (q.v.) HV. 1.26,197,454-57,546,910, Brhat-tanlra: Brhad-gautamiya-tantra: Brahm ayamala: Bhagavat-tantra: Bhagavaiadi-tantra: Bhargava-tantra: Mrtyurijaya-tantra: Yamala: Rudrayamala: Visnuyam ala: Vaisnava-tantra: Saradatilaka: Sivagama or Saivagama: Sriyamala: Sanatkumara-tantra: Sammohana-tantra: Satvata-tantra: Svayambhuva-agama: Hayagriva-pancaratra: Hayasirsa-pancaratra: 1209-10.111.46-47 IV. 82,84,97-99,109-11,129-47, 150-71,178,183,187-93,196-202, 206-36,238-41,250-58,260-61, 266,273-75,278-80,282-284,289-93,295­ 98,300-03,307-310,316-18,321 -23,325­ 330,339-43,346-57,359-374,400-05,411, 417-18,420-23,425-34,442-45, 452-61,464268,473-77,480-84,486-91 SS 1.53. II. 645. V. 567,569,633. Vt. 246 NOTES 1 The identity of the author is controversial. Some think that he is one . of the six Gosvamins of Vrndavana, while others think that he was a different person. Yet others think that it was really a work of Sanatana Gosvamin who associated it with the name of Gopala Bhatta. There is an opinion that it was their joint work. 2 The authorship is doubtful. Even if it was written by Gopala Bhatta, his identity with Gopala Bhatta, one of the famous Gosvamins of Vrndavana, has not yet been established conclusively. Only the major published works have been taken into acco The toilowing abbreviations are used: P :Pranatosini S : Srita ttva-cin tamani SR : Syamarahasya ST: Saktananda-iarangini T : Tantrasaara T R : Tararahasya (In Devanagani alphabetical order) Aksayavata Agastyasrama Attahasa TR Ayodhya Avanit Amarakantaka Asvatirtha Aryavarta Ujjayini Uddiyana Elapura SR, TR Oghavati Kanakhala Kanyasrama Kamala Karavira Karatoya Kamatirtha P P P P P P P P P P P Kalamadhava Kalighata Kaveri Kasi Kasmira Kubjaka Kuruksetra Kusavarta Kedara Kausiki Ganga P P P, SR, T, P P P T, P P P P T, P, P P T, P P P P P Ganesvara Gandaki Gaya Godavari Govardhana Gautamesvara Candrabhaga P P T, P P, SR P P P Kamasutra Karnata Kalamba Kanci Kamakhya Kalanjara Trivent T risrota Durga Dvaravati Nandipura Narmada Nalahati Nagatirtha Nagarasambhava Nepala Naimisaranya Paiicavati Pancapsara Patala Pinga Pindarakavana Puskara Prabhasa Prayaga Brahmasira Brahmavarta Bhadresvara Bharatasrama Bhaskaraksetra Bhairavaparvata Manipura Manibandha Matanga P Candrasekhara P Jayanu Jalandhara P Jvalamukhi P P Trikona Tripura P Mathura P Madhupuri P Manasa P Maya P Mahismati P P, SR, TR Mithila Yamuna P Yasor P Ratnavali P P Ramanaka Ramagiri P P Ramatirtha Ramesvara P Lagnikasrama P P Lanka Viraja (Viraja) P Sukratirtha P Sona P Srisaila(Srigiri) T, P Sarayu P Saradatirtha P Sindhu P Haratirtha P Hartdvara T Hamsatirtha P Harita P Hingula T T Hrsikesa T, P P P P P P P P P P P P P, SR P P P P P P P P T, P P P T, P P P SR, TR P P P P P P V Pantheon in Bengal Tantra The major published works have been utilised here The following abbrevations have been used: P : Pranatosini Pi J : Purascarana-ratnakara S : Srita ttva- cintamani S R : Syamarahasya S T : Saktananda- ta rang ini T: Tantrasara T R : Tarahasya Besides the deities mentioned here, there are many demigodes, minor deities, etc. The different Avataras have been mentioned In some texts. We have not stated them separately. Of Vamana, there are the aspects of Dadhivamana, Sadvamana. The various weap­ ons and other things, supposed to be held by different deities, e.g. Samkha, Cakra, Khadga, Dhanus, etc., have been deified and men­ tioned in some texts. We do not set forth these deities here. Some texts mention the different planest as deities, which we do not state here. A separate list is given of those deities whose mantras are mentioned. {In Devanagari alphabetical order) Name Work in Name Work in which which mentioned mentioned Agni Agnidurga Ananta Aniruddha Antarika Sarasvati Annapurna Annapurna Bhairavi PU PU PU PU PU T, PU T Indra T, PU Indrani PU Ucchista Ganesa T Ucchista Candalint PU Ucchista Matangi PU Ekajata PU Kamalatmika T, P, PU Aparajita Vaisnavi Asvarudha Karnapisaci Karnamatangi Katyayani Kama Kamesvari Bhairavi Kaitavirya Kartikeya Kali PU PU T PU T, PU PU T, PU PU PU TR, T, P , PU, ST, S, SR {Kamala) Gayatri P, S, PU Goraksanatha PU Gopala PU Govinda PU Gauri T, S, PU P Graha (Surya, Candra, Mangala, Budha, Brhaspati, Sukra, Sani, Rahu, Ketu) Candika S T, PU Candesvara Candramauli T S, PU Camunda Cintamani PU PU Sarasvati Caitanyabhairavi PU Chinnamasta PU (See Pracanda Candika) Jayadurga Jnanasarasvati Tara Tijmburu Tulasi Trikantaki Trikuta Sarasvati Triputa Tripurabhairavi Tripurasundari T, PU PU T. P PU, TR PU P PU PU T, S, PU T, PU T, P.S. PU (Bhadrakali, Daksinakali, Mahakali. Siddhikali, Smasanakali, Guhyakali Kamakala Kali) Ketu PU Kaulesa Bhairavi T, PU Kaumari PU Kuvera PU Krsna T, S kesava PU T. S, PU Ksetrapala Ganga T, P, S, PU Ganapati PU (Saki-ganapati, Mahaganapati, Vighnaganapati Ganesa T, P (Saktiganesa, Laksmiganesa, Vighnaganesa, Ucchista-ganesa, Ksipra-prasada Ganesa Vakratunda) Garuda Durga Dhanada Dharani Dhumavati Narayana Nityaklinna Nitya Nityabhairavi Nilakantha Nilasarasvati Nrsimha Nairta Padmavati Parijata Sarasvati Parvati Pumsottama Pracandacandika (Chinnamasta) Pratyangira Pradyumna Banalinga Siva Balagopala Bala Brahma Brahma Brahma Bhaya-vidhavasmsini Bhairavi Bharati Bhuvanesvari Bhairavi Tryambaka Tvarita Dadhivamana T T, P, PU T, PU PU T, P PU , PU PU T T, PU T.S PU T PU PU PU PU PU T,P T PU T, PU Damodara PU Bhairavi T, S, PU (also see Sakalasiddhida and Sampatprada Bhairavis) Manjughosa Manikarnika Madhusudana Mahakala Bhairava (Kali-bhartrdeva) Mahalaksmi Mahasarasvati Mahisa-mardini Matangi T PU PU T, P, S PU, SR T, S, PU PU T, PU T, P. S, PU Madhava PU PU Mahesvari PU PU Mukhya Vagisvari PU T Mrtyunjaya P, Yama T, PU PU PU Yogini T.S T, P S, SR {As companion , PU goddesses, Yoginis are of PU many kinds, e.g, Prakatayogini, D aksini, etc.) T, PU PU Rajamatangi PU T, PU Rahu PU s Bhariava T, S (Many kinds,e.g. Asitanga, Rudra Canda, Krodha, Unmatta-bhariava, etc.) Laksmi Vasudeva Laghusyama Vagalamukhi Vajraprastarini Vatuka Vanadurga Varaha Varuna Vasyamatangi Vahnivasini Vagisvari Vagmati Vagvadini Vasudeva Vayu Varahi Visaiaksmi Visnu Visnu Vagisvari Vaisnavi Vyasa Sarabha Siva {Tryambaka, Rudra Rudrabhairavi Rudravagisvari Laksmi Sitala Sulapani Sesa T, PU Sesika Srikara PU Sridhara T, P, PU Srirama T,PU Srihari T, S, PU Satkuta Bhairavi PU Sakalasiddhida T Bhairavi PU Sadasiva PU Sampatprada PU Bhairavi T, S, PU Sarasvati PU Samrajya-iaksmi PU Sita T Ssurya PU Svapnavarahi PU Hanumat T Hayagriva Haridraganesa T, P, S, PU, SR, T Harihara PU Hamsa Vagisvari PU Heramba PU Hrsikesa PU SR, T, P, S,, PU T, S, PU T, PU P U T, S, PU P U T, PU PU PU PU PU T PU T, PU T, PU PU T, PU PU PU PU T, S PU T, PU T, PU T, PU T, PU PU T PU Parvatisvara, Mrtyunjaya Mahamrtyunjaya, Pasupati, n a ris v a r a , ArdhaAghora, Nilakantha, Isana) List of Deities whose Mantras are mentioned in Bengal Tantra (The names of deities are in Devanagari alphabetical order) Name Work in which metioned T T T T T T T T, S T T T T T T T T T T,TR T T T, S T T T T T Name Work in which mentioned T T T T T T T T T T, SR T T T T S T T T T T T T T T Annapurna Annapurnabhairavi Indra Ucchistaganesa Ucchistacandalini Kamapisaci Katyayani Kamesvart Krsna Kaulesa Bhairavi Ganesa Garuda Guhyakali Gauri Candesvara Candramauii Jayadurga Tara Triputa Tripurabhairavi Tripurasundari Tryambaka Daksinamuru Dadhivamana Durga Dhanada Parijata Sarasvati Pracandacandika Balagopala Bhadrakali Bhayavidhvamsini Bhairavi Bhuvanesvari Bhuvanesvari Bhairavi Bhairavi Manjughosa Mahakala Bhairava Mahilaksmi Mahasamardini Matangi Mrtyunjaya Yogin Rudrabhairavi Laksmi Laksmi Vasudeva Vagaiamukhi Vajraprastarini ■ Vatuka Varaha Vagisvari Vasudeva Dhumavati Nitya Nityabhariavi Nilakantha Nrsimha Syama Srirama Srividya Satkuta Bhairavi Sakafa-siddhida Bhairavi Sampatprade Bhairavi T T T T T T, SR T T.S T T T Visalaksi Visnu Siva Sultni Smasanakali Surya Hanumai Hayagriva Haridraganesa Harihara Heramba T T P T T T T T T T T VI. List of Mudras, Yantrasand Mandates mentioned in Bengal Tantra The major published works have been taken into account The following abbrevations are used: P : Pranatosini S : Sritattva-cintamani T : Tantrasara T R : Tararahasya S R : Syamarahasya S T : Sa ktananada- ta rangini (in Devanagari alphabetical order) The principal mudras only are listed here Ankusa Anjali Apana Abhaya Avagunthana Avahani Udana Kumbha Kauliki Khadga Khecari Gajatunda Gada Galini Cakra Carma Jnana Tattvamudra T Nada T Padma S Prana T, SR Prarthana T, S, SR Bali T, S, ST, SR S Bija T, SR Bhutini T Mahankusa T, SR, TR Mahamudra T.S Munda S Musala T Mrga T, S Yoga T.S Yoni SR, TR T Laksmi T Leliha T, S, SR, TR s T S T, S s BintfuS S T S T T, SR T TR S T, S, ST, T T, S, SR Vara T, SR Trikhanda Durga Dhenu Sarva vtdravani Sambodhini Sakalikarani Sannidhapani SR Samana Sammukhikarani Sarvavasyakarani Vismaya T.S Vina T T, SR, TR Vyana Samkha TR Sri vats a Sarva samksobhani S Sarvonmadini Samhara T, R SR T, S, S, T Sundari T. S. ST, SR T, S, ST, S T, S, ST, SR S S T S T, S, SR, T S S T,TR S Sthapani MANDALAS The prominet mandalas, mentioned in the 7ar?frasara, are Navanabha, Sarvatobhadraand Svalpa-sarvatobhadra.Jbe Sritattvacintamani men tions Guru- mandala. YANTRAS The Yantras can be broadly divided into two clasees— Pujayantra and Dharana-yantra. As will be seen, some names are com­ mon in both the classes. Puja-yantras Rudrabhariavi T T Annapurna Bhairavi T Laksmi T Ganesa Guhyakali Tara Tarini Triputa Tvarita Durga Dhanada Pracandacandika Bhuvanesvari Mattangi T T T T T T T T T T Vagalamukhi Vajraprastarini Vatuka Vagisvari Visalaksi Smasanakali Syama Srividya Satkuta Bhairavi Hanumat T T T T T T T T, S T T Dharana-yantras Kali Tara Tvarita Nrsimha Bhuvanesvari Bhairavi T T T T T T Mrtyufljaya Laksmi Siva Srirama Srividya T T T T T VII. List of Kavacas mentioned in Bengal Tantra Abbreviations: P : Pranatosini S : Srita ttva-cintamani S R : Syamarahasya T : Tantrasara {In Devanagari alphabetical order) Name Work in Name which mentioned Work in w h ic h men­ tioned T P T T P T, SR T P T T P T, P T, SR T T T T Aksaya Annapurna Kartikeya Kundalini Ganga Gayatri Guru Tara Tripura Tripurasundari Trailokyamangala Daksinakalika Durga Dhanada Nayika Nrsimha P T T P T T P T T T, S T SR T T T T Pracandacandika Brahma Bhuvanesvari Bhairavi Mahavidya Mahisamardini Matangi Yoni Laksmi Vamsalabhakhya Siva Smasanakali Syama Srividya Sarasvati Surya Haridraganesa VIII. List of Hymns and Protective Manfras mentioned in Bengal Tantra Abbrevations: P : Pranatosini S ; Sritta ttva- cintamani S R : Syamarahasya S T : Saktananda-tarangini T : Tantrasara {In Devanagari alphabetical order) a a - Name Work in Name which mentioned tioned P T P P T P, ST T T P T T, S T T T T T Bhariavt Manasa Mahakali Mahavidya Mahisamardini Matangi Yoni Laksmi Vagalamukhi Vatuka Visnu Santi Siva Syama Srikrsna Srirama Work i w h ic men­ Ananda Kinkini Kundalini Kumari Ganesa Guru Gopala Tara Tulasi Triputa Tripurasundari Dakstna Durga Dhananda Dhumavati Nayika T T T P T, SR T P T T T T P T, P T, SR T T Nrsimha Pracandacandika Balarama Banaiinga Brahma T T T P P Srividya Sasthi Sarasvati Svaha Hanumat T T T T T Chapter-7 Tantric Devotees Bengal produced not only an abundance of Tantras, both Bud­ dhist and Hindu, but also gave birth to a galaxy to Tantric devotees. Some of them were of a very high order, and have carved out a permanent niche in the shrine of human memory. Of them again, some were scholar-devotees like Pumananda, Sarvananda, etc.They reached a spiritual height not comprehensible to ordinary people, inspired a band of illustrious disciples, and wrote treatises. Others were immersed in the nectar of thought of the Mother Goddess in whose honour they composed and sang songs. Even under adverse circumstances, they went on singing with sang-froid and unparal­ leled abandon. Yet others devoted a lifetime to silent meditation. Unfortunately, we have very little information about them be­ yond stories about their mystic and superhuman powers which com­ manded the naive and complacent attention of the devoted souls. The Bengalis loved Coritamrtas, containing more of fiction and fancy than of sober facts, rather than serious or faithful Caritas. Here we shall try to give short life-sketches of a very few eminent Sadhakas leaving aside all fanciful accounts of them. No account of Bengal Tantra can be complete without information about these devotees of immortal fame, whose names have become household words in Bengal, and whose teachings and songs have become a current coin the Bengali society. R am p rasad (l) Ramprasad {C.1720*81). Date of birth according to others 1723 or 1781. Death 1775 according to some, 1782, according to others). A poet, Sakta devotee and a singer, all rolled into one, Ramprasad was born to Ramram Sen at village Kamarhati in Halisahar in the district of 24 Parganas, West Bengal. At first a clerk under a wealthy person (Gokul Ghosal, Dewan of Bhukailash, according to some or Durgacharan Mitra, according to others), he subsequently enjoyed the patronage of a few other landlords including Krishnacandra Ray. Krishnachandra offered him a job. Ramprasad having declined, he gave him 100 bighas of rent-free land and conferred on him the title Kaviranjana. In recognition of this honour, Ramprasad composed, 1293 B.S./ a poetical work on Vidyasundar, and named it Kaviranjana. Nawab Siraj-u-ddaula is said to have been very much delighted by his Syama-samgita. The time of Ramprasad was full of trouble. He lived through the battle of Plassey (1757 A.D.) and the Great Bengal Famine of 1770. The resulting distress is echoed in some of his poems. Quite early in age he is said to have acquired proficiency in Sanskrit, Persian, and Bengali. In his teens, he could compose poems of a high class. Gradually he was attracted to Tantra and the Tantric mode of worship. He is said to have practised Sadhana on a pancamundi Asana. His spiritual preceptor was Srinatha, according to some, Krpanatha according to others. His two sons were Ramdualal and Rammohan. He was reputed as a Sakti-devotee of high order, and com­ posed many songs on the deity of his devotion. His songs, imbued with Tantric ideas, became a genre. He used to say na vidya samgitat para; no other ore is higher than music. In Bengal, prasadisur(turn or melody of Ramprasad’s songs) has become proverbial. He is, indeed, the pioneer in the introduction of a new mode of Sakta songs. ‘Kalikirtan’ is a small work by him. Of more than 300 songs, passing by his name, probably some are not genuine. Most of his songs are marked by passion or effusion relating to Kalibhakti. A few of his songs relate to the Agamani(arrival of Uma) and Vijaya {departure after Duigapuja. He is known to have composed also a Krsnakirtana. Kamalakanta B hattacarya2 (C.1772-1821) Born at village Canna in Burdwan district of West Bengal, he was a native of the village Ambika-Kalna. His father and mother are said to have been named Mahesvara and Mahamaya. He studied Sanskrit in the traditional way, and became a teacher. At first, an initiated Vaisnava, he fater became a dedicated devotee of Kali having received diksa atTarapitha in Birbhum dis­ trict of West Bengal. He is said to have achieved siddhi on a Pancamundi Asana, With a background of training in vocal music, he wrote many songs which are known as Syamasamgita Besides these, he wrote also Samara-samgita, Sivasamagita, Krsnapadavati, Dasamaha vidya-samgita. Hearing of his spiritual attainment, Tejchand (1764-1832), the then Raja of Burdwan was attracted to him, appointed him his courtPandit, built for him a residential house at village Kotalhat near the town of Burdwan, and granted him an allowance. Here he spent the rest of his life, and was highly respected by the Raj family. He composed songs not as a pastime, but as part of his Sadhana. Written in Tappa style, his Syamasangita was not looked upon as pedestrian, put also found respectful access in to the soi­ rees. A work by him is entitled Sadhanaranjana. Ramakrishana 3 Nothing can be more sacrilegious than the idea expressed in some quarters that Ramakishna (1836-86) was an unlettered village priest masquerading as a Sadhu. Born at village Kamarpukur in the district of Hughly (West Ben­ gal), in 1836, (18th February,) he was named Gadadhara. Though of indigent circumstances, his parents, Ksudiram, Cattopadhyaya and Candramani, were very pious. In his very boyhood, Gadadhara had a spiritual bent of mind, and liked the company of learned men and divines. For quite some­ time he studied Sanskrit Sastras in the traditional way. The reputation of the piety and devotion of the young Gandadhara attracted the attention of Rani Rashmani who was a pious and prosperous lady. She engaged him as priest at the newly built Kali temple of Daksineswar, a northern suburb of Calcutta, on the Ganges. It was her that the spiritual eye of the priest opened, In the lifeless image, he perceived the pulsation of a living goddess. A remarkable fact of his life is that, though born and bred in a conservative Brahmin family in the early 19th century, he was abso­ lutely free from bigotry. He tasted the sweet fruits of all the major religions, viz.. Islam , Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, etc., and openly declared that there were as many ways as there are religious doctrines. His simple life, precepts of epigrammatic brevity yet pregnant with noble thoughts and sincerity, and, above all, catholicity of heart soon attracted many disciples. Vivekananda,* an intellectual of high order and having liberal education, was at first sceptic about the existence of God, and had scant regard for the Daksineswar priest. But, the magic wand of Ramakrtshna’s sprititual genius soon converted him, and enlisted him as his foremost disciple. Himself great, this saint came to be glorified thousandfold through Vivekananda. It was, indeed, a misfortune for the people of Bengal that his great man {Ramkrishna) fell a victim to the fatal malady of cancer,and breathed his last at the comparatively early age of 50. Vivekananda 5(1863-1902) He was one of those men who never die. though their physical frame perishes. Born as Narendranath Dalla, in 1963 (Jan. 12). to Visvanath Datta of Simulia in Calcutta and Bhuvanesvari, he imbibed a liberal outlook on life from his father and religious bent of mind from his mother. As a young man. he reluctantly paid a visit to Ramkrishna through ihe insistence of his friends. This was a turning point of his life. The early death of his father plunged the family into penury. One day, unable to bear the pinch of poverty, he asked Thakur Ramkr­ ishna to intercede, on his behalf, to Mother goddess for removing his dire poverty. Thakur asked him to go to the nearby temple, and plead his own case. He did go to the Goddess, but he could ask for nothing material. They only things which came out of his mouth were jnana (knowledge) and bhakti (devotion). After the demise of the master, he, through the munificence of people and the cooperation of his co-disciples, established (1886) a Ramkrishna Math at Baranagar. To wards the middle of 1890 he, as a wandering mendicant, traversed many regions of India, and acquired first-hand knowledge about the country and its people. At this time,he studied many Sastras. In 1893 (May), he went to America to represent Hinduism in the Parliament of Religions at Chicago (September), His soul-stir­ ring speech there dispelled many wrong notions of the western peo­ ple about the outlook of the Indians. After that he spent some more time in America and Europe lecturing, interpreting Satras and writing books. A great event of this odyssey was his acquaintance with Margaret Noble, later Known as Sifter Nivedita who became his disciple, came to India and dedicated herself to social service. Her book, 'The Master as I saw him’ throws light on the many-faceted life of Vivekananda, Having returned to India in 1897, Svamijr, as he was popularly called, devoted himself, heart and soul to the moral regeneration of the people and social reform. A powerful speaker and writer, he urged the people to adhere to truth, sacrifice, acquire mental and physical strength and to shake off superstitions and redeem the country from political bondage and internal dissensions and discords caused by sectarian and communal feelings. He tried, by his speeches and writings, to remove the social blots of untouchability, child marriage, and insisted on liberal and scientific education. Above all, he insisted on the uplift of the downtrodden, and on the service of Jiva as siva. The foundation of the Ramakrishna math and Mission (1897) is a monument to his organising ability and breadth of vision. He was one of the pioneers in the use of spoken Bengali for literary purposes. He wrote in English also. In 1899 (June) he again visited western countries, and founded some centres for teaching Vedanta. Towards the end of 1900, he came back to India. The onslaught of diabetes and the stress and strain of a stormy career were too much for him to bear. His mortal frame gave way, and his sou! left it in 1902 (July 4) at Belur Math, Of his several works, the Parivrajaka (1903,) Pracya O Pascatya, Karmayoga, Jhanayoga, Ftajayoga and Bhakti-yoga de­ serve special mention. His English works have been published in eight volumes. Vama Ksyapa6(1838-1911) His full name was Vamacarana Cattopadhyaya. Son of Sarvananda Cattopadhyaya, grandson of Ramananda, and a native of village Atia nearTarapitha in Birbhum district (West Bengal), he, even as a boy showed a sort of divine frenzy. So he was described as Ksyapa (mad). In his very boyhood, he renounced the householder’s life, and resorted to the cemetery at Tarapitha. His father having died, the family faced dire distress. Driven by desperate penury, he got a jot at the Kali temple of village Muluti. But, he was so engrossed with the thought of Mother Goddess that he could not fulfil his obligations. As a result, he lost the job. Now his only shelter was his maternal uncle’s house where it was his duty to tend cattle. But, while on duty he used to be im­ mersed in the thought at Krsna grazing cows at Vrndavana. His indifference led the cows astray, which caused damage to others’ crops. So, his maternal uncle for drove him away. Then he accepted the job of plucking flowers for the worship of Tara for which he was to get food. Here also he could not stick. He was then appointed cook in the Kachart at Mursidabad. But, though physically working there, his mind was drawn to Mother Tara. He was then sent back to the above temple. He received Tantric initiation from the anchorite, Vrajavasi Kaliasapati, who came to Taraptha for Sadhana. Since than he de­ voted himself to Sadhana in the local cemetery. Then he formally renounced the world, and became a full-fledged Sannyasin. He visited Varanasi and Hardwar, but returned to the place of his Mother Goddess. Raja Yatindramohan of Calcutta once had him brought to the city. But, the din and bustle of the city-life was not liked by him. So, he went back. Ram akrishna Ray (d. 1795 A.D.; according to some, 1800) Adopted son of the celebrated Rani Bhavani of Nator (Bangla­ desh), he was a big landlord and earned the title of Maharajadhiraja Prthvipati Bahadur from the then Mogul King. His fame, however, rests on his Tantric Sadhana. He performed Sadhana in the Kiritesvari temple on the west bank of the Bhagirathi, some three miles away from village Dahapada. This temple was regarded as an Upapitha, because a part of the crown of Sati is said to have dropped there. Ramakrishna is known to have practised Savasadhana on a Pancamundi asana (seat over five heads or skulls), NOTES 1. See Bharatkos, Matrgatha by Omkarnath. 2. SeeS.K. De, Bengali Literature in the Nineteenth Century; Matrgatha (in Bengali) by Omkarnath. 3. See R. Rolland s Life of Ramakrishan, Calcutta, 1929, and Achintrya Sen Gupta’s paramaputvsa Ramakrishna (in Bengali), Calcutta. There are several others biographies both in English and Bengli. 4. See R. Rolland Life of Vivekananda, Calcutta, 1931; M.L. Burke, Svami Vivekananda, pt I; Calcutta, 1983 (3rd. ed.), Si/ami Vivekananda in the West, 1982 (2nd ed,). 5. R, Rolland, The Life of Vivekananda etc; There are many other biographies. 6. See H.C. Gangopadhyay, Srivamaliia, l,ll, Calcutta, 1340,1370 B;s. XI. B u d d h is t T antric W orks o f Bengal1 This topic has been discussed in a chapter of this book. Some more facts are laid down here. The Tibetan Tanjur testifies to the fact that the following Bengalis, scholars were Buddhist, and composed Tantras. Candragomin Author of the following works onAbhicara;Abfcara-framra, Cam udhavm sopaya, B hayatranopaya, V ighnanirasakapramathanopaya. Some mystic Manjusri, etc. are also attributed relating chiefly to medicine are penned by him; e.g. Jvara-raksavidhi, Kusthacikitsopaya. Sixty works are attributed to him. He appears to have written also a Pustakapathopaya. It is not definitely known whether or not he was identical with the grammarian or the logician of this name, hymns in honour of Tara, to him. A few magical works also believed to have been Danasila Described as a native of ’Bhagala' in Eastern India, and as belonging to Jagaddala Vihara in the East. Jnanasri Kambala or Kambalapada Ten Vajrayana works. From his works, he appears to be a Bengali. Eight works are attributed to him. These are related mainly to Heruka (or Cakrasamvara) sadhana. In Proto-Bengali there is a collection of Dohas, Collet Kambala-gitika. Of these Dohas, one {No. 8) occurs in the caryacarya, the earliest known Bengalis work of c. 1000 A, D. Kumaracandra Described as an Avadhuta of Vikramapui Vihara of Bengal. Stated to have written three Tantric Panjikas or commentaries. Santideva AuthorofthreeVajrayana works. Perhaps different from Santideva, author of the Bodhicaryavatara and Siksasamuccaya. Stated to be a resident of Zabor which according to H.P. Sastri, was identical with Sabhar in the district of Dacca, Bangladesh. Tankadasa or Dangadasa Commentary, called Suvisadasamputa, on Helvajratantra. Described as Vrddha Kayastha and a contemporary of Dharmapala, ruler of Bengal. There is no certain evidence of his birth in Bengal. Vibhuticandra Stated to have authored twentythree works. Stated to belong to a Vihara of Eastern India. It is not clear whether or not he was a Bengali. NOTE t.See S.K. De. Buddhist Tantric Literature of Bengal, New Indian Anthropology, April 1938. Chapter-8 Bibliography BOOKS Aiyer, K. N. : Alien, M. R. : Anand, M. R. : (with A. IN WESTERN LANGUAGES Thirty-two Vidyas. The Cult of Kumari. Kamakala, New York, 1958; Tantric Magic Mookherjee), New Delhi, 1977. 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