TEACHING WRITING: DEVELOPING CRITICAL LEARNERS By: Emi Emilia 1 Contents Foreword...... ...................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements............................................................................................ 4 Chapter 1: An overview of theories that inform this book ........................... 5 Chapter 2: A language and literacy program for the tertiary level .......... 39 Chapter 3: A language program at the secondary level .............................. 82 Chapter 4: The teaching of writing at the primary level of an Australian classroom ................................................................................... 129 Chapter 5: Conclusion, policy context and future research ..................... 160 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 164 2 Foreword This book provides clear and well-informed guidelines and advice to teachers of English in Indonesia, though its arguments and proposals would be of value in any contemporary country seeking to teach English as a second or foreign language to its people. English is a very significant world language, widely used throughout the planet, and its impact is apparent in all areas of the contemporary globalised world community: in commerce, trade, tourism, inter-governmental co-operation, in international scholarship and in the exchange of research and ideas. It is important that English be well taught, both because of its significance in the modern world and because of the potential benefits and opportunities to anyone who gains a good control of the language. Emi Emilia is to be congratulated for the industry, initiative and enterprise she has displayed in researching and writing this book, based as it is on her own research and wide reading, developed over several years of work. She demonstrates a wide knowledge of the literature in several scholarly traditions, and she draws on all of these to advance a theoretical framework that can inform modern English teaching in Indonesia. Arguing the importance of critical thinking in modern schooling, she herself reveals a capacity to evaluate critically the research and theories of others, firmly stating her own views, while showing a scholarly concern for accuracy in judgment and in expression of opinion. In these ways she offers a model of good writing and scholarship to her readers. Frances Christie Emeritus Professor of language and Literacy Education University of Melbourne and Honorary Professor of Education and Linguistics University of Sydney 3 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge, first and foremost, Prof. Frances Christie from the University of Melbourne and the University of Sydney, who has contributed in many ways to the writing of this book. At various stages in its conception, development and birth, I have been most fortunate to receive her supervision, support, encouragement, guidance and advice to keep going. Thank you for your generosity in sharing with me your expertice and experiences in writing a book, and for being willing to read and to comment on every chapter of the book, since early drafts. I also thank you for writing the foreword for this book and your hospitality during my stay in Sydney. I would also like to thank Prof. Marie Emmitt, Dean of Faculty of Education in Australian Catholic University, for her supervision in my postdoctoral study under the Endeavour Program in 2007. The results of the study have been included in this book. I am also grateful to the schools and the teachers I have had the priviledged to work with. Thank you for your generosity in sharing your classrooms with me. I have been especially priviledged to have contact with the teacher in Indonesia, who was brave enough to have her class observed, and to try action research in her class and to open up her explorations to learn to better her teaching practices to help students gain better results in learning. My thanks to the students whose work conveys important pedagogical messages and have been included in this book. I thank you from the bottom of my heart. I would like to gratefully acknowledge the Directorate General of Higher Education, Department of National Education in Indonesia for the Academic Recharging scholarshipin 2009 that allowed me to recharge my understanding of my interests and thus has made the writing of this book a possibility. My particular thanks go to the authorities at the Indonesia University of Education, to the Rector and Vice Rectors, to the Dean of Faculty of Language and Arts Education, to the Director and Assistant Directors of School of Postgraduate Studies, to the Head of the English Department of Faculty of Language and Arts Education, for their support and permission for me to get involved in the Academic Recharging Program, despite so much responsibility that I had to leave. I am very grateful to my colleagues, especially Dr. Safrina, who was willing to fill in my “big shoes” during my absence. Thank you very much. My sincere thanks are due to my parents and sisters for their endless love, care and prayers for me that have contributed to my strength and spirit to make all efforts to finish the project. I particularly thank Teh Fei and Kak Upi for being my children‟s company in my absense. Finally, thank you to my wonderful supportive family: my husband Tizani, my son Mizan, and my daughter Najmi, for your understanding and thoughtfulness during difficult times. Not even one page of this book would ever have appeared without your support, encouragement and patience. Thank you, Yah, Kak, De! 4 develop their English literacy. Central to this enterprise. and the teaching of English assumes a new significance as a means by which critical capacities can be promoted.Chapter 1: An overview of theories that inform this book 1. Burns and Richard further argue. Introduction One of the simple facts of life in the present time is that the English language skills of a good proportion of its citizens are seen as vital if a country is to participate actively in the global economy and to have access to the information and knowledge that provide the basis for both social and economic development (Burns & Richards. Overall. It is argued that this synthesis is relevant to education at all levels in modern Indonesia. The development of critical thinking and critical literacy in the workforce at all levels is now seen as of great national importance. English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) pedagogy. which started with the retirement of President Soeharto on May 21st. insights. especially the process approach to teaching writing. issues and debates that inform the practices of the teaching of English writing described in this book. are English teaching and English language teachers and thus there is consequently increasing demand worldwide for competent English teachers and for more effective approaches to help students learn English successfully. Research and theory in each area is explained and taken up again in later chapters in greater detail. since the commencement of the Reform Era.1. Systemic functional linguistics (SFL). This chapter will introduce the major traditions of research and theory that will be drawn on to offer accounts of good practices for teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesia. especially the systemic functional linguistic genre-based approach to teaching literacy (The SFL GBA). In the Indonesian context. apart from these matters. Critical literacy (CL). in fact. 1998. The overarching principle of this book is that some synthesis of theoretical concepts described in this chapter is possible and desirable at all levels of education to help students – both children and adult learners . 2009: 1). critical thinking and critical literacy. especially to do with the use of students‟ L1 in ESL/EFL contexts. 5 . based on three different classroom practices. Critical pedagogy (CP). These areas of theory concern: Critical thinking (CT). increasing the general levels of performance in English is now seen as an important part of building a much more critical and independent community of people in Indonesia. two of which were in the Indonesian context and the other in the Australian context. Whole language. This chapter brings together key concepts. Alwasilah. 1992)..1998. One needs something to think about. In the literature.b. there are two broad conceptions of CT in the CT movement. 1981. cited in Renaud & Murray. We will never think about what is behind it. 1985: 4950. If we have knowledge without understanding CT. she/he will be able to apply it in other contexts and about other matters (Paul. because the results may be students who know how to think but who have nothing to think about (1987: 254. The concept of CT that can be adopted by teachers of English in Indonesia can be drawn from the CT movement and is pursued more fully in Chapter 2. Nosich. who was aware of the importance of learning both critical thinking as a skill and having sound background knowledge about what she thought. the definitions of CT can be based on the work of both the general and the specific conceptions. Regarding this. They are the general and the specific. She said: … by knowing CT we can explore the knowledge better than before we know CT.1. what makes it happen. Thus: The general conception says that CT is generalisable. 1990. In this book it is argued that CT should be taught as a generalisable skill. I think we need to know both (Riya). etc. see also Nickerson. 2001. dependent on the background knowledge involved and thus one might be critical in one subject matter but not in another (Mc Peck. especially in education (Depdiknas. The subject specific conception argues that CT is context specific. It is equally a mistake to concentrate only on thinking skills. Despite a heated debate on these two conceptions. Accordingly. that is. 1993. although reference to specific contexts also makes it more powerful.2 Critical Thinking (CT) Critical thinking has become more important as a skill because individuals are faced with having to make an increasing number of important decisions affecting themselves and society in general (Halpern. because such concentration risks generating students who know a lot but who are unable to evaluate their knowledge. 2001a. especially since the Reform Era. we will just take the knowledge as it is. Perkins and Smith. In Indonesia. once someone learns CT. It is a mistake to concentrate only upon knowledge to the exclusion of thinking skills. 2001: 30 for a similar observation). 1995). critical thinking has become a new buzzword over the last ten years. 1998). that relates to the knowledge. this book argues that the two conceptions are complementary rather than contradictory. Critical thinking has been one aspect that has assumed a great importance in the policies of the government. Sternberg (1987) states: Thinking cannot occur in the absence of knowledge. So. From the general conceptionists the definitions are as follows: 6 . This has also been stated by one of the students in Emilia‟s (2005) study. Reichenbach. 2008:85). 1996. Moore and Parker. This can be done through practice in writing. CT is based on articulately intellectual standards and hence is intrinsically subject to assessment by those standards … such as: clarity. relevance of data and evidence used to the main point. These. including: commitments to clarity in arguments. such as the issue. Reichenbach. referring to some CT standards (Nosich. especially at the tertiary level). 2003). To judge the enhancement of thinking skills. to be systematic . as will be shown in Chapter 2. accuracy of the quality of the arguments.following a line of reasoning consistently to a conclusion (Ennis. the definition of CT from a subject specific conceptionist is below: CT is always thinking about X. 1981: 13. can 7 . 1995: 4). relevance. include use of journals. Perkins and Smith. 2000). classroom observations and students‟ argumentative texts. logic. On the other hand. CT involves using knowledge to bring about reasonable changes (Lipman. as will be described in Chapter 2. fairness. depth. With respect to assessment. 1990. careful work habits (Nickerson. facts and opinion (Moore and Parker. 1985).CT is a careful. dispositions and abilities that a critical thinker usually has. to take a position or a stance (and change a position) when the evidence and reasons are sufficient to do so (which to Hyland. deliberate determination of whether we should accept.considering seriously other points of view than one‟s own. 1995. depth and breadth and sufficiency in the arguments and precision in the sense of being specific about detail. 1997). or suspend judgment about a claim . significance. Perkins and Smith 1985). 1997:70-71). to be open-minded . Improvement of students‟ ability in making sound arguments (as argument is the heart of CT) and students‟ understanding of basic notions of CT. Picciotto. see also McPeck. accuracy. which can be regarded as a way of gauging how well CT skills are performed (Barnett. Beyer. analysis of arguments using systemic functional grammar.using and referring to credible sources. Development of CT dispositions. 2003: 211). 1987. 1992). 3). as described above. 2002. as will be described in Chapter 2. 1995. reject. manifests itself in connection with some identifiable activity or subject area and never in isolation (McPeck. especially: to be well-informed .and of the degree of confidence with which we accept or reject it (Moore and Parker. 2001. Development of thoughtful. especially writing an argumentative text. The definitions above suggest that the teaching of CT should emphasise the following aspects: CT standards. it is important that some criteria be used. regarding intellectual performance in a general way (Nickerson. evidentiary support … There is an intimate interrelation between knowledge and thinking (Paul. Lipman. Hughes. 1999:106. Moreover. the teacher can use some of techniques for gathering information on students‟ CT as suggested by Norris and Ennis (1990). is an important feature of academic writing. and breadth. precision. reasons. 2000. 1994: 22). including the structure of arguments (see Chaffee. Hughes. Critical pedagogy is directly concerned with social action and educational change (Hawkins & Norton. 1. There are three principles of CP. asks first about these systems of belief and action. Reading the Word and the World The principle of reading the word and the world (Freire and Macedo. genders. writing is a means of clarification. CP. that is texts are always about something in the world. Hawkins & Norton. 1992a).also be really useful to enable the teacher “to read representations in texts critically” (Threadgold. Kincheloe and Steinberg. 2009:31). “who benefits?” and the primary preoccupation of CP is with social justice and how to transform inequitable. 1987) has had a very influential impact on the practice of critical literacy and also the form of CL adopted in this book. which will be described in Chapter 2. developmental levels. the principles of CP that can be used are only those relevant to the current Indonesian condition. aiming at self-sufficiency. the teaching practice which applies CP should be context-specific (Auerbach. position. To Freire. Chaffee. It regards specific belief claims. 1999. as with other areas of language teaching. but as part of systems of belief and action that have aggregate effects within the power structures of society. interests. As CT is the aim of critical pedagogy (Giroux. “reading and writing are transitive verbs. CP. has also been influenced by the issues posed by critical theory and critical pedagogy (Burns & Richard. 2000. always entails engagement with problems and values of the social world” (Freire. to do with “reading the world and the word” and “dialogic education” and the other from Giroux (1988b. 1987. articulation. see also Luke and Walton. 1995: 209). 1997). et al. 2009: 7. 2001. Lipman. 2009). 2002. it is said that students should 8 . it is of crucial importance that teachers understand CP. and possibilities for action (Freire and Macedo. will be taken up. While the CT tradition is concerned primarily with criteria of adequacy in arguments. begins from a very different starting point. 1987). not primarily as propositions to be assessed for their truth content. ideologies and backgrounds (Brookfield. an understanding of the forces and ideologies that shape one‟s life. for Freire is a means of achieving critical consciousness. In the Indonesian context. Burbules & Berk further assert. Therefore. In reading texts. Analysis of arguments can also be used to judge CT improvement using the criteria to assess arguments.3 Critical Pedagogy The field of second or foreign language education. 1996. 1970. Reading. undemocratic. 1994: 1195). learning styles. Each principle will be delineated below. Reading. However. as observed in Emilia (2005). 2003) (and the use of evidence. some principles which can be considered relevant to the Indonesian context. accordingly. two of which are from Freire (Freire & Macedo. concerned with “classroom as a democratic public sphere”. as Burbules & Berk (1999:47) state. 1999). such as those used in Emilia‟ s (2005) study. 1994: 1195). 2000. Pari. working with the cultural and cognitive complexities represented by students‟ varying personalities. or oppressive institutions and social relations (see also Morgan 1997). O‟Brien. cited in Luke and Walton. expressed in language. 1998. and liberation of the oppressed‟s voice. 1987. when students feel that they are welcomed into the learning community of the classroom and supported in the immense challenges they face in catching up academically. as Cummins notes: Techniques and strategies will be effective only when teachers and students forge a relationship of respect and affirmation. like a critical view of literacy and the GBA (which will be discussed later). in order to name the world” (Freire. and outside their established boundaries (Giroux. concludes: The most effective way to engage students might be to try a mix of teacher and student choice with whole class selection of a theme…. Moreover. materials presenting propaganda .be encouraged to read the world. Freire sees education as a question of establishing dialogue. such as filmstrips. 1987. Gadotti. which is mediated by the world. someone who is also seeking and learning (Freire. I must teach the use of accents. the syntax of verbs. 1998). Dialogic Education Dialogue refers to “the encounter between men (human beings). which students think is really useful. 1993:69). 1992b: 30). as reflected in the following statements: 9 . within. 2000). noun case. Regarding this. 1999).from advertising commercials to ideological indoctrination – as a problemsituation for discussion (1998: 93) and topics focusing on what is taking place today inside various social movements (Freire and Macedo. 1987). In the ESL context. of taking an anti-authoritarian and interactive approach. and the teacher may not have the answer. and the teacher should also be full of respect for what the students say. to read texts by focusing on how different audiences might respond to them. like his/her students. based on her study in critical English for academic purposes (EAP). Emilia (2005) also found out that it is necessary that some times the teacher gives students choice about the topic and some other times the teacher decides. McLaren. 1997. an important component of community building in a critical classroom (2001: 82). the personal infinitive …” (Freire. Students should actively participate in their own learning rather than just passively accept what the teacher says (Degener. Freire suggests the use of authentic materials. 1985. semantics and other linguistic aspects. A question that has arisen in the literature on dialogic education centres on who selects the object to be known. is an apprentice. … whole-class selection of a shared topic requires democratic decision making. but possibly one of the answers (Freire and Shor. and when the students feel that their teachers believe in them and expect them to succeed in school and in life (1996: 74). the use of pronouns. Freire and Faundes. Freire and Shor. a relationship of respect between the teacher and student plays a very important role. Freire attaches importance to grammar. 1997: 75). saying “if I teach Portuguese. Benesch (2001). subject-verb agreement. The teacher. thus highlighting the possibilities of reading against. all the questions deserve to be answered. in dialogic education the authority and directive roles of the teacher still exist (Freire and Shor. 2000). 1999). In the teaching program outlined in Chapter 2. 1987: 101. this principle. As critcal pedagogy can be realised in critical literacy classrooms (Kincheloe. Freire and Macedo. the directive role of the teacher is confirmed by the principle of explicit teaching and apprenticeship. 1988b: xxxiii. in which people can deliberate on matters of social and political concerns as citizens and in principle influence policy decision (Habermas. 1984. The Classroom as a Democratic Public Sphere The term “public sphere” refers to a zone of connection between social systems and the “life world”. as suggested by the GBA which will be discussed later.2. 2001) and may take a diversity of forms (Frye. Fairclough and Chouliaraki.The teacher always involved the students in making a decision regarding the learning teaching process. as discussed in Section 1. … Schools as democratic public spheres are constructed around forms of critical inquiry that dignify meaningful dialogue and human agency. 1997). 2003: 44. with special relevance to reading and writing. 10 . 1. regarding schools as democratic sites dedicated to forms of self and social empowerment (Giroux. the domain of everyday living. Giroux states: Schools are public places where students learn the knowledge and skills necessary to live in an authentic democracy. Applied in education. which are conducive to support individual freedom and social justice. Corresponding to the authority and the directive role of the teacher. it was part of the democratic atmosphere in this program. cited in Fairclough. In applying the notion of the public sphere at university level. Students learn the discourse of public association and social responsibility (1988b: xxxiii). The concept of CL that has informed the practices described in this book has been shaped by the work under the following theories: The CT movement. or “public intellectuals”.4 Critical Literacy Critical literacy (CL) is open to multiple interpretations (Cheah. need to define higher education as a resource vital to the moral life of the nation. Students should be given opportunity to practise democracy in the classroom or in organisations. by asking for the students‟ agreement in doing the activities (Nia). to use Giroux‟s (1997) term. 2001). 1996: 199-228). which corresponds to dialogic education above. concerns the creation of conditions in classrooms. the following discussion will centre around critical literacy. When you asked about the choice of topics. in which the teacher should act as an expert and teach in an authoritative way. Pennycook. because you allowed us to make our choice based on what we liked (Wati). Giroux (1997) argues that teachers of higher education. 1997. CP, especially “reading the word and the world”; Critical social literacy, that is literacy as a social construct (Heath, 1983; Luke and Walton, 1994; Kress, 2003), supported by critical language awareness (CL, Fairclough, 1992; Wallace, 2001; 2003); The SFL GBA, which assists students to gain a mastery of argumentative genres (genres of power). As a social activity, there are many types of literacy and the focus is always on literacies, as a plural set of social practices (Pennycook, 2001; Lankshear & Knobbel, 2006) in their social contexts, as social literacies (Gee, 1990; Lankshear et al, 1997); or multiliteracies (Cope and Kalantzies, 2000) or multiple literacies (Huot, Stroble, Bazerman, 2004). The theory also sees literacy involving not just the mastery of an arbitrary code for writing the meanings we make with language but also as a critical arena for cultural domination and social control. In this context, Luke and Freebody state: Writing and reading are social activities. That is, we are always reading something, written by someone or writing something for someone. These others are always in some relationship to us-often materially or symbolically unequal relationships of power but always relationships in which versions of „ourselves‟ and „others‟ are implicated and constructed. Even those texts we read or write that come from or are intended for people we do not know assemble versions of our identities and positions as readers - as men and women, students and teachers, taxpayers and newspapers readers, and so forth. … (1997b: 193). One crucial work under this perspective which is relevant to the Indonesian context is the work in the EFL reading context in Great Britain by Wallace (1992a: 114, 1992b; 2001). Following Kress (1985a; see also 2003). Wallace suggests that students should be exposed to questions, as will be shown in Chapter 2, that lead them to have awareness of a text as a social construct and, among things, to consider other ways the topic might be approached. Regarding materials, theorists of CL, like those of CT and CP, argue for use of multiple texts (Luke and Freebody, 1997; Frye, 1997) which should be authentic (Wallace, 1992a,b; Varaprasad, 1997). For ESL /EFL contexts, Wallace (1992a:71) suggests that a text should also: Be a vehicle for teaching specific language structure and vocabulary; Present content which is familiar and of interest to the learners; and Be at the appropriate language level. In terms of topics, it is suggested that teachers should also engage with issues that are often controversial, certainly contemporary (Gilbert, 1993, cited in Lankshear et al, 1997: 47). This section and the previous sections have discussed theories to do with being critical from the perspective under the influence of the CT movement and critical theory. The following section will discuss the theory of linguistics which has informed this book: namely systemic functional linguistics (SFL). The theory has been influential in many contemporary English classrooms while the associated teaching, to do with SFL genre based approaches (GBA) to pedagogy, will be described in later chapters. 11 1.5 Systemic functional linguistic theory Systemic functional linguistics falls within the definition of a general linguistic theory (Halliday, 2009:59). It is general, Halliday further argues, in the sense that is a general theory for particular description. It is linguistics, Halliday suggests, in the sense that it takes language as its object of inquiry. This does not mean, of course, that description has to cover whole languages: Most descriptive studies, to Halliday, especially comparative and typological, will be concerned with certain features of a language rather than with a language as a whole (2009:59). SFL is one of the main functional theories of language developed in the twentieth century and which continues to evolve in this century (Martin, 2010:14). SFL is a social theory of language which has been developed and influenced by previous linguists. SFL has been influenced by Malinowski, Firth, Pike and Hymes specifically in terms of the concept of context of situation and context of culture (as cited in Halliday, 1976; Halliday, 1985c; Christie, 1987; Matthiessen & Bateman, 1991; Bloor and Bloor, 1995; Matthiessen and Nesbitt, 1996; Martin, 2010). It has also been influenced by the Prague School of Linguistics, concerning its notion of functional sentence perspective, examining utterances in terms of the information they contain and the role of each part of the utterance in terms of its semantic contribution to the utterance as a whole (Halliday, 1994a; Paltridge, 1997; Connor, 1996). SFL also owes much to the work of Whorf in its focus on the relationship between language and culture, and Saussure and Hjelmslev, regarding interpreting linguistic theory as a semiotic system, specifically the notions “system” (the paradigmatic range of linguistic choices available to the user of a language) and “function” (syntagmatic combinations of linguistic structures described in terms of their functional role within the clause) (Bloor and Bloor, 1995; Paltridge, 1997; Butt, 1996; Matthiessen and Nesbitt, 1996). SFL has had an impact on educational studies throughout the world (Connor, 1996) and its most obvious impact has been on the teaching of writing (Wells, 1999) as revealed in the discussion in the SFL genre pedagogy later. SFL has several key aspects, which will be discussed below. 1.5.1 Key concepts and notions in SFL There are several key concepts of the SFL, will be summarised in the table below, taken from Feez, Iedema & White (2008:44). Table 1.1 Key aspects of systemic functional linguistics (From Feez, Iedema, & White, 2008:44) Language is a system of choices. Language users choose from the resources Language as a resource of the language system to make meanings which are appropriate to the social for meaning context. The social context constrains the choices that are made from the linguistic system. Language users communicate in texts, not isolated words or sentences. Texts as the basic unit of Texts, no matter how long or short, are the basic units of meaning in meaning language. The study of language should look at the structure and 12 Systematic relationship between text and context. Functional labels organisation of language in texts – not at isolated and idealised extracts. All language occurs in social contexts. There is a symbolic relationship between language and the social context in which it is used. Social contexts exerts influence on the choices that are made from the linguistic system and language itself helps shape social contexts. SFL gives a detailed systematic account of the relationship between text and context. SFL identifies and labels elements of text according to the function they perform in making meaning. Terms such as participant, process, and circumstances are functional labels. From a systemic functional perspective, language is a social semiotic (Halliday, 1985c:. 3; 1994c; Butt, 1996; Christie, 2002; Eggins, 1994). This is the crucial characteristic of SFL, which is also called the theory of language in context, that is its orientation outside linguistics towards sociology and this orientation brings with it a view of language as a social semiotic (Teich, 1999). We can only learn how language works if we consider the way it is used in particular contexts, both cultural and situational. Halliday argues “If we want to understand functional variation in language, for example, we will need to know something about the sociological foundation of human relationships and interaction” (Halliday, 2009:59). Drawn from Saussure‟s concept that language is a system of signs, “the union of a form which signifies (signifiant or signifier) and an idea signified (the signifie or signified)” (Culler, 1976: 19; 1975: 16), this principle implies that “a language is a signing system” (Halliday, 1985c: 4). SFL locates language, in its turn, as one among a wider class of systems called “semiotic” systems – system of meaning (Halliday, 2009:60). In Saussure‟s (1960) theory, semiotics, as described by Kristeva (1989: 296), refers to “the study of all verbal and nonverbal systems as languages, that is as systems in which signs are articulated by a syntax of difference”. Similarly, in SFL the term semiotics is also often used to refer to “the general study of meaning-making (semiosis), including not just meanings we make with language, but meanings we make with every sort of object, event or action in so far as it is endowed with a significance, a symbolic value in our community” (Lemke, 1995: 9). Halliday (2009:60) argues that language has the further property, that is a semogenic system: a system that creates meaning. To Halliday, not all semiotic systems are also semogenic: a system of traffic sygnals for example, is a system of meaning, its meaning potential is fixed-it cannot create meanings that are not built into it. By contrast, Halliday further argues, the meaning potential of a language is open ended: new meanings always can be, and often are being created. Regarding the social concept of language, Halliday (1985c) states that the term “social” suggests two things simultaneously. One is “social” used in the sense of the social system, which is synonymous with the culture. The other is the term “social” used to indicate that SFL is concerned particularly with the relationships between language and social structure, considering the social structure as one aspect of the social system. This principle, applied in the GBA as will be discussed later, has commonalities with the social theory of literacy discussed above. 13 All the basic points of SFL have been summarized by Eggins, who notes: … common to all systemic linguists is an interest in how people use language with each other in accomplishing everyday social claims about language: that language use is functional; that its function is to make meanings; that these meanings are influenced by the social and cultural context in which they are exchanged and that the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choosing (1994: 2). In addition to the basic points above, there are some essential notions of SFL, including: text and context, and metafunctions of language, which will be delineated below. 1.5.1.1 Text and context The term text, comes from the Latin word for weaving, referring to “words and sentences woven together to create a single whole” (Christie and Misson, 1998: 8). The concept of text in SFL refers to “the socially and contextually complete unit of language” (Kress, 1993: 24), “which may be written or spoken” (Eggins, 1994:.5). The consideration of language as a text, has nothing to do with its size or length or form, but with meaning of the stretch of language working together as a unified whole (Feez and Joyce, 1998a:4). In addition, the word context originally meant being woven together, where the prefix con carried the sense of being together and over the passage of the centuries, it has come to refer to those elements that accompany a text (Christie and Misson, 1998: 8). Following Malinowski and Firth, Halliday identifies two types of context: Context of situation - referring to the immediate environment of language, and Context of culture - referring to a broader background against which the text has to be interpreted (Halliday, 1985c:46). Halliday argues that there are three aspects in any situation that have linguistic consequences: field, mode, and tenor, which are also called the register variables (Halliday, 1976, 1985c; Christie & Derewianka 2008; Feez, Iedema & White, 2008). . Field refers to the ongoing activity or subject matter, or what is happening, the nature of the social action that is taking place. In writing it refers to the topic that is written about. In activities, examples of fields, according to Martin (2010:16), are tennis, opera, linguistics, cooking, building construction, farming, politics, education and so on. Tenor refers to who is taking part, or the role relationship between interactants; their relative status and the amount and type of contact they have with each other. Tenor, to Martin (2010:16) refers to the way we relate to other people when doing what we do. Martin goes on to say: Our society, like other human societies we know of, is structured in such a way that people have power over one another. This power is various kinds: mature people tend to dominate younger ones, commanding their respect; bosses dominate employees; teachers dominate students and so on. There is no escaping this, however nice we try to be about it. When you think people are bossy or “above 14 but also to suggest what the overall purpose or function of a text is. 1984: 25. and hear someone yell: “John. Now. and where he was doing it. it is appropriate that one bargains. goal oriented. 1994:. 1994: 30). Mode also refers to the channel of communication (Martin. If however you had a translation of this sentence. cited in Eggins. and therefore.themselves” it is usually because they are asserting an inordinate amount of power over you. 1994: 26). 2002: 24). 1. So. what he was doing it to. think about how you would say this in that language). genre has been defined as “A staged. Regarding the relationship between text and context. These three metafunctions are: 15 . 1998a). purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of our culture” (Martin. and however democratic our ideals. For example. 26). Halliday sees the relationship between text and context as dialectical: the text creates the context as much as the context creates the text. Context of culture also shapes purpose and meaning to a text (Eggins. Context of culture refers to the broader cultural context in which any context of situation occurs. it is often because they are being overly diferential to you. 2010:16). don‟t do it there mate!‟ (if you know about another language. Martin (2010) gives an example below: Suppose you are sitting in a room.5. Any culture has accepted ways of conducting any socialactivities. Mode refers the role played by language in a context. and the simplest distinction is between spoken and written language (Macken-Horarik. Australia and Indonesia both have context of situation in which people trade with each other. which will be discussed below. but that is not acceptable in the Australian culture in most situations. Renovation is hard work as we all know. in order to explain the meaning of a sentence. it will still be the case that unless you know what John was doing. Included in genre is the schematic structure or stages of a text. and this allows us not only to describe the register of the text. you need both a description of that sentence and of the context in which it was used (2010:15). however faithfully you translate this sentence into another language. whether they are face to face or separated by time or space fundamentally determine the nature of the language (Feez and Joyce. all of which affect what occurs in the particular context of situation. When you think someone is quiet. that is the genre the text belongs to (Eggins. In the Indonesian culture. then you would be able to understand the text. and a description of the context of situation in which it is uttered (say John dumping a load of broken mud bricks inro a drainage through). evasive and looking insecure. you can‟t really know what the person talking to him meant.1. You don‟t know what John was doing. Meaning arises from the friction between the two (1985c: 47). The distance between the people communicating in terms of time and space. And of course you can resist. and each variable of context interacts with the metafunction of language. as when feminists struggle to renovate the power relations between women and men.2 Metafunctions There are three metafunctions of language that SFL argues that all natural languages have. there always seems to be a lot of power pushing us around (2010:16). register and genre (From Christie & Derewianka.1 Relationship between language. 1975. commands. CONTEXT OF SITUATION Registers as particular configurations of the field. This metafunction can be classified into two sub-functions: the experiential function. The ideational metafunction concerns how language is used to represent experience. 2008:7) 16 . According to Halliday. 2000. „beginning‟ and „end‟ of the involved in the activity. the statements. and mode on textual) and each metafunction has its own distinctive grammar (Christie and Unsworth. there is a systematic correlation between the three metafunctions and specific contextual features . where field focuses on institutional practices. C O N T E X T L A N G U A G E CONTEXT OF CULTURE Genres as social processes for achieving purposes within the culture. or to organize. which is concerned with content or ideas. 2002). tenor and mode. tenor on social relation. and the logical function with the relationship between ideas. clause). Figure 1. The interpersonal metafunction is to do with the use of language to set up and sustain interaction between people using language.1 below from Christie & Derewianka (2008:7). Christie and Unsworth. Colombi and Scleppegrel. The textual metafunction concerns how language works to create connected and coherent discourse (textual function) (Halliday. participants in those Beyond the clause Beyond the clause processes and the Resources for creating patterns of Cohesive devices to form text.each function interacts with variables of context (field. evaluation and engagement with the audience. surrounding circumstances. 2000. tenor and mode. 1995). Bloor and Bloor. The relationship between all various elements can be represented in the following in Figure 1. FIELD TENOR MODE (eg subject matter or topic) (eg roles and relationships) (eg along a continuum from „most spoken‟ to „most written‟) IDEATIONAL INTERPERSONAL TEXTUAL METAFUNCTION METAFUNCTION METAFUNCTION Clause level Clause level Clause level Experiential metafunction: Resources for interaction (eg the Theme and Rheme (the The types of processes MOOD system: questions. understand and express our perceptions of the world and our consciousness. Beyond the clause Logical metafunction: The logical relationships between events (eg where? when? how? why?). offers). Given the correlation between the organization of context with the organization of grammar. The tenor of a text can be associated with the realization of interpersonal meanings.4.b) which is the first aspect looked at in texts analyses undertaken in the studies reported in this book. to do with how the text organises experience. In connection with students‟ texts analysis in Chapters 2-4. Examples of each pattern of grammar (except for few taken from Halliday. realized through the Mood patterns of the grammar (Eggins. Martin. which also constitute an important signal of students‟ developments in various aspects investigated in this study. The significance of the presence of each pattern of grammar will not be discussed. Halliday and Mathiessen. according to Martin (1993). The Theme system will be discussed first. The mode of a text can be associated with the realization of textual meanings. 1994a) have been taken from samples of students‟ texts analysed throughout this book. we can recover information about its context.1 The Theme system: The realisation of the textual metafunction The Theme system is concerned with “the organisation of information within individual clauses.Eggins (1994) summarises that the three types of meaning can be related both upwards (to context) and downwards (to lexico-grammar): The field of a text can be associated with the realization of experiential meanings. to do with the logical aspect – the logicosemantic relation of clauses. including: the boundary of Theme. Then the section will go on to discuss the Transitivity system. The section will then be concluded by a brief delineation on grammatical metaphors.the other aspect of the ideational function. we can make predictions about its grammar. Mathiessen. 1992. because it plays a significant part in constructing the flow of a discourse (text) (Halliday. This will be followed by the discussion of the Conjunction system . and through this. A Theme is “the point of departure of the message” or “the starting point for the message: what the clause is going to be about” and the Rheme is “the part of the clause in which the Theme is developed or everything that is not the Theme is the Rheme” (Halliday. the discussion on interpersonal meaning will cover aspects of modality (including mood). 1994a: 37. The Theme system is realised through a structure in which the clause falls into just two main constituents: a Theme and a Rheme. with the organisation of a larger text” (Martin. and Painter. one part of the ideational function of language. In addition. and conversely if we analyse a text‟s grammar. as it will be alluded to later in Chapters 2. Thematic progression and higher level Theme.1. longer unit Theme. realized through the Theme patterns of grammar. if we know something about a text‟s context. 1994: 78). 2004: 64). 1. Each metafunction and and its system of grammar will be taken up in greater detail below. several aspects will be approached. 17 .5.2. 1994a. realized through the Transitivity patterns of the grammar.3. 1997: 21). Examples of each type of Theme will be given in Table 1.2 Examples of Topical Theme Did lots of flexible things.3. providing the speaker‟s comment or attitude towards the message. Some categories of Modal adjuncts. Rheme The textual Themes are elements “which do not express any interpersonal or experiential meaning. 1994). such as I think) and Comment Adjuncts. including the Subject “it” it is called unmarked Theme. (typically realised by an adverb. Examples of textual Themes realised in conjunctions are illustrated in Table 1. The topical Theme is the first element in the clause that expresses some kind of “representational meaning” (Martin.3 Examples of Interpersonal Theme You Please help Sacred Mission? Unfused Finite as a Theme Modal Adjunct as a Theme: Mood Adjunct Can I believe Capital punishment Still neeeds to be implemented in Indonesia. Examples of interpersonal Themes are given in Table 1. 1997: 24).4 18 . interpersonal. a Circumstance or a Process (see the discussion on the Transitivity system below). Mathiessen and Painter. 1994: 281). Table 1. It is realised in Transitivity structure. interpersonal Themes can be categorised into: The unfused finite (in interrogative structure). and textual elements (Eggins. and to follow Eggins (1994). such as inevitably). If the first topical element of a declarative clause is also the Subject of the clause. Rheme Topical Theme the aircraft! The interpersonal Theme is the interpersonal part of the Theme. The boundary of Theme There are three different types of Themes: topical (experiential). Don‟t leave any belongings on board (Halliday. Table 1. 1994a: 47). as: a Participant . Participant as a Theme They Circumstance as a Theme Process as a Theme A couple of weeks ago I went a nice café in Eltham. and if the Theme is non-Subject. Comment Adjunct Inevitably the death penalty Interpersonal Theme Topical Theme has been imposed most frequently on the poor … . signaling that a response is needed. it is called marked Theme. typically realised by an auxiliary verb. but which are doing important cohesive work in relating the clause to its context” (Eggins.2. especially Mood Adjuncts (some of which realised in interpersonal metaphors of modality. and that-clauses).S own favour]].4 Examples of Textual Theme realized in instances of conjunctions. Examples of longer unit Themes are provided in Table 1. Matthiessen and Painter (1997: 35). Where there is a textual Theme. as also found in students‟ texts collected in Emilia‟s (2005) study. non-finite. Long nominal groups: Nominal groups which involves clause The first argument [[proposed by the opponents of death penalty]] is regarding deterrence. Group and phrase complexes. it is far more common that a clause contains a sequence of Themes. as examples above. or Appositions. 1994. 45).5 below. and which may involve clause embeddings. including those which extend beyond the main noun.5 Examples of Longer Unit Themes Examples [[What no one seemed to notice ]] was the writing on the wall (Halliday. p.clause [[That participating in the Miss Universe Pageant can promote tourism of the participant‟s country]] has also been stated by Miss St. Drawn from the work of Halliday (1994: 54-61) and Martin. Marten (2000). Thompson.Coordination Table 1. 1996). because it will leave nothing but misery. Examples of the interpersonal and textual Themes above indicate that while it is possible for a clause to realise only one Thematic element. Longer unit Themes Apart from being represented by a single clause constituent. Non-finite Clause Publishing academic books is one of the programs [[applied by the Department of Education]]. Conjunctive Besides. 1994a. and let‟s see it in an objective way. which is [[controlling Iraq oil possession for U. it always comes first. Subordination War cannot be approved. longer unit Themes. can be realised in: Embedded clauses (Wh-clauses. Predicated Theme. 19 . Relative … in order to realize his hidden agenda. with often several textual and/or interpersonal Themes occurring before the obligatory topical Theme (see Eggins. Longer Unit Themes Embedded clauses: Wh-clause Table 1.S government of attacking Iraq]] is not making any sense. That. Long nominal groups. (in which case it must be a topical Theme). Themes may also be constituted by a longer unit. Let‟s put aside those benefits and drawbacks. the argument [[which is launched by the U. which are called: hyper-Theme and macro-Theme. Coffin. whose ordering of clauses is also marked. is as follows: Theme: clause. the clause complexes exemplified in Table 1.and Hyper-Themes Apart from the Theme of a clause or a sentence as discussed above. 1997: 218-219). another opponent of the Miss Universe Pageant from India. finite and nonfinite clauses. Hyper-Theme: paragraph. but they function as marked Themes. as Martin further describes. This is the introductory paragraph of school rhetoric (Martin. They occur in hypotactic clause complexes. titles. The proportionalities.6.5 below. Rheme Topical Theme (unmarked) From the examples in Table 1. see also Martin and Rose. suggests … . Circumstance of time Dependent clause of condition Dependent Nonfinite clause Table 1. chains. This is an introductory sentence or group of sentences which is established to predict a particular pattern of interaction among strings.5 above.6 Examples of Longer Unit Marked Theme After the bay‟s birth she was tired… If law discrimination persists. Group and phrase complexes Predicated Theme Javis. and macro-Theme in a text which predicts its overall development. the pattern of macro Themes predicting hyper-Themes can be extended. 2003. as will be shown in Table 4.Theme can be defined as a sentence or group of sentences (possibly a paragraph which predicts a set of hyper-Themes). There is another type of longer unit Themes used in students‟ texts. can also be analysed in the same way as in unmarked ordering of clauses above. Hyper-Theme is the Theme of a paragraph. Macro. Martin (1992: 443) further argues.embeddings. Higher level Themes: Macro. In longer texts. 1992: 437. Macro-Theme: text (1992: 437). Hyper-Theme can also be considered as the opening generalisation in a paragraph which predicts the pattern of clause Themes and elaboration. realized in Wh-clause. headings and subheadings are commonly deployed to keep track of the composition 20 . subtitles. there are also higherlevel Themes. with hyper-Themes themselves functioning as macroThemes in their own right. It is they themselves who create the war [[and violate the peace… . that is the dependent clause comes before the main clause. it is improper [[to employ capital punishment]] I really believe Topical Theme (marked) Rheme However. 2002. it can also be noted that all longer unit Themes are unmarked. when each clause has its own Theme-Rheme structure. Once texts develop to this level of internal complexity. After looking at both sides of arguments. structure being erected. the content of Theme 3 derives from Rheme 2. 1992: 456. Schematically. hyper-Themes and clause Themes project forward. its genre). 2003: 193-194). macro-New. up to macro-Theme n (Martin and Rose. The thematic progression in students‟ texts can be classified into: The zig-zag pattern. 1992: 443-444). 1994. For example: 21 . Macro-Theme Macro-Rheme Hyper-Themes Hyper-Rhemes Themes Rhemes Figure 3. scaffolding the text to its rhetorical purpose (i. 2000).e. While macro-theme. As will be shown in Chapter 2. 2002). the Recommendation stage of a Discussion genre that students at the tertiary level wrote in the joint and independent construction stages. 1992: 457). ii . the range of meanings in a text can be woven through New. The lowest level hyperThemes in a text are referred to traditionally as Topic sentences and the highest level macroThemes as introductions (Martin. hyper-News and clause-News on the other hand. 1 Solidarity across levels of Theme (From Martin. as it accumulates the main points amassed (Martin. there are three types of Theme progressions. This signals students‟ developments in writing skills. in which the texts develop the ideas they present (Eggins. 1992: 443) Apart from being woven through Theme. etc. or a linear thematic progression: The content of the Theme of the second sentence or clause derives from the content of the previous Rheme. critical thinking and critical literacy developed in the program. with the proviso that a text may be organised thematically around more than the three levels shown. look back. Thematic progression Based on the Theme choices in students‟ texts. gathering up the meanings which have accumulated to elaborate a text field (Martin. it is possible that a macro-Theme is labeled as macroTheme i. Ravelli. the thematic relationships can be seen in Figure 1. Therefore.2 below. can be considered as the macro-New. rather than (they) benefit them”. The multiple Theme pattern or progression with derived Themes: The passage as a whole concerns a single general notion. The transitivity in functional grammar is not a way of distinguishing between verbs according to whether they have an object or not.1. or the same element occurs regularly as Themes.2. The next section will now turn to focus on another metafunction of language. but are not identical to one another. Mathiessen and Painter. that is the Transitivity system. 1996: 78). the opponents of capital punishment adopt three positions. The theme re-iteration: The Theme enters into relation with a number of different Rhemes. … The first argument… The second position … The last argument of the opponents of capital punishment … . On the other hand. that is the ideal metafunction with its grammar system. The term transitivity in functional grammar is related to the transitivity in traditional grammar. that they only demean women.2 The Transitivity system: The realisation of the experiential metafunction The Transitivity system belongs to the experiential metafunction and is the overall grammatical resource for construing or expressing what is going on (Martin. 1997: 100). but it is dealt with to some extent differently. For example: that such contests are against our values and morals. rather than just the verb and its object (Thompson.It especially should be focused upon drug trafficking and corruption cases Because those cases have a devastating impact toward society in large. but refers to a system for describing the whole clause. especially on analysis of students‟ texts.5. and the Themes of the various constituent clauses all derive from that general notion. 1. 22 . Other examples of each type of thematic progressions will be revealed in Chapters 2-4. 2008:9) Aspect of experince Example taken from students’ texts described in the book Doings and happenings in Last school holiday we went to Yogyakarta. 107) further suggests. a Goal (or the Thing 23 . Capital punishment is still needed to be imposed in our country. existential. relational. the participants.066 or 54 % were black. verbal. having. Below is the discussion of process types. relationships between Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant elements of experience to a sentence of death imposed by a competent court. behavioural and existential. Law discrimination continues to happen in Indonesia Physiological and When she walked into the theatre people were still psychological behaviour laughing … . in principle of three components: the process itself. Halliday (1994a. potential participant roles are: an Actor (the Doer of the process).860 persons executed in the US from 1930 up to the time of the writing of the article. Each process. 1994a:106). 2. verbal. These process types. The doctor examined my brother. Sacred Heat Mission is an organisastion… . mental. mental. consists. p. the material world– „outer‟ In Italy I played football. and circumstances.7. Wendy‟s dog licked the glass sliding door. Processes of consciousness I really liked the café – inner experience I believe that capital punishment should be implemented in Indonesia. Process types As mentioned above. and it discriminates six different types of processes in English: material. in systemic functional grammar. creating In the café they have a mini bookshop. Feminists think that the Miss Universe Pageant makes an unachievable standard for women Processes of saying and Dr. Process type Material processes Behavioural processes Mental processes Verbal processes Relational processes Existential processes Table 1. process types in English can be categorised into: material. behavioural. In the case of material processes. I could smell coffee toast and pasta. then a brief description of circumstances. experience. along with its participants.The Transitivity system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types (Halliday. She was sooo embarrased. Existing There have been 71 murders committed by people who have been released after serving “life sentences” in the same period Particpants Each process type involves different set of Participants. Processes of being and The spring roll felt oily but tasted nice. Khodijah said “there is still hope”… .7 Process types in English (Adapted from Christie & Derewianka. „meaning‟ Statistics in the US. relational. also reveal that of 3. to follow Christie & Derewianka (2008) can be described in the following table 1. A Verbiage: the function that corresponds to what is said (This may mean: content of what is said or name of the saying. A Receiver: The one to whom the saying is directed. it may be the Subject in a passive clause. Material process with an Actor and a Goal (active) II Actor bought Process: Material A lot of souvenirs Goal In Yogyakarta Circumstance: Loc: Time Material process with a Range and a Beneficiary: The so-called beauty queens Actor have never done Process: Material anything Range for the nation … Beneficiary Unlike material processes. 1994: 242). to follow Eggins (1994). perceived or liked/disliked. by a nominal group or embedded clause summing up what is thought. which must be realised by a human or at least conscious participant and a Phenomenon. These are: a Senser. a Range (or the Thing over which the whole process is completed). like a question in „the expression „to ask a question‟). a Beneficiary (or the one to whom or for whom the process is said to take place).and A Target: the entity that is targeted by the process of saying. Halliday and Mathiessen. wanted. participant roles of verbal processes. 2004) can be classified into: A Sayer: The participant responsible for the verbal process. This can be seen in the example below: I Senser Enjoyed Process: Affection the holiday Phenomenon Sometimes mental processes are used to project a clause as in: I Senser do believe Process: Cognition that capital punishment Goal is still needed to be imposed Process: Material In our country Circumstance: Location: Place Moreover. among others.affected). Halliday (1994a) and. This occurs. These can be seen in the examples below. He told me a story Sayer Process: Verbal Receiver Verbiage Verbal processes can also project (quoting or reporting). in: 24 . “mental processes must always have two participants” (Eggins. as in: Capital punishment All lives Carrier is are Process: Intensive against the value of humanity. Examples of each type of clauses are shown as follows: Causative clause: The gas chamber Token causes Process: Cause a slow and cruel death Value Possessive clause: Capital punishment has a unique power [[to deter people Pro: Material Possessor Process: Possession Goal from [[committing crimes]] ]] Process: Material Circumstance: Matter Goal Possessed 25 . the identifying clauses above can be changed into passive. manner. cause.. etc. identifying relational clauses are reversible. Beauty. Behaviour Goal The teacher praised the student Sayer Process: verbal Target In relational clauses. there are two main participant roles: Carrier + Attribute in attributive clauses. and relational possessive process of ownership and possession between clausal participants (Eggins. Capital punishment is the most effective way [[to reduce crime Process: Material Token Process: Intensive Goal rather than life imprisonment]] Circumstance: Comparison Value Unlike attributive relational clauses. So.The proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant Sayer that this contest Actor emphasises Process: Material claim Process: Verbal three principles: Brain. p. as indicated below: The most effective way [[to reduce crime Pro: Material Goal is capital punishment Process: Intensive Token rather than life imprisonment]] Circumstance: Comparison Value Other types of relational processes occurring in students' texts are: circumstantial and possessive. valuable Attribute Token (that which stands for what is being defined) + Value (that which defines) in identifying ones. Circumstantial relational processes encode meanings about circumstantial dimensions: location. 1994. 262). Though it is not comfortable. it makes the students neat (concession). the only obligatory participant in an existential process which receives a functional label is called the Existent. I went to Yogyakarta with my family. with examples (in italics) taken from students‟ texts. Types of Circumstances Extent Location Manner Table 1. along with the portrayal of the ideal look in the fashion world. (reason). (accompaniment) … such contests. (duration). In 1980 there was one murder for every 5. If the school policy changes it. Indian people cannot get benefit from the fact [[that India’s contestant becomes the winner of the Miss Universe Contest]] (means). 1994a:151) Examples We had a holiday in Yogyakarta for five days. as in: The audiences Behaver were still laughing Process: Behavioural Finally.The last type of relational processes found in students' texts occur in a causative relational type. (place). as illustrated in Table 1. participants in a behavioural process must be conscious beings and are called the Behaver (Eggins. Cause Contingency Accompaniment We can‟t assure that the capital punishment will be effectively implemented in Indonesia if the condition of justice in Indonesia remains like today (comparison). 1995: 126).8 Types and Examples of Circumstances (Adapted from Halliday. Halliday (1994a:151) identifies nine types of circumstances.924 Texans (time). In Italy I played football. and this can be seen in: There have been 71 murders [[ committed Process: Material Process: existential by people … ]] Actor Existent Circumstances Circumstance in functional grammar is the name given to those elements which carry a semantic load. My brother suffered from typhus. 1994: 250). only serve to perpetuate the myth [[that women are only worth 26 . Some death sentences are carried out unfairly (quality).8 below. as in: The teacher Agent/Initiator made Process: Cause the students Carrier Quiet Attribute Moreover. but are neither process nor participant (Bloor and Bloor. with causation expressed through a make + be (Process: intensive) structure. then it will appear [[what we call a “fashion show”]] among the students (condition). The cohesive pattern of conjunction. on the other hand. 1994: 106). which is part of the ideational metafunction. long legged and beautiful ]] ]]. The execution of capital punishment is considered as a real punishment (guise).9 below. Enhancement refers to ways by which one clause can extend on the meanings of another. yet. or concession (Eggins. comparison. For example: Moreover. … where the participants were questioned about their general knowledge and the way [[they think]]. Common conjunctions used to express this relation are: in other words. 1.3 The Conjunction system: The realisation of the logical metafunction Conjunction helps to build cohesion (Halliday. or variation (one sentence changes the meanings of another by contrast or by qualification (Halliday. All aspects of the Transitivity system have been briefly discussed and now the discussion will turn on the other system. thus. cause. refers to “how he writer creates and expresses logical relationship between the parts of a text” (Eggins. 1994: 105).Role Matter Angle something [[if they are young. The Miss Universe pageant can be used as an arena [[to promote business]] (product). condition. but. …Thus. nor. 27 . for example. Conjunctive relations help to build clauses of elaboration.5. in terms of dimensions such as time. Elaboration occurs. that is (to say). for instance. also. According to David Hoekema. whereby one sentence is (presented as) a re-saying or representation of a previous sentence (Eggins. I mean (to say). aspiring journalists. according to Halliday (1994: 327) can enhance the texture of the text. Elaboration refers to a relationship of restatement or clarification. 1994: 105). that is the logical multifunction. and enhancement. punishment is punishment… . realised in the conjunction system. or conjunctive relations. in addition. extension. The presence of conjunctive relations as discussed above. after examining all the arguments… Extension refers to a relationship of either addition (one clause adds to the meaning made in another). law students. 1994a: 324).2. Types of conjunctions used in enhancement and examples of clauses in which the conjunctions occur are given in Table 1. for example. Common conjunctions used to express this relation are: and. moreover. the Miss Universe pageant is also inappropriate to Indonesia‟s oriental values. among others in: … the Miss Universe pageant covers a vast spectrum of academic fields. They are. 1994:105).1. or first person statement indicates the writer‟s commitment to what she/he is saying and objective orientation. important. Moreover. afterwards. of that. can. we recommend Indonesia should not send consequently. 28 . at the same time. etc Comparative likewise. Javis. 1994a. These judgments can be of probability or certainty and usuality or of obligation and inclination (of the doing of something). still. … . after …until she delivered her baby… a while. then. participial adjectives: needed. inevitably. modal Adjuncts: really. Halliday and Mathiessen. e Only death can incapacitate murderers. There are several markers of modality found in students‟ texts. mental process clauses: I think. expressing attitudes and judgments of various kinds” (Eggins. otherwise. However. and high.9 Types of conjunctions and examples of clauses used in enhancement Examples Clauses Using the Conjunctions in Students’ Texts then. 1994a. until. relational processes (processes of appearance): seem. etc Even though it can incapacitate criminals. the two types of modality can be expressed in different degrees of the writer‟s commitment. as a result. 2004. Fairclough. modal operator +modal Adjunct: should undoubtedly. the discussion will offer only modality as an aspect of the interpersonal metafunction. 1. therefore. either in positive or negative polarity.2. modal adjectives: possible. 2003). I believe. otherwise the murderers can harm prison staffs. if not. for. including: modal operators: will. related to the interpersonal metafunction. Fairclough. similarly. next.Table 1. making statements on behalf of others (Halliday. 1994: 179). The former is called modalisation (epistemic modality) and the latter modulation (deontic modality) (Halliday. in consequence. which are: low. before. hence. and the fact that there are many aspects of grammar that are related to the interpersonal metafunction. Subjective orientation. Concessive yet. etc Conditional If. in a Similarly. Causal so. highly.4 Modality-As part of the realisation of the interpersonal metafunction Modality refers to a complex area of English grammar which concerns the different ways in which a language user can intrude on his/her message.… Types of Conjunctions Temporal Another system of grammar that relates to one of the metafunction is the MOOD system. or different values. median. 2003:171). can be subjectively or objectively oriented. as found in students‟ texts.1.5. Therefore. After she died. may. in the subsequent section. for reasons of space. other prisoners and even the society. or third person statement shows the writer‟s detachment to what she is saying. might. another opponent of the Miss different way Universe pageant from India suggests…. even though. because an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant. These two types of modality. Objective High Negative Objective High Positive It is very important [[for us to heal reputation of our country… . 29 . Subjective Median Positive Those [[who murder whites]] were more likely to be sentenced to death… . Singapore always employs death penalty. Eggins. Halliday. 1994) Examples Orientation Value Polarity The doctor said that my appendix was really bad Subjective High Positive It is obvious [[that Indonesia … Objective Median Positive Here. Subjective High Positive Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the Miss Universe pageant. it is claimed. Probability Table 1. Modalisation: Usuality Modulation: Obligation Subjective Low Positive The higher middle class will perhaps not feel any effect … . 1994: 190). I can say … . they think. realised in projecting mental or verbal clauses. 1985a. Objective High Negative Objective High Positive. there are also cases of objectively oriented expressions. they believe. Objective Median Positive Indonesia may have opportunity … . the In response to this.* Subjective Median Positive It is improper [[ to employ death penalty]]. I would like to share Subjective Low Positive Modulation: Inclination opinions. both in active and agentless passive constructions. especially in writing written by students at the tertiary level. they argue. it is revealed. Types of Modality Modalisation: Certainty.10 Modality: Types. Value and Polarity (Adapted from: Kress. On Monday morning I must go to school. Objective Median Negative it is almost impossible [[for the prison system in Indonesia to gain public‟s confidence]]. Note: the clauses with an asterisk indicate that both modalisation and modulation may occur in the same clause (see Eggins.Illustration of modality system. Objective Median Negative The US government never takes into account the misery … . such as: they say. drawn from Halliday (1994a) and Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) and examples from students‟ texts written in the three studies reported in this book will be given below in Table 1. it is said. Orientation. it is argued. 1994a: .10 In addition to the examples illustrated in Table 1.10. This modality can also be subjectively or objectively oriented. as will be noted in Chapter 2. 2003:. Moreover. 30 . among others. Ideational metaphor Ideational metaphor involves a transference from one kind of element to another. Grammatical metaphor or metaphorical modes of expressions can be defined as “the expression of a meaning through a lexico-grammatical form which originally evolved to express a different kind of meaning” (Thompson. and logical. and objective orientation in: Unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes. There are two main types of grammatical metaphors in the clause and found in the students‟ texts: metaphors of transitivity (ideational metaphors) and metaphors of mood (interpersonal metaphors) (Halliday. 104). concerned with elements of figure. as in: The gas chamber causes a slow and cruel death…. quality circumstance or thing (Martin and Rose. 1994a: 359). 1994a: 343) which will be illustrated below. Indonesian people still prefer the implementation of capital punishment. can be seen mostly in nominalisations.2. logical metaphors. 2002:. Experiential metaphors in students‟ texts. Capital punishment could lead to the execution of innocent people…. and can be classified into experiential. If we express this is in a more congruent way.1.5. it will be: Indonesian people still prefer that people be punished by being executed. it is clear that modality “signals that meaning is contingent and subject to negotiation” (Coffin. 510). [[that some criminals [[who still serve their punishment in jail]] are still capable of [[committing crimes]].5 Grammatical metaphor Metaphor in general involves “a transference of meaning in which a lexical item that normally means one thing comes to mean another” (Martin and Rose. in: [[ Participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] can promote tourism of the participant‟s country.Another category of modality found in students‟ texts is modality of ability or potentiality (Halliday. 2003: 143) Nominalisations occur among others. and semantically of a process into an entity” (Fairclough. Subjective orientation occurs. are found mostly in more mature texts. 1. with reconstruing a conjunction between figures as if it were a process. They are realised in some relational (causative) processes. “the conversion of a verb into a noun-like word. such as: cause and lead to. From the examples above. 1996: 163). 2003:103). as will be discussed in Chapter 2. in those expressions. 31 . the relation is reconstrued as a process (causes. Martin & Rose add. it is now time to give an account to the SFL genre pedagogy and approach which was used in all the teaching programs described throughout the book. there is a relation of consequence between the two participants: the gas chamber and a slow and cruel death. In those examples. as exemplified above. Martin and Rose say. for whatever reason. This is relevant to the the conmcept of critical thinking and some critical thinking standards and dispositions focused in this book. also compresses a sequence of two activities into a single figure. to avoid negotiation.10 above). After discussing SFL and SFG. as taken up earlier in this chapter. interpersonal metaphors are categorized into two: Metaphors of modality. represent activities (“dying slowly and cruelly” and “executing innocent people) that are reconstrued as things. and the execution of innocent people. I strongly argue or it is obvious that …. 2003: 140141). as Martin & Rose (2003:140) suggest. the participants a slow and cruel death. realised in statements (see clauses with must. Thus. I believe. occur especially in some commands. which is usually congruently expressed in “if … then” (Martin and Rose. is a crucial resource for reasoning in fields such as science and politics. to Martin & Rose. could lead to). it is true that…. as a powerful weapon in cases where the speaker or writer wishes.Logically. So. as will certainly lead to. until sufficient evidence has been accumulated (2003: 141). incorporates more than simply consequence. the probability of the result can be graded as could lead to (see the example above) in contrast to high probability. then innocent people may be executed. The strategy above. Experientially. and the execution of innocent people. with its possible outcome of rejection (Thompson. For one thing. If the death penalty is implemented. Martin & Rose (2003: 141) further state that the logical metaphor of „relation as process‟. plays a very important role. should and impersonal it in modulation described in Table 1. According to Halliday (1994: 354-367). especially in persuasive texts (like those presented in Chapter 2). 1996:172). such a sequence can be unpacked as that related by conjunctions: If the gas chamber is used. by means of experiential metaphor. Regarding the logical metaphor. then people will die cruelly. Metaphors of mood. in which it is important not to overstate causal relations. This. Interpersonal metaphor Interpersonal metaphor. where in each case the mental process that prefaces what is said is a metaphor for an adjunct expressing modality: I think…. one of the reasons that writers use logical metaphors for conjunctions is that they can grade their evaluation of relations between events or arguments. Based on their obligatory and optional stages (as well as the social purpose). A strong text organisation and linguistic features. such as how language works to make meaning. secondary. a social process. 1993: 193). 2008. and to help students make sense of not only the structure of texts but also a wide range of compositional concerns (Brooks. 32 . according to Christie & Dreyfus (2007). Learning occurs more effectively if teachers are explicit about what is expected of students Under this principle.1. 1. the GBA suggests that teachers should be more explicit in teaching several aspects. like those of parent and child. Martin & Rose. or teacher and pupil. through relationships. that are defined in the value systems and ideology of the culture (Halliday. 1985: 5). tertiary. 1996: 700). 2002). 2008). genre theorists have proposed a large number of genres (Christie & Derewianka. professional and community teaching contexts in programs for native speakers of English. 1985. 1998a: 25). or classmates. are an indication of development of students‟ ability in writing. The SFL GBA has influenced the entire state educational systems in Australia.1 Major goals and principles in the SF genre traditions The goals of the GBA are basically to help students become more successful writers (and readers) of academic and workplace texts (Hyon. 1994). above all. This concept of learning is parallel to Vygotsky‟s view that learning is a social activity. 1996) or a pedagogy of overt instruction (The New London Group. and linguistic forms that characterize different genres (Feez and Joyce. Many of them found in schools will be discussed in later chapters. To realize its aims.6. Language learning is a social activity This principle derives from Halliday‟s theory that learning is.6 The SFL genre-based approach to teaching writing (The SFL GBA) The SFL GBA to teaching writing has been developed in Australia. 2000). 2007:12). In the genre-based approach. that “Learning awakens a variety of internal development processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with peers”(1978: 90). and knowledge is transmitted in social contexts. and has been adopted in primary. Knapp and Knobble. The SFL GBA is also called an interventionist pedagogy (Rothery. based on SFL developed by Halliday (1975. genre pedagogy stresses several basic principles below. ESL and academic literacy programs (see Martin & Rose. genres have been defined as ways we get things done through language – the ways we exchange information and knowledge and interact socially (Callaghan. the text organization. as the result of explicit teaching. Derewianka. Every dialect of every language has register and grammar. Vygotsky‟s view of learning is relevant to the concept that language learning is a social actitity and this been one of the basic principles of the SFL GBA. 33 . as will be alluded to later in Chapter 3. that is “children construct their own knowledge through approximating. Joint Construction and Independent Construction. and a critique of natural learning by Christie. Both theorists. The explanation about each stage will be presented in Chapter 2. is not a dogma to be narrowly practised. 1988: 301. A learning theory. 1985. 1999. and interacting with knowledgeable others” (Vygotsky 1977. a theory of language. 2002. and active. 1995). a basic view of teaching and the role of teachers. Whole language also refers to the instructional philosophy that reflects consistently the view that meaning and natural language are the basis of literacy learning (Smith. is also put forward by Halliday (1985) and has been one of the basic principles of the SFL GBA. There are some model of the SFL GBA. Susan Hill (2006) states that this view of learning. Hill suggests. 1998a. as Goodman (2005: 26) argues. A language theory Whole language. and a view of curriculum. apart from drawing on the theories of Vygotsky (1978) draws on the theories of Dewey (1964). and the model used in the programs described in this book is basd on the work of Rothery. mentioned above (see Wells. cited in Wortman & Matlin. 2005:204) and one of the most prominent architects of this philosophy is Goodman. It is a way of bringing together four pillars. Each pillar will be described in the following subsection. Regarding the social constructivist view of learning theory. 2002). 1998). (1976. practicing. Modelling. This view of learning. Whole language believes the following: There is no language without symbols and system. Whole language. 1998:50. is also based on scientific knowledge and theories about language. view learning as social. Feez & Joyce. Students learn under the guidance of the teacher in apprenticeship Under this principle students learn as apprentices with the teacher in the authoritative role of expert on language system and function (Feez and Joyce. 2006). Goodman (2005) says. 1990. see also Barchers. as mentioned above.7 Whole language philosophy as the umbrella of the process approach to teaching writing Whole language is a philosophy that draws on knowledge of child development (Muijs & Reynold. collaborative. Feez. which covers four stages: Building Knowledge of the Field. Whole language builds on Piaget‟s constructivist theory and Vygotsky‟s learning principle. 2004 and Cruickshank. MackenHorarik. 1. 2005). to do with a theory of learning. draw constantly on a scientific body of knowledge in carrying out their work. as outlined above. or fun for them. A view of teaching Whole language. that children need to feel that what they are doing through language they have chosen is useful. They can be science units. understand that learning ultimately takes place one child at a time. Language across the Curriculum . know about language. Choice. the barest whole that makes sense. Goodman says that whole language teachers regard themselves as professionals. children. edited by Hancock. try to create appropriate social settings and interactions. to Goodman (2005). or interesting. monitor.Language is inclusive and it is indivisible. Language development and content become a dual curriculum” (2005: 30). views that respect for understanding of learning and language is matched by respect for and understanding of teaching. 2006). 34 .whole of or a large part of the curriculum should be organised around topics or themes. learning.whole language argues that language should be applied across the curriculum. or units that integrate all three. Thematic Units . and methodology. phrases and sentences. connected discourse in the context of some speech or literacy event. More recent work of whole language also puts a strong emphasis on explicit teaching (see an edition on The explicit teaching of reading. social science units. Ownership and Relevance. curriculum. These. they do so always in the context of whole.language is learned best and easiest when it is whole and in natural context. support. and facilitate learning. and utterly convinced that teachers guide. according to Goodman (2005). include: Integration . Content area teachers are urged to consider how language is used in their fields and then think of their curriculum as a dual curriculum with the double agenda it implies. For example.authenticity is essential. Which is one of the principles of the SFL GBA. 1999 and Hill. A view of curriculum Whole language philosophy focuses on several key concepts in terms of curriculum. is really the minimal functional unit. When teachers and pupils look at words. then integration is a key principle for language development and learning through language. literature units. and to influence the rate and direction of personal learning. Whole text. encourage. maths teachers need to think of the language of maths as a special register and to help students learn to control it as they deal with math concepts and the solution of math problems. real language texts that are part of real language experiences of children. Whole language also considers language as whole. However. New Zealand. England. 2005:2). In many ways. there have been a number of contributors to the pervasiveness of the policy of “English only” in the classroom. Regarding this. are quite clear: teachers want classroom activities to maximise use of the target language in order to enhance learners‟ opportunities for interaction in their second language and to encourage learning of the target language. at least until recently.Under the whole language philosophy. Another method of English teaching which require students and the teacher to speak English only in communicative language teaching (Wigglesworh. that will be discussed in Chapter 4. English speaking countries have inevitably tended to be leaders in English teaching policy and research. One of these methods is the Direct method. there are a number of approaches and strategies in teaching English literacy. that is reagrding the use of L1 or in this case bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL classrooms. One approach that is relevant to the discussion in this book. 2000). there has been a tendency to discourage learners and teachers from using the students‟ first language (Wigglesworth. the use of L1 is not precluded simply because classroom participants come from multiple language backgrounds. 2005).8 The use of native language (L1) in ESL(EFL) contexts It is probably fair to say that in EFL classes in general. Wigglesworth argues. This has led to the policy of “English only” in the classroom which has been widespread both in ESL and EFL contexts. in the account of the teaching of writing at the primary level in Australia. there has been a tendency for English only classrooms to be seen as the most efficacious for language learning in EFL contexts as well. Other contributors. is the process approach. 35 . First of all. Some teaching methods and strategies in ESL/EFL require teacher and students use only the target language. One main principle of this method is that no L1 use is allowed in the classroom (Larsen-Freeman. The last theory that has been drawn on in this book is related to the work under English as a Second or Foreign Language. including Indonesia. Wigglesworth adds. are to do with historical tradition and political imperative. The first contributor is of course the work on ESL/EFL teaching methodology. Nevertheless. These methods have led to the prevalence of the teachers‟ belief in implementing an English only classroom. Canada. that is English. where the necessity of developing teaching approaches appropriate to multilingual classes has made the use of the first language is difficult. The reasons for this. the English only classroom is a natural result of language classes composed of learners who have varied first languages. since research and theoretical underpinnings of language teaching pedagogy tend to come out of English speaking countries. 1. and many of these countries – most notably Australia. Wigglesworth (2005) described several contributors below. and the United States – have also been the recipients of large numbers of immigrants from a wide variety of language backgrounds. In the literature. 1996). see also Auerbach. may make the learners feel that they are being treated like children. the use of first language allows the introduction of concepts and discussion of conceptually more demanding material which is of interest to adults (Gunn. are activated when a bilingual speaker is trying to process language. Wigglesworth says. in long term memory. or to discuss the main ideas of a piece after reading (Willis. which says that both first and second language lexical items. This. 2005) is a rather pervasive linguistic imperialism. 2009. Emilia et al. Thus. In adult classes. 2005). to explain the aims of a lesson. 1993. Emilia. can be seen from three perspectives. Macaro (2009) further says. as Macaro (2009) suggests. 1981. 2005). especially when the students are generally homogenous. The second theory supporting a first language facilitative effect. may mean that learners spend a lot of time trying to work out what to do rather than doing what the task requires. and that they are almost always performed in the first language. and often do. Based on the description above. tasks and activities must be kept simple so that the instructions cannot be understood in the second language. Emilia‟s study supports previous study on the use of students‟ L1 in L2 contexts as reported by Storch and Wigglesworth (2003: 760) in that the use of bahasa Indonesia. The first of these is cognitive processing theory. The English only policy provides an advantage for native speaking teachers who are able. Many studies. is cociocultural theory. 2003. Murray & Wigglesworth. suggest the role of the first language interactions used by learners can function as a psychological tool that enables learners to construct effective 36 . The first language can be used to explain the meaning. Evidence of the advantage of the use of L1. can also enable students to work at a higher level than would be possible were they restricted to sole use of English. 2008. cited in Wigglesworh. According to Phillipson. The use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL contexts. Since connections with the first language (especially in nonbalanced bilinguals) are going to be much stronger than connections with the second language. If the first language is not used at all. as in the Indonesian context. as reported in Emilia (2005) can provide students with additional support that allows them to analyse English. Evans. to evaluate learner‟s understanding. which suggests that inner voice and private speech are essential contributors to the way we think and act. the reason for the English only classroom has been staunchly maintained to the extent that native speakers are often preferred (and even required) in many EFL settings. 2009.Another contributor. 2009. cited in Wigglesworth. as Phillippson (1992. 2005. then to ignore the first language during the process of second language learning is to ignore an esssential tool as the learner‟s disposal (Macaro. that is. 2009) it is now timely to review the English only policy. and results of research in ESL/EFL teaching (Wigglesworh. 2005. cited in Wigglesworth. and to increase their basic understanding about how English and bahasa Indonesia work. teach almost anywhere in the world without having to make the efforts to learn another language. Turnbull & Dailey O‟Cain. where the majority of learners in the classroom share their first language with the teacher. with low learners in particular. 2005. avoiding the first language. Macaro. many of the examples of code switching were an expression of the role of peer learning. The last perspective is the perspective of codeswitching in naturalistic environments (language alteration which occurs in nonformal. 1996. Bilingual education is not only good for children in gifted and talented programs but also good for children in vocational and technical education. without having to silence the language they brought to class. the inclusion of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL classrooms may provide a place where students use multiple discourses to comprehend their relations with the wider society and thus to ensure their active participation. which has existed for a long time (Fishman. From a pedagogical perspective. Evans (2009) reports. and for those who speak regional languages. … Bilingual education is also good for adults in lifelong language –learning situations. especially with the development of bilingual classes in a number of school in Indonesia. according to Gracia (2009). able to educate all children in ways that stimulate and expand their intellect and imagination. one can gather information and build self-worth through social interactions. The use of learners‟ language in code switching in the class room is really useful in terms of a pragmatic strategy.collaborative dialogue in the completion of meaning-based language tasks by performing three important functions: construction of scaffolded help. This follows that teachers and policy makers of English teaching in Indonesia should start to rethink about the English only policy and thus to allow the use of bahasa Indonesia in the classroom by both the teacher and the students to help students gain the benefits mentioned above. Moreover. 2005:7. Fishman says: Bilingual education is good for all – language majorities. noninstructional context. is considered to be appropriate for all levels of education and for all learners. knowing how to use a language is a way of gaining cultural and symbolic capital and by using a language effectively. bilingual education has the potential of being a transformative school practice. 2009. for speakers of official and /or national languages. see also those working under critical pedagogy perspective. 2009). for the powerful and the lowly. 2009:12) and which encourages the use of both students‟ L1 and the target language. because it allows one to interact with others in various social contexts. to use appropriate norms of language. Cummins. 37 . those without power. as well as for those in special education. cited in Gracia. since bilinguals enjoy cognitive and social advantages over monolinguals (1976.ability to use languages effectively. 2000 about the benefits of the use of L1 in ESL/EFL contexts). such as Auerbach. the use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL contexts is relevant. cited in Gracia. Evans. 2009:12). 2009:12). Pupils often switch language either as a way of sharpening the interpersonal edge or a particular message or as a way of appealing for help with the language. Apart from those perspectives. 1996. Gracia (2009:12) further states that bilingual education can lead students to gain linguistic capital . To follow Bordieu (1982). cited in Wigglesworth. as they gain ways of expression and access different ways of being in the world. Being able to use languages effectively. An education that is bilingual is good for the rich and the poor. 1993. 1998:337. powerful ethno linguistic groups. as well as language minorities. Bordieu argues (cited in Gracia. increases one‟s wealth. that is. establishment of intersubjectivity. From a CP perspective that has been described above. 1976. Bilingual education. In a sense. Macaro. for indegenous peoples and immigrants. and use of private speech (Anton & DiCamilla. to do with critical thinking. 38 . especially the SFL GBA in teaching a Discussion text. critical literacy. Chapter 3 takes up a teaching program in the Indonesian context. conducted at a tertiary EFL context in Indonesia. Chapter 5 turns to conclude and propose recommendations based on the discussion in the earlier chapters. critical pedagogy and systemic functional linguistics. based on the results of the writer‟s observation in a primary classroom in Australia.. Chapter 2 focuses on a teaching program. while it also demonstrates how to use action research. The program was informed by four broad main theories reviewed above. Chapter 4. The program has been informed by the Indonesian curriculum of English and the SFL GBA in teaching a Recount text. looks at the teaching of writing in a native language context.9 Outline of the book The subsequent chapters will be framed as follows. The chapter will show how the teacher in Australia tends to use an eclectic approach in teaching writing to five graders.1. based on action research between university researchers and a teacher of English at the secondary level. Systemic functional linguistic (SFL) theory. 39 .Chapter 2: A language and literacy program for the tertiary level This chapter will demonstrate how four major traditions of scholarship should inform the development of critical language and literacy programs for tertiary students of English. Critical pedagogy – a tradition devoted to dialogic education and interrogation of texts. philosophy and educational theory. democracy in the classroom and liberation. ideologies and interests of persons involved in texts. Critical literacy – a tradition devoted to interrogation of texts with a view to analysis of the values. They are: Critical thinking – a tradition of scholarship that draws to some extent on psychology.a linguistic tradition devoted to analysis of texts and identification of different text types or genres for teaching purposes. selected to engage students in learning critical and analytic skills. Below. A teaching phase devoted to active exploration of topics and texts. A teaching phase devoted to introduction to SFL-related concepts and genre-based pedagogy. Morgan.g.b). and (ii) some principles for evaluation and assessment are established. evaluation and assessment are conducted qualitatively and quantitatively. all of which were introduced in chapter 1. whose aim was to develop skills of critical thinking and critical reading and writing practices.g. Critical thinking would be impossible without the knowledge of content or of the language that expresses it. 1993. 2005) which was conducted in an Indonesian tertiary institution. 1997. A teaching phase devoted to writing discussion genres. 2009) because it emphasizes both the students‟ understanding of the content involved and the language in which it is expressed. 40 . 2005). This chapter outlines a program devoted to teaching skills of reading and writing critically and independently to tertiary students of English.1 Introduction Students of English education at the tertiary level have a number of requirements if they are to succeed in their studies and become successful teachers. we shall discuss each of these phases. It is argued that we can develop a strong teaching program for the audience of tertiary level students which synthesizes elements of all these scholarly traditions. The program proposed is based on a study (Emilia. 1998. where these are assessed in the process of teaching and learning. 2004a. showing capacity for critical thinking. Christie. seeking to clarify how they should be implemented. Lipman. The proposed program to some extent can be considered similar to content-based language programs (Met. especially in their reading. and able to interpret arguments in written texts as well as being able to write independent texts of their own. They must be competent readers and writers. for they should all inform the professional preparation of teachers for teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesian schools. The proposed teaching program has these phases: A planning phase in which (i) topics to be taught and materials to be used are identified. drawing on both SFL theory and the critical and analytic skills developed in the earlier phase. critical literacy (e.Paul.g. Gracia. 2003. The background theory drawn on to develop the program used work in critical thinking (e. Luke & Freebody. 2002.2. Wilks. Feez. A knowledge of content and of language is essential in the development of students‟ critical thinking dispositions. 1997) and SFL genre based theory (e. The program proposed here focuses on language growth as a necessary aspect of development of analytical and argumentative skills. 2002) to allow for more varied analysis of content and language (Varaprasad. The recent adoption of genre based pedagogy as part of the national English curriculum (Depdiknas. 1997.2 Phase 1: Planning a teaching program devoted to teaching critical literacy skills at the tertiary level When working with students of foreign and second languages. attention needs to be given to principles of evaluation and assessment. Gracia proposes that the selected texts relate to students‟ backgrounds and reflect the bilingual realities of students‟ lives and their multiculturalism (2009: 362). and ideally. In the contemporary world it is important in selecting texts that they be „multiple‟ in character (Luke and Freebody 1997. planning must be based both on an understanding of the students and their prior knowledge and capacities. several sample discussion genres were created. such as magazines. there may not always be sufficient examples of target genres to use. as Met (1998) argues. Similarly. and bilingual students must develop the ability to go beyond printed texts. In the planning phase. it is important that they be authentic. and this was necessary even at the tertiary level. and an understanding of their needs. In language education programs in general. Students can also be encouraged to find various sources themselves to enrich information for the English classroom. Gibbons (2002). brings the entire world closer. there has been a long tradition of attaching particular importance to quantitative methods of evaluation. reports (Feez. newspapers. While the SFL theory devoted to teaching genres is by now quite extensive. though it 41 . 2006) no doubt helps in this regard. As the overall suggested program involves an important writing phase. In the program outlined here the target genre. and hence taken from various sources. Frye 1997). 1988). not specifically written to teach language. it has been suggested. Materials taken from the mass media provide “generative themes”. and Gracia (2009: 361) state that in choosing texts for students who learn English as a foreign language. 2002) and the Internet (Gibbons. including those provided by state authorities. Fetterman. This is because analysis shows that many texts written specifically to teach reading to beginners are often poorly expressed and even difficult to read. or to teach reading in particular. (Mazurek. Gracia 2009. though as has been noted. both in their reading and their writing. so the teacher may need to develop appropriate models. Caudery (1998).2. it is essential that in the planning phase the teacher selects sample texts to model the target genre to be written. Gibbons. is the Discussion genre (to be explained more fully below). in this case in developing critical literacy skills. The Internet. there has been a „myth‟ about the values claimed for quantitative methods over qualitative methods (Best & Kahn. In the study Emilia (2005) conducted. texts from the Internet are important resources as they can ensure that all modes of communication (visual. Both methods of evaluation have their role. 1999: 309) in that they can give topics that embody contradictions in contemporary ideology and explorations of these can potentially lead to critical reflection and even point to political empowerment. as already indicated. Planning must also consider the most effective texts students should read as well as write. Mohan 2001). 2009: 362). as well as auditory) are fully exploited in the English language classroom (Gracia. 1986. being careful to ensure authenticity. critical reading and writing. 1986) argued that changes in human behaviour are best assessed qualitatively. which initiates critical thinking as a theme and leads to eventual critical writing. Since Indonesian students are not used to being consulted about the topics they will explore. reason (including faulty reasonings). Benesch. the teacher can observe and judge changed capacities in students in challenging the values of the texts they read. Working Women. Freire and Shor. the teacher can proceed to the next phase of work. research and discussion. 1987: 61). and they remain so. For example. Before students commence work on their chosen topics. Derewianka. Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia and the Miss Universe Contest were all current controversial Indonesian issues at the time of the study. Berlin. they may insist that the teacher decide. Abortion. the teacher should nonetheless urge the students to exercise a choice. already introduced in chapter 1: definitions of critical thinking. 1990). Where this occurs.g. In summary. the teacher can select a list of possible topics and invite the students to consider those they would like to explore.3 Phase 2: Critical thinking and critical literacy In order to build interest in topics selected for work. In this context it is notable that Piaget (Best & Kahn. 42 . Those topics were selected because they were controversial. CP has always declared that “a radical and critical education has to focus on what is taking place today inside various social movements …” (Freire and Macedo. among others: The Miss Universe Contest. 2. Capital Punishment. including identification of appropriate texts for work with students. essential components and notions of CT: argument. 2001. or in writing texts that sustain strong well supported arguments. The topics of Capital Punishment. 1999) had this experience.3.g. Working Women and Capital Punishment . especially in a program devoted to building independent thought. and decisions about evaluation procedures to be adopted. and the Implementation of Islamic Law in Indonesia. Sex Education. Both Emilia (2005) and Auerbach (1996. Alternatively. and in helping to build some critical reflection. examining and learning about the following matters.1 Introducing aspects of critical thinking. the topics selected over the various phases were the Miss Universe Contest. 1993. Once these matters have been attended to. (ii) some genre theorists (e. In Emilia‟s case. for example. both for reading and for analysis of target genres. and certain ESL specialists (Nunan. In Emilia‟s study. Sex Education. they should be given some direct teaching about principles of critical thinking.is argued here that many of the capacities taught in the name of critical thinking or genrebased pedagogy are not readily evaluated in any quantitative way. students can sometimes be consulted about the topics for examination. the topics included. the issue. facts and opinion. 1987). 2. which seemed to suit the teaching of CT. 1988: 2-4). involving commencement of teaching. and this may be decided on a chorus of voices. the planning phase addresses all matters of preparation. Such a consultative approach is based on principles of dialogic education as advocated by (i) „de-schoolers‟ (e. Identification of ambiguity in statements. However. Students‟ CT development in this phase of the teaching program can be seen from their attempts to apply CT knowledge in their outside classroom activities. Most exercises to promote critical thinking should be done in groups to encourage the students to share with and learn from friends and thus to develop their CT. skills of CT. “Politicians are corrupt”. 1991. Identification of stereotypes. It appears to be true…). Identification of vague words. writing and collaboration in group work. as in “Women are very emotional”. and how CT can be sharpened through reading. students can use verbal groups (e.g. such as in: “He fed her dog biscuits”. Moreover.. dispositions and abilities involved in CT (including capacity to identify fallacies in reasoning) activities that make up CT. 2001:18. cited in Lunt. might. Some people believe … . cited in Lunt.” The words nice and interesting are rather general and not very meaningful. it should also be explained that continued use of the above expressions can lead to the reader‟s or listener‟s doubt about the writer/speaker‟s capacity regarding the topic communicated. In addition. This helps students recognise certainties or credible arguments and distinguish the differences between absolute statements and statements of possibility. as will be shown later. see also Nunan and Lamb. 1987. they can use: Modality (possibly. 2001:18) with consequent gains in language proficiency (Bejarano. must. Modal verbs (can. as in: “I had a nice time yesterday”.).g: It seems to be the case… . 1996). the boy said… . this is useful to offer opportunities for cooperative learning and real English language practice (Hyland. as revealed in a journal entry below: 43 . Thus. and students should be advised to use more effective language. should). maybe). students need to be taught expressions that suggest that opinion rather than prejudiced positions should be expressed. From the perspective of EFL. “The duck is ready to eat”. the relationship between CT and CL (writing and reading). for example. “This book is interesting. Students can also use generic deictic rather than specific (e. CT standards (including aspects contributing to the soundness of arguments). 2002. we tried to respond to what was being discussed from several points of view and to appreciate others‟ opinion (Nuri. Trying to increase their understanding rather than simply winning the argument (Chaffee. 2002:79). 44 . He was chosen for the NBA All-Star team in his first nine seasons. Assessing whether the participants in the discussion “tell the readers. and since we learned how to be a critical thinker. It should be made clear that one social activity to enhance CT is discussion. Regarding this. 1991. Assessing whether the participants “view situations from different perspectives” and “support diverse viewpoints with reasons and evidence” (Chaffee et al. Lipman. 1997. As the core of critical thinking is arguments. or show them by providing specific details and relevant examples” (Chaffee et al. 2000:70-73).4 points per game. That same season he ranked second on the Bulls for rebounding and assists. A desirable step after CT exercises have been introduced is to involve students in group activities as the following discussion reveals. Diestler. students should be exposed to argumentative texts to help them develp their CT and CL. 1984. 2001. Michael Jordan led the NBA with a scoring average of 30. students should be encouraged to see how CT takes place in a social context. He has won four league MVP awards and two Olympic medals (Chaffee et al. Asking and trying to answer important questions. Nosich.3. Assessing the strengths and accuracy of reasons and evidence in each statement made by the participants. Responding to the points being made. in Emilia. the following example can be given to the students. factual evidence. Telling: Michael Jordan is a great basketball player Showing: During the 1995-1996 seasons. This awareness is very important especially when students are to write an argumentative text. 2000. 2002). and personal experience (Toulmin et al. 2001).2 Observing critical thinking (CT) in social practice As CT is a social practice (Atkinson. and this will be exemplified in the subsequent section. Supporting their views with reasons and evidence. Chaffee. 31st Jan. Good writers try to persuade the readers by providing specific details as exemplified below. in which students can do the following: Listening to each other. 2005) Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death…. etc. Canagarajah. 2. including reference to authorities. while weak writers only tell their readers. 2002: 79). based on several aspects. 2003).Outside we talked about movies. The journal entry above appears to show that explicit teaching of critical thinking can lead to students‟ awareness of at least some features of CT in focus. some students. about “Why own a 4WD” ( taken from Mc Gregor. This is useful to foster students‟ critical reading skills (Perkins. by using twice as much fuel as 45 . the intertextual nature of which is that that “it echoes someone else‟s utterance” (Sperber and Wilson. introducing students to CL and encouraging them to have diverse opinions without fear of being judged wrong.2. which is a very effective means for developing the CT dispositions and the CT strategies and tactics (Norris and Ennis. For example. However. such knowledge about Australians is important. see the text just from the surface level. Perkins. as the data below will reveal. particularly regarding the point that is mentioned in the text “You can pretend that you are actually going somewhere on weekends when you‟re just going to the shops”. Thus. Gibbons. such as roos and a grate because some students might not know the meaning of these words. to help students understand the text more easily.3 Dealing with texts on argument: Developing students’ CT and CL This activity aims to engage students in extended discussion about issues. you are less likely to be hurt. You can feel you are really someone when you are up above everybody else. as can be seen below uses irony. 1998.3. You can see further down the road. O‟Brien and Comber. You can pretend that you are actually going somewhere on weekends when you‟re just going to the shops. 1987b). 2002: 83). though this is probably because it is an English text. The text below. and the actual intent can be expressed in words which carry the opposite meaning” (Saxby. but those behind you can‟t see ahead at all. This point suggests that Australians value adventurous activities. Most texts used should be in English to provide students with an opportunity to learn not only the content but also the language of the texts. 1986. If you crash into an ordinary car. essential for students‟ CL development. 1992b: 123) and “that words can imply more than is being said. They are: You pay less tax. The text. 1994). Some vocabulary should also be explained. This use of language exists in bahasa Indonesia and the students must have learnt to recognise irony in the national language while they are at school. to weigh and judge the writer‟s stance from the linguistic structure of the text” (Luke. scaffolding on cultural background knowledge may be needed to build up students‟ knowledge that is relevant to the text (Gibbons. Understanding ironies in a foreign language can be very hard for a student. 1993: 70). 2002: 82) as this kind of text allows students “to debate. You can show you despise greenies and energy-conservers. enjoy doing interesting things like a picnic than doing domestic things. driving through different country roads. cited in Fairclough. Why Own a 4WD Intelligent people know there are several good reasons why everybody should own a four-wheel drive. 2002: 4) can be a good example for discussion because the topic and language are appropriate while the writer‟s stance is ironic and not necessarily obvious to the readers. even high achievers. 1990:150. Teacher : Ok. Then the discussion can go on to deal with questions regarding arguments. Questions regarding CL. using systemic functional linguistic theory. 2002. Wati thinks that the writer supports 4 WD. 1989. they do. Would this argument annoy or upset you? Why or why not? If you think it would annoy you. which particular statements. He says it in a cynical way. Everyone knows they cost a lot. what attitude do 4WD owners have to other people? Which statement suggests this attitude? Imagine you are a 4WD owner. Tenor and Mode. would have this effect.b) below can be very useful to guide students in reading such a text: Why is this topic being written about? How is this topic being written about? What other ways of writing about the topic are there? Who is writing to whom and what is the topic? Moreover. The writer‟s stance is not stated. These questions are among others: Who takes what subject positions in sentences? What types of process and participants dominate? How are active and passive constructions allocated? What modal constructions are employed? (Cope. questions to analyse linguistic choices can be exploited. words. Any other opinion? Candra : I don‟t think so. as shown in the following dialogue: Teacher : What do you think of the stance of the writer on 4 WD? Wati : (high achiever and articulate): I think he agrees with 4 WD and he mentions the benefits of 4WD for the owner. to do with Field. If you reverse over someone. you won‟t notice (cited from McGregor. 1992b). Why? Why do you think the writer uses the phrase „Urban Assault Vehicle”? Is the use of this phrase a hyperbole or irony? This letter is an example of an implied point of view which readers gather from reading the piece. Wallace. 2002. the students given the text on 4WD could generally answer all the questions above. I think he doesn‟t agree with 4WD. 04). Wati : But that‟s what he says. p. Why do you think the writer chose to present the argument in this form? As Emilia‟s (2005) study shows. but actually the writer doesn‟t agree with 4WD. you can have a grate attached to the front of your Urban Assault Vehicle for protection against pedestrians. 46 . as suggested by Wallace (1992a. but tensions can emerge due to variations in students‟ opinion. such as those proposed by Mc Gregor (2002:4) below: What do you think is the writer‟s contention or stance on the issue of 4 WDs? In what ways does the letter support this stance? According to the writer. (mentioning what the writer says in the text). or phrases. Fairclough. Although there are no bulls or roos in the area. Candra : Yes. as mentioned above. my situation. This skill is very important in recent condition in Indonesia (Ira). by asking the questions below: What does this text do to me? (Luke and Freebody. based on only the surface level. 2002a. Have you ever heard the term “irony” in Bahasa Indonesia? Wati: Oh . opponent. 1992b. From all these activities. 1997:114. yes. 1997. 2001).. yes. see also Gibbons. and relevance of a text.b). exists in bahasa Indonesia.. and the students must have learned it. I can see that the writer of a text has an interest and so I don‟t think that I should always follow the text... 2002). McGregor. 2002:1) Who would feel left out in this text and why? Do any of the claims made in this text clash with your values. for example in a journal entry written by a student after each session. The use of irony. Comber. may reflect the teaching of reading in EFL so far. which is often considered “unproblematic” (Wallace. 1990: 111). When I read a text now. 2002. in Emilia‟s (2005) study below: … I learnt that in every text we can analyse who the writer is. accuracy. in Emilia.. 1998. Perkins. scaffolding regarding cultural background of a text prior to the reading activity is important and should be more emphasised. in this phase students‟ development of critical literacy can be seen. 47 . or experiences? How is the reader positioned in relation to the author (e. invisible.. as a friend. Love et al. 1998. someone to persuade. which may be due to the students‟ lack of cultural knowledge of the text. The next activity to heighten students‟ awareness of other ways in which a topic could have been written about can be discussing and comparing two texts which deal with the same topic. among others. or someone who agrees with the author‟s views)? Are there gaps or absences. This can be done. why the writer writes. comparing lexico-grammatical choices in the texts. to whom the writer writes. 2005). I will see its relevance with my environment. and identifying the unspoken beliefs of the writers (Luke & Freebody. . when the text was written. that‟s right. 1997:214. Students should be encouraged to adopt the role of a text analyst and critic in that they are encouraged to recognize that all texts represent a particular view of the world and that readers are positioned in a certain way when they read them (Luke and Freebody. 2001: 76).g. I can assess the clarity. what the text is about. or silences in this text? If so what are they? Is there a group of people missing who logically should be included? (Thompson.. in recent condition and the facts that support the writer‟s argument. The excerpt above may suggest two aspects of the teaching of reading and critical literacy: (i) There are multiple interpretations of a text and “there is a wrong interpretation” (Gee. 1990: 8-14. Thus. and perhaps the answers can be more than one … (Ina. Pennycook. Comber. (ii) A high achiever‟s interpretation. beliefs.Teacher: Yes. 48 . Wigglesworth. Increasing students‟ basic understanding of how languages work. 1997. 2005. Enabling students to work at a higher level than would be possible were they restricted to sole use of English. students also have a lot of opportunities to speak in English as they improve with practice and they can be encouraged to take risks. 1987. and when the students feel that their teachers believe in them and expect them to succeed in school and in life (1996: 74). This can lead to the establishment of dialogue. relevant to a critical pedagogy (CP) perspective. is an apprentice. Freire and Shor. cited in Cummins. Regarding this. This is in line with the belief among ESL (EFL) students and teachers that they should use their English as much as possible in an ESL (EFL) setting (see the discussion in Storch and Wigglesworth. and Dailey-O‟Cain & Liebscher. cited in Auerbach. 1996:19). and this assumption is prevalent among Indonesian English teachers and students (see the discussion in Chapter 1).In this phase. Promoting students‟ linguistic and cognitive development. 1993:12-15. 2009). students can be allowed to speak in their mother tongue or bahasa Indonesia in the Indonesian context. see also Dailey-O‟Cain & Liebscher. without having to silence the language they brought to class (Thonis. Wigglesworth. However. 1999: 110). 2001. 1996:15. It can also lead to a relationship of respect between the teacher and student. Philips. Providing a place in the classroom where students use multiple discourses to comprehend their relations with the wider society and thus to ensure their active participation. see also Denise & Wigglesworth. In addition. because “the fact that bilinguals have two words for the same idea or object and two ways of expressing the same thought may lead them to objectify or become aware of their linguistic operations” (Vygotsky. McLaren. However. Gadotti. as Cummins notes: Techniques and strategies will be effective only when teachers and students forge a relationship of respect and affirmation. when students feel that they are welcomed into the learning community of the classroom and supported in the immense challenges they face in catching up academically. 1993. as “knowledge of the learners‟ first language should be considered an important teaching qualification” (Auerbach. someone who is also seeking (Freire. research by Emilia (2005) and Emilia et al (2008) shows that the use of bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian EFL classes is esssential. some teachers might find it confusing as there is an assumption that “English should be taught entirely monolingually”(Auerbach. without taking risks of being judged wrong in terms of English or ideas (Janks. the use of the first language can give the following benefits: Providing students with additional support that allows them to analyse the second/foreign language. 2009). see also Pari. which plays a very important role. 2009) and the teachers should speak English all the time to show a good model. 2005. 1996:18. like his/her students. Turnbull & Dailey-O‟cain. 1996:105. 2000). when students find difficulty in expressing ideas in English. 1985. 1990. 2003: 760. of taking an anti-authoritarian and interactive approach where the teacher. 2005). this can be seen from a journal entry written by a student below: Learning needs courage. to judge and to critique texts from different linguistic structures. especially a Discussion. Functional grammar. The role of the teacher at this stage should be mostly as the one who directs the teaching learning process (Butt et al. and in an EFL context. The treatment below will accordingly focus on the teaching of writing an argumentative text. ideationally. more specifically in making judgments regarding the manner in which and the degree to which choices in texts.1 49 . This pedagogy. challenge or confirm prevailing ideologies (2001: 216). or textually. to enable students and the teacher to interrogate texts in later stages. Introduction to systemic functional grammar can be useful. which was a crucial part of text analysis. It won‟t do to have plenty of ideas in your head but no courage to speak up (Candra. as the discussion will show.The teaching technique outlined above can promote students‟ awareness of the importance of freedom and courage to express ideas and to answer questions. In implementing the teaching cycle of the genre-based approach. The teaching of SFL and SFG can also be useful to make the Modelling stage in the teaching cycle of the GBA not “so complicated and not too challenging” (DSP. The oldest and best known model of genre-based pedagogy is set out in Figure 2. interpersonally. 1988: 50). there are several models than can be followed. 2005) Upon explicit teaching of critical thinking and critical literacy. as Wallace suggests: is part of the resources that students can put to use in the scrutiny of particular texts. as mentioned in Chapter 1. to debate. to weigh. 2. students understanding and skills in these aspects can be applied in writing. In Emilia‟s (2005) study. This phase can start with a brief explanation about some aspects of SFL and SFG. 2000) and who gives assistance in the form of “direct telling” (Callaghan and Rothery.4 Phase 3: Implementation of the SFL genre-based approach This section will describe the implementation of the SFL GBA in teaching the Discussion genre. using a genrebased pedagogy. especially when the teacher and the students interrogate texts in terms of its SFG-based linguistic features. is compatible with classroom practices advocated by critical thinking and critical literacy theorists drawn in the program. in Emilia. At this stage students‟ critical thinking and critical literacy can be further developed and applied through the classroom interactions. such as in the Building Knowledge of the Field stage. 1989: 11). and which is similar to the model offered by Feez (2002) is probably the model with which Indonesian teachers are most familiar. Martin (2010).1. 1996: 102) The model in Figure 2. as can be seen in Figure 2.Figure 2.2. represents essentially the same model though it has been a little revised over the years. Martin‟s model has reduced the four stages to three. which is similar to that in Figure 2.1 A model of genre-based pedagogy (Rothery.2. Where the model proposed has four stages. 50 . The four stages in Figure 2. Deconstruction is also a critical element of a radical pedagogy (Giroux. this phase in important as a core element of critical thinking. aims to build students‟ background knowledge about the topic they are going to write. Modelling of the target genre. Modelling (Deconstruction) This phase is critical for the students‟ CL for it involves analysis and discussions about how and why examples of a particular genre are organized to make meaning.1 may be explained as follows: Building Knowledge of the Field (Negotiating Field) This phase. Deconstruction allows students to analyse the representations of a text. From the critical thinking and critical literacy perspectives. Rothery‟s model has these stages: Building of the Field for writing. as argued by the critical thinking movement. 2010) Thus. and Independent Construction of the target genre. That is because Indonesian teachers and students need to devote a separate stage to Building of the Knowledge of the Field for writing. as the name indicates. Indonesian students are learning English as a second language and they must be assisted to learn a great deal of relevant vocabulary about the field before they commence writing.2 A model of genre pedagogy (Martin. as suggested by a critical social theory of literacy.Figure 2. The model from Martin has three stages: Deconstruction.1 is better for the Indonesian context. Joint Construction of a target text. one of the principles of CP. though it is probable that Rothery‟s model in Figure 2. 51 . Both models aim to achieve the same general purpose. Joint Construction and Independent Construction. is strong background knowledge. 1977) to enable students to understand the world. based on Emilia (2005) on teaching a Discussion text will be presented below. This emphasises the flexibility of the GBA. 52 . there are plenty of opportunities for students to speak. to read and to listen in both languages. Building Knowledge of the Field should normally be conducted over at least two lessons prior to the Joint Construction and Independent Construction stages respectively. 2002) and gradually removed in the Joint and Independent construction stages. Then the strong scaffolding is weakened (Feez. 2002). the students write the independently constructed text in several meetings with several drafts before they come to a neat final draft. Modeling and Joint Construction can be skipped (Feez. 2002). 2002: 26). 1988: 48) and “there is no right way to sequence teaching learning activities” (Macken-Horarik. In various stages of the teaching cycle. as students learn several types of texts both in junior and senior high schools. Hence. and the idea that “the teaching cycle does not work as a lockstep sequence for the whole class” (Callaghan and Rothery. students write several drafts in several sessions. Independent Construction Independent constructions provide a chance to practice individually the CT and CL skills students have grasped from the previous stages. 2009:363) and all the stages do not go in a linear way. especially in some part of Building Knowledge of the Field and Modeling phases. as reported in Emilia (2005) and Emilia et al (2008). Moreover. as some people have wrongly concluded at times in the past. when the teacher begins to relinquish responsibility to the learners as the learners‟ expanding knowledge allows them to take over ( Feez. to meet the students‟ need and contextual condition (Feez. the directive role of the teacher can be obvious and scaffolding can be very strong. It is important to understand that throughout all four stages. to make them aware that writing is a recursive process. the teacher will not need to explain again in detail about the text. often crossing from one language into the other (Gracia. and not a one shot activity. The complete cycle should always in fact last for several lessons: genre based pedagogy is not to be conducted in just one or two lessons. and they have a good control of those texts. in discussing with peers. to allow the students not only to gain the content of what they are reading but also to develop their CT skills and CL. the four stages should be extended over several lessons. such as Building Knowledge of the Field and Independent Construction. This can be a possibility in the Indonesian context. Often times only two stages may be conducted. at least three sessions. which constitutes one of the ways to promote critical thinking. An example of the implementation of the genre-based approach. some stages taking more lessons than others. Like in the joint construction. Joint Construction This phase provides a chance for students to practise writing in groups and apply their critical thinking skills in working in groups. In this stage. When students already learn a certain type of texts in previous grades. 2002: 67) but only if the students already have a relatively good control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of the text in focus. However. already referred to in chapter 1. 2008: 133). thematic progression is most important. In a Discussion genre. unmarked Theme choices are the most common. it is necessary to provide an overview of grammatical features of the focal text. the following section will be dealing with an overview of some of the major grammatical features of the Discussion genre.g.However. it will be recalled. helping to achieve the overall cohesive development of the text. is part of the textual metafunction. Proponents of capital punishment argue…). Verbal processes that report evidence (e. a Discussion text discusses an issue in the light of some kind of “frame” or position and provides more than one point of view on an issue. making it function smoothly to make its meanings. The following is an example of what is called a “zig zag” pattern (see Chapter 1) The second argumment [[highlighted by the opponents of capital punishmnet]] is related to humanity. Capital punishment can lead to execution of innocent people). that is the Discussion genre. Causal relationship between events (e. As in all genres. They believe Another similar example. since the purpose is to organise and progress arguments. In other words. before moving on to the implementation of each stage of the SFL genre-based approach. These examples of Theme are important within each of the clauses in which they appear.g. so their tendency is to include these linguistic choices: Generic rather than specific participants (e. One important aspect of Discussion genres worth mentioning here is the manner in which they build thematic progression.4. Marked Themes have an important role in identifying relevant information and/or progressing the argument forward as in: In the report [[we read]] it is said that … ). as Macken-Horarik (2002: 23) suggests. and it has to do with the manner in which the overall text is organised and its meanings are developed. The study reports that … ). Discussion genres build argument and opinion. Therefore.1 An overview of grammatical features of a Discussion genre A Discussion is an argumentative genre that requires the writer to adopt a position and argue for it by debating two or more sides of an issue before reaching a conclusion (Christie & Derewianka. involving “reiteration” appears in: 53 . as in: Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996. 2. but thematic progression also occurs across several longer passages in texts.g. Theme. to give the students a variety of process types that they can use when they write the same text type. because in that element the aim is to identify the issue to be discussed. or “what should occur”. (reported in Chapter 3 ). later in the genre. If they are expressed congruently. without taking into consideration the effectiveness of the language the writer uses. “argued”. as we shall see below. like different types of verbal processes such as „”proposed”. Modality is typically not used in the opening element of a Discussion genre. This is important to avoid repetition of a process in the text they write. and this also shows that the text is “clearly-planned” (Eggins. 2002) a longer text is not necessarily better than a shorter one.g. “probable”. modality has an important role. because it is in this element that the writer must say “what he/she believes should be the case”. or perhaps “what might occur”. However. “probably”. we can show that expressions like “The first argument.” possibly”. The second argument and The last argument” are examples of grammatical metaphor. Modality is another issue worth introducing to students as they prepare to write Discussion genres. Regarding the length of the text. they argue … and so forth. This is an important resource for building arguments as in a Discussion genre.) Finally. The last argument [[advocated by the opponents of capital punishment]] is to do with injustice. especially those who will become teachers of English in Indonesia. which are expressed by using nominalisation. with respect to grammatical metaphor. using a multiple Theme pattern. 1994:305). English provides many adverbs and adjectives of modality (e. should be made aware that although the length of a text is one indication of students‟ proficiency in writing (Gibbons. “advocated”. This should be made clear to student teachers as the study by Emilia et al (2008). such as the following: Meanwhile the opponents of death penalty adopt three positions. which was introduced in Chapter 1. concerned with deterence. reveals that teachers may sometimes score a longer text higher than short ones. they will read: Firstly. second and third help the text move forward. Apart from modal verbs. “certainly”. 54 . The second argument [[highlighted by the opponents of capital punishment is related to humanity. students should be made aware that the use of ordinal numbers such as first.… that the death penalty is barbaric … and it is against the value of human life. “possible”. the teacher can explain some aspects of Transitivity. An example of thematic progession across a much longer passages of text is achieved. humanity and injustice. The first argument [[proposed by the opponents of death penalty]] is regarding deternece. Moreover. students at tertiary level. and particularly in the final element. “certain”. With respect to the multiple Theme pattern above. Finally, expressions that can be used in writing a Discussion genre below, based on the work of mainly DSP (1989) and Derewianka (1990) and was used in Emilia (2005) can be given to the students to help them create a better text with various linguistic resources in the stages Joint Construction and Independent Construction later. Some language features of a discussion genre: Focus on generic human and nonhuman participants, e.g. advertisements, newspapers, advocates of capital punishment or Miss Universe Contest, etc. Use of simple present tense.eg. are. Have, is, promote, compete, saves, sells, take up, etc. Use of logical conjunctive relations.eg. while, why, and, because, on the other hand, firstly, also. Use of material, relational, and mental and verbal processes. Some saying verbs that are usually used in a discussion genre: state, claim, argue, point out, point to ... , suggest, say, observe, assert, contend, ... put it ..., reiterate, write, provides a good example of ..., stresses that..., sees/ saw s.t as ... indicates, represents, highlights, focus.., recommends, comment, inform, discuss, maintain, believes. Conjunctions used to set contrasts between what goes before and what comes after (ways to introduce another point): however, but, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the other side, In contrast, On the reverse, In contrast to ... expert who assert the contrary are ..., on the opposite side, despite this, ultimately we must realize, however, … Ways to express arguments for: The proponents of ... claim ... positions Supporters of ..... say ........... The advocates of .... Those who are in favour of/defend ..... argue ... Abortionists .......; Those who argue for abortion/capital punishment/the Miss Universe Contest...; .... strongly supports ..The survey found out that..... favour abortion. The first argument claimed by supporters of .... is related to/regards, is concerned with, is to do with ...; The third position adopted by supporters of ... is .., It is argued that ...; The argument for ... is that ...; On one hand, some people agree that Ways to express arguments against: On the other hand, the opponents of ... adopt three positions.... To begin, ..... Those who are against ... argue .... Strong arguments against ... come from .... But then on the other hand, ...... On the other hand, there are a growing number of people in the community who oppose ... The first reason for the argument against ... stated by opponents of abortion is that .... On the other side some people say that ... On the against side some people believe.... Ways to sum up and to introduce recommendations: Thus, in summary, … To sum up, … In summary After looking at both sides … I believe that …; ... should/ need /must ..... Therefore after examining all arguments …, it is recommended that / it is important that .... The weight of evidence would suggest … My point of view is … My recommendation after looking at both sides …. It would appear reasonable to conclude then … It would seem that … 55 Ways to write about cause and effect As a consequence of … An effect of … As result of … ... led to .. ... resulted in … After an overview of linguistic features of the Discussion genre, each stage of the SFL genrebased approach can be implemented, as will be described below. However, before moving to the next section, it is of interest to note that students may find most information that they learnt at this phase unfamiliar, especially the concepts related to functional grammar, such as Themes, processes. One student in Emilia (2005) wrote in her journal entry as follows: It was excited to learn a lot of new information... Mrs Emi taught how to choose Themes in order to build the cohesion of the text…. And we also learn what a text is. At first I thought text had something to do with length in written form. But then I know that every kind of spoken or written language which has meaning is considered as a text (Ira, in Emilia, 2005). Students may also find it interesting to learn functional grammar as reflected in the journal entry below. … I found it interesting to learn this new concept of grammar, since from the beginning I studied English, it was always about subject, object, etc. … (Elli., in Emilia, 2005). 2.4.2 Building Knowledge of the Field This stage, as the name indicates, is intended to build up background knowledge, and so the focus should primarily on the “content” of the topic (Gibbons, 2002: 61; Rothery, 1996). The teacher and students cooperatively build up a shared knowledge of the field, based on the texts compiled in the planning phase. Students can be encouraged to make a semantic web on the topic. For example, in Emilia‟s (2005) study, when students wrote a text on the Miss Universe Contest, they wrote a semantic web below: Participation, host sex objects ambassador tourist promotion eastern country feminist rate of rapes revenue charity physical beauty swim suit parade a waste of money business commodity arguments Brain, beauty and behaviour. contestant business point/perspective cultural, religious value and moral value This stage can then be followed by a critical interrogation of several texts, as discussed above regarding critical literacy. A dialogical relationship with the students, and the teacher‟s role as a co - participant should be sustained, to encourage students to speak and express their ideas and to enable the teacher to learn from them (Freire and Shor, 1987, see also Wallace, 1992b, 2001). As the materials can be ample, the students should be encouraged to take notes about what they have read, so that they do not need to read the articles again when writing a jointly-or 56 independently constructed text later and thus to save their time. From the CT point, taking notes is also important to promote students‟ metacognition, which refers to their awareness and control of their own thinking (Costa, 2003:61). During the teaching learning process in this stage, it should be understood that some students might have a different level of understanding in terms of what they have learnt. Some students may need more assistance and more than one experience of explicit teaching about some learning materials. This emphasizes the idea that the relationship between teaching and learning is not identical to that of complementary transactions, such as giving and taking, buying and selling. When someone does some buying this means that some selling also occurs. When learning occurs, teaching may or may not be effective. When teaching occurs, learning may or may not take place ( van Lier, 1988, to follow Widdowson, 1981, 1983). When students already have a strong background knowledge about the topic, the students and teacher can move on to the next step, which is modelling of the text, which will be discussed below. Relevant to the genre in focus, the modelling stage will also exemplify the teaching of Discussion text. 2.4.3 Modelling (Deconstruction) This stage aims to introduce and to familiarize the students with the text in focus, in this case a Discussion genre. The students can read it and deconstruct it (Martin & Rose, 2008; Christie & Derewianka, 2008) and build up their understandings of the purpose, overall structure, and language features of the genre. Activities involved in this stage can include: Familiarising students with the function and social context of the text in focus, say Discussion genre; Presenting the schematic structure of the text; Presenting a model text (and one or two other texts in the same genre); Presenting an overview of grammatical features of a Discussion genre. Step 1: Familiarising the students with the function and social context of the text The first step should be familiarising the students with the social context of the text in English (which takes a similar form in Indonesian) and in the current Indonesian context. It should be made clear that the Discussion genre, which weighs up two or more sides of an issue, enables the students to practise “the concept of decision making and conflict resolution through rational debate, i.e. arguments for, arguments against and recommended course of action” (Anderson & Anderson, 1997; Christie, 2005; Christie & Derewianka, 2008: Martin & Rose, 2008). Step 2: Presenting the schematic structure of the Discussion genre 57 In presenting and explicitly explaining the schematic structure of a Discussion genre, the teacher can use an overhead transparency (Gibbons, 2002:64, Emilia, 2005) or power point. This is important to enable the teacher and the students to share comments and to talk about the text as a class more easily. Each student can also be given a copy which they can use for their own reference on future occasions when they write a Discussion genre (Callaghan and Rothery, 1988: 40). A possible transparency on the schematic structure of a Discussion genre with the function of each stage can be seen in Table 2.2 below. Table 2. 1 Schematic structure of a Discussion genre Elements of structure/ Function stages of a Discussion genre Preview of the issue Tells the reader the problem and what will be argued about it. Gives information about the issue and how it is to be framed. Arguments for Tells the reader points to be developed Arguments against Tells the reader points to be developed Recommendation Tells the reader the position held by the writer. It is also presented as the most logical conclusion. Recommends a final position on the issue. During this stage, students‟ attention can be drawn to learning how the genre works to achieve its social purpose through the function of its stages. When the students understand about the schematic structure of the text, the next step is presenting an example of a model text, which will be presented below, to show how the each element of the text works. Step 3: Presenting a model text of a Discussion genre The model of a Discussion genre can then be presented as a whole (Butt, et al, 2000; Feez and Joyce, 1998a; Gibbons, 2002) and the text can be taken from any source available. Text 2.1 below, from Christie (2002:62; 2005:174-175), can be used as model of a Discussion text, although it was written by a junior secondary student in Australia. Marked Theme choices are indicated on the text while some important linguistic features are referred to in the column to the right of the table. Schematic structure Text 2.1 A Model of a Discussion Text (From Christie, 2005:174-175) Should we use animals for entertainment? Linguistic Features Statement of issue “Should we use animals for entertainment” is the name of the topic we‟re talking about in this essay. Below I have stated the positive and negative points for this issue. Use of the modal verb should indicates matters of judgment are involved. Personal opinion suggested with use of the first person (I). Arguments for In the report we read it is said that in order to let a particular species survive, we need to at least Opening marked theme in the report [[we read]] and verbal process said, 58 the animals are not usually kept in the natural habitat. etc. mental processes: “I believe …”. the endangered animals.. hunting. natural yards while not performing. Another marked theme (at one stage) helps progress the text forward. from being used to such a large extent like they do in the wild. Most people judge circuses on their old ways. Marked theme in a dependent clause. After looking at all these facts. But then on the other hand.. I believe it is wrong for us to train and force animals to perform in circuses. At one stage it said that animals are the core element of circuses and the statistics proved that people like the animals best at the circus. the function of each stage in the model text and the linguistic features. animals are the core element of circuses”. a habit of standing in one place and rocking or swaying... to let them learn about the animals and then may be the public would do something to help the endangered animals. The teacher and the students can collaboratively identify the purpose. therefore human circuses would not meet the public demand. They‟re nearly always in confined spaces and the biggest places they are ever in are the circus arena or tent. For this reason. Uses of modality in we need to at least capture . An alternative is to use humanism circuses because they can‟t exactly force people to join. Relevant field language expressed in noun groups : a particular species. improved ways. Other uses of verbal processes build sense of using research.. human circuses would not meet . It said the animals are never tortured during training or the performances and they are kept in very clean. they have to be voluntary. including: Generic participants: Animals. I believe that it‟s wrong for us to keep animals in circuses for our entertainment. relational processes: “Animals are very prone to stress…” Modality: “Should we use …” “ We should be able …” “ …The animals are not usually kept in their natural habitat…”. and the one I have mentioned before. Use of modal verbs: we should be able to entertain ourselves. building nests. as displayed at the right side of the text. We should be able to entertain ourselves. assisted by the marked topical theme: on the other hand. not on the current. People judge circuses …”. Use of mental process of cognition (used twice) and first person I believe to stress opinion being stated. not rely on animals. which is bad for their joints and feet. indicate some research. It said …”. Tense: Present tense: “Animals are never tortured. which stops their basic instinct like fighting for mates. circuses. Use of contrastive conjunction (but then) signals shift to new element. which is also really small. they‟re nearly always in confined spaces. things like constant travelling and performing in front of very large audiences. 59 . Things like constant traveling and performing in front of very large audiences nearly every day affect this. to shift to a new element of structure: After looking at all these facts. Some large noun groups: animals like the elephants and bears. the schematic structure. animals like the elephants and bears are very prone to stress so they make a habit of standing in one place and rocking or swaying.Arguments against Recommen dation capture a few to show to the public. Patterns of process choices: Verbal processes: “I have stated …. The animals are not usually kept in their natural habitat. .. and maybe the public would do something. Modal adverbs build expressions of judgment.. “because they can‟t exactly force people to join…”. the activity can move on to the Joint Writing/Construction of the text.4. based on the work of the DSP (1989). Reference: “ Animals … are very prone to stress … they make a habit …”. To strengthen students‟ understanding of the text in focus and to enrich the linguistc sources they can use in their own writing in the later stages. on the other hand.. depends on capacity to marshal and deploy a range of linguistic resources. “. To enhance the students‟ CT. and to enrich their understanding of expressions to use in writing a Discussion genre in the Joint and Independent Constructions later. animals. The directive role of the researcher in this discussion can be limited to facilitate dialogue with the students. as Derewianka (1990) suggests. This is to help strengthen students‟ understanding of the power of language in persuasive writing. “But then. and will be shown later. as Gibbons (2002) suggests.animals like the elephants and bears are very prone to stress. to make the critical interrogation of texts a “routine” (Perkins. as Christie (2010) suggests. 2. students may write in groups of four or three. as reported in Emilia (2005) can be involved: 60 . and with the whole class.”.. They’re nearly always in confined spaces. students are ready to think about writing. When students already have a good control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of a Discussion genre or (other focal genre). Successful control of writing. Alternatively.. If the second alternative is used. It is also possible for the teacher and students to collaboratively highlight the significance of each linguistic feature in the text. as happened in Emilia (2005) and Emilia et al (2008). as is discussed in Chapter 4.. students can be presented with the second and third Discussion texts to strengthen students‟ understanding of the schematic structure and to show the students various linguistic features and expressions that could be employed in their writing later. can be done in two ways. A hand out on expressions used in each stage of the Discussion genre. 1998) for them. like the elephants and bears are very prone to stress.. These expressions that students can use in their writing are really helpful for students even in tertiary level. This joint writing.” Passive voice: “Animals are not usually kept . Derewianka (1990) and Emilia (2005) can be used. to show how the grammar aspects function in “the context of language use” (Gibbons. The teacher can write together with the students.4 Joint Construction At this stage. the text can also be interrogated using questions regarding CT and CL. although they will not yet write alone. “therefore human circuses would not meet the public demand. while the teacher acts as a scribe in front of the classroom... the texts can be critically interrogated in the same way as mentioned earlier. four or five steps. Then it is important that students in pairs identify the schematic structure and linguistic features (as listed above) of each text. 2002: 65).. Conjunctions: “… and the one I have mentioned …”. The strong scaffolding of the teacher in some part of the Building Knowledge of the Field and Modeling stage can be gradually weakened (Feez. Grouping the students into threes and familiarizing them with the task they will do in the stage. Rothery. 2002:66). 1990. Over the consultation. the researcher stressed that the arguments for and against should be balanced (Smith et al. 1996. and 61 . Callaghan and Rothery.1989. 1989: 60). Feez and Joyce. 1998a). the members of which can be entirely decided by them. asking some guiding questions. “it is argued”. 1992) or need more assistance (Derewianka. Why will you take those arguments? Do you have enough data/evidence to support the arguments? When the students are half way through their writing. the teacher can approach each group again to make sure which group has gained what (Gee. 1995). Although in this stage the teacher is still a guide (Gibbons. Step 2: Approaching Each Group at the Start of the Joint Construction At the beginning of the joint writing. 1990. the teacher can remind the students about aspects of CT in writing and encourage the students to use some technical terms or language relevant to the issue. Approaching each group at the start of the Joint Construction. such as: What will you start with? How many arguments or points will be included in the arguments for and against? In this case. 1985. 1988. Step 1: Grouping the Students into Threes and Familiarizing Them with the Task They Will Do in this Stage The teacher can first of all ask the students to make groups of threes. particularly “seeing an issue from various perspectives” “discussing ideas in an organised way”. Feez and Joyce. Consultation with each group on their draft. and Rothery. Martin. Reid. such as how and when to say some distancing devices such as “it is said”. Christie. Writing in groups allows the students to practise activities that make up CT. Observing students‟ development in CT and control of the Discussion genre Observing students‟ perceptions of the Joint Construction. 1994) with the teacher playing an authoritative role (Derewianka. which can best be nurtured by communicating with others and engaging in dialogue (Chaffee. 1998a). 2000:154. 2002: 67). Norris and Ennis. Assistance in constructing texts can be of two kinds (Callaghan and Rothery. Each consultation with each group should be conducted in a context of shared experience (Painter. 1988:50): a direct telling of what to say. as a way “to develop students‟ vocabulary in a meaningful context” (DSP. 2002). the students enter into a more active participation in learning to write the text in focus. the teacher can approach each group. to give assistance “not only to shape the genre but also to use language that is appropriate for written text” (Callaghan and Rothery. it is crucial to encourage students to focus on all aspects of writing (Gibbons. Ari: Don‟t take a social aspect of the Miss Universe Contest. as Muijs & Reynolds (2005: 64) suggest. 1989:150). From the perspective of CT. Muijs & Reynolds further argue. such as don‟t. 1988: 51). the students can start to apply CT knowledge in their writing. 1994). Step 3: Observing Students’ Development in CT and Emergent Control of the Discussion Genre Monitoring students‟ progress should be conducted throughout the teaching learning process. 2002: 67). Indonesia will be famous like Botswana and Venezuela. in Emilia. “tourism aspect” in your arguments for the Miss Universe Contest? At this stage. 2005). in Emilia. Students. showing an instance of his development in reasoning skills and awareness of the necessity to support arguments with data (Lipman. like the joint construction of the text. Then in another group. because at this stage the teacher does not have to teach the whole class. he/she can more closely observe students‟ development from their group discussions. such as: What do you mean with this statement? Is this already “showing” or just “ telling” the readers? Why do you take … say. the researcher could hear a discussion as follows: Cinta: What if we say that participating in the Miss Universe Contest. composed for readers with a distant social relationship and to bring about students‟ understanding of the difference in ways of formulating meanings that are usual in speech from those that are common in writing (Dudley-Evans. 2002: 230. Regarding CT.the other might be questions and comments that provide scaffolding for the students to make the text better. can effectively scaffold each other‟s learning in a small group task. 2003: 170). Students should also be encouraged to avoid awkward and irrelevant expressions to written texts. because we don‟t have a lot of data to support it (Researcher‟s note. 62 . 2005). aren‟t. this can be used to evaluate whether lessons specifically designed to encourage students‟ CT abilities and dispositions are meeting their immediate goals (Norris and Ennis. that‟s opinion (Researcher‟s note. In this joint construction stage. it should also be noted that scaffolding does not have to come from the teacher. However. McCarthy and Carter. … That‟s not a fact. This is important to create students‟ awareness that their writing is a formal piece. Riya : No. as indicated in what a student said to his classmate. In this joint construction. 2003). see also the 63 . however may complain that the stage is time consuming. cited in Wallace. 7 th. and her capacity to recognize situational differences and sensitivity to context and to recognize a faulty reasoning. Journal entry. as described by Lipman (2003). This is also evidenced in the language program in secondary school which will be delineated in Chapter 3. What works in Botswana. Leki. Feb. as represented in student‟s statement below: We were confused to use the conjunctions without doing repetition (Ira. as reflected in a journal entry below: It is important to discuss with my friends about how to arrange an essay. Feb. 2005). in Emilia.Riya‟s response reflects her consciousness of the difference between facts and opinions. that joint construction is not uniformly welcomed by all students. as represented in the following journal entry: Don‟t use the verb “argue” all the time (Researcher‟s note. 2005). Regarding this. It seems easier if we work in groups. 2001:185). which is “a classic case of faulty analogy” (Diestler. 1986. Other students. 1996. students‟ control of the linguistic features of the Discussion genre can be seen from their developing awareness of various verbal processes that they can employ. does not or will not necessarily work in Indonesia. rearranging an essay with friends are fun … (Puri. a handout of expressions usually used in a text in focus is really important to help them create a more-written like texts. there are several aspects that a teacher should pay attention to: Grouping can be problematic (see Nunan and Lamb. Students at this stage may have been aware of a variety of conjunctions they can employ and thus try to avoid repetition of conjunctions. These constitute instances of inquiry skills. There is a possibility. Some students may find the stage useful. Moreover. in Emilia. as represented by a journal entry below: The Joint Construction took a longer time than writing alone. Step 4: Observing Students’ Perceptions of the Joint Construction It is profitable to discuss with the students the ways they think they learn best at this stage. It was very difficult even to write a statement of issue (Elli. 2001 in an ESL context) and one potential problem is that “quieter or less confident students may contribute nothing” (Doughty and Pica. 10 th. … Having a Joint Construction is a nice activity. especially for Indonesian students who will mostly find this stage new. because we can join our ideas to construct a good essay … discussing our ideas. 1992a:96. 2003). Teachers. Boyce. “is a learned skill – even some adults are not good at it” If learners are unable to work collaboratively. 1996). In this consultation. 2007:162). discussing the topic. this does not mean that we have to abandon it. 2003). that‟s good”… (Ina. must be alert to the nuances of action and behaviour and need to constantly be aware of what is happening. Students should thus be made accustomed to working in groups. as Stringer et al (2010: 8) suggest. what the students are doing and how well they are accomplishing the assigned activities. Auerbach.discussion on small group work as a teaching strategy by Killen. the teacher should focus first of all on the strengths of the students‟ writing (Feez and Joyce. The problem of group work can be related to the Indonesian education system so far. 64 . 1989: 60). But it‟s hard for me to listen (to friends) more than speak up until now. Anyway I hope it will change as time goes by while I am joining this class. Step 5: Consultation with each group on their draft Consultation is important to give students feedback about their writing. helping each other. she/he needs to remain aware of whatever else is happening in the room (Killen. 1996. which to some degree “has fostered passivity for a long time” (Shor and Freire. Regarding this. 1998a) to encourage and reinforce students‟ first attempts at approximating the genre. they only said “yes. Regarding this. even though the text produced may not contain all the ideal language features or show full control of the generic structure (DSP. 1996) and thus students‟ resistance to practices that required engagement. 13 th. This may have created the students‟ assumption that learning is information gathering from the teacher „„who knows it all” (Frye. as Gibbons (2002:26) says. writing a good text collaboratively. Assistance can be made available in both “direct telling on what to say or comments or questions that provided scaffolding for the students to create a better text” (Callaghan and Rothery. and listening to classmates (Boyce. 1992. when a teacher is doing a consultation with a group. 2007 on problems in small group work). This is exemplified in the following journal entry by a high achiever. We didn‟t really discuss something … when I said something. which is really important for the students‟ writing development. Feb. 1987. I felt that Joint Construction is helping but not helping too much. 2003). Stringer et al (2010) suggest that teachers need to engage in conversation and discussions with students to ascertain the degree of understanding they have attained. it would be better that the teacher move close to a group that she/he anticipates will experience a problem. Gibbons further says. However. in Emilia. it should be noted that although joint construction or group work can be problematic. 1999. 2007:173). or to understand why students are unable to perform adequately or appropriately. According to Killen (2007:173). as represented by a journal entry below: I know that we should share ideas and listen to others. 2005). Shor. Working in groups. cited in Boyce. even the best-designed teaching activities are unlikely to be successful (see also Muijs & Reynolds. because in this class we are learning to discuss and correct each other (Nuri. 2005 and Killen. But since 2000. tourism aspect. This. 1987: 232). the government has allowed Yayasan Putri Indonesia (Puteri Indonesia Foundation) to re-organize the contest. When no student needs further assistance. However. Macaro (2003:239) argues. has been proved by the fact that there is 65 . 2000. it provides many opportunities “to teach drafting. The proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant claim that this contest emphasises on („on‟ should be omitted) three principles. :160). The first argument is related to the concept of Brain. 1990). and enclosed phrases are shown thus: <…>. as swimming is to a fish.]]. not merely on („on‟ should be omitted) beauty and behaviour. Embedded clauses are shown with squared brackets. 1992). Feedback is to a teacher. Beauty. as mentioned above. and to enhance their metacognition (Marzano et al. in which the teacher provides feedback to students‟. Arguments in favour Supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant claim three positions. ([[. Butt. Beauty. described in the subsequent section. as expained in chapter 1.2 responds to the question “Should Indonesia Send An Envoy to the Miss Universe Contest?” Text 2. This essay will discuss the arguments for and against Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant. it is argued. there has been a heated debate [[whether or not Indonesia sends an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant]]. Bizzell. to do with the concept of Brain. is really important as providing feedback to students has come to be recognised as one of the ESL (EFL) teacher‟s most important tasks (Hyland & Hyland. it is time to move to the Independent Construction. editing and proofreading skills” (DSP. 2006: xv. based on Emilia‟s (2005) study can be presented below.2: Should Indonesia Send An Envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant Statement of Issue Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996.2). 1988). Pursuant to the consultation. Beauty and Behaviour. this consultation. the students can revise the text and the benefit of this revision can be twofold: to show students that “writing is a process” (Gibbons. This consultation is very useful for both the teacher and students. 1989: 60) which might not be possible to teach in a discrete way. 2003). amend and add words. For the teacher it can be “an appealing way to respond to the students‟ work” (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain.1988:50) and covers all aspects of writing. Text 2. and Behaviour. and to find out clearly “which group had gained what” (Gee. From a perspective of writing process. 2002:67. From the perspective of English as a second or foreign language teaching. and modelled the process of writing. This means [[that the winner of this contest owns a ticket [[to participate in the Miss Universe Pageant ]]b ]]a. Brain. and Behaviour. An example of a Discussion text written in this joint construction (Text 2. The text was written in several sessions and the students wrote several drafts before they had a neat final draft. that it is not unusual for a writer to write several drafts before she/he comes to the neat. 2000: 267. including CT-related aspects. et al. and business point of view. when she can cross out. and “to help promote students‟ thinking” (Baron. finished one. Macaro. ” (Al Ahram weekly online. the supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant assert. To begin. which has won the Miss Universe title several times.triped. The third argument proposed by the supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant]] is concerned with business.html). Alya Rohali. “ I see my participation in the pageant as a good promotion for the island.ca/videaz/doc5/hesien. Madhu Kishwar. for example. they say. law students. This has been justified by a participant from Egypt who says. covers a vast spectrum of academic fields. whether on the status of women over the last century.com/missindonesiadunofficial/id15. that participating in the Miss Universe Pageant does not suit Islamic value has also been heralded by Gamal Hesmat. Arguments against On the other hand. In this context.com/archieves/00/smaarten/17.html). or on general knowledge or simply. social aspect and feminism point of view. in which each participant should participate in a swim suit. which can eventually invite visitors to Indonesia. an opponent of the 66 . Indonesia may have opportunities [[to invite investors.umiacs. states.html).html). a member of Egypt Muslim Brotherhood. the proponents of the Miss Universe Pageant believe that Indonesia should undoubtedly take part in the Miss Universe Pageant so as to promote the country in order to create a good image throughout the world. Viviek Sharma. Another argument put forward by the opponents of the Miss Universe Pageant is that participating in the Miss Universe Pageant does not bring any advantages to the society They point out that Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant will not give any significant effect for Indonesia especially for eradicating poverty. A good example can be seen from the 1999 Miss Universe Pageant held in Trinidad and Tobago.co. that participating in this contest particularly if Indonesia becomes the host country. Moreover. … to me the true meaning of a pageant like this is young women proudly representing their home nations [[and inviting others to have a visit” (http://www. a contestant from Indonesia in 1996. that they only demean women. This is stated by the Indonesian Minister for woman‟s role. Marten (2000) as saying. the Miss Universe Pageant. In relation to this. those who are in favour of the Miss Universe Pageant argue that Indonesia‟s participation in the contest will be beneficial for the country. “We were questioned on everything.tt/corporate/tidcotimes/august99/business. Therefore. regarding Indonesia‟s culture and religion background. the opponents of Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant adopt three positions related to oriental value. it is said. For Indonesia. “Taking part in the Miss Universe Election is against our oriental values” (http://compositeuqam. an Indian Journalist. Besides that.533). the United States and Latin America were invited (http://www. That participating in the Miss Universe Pageant can promote tourism of the participant‟s country has also been stated by Miss S.tidco. would-be clinical psychologists. says. 10-16 May 2001/issue no. In this context. In this context. they claim. where 26 investment representatives from Europe. is also inappropriate to Indonesia‟s oriental values. It is argued that the Miss Universe Pageant can be used as an arena to promote business.an interview session in the Miss Universe Pageant here the participants were questioned about their general knowledge and the way they think . [participating in such contest. especially for the development of tourism. is a disgrace.html). “Big national and international companies spent millions of dollars of promoting their products and images through association to the contest and the winner” (http://www. They are. India‟s poor people cannot get benefits from the fact that India‟s contestant becomes the winner of the Miss Universe Pageant. Secondly. In addition. on the way we think.umd. they point to what has happened in India.edu/users/sawwab/sawnet/beauty. [[who can help to develop the business life of the country. He says “I believe that such contests are against our values and morals. etc. rather than benefit them”. aspiring journalists. as the biggest Moslem Country in the world.internatonalspecialreport. those who are against Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant highlight Indonesia‟s oriental values. It is very important [[for us to heal our reputation from any media including the Miss Universe Pagean” (http://ferondi. So. “We can introduce our own country to the world community especially when the situation in Indonesia is not stable. the Miss Universe Pageant. Text 2. suggests. . Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant will not contribute to the attempts of poverty eradication in Indonesia. “These competitions unrealistically standardise the standard of feminine beauty (http://news. This is done by explicitly stating: Miss Indonesia contest was banned in 1996.stm) Regarding this. “All beauty pageants are a waste of money. only serve to perpetuate the myth [[that women are only worth something if they are young.btt. cultural and oriental values. it is obvious [[that Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant]]. written in the Independent Construction stage. Moreover. which emphasizes beauty. the government has allowed Yayasan Putri Indonesia (Puteri Indonesia Foundation) to re-organize the 67 . In the interest of space and because of the fact that the text is quite long. Recommendation In summary. Furthermore.co. another opponent of the Miss Universe Pageant from India.uk/1/hi/talking-point/33749. after looking at both arguments for and against the Miss Universe Pageant. It will be better if Miss Indonesia concentrates on domestic social service so that she can share the benefit of [[being Miss Indonesia]] with the society. An example of evaluation of linguistic features will be given below in discussing Text 2. Javis. says “The Miss Universe Pageant does not mean anything to the poor population… But personally to me it is the absolute wastage of time and money which should rather be spent on the elimination of poverty in the nation and on education. These are: Preview of issue: introduces the issue and establishes the existence of the debate about the issue.bbc.Miss Universe Pageant from India. we recommend Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant.stm). an evaluation of this text will only be concerned with its schematic structure. tourism aspect and business. The feminists believe that “such contests. Therefore. [[participating in the Miss Universe Pageant]] may create a bad impact on Indonesian women due to the possible emergence of women standard. Although Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant may bring advantages in terms of women‟s quality.uk/1/hi/talking-point/debates/south_asian/1037264. With that money the poor can be well supported. The two texts have similar characteristics in both their schematic structures and linguistic features. The introductory paragraph also successfully predicts a set of Themes in the following paragraphs.stm). it seems not to suit Indonesia‟s religious.bbc. The schematic structure of the text suggests that the text has the essential elements of a Discussion genre as mentioned above. Feminists think that the Miss Universe Pageant makes an unachievable standard for women. states. long legged and beautiful (http://news. Similarly. 1997: 218).3. In addition. the so-called beauty queens have never done anything for the nation in terms of social service or national pride” (http://news.uk/1/hi/talking_point/debates/south_asian/1037264.2 functions essentially to discuss the issue whether Indonesia should send an envoy to the Miss Universe Contest (henceforth called MUC). <along with the portrayal of the ideal look in the fashion world>. This introductory element can successfully function as “the opening generalisation in a text which predicts its overall development” (Coffin.” The last argument against the Miss Universe Pageant is revealed by feminists. Imran Ahmad.co. But since 2000. an Indonesian opponent of beauty pageants. 1997). and this preoccupation is returned to periodically in „waves‟ as the text unfolds. The text is to be primarily concerned with the Miss Universe Contest (henceforth referred to as MUC) and arguments about whether Indonesia should participate in it. Thus.contest. in that they look back to the opening macroTheme in the first element. in that they link back to the opening macroTheme in the first element. Arguments against: This stage has a similar element to that in the previous one. there has been a heated debate [[whether or not Indonesia sends an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant]]. the opponents of Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe contest adopt three positions related to oriental value. The element begins: In summary. a term he uses to indicate the main preoccupation (or „topic) of the whole text. this statement also functions as a macro-Theme (i) for the element (Martin. it is obvious [[that Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe pageant]]. The hyper-Theme is: Supporters of the Miss Universe Pageant claim three positions. To make this clear. This statement constitutes hyper-Theme for this element in that it identifies three matters (Indonesia‟s religious. hyperThemes. These three arguments constitute the hyper-Themes (Martin and Rose 2006: 197-8) of this element of the text. while they also constitute macro-Theme (ii). This means [[that the winner of this contest owns a ticket [[to participate in the Miss Universe Pageant ]] ]]However. Beauty and Behaviour. social aspect and feminism point of view. its hyper-Theme is: On the other hand. and a macroTheme (i) within this element itself. These three positions become the arguments developed in this element and they are thus both he hyper-Themes for this element. the same pieces of the text can be. and forward to the matters to be discussed in this element. after looking at both arguments for and against the Miss Universe Pageant. meaning they create a macro-Theme for this element. to do with the concept of Brain. tourism aspect and business points of view. Arguments in favour: presents three arguments in favour of the MUC. In fact. the whole element constitutes what Martin (Martin and Rose 2007: 197-8) calls a macro-Theme. cultural and oriental values). Each of the three arguments is explained in some detail. They thus serve to give structure and order the text. This essay will discuss the arguments for and against Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss Universe Pageant. on the one hand. Recommendation: presents the writers‟ critical stance or position as it is based on the arguments for and against the issue (Barnett. which refer back to 68 . 2007: 198). Although Indonesia‟s participation in the Miss UniversePageant may bring advantages in terms of women‟s equality. In this sense. The term hyper-Theme is used to capture that the three both refer back to the macroTheme for the element. This provides a general statement and it predicts what is to come. cultural and oriental values. it seems not to suit Indonesia‟s religious. tourism aspect and business. This results in a “textured sandwich” (Martin. 2001: 59). 2003: 58) – one aspect of a good disposition. 1990). The balanced arguments also signal the writers‟ endeavour to provide “a fair presentation” (Norris and Ennis. 2003) and the writers‟ awareness of multiple perspectives or “multiple interpretation” (Gee. From the review of the schematic structure. 1989: 140). Finally. Over all. The schematic structure indicates that the text is “interactive”. Thompson. hyper-Themes and macro-New has shown. as the analysis of macro-Theme. showing that they understood and achieved the purpose and the function of the genre. 180-181) of the MUC. the overall organisation of the text flows clearly in waves as certain information is introduced. as well as the writer‟s capacity to cluster information in terms of their similarities and thus their grasp of the concept (Lipman. because of the text‟s genre. 1987. As indicated above. This also indicates the students‟ capacity in “discussing ideas in an organised way” (Chaffee. (See Chapter 1 for discussion of higher level Themes). where they often 69 . This suggests objectivity or “impartiality” (Lipman. by reviewing the points amassed as well as draws conclusions from what has been discussed in the previous stages. the element concludes with the writer‟s recommendation: Therefore. as they unfold. In terms of CL. regarding their capacity to decide on a course of action.2 shows students‟ understanding and mastery of the demands of generic form of a Discussion genre. Lipman. 1992: 456). It also projects back through the use of Recommendation. involving the management of the flow of information and thus serves to guide readers through the content of the text (Thompson. and will be shown later. p. In addition. 2000) or “information-organizing skill” (Lipman. 2003) taught in the teaching program. 1994: 76).2 suggests that the text is a reasonably effective example of a Discussion genre. with which a good critical thinker would have strived to think about an issue (Langrehr. 2002). In addition. In Martin‟s terms (2007: 198) this whole element constitutes macroNews. relevant to the genre (Coe. The presence of the arguments for and against. 2003. this relates closely to the students‟ awareness of “why the text was written – that is its communicative function” (Wallace. then reintroduced and finally the text is concluded. the possible advantages and negative impacts of Indonesia‟s participation in the MUC. Text 2. and it brings the text to a close. the text projects forward through the employment of the introductory paragraph. In addition. As far as CT is concerned. 1990) on the MUC – a signal of a movement toward CL. The text signals the shift in the discussion from clause to clause. revealing various arguments from different perspectives also suggests sufficiency and breadth – two key aspects of CT standards. the schematic structure shows a good sense of clarity. we recommend Indonesia should not send an envoy to the Miss Universe Pageant. It will be better if Miss Indonesia concentrates on domestic social service so that she can share the benefit of being Miss Indonesia with the society. 1992a: 34). 2001). “to treat various arguments as equal” (McPeck. the presence of a recommendation suggests students‟ ability in CT is developing. with the elements of the schematic structure overtly marked by appropriate Themes (as the detailed grammatical analyses will also reveal). precision and relevance at text level. which suggests real improvement in writing and an instance of indications of good writing (Ibid: 397. the schematic structure of Text 2.e. because it both refers back to the opening element with its macro-Theme. i.matters discussed earlier. the text signals the writers‟ willingness “to listen to other people‟s ideas” (Ennis. richard. However. including Indonesia.5 Independent Construction of the Text This is the final stage when students write individually or in pairs (Gibbons. which was the lowest for years – during a period of increased use of the death penalty (http://www. the proponents of capital punishment provide a proof that there is actually a declining crime rate found in some countries which implement capital punishment such as the US and Singapore. since such person may escape or be pardoned. nber. 2009:363). statistics from the Home Office in Britain shows that in the country. The murder rate in USA dropped from 24. This fact. Gracia. either within prison or after escaping or after being released.clark32. 2002. In USA.do this best by “tentatively deciding what to do” (Ennis. which is still to do with writing a Discussion genre. Arguments in favour The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions. the murder rate more than 70 . and the risk later extends to the community. “ Capital punishment has a unique power to deter people from committing crimes” (http://www. They believe that capital punishment is the most effective way to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment. students can choose another topic which is also controversial such as Working Women or Capital Punishment and the issue can be Should Women Work out side the Home? or Should Women Become Homemakers? Or Should capital punishment be implemented in Indonesia? The steps taken in this stage will include: Building Knowledge of the Field to build students‟ background knowledge and in particular the necessary English vocabulary. for example.co. For an example here. 1987 on characteristics of a critical thinker). 2. The first argument they claim is that capital punishment is able to deter people from committing crimes.btinternet. to enable them to write a sound and successful Discussion text and the Independent Construction itself. 1987: 15. Although some people may find it doubtful that capital punishment can deter crimes. Students‟ achievement can be seen from the schematic structure and linguistic features of the text. Text 2. In this case. Regarding this. its population knows precisely what will happen to them if they are convicted of murder or drug trafficking (ibid). see also Nickerson. also happens in Singapore. capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people whether capital punishment is suitable and should be implemented or whether it should be abolished.uk/thoughts/html).html). 562 in 1993 to 18.4. It is also claimed that unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes. Below is the discussion on arguments for and against the legalization of capital punishment. Text 2. The second argument proposed by those who defend capital punishment relates to the incapacitation of criminals. between abolition in 1964-1998. it is reported. it is said. Frances states.3.org/digest/oct98/w6484. 2009) and “the teacher reminds them of the process” (Gracia. David R. 209 in 1997. can be seen below. An example of a student‟s text written at this stage. there has been a 26% reduction of murder rate.3 Should capital punishment be implemented in Indonesia? Preview of Issue Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death imposed by a competent court. Therefore. the proponents of capital punishment think that life imprisonment would not be equally effective with capital punishment. It is said that as Singapore always carries out death sentences where the appeal has been turned down. Life imprisonment. It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now in many countries. would expose prison staffs and fellow prisoners to dangerous murderer. which could lead to the execution of innocent people.com/peristiwa/2003/02/07/20030207090754_shtml). particularly in Indonesia is connected with the real condition of Indonesian prison itself. They contend that innocent people can be wrongfully sentenced to death and that there is no compensation for them for this error of justice. He was accused of doing corruption of 40 billion rupiahs. for example. The same thing. (http://www. Moreover.860 persons executed in the US from 1930 up to the time of the writing of the article. is based on the fact that some criminals. it is said. also reveal that of 3.uk/thoughts. This has also been argued by Munarwan.com/scoop/scoop5. who still serve their punishment in jail are still capable of committing crimes. Race. it is claimed. that “It is almost impossible for the prison system in Indonesia to gain public‟s confidence because even a convicted drug trafficker. … A wrongful execution is a grievous injustice that cannot be remedied after the fact” (in Alexiod & Cooper. It can be seen from the case of Akbar Tanjung. 1987. statistics in the US.detk. David Hoekema (1987) notes “Numerous cases of erroneous convictions in capital cases have been documented. there has been several studies which discover that in the twntieth century. Only death penalty can accomplish this end” ( in Axeliod & Cooper. the death penalty has been imposed most frequently on the poor” (in Axelrod. And worse. This has been revealed by the Director of the YLBHI (a foundation for legal assistance in Indonesia). due to the discrimination on the application of the death penalty.& Cooper. writing well). capital punishment. Reading critically. is still fully capable of controlling their drug business from jail” (ibid). as saying “legal council depends in large measure on how much money is available for the defense. In 1990. 23 were executed. Most Indonesian people. The opponents of capital punishment claim that the discriminatory or unequal use of death penalty causes it to be applied mostly to the poor and defenseless.richards. The second position claimed by those who oppose capital punishment is regarding the mistaken conviction. several of those convicted were put to death before the error was discovered. is an important factor in determining who is sentenced to die.motherjones. The first one relates to the imperfect justice. Olaf College in Minnesota. In relation to this mistaken conviction issue. but he was only charged 3 years of imprisonment for his action. So. Reading critically. it is claimed by the Indonesian proponents of capital punishment.clark32. a former philosophy professor in St. at least 400 innocent people have been convicted of capital crimes they did not commit. This has also been stated by Edward Koch. in his article. Of those 400. it is said. 2.html). This lack of public confidence on the credibility of the prison system. it is revealed. Reading critically. That capital punishment is convicted mainly to the poor has been said by David Hoekema (1987).066 or 54 % were black (in Alexiod & Cooper.html). It is because they do not believe in our country‟s prison system.btinternet. is aimed to assure that criminals cannot commit crimes anymore. The third strand of the opposition of capital punishment is viewed from the criminal‟s human right. For this. still prefer the implementation of capital punishment rather than just put criminals behind bars due to the lack of public‟s confidence in the credibility of the prison system in Indonesia. Munarman. „Capital Punishment: the justification of death‟. With regard to this issue.co. the imperfection of justice proposed by opponents of capital punishment is also indicated by racism issue. occur in Indonesia. Inevitably. the sentence is never executed up until now. the opponents of capital punishment highlight three arguments. The 71 . the implementation of capital punishment still receives a great deal of supports from most Indonesian society. The third argument upheld by the advocates of capital punishment. is mainly because money plays a very important role in the defense of avoiding death penalty. This. it is asserted. writing well).doubled (to around 750 per annum) and there have been 71 murders committed by people who have been released after serving “life sentences” in the same period (http://www. writing well). concluded that in 82 % of the studies. They do not believe that imprisonment will be able to make bad people into good ones” (http://www. in his article „Death and Justice‟ that “capital punishment is to assure that convicted murderers do not kill again. a report from the General Accounting Office in the US. those who murdered whites were more likely to be sentenced to death than those who murdered blacks (http://www.com/scoop/scoop5. saying “In Indonesia. 1987. Arguments against On the other hand. motherjones.html). a former mayor of New York city. writing well). Reading critically. It is argued that the legal system in Indonesia is still partial. 9187. It especially should be focused upon drug trafficking and corruption cases because those cases have a devastating impact toward society in large scale. in which. capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people whether capital punishment is suitable and should be implemented or whether it should be abolished. This is stated by Irham Buana Nasution. after looking at both sides of the arguments. signaling that the text is to proceed to a new element: Below is the discussion on arguments for and against the legalization of capital punishment 72 . what is emphasized in the prevention of crime…” ( in Alexiod & Cooper. In relation to the human right issue. it is argued. I consider capital punishment effective in deterring people to commit crimes and in incapacitating criminals to commit further crimes. 1987. “…‟a life for a life‟ need not mean destructive retribution. says. capital punishment. and violation of criminal‟s human right. but instead the development of new forms of community. Margaret Mead (1987). Regarding this. writing well). race. where crimes have been rising sharply. are valuable. including the criminals‟. remembering the situation in our country itself. and social class.protesters of capital punishment point out that all lives. I do believe that it is still needed to be imposed in our country. we must be prepared to execute every criminal who commits a crime irrespective of gender. Even though I realize there might be some negative excess coming from the imposement of capital punishment related to imperfect justice. an anthropologist from the US. However. just and adequate. the text will be analysed only in terms of the grammatical features in which the overall schematic structure is expressed. Recommendation Thus. a lawyer of Ayodha Prasad Chaubey. because all lives are valuable. including Indonesia. However. ]] It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now in many countries.3 identify capital punishment: Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death [[imposed by a competent court. I strongly argue that capital punishment needs to be implemented in Indonesia. mistaken conviction. cheapens the value of human life. an Indian drug trafficker. Therefore. at least to be used as a shock therapy for those who have intention to commit crimes. The final clause starts with a marked Theme. As indicated above. who has been sentenced to death by Indonesian court. status. Therefore. Indonesian opponents of capital punishment say that capital punishment is not relevant with the 1945 Constitution. the decision of sentencing death penalty must be fair. The Preview of Issue Element The opening Themes in all but the last clause in this element in Text 2. Reading critically. Therefore. Experientially. The element 73 . Table 2.4 Process Types Employed in the Preview of Issue Element of Texts 2. It has been used for a variety offences Goal Pro: material Circ: Purpose of since ancient time up until now in many countries). the text assigns mostly as Token and Carrier (see Chapter 1). Interpersonally. while the others occur I whether capital punishment should be implemented or it should be abolished. 1994) this is the way capital punishment is and what are the relevant properties. The first of these. which is identifying. appears in: Capital punishment is the execution of a criminal pursuant to a sentence of death…. as can be seen in Table 2. and Behav Possessive Text 2.3 4 3 - Exist 1 The text uses only four material processes. some participants also function as a Goal. using modality. that people differ in opinion about the implementation of capital punishment in Indonesia. relevant to the function of the stage. 1994: 256) to capital punishment. one of which occurs in an embedded clause a sentence of death [[imposed by a competent court]]. It simply asserts facts that are known about capital punishment as a basis for proceeding with the discussion. assigned to a referential item it in a passive clause: It has been used for a wide variety of offences since ancient time up until now in many countries). Three relational intensive processes are also used. All the processes used in the text help to contextualise the issue of capital punishment. However. assigning “a quality. the element is without modality or personal opinion. These appear in: [[whether capital punishment is suitable and capital punishment has been a controversy among Indonesian people. the element does not use a variety of process types. As far as Participants are concerned. classification and descriptive epithet” (Eggins. assigned to the same entity: Examples of participant as a Token can be seen in the following example: capital punishment is the execution of … Capital punishment Token is Pro: Relational Identifying the execution of Value Moreover. Cause.4 below. The other two are attributive. in line with the processes employed. towards the end of the element the writer indicates. Circ: Location: Time The text does not employ considerable Circumstances at this stage as it builds information by exploiting relational processes “underlying a defining style” (McCarthy and Carter.3 Process types Material Mental Verbal Intensive Circ. The expression of positions brings readers to another time. expressed in should in positive and negative polarity: …and should be implemented. 2003:104-105). relevant to the function of the stage. 1994: 37). … or it should be abolished. The Arguments in favour Element The stage opens with an unmarked topical Theme the proponents of capital punishment. to show the reader that there is a controversy about the implementation of capital punishment. The nominalization argument. clarity and precision at stage level. the first argument. First is an ideational metaphor. and efficiently manipulate a multiple-Theme development. 1992: 408-409). as “the first argument”. 2003:. This helps the text effectively develop globally. particularly to with the writers‟ awareness of to whom the text has been written. 195). which hence suggests that the writers had consistently developed strategies for a “reader-based approach which continually considers and accommodates an absent reader-audience” (Chafe. This is again relevant to the function of the stage. to serve to present arguments for capital punishment. the significant feature of textual strategies in the stage can be seen from the presence the introduction to the stage. The second argument [[proposed by those [[who defend capital punishment]] ]] relates to the incapacitation (it should be” incapacity”) of critminals. and third are realised in things (noun phrases) (Martin. which involves a transference of meaning. The development in the element can be seen below: The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions: The first argument [[they claim]] is [[that capital punishment is able to deter people from [[committing crimes]]. 74 . again shows a CT ability. as mentioned above. cited in McCarthy and Carter. in which internal conjunctions first. This may suggest the students‟ consistent capacity in promoting relevance. third becomes a “staging and ordering device” (Coffin. which shows a feature of written mode (see Chapter 1). The repetitive use of argument occurs in nominal groups which are created using grammatical metaphors. 199: 218). The third argument [[upheld by the advocates of capital punishment. Second is logical metaphor. Conspicuous by its absence in the text is the use of first and second person pronouns. This introduction can predict the set of topic sentences in each paragraph of the element. as the process of arguing is treated as a thing argument (see Martin and Rose. They occur in three positions. “the second argument” and “the third argument” names and points forward to the next (Martin and Rose. the second argument. As in the Joint Construction text. 1982. the third argument. combined with internal cohesive devices first. This. especially in written argumentation as well as CL. second. expressed in The proponents of capital punishment claim at least three positions. particularly in Indonesia]] is connected with the real condition of Indonesian prison itself.uses two modal verbs. if. I strongly agree that capital punishment needs to be implemented. following the zigzag or the linear pattern and the reiteration pattern. The last significant feature of Themes is regarding the writers‟ attempt to foreground objectivity in their arguments through replacing first personal pronouns indicating the writer‟s positioning and collective interactional Themes. The murder rate in USA. Some of the conjunctions above are also consequential (i. by third person pronouns. Statistics from the Home Office in Britain. because: It is because they do not believe in our coutnry‟s prison system. Life imprisonment . which indicates a movement away from the here and now situation – a feature of critical literacy. Consequential conjunctions also suggest that the writer presents reasons and conclusions (Thompson. David R. seldom used at the beginning of a sentence. shows the writers‟ sound background knowledge about the issue and help help build a sense that the field has been well.To maintain the connectedness between clauses. since). 2000: 55).researched. would expose prison staffs and fellow prisoners to dangerous murderer. … The reiteration pattern: Its populaton knows precisely what will happen to them If they are convicted of murder or drug trafficking Apart from all striking features above. the basic eelement of critical thinking and instances of reasoning skills. e. it is said.e: because. 1996). This indicates that the text is “highly written English” (Ravelli. as: It is said that as Singapore always carried out death sentences …. as can be described below: The zig-zag pattern: They believe that capital punishment is the most effective way to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment. Instances are: although: Athough some people may find it doubtful that capital punishment can deter crime. other interesting features of theme choices in the stage. 75 . therefore: Therefore. the writer also seems to confidently choose Themes of the clauses. although. which are essential aspects of arguments.g. that: It is also claimed that unexecuted criminals will be able to commit further crimes. More frequency of topical Themes that identify authoritative sources. since: … since such person may escape or be pardoned. can be delineated as follows: Frequent use of conjunctions realising structural Themes. Frances. or to construe a belief. this lack of public confidence. Other frequently appearing process types. the first argument. These indicate the writer‟s enhanced maturity in exploiting “the forms of language in written mode” (Kress. David. mental processes are mostly cognition to construe the experience of sensing – “to denote the mental change” (Mathiessen. this fact. While relational processes involving attribution can be seen in: Life imprisonment would not be equally effective with capital punishment. occur in: In this case. such as material processes can be found in illustrations or examples given by the writer to support each argument. The text uses various processes. is the frequent occurrences of an “unconscious Participant” (Eggins. Behav Exist and Possessive 34 8 22 9 5 3 The most striking feature of process types is that the stage (as in the jointly-constructed one) uses a considerable number of verbal and mental processes in addition to material and relational ones. Cause. The second argument [[…]] relates to the incapacitation of criminals. 76 .3 Material Mental Verbal Intensive Circ. 1998: 332) as in: although some people may find it doubtful that capital punishment can deter crime … . that a good critical thinker would have tried to make in thinking about an issue. it is said. Moreover. as the result of research conducted prior to the writing activity. many of which are abstract. Instances of verbal processes. 1985a: 47). expressed in it is said. Process types Text 2. R Frances states. the murder rate. The murder rate in USA dropped … . as in they believe that capital punishment is the most effective way to reduce crime …. such as statistics from the Home Office in Britain. A striking feature related to verbal processes. 1994).like the proponents of capital punishment. it is asserted. In terms of critical thinking. this indicates an attempt at objectivity. what will happen to them. The last process type – existential occurs only occasionally. This does not only reflect an analytical feature of the text.5.5 Processes Employed in the Arguments in favour Element of Text 2. a feature of critical writing. capital punishment.3 Table 2. 1994: 251) which is responsible for the verbal process. it is reported. and also in passive voice: it is asserted. the risk. life imprisonment. as can be seen in Table 2. put forward by those who support capital punishment. At times too. with the unfolding of some series of arguments. (which is also the case in the subsequent stage). the stage commences with a verbal process: claim. first and second person pronouns are replaced by nouns and nominal groups. and the use of impersonal it assigned as Theme in impersonal projections. and can be found in: there have been 71 murders …. but also suggests that the text is concerned with “dialogue” (DSP. This seems appropriate as the stage deals with arguments proposed by the proponents of capital punishment. with the proponents of capital punishment as a Sayer. This seems to be consistent with the function of the stage and the nature of a Discussion genre. Experientially. These may indicate the writer‟s attempt to enhance the breadth and sufficiency of the texts. the significance of which has been mentioned above. as is the case with these texts. as outlined earlier. such as can. especially in persuasive texts. Circumstance of Manner: precisely (Its population knows precisely that …). especially verbal and mental ones. this is desirable. 2002: 195). Circumstance of Intensity: from 24. Circumstance of Cause: of murder or drug trafficking. 2002: 84).The use of various processes above. like: the proponents of capital punishment. nominalisations. Similarly. some of which use clause embeddings. the stage in the text effectively uses a range of instances of modality. Hypothetical modalities are expressed in various modal verbs. such as material processes may suggest that the writer “did not only tell the readers but also showed them” (Chaffee et al. These happen in: Circumstances of Location in place: in USA ( In USA. 2002). apart from those mentioned in Theme selection above. as alluded to earlier. gives more precision and clarity to the meaning of the propositions. To turn to Participants in the stage. various Circumstances help to add significant experiential information. Nominalisation. which had enabled them to hear other voices and to incorporate them in their writing and thinking” (Adam and Artemewa. a typicality of a critical thinker in writing. 2002: 69-70: see also Christie. for example. there has been a 26% reduction of murder rate).209 in 1997 (The murder rate in USA dropped from 24. the advocates of capital punishment. 2010a). the third argument [[upheld by the advocates of capital punishment. which is a characteristic of all adult discourse (Halliday. also realises a more academic register as well as the writers‟ confidence and maturity in writing the text. which are metaphorical expressions. 562 in 1993 to 18. The final significant feature in terms of Participants is concerned with the writers‟ effort to use many ways of saying the same thing. play a very crucial role. to construe potentiality of capital punishment in “subjective implicit orientation” (Halliday. particularly in Indonesia]]. …the most effective way [[to reduce crime rather than life imprisonment]] shows that the writer had moved in the direction of a more “literate or written language to more formal registers that use main clauses with embedded clauses” (Colombi. 1985). such as how to refer to the proponents of capital punishment by providing a range of options. to make arguments “not accessible to debate” (Martin.562 in 1993 to 18. Interpersonally. involving nominalisations. advisable and even necessary to clarify the writer‟s meaning (Hinkel. some of which exemplify the implementation of capital punishment. is the frequency of Participants realised in long nominal groups. realised in other process types. 1994a: 359): 77 . the most striking feature. which in turn suggests their significant writing development (Colombi. The presence of illustrations and examples. (…if they are convicted of murder or drug trafficking). such as: some countries [[which implement capital punishment]]…. 1994a: 342). the presence of embedded clauses in nominalisations and other nominal groups. indicates the students‟ improvement in writing capacity “which is the result of their learning to write and research. Moreover. In academic writing. Examples are: The first argument they claim. those [[who defend capital punishment]]. At the same time. 2002: 147). The use of these Circumstances. 209 in 1997). The Arguments against Element The element has similar linguistic features and it can be evaluated in the same way the previous element. to judge students‟ development in writing as well as their critical thinking and critical literacy skills. but also those distant readers. Apart from logical metaphor. circumstantial. This is because meanings are made available not only to those who share an implicit understanding of the context (Bersntein. may and would. see also DSP. Thus. . realised respectively in: Although some people may find. which do not simply indicate that the two participants are linked with each other. as in: it is said. Other modal verbs also show probability. At times too. such as: actually. the use of relational processes above also involves experiential metaphors. All these modalities. 1992b): they believe. as in: it is almost impossible [[for the prison system in Indonesia to gain public‟s confidence]]. The significance of these various features of distancing devices. unspoken. precisely. modal verb can is used to construe the potentiality. an essential component of CT. However. since such person may escape and Life imprisonment…would expose prison staffs… . The effect of these relational processes is that they reduce the number of conjunctions and describe the field in a richer experience through the employment of a logical metaphor. they are reconstrued as a process (causes. that its population knows precisely. as Martin and Rose further argue. This is evidenced by the use of passive forms of mental or verbal processes when the writers presented facts. which indicates the writers‟ desire to keep her tenor impersonal. and projecting clauses or “metadiscourse” (Fairclough. modesty.[[that capital punishment can deter crime]]. cause). 1971: 14. apart from those mentioned earlier. 1991: 297). as in: which could lead to the execution of innocent people. This. we can unpack such a sequence as that of two figures related by conjunctions: If the death penalty is implemented.e. 2003: 140-141). In some cases. These are realised in circumstantial processes. such as will (some instances discussed above). 1994b: 141. from “knowing what is true to contemplating what may be true” (Kuhn. as alluded to earlier. proper caution and diplomacy in presenting arguments” (Swales‟ 1990a: 174). in this case. Logically. expressed in objective explicit orientation. is that they allow the text to be understood not only by those who possess a shared. but there is a sense of causality in this connection (Halliday. may suggest the writers‟ confidence and “honesty. Conspicuous by its absence is the use of the first and second person pronouns. One thing that needs a mention in this element is the frequency of relational processes (i. lead to). 1994: 122) but also those distant readers. 2002a:174). then innocent people will be executed. implicit understanding of certain relevant features of the context. may entail the progression in the skill of argument. 78 . there is a relation of consequence between the two participants: which (capital punishment) and the execution of innocent people) which is usually expressed in “if … then” (see Martin and Rose. the text uses various Mood Adjuncts to express the writers‟ judgment about the statement. as the participants are expressed in nominalisations (the execution of innocent people). the discriminatory or unequal use of death penalty.00 a. constitutes a reflexive capacity. as described above. having relatively strong background knowledge about capital punishment – an important aspect of metacognition (Marzano. et al. the prison system. 1988: 13-14). This. In these two aspects. This implies the writers‟ evaluation on the relevance of the materials they read with the text they were constructing . there are some linguistic features that need a brief mention which indicate the writer‟s growing capacity in writing. regarding the Participants the writers related the arguments presented with Indonesian law conditions by mentioning several cases. life imprisonment. in his article 'Capital Punishment: the justification of death'. except for two features. Second. that unexecuted criminals. which is part of what might be termed metacritical capacities. These may function as “moral instruction in how to behave” (Linde. crimes. again. especially regular occurrences regarding capital punishment. sentence. if not decisive. Textually the stage commences with a closing structural Theme Thus. fundamental to higher education. All these may suggest that the stage Building Knowledge of the Field in the teaching program. reasons to think that they are inadequate.. This. which give special impact to the readers. suggests that the writer foregrounded that the position taken or recommendation given is not superficial.m. drug trafficking. because they may give occasions for narrative remembering. All these lead to the creation of a text which tends to be “restricted on a specialised topic” (Stubb. critical thinking and critical litercay. 2001. combined with a marked topical Theme after looking at both sides of arguments. murder. Akbar Tanjung (Text 5. Instances are: execution. Another significant feature of Transitivity resources in this stage is concerned with thelexis and the frequency of technical words related to capital punishment. again.5) and the case of the chief of Indonesian House of Representative. to build significant experiential information. legal council. In the interest of space.a feature of CL. convicted. However. the 1945 Constitution. The writer shows the readers that she had carefully considered other perspectives. according to Barnett (1997: 70-71). 526-527) to avoid capital punishment. The Recommendation Element This stage in general has similar linguistic features and can be evaluated in the same way as the previous stages of the text. death penalty. as mentioned above. discussed earlier. therefore. 79 . both writers seemed to exploit the same strategy as that in the preceding stage. opinions or options and that they had very good.Other Transitivity elements which help to build important experiential meaning are Participants and Circumstances. murders. p. they will not be described in detail here. accused. such as that stated by Nasution (Text 5. First relates to the presence of specific Circumstances of location in time and place. murder rate. but based on deep and thoughtful thinking.7). 2001: 314). innocent people. indicates that the writer was well-informed. like tomorrow morning at 8. criminals. contributed to the students‟ confidence and competence in exploiting various technical words relevant to the topic and genre. The marked topical Theme in the first message. or crimes committed by those on whom capital punishment was imposed. 2000). to foreground objectivity of a command is apparent and indicated by the frequent use of passive voice. 1992: 206). and “took a position” (Ennis. 1994a: 362. the stage gathers up the meanings which have accumulated. the obligation can be graded (DSP. This may suggest the writer‟s capacity in exploiting various linguistic resources to make the communication with the reader work best. by attempting to sustain their objectivity in presenting arguments. declarative commands make no claims that the speaker is the source of the command.reasons that they were willing to share (Reichenbach. Another interesting matter regarding interpersonal strategies is the writer used first person pronoun I and we. Because they are depersonalised and given an impersonal authority which is not specified. As the strong personal 80 . such as in examples above. 2001: 99). Through the employment of this marked-topical Theme. Eggins. as in: that capital punishment needs to be implemented. 1994. The use of modulated declaratives. Ravelli. Conspicuous is the presence of first person pronoun I indicating the writer thematising themselves. Expressions that the writer intends as commands are realised as statements. 1997) – a critical thinking disposition concerned with in this study. Second. etal. The use of these first person pronouns is desirable in this element as it is at this stage that the writer is required to state his/her point in the Discussion genre. 1992). I do believe. where the writer used must and need which are high modulation and should median (Halliday. These expressions indicate that the writer “emphasised the point” (Eggins. This has led the stage to successfully function as the conclusion of the text. This effort. they are more difficult to challenge (Kress and Hodge. This means that responsibility for carrying out the command can be shared around. 2002) or a critical point (Barnett. such as need (above) and must (twice). 1994: 189). so the strength of the command can be adjusted. Moreover. it is still needed to be imposed… . which is required in the Discussion genre. corresponds to the proposed rule or law (McCarthy and Carter. I srongly argue. which makes explicit the “ownership” or “source” of the modalisation. 1987:12) or a standpoint (van Eemeren. the writer seemed to have a richer linguistic resources. The first must in However. in terms of expressing modulation. That is the way she employed objective modulations and her capacity to exploit interpersonal metaphors by turning obligations from commands to statements. indicates the writers‟ capacity in interpersonal metaphors the advantage of which are: First. 1994: 130) or the social obligations inherent in the information (Peters. thus cooperative action (DSP. 1979:123-124). the decision of [[sentencing death penalty]] must be fair. declarative commands can have more than just you as the subject. just and adequate. 1986: 175) and the second must in Therefore we must be prepared to execute criminals …is the concluding evaluation by the author and represents a strong imperative. Another interesting lingustic feature in this stage concerns interpersonal strategies employed by the writer. Even though I realise. shown by the exploitation of varying vocabularies to express modulation. realised in interpersonal Themes. or necessity. rather than commands to express obligation. Moreover. among others. the texts the students produced in the program. 1987: 15). the interpersonal strategies used in this stage show the writers‟ endeavour to state forceful opinions. The teaching program. critical literacy. especially in “presenting argumentation in written form” (Ennis. a feature of critical reading. such as in secondary and primary levels. with sound arguments through exploiting different linguistc resources and showing strong background knowledge of the topic. which is typical of a critical thinker. 2002: 132).5 Conclusion This chapter has presented a language program implemented with students teachers at a tertiary level in Indonesia. Chapter 3 will present an instance of the implementation of the SFL GBA in the Indonesian context in a secondary class where students. A similar program can be applied in the lower levels of education.opinions appear in one and the last part of the text. as will be exemplified in the following chapters. critical pedagogy and the SFL genre-based approach is possible and desirable in an English as a foreign language context like Indonesia. It has shown that a synthesis of practices suggested by the theories of critical thinking. shows that she engaged in “knowledge-transformation” and that she is “evaluating rather than reporting” (Dudley-Evans. 2. but in an objective and careful way. Overall. as shown above in this chapter can be considered to have been successful in many ways. which present various apects of a more mature text. This can be seen from. Interpersonal strategies also show the writer‟s critical thinking disposition. Finally. as in the program described in this chapter. also learned English as a foreign language. It can help students develop their writing skills as well as critical thinking and critical literacy. the employment of the first person pronouns makes the text more powerful. after more impersonal and factual cases had been established. 81 . the fact that the writer made recommendations for action. as discussed above. 82 .Chapter 3: A language program at the secondary level This chapter will demonstrate how two major traditions of scholarship can be used to inform the development of critical language and literacy programs at the secondary school level. They are: Action research – a tradition that involves researchers in partnership in researching practical educational problems with a view to improving them. Genre based pedagogy – a tradition already explained in earlier chapters. and in this case employed in the light of the most recent secondary school English curriculum for Indonesia (need proper ref here). like other action research. 2010). including: Building Knowledge of the Field. Smith (1990) and Reason & Bradbury. this chapter will present a language program conducted cooperatively with a teacher and a class of secondary school students in Indonesia using action research (Kemmis & McTaggart. 2009. Cohen & Manion. we will focus on the implementation of the genre-based approach in two teaching cycles. and this in turn will eventually enhance students‟ achievement in their learning of English. Noffke & Somekh. Carr & Kemmis. Noffke. 1993. 2007). 2005. Modelling. cited in Allington & Johnston. There are at least two characteristics: the first is that the teacher should be sure that all students can learn. 2001. aims and implementation of each step of the approach in the classroom in order to promote an improved quality in the teaching of English. as reported by Ladson-Billings (1994. This is based on the belief that “At risk students can be taught to perform successfully at demanding academic level” (Richardson. A spoken cycle which aims to help develop students‟ spoken language ability. The SFL genre based approach is compatible with the 2006 or the 2007 curriculum of English for International standard schools in Indonesia (Depdiknas. Joint Construction and Independent Construction. In this cycle. implemented as it was in an English as a foreign language context. 2000. as suggested in the 2006 English curriculum of Indonesia (Depdiknas. Enhancement of teachers‟ understanding of both the theoretical and practical aspects of the SFL GBA will be of great value to help them promote their teaching quality. Like in the written cycle. These are: The important characteristics of a successful teacher. 2005. McNiff & Whitehead. 2006:34). in this cycle all stages of the genre-based approach were implemented in the study reported here. The interest was in exploring the SFL GBA. including basic principles. The two cycles are: A written cycle which aims to develop students‟ reading and writing ability. 83 . 2002: 22) which are also relevant to diaogic education from critical pedagogy. 2006).b. this kind of program should also uphold the principle that everyone in the program has a status. Macintyre.3. Moreover. Apart from the stages and basic principles of the SFL GBA. such as: Building Knowledge of the Field. Wells. 1985. the program reported in this chapter. 2009. McTaggart (1990). 2009.1 Introduction Where chapter 2 presented a language and literacy program at the tertiary level. Here. Morgan & Fleener. Joint Construction and Independent Construction. also emphasised two aspects. Modelling. in that everyone has something to share and to contribute . The second is that the teacher should try to help students to achieve excellence but attach a great importance to individual uniqueness. all stages of the genre-based approach can be implemented. Stringer et al. 1988a. this research aimed to bring about useful practical knowledge and understanding for all parties involved in the teaching of English. Like other action research. in daily life contexts. 2006. 2004 curricula” (Kasihani. The New Style Curriculum. speaking. As in the previous program at the tertiary level. 3. Reading Students are able to make meaning of simple transactional and interpersonal written texts. report. descriptive. narrative. the program reported in this chapter also emphasises the necessity of the use of the students‟ native language. This has been guided by theoretical discussions and research findings about the use of the students‟ native language. Speaking Students are able to express meaning in simple transactional and interpersonal spoken discourse. in daily life contexts. descriptive.2 The Indonesian English curriculum The teaching of English in Indonesia has had a long history. report. descriptive. in different text types such as: recount. 2001. starting from “The Old Style Curriculum. reading and writing. in this case bahasa Indonesia. in formal and informal situations. which is called the KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan/ Curriculum of Educational Unit). Writing Students are able to express meaning in simple transactional and interpersonal written texts in the forms of recount. in daily life contexts. descriptive. The 1984. report. procedure. narrative. see also the standard competence of English in for international standard schools released by Depdiknas. procedure. in text types such as: recount. procedure. report. The 1994. narrative. and each skill should cover the following: Listening Students can make meaning of simple transactional and interpersonal spoken discourse in formal and informal situation. in formal and informal situations. use and learning and that a small amount of first language use may indeed lead to more comprehensible input and target language production (Turnbull & Dailey-O‟Cain. 2009: 5). since independence in 1945. 2007) that the teaching of English should focus on the development of four language skills. in different text types like: recount. procedure. Students of secondary schools are expected to develop their English in all language skills. whish suggest that the first language may contribute to student target language comprehension. in daily life contexts. 2000) and the last one is The 2006 curriculum. It is said in the curriculum of English (Depdiknas. narrative. including listening. 84 . The curriculum of English in Indonesia has gone through several changes. Finally. wanting to find out more about what was happening in the English classroom and to contribute to our understanding of the processes of English teaching and learning in Indonesian contemporary schools in general. although this method is not mentioned explicitly. focusing on written and spoken language as suggested in the 2006 curriculum of English in Indonesia. especially in secondary schools. the researchers tried to be aware of a possible internal challenge (Johnston. in this case the teacher‟s and researchers‟ practice. especially teacher-researcher partnership. The study involved two university researchers. or initiate research with a central emphasis on the value of the teacher‟s own voice. This concerns questions around individual actions.were very careful. and now has been used not only in Australia but also in other countries from primary up to tertiary levels. Therefore in commenting on what happened in the classroom and then acting upon the results of the analysis. does not recommend explicitly any particular teaching method. the SFL GBA is still relevant to the 2006 curriculum and can be applied in the classroom to teach English. Apart from that. Like other action research. it is clear that the curriculum is based on the theory and concepts of the SFL GBA. one female teacher and one class of 44 eighth grade students for one semester. Therefore. Thus. 2009 and Carr & Kemmis.3 Action research The program described here is based on three cycles of action research (Emilia et al. 3. as Johnston argues. the political dimension focuses on the interest. 2009: 245) in doing action research with classroom teachers. which is in line with the SFL GBA. for it can be difficult to find teachers who are willing to be observed and to work cooperatively with researchers from outside the schools. this research has three dimensions: professional. led by Emilia . stated above. Fortunately. which was initially developed in Australia. et al 2008:1). we – that is. and in the class involved in particular. in this case in developing students 85 . The personal dimension involves the individual process of examining one‟s own practice. there is an inherent power imbalance in a great many collaborative relationships. In the professional dimension. the focus is on issues related to developing the practices of schooling and the enhancement of the teaching profession. the study was also about developing partnership between teachers and university researchers. 2008) which involved the implementation of the SFL GBA.Unlike the previous curriculum of English. That is. It was thus kept in mind that to create a partnership like this was not easy. Teachers are just given a guideline on language skills that have to be developed when students learn English. However. even though she already had a strong background knowledge of the SFL GBA and she was a very experienced teacher. makes clear that the 2006 curriculum of English in Indonesia emphasises the students‟ mastery of different text types and development of language skills. and political (see Noffke. and this has the potential to create problems. the 2006 curriculum of English in Indonesia. Regarding this partnership. the academic researchers. in which distinctions between theory and practice are challenged and expertise is distributed as we learn together (Baumfield. the aim of the teaching of English in the junior high school. 2009). personal. All involved in this study together acted as learners. how one might do things differently to improve one‟s practice. the teacher involved was open-minded and was willing to learn. Teachers can use any method in order to teach their students. that is. Focus: A sequence of activities written chronologically. is that action research insists on teachers justifying their claims to knowledge by the production of authenticated and validated evidence. as McNiff & Whitehead further explain. As to the topics. and it is so practical that when people meet the idea they often say. it was decided that these would be health and vacations. before providing an account of these. what‟s different?” (McNiff & Whitehead. 2005:2).. and then making their claims public in order to subject them to critical evaluation. What is different. “action research is practical. Students would be asked to talk and share information about their personal experience in the past. the next section will provide an overview of the schematic structure and grammatical features of a Recount. it is important that the teacher and researchers understand the nature of a Recount genre. and build a sense of agency in dealing with life issues in the future as well as a sense of civic participation in the building of more democratic social and political relations.4 An overview of characteristics of a Recount text A Recount text. “that‟s what I do in any case. 3. as pointed out by Noffke (2009: 8-18. One matter about action research should be noted here. in which steps are taken to address the problems. especially a personal Recount is a text which retells activities in the past. 2009:55). using the SFL GBA. in which students‟ capacities are established. and exploring its teaching using an action research cycle. 2009). we must find ways to create the conditions for the dialogue of thinking together to become the dominant mode of the interaction. it is also believed in this study that “if we want to improve the opportunities for learning in school. among others. and they would also be asked to write about them. Overall. and a therapeutic phase. The teaching program outlined below has the following phases: a diagnostic phase. opinions or experiences that they want to share.” (Wells.who can write English well. Hence. and any problems are identified. However. Types: Recount can be classified into: 86 . Wells further suggests seem to include. These conditions. A Recount text has the following characteristics: Purpose: To retell what happened and this can involve the writer‟s personal interpretation. the following: The topic must be of interest to the participants. see also Carr & Kemmis. Individual students must have relevant ideas. Others must be willing to listen attentively and critically. it was decided to focus on the teaching of the personal Recount genre. Hence. who will thus develop useful skills. following the 2006 curriculum of English for junior high school in grade 8 in Indonesia. mother. A Recount has a schematic structure that is displayed in Table 3. sister. Schematic Structure Orientation Table 3. Her name is Anin … ). Durkin. Some linguistic features of Recounts A Recount also has several linguistic features. A Recount can be based on the writer‟s personal experience or imaginative. introduced to Indonesian students. history. 1997:45). Christie & Derewianka (2008). an autobiography. Ferguson & Sperring. (2008). my mother (I have an older sister. Examples of Recounts can be found in a biography. some Recounts may not have this conclusion paragraph. 1997). like those written by the students in this study. 1997. father. 2006). outside the writer‟s experience (Western Australian Education Department. or a testimony of a witness of an event or insident. Rounds off the text. Evaluative comments are often comments reflecting the writer‟s feeling about the events mentioned in the previous part of the Recount (Western Australian Education Department. news items. has an Opening Salutation (Hi. or the writer him/herself: I. like news or accident reports sometimes found in newspapers. Use of the past tense: (Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation…). 87 . Reorientation (and sometimes Comments) Returns the reader to the point of departure (and sometomes the writer also gives comments on the whole sequence of events described). like a day in a puppy life. among others: Use of specific participants: a younger brother. but this is just optional. DSP (1994). my brother. My name is Karina … ). Some Recounts have an evaluative comment or a conclusion which may constitute the writer‟s comment on events described previously. Martin & Rose. 1 The Schematic Structure of a Recount Text Function Orients the readers to the events that follow which introduces character(s) in a setting of time or place (or sometimes both) (Some Recounts.1 below. adapted from Derewianka (1990). Factual Recount: Retelling an event or an incident. Record of Events Give a sequence of events . a letter. normally returning to the protagonists to the point whence thy came . The conclusion is written in the last paragraph and because this part is optional. accident report made to claim for an insurance (Anderson & Anderson. Imaginative Recount: Creating an imaginative character and imaginative events. a journal. Personal Recount: Retelling personal experiences of the writer. 1997:27). and evaluating the results of the action. to follow Stringer et al (2010) and to some extent Macyntire (2000). consideration of different strategies. activities in each cycle of each stage can be described in three different phases. In deciding just where to begin in making improvements. when. to see to what extent the SFL genre based approach had developed. each of which is composed of planning. next. Social psychologist. described action research as proceeding in a spiral of steps. 2009: 156) and help make the text cohesive: After. 1988. To follow Mcyntire (2000) all activities conducted were also informed by the literature. 1997: 27). what aspects could be improved. then. After describing the features of a Recount text which is the focal text in this study. during. Think. cited in McTaggart. 1952. before. the process begins with the idea that some kind of improvement or change is desirable (see also Macintyre. whether students‟ learning could be enhanced. to follow Stringer et al (2010). 3. Think is when the researcher and teacher discussed the above matters in the post observation conference and before the teaching learning process began. Personal comments (except for factual Recount) (see Derewianka.5 The teaching program: Action research cycles At one level. Use of temporal and additive conjunctions to connect the messages of clauses (Martin. 1997:27) argue. a group identifies an area where members perceive a cluster of problems of mutual concern and consequencs. In practice. This phase also involved tentative action plan. or conjunctions such as “first. and they analysed the evidence obtained from observation. including: Look. as Kemmis & McTaggart (1988. 1990:15-16) (The holiday was cool … : I was happy because I had a great vacation in Italy). it is now time to describe each activity conducted in each cycle of the action research. Act is when the teacher and researchers took action to improve the teaching practice and students‟ learning. Kurt Lewin (1946. This stage also involved monitoring the effects or evaluation of strategies used. acting. The group decides to work together on a thematic concern (Kemmis & McTaggart. the cycle of the action research can be described in three phases as described in Figure 3. cited in McTaggart. observing. Thus. and what strategies could be used to enhance students‟ learning. 2000: 1). whether it was successful. then”. In each stage. inventor of the term action research in English usage. the idea of participatory action research is straightforward enough (McTaggart. and Act.1 below: 88 . Look is the stage when classroom observations were conducted by the researcher. 1997: 27). 5. 3.5. Document analysis was also conducted. especially in teaching a Recount text.1 Phase 1: Look In this stage the researchers asked these questions: 89 . Below is the discussion of each step to provide detailed information on how every step of the SFL GBA can be implemented at a secondary level of education in an Indonesian context. or Evaluate) Think (Reflect Analyse Classrom Activity) Act (Plan. Teach. 2010: 8) Activities to collect data in all stages involved classroom observations. Teach. interviews and discussion with the teacher in post-observation conference and discussions with the students inside and outside the classroom.1.1 Action research cycles (From Stringer et al. or Evaluate) Look (Plan. Teach. 3. or Evaluate) Figure 3. especially to do with students‟ work and the curriculum of English for Junior High School in Indonesia and some text books used in the class.(Gather Information Observe Classroom) (Gather Information Observe Classroom) Look Think (Gather Information Observe Classroom) Look (Reflect Analyse Classrom Activity) Think Act (Reflect Analyse Classrom Activity) Act (Plan.1 Diagnostic Phase: Cycle 1 Activities in each stage can be described below. 5. collaborative learning community. For schools involving pupils in the discussion about teaching and learning: May suggest new directions for school improvement. 3.esteem. Allows pupils to acquire technical language for talking about learning. Can offer help to improve the quality of teacher-pupil relationships. These will be described below. Helps to create a more collaborative classroom environment. Encourages pupils and teachers to feel that they are valued and respected members of an inclusive. the next phase was to analyse it. Does the research project address a concrete issue or practical problem? Is the research sufficiently small scale to be combined with a routine workload? Regarding the GBA. For teachers: Involving students in the discussion about teaching and learning: Offers teachers feedback to help improve aspects of their practice. Promotes the development of higher order thinking skills (metacognition). Raises pupil‟ self confidence and self. Can contribute to monitoring and evaluating processes for school self-review. Enables teachers to identify problems impeding pupils‟ progress. Provides a practical expression of ideas taught in ciitizenship education. the questions were: To what extent is the SFL GBA developed in the teaching of English? In what way should the teaching be improved? How will the pupils‟ learning be enhanced? What strategies can be tried to bring about the enhancement of students‟ learning? As in the program described in Chapter 2. when the researcher and teacher thought about the meaning of the data which would become the basis of action for improvement. Can be used to develop new ideas to improve teaching and learning. Helps to establish a more positive learning culture within the school. For pupils: Involving pupils in the discussion about teaching and learning Develops an understanding and awareness of learning processes. When all data needed had been obtained. Helps pupils to see learning as a serious matter.1 2 Phase 2: Think 90 . this program took account of students‟ perspectives. Flutter and Ruddock (2004. cited in Baumfield et al. 2008:36-37) give a number of reasons why student consultation is a key to improving teaching and learning. Different from the other programs proposed in this book. Picture 3. even in upper levels of secondary school and tertiary level. These are. This big class made the teacher think that feedback to individual students about their writing was impossible to do in the classroom. This has resulted in the students being not immersed in the English language learning. the class involved in the program reported here consisted of 44 students. like those available in Australian schools. 2002:23). Certainly. The physical classroom environment can be seen in the picture below. The class did not have sufficient sources for learning.1 Seating arrangement in an Indonesian classroom 91 . and this is common in Indonesian schools. A print-rich environment is really needed by the students who learn English literacy (Allington & Johnston. to manage a conference in ways that pay attention to each student‟s development and needs. in a manner which is common in Indonesian contexts. Visual aids that can help students learn English. feedback needs a special technique to handle students‟ work.The observations made in the diagnostic step provide a broad description of the class. were not available. among others: The class was big. as will be described in Chapter 4. did not yet have a clear understanding of the text in focus in terms of the schematic structure and linguistic features. Students in this stage were also asked to list as many vocabulary items as possible from different sources. including the linguistic features of the text. Therefore. not about the text in focus. based on informal conversation with them. who at that time dealt with the topic on health. First of all was to do with the stage Building Knowledge of the Field. the Modelling was seemingly too short and the explanation was not detailed enough. it was found that the students and the teacher. The teacher. seemed to have a good understanding of the SFL GBA. like many other Indonesian teachers.Moreover. As this is not recommended in the SFL GBA. or whether all stages should be conducted in one meeting only. the evidence in the diagnostic stage revealed the following: Classroom activities were to some extent relevant to the stages of the SFL GBA. also liked to have the model text presented in a transparency. students also must understand the nature of the text they are to create in writing. 92 . including the resource book and newspapers. This suggests the need to promote the teacher‟s understanding of the aim and theoretical basis of the GBA pedagogy. The Modelling stage was conducted in a quite an appropriate way in that the teacher showed the model text in a transparency. as proposed by the theorists. and this involves work on the overall schematic structure. and as discussed in Chapters 1 and 2. went through each stage of the SFL GBA in only one meeting. is to build students‟ background knowledge about the topic. or in a lock step. which is in large part to do with the SFL GBA. this needed to be discussed. It also suggests that the teacher needs to understand the stages in the target genre and their purpose. that the students only listed vocabulary items did not seem to help them to create a good Recount text. as shown in the texts they wrote. This stage was used to introduce the focal text to the students. including the one involved in this study. which is the focus of the study. Moreover. For example. The second matter was to do with the Modelling. However. This is not quite appropriate as the aim of the stage. the students. The students. This is relevant to the suggestion from SFL genre-theorists to allow the teacher and the students to share comments and to talk about the text as a class more easily. Regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA. have attended a lot of trainings about the English curriculum. While vocabulary is very important. including expressions that they could use in the text that they would write in the joint construction and independent construction. as alluded to in Chapters 1 and 2. Many teachers. However. including the stages of the SFL GBA. it is also possible that the teacher might not clearly understand the purpose and theoretical basis of each stage of the SFL GBA and what activities should be conducted in each stage. teachers are sometimes uncertain about whether the stages of the SFL GBA should run in a linear way. regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA. that they have to write in a long process. Because Andy‟s illness was not very bad. she took Andi to the hospital In the hospital. My name is Andre I am fourteen years old I have a little brother 7. Moreover. My father tried to calm her down. and an example of a text that one group of students wrote in the Joint Construction can be seen below.The third matter was to do with the joint construction text. each student had to go out of the class to see the text. said the doctor to my mother. that Andi had dengue fever. Everyday the doctor checked Andy And gave him the proper treatment and medicine 1. In this stage the students in group of threes reconstructed a jumbled text into a coherent text. His name is Andy He is four years younger than me Two days ago Andi had a fever 6. This activity took quite a long time as the jumbled text that the students had to rearrange was put outside the class and displayed on a wall only. The text was made by the teacher. Regarding this. 4. My mother tried to lower the fever. Text 3. Some students were just staying in the class and did not seem to be actively involved in the session. the fact that the students were not given a text led to a waste of time which actually could have been used by the students to enhance their understanding of the text and their writing skills. 5. the fact that the Joint Construction was to do with rearranging the text was not appropriate as the main aim of this phase was to enable students to create their own text in groups to ensure that they had a clear understanding of the focal text in terms of the schematic structure and linguistic features of the text and also the background knowledge about the topic they wrote. the doctor examined Andy Then he said. 93 . to edit and to proofread (Gibbons. So. The result was that the text written by all groups of students was the same. So. By giving him some medicine However until the next day his fever had not gone out 3. there were two matters that needed to be discussed with the teacher. The fact that the students rearranged a jumbled text also did not give the students a sense that writing is recursive process. needing to revise. a week after Andy‟s fever had gone. First of all.The teacher apparently regarded this activity as an acceptable alternaive to Joint Construction as the SFL GBA normally considers it. There is still a hope. 2002). My mother was very worried. Finally.1 An example of a jumbled personal Recount (Rrearranged by the students in the Joint Construction stage) 2. 2 below. I a check up in my disease. I promise to not eat ice and sweets foods because that‟s can make me sick again. which suggests that the students at this stage did not yet have a good control of the schematic structure of a Recount text which should have an Orientation. My doctor gave me suggestion for not eat ice and sweet foods. Text 3.Finally a week after. the students in general. when asked to rearrange a jumbled text.. The text. His name is Andi. While I sick I always check up to can treatment 94 .2 An example of a Recount text written in the diagnostic stage Orientation A week ago I was sick. I hoppen my sick quick recover. which is actually an issue in the SFL GBA in that it focuses on the product (see the discussion in Christie. as will be shown later. Reorientation: The doctor told us that Andy‟s critical moment had gone. was written in one paragraph. He is four years younger than me. 2010b) and the writing condition like this did not give the students a real writing experience that a professional writer usually goes through. Record of Events I to attack disease a influenza or cold. I must obedient at suggestion. I went to the hospital. written by a student categorised as a low achiever. had a good control of the schematic structure of a Recount text. I can‟t go to school. that is that they have to have time to revise. Record of Events: starting from Two days ago Andi had a fever … through to . when they were asked to write individually. Examples of texts the students wrote in this stage can be seen in Tables 3. However. And a doctor gave me treatment and medicine. does not seem to be appropriate. my name is Andre. And Andi could go home as soon as possible. When I was sick I can‟t playing with my friends. Record of events and Reorientation. Andy‟s fever had gone. These are: Salutation: Hi. Orientation: I have a little brother. But when me sick my parents very panic ever me sick my parents bring me to the hospital. all of which should be written in different paragraphs. as can be seen below. to edit and to proofread. The last matter to do with the SFL GBA concerned the independent construction of the text which was conducted in one sitting and was conducted in a formative test. If me not sick my parent can bring me stroll and me can playing with my friends and me can go to school. The text above has the following elements or schematic structure relevant to a Recount text.he doctor told us that his critical moment had passed. as writing was not taught as a process. This again. even those categorised into high achievers seemed to still need assistance in writing a successful Recount text. My medicine shape tablet . May my sick quick recover. And Andy could go home as soon as possible. both in terms of the schematic structure and linguistic features. The text above also indicates that the students. After me check up a doctor talk to me that me to attack disease influenza in serious condition. 3 below. a influensa or cold …). 2009: 11) of English grammar. 2009) when students should be given time to revise. providing students with a variety of texts which can lead them to have a good control of the schematic structure of the focal text.3. Iam fourteen years old. to edit and to proofread their writing. All these also suggest the necessity of explicit teaching about linguistic features and grammar relevant to the focal text. as in: A week ago I was sick. However. I went to the hospital. written by a girl categorised as a mid achiever. in general this student does not seem to have “explicit knowledge” (Ellis. My docter gave me prescription to me health. 2002. 95 . Gracia. as suggested by Elder & Ellis (2009: 167) is an important component of an L2 proficiency. and made mistakes in several apsects below: Subject-verb agreement (I to attack disease. from the linguistic features. A more mature Recount lists events in paragraphs and each event is written in a different paragraph. The writer indeed shows some understanding of the use of past tense. The doctor gave me suggestion … . Text 3. 1989) of linguistic features of a Recount text more than once for this student. as can be seen below was written in two paragraphs. Text 3. at a glace it can be seen that the writer still struggled to write a successful Recount as she still made a lot of grammatical mistakes. as can be seen in the Recount plan offered by the Western Australia Education Department (1997) below. The second paragraph describes what happened to her and she mentioned all events in one paragraph. written by a mid achiever at this stage can also be seen in Table 3.2 also suggests the need for ”direct telling” (Callaghan & Rothery.intensive and to cure my sick. The first is a Salutation: My name is Karina. Inappropriate lexical choices (I hoppen my sick quick recover). Knowledge of grammar (of whatever kind). given that there are so many grammatical mistakes she made in the text and there are so many aspects that need improvement. The Modelling stage should be conducted in a more comprehensive way. Another text. Reorientaion My mother called so that to me must listen suggestion a doctor. She did not seem to have a sense of grammar. This expression is actually a word-for word translation of an expression in bahasa Indonesia. This may suggest that explicit teaching on the schematic structure is still needed by the students categorised as mid achiever. The text. The expression suggests the student‟s struggle in subject-verb agreement ( I to attack) in the use of an article in English (a influensa). All these suggest that scaffolding provided by the teacher is really needed by the student in terms of grammar and control of the schematic structure of a Recount text and therefore writing should be taught as a process (Gibbons. Moreover. He told me I must get some rest and drank lots of liquids.In terms of linguistic features. this text is in some ways much better and shows the writer‟s emerging control of some linguistic features of a Recount text and explicit knowledge of English grammar. So my mother gave me stomachace medicine. These are among others: Use of specific participants: I am fourteen years old.2. And he said I have a diarhea. the writer could employ reiteration and zig-zag Theme progressions. So. Orientation: Three weeks ago when I am at the school. causality: … because my illness was not very bad. The next morning I still stomachache and still often went to the bathroom. I was recovered from my illness. when the parts of the Rheme in the previous clause becomes the theme in the following clause. I am dizzy and felt faint. I was recovered from my illness. Another example of a Recount text written at the diagnostic stage My name is Arina. My mother was very worried. The doctor gave me the proper treatment and medicine. my stomachache have gone. However. Reorientation So. the zigzag pattern. My father told him to calm down because my ilness was not very ad. In the hospital the doctor examined me. my mother gave somemedicine and vitaminC to me. compared with Text 3. after three days. So. Finally. 96 . my mother took me to the hospital. Moreover. Record of Events: When I arrived at home I still felt faint. in the middle of English lesson. Use of some linguistic resources for connecting messages via temporality: next in The next morning …. In terms of thematic progression. The reiteration Theme progression can be seen below: When I arrived at home I still felt faint. So. can be seen below: In the hospital the doctor examined me And he said …. I don‟t want illness again. such as: Thee weeks ago when I am at the school … Which suggests the students‟ capacity to use past tense and the use of article “the” which is not appropriate. Salutation Text 3. the text shows some grammatical mistakes. Use of a past tense (despite the mistake mentioned above): When I arrived at home. addition: And he said …. I am fourteen years old. After three days I have a stomachache . My mother gave me some medicine.3. Finally after three days … . But after two days my stomachache have not gone. all of which should be written in a different prargraph.3. although it does not occur frequently can be “indicative of acknolwedgement of interpersonal relationship and the social structures governing appropriacy of language” (Amstrong. He wrote the text in two paragraphs. the text shows a lot of aspects that indicate the writer‟s maturity and grasp of English grammar and linguistic features of a Recount text. … My brother‟s name is … . if only she had been given an opportunity to revise the text.g. 2009: 148).2 and 3. including relational processes to describe the desease: My illness was not very bad. 97 .4 An example of a Recount text written in the diagnostic stage Hi. He is seven years old. verbal processes to involve dialogue in the text: My mother said: the doctor told me …. as indicated above. My brother‟s name is Marwan.4. The writer still indeed needed some help in creating a successful Recount text. The writer uses present and past tenses in appropriate places. my name is Muhammad Irsa. Record of Events. there was a possibility that the text would be better and achieved its purpose more successfully. The use of modality. was essential if students were to achieve a good control of the genre. In terms of the schematic structure. Khodijah. These can be seen from several aspects below. such as must in I must get some rest. a Recount in particular. My mother was very worried. Khodijah said: “You can go home this day”). categorised as a high achiever in joint discussion between the teacher and the researchers can be seen in Texts 3. This confirmed to the researchers and the teacher that the modelling stage. and reorientation. Text 3. suggests the need for time for revision and the need for writing to be taught as a process.4 is similar to Texts 3. Record of Events in such a long text as Text 3. Now I want to tell you about the story of my brother. should definitely be written in more than one paragraph. should have an Orientation. Finally Dr. suggest the writer‟s significant development in writing ability and make the text more lively. I am thirteen years old. “There is still hope” said Dr. Please call me Irsa. The writer did not seem to be aware that a text. Salutation Orientation Text 3. below. material processes: My mother took me to the hospital. The writer can also successfully present tense in dialogues involved in the text written in directive speech (e. Different process types. including explicit teaching about the text structure. The presence of verbal processes or dialogues in a text suggests an important writing skill development (Kress. These dialogue in present tense did not appear in other texts.4. 1982). However. my name is Irfan Argya. This again. The use of this modality. The last example of texts written by a boy. These dialogues. in terms of linguistic features. Thus he uses the simple present tense tointroduce himself and his brother: Hi. Successful use of tense. showing he did not fully understand the genre. However. He undestand that health was very important „We must keep our body healthy” said my brother to me. Then she told to my father and my mother that my brother suffered from typhus. My brother didn‟t want to sick again. My brother was very happy because they could study together in the same class and every day they went to school together with bus. Dr. Khodijah said: “You can go home this day. After a month. Everyday my brother and his friend played together in the hospital. But my father tried to calm her down because my brother‟s illness was nt very dangerous. Faizal was a new student in my brother‟s school. Every day I went to the hospital. his friend in the gospital.Record of events Last year. My father called the doctor to my house. Khodijah to my father and my mother. Next month my brother met again with his friend in the hospital. Khodijah examined my brother‟s body. Faizal was very happy because my brother could go home this day. 98 . So.. After a month my brother‟s fever had gone. The writer uses Theme choices successfully to identify family members (e. they gave him some medicine to lower the fever. He wasn‟t alone again. Before he went home he said goodbye to his friend faizal. In the hospital my brother made a new friend. “there is still hope” said Dr. Dr. Reorientation. my brother‟s name. My brother‟s friends listened carefully to my brother said because they didn‟t want to be sick. Finally Dr. My brother didn‟t go to the school because he was in the hospital. he said goodbye to Faizal. In his school he told to his teachers and friends about his story. Every day I went to the hospital after school to meet my brother. So. Sometimes my brother‟s friends and teachers went to the hospital after school to check marwan. My father and my mother was very worried. my brother (had sick). Dr. His name was faizal. In the hospital Dr. In the hospital my mother and my father accompanied my brother because my brother didn‟t want alone in the hospital. faizal. He suffered the same illness. Khodijah examined my brother‟s body again. My brother was very happy because he could meet his friends again in his school. He didn‟t want in hospital again. My brother was very happy because he could meet his friends in the hospital. my father). some marked Theme to signal temporality which shows a strong progression. Sometimes my brother‟s friend and teachers went to the hospital). My brother was very happy because he could meet again with his friend and played together again. She took the stetoscope and thermometer to checked my brother‟s body. After returned home he felt nice. So. Faizal didn‟t sick again. He was very happy because he could play again with his new friend.g. my brother „s fever had gone down.” to my brother. For examples: Last year my brother had a fever… . Khodijah took my brother to the hospital. Khodijah gave him proper treatment and medicine. my brother stayed in the hospital for a while. Every day Dr. Before he went home. My mother was very worrid. Thematic progression. She was very kind. Khodijah said to my brother that he could go home this month. The doctor‟s name was Khodijah. they gave him some medicine. In general the writer of Text 3. My stomach started to ache after I ate chili on the way from Jakarta to Bandung. proper treatment. as the Action will reveal. My stomach ached so much that I couldn‟t even go to school for a week. Another text. illness.4 already had much more linguistic resources to write a Recount text. She took the stetoscope… Frequent use of verbal processes in dialogues invlolved in the text. Khodijah examined my brother‟s body. to edit and to proofread the text. Salutation My name is Mirza and I am 13 years old. At midnight my mother took me to the hospital to check if there was any disease in my body. So. I had to stay in hospital until I was able to walk. alone. After the docotr examined my body. After staying at home for one week my parents took me to another doctor because they had a feeling that my stomach ache wasn‟t just a stomach ache. Then she told my father. I couldn‟t sleep at night because my stomach was aching. I had 12 stitches on my stomach. Text 3. The text still does have some grammatical mistakes. Lexical cohesion through the use of Reference. So.g. so that the teacher could focus on those who really struggled in the class. Diversity in lexical choices: suffered. My father and my mother were very worried. The doctor‟s name was Khodijah. This can be seen in some xpressions below: My brother‟s name is Marwan. as can be seen in examples above. The surgery took two hours. She was very kind. was asked to provide help to his classmates and to be one of “the small teachers” in the classroom.5.” said Dr. could probably have been corrected. Then we went back home and my stomach was still aching. the doctor said that I suffered from apppendicitis. He is seven years old. such as the first sentence in the Record of Events stage (Last year my brother had sick) but these mistakes. The doctor said that it was just an ordinary stomach ache. the significance of which has been mentioned above. Hadijah. if only he had been given more time to write the text and had been given a chance to revise. I stayed in hospital 99 . Record of events At first I thought it was just an ordinary stomach ache. The next morning at seven o’clock I had an appendectomy at Bungsu Hospital. Dr. they gave him some medicine. keep the body healthy. Orientation Last year I suffered from appendicities. written by a high achiever can be seen below. He confidently employed different linguistic resources. The doctor said that my appendix was really bad and if I didn‟t have the appendectomy straight away. My parents thought it was just an ordinary stomach ache.The writer also uses structural Themes (e. such as: “This will be all right. Successful use of past tense: All sentences indicating events in the past were written in the past tense. … because he could meet his friend in the hospital). This student. accompanied. I could have been dead by a couple of days. sickness. All I did were sleep. A lot of Indonesian students cannot differentiate between staying in hospital and staying in the hospital. a shift from the past tense to present tense in the Reorientation also occurs: The next Monday I was able to go to school. Successful use of marked-Topical Themes to signal temporality which shows a strong progression. from the beginning of the text in the Orientation: Last year. However. I am happy to be alive and healthy. After six days in hospital I was finally dismissed from the hospital. I learnt a lesson from my sickness that I had to be careful in choosing food. It was boring. Reorientation The next Monday I was able to go to school. It was a good experience and the surgery was amazing.. was able to use idiomatic English and does not make grammatical mistakes. It was boring. Text 3. On the reverse. I am happy to be alive and healthy. Some other expressions are: I was finally dismissed from the hospital. as shown in the previously analysed texts. I learnt a lesson from my sickness that I had to be careful in choosing food. It was a good experience and the surgery was amazing. but I still couldn‟t go to school until I got all my stitches off my stomach. and eat. I stayed at home for another week. having an experience to live in Australia. a feeling.5 has an appropriate schematic structure of a Recount. the surgery. followed by the signals of temporality in the Record of Events. Getting off those stitches hurts a little but my father made it easy by encouraging me. stitches. It was a good experience and the surgery was amazing. Successful use of expressions which show his control of English: I stayed in hospital. Reorientation: The next Monday I was able to go to school. through to the end: at midnight. to be alive. I was finally dismissed from the hospital. after staying at home for one week. The most salient features of the text are: Successful use of simple present and past tenses: A shift from the present tense to past tense at the beginning of the text: My name is Mirza. a lesson. including: Salutation: My name is Mirza Orientation: Last year I suffered from appendicities.5 also shows successful use of linguistic features relevant to a Recount text. the next morning at seven o‟clock. stay in hoispital.for six days. After the doctor took the stitches off my stomach we had dinner at a Sundanese restaurant. watch TV. after six days in hospital. If I didn‟t have the appendectomy 100 . I learnt a lesson that I had to be careful in choosing food. Text 3.. Last year I suffered from appendicities. amazing. from the beginning: At first. a good experience. On Friday afternoon that week after my father came home from work. this student. getting my stitches off my stomach. I am happy to be alive and healthy. my parents took me to the doctor to get my stitches off my stomach. More diversity in vocabulary: ordinary stomach ache.. another week. Record of Events: At first I thought it was an ordinary stomach ache. appendectomy. appendicitis. boring. the next Monday. my stomach was aching. There is a possibility that some schools. neat and clear (see some samples of students‟ handwriting in the Appendices). I have to be careful in choosing food.5. The next morning at seven o‟clock. 2005. The teacher evaluated students‟ writing on the basis of the number lines of the text. On Friday afternoon that week. even for English native speaker is difficult. especially in big cities in Indonesia to have children or students who have an experience kiving in an English speaking country like the writer of Text 3. The surgery took two hours. 24 lines 7 and so forth. Apart from all aspects above. Emilia. The students could spell most of the English words in their text. there are two aspects regarding the mechanics that show the students‟ success in learning English. Other texts written by the writer of Text 3.5. This student. I stayed at home. The first one was the assessment of the students‟ writing. in the expression: The doctor said. a lesson from my sickness. with the writer of Text 3. on the way from Jakarta to Bandung. All students‟ hand writing is eligible. From the description of all texts written by the students in this disgnostic stage. through peer conference. Some long nominal groups at the beginning of a sentence: After six days in hospital. Emilia et al. This is because English is not a phonetic language. 2002. However.straight away. 2008. (although it is not a very reliable measure). particulalrly learning to write. They had a feeling that m. there are two other matters that need to be discussed and then acted upon. The way the word is written is different from the way it is pronounced. The use of verbal processes twice. This is amazing as spelling. Successful use of some nonfinite dependent clauses: After staying at home for one week. The text with 12 lines would get 6. my parents took me toanother doctor. 18 lines 6. This was to some extent good to motivate the students to write more. 2008). I could have been dead.4 and other students categorised as high achievers were then asked to help other students in writing. students writing. Getting off those stitches hurts a little. The first one is to do with spelling. as genre theorists 101 . apart from some limitations above. The teacher and school should make the best use of the presence of this kind of student to help other children in learning English and to share their expreineces in learning English in the mainstream class.y stomach ache wasn‟t just a stomach ache. as the length of the text can be one of the indicators of students‟ proficinecy in writing (Gibbons. The second one is to do with the neatness of the students‟ hand writing. Christie & Derewianka. This is a skill that needs to be mainteined at school as hand writing is also important for the development of students‟ writing ability in the future.5.5 in the theurapeutic stage will not be presented as they show similar characteristics to those of Text 3. thought and decided to act upon all the matters above and therefore below the actions that we would take in the second cycle of the research will be explained. 1992. The teaching of other language skills and assessment. Macken-Horarik. edited by Murray & Wigglesworth. Based on all the matters above. 1994. Gibbons. Strategies to enhance the students‟ learning: The use of bahasa Indonesia in the teaching learning process and provision of feedback to students‟ writing. One strategy to handle a big class. These mistakes. 2004) and the cohesion and coherence of the text (Martin.5. as will be described later. cfocussed on the following aspects: Learning environment: Physical environment. These can include the texture of the text (Fries. This has led to the fact that not all students in the class paid attention to her explanation because they probably did not understand what she said. concerning strategies to enhance students‟ learning. Plans for actions and actions regarding each aspect above will be described below. Schleppegrell. should be evaluated in terms of the schematic structure and the linguistic features relevant to the genre (Feez. a lot of students still made basic grammatical mistakes in their text which suggests their need for more scaffolding in terms of grammar. Finally. are among others can be seen in Text 3. 2002. The implementation of the SFL GBA. Christie. relevant to the data obtained and research questions. Christie. These students seemed to be motivated to learn but they did not seem to have a chance to get theteacher‟s attention as the class was big.1 above.was to make the best use of 102 . Physical environment and availability of printed materials Regarding the big class.suggest. 2005 devoting to the role of L1 in ESL context for adult learners and a book edited by Turnbull & Dailey-O‟Cain. there was nothing that could be done about it as this is one of salient characteristics of Indonesian schools. and a handful students could not even write a sentence. 3. The second aspect was to do with the fact that the teacher used English all the time in the classroom even when she explained about a difficult concept regarding grammar or the model text. 2005). 2002. including the class size and availabilty of printed materials. Christie & Derwianka. This is an issue that has been well researched in the teaching of English (see the discussion of the use of students‟ L1 in ESL contexts. 2008). we discussed. 2002. 2009 also regarding the use of students‟ L1 in different contexts of second and foreign language teaching). 2002. Eggin. 2002.3 Phase 3: Act The actions planned were carried out. 2005.1. 2 below. to the mosque: Ke mesjid untuk hal lain. The teacher and researchers also provided students with expressions that students might need in writing a Recount text in different topics.2 Examples of expressions that can be used in a personal Recount about health Saya sakit minggu lalu: I was sick/ill last week. Luka saya diobati: My injury/wound was treated/cured. to the school: ke sekolah untuk main. These can be seen in Table 3. Dirawat di rumah sakit … : I was in hospital for five days/ I was hospitalized/ I stayed in hospital (Kata hospital jangan pakai “the”. Another matter was to do with the availability of resources for students‟ enrichment. Tifus penyakit yang berbahaya: Typhoid is a very dangerous disease. Ungkapan lain yang ada perbedaan antara pakai the dan tidak adalah: I went to school = ke sekolah untuk belajar. Sakit kepala: I had a headache. Perutku/gigiku sakit: My stomach/tooth was aching. This was done among others by encouraging students and teachers to make the best of the text books the students and the teacher had and to design a poster that could be put around the class as visual aids or reminders. This. The expressions were written in both bahasa Indonesia and English. 103 . Other expressions about health that they could use in writing a personal Recount were also given. Saya terluka/mengalami luka-luka: I was injured/ I was wounded. Saya Luka berat: I was badly injured/seriously injured. as will be alluded to later. to +infinitive). aimed to provide students with help in their learning though the use of their L1 in their foreign language learning (This matter will be further elaborated later in terms of the use of bahasa Indonesia in EFL classroom in Indonesia). students should also be encouraged to use dictionaries in the classroom maximally not only to find out the meanings of certain vocabulary items. kalau pakai the. Table 3. Moreover. Dokter berkata kepada ibu saya bahwa kakak saya harus dirawat: The doctor suggested/said to my mother (told my mother. tapi mungkin karena alasan lain”. Adik saya tidak mau minum obat: My little/ younger brother/sister did not want to take the medicine (Ingat. but also to understand how to use them in their sentences. Kakak saya harus dirawat: My brother must be hospitalized. seperti dalam “I was in the hospital for five days” berarti di rumah sakit bukan karena sakit. Moreover. Tifus: Typhoid: My sister suffered from typhoid: I had typhoid. which turned to be very helful for the students as they used these expressions in their writing and data from the interview with them. Orang tua saya panik: My parents panicked. Must stay in hospital/Had to stay/had to be hospitalized. we also decided to provide students with materials that could be used to help them write a better text. Dokter memeriksa: A doctor / The doctor (Kalau kata dokter sudah disebutkan sebelumnya) examined my mother. I went to mosque= ke mesjid untuk sholat. Kakak saya diobati: My brother had a medical treatment/wasmedically treated.excellent students to help the teacher to provide scaffolding to those who struggled in learning to achieve a better result. Panasnya 40 derajat Celcius: Her temperature was 40 degrees Celcius. Sakit panas: I had a temperature/ a fever. told tidak pakai to) that my brother/sister had to stay in hospital/had to be hospitalized. Orang tua saya khawatir dengan … : My parents were really worried about his illness. Adik saya 7 tahun: My younger brother is/was 7 years old. the students were asked to write expressions that they found in the texts just in case those expressions would be used in their texts. Kakak saya boleh pulang dari rumah sakit: My brother was dismissed from the hospital/ could go home. This aimed to give students an opportunity to enhance their reading and research skills. Some modifications were made in the two stages of the SFL GBA. However. the second teaching cycle. as alluded to earlier. Emilia (2005). it was agreed by the teacher and researchers that activities especially those relevant to the Building Knowledge of the Field and Modelling were repeated. All 104 . The materials can be made by the teacher together with the students or by the students working in groups. Perlahan-lahan adik saya sembuh: Gradually/ step by step my sister recovered from his/her illness. constitutes one of the political dimensions that action research can offer for the development of civic life and the development of the students to be agents of change in their future life (Noffke. there may be a concern among teachers that they spoonfeed the students. These kinds of expressions were also provided in writing other Recount texts about other topics. even for university students are necessary because students must be assisted to learn new vocabulary in a foreign language and how to use it in appropriate contexts. Some posters of different text types can be put in the classroom and these posters can be made by the students in their leisure time or in the extracurricular program. Saya berobat jalan: I became an outpatient/ I had an outpatient treatment. For reasons of time and the fact that there were many topics that should be covered in grade Eight. focused on the enhancement of students‟ understanding of the content and various expressions used in health and the schematic structure and linguistic features of a Recount text. like the English club or in the classroom when students are encouraged to publish the text they construct. which is very important for their success in learning in the future. as will be alluded to later. Emilia et al (2008) found out that these expressions. The implementation of the SFL GBA Regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA. Efforts should be made to create materials that can help students learn more easily and effectively. Adik saya sehat sekarang: My little brother/sister is well now/ feels better now. Saya berharap dia cepat sembuh: I hope he will recover from his illness/ will feel better soon. 2009). 2002). Adik saya dibawa ke rumah sakit dengan ambulans: My brother was brought hospital by an ambulance. So. as will be described later. from the perspective of action research. research skills. Saya berdoa mudah-mudahan dia cepat sembuh: I prayed for him/her that he/she would recover/would feel better/would get better soon. the Joint Construction and Independent Construction on the topic health were skipped (Feez. Masa penyembuhannya tidak lama: the recovery stage was not long/ did not take a long time. Moreover. Regarding the provision of these expressions. regarding the Building Knowledge of the field. the students were encouraged to read different texts about health and instead of writing vocabulary items. First of all. Students‟ own work can also be part of visual aids that can be used in the class to help them learn. SETTING: WHO? WHERE? WHEN? WHEN? WHAT? WHY? 105 . The teaching of grammar was then agreed to be done in any stage. as will be shown in Chapter 4 learn about this from the time they are in the early grades of school. Some grammatical mistakes found in students texts were picked up and given to the students. cited in Takshima & Sugiura. that is at any point when the students needed it. or Joint Construction or Independent Construction. It was also agreed that the students should be made aware that reading is very important to help them understand English and English expressions. Reading English materials in particular.the expressions given above were explained and the teacher and researchers showed the students that when we want to say something in English we cannot just translate word for word. that is Modelling Similarly. which is also relevant to the principles of the SFL GBA. Apart from enriching students‟ mastery of various expressions that can be used in writing a Recount text. 2003). A sample of a Recount plan RECOUNT PLAN TOPIC: 1. These were. After the students clearly understood the expressions they read and the meaning of them. Table 3. grammar is not a body of established knowledge but “a skill that has to be trained” (Larsen-Freeman. This aimed to allow them to learn not to make the same mistakes in the future. in different stages of the SFL GBA. some modifications were also to be made. can help expand the writer‟s knowledge. Students were also given a Recount plan that could be used a guide for them to write. or Modelling. 1992). not only in terms of the content but also in terms of the English (Johnson. Moreover. among others in terms of the provision of the schematic structure of the Recount text. then it was planned that we move on to the next phase. as displayed in Section 3. So. writing development must be viewed from an understanding of the total picture of literacy acquisition (Carson. This plan can lead the students to understand that a Recount has to fulfil a certain caharacteristics and one of these is the schematic structure. the students would learn grammar in context. adapted from the Western Australia Department of Education (1997:61) can be seen below. but we need to think about how an English speaking person would say it. Children in Australia. in the Modelling stage. It was agreed that grammar should be explicitly explained as from the perspective of the teaching of English in a second or foreign language teaching. The Recount plan.3. 2006: 61).2 above. 2001. Grammar can be taught when students read texts in Building Knowledge of the Field. this is also a strategy to allow students to learn grammar in context. because writing goes hand in hand with reading at all stages of development in these contexts. EVENTS IN TIME ORDER Event 1 Event 2 Event 3 Event 4 Event 5 (Source: Education Department of Western Australia. 1997:61). The only thing I wanted to do was to sleep. Then. a model text of a Recount can be given to the students. not because I wanted to. When the plane landed in Athens airport we had to wait an additional 10 hours for another domestic flight to Kos.2. 106 . I had heard good and bad things about it. The trip was long 22 hours and I can remember hoping that it was worth the trouble to get there. Before I knew it I was fast asleep. That was one time that I would liked to be in a place that had no roosters to wake me up. When we got to my father‟s place. Text 3. My First Trip To Greece Orientation (orients the reader to the events that follow) Record (Gives a sequence of events) I didn‟t know what to expect from a country like Greece. I was very tired. but because the roosters were so loud that they wouldn‟t let anyone sleet. We picked our luggage and it took us another half hour to get to the village that my father comes from. It was a bit unfair because I had never seen them before. which is the island my dad comes from. 1994: 104). At the crack of dawn I was awake. It was the most exhasuting day I ever had. Some models below can be used. when the students understood clearly the schematic structure. When we got to Kos all my relatives were waiting for us.5 An example of a Personal Reount (From: Disdvantaged School Program. The text was written by a year 7 student in Australia. Another model of a personal taken from Rothery (1990) can also be used to show students about the schematic structure and linguistic features. I‟m gllad I went. I saw some shops which reminded me of Sydney. when the students should read different texts and understand the concepts. Orientation We flew to Alice Springs and saw all the places of interest. It was 4. This is the case. Moreover. But.pm. Unfortunately in our tent the canvas was ripped where the pole went. the stages of the Joint Construction and Independent Construction should be conducted in more than one meeting as the students should go through a recursive process before they come to a final draft which is neat. It turned out to be a plaque. after all these incidents. These seven weeks went by quickly which proves time does fly when you‟re having fun. It was a hard climb. It began hotter and hotter and it was only about 8. I must admit that Greece is a very beautiful country. This is where my brother was born. 1990:273) Title The Rock Last year I went on an excursion to Ayers Rock with my father‟s school. situated on the coast road of Greece.50 am. The jJoint Construction and Independent Construction cannot thus be used as a test for the students. One thing I forgot to mention is that it was summer in Australia while it was winter in Greece. We left our camp at 6. Then it went up to about fifty degrees. Because of this we had to scavenge around for a can lid to place on the top of the pole. I didn‟t think that Greece was that modern. On the third day we Record of Events had to travel 400 km to Ayers Rock. When we were about at the end of the yellow line we could see what looked like a garbage tin. Reorientation (Returns the reader to the point of departure) I also went to Neapolis. which is a port city. On the way down it began to get hot. The face about 45 degrees at the start. The whole trip lasted seven weeks (almost two months).00 am and arrived about 2. Reorientation/Coda Note: Ayers Rock is a famous site in Central Australia. The city had a pizza bar and many café bars. It was made clear that the SGL GBA can take several weeks. technical words or expressions. Text 3. 2002) and every stage of the teaching cycle can take more than one meeting. When we were about. or even months (Gibbons.00. We began to curse the weather bureau for getting us up an hour early.00 am. the next morning we woke up to take photoes of the sunrise. In Greece not too many shops open during winter because not too many tourists go there.After breakfast we caught the bus to the city. that‟s why most of the places were quiet. 107 . The next morning we climed the rock.6 An example of a Personal Recount (From Rothery. That night we pitched camp. We started at 07. This Building Knowledge of The Field is really important for the students to enable them to write a text in the later stages of the SFL GBA. especially for the Building Knowledge of the Field. they can share their writing with peers or in front of the classroom. group work can still be used (Killen. Regarding the provision of feedback to the students‟ writing. Muijs & Reynolds (2005: 64) suggest that scaffolding does not have to come from the teacher. the teacher may need to help them 108 . as a longer text may not necessarily be better than a shorter one (Eggins. especially the one that only excelling students should be given tasks to help scaffold their peers. There is a possibility that a group is not functioning cooperatively and in this case. Muijs & Reynolds further argue. The teaching of other language skills and assessment The teaching of other language skills was agreed to be done in every stage of the SFL GBA. listening as well as speaking and writing ability. Moreover. students should be informed that “the quality of their writing is ditermined by how well it helps them to understand. regarding assessment of the students‟ work. in a room with fixed seating arrangement like that common in Indonesian classes. However. 2007:297). regarding this. listening and speaking ability as discussion on the text can be involed in the text in which each student should be encouraged to participate. as suggested by Murray &Wigglesworth (2005) and Macaro (2009). the teacher could use bahasa Indonesia to help students‟ understand what was being explained about. when they have finished their writing. as described in Chapter 1 were discussed. to follow the suggestion of the theorists of the SFL GBA. it was agreed that the students‟ work. The Building Knowledge of the Field can be used to enhance students‟ reading. Students. 2007:177). Some of benefits of the use of L1. 2007). This made the teacher aware that despite a prevalent belief among English teachers in “English only” classroom. can effectively scaffold each other‟s learning in a small group task. not by its length only” (Killen. particulalry in her contexts. should be asseseed from two main aspects: the schematic structure and linguistic features. like the Joint Construction of the text. Moreover Modelling can be used to promote students‟ reading. Finally. The use of bahasa Indonesia in the teaching learning process and provision of feedback to students’ writing Regarding the use of bahasa Indonesia. the use of bahasa Indonesia could be very helpful for her students especially for those who struggled. This is because group work can sometimes be problematic (Killen. 1994). This is when students can develop their writing as well as speaking skills. Regarding this. The Joint Construction and Independent Construction are the stages when students can maximally develop their reading and writing ability. Assessment should not be based on the length of the text only. It was agreed that although the length of a text can be an indicator of students‟ development. the teacher was informed about the benefits of using bahasa Indonesia in EFL classrooms. Moreover. attention should be paid to some aspects. Killen suggests that the students can be asked to discuss issues or questions with a partner or to ask alternate rows to turn around and face the learners behind them and so they can work in groups of four. It was then agreed that when explaining concepts or difficult aspects of grammar. It was agreed that some excellent students who had a good mastery of English were asked to help the teacher to proofread their classmates‟ texts. as observed by the theorists. especially to do with the topic of health. 2005:53). and what still needed some improvement or more work) . For example.2 Phase 2: Think From data obtained in the Look stage. 3. These are among others to do with: The teaching cycle. that is Think. to gain a lot of improvement in terms of English and writing as well as speaking skills. 3. all stages of the first cycle were repeated. has led the students. even those who used to be considered at risk students. All evidence obtained in this phase was then analysed in the next phase of the teaching cycle.6. Therefore. including Look. 3. 109 . whether some modifications and the teaching learning processes had improved. to follow the curriculum and the suggestion from the teacher was to do with vacation.6. as will be shown later. then the program moved on to the second cycle. the subsequent discussion will delineate activities in the second cycle of the program.1 Look In this phase. Think and Act. As the students had had a relatively good control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of the Recount text. 2007. Each phase will be discussed below.Theurapeutic Stage: Teaching cycle 2 In this stage. that will be presented subsequently.understand the dynamics of the group and focus their attention on the assigned task (Killen. there were several matters that needed to be discussed and analysed. that is Building Knowledge of the Field and Modelling of Recount text. and a number of preconditions have to be met beforehand in order for it to be effective.” The teacher became aware of possible helps and assistance that she could get from her students in providing feedback or help to their peers. Effective small group work does require a significant amount of preparation.g. This stage still focused on the written cycle of the curriculum. students must be able to cooperate with one another and to provide each other with help in a constructive way (Muijs & Reynold. see also Muijs & Reynold. the teaching cycle of the GBA covered only two stages: Building Knowledge of the Field and Independent Construction.6. This also changed the teacher‟s previous belief that “consultation with the students in a big class like the one in this study is impossible. The implementation of the SFL GBA. the researchers just looked at what happened in the classroom (e. The topic that was discussed in this stage. This strategy could help the teacher manage her time to give feedback to students who really needed it. 2005: 53). in which all phases gone through in the first cycle were also applied. This strategy. This phase involved observation of two stages of the SFL GBA. When the first cycle was finished. Jadi sekarang agak-agak ngerti. They can be learned and written in the text that we write. This was stated by Argya. for example. because those expressions were also given in bahasa Indonesia. we probably woud not understand them (Andellia) Another student. like Sinta (Psedonym) stated: Ekspresi-ekspresi itu sangat bermanfaat. In those expressions there is also a note that it is past tense and how to use them (Sinta) All students‟ comments above were supported by Candra who explained: Ekspresi-ekspresi itu sangat penting. Andellia (Psudonym). mam (Candra) Moreover. Bisa dipelajari dan ditulis dalam teks yang ditulis. I did not understand why the answer was like that. karena ada bahasa Indonesianya. for example. If we do so. we find it easier to understand them. it will be difficult for people to understand the sentences that we make. Selain itu. Results of observation in the class indicate that the expressions given to the students were really useful and this can be seen that the students consulted the expressions when they wanted to say something in the class related to the topic. Now I understand a bit. Nanti pemberian ekspresinya lebih banyak lagi ya bu (Candra). Kalau tidak ada bahasa Indonesianya juga mungkin tidak akan mengerti juga mengenai ekspresi-ekspresi itu (Andellia). excellent students were asked to proofread and to give assistance to their classmates. Some students even tried to memorise the expressions as they wanted to say them in speaking. we would find it really difficult to write. If there were not bahasa Indonesia expressions. What helped me a lot was those expressions. Di ekspresi itu juga ada keterangan lampau. because if they could be used when we tell about our experience. In the past. terus bagaimana menggunakannya (Sinta). please give us much kore expressions. one student also considered that the provision of those expressions in both bahasa Indonesia and English gave him an idea. lebih mudah dimengertinya. The provision of expressions appropriate for dealing with the topic. Moreover. Dulu saya tidak mengerti mengapa jawabannya kaya gitu. Later. Kalau ngga dikasih ekspresi susah sekali.” Argya further commented: 110 . a high achiever.Again in the Independent Construction. as saying that those expressions had made him aware that in writing in English “We cannot just translate words from bahasa Indonesia. Those expressions were really useful. soalnya bisa kita pake kalau menceritakan pengalam. If we were not given those expressions. sekarang ngerti. but now I understand. Those expressions are really useful. said as follows: Yang membantu sekali ekspresi-ekspresi itu. Saya mau belajar banyak lagi tentang ekspresi-ekspresi. not only in writing. The text is a Description. Finally. one text from a text book was read and discussed in the classroom. data collected also made the teacher aware of the necessity of the provision of the expressions as the students tried to use them and to memorise them to help them learn English better. This also follows the suggestion from genre theorists that in Building 111 . made the students understand those expressions and this made them feel confident in using them in both writing and speaking. The texts can be from the internet. Moreover. 3. from the book written by Kusmana and Harris (2005). not restricted to the focal text students are going to write. Information from interviews with students shows that those expressions helped them develop their English ability. only two stages were implemented. the provision of feedback to the students. or any authentic materials regarding vacation. but also in speaking. My grammar is better than last semester dengan adanya ekspresi-ekspresi itu (Argy). In this study. This kind of text can be appropriate for students to write a Recount about holiday. Each stage will be discussed below. students were encouraged to read different texts on vacation or recreation. as will be shown in the discussion of the third teaching cycle below. because it has expressions and vocabulary items that can be used by the students in writing a Recount text about vacation. and as agreed before. relevant to the aim of the stage. the students found that the teacher‟s explanation in both bahasa Indonesia and English was more understandable to them. My grammar is better than last semester because of those expressions (Argya).6. The topic was about vacation.6. the newspaper. It should be noted that text types students read in this stage can vary. that is Building Knowledge of the Field and Independent Construction. based on the analysis in this stage. written in the mode of a letter. as well as a relatively a good control of writing a Recount text.3 Phase 3: Act This phase.3. the provision of expressions was really useful. Moreover. actions taken were among others as follows: First of all the SFL GBA was implemented. I want to learn more about expressions.1 Building knowledge of the field In this stage. 3. So. as planned. Regarding the use of bahasa Indonesia in the teaching learning process. the fact that the expressions given in two languages. with the help of some excelling students had helped the teacher manage to give more assistance and to pay more attention to those who really struggled to gain an understanding of English. as revealed in the students‟ verbalisations above. The questions are as follows: Where are Linda and her family staying? How is the scene? What is there in front of the house? Are there many people on the beach? What is a couple doing? What does Linda hope tomorrow? 112 . which I hope to climb tomorrow. can be seen below. On my right there is a hill. We are staying in a small house only a few yards from the beach. and a few small trees. We are having a aholiday at Panajung Bay. I can see a couple sunbathing nearby while their children are playing quietly behind them. can also be relevant to the topic about vacation. travelling. a atbel. The sea is very calm today and a few yachts are visible a long distance from the shore. I went swimming earlier this morning. An example of text about vacation that can be used in Building Knowledge of the Field. Fortunately there are only a few people on the beach.Knowledge of the Field the texts used can vary and are not necessarily in the focal text. A few people are swimming in the sea. as formulated by Kusmana & Harris (2005:143-144). I can see a footpath leading up to it. It is so relaxing to sit here and gaze at the view. The text. going to other places as presented in the book by Kusmana and Harris and other texbooks. as the writer may talk about the season of the visited place. especially when they visit a tourist site in other countries which have four seasons. and a woman is watching a man diving from a small raft in the middle of the bay. Then the students were asked to answer questions related to the letter. Love. and this afternoon we are going to hire a yacht for a few hours. The scene through the window of the lounge is very beautiful and peaceful. Just beyond the yard are miles of golden sand. about the place. and so there isn‟t much noise. and so it should be quite safe. I wish you were here. and about the travelling itself. In front of the house there is a yard with some chairs. such as seasons. as written by Kusmana and Harris. 2005: 143) Dear Senny. (From Kusmana and Harris. Linda It should be noted here that some texts about other topics as suggested by the curriculum. in this program. like the program developed for tertiary students. We took the bus there. I did … on my last holiday. that the answer to all the questions above are available in the text. We went to the station by … We gave our ticket to a ticketing officer. as described in Chapter 2 can be relevant to this level. We went by ferry. students‟ reading capacity was not well elaborated and as well developed as that at the tertiary level and this should become one of the foci in future research. students can also be asked some questions that can lead to the development of critical thinking and critical literacy. I need a passport to travel to another country. I went shopping. they are not encouraged to think critically about the information given in the text. They took a ferry past the island… We went to the airport by train. I had never been to … before. The expressions were as listed below: My family and I went to a shopping centre. We flew to Padang. I went on a picnic I visited …. We saw the pilot of our plane. I rode my bicycle in the garden. I was excited We took a plane to Jakarta. We drove there in our car. I saw the birds at the park. in that the students are not encouraged to relate the text to other texts that the students might have read. I went camping. a … . to their life or experience and to the world. is not timeless and relative. My family went camping at the beach. taken up in Chapters 1 and 2. What is a woman watching a man doing? What are Linda and her family going to do in this afternoon? Regarding the questions above. I carried my clothes in my suitcase. It was fun. 113 . Students were again given expressions about vacation that they could use in writing a Recount text about a vacation or recreation. We liked the shops. A text represents a certain groups of people and values. When reading this text. If students are asked only such questions. one matter to do with critical literacy needs a brief mention. In the zoo. Some questions used at the tertiary level. We had a great time. Students should be made aware that text is a social construct. a rabbit. I petted a monkey. We went to Ayer Island in Jakarta. Dad drove a car into the country (ayah menyetir mobil di daerah pedesaan) We walked over some hills (kami berjalan menyusuri bukit) It was windy on the hilltops (Di puncak bukit angina bertiup). However. Then we walked a long the beach. When the plane flew up in the sky. I went to the beach. That is. I went swimming. as suggested by critical literacy. a third grader of a bilingual school in Bandung. We bought food and toys. such as a postcard and a diary to enhance students‟ understanding of a Recount text and to enrich expressions that they could use in their writing. We ate a picnic lunch. Victioria. We bought food for our lunch at school. I think he is great. Australia 3014 A POST CARD (Written by Ajmi. We went skating. Apart from this. Najmi. We went shopping yesterday. So far. Other vocabulary items were also given. really. I flew to Yogyakarta in an aeroplane to visit my grandmother. Komplek Setiabudhi Reegency Jalan Lapis Lazuli C157B Bandung. I went to a 114 . Indonesia See you soon From. A DIARY (Adapted from Ling & Smith. We saw Harry Potter. such as Pilot. These texts will be presented below: A POST CARD (Adapted from Ling & Smith. 2006a:9) Friday 15th January 2007 It is the school holidays this week. On Wednesday. S. It was fun. My favourit character is Harry. suitcase. Grandma and I went to the zoo. 2006b:69) 31st May 2006 Dear Tom. I have done lots of things. 2007 Dear Astri. We had a lot of fun. tickets. Joey Joey Brown 15 De Carle Street Bunswick. Today I went shopping to Hypermart. I met Rina at he park. Indonesia) 16th June. On Thursday morning. students were also provided with a variety of personal Recount texts in different modes. passport. In the evening. In the afternoon we went for a “Stories and Craft” session at the library. camera. trolley. It was great fun! From. On Monday morning. I went to the movie with my cousins. Mum and I went shopping for my new school shoes.M. I used a camera to take photographs. On Tuesday afternoon. Text 3. which was conducted in one sitting. written by the same writers as those in the diagnostic stage are Text 3.m-7 p. 22 January 2007 Yesterday we went to Pangandaran. 3. Sunday we went back to Bandung by car. that is Independent Construction when students wrote independently. Mum brought a picnic lunch for us.2 above.) and 3. in which they were given time to draft. we drove to the beach.3. we then moved on the next stage of the written cycle of the curriculum and the SFL GBA. I was born of January 30th 1994. From the schematic structure Text 3.m. Into Space. Then.4). we played on the wet sand.2). However. These texts will be displayed below. These texts may be more relevant to students in lower grade in primary schools discussed in Chapter 4.10 (by the writer of Text 3.2. The texts produced in this phase.8 shows a lot of improvement in both schematic structure and linguistic features. This phase will be discussed below. Text 3. 3. my name is Arina Ayu. these texts can be very useful to give the students a model of a personal Recount and some expressions to enrich their linguistic capacity. to consult with the teacher and peer and to proofread their text.Brownies meeting from 5. On the following day. Text 3. A DIARY (Adapted from Ling & Smith. Compared with Text 3.8 was written by the writer of Text 3. So. My nick name is Arin. We drank lots of water and we swam in the sea to keep cool. just for enrichment. Oh no! I have not done my Maths and English homework. An example of Recount text written in theurapeutic stage Salutation Helllo. and based on the agreement between the teacher and students.2 Independent construction Different from the independent construction in the diagnostic stage. 2006b:) Friday. After several hours in the beach we went to the hotel to stay overnight there. All the texts above are very simple for native language contexts. It was very hot on the sand too. It was very hot there. to revise. and the students were ready to write. I will need to do that tomorrow. After that I can play with my new computer game.9 (by the writer of Text 3. After lunch dad lied down and he went to sleep.6.11 was written by a student who did not seem to be able to write even one single sentence and to be willing to write at all in the diagnostic stage. When the students had had a relatively strong background knowledge about vacation or recreation.8 (by the writer of Text 3.30 p. 115 . in this stage the students wrote their texts in three meetings. We sat under a beach umbrella to eat it.3.8. I live in Bandung in Antapani Street number 22. . I was excited to look there are. We would go there on Saturday.). Reorientation (and Comments) At twelve o’clock all my family back to hotel in Pangandaran.. This element is Salutation: Hello. We decided went back to Bandung because on Monday morning I must go to school. like other texts that will be discussed below. At twelve o’clock we were in Pangandaran then we were lunch together in restaurant at Pangandaran. but is common in Indonesian ones. We were lunch togethre in restaurant. (I played. Text 3. After the sun shine I play in the sea side to take a little fish. which is not common in Australian Recount texts.Orientation Record of events Last school holiday I decided to spend my holiday in Pangandaran I went to Pangandaran with my family. ). We decided went back to hotel .. 116 . We stayed in Mustika Ratu hotel near the beach. (I was excited to see there were . The scenary was very beautiful. ). I was very exited to look there are so many fishermen in the sea.... has one element. written in three paragraphs: Starting from I went to Pangandaran with my family … through to We decided to go back to Bandung because on Monday morning I must go to school.8 still has grammatical mistakes.(We decided to go back to the hotel). We left from Bandung at six o‟clock. However. as mentioned above. After the sun shine. Some mistakes were seemingly due to her lack of understanding of Engliah grammar or her being careless of what she wrote.. I very enjoyed with my vacation (I enjoyed my vacation very much).. I bought some souvenir and accessories not so expensive. with the correction in brackets. I very enjoyed with my vacation in Pangandaran Note: The underlined are inappropriate grammar or expressions. (After the sun shone. The weather in pangandaran not so cold.). Text 3.8 has the obligatory elemens of a Recount text as suggested by genre theorists above.). Reorientation and Comments: I very enjoyed with my vacation in Pangandaran.. The weather in Pangandaran not so cold … (The weather in Pangandaran was not so cold)...... These mistakes.. which suggests that the writer still needed more explicit teaching about grammar and more consultation to make her text better and successful....8. Early in the morning we had been ready to see sunshine together with people near the beach. Record of events. In terms of linguistic features. are among others: We go went… ( We went . The verb “decided” should be followed by a “to infinitive” and the English article “the” should be used to refer to the hotel mentioned before in the text). Other obligatory elements of a Recount are listed below: Orientation: Last holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Pangandaran. I play. (We had lunch together in a restaurant. Text 3. We would go to Pangandaran by car. my name is Alinda Ayu….. we. The writer uses the present tense in the Salutation to introduce herself: Hello. including subject verb agreement. Some of the Themes are unmarked. my name is Alinda Ayu. 1994. as in: We decided to spend my holiday …. This needs a more comprehesive discussion than this study provided.All these mistakes were to some extent due to the influence of the writer‟s first language. as in the following examples: A zig-zag pattern: Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Pangandaran. based on the writer‟s observation in Australian classes. Moreover. We stayed in Mustika ratu. one of which will be described in Chapter 4. I live in Bandung and then shifts to the past tense when she describes about herself but related to the past event: I was born …. and others as exempliefied above.8 shows improvement of linguistic features in several aspects. I went to Pangandaran with my family. A reiteration pattern can be seen in the following example: 117 . such as Theme reiteration and zig-zag patterns were also used. such as “The sun”. the writer still made some spelling mistakes. the writer still needed more explicit teaching about the use of English articles. The choice of Theme relevant to the topic and character. although it is clear that the student can be helped to overcome this problem in time. such as: then. A better understanding and more successful use of tenses. My nickname is Alin. A better control of past tense can also be seen in the Record of Events stage. such as I. Although in general the spelling was quite good. in general. which should have be written than. including: A better understanding of English sentence structure. At twelve o‟clock we were in Pangandaran…. such as: The scenery was very beautiful. Text 3. However. Moreover. Successful use of some adjectives to describe some aspects that the writer saw. even for native speakers. The text also shows some inappropriate uses of some prepositions: I was born of january the 30th. Some Theme progressions. These are not surprising because these aspects are difficult to grasp. as in: I bought some souvenirs and accessories not so expensive. indicating time: At twelve o‟clock we wre… in Pangandaran … Last school holiday … . I was very happy because I could meet my grandmother. I bought a new camera to take pictures during the vacation. We walked around there. We left home early in the morning to avoid traffic jam. I saw many beautiful flowers there. Text 3. Text 3. starting from I went o Yogyakarta with my family … through to the last sentence of the penultimate paragraph. I was born in Bandung.9. Sumbing mountain is 118 . We went to Yogyakarta by car. The return trip took nine hours. I am fourteen years old. The view from the peak of Borobudur temple was very beautiful. Although the text still does not employ conjunctions to connect one activity with anoher. written in different paragraphs. Record of Events: Chronologically sequenced.m. which suggests that the writer had become more procicient in writing a personal Recount and had more linguistic resources to do so.9 is much longer than Text 3. The wind was blew very strong. Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Yogyakarta at my grandmother‟s house. The next day in the morning my sister and I went to ricefield. (Comments: I was very happy and enjoyed this vacation). Text 3.m.2. I am a student of a Junior High School in Bandung. consultattion with the teacher. Iam fourteen years old. This suggests that the time for writing that she had..8 is in general easier to understand than Text 3. Borobudur temple is very huge temple. I went o Yogyakarta with my family.We would go to Pangandaran by car. Text 3. feedback that she gained from both her classmates and the teacher as well as expressions given by the teacher regarding vacation. We could see Sumbing Mountain from the peak. We left home at about 4 a.9. also shows a lot of improvement in terms of control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of a Recount text. has obligatory elements of a personal Recount as mentioned above. My father drove the car there. we went back to Bandung. The obligatory elements that the text has are: Salutation: My name is Karina.3. In the evening my family and I visited Borobudur Temple. Another text (Text 3. it is different with the air in the city. An example of Recount text written in the theurapeutic stage Salutation Orientation Record of Evenets My name is Arina Widyawati. From the length of the text. that is: I bought many souvenisrs for friends and family in Bandung. We went there on Saturday. We arrived at Yogyakarta at about 2 p.9 below). Orientation: Last school holiday I decided to spend my holiday in Yogyakarta at my grandmother‟s house. had helped her to write a better text. After that I rode a bycicle around the country. Reorientation (and Comments): After five days we stayed in Yogyakarta. In terms of the schematic structure. written by the same writer. The air was very cold. written by a student that the researcher and the teacher considered as a mid achiever. Early in the morning we had been ready to go. The return trip took nine hours. I bought some souvenir there. The air was very cold. My sister and I went to rice field … We walked around there … Diversity in lexical choices: The view was unique. 119 . The air was very cold. we went back to Bandung. We looked culture art of java. so. We walked along the beach. Given the nature of the topic and the text genre. After that we visited families at Yogyakarta. Theme choices are relevant to the topic and characters described in the text. I bought many souvenirs for friends and family in Bandung.9 shows more diversity of linguistic resources that help the text to be successful. I was very happy and enjoyed this vacation. Examples can be seen below: Last school holiday I decided to spend my vacation in Yogyakarta. It is differenmt from the air in the city.near Borobdur temple. The next day we visited Malioboro. 200 years ago this place was marsh. My sister and I tried to make sand castle. The price was very expensive. One marked Theme is realised in a temporal clause: After five days we stayed in Yogyakarta we went back to Bandung. After that we visited parangtritis beach. The next day we visited Yogyakarta palace. In the evening my family and I visited Borobudur. I went swimming there. We walked along the cave. I tried to bargain with him. Yogyakarta Palace is in the centre of the city. The next day in the morning my sister and I went to rcefield. Theme choices. Reorientation The next day we visited Cerme Cave in Bantul. The next day we visited Yogyakarta Palace. In terms of the linguistic features. After five days we stayed in Yogyakarta. One aspect of interest regarding Text 3. Good use of Reference. We camped overnight there. We were very happy because long time we didn‟t meet with families in Yogyakarta. The view was unique and interested with the river water was cold and purity to reach I meter.8. These are listed below. I could take many pictures there. The view was very beautiful. Text 3. it is not surprising to find personal pronouns such as: I: (I bought a new camera to take pictures). After that we visited “Kota wisata Kaliurang”. We: (We left home early in the morning). which according to Christie & Derewianka (2008:95) suggests the writer‟s enhanced ability in writing a Recount genre is the use of a much stronger progression through time with Circumstances as marked Theme. 4 shows improvement in the writer‟s ability in writing a Recount texts. The text still has some lapses in English sentence structure and vocabulary. is not easy to grasp. It is possible the students meant The view was unique and interesting. and from only 1 meter away the river appeared cold and pure. the sentence has a non-finite dependent clause (being cold and pure) and this type of dependent clause. Frequent use of evaluative statements to comment on activities conducted. written in the second cycle of the research was written by a student.The purity of water … We camp overnight there. and the writer of Text 3. Therefore. Another text. It should be: Borobudr temple is a huge temple. categoriesd as a high achiever. This is a difficult idea to express. Then she shifted to the past tense when describing all activities done during her vacation. as in: I was very happy because I could meet my grandmother. as in: The view was unique and interested with the river water was cold and purity to reah one meter. Moreover. We were very happy because long time we didn‟t meet with families in Yogyakarta. even for university students. further study can be done to address strategies to make the students learn English sentence structure faster and more effectively.10. We looked (at) cultural arts… We left home early in the morning to avoid traffic jam. Text 3. All these also suggest that the mastery of English structure is developing. This can be seen especially in terms of the schematic structure of the text.10.4 previously discussed. Moreover. We tried to bargain with him. Text 3. The schematic structure can be described below: 120 . In such a short time there must be many aspects that cannot be resolved in this study. The use of adjectives such as interesting and interested is not easy for EFL learners. Text 3.10 was written in several paragraps with each paragraph helping the text to fullfil its purpose. compared with Text 3. This sentence is confusing. such as in Borobudur temple is huge temple. Good control of tense in that the writer could syccessfully use the presesnt tense in the Salutation when she introduced herself. Some capacity to expand nominal groups to express information: The view from the peak of the Borobudur Temple. the writer still also nneded some help in using English articles. Mardul. The doctor took Totty to the hospital in Italy. I was born in Bandung. Now I want to tell you about the story of my vacation. Totti was sick. People in Italy loved football. I liked him. In Italy football match is very popular. I was happy because I had a great vacation in Italy. Orientation Last year my family and I went to Italy. I was happy to see my brother again. My brother and I visited my brother‟s friend house. my name is Muhhamad Argya. He lived in Italy with his girl friend. 121 . Colosseum is a very old building. I liked Roma because my favourite football player played in Roma. Salutation: Hi. My nickname is Irfan. After that the doctor said “Totty is fine”. In Italy I saw many people riding vespa. Text 3. His girlfriend‟s name is Maria Sharapova. My brother was very worried. He came here for holiday too. After that my family and I went to my brother‟s house. my name is Muhammad Irfan Argya… Orientation: Now I want to tell you about the story of may vacation.10 An example of personal Recount texts written in the theurapeutic stage Hello. I saw a footbal l match: Roma versus InterMilan. Roma won 3-0. In Italy I saw my friend. I was very happy. In Italy I saw many people wearing jackets. In Italy. Text 3. I wanted to wear jacket too. 1 September 1993. His name is Totti. My family and I visisted Coloseum. I ate pizza and and spaghetty. In Italy I bought a new jacket. My brother‟s name is Fabco Cannavaro. Afyter that my family and I visited Pizza tower. My brother called a doctor. I was hapy because I could visit many historical buildings in Italy. Record of Events: Starting from Last year my family and I went to Italy…through to I said goodbgye to my brother and his girl friend.10 is displayed below. I am thirteen years old. I said goodbye to my brother and his grirlfriend. I loved football too. My family and I would visit my Record of Events brother. She is rich. Reorientation: I was happy because I had a great vacation in Italy. Reorientation After that my brother and I went to my brother‟s house. I saw many people playing football together. Salutation In Italy. The doctor examined Totty‟s body. My brother is a footbal player in Real madrid. I was happy because I could eat many delicious foods in Italy. After that my brother and I said goodbye to Totty because I wanted to see a football match in Roma. I study at an SMP in Bandung. My family and I visited a restaurant in Italy. My family and I would go home this day. They were delicious. In my brother’s house my brother and I played football together. In Roma. They wore jacket because the weather was cold. This linguistic feature is not apparent in other texts. I saw many people riding vespa. My favourite footbal player is …. I saw many people. I wanted to see a footbal match. as shown above the students generally still struggle in using English articles because English articles are hard. Diversity in lexical choices: In Italy football match is very popular. In Text 3. Successful use of complex sentences with dependent clauses being non-finite.8. In Italy I saw many people playing football. One linguistic feature that does not appear in other texts examined in this study is the use of dialogue and direct speaach in the texts written by the writer. by using one of the elements in the Rheme in the last clause of the previous paragraph as a marked Theme in the first clause of the following paragraph. In my brother‟s house… I wanted to see a football match in Roma In Roma I saw … 122 . The doctor examined Totty‟s body. In each dialogue the writer successfully employed the present tense. Successful use of the past tense. this apperas once in: The doctor said: ”Totti is fine”. even for university students. Frequently successful use of articles. Frequent use of causal conjunctions. My family and I went to my brother‟s house. My brother called a doctor. I bought a new jacket. I ate pizza. as in In Italy I saw many people wearing jackets. Colossum is a very old building. such as : because: I was happy because I could eat many delicious foods. A clear connection between events recorded in the previous paragraph to the next. This type of nonfinite relative clause is difficult for EFL learners. The use of dialogue heps to make the text more lively and interesting. This can be seen in the use of Circumstances of place in the following examples. I saw a footbal match: Roma versus Intermilan. involving irregular verbs expressing processes. Use of some modalities. I had a great vacation in Italy. People in Italy loved football. as in: They wore jacket. as in : In Italy. such as modality of ability: I could eat many delicious foods. Roma won 3-0. They wore jacket because the weather was cold. . but because the taste is very bad. 123 . An example of a personal Recount written in the theurapeutic stage Hello. like other texts written in the theurapeutic stage. This text is presented as the writer made great efforts to write the text.11 will be displayed below. We went to Bandung by train. My favourite player is …. We arrived at twelve o‟clock then we go to my uncle‟s home at Cendrawasih Street . Orientation I will tell you about my vacation to Jakarta. Some topical Themes realising temporality are also used to connect one activity with another. then we went home. I was very happy. In Jakarta we are three days in there. The text. my mother and my sister went to zoo. Text 3. my name is Andika. My nickname is Andi. Text 3. has obligatory elements of a personal Reount. After played volley ball we went to sea and we swum. I bought an icecream. Salutation Text 3.11 was written by a student categorised as a low achiever. We decided to spend our vacation to Jakarta because my unclu live at Jakarta. We go to jakarta by train. Evaluative comments on events described. I gave it to my brother. The first day we went to Ancol beach. I am thirteen years old. We went to Gambir. I live at Karang Asem Street No 15. We was very happy. My father. then we went home. I bought a comics. He did not seem to have ever written a coherent text before. After swum we maked a castle from sand. After three hours we arrived in Bandung. Record of events Last school holiday my family and I went to jakarta. after that. Reorientation: After three hours we arrived in Bandung. I live at Karang Asem Street No 15. I am thirteen years old. Reorientation Next day I must went to Bandung. The second day we went to Senayan Plaza. At the train I read a comics. Orientation: I will tell you about my vacation to Jakarta. Record of Events: Starting from Last school holiday my family and I went to Jakarta through to At the train I read a comics. … The last text observed in this chapter.11. I quueud up to play jet coaster. Football is popular in Italy … . as in : I liked Roma because … . These are: Salutation: Hello. Then he like it. My nickname is Andi. such as: Last year …. We queued up to bought tickets. We played volley ball. That‟s very fun. We queued up to bought tickets. my name is Andika. The third day I and my brother went to DUFAN. An emerging control of the past tense: We went to Jakarta. Of particular interest is the presence of a multiple Theme development which indicates the writer‟s capacity to create a more coherent and more writerly text. I). because his mastery of English grammar was not sufficient. or “Derived Theme” (Fries. we are three days. This can be seen below. Most of the sentences could be understood. realised in Circumstances of Location time as marked Theme help create a strong Thematic progression. In Jakarta we are three days. The second day we went to Senayan The third day I and my brother went to DUFAN… The multiple-Theme pattern” (Eggins. the text also shows some positive aspects in terms of the linguistic features of a Recunt genre. Some Theme choices. 1995: 321) above indicates that the method of development of this text is clearly “planned” and thus shows the writer‟s investigation strategy conducted prior to the writing activity. We played volleyball. Theme choices. such as in “I must went to Bandung. he did not seem to be aware that the modal verb “must” and “to” which does not function as a preposition should be followed by an infinitive. The first day we went to Ancol beach. This needs more comprehensive examination than this stuy could. 1981). These are realised in: Last school holiday we went to Jakarta In Jakarta. I bought a comics. However. Some mistakes were still made. (McPeck. The positive aspects are among others as follows: A relatively good undestanding of English sentence structure. We queued up to bought tickets”. I bought an icecream. Planning and research also constitute important processes which can enhance sttudents‟ metacognition (Marzano et al. which are relevant to the nature of the text and the characters involved in the text (We. I gave it to my brother. This is one characteristic of a critical thinker. 1988). These mistakes were actually made because the writer was to some extent aware of the use of the past tense in describing past events. 124 . The writer seemed to understand the subject-verb agreement in English.Apart from the schematic structure above. etc. despite some other aspects that need to be improved. 1994). as in My brother and I went to DUFAN. in employment. The use of causal conjunctions. 2001) and empowerment (MackenHorarik. therefore. economic and cultural benefits has much to do with command of the highest level of literacy skills. as shown in the development of students‟ writing ability above. 3. it can be seen that all students. These goals. This has led to the fact that at the end of the teaching program students had a relatively similar understanding and control of a Recount text. second and third). p. 2002: 44-45). but because the taste is very bad. provision of printed materials. This suggests that explicit teaching. the activities in this stage will be described in three stages: Look. fairer. in the community (Derewianka.7 Theurapeutic Stage: Teaching cycle 3 As in the second cycle.Text 3. again are consistent with the contemporary demand of the application of CP in Indonesia. and feedback to students‟ writing and the teaching of writing as a process all could help students write a bettr text. Pennycook. 1993b.10 had also started to employ enumerations (three. I bought an icecream. This helps the text move forward and globally coherent. always been that of access on the assumption that full access to. If one assumes that access to social.7. can empower students as their writing ability can help them succeed in schooling. The group that seems to gain most improvement was that categorised as involving low and mid achievers. especially reading and writing. therefore. These are listening and 125 . There are two other language skills which have not been considered and paid much attention in this study. The SFL genre pedagogy. one of textual strategies which work at the global level.1 Look The second cycle of the action research focused on the development of students witten language skills. 142. from low up to high achievers gained improvement in this study in different aspects of writing a Recount text. 2002). The fundamental political aim has. This is to some extent relevant to the aim of the SFL GBA. then a quite revolutionary program might be built on the attempt to give everyone access to literacy skills and knowledge in the fullest sense. which is expected to empower students to become agents in the current Indonesian society. I gave it to my brother. 1993: 28-29). the genre pedagogy has also been called pedagogy for inclusion and access (Cope and Kalantzis. such as: because: We decided to spend our vacation to Jakarta because my uncle live in Jakarta. first. a pedagogical project motivated by the political project of allowing greater. From the discussion on the students‟ development above. 3. possibly equal access to the cultural and social resources and benefits of this kind of society. and control of. Think and Act. literacy is essential to full participation in all aspects of social life (Kress. 2003. genre work has been both a pedagogical and a political project. as mentioned by Kress (1993: 28-29) below: From the beginning. Based on the aims above. Macken-Horarik. as can be seen in Picture 3. Picture 3. Inviting the native speaker to do a monologue about his vacation and this was videotaped to enable students to listen to the monologue in the language labiratory. although it will provide only a very brief account of what was involved. which to some extent may be difficult for many EFL students because they are not used to. Practising listening in the language laboratory.speaking. This aimed to encourage students to speak and to listen to the English of a native speaker. 126 . The third cycle will be discussed below.7. The teaching of listening in a language laboratory Interviewing students individually to allow the speak about their holiday and to assess their speaking ability. Theferore in the third cycle of the research we focused on the spoken cycle of the curriculum of English in Indonesia. the researchers and the teacher considered several activities below: Inviting a native speaker from the Australian Defence Force who was studying bahasa Indonesia at the Indonesia University of Education to come to the class to talk to them about vacation that he had done in Indonesia and in other places.2 below.2 Think In this stage. 3.2. asking questions to him about his vacation. held at the end of the program. He also seemed to enjoy the interview as he was so confident in what he was saying. I some times go there wth my father. but the others seemed to find it difficult to understand what was listed to.” S: “ My name is Chandra (pseudonym) …. This was probably because they were not used to listening to a native speaker and working in the lab. as he could speak and write now.” T: “What did you do in your last school holiday?” S: “I went to Gresik. For reasons of time. Assessment of listening and speaking was conducted in an individual interview. Morgan & Fleener. 2006:34). some students could catch what they listened to... mother and brother and with my big family in Jakarta.7. All these coincide with the belief upheld in this study that “At risk students can be taught to perform successfully at demanding academic level” (Richardson. When practising listening in the laboratory. the fact that he answers the last 127 . Most students seemed to have improvement in terms of these skills. this study unfortunately could not elaborate further on how to help students develop their listening ability using the media like the laboratory available at the school. I always go to Gresik if I have a holiday.3. the students responded it very positively. he could answer all questions very well and he could answer all the questions directly. and one matter needs a mention as this surprised the teacher. Students in general seemed to be highly motivated to listen to the native speaker and to talk.11 described above. This student was the writer of Text 3. And when asked about the program he said that he liked the program.” T: “Have you got a relative in Jakarta?” S: “Yes. This should be elaborated in future research. I was born in Bandung .” T: “How long did it take you to go to Jakarta?” S: “It takes me 3 hours to go to Jakarta ” The fact that he could answer all the questions directly makes clear his understanding of what was being asked by the interviewer. In the future the teaching of listening should be one of the foci of development at school. This was to do with the ability of a student who was initially considered to have very little English capacity. regarding the presence of the native speaker from the Australian Defence Force who was learning bahasa Indonesia. T: “Tell me about yourself. In the interview.3 Act The activities conducted in this phase were as planned and there are several matters that can be revealed: Firstly. Moreover. in jalan Cendrawasih. The student‟s ability in speaking can be seen from an extract of the dialogue below.” T: “What did you say? Did you go to Gresik?” S: “Yes. The chapter has shown that the SFL GBA can be one of alternatives that can be implemented in the classroom to achieve the goal of the teaching of English. further research should be conducted on what aspects should be emphasised in teaching critical thinking to junior high schools. was in many ways successful in helping students develop and improve their learnig English. This coincides with one of the key concepts of dialogic education. In speaking and listening. students‟ development can be seen from their capacity to speak and to answer questions asked to them in the interview conducted at the end of the program. students‟ development can also be seen from their verbalisations indicating their awareness of the fact that they gained improvement in the program. Students‟ development in writing ability can be seen from the improvement in their texts in many aspects. which is urgent in Indonesia today. as stipulated in the English curriculum in Indonesia. At risk students can be taught if the teacher believes they can learn. 3. Finally. not only written but also spoken. as elaborated in Chapter 1. and therefore he answers the question in the present tense.question about the time spent to Jakarta in present tense indicates that he seems to be aware that this is his routine.8 Conclusion This chapter has presented a collaborative language program between unversity researchers and a school teacher in a junior high school in Indonesia. including the schematic structure and linguistic features as well as the length of the texts. for reasons of time. the teaching and learning process can be enhanced through the use of students‟ first language. in this case bahasa Indonesia. The fact that students find it easier to understand the expressions given to them in both bahasa Indonesian and English suggests that this study confirm other studies previously conducted. The belief that English classroom should use English only needs to be investigated further to help students enhance their learning. as alluded to above. the teaching of English should also lead to the promotion of students‟ critical thinking and critical literacy skills that will be needed in the future. First of all is that all learners can be taught and can make improvement if the teacher also respects their learning and efforts and pays attention to their needs. Moreover. Regarding critical thinking. despite some aspects that could not be resolved completely. The program. Finally. 128 . in terms of writing as well as grammar. regarding the devlopment of critical thinking. regarding the benefits of the use of the students‟ L1 in ESL or EFL contexts. The chapter has also proposed two things that have to be kept in mind regarding the process of the teaching of English in an Indonesian foreign language context. The reason for the selection of an Australian setting is that in the writer‟s observation there is much to be learned in Indonesia from Australian school practices. The SFL genre-based approach which has been extensively discussed in the earlier chapters. This chapter will consider the teaching of writing in a grade 5 Australian primary classroom. 129 .Chapter 4: The teaching of writing at the primary level of an Australian classroom Chapters 2 and 3 have presented teaching programs at tertiary and secondary levels in Indonesian contexts. where both programs made use of genre based pedagogy to teach students writing. They are: The process approach as developed by Graves (1983. Moreover. Hill (2006) and Hornsby & Sukarna (2007). the Australian classroom has been chosen because it offers an account of a teaching program which used two major approaches to teaching writing which have been influential in Australia. 1996). Walshe (1981). it is always important for teachers to be enquiring about different practices from different parts of the world. Moreover. the US) and developing ones (like Indonesia) have put a strong emphasis on the teaching of writing. As noted in Chapter 3. it is possible to achieve a great deal in teaching writing in Indonesian classrooms. Indonesian classes are large – typically between 40 and 50 students. The same is of course not true of Indonesian children for whom bahasa Indonesia is the national language: they are never exposed to English as are Australian children. and there is much from the Australian example developed here that will be of interest and of value to teachers in seeking effective ways to teach writing while encouraging their children to be independent writers. 130 . She was very familiar with both SFL genre based pedagogy and the process approach and she chose to use an eclectic mix of both traditions in her own teaching program. it is important to stress firstly. The primary program outlined here was developed based on the result of classroom observation by Emilia (2007) in a six week study in a primary school in Australia.4. Rarely today would one find a class as large as that in either a primary or secondary school in Australia.1 Introduction Writing is central to education. 23 of them in the USA and 5 in Australia. where teachers have a clear sense of a sound pedagogy of a kind that the GBA can give them. The other considerable difference between classroom settings in Australia and Indonesia concerns class size. having constant exposure to it in most areas of their lives. this can be seen from the release of the last two English curricula in secondary school which stipulate that students should be taught to write different text types. The effect is that Australian teachers enjoy many advantages in working with their students that are not available to Indonesian teachers. that as the discussion in Chapter 2 has demonstrated. This means that they are surrounded by English in their daily lives. an interview with the teacher. The teacher had been teaching for about 28 years. The effect of this is that we must acknowledge that there are probably very different expectations we can have of what the children can achieve in the two settings. That is why it is not surprising that the government in many countries. The class was observed in three weekly sessions each of 90 minutes over the six weeks. even in classrooms where many children are learning English as a second language. they are nonetheless learning the national language. despite the potential difficulties experienced by some Indonesian teachers. The most important difference lies in the fact that in Australia. some details of which were discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. The data collected consisted of three sources: classroom observations. and a sample of children‟s texts collected over the time. both in advanced countries (like Australia. At least two observations need to be borne in mind before considering the teaching program. touching on the considerable differences between an Australian classroom and one in Indonesia. However. as mentioned in Chapter 3. In Indonesia. Regarding conferences. writing is treated as a process. It is said that students should learn that professional writers do not do just a one-shot draft to make their message clear and thus. widely taken up in Australian schools in the 1980s (Collerson. These include: Authorial conference when the teacher encourages the students to think about some aspects of their writing. The discussion on the SFL GBA will be only to do with the issues in the SFL GBA. 1981. Hornsby & Sukarna (2007) suggest several stages. 2007). “Gone are the days when teachers maintained that one draft was all that students needed to produce” (Richardson. Morgan & Fleener. 2006). which parallels the prewriting stage. 1989:2-3. like professional writers. time for writing (Walshe. 1996). Proofread and Publish (Hornsby & Sukarna. Drafting. which were also used by the teacher reported in this paper. to edit and to proofread their writing (Goldstein and Carr. as these issues are relevant to the teaching practice and the teacher‟s belief in the values of the two approaches in the teaching of English literacy. 2006: 277. Hyland. The phases of writing include: Prewriting. such as Whether the writing makes sense. see also Barchers. which are also relevant to the SFL GBA. Morgan & Fleener. 131 . Graves. 4. 1989: 4) and has now been used in both first and second language contexts (Peregoy & Boyle. and Publishing (Richardson. ownership. 1996:1. 2006: 337). 1983. Revise.1 The process Under this principle. Edit.As the SFL GBA-related have been discussed in detail in the previous chapters. each of which will be discussed below. Emilia. These include: the process itself. 4. This interaction may occur at any stage in the process – even before the writing has begun (Graves. shape you ideas into possible writing topics. the conference. as will be shown later.2. Draft: Think about how you will write this piece then start writing. or Seed: Think about it.2 The process approach to teaching writing The process approach is an approach under the whole language philosophy and was a new buzzword in the teaching of writing. 1993. were used by the teacher reported in this chapter. 4. cited in Pritchard & Honeycutt. students need time and opportunity to think about what is to be written.2 The conference This principle simply means that there are opportunities for a student writer to talk about the writing with other students or with the teacher or another adult.2. the discussion in the following section will concern only the process approach to writing. The process approach has four basic principles or central elements. Revising. which is an aspect of whole language pedagogy. Editing. 2003). to draft and to revise effectively.These phases. of writing in particular. 1996. Collerson. 1983). 1998: 318-320). The process is only used for language studies and not in other area of the curriculum. Secretarial Conference when the teacher encourages the students to pay attention to aspects regarding: Lexical choice.2. punctuation. The role of the teacher as a facilitator. Whether the message is clear. Boys tend to write about violence and girls about a story in which they become the object.4 Time for writing In this approach. Whether the writing sounds right. It is said that “the easiest place for any writer to begin writing . Editorial conference when the teacher suggests the student proofread his/her work and check for spelling. Christie. grammar. 4. curriculum.5 Issues with the process approach There were some concerns about the process approach.3 Free choice of topics Free choice of topics is considered very important in this approach as it enables students to write what they know (Rosen. 1983: 72). 4. Process writing tends to be mainly story writing. 1999.. 1983:13) and “it is the heart of success in writing” (Graves. as follows: Children who do not have much variety in their out-of school experience will tend to write about the same topic again and again. They say that students‟ meta language and mastery of a certain types of texts and written language are not given 132 . among others.2.2. Emilia. 1989). Nunan. 1989: 2-3. 2003. is in writing about something s/he knows” (Graves. 4. and sentence arrangements. or Whether the ideas are in order. writing is not just an occasional once-a week affair but an activity which children are able to practise every day and this has certainly had a positive effect on the teaching and on the attitude to writing of both teachers and students (Collerson.. see also a more recent study reported by Pritchard & Honeycutt. in Press on a useful critique of the process approach). With this principle students should be encouraged to take responsibility for their own writing so that they have some sense of ownership or control. Whether the sentences can be rewritten to make them more interesting and varied. particularly from theorists of the SFL GBA (see see the discussion in Barton. These concerns are. 1996. SFL GBA theorists believe that learning to write requires a greater emphasis on explicit teaching. 2006: 275-285). Hyland. 1994. although she writes only of native speakers of English. for the most part and not useful. over the past 30 years. 1999) and see genre literacy as a revival of transmission pedagogy (as discussed in Cope and Kalantzis. more recent works on the process approach also emphasise the necessity of teaching different genres to students (see the discussion on current perspectives on literacies and learners. reflection. Furthermore. Rothery. On the contrary. for example. Regarding the first issue. it gives them the tools to be creative and autonomous. The progressivists also argue that the SFL GBA emphasises only the product. as can be seen from the stages of the SFL GBA. Christie & Rothery. Freedman (1994:196) argues that explicit teaching is unnecessary. so that. 2007). Finally. “Making rules and expectations explicit to students does not limit their freedom and autonomy. However. Berkenkotter and Huckin. 2006. Hill. based on the findings of the writer‟s study (Emilia. 1995: 160-161). the elements and definition of the writing process have been reinterpreted and the definition of the process model has evolved in the theoretical literature. 1995). The first issue from those working under the genre pedagogy in North America centres on explicit teaching of the identification and description of the conventions of particular genres. to some degree supports recent research on the teaching of writing in both native and ESL or EFL contexts (see Hyland. 2006). which can lead to students‟ awareness that writing is a recursive process. it is now regarded quite differently from that in its early years. The SFL GBA: Some issues The SFL GBA has not been without its critics (see the discussion in Christie. 2003: 23. Christie & Dreyfus. 1987. Emilia‟s (2005). 2006: 279. Another issue has been articulated by the process approach advocates. The teacher reported in this paper. Once students are aware of the conventions of any of the text types. 2002: 68. also valued this principle. 1987. the above concerns are not justified.3.but should be taught (Martin. 4. cannot be justified either. Dixon. In this context.4 A synthesis of the process approach and the SFL GBA The teaching program that will be presented below. when. 2008). rather than process (as discussed in Nunan. 4. as will be described later. However. 1987. the basic principles of the SFL GBA does put emphasis on the process of writing. who see the teaching of genre rules as limiting students‟ creativity and free expression (see the discussion in Sawyer and Watson. with respect to the emphasis on the product. 2005) and a more recent study on the implementation of the SFL GBA in an Indonesian secondary school (Emilia et al. and self-assessment were not commonly associated with the process model (Pritchard & Honeycutt. see also Owocki. guided revision. 1996. 2001 and Hill. Emilia et al‟s (2008) studies and this this study found out that explicit teaching is important to help students gain a shared understanding of the different genres to be taught. in Press). explicit instruction. they will be able to manipulate them for their own purposes” (Gibbons. The second issue on the teaching of genre rules. 133 . see also Berkenkotter and Huckin. 1993a: 2). and also this study. 2006). edited by Campbell & Green. 2006. As will be shown later. found that the main principles of the process and genre-based approaches are complementary rather than contradictory. These suggestions indicate that a synthesis between the process approach and the genrebased approach is desirable and possible (see Badger & White. including Recount. However. and revising texts. one consequence of the background classroom work that had been done was that the teacher encouraged them to write several different genres in the period of six weeks.Pritchard & Honeycutt. 2000. 4. Hyland goes on to say that an effective methodology for teaching writing. writing classrooms … are typically a mixture of more than one approach and that teachers frequently combine these orientations in imaginative and effective ways. while they had also learned narrative and descriptions. Narrative. That is. it can be seen how the strength of one might complement the weaknesses of the other (Hyland. drafting. Situate writing in a context of audience and link it to broader social structure (Hyland. should therefore incorporate and extend the insights of the main orientations in the following ways: Broaden formal and functional orientations to include the social purposes behind forms. Support genre pedagogies with strategies for planning. Of course. like this study. Respect students needs for relevant content through stimulating reading and source materials. that in today‟s writing classrooms. 2003: 24). there is typically a mixture of more than one approach and that teachers frequently combine these orientations in imaginative and effective ways. because individuals differ and some were more proficient than others. even if they did not always write them with equal confidence. and literary response. 2006). Most had some understanding of the schematic structures that were required in writing genres.. including ESL ones. who drew together genre and process approaches). Hyland writes: Today. This should not ideally happen where children still need to learn particular genres. schema and metacognition in social contexts. however. Even in the pre school they had begun to learn simple genres such as procedures and recounts. By laying out the main attributes of these two orientations side-by side. Locate the process concepts of strategy. grade five students in the classroom observed wrote several texts. cited in Paltridge. Research indicates. 2003: 23).5 The teaching program At this point it is important to stress that the children in the grade 5 studied had been learning to write and read different genres from their earliest years of schooling.. . Kaur & Chun. especially second language writing. not all children wrote equally well. as the program will also show. 2004. It is thus important to provide a brief description on some genres that the students wrote and that have not been introduced in the 134 . they should not be asked to learn to recognize and write several new genres in the space of only six weeks. Badger & White. as can be seen in an example of a Narrative offered by Gibbons (2009: 110).1.” A Narrative may have an abstract. to entertain. The story teller can solve weave evaluation into the complication stage. An overview of a Narrative text A Narrative is a text type which tells a story in which people encounter a problem or crisis that they need to overcome – it shows how people or groups of people overcome a problem or crisis in their lives (Joyce & Feez. Gibbons.1. To settle the argument they decided they should have a 135 . This is Complication where the reader discovers the problem and something happens which the caharacters do not expect. 2009) Elements of structure Function Introduces the characters and tells the reader something about them. Christie & Derewianka (2008). all Narratives must have an orientation and complication with an evaluation and a resolution. The story teller‟s evaluation makes the reader care about what happens to the characters.2008.1. as Joyce & Feez (2004:24) argue. many fairy tales have a coda such as “And they lives happily ever after. However. Christie & Derewianka. Narratives in English speaking cultures commonly have a particular structure. Resolution Rounds off the story with a short comment on what happened or with a Coda comment about the future lives of the characters. It also Orientation tells the physical context of the story. presented in Figure 4.5. Orientation: Once upon a time The North Wind and the Sun were arguing about which of them was more powerful. what they do. including who is the characters. when and where they do it. Other writers. Complication and Resolution. This creates suspense and makes the reader want to find out what will happen. 2004:23). 2008: 32). These include Orientation. only sometimes give their Narratives a coda and at other times they leave the reader to work out the coda for themselves. 4. 2004: 23. Story tellers. “because my breath is very strong. Christie & Derewianka. Narratives are used to teach lessons. based on the work of Joyce & Feez (2004).1 The schematic structure of a Narrative (Adapted from Joyce & Feez. like Gibbons (2009) also offers a different names of elements of the structure of a Narrative. Table 4. For example. It is the reason why the story is told. “I am more powerful” said the Wind.” replied the sun. and to explore social values (Joyce & Feez. Is the centre of the Narrative. Is where the story teller suspends or slows down the action to comment on Evaluation the events. 2009: 109). Gibbons (2009). Events.previous chapters. 2008) or a moral value (Gibbons. Is where the problem is solved. It gives a hint about the problem which the characters will encounter. These are among others: Narrative and Personal Responses to literarature and a Description. argue Joyce & Feez. though it is optional (Christie & Derewianka. They argues for a long time.” “But strength is not the only power there is. The text is about “the North Wind and The Sun”. each of them claiming to be stronger than the other. as can be seen in the following Table 4. 2004. instead of writing “He said “What is that?” one might say: “He whispered “What is that?”. thought. For example. tightly. cold North Wind. Finally the North Wind gave up his attempt. harder. Narratives use descriptive langauge to describe people and things: bitterly cold day. and this is signaled by a range of time connectives: once upon a time. these linguistic features can be listed below: It is sequenced in time. warm coat. replied. asked. “Do you see that man?” asked the Sun. long.” That‟s easy. Soon the man grew warm Resolution andbuttened his coat.” laughed the North Wind. disliked. They decided to settle the argument by seeing who could most easily make the man take off his warm coat.1. after a while.” he gasped to the Sun. After a while they noticed below them a man walking along the road. thick warm coat. Many Narratives also use thinking verbs that give us information about what participants are thinking or feeling. 2009:110) Events Like other genres that have been taken up previously in this book. Narratives also have linguistic features. Figure 4. warmly. thick. And so in the end the North Win had to admit that the Sun was the stronger of the two. The Sun shone and shone and after just a few minutes the man took off his coat. and blew harder and harder. Then Complication the North Wind puffed and puffed. shone. Organisational structure of the Narrative the North Wind and the Sun (From Gibbons. exhausted. It was a bitterly cold day and the man was wearing a long. and this will be taken up below. The genle Sun shone out warmly.contest to see who was the more powerful. felt. “Now it‟s your turn. then. exhausted. and to follow Gibbons (2009: 111) and Joyce & Feez (2004). trying to blow the man‟s coat off his back. It containes dialogues and uses a number of “saying verbs” (Verbal processes). remembered. gentle Sun and to describe how actions occur: easily. “I can easily blow his coat off his back!” First the cold North Wind blew hard. but the man wrapped the coat even more tightly around his body. It uses the past tense. first. But the man just wrapped the coat more closely around himself. It uses many action verbs which express material processes that describe what happens: blew. wrapped. Sometimes these saying verbs also indicate how something is said. Let‟s see who can make him take off his coat. such as wondered. 136 . such as: said. Another text type which is also written by the students and has not been discussed in previous parts of the book is responses to a literature and art. The text has been taken from Joyce & Feez (2004:37). I kew that this would be a story about good versus evil as soon as I read the first line.5. we learn that he is moving here with his mother and that he is not particularly happy. Comment An example of personal responses to literature can be seen below in Table 4. a premonition of wrongness. Orientation Text Description Table 4. An example of a personal response to literary work (From Joyce and Feez. As soo as I read the first line I felt scared as the author developed a sense of foreboding. It cleverly drew me into the atmosphere of the novel so that I wanted to continue reading to find out what would happen to Nathaniel. Some times you get a feeling about something that you can‟t explain. Personal Responses are subjective reactions of the writer to a work of literature (Joyce & Feez. Tells the reader about the text the writer is responding to. The Prelude to the gathering by Isobelle carmody sets an evil atmosphere for the novel. The description of the twon and the school made me feel creepy which is the way Nathaniel feels. I could clearly see the treeless and cold playgroun d of the school and when Nathaniel said: Fear crept through skin and bone and folded itself in my chest.4. As Nathaniel and his mother drive into the town we see the town through Nathaniel‟s eyes and we get some idea of his background. 2004:36). A Prelude reviews what happened before the story begins. Table 4. 2004:37). Gives the writer‟s personal reaction to the text. 2.3. This can be about Text description the events in the story or the way the text is constructed. as an individual. I think the author is very clever in the way she throws the reader instantly into an atmosphere of eeriness. I shivered. For example. responds to literature. The schematic structure of Personal Responses to literature Element of the structure Function Tells the reader what the writer is responding to and prepares the reader for Orientation what the writer is going to say. which can be seen in table 4. based on the work of Joyce & Feez (2004:36). The Prelude tells us about the main character Nathaniel coming into the new town that he and his mother are moving to. 137 . This makes the reader afraid and then it is easy to predict something very unusual will happen to Nathaniel.2 An overview of Personal Responses to literature Personal Responses to literature shows how someone.3. 2 below. It is a personal response to the Prelude of The Gathering by Isobelle carmody. Personal responses to literature have several stages. Comment I think that the Prelude is very effective. I knew immediately that the main character would be involved in strange and unusual events. So..3 The classroom physical environment In terms of classroom physical environment.3 An overview of Description 4.5. the first line. this class. e. I think.Moreover.4. Contains words which refer to the whole or parts of the text. only had 25 students. Another matter that can be described is concerned with the seating arrangement. The description of the town and the school made me feel creepy. as other classes in this school and other schools in Australia in gneral. she throws the reader instantly into an atmosphere of eeriness. the number of students is also about 20 to twenty five. Moreover. my and me). personal responses have the following linguistic features: Use first person pronouns (I. Contains verbs (processes) to show how the writer feels and thinks about bthe text. Regarding the number of students.g.5. The following two sections will turn to give a description of the classroom.. in an international standard class in Indonesia. in that the furniture is fixed and arranged like a theatre with all students looking towards the teacher (see Chapter 3).5.. I think that the prelude is very effective. The prelude. . . The writer discusses and evaluates texts and use words to evaluate. This number is much smaller than that of Indonesan class as described in Chapter 3. which will be taken up respectively in Sections 4.g. especially for those classrooms with a similar number of students in Indonesia. to some extent we can learn a lot from what could be seen in the classroom. Contains opinion words which clearly show the writer‟s reaction and which aim to make the reader agree with this reaction. e.. the novel. This makes the reader afraid . and this can be seen from two aspects: the physical environment and the teaching learning activities.. seating arrangement tends to be traditional (Gebhard.3 and 4. These will be concerned with: The number of students Seating arrangement The availability of prints that allows students to be immersed in the language learning. there are several matters that can be described about the Australian classroom. in front of the classroom there is a space where students can sit together 138 . It cleverly drew me into the atmosphere of the novel. main character. so students sit in “circles” 2006:86) where they can see each other to work together. 4. I feel. In Indonesian classroom. However. which according to Gebhard (2006:85) implies classroom activities that students do in class. Seating arrangements in Australia are not fixed and furniture can be arranged.5. 2006:85). This can enhance students‟ achievement and retention (Peterson. Swing & Peterson. This teaching/learning strategy. to do a variety of activities. to interact with other students and to apply group work as learning strategy (Killen. 2002). From a critical thinking perspective. 1982. it is this seating arrangement which is suggested as it allows students to work in groups. Picture 4. Group work shifts the focus from students being passive recipients of information to being active learners. cited in Killen. 139 . based on Killen (2007:160). as Beyer (1997) suggests. From the perspective of language teaching. which constitutes an activity that can enhance their critical thinking (Chaffee et al.1 below. 1981.when listening to the teacher‟s explanation. this seating arrangement allows children to move. 2007). The seating arrangement like this. is really useful. 2007: 160). The seating arrangement can be seen in Picture 4. to discuss the topic they learn.1 Seating arrangment in an Australian classroom This seating arrangement allows children to work in groups and to communicate with each other. despite some limitations. has several advantages. or the U shape. like these. 2. It can be said that students in this class were surrounded by an environment that is rich in spoken and written language. Examples of printed materials around the classroom can be seen in Picture 4. such as those related to other subjects. The classroom described had a good set of facilities and ample printed materials that can enhance the results of students‟ learning. When students listen as the teacher explains some new material and she wants to make sure that everyone paid attention to her explanation. social studies or students‟ work that are published in the classroom. This activity is possible as the the room has space to do that. which is supportive environment that provides resources and opportunities for interaction with knowledgeable others (Campbell. like science. Picture 4. Group work can be a useful way of giving students an opportunity to work on a realistic task that is too complex or too large to be undertaken by individuals.2 An example of printed material in the classroom: The social purpose. It helps them to learn respect for one another‟s strengths and limitation. These printed materials can be seen from what was around the classroom. Group work can encourage co-operation among students. Group work is a useful way of activating students‟ prior knowledge and helping them to reconstruct their understnding of the subject matter. the schematic structure and linguistic features of an Exposition 140 . This makes the class dynamic and allows the teacher to closely monitor each student‟s understanding of what is going on in the classroom or what is being explained. the teacher asks all students to sit on the carpet in from of the classroom. 2006: 86). 2005) where the students go through the process of writing. etc. that is to do with the teaching of critical literacy. 2002. Apart from showing the emphasis on the conference. this had allowed students to write different text types quite successfully at this stage. with their life or experiences and the world. Recount. containing students‟ texts. in which a group of students read the same novel for a period of several weeks. Procedural. for example. Discussion) that could be used as a reference and a model. whethet they were as a discussion director. This coincides with the suggestion from the SFL GBA (Macken-Horarik. 2002). Exposition (see Pictures 4. In this class. as suggested by Feez. secretarial conference and editorial conference. and the discussed the novel. as suggested by SFL GBA (Macken-Horarik. The top level was labelled “Read me” indicating that the texts should be read by the teacher. editing. a strong emphasis on the implementation of the SFL GBA was also clear. Conspicuous was the availability of sources and materials or visual aids drawn from both the process and the genre-based approaches around the classroom. Exposition. The implementation of this conference was also obvious from the trays avaliable. Christie & Derewianka. It was also stated by the teacher that the aim the teaching of writing in this class was to lead children to learn how to produce different text types. one aspect should be mentioned. 1996.3 above). including Narrative. starting from drafting. Procedural and Explanation. evidenced by visual aids on the schematic structure and model of various genres (such as Narrative. The text types were also available in the school coordinator‟s room. Recount. 2008. as a travel tracer. Martin & Rose. 2002. and each student had a different role each wekk. 2008). These posters allowed students. As the students‟ texts will reveal. 1987). as in other classes in this school. covering authorial conference. proofreading. However. revising. Christie. in line with the suggestion from Harveys (2003). Students could pick up one book when they read or read the same book together when they are doing a project like literature circle. the lower levels were respectively labelled “Revise me” meaning that the texts should be revised by the students. even who were playing basket ball. 1983. Interesting evidence that this class and this school has been impacted a lot by the development of the SFL GBA is that these text types were available not only in the classroom. Hill. 2006) (and actually the SFL GBA.Moreover. but also in the assembly hall and even outside the classroom on the windows of the school yard. consistent with the point argued by the theorists of the process approach (Graves. This is relevant to one of the concept in critical literacy and critical pedagogy proposed by Freire (Freire & Macedo. this also suggests that writing is taught as a process. books that students can read in reading time were also available in the room. Explanation. The influence of the process approach could be identified from the poster on the principles of conferences suggested by Hornsby & Sukarna (2007). to be reminded of all the text types they were learning. Of the available printed materials in the classroom. “Edit me” that the texts should be edited and “Proofread me” that the texts should be proofread. students were encouraged to connect the text they read or wtite with other texts. This school seemed to be aware of the advantage of models for the students and the importance of the development of students‟ writing skills in different genres.2 and 4. that is “reading the word 141 . form opinion.and the wold” as described in Chapter 1. she explained: Yes. Needs improvement Some letters are easy to read Most letters slope Many letters slope Some letters slope forward evenly forward evenly forward evenly Most letters show Many letters show Many letters show good size and good size and good size and proportion proportion proportion All letters and Most letters and Many letters and Some letters and words words are spaced words are spaced words are spaced are spaced evenly evenly evenly evenly All letters formedMost letters Many letters Some letters formed smoothly formed smoothly formed smoothly smoothly Paper position Posture Relaxed pencil grip Easy Flow LINE POSITION Placement of letters on the Text placement isText placement is Text placement is Text placement is correct for all correct for most correct for many correct for some letters letters letters letters. 142 . really. and be aware of not accepting everything that‟s sid to them or everything they read in the internet.4 Handwriting rubric Formation 4 Excellent 3 Good All letters are easy to read Most letters are Many letters are easy to read easy to read Start letters in the right place.5 and 4.4. the classroom had also a handwriting rubric. that they become critical about their reading and their writing and they can make judgment. hopefully it does. which was put in a folder on every table of the students to allow students to check their hand writing everytime they write. Spaces between words FLUENCY 2 satisfactory 1. Apart from those printed materials. The writing rubrics also contained the revising and editing sheets to allow the students to check revise and to edit their wriring and also the plan of different text types that they write. I think that‟s what it‟s all about. as discussed in Chapter 1. When asked whether her teaching program or classroom activities enabled the students to develop critical literacy. All these will be displayed below in Tables 4. Table 4. 4. and being able to question and ask why The teacher‟s comments above shows her understanding of the importance of aspects of critical thinking and critical literacy. Make basic strokes correctly All letters slope SLOPE forward evenly All letters show SIZE good size and Check the tall and long letters proportion Size of letters is even SPACING Keep letters close. That this class attached a great importance to critical literacy was confirmed by the teacher.6 respectively. This “Revising Sheet” can be seen below in Table 4. containing elements appropriate the to genre and the topic.5 Revising sheet (From Western Australia Department of Education. 1997) Revising My Writing Name: ------------------------------------- Date Revised: ------------------------------- Do I have a well written beginning or Introduction? Do I have a well-written ending or conclusion? Did I stay on the topic Have I used topic sentences? Is my writing interesting? (read it to someone in a peer conference to check) Have I repeated myself too much? Is there any unnecessary information? Are important details included? Have I done enough research? Have I used enough descriptive language? Have I made good word choices? (strong. precise.6 below.lines The writing rubrics above were very useful to enhance students‟ awareness that weh writing. technical language?) Is my writing well organized considering the genre? Paragraphs? Logical order?. as shown in Table 4. 143 . Does the writing make sense? Are any of my sentences too long? Have I used correct language for this genre? HAVE I TRIED MY BEST? You are now ready to edit your writing. interesting. persuasive. The statement at the bottom of the sheet. is really helful to promote students‟awaraeness of the process of writing and the signifcance of having a coherent and well-organised text.5. Table 4. Another printed material available to enhance students‟ writing ability is the “Revising Sheet” which. This mechanics playes a very important role in the readability of the text as a whole. saying “You are now ready to edit yor writing” can enhance students‟ awareness that editing is one step that every writier should go through to produce an interesting and well-writtn text. lively. descriptive. Signed ________________________ The last printed material that can be displayed here to enhance students‟ achievemnt in writing and to promote students‟ awareness of the process of writing is the “Editing Sheet”. again. Unneat texts and unreadable hand writing will make the text unfriendly to the readers and not interesting. but also the mechanics of writing. we should not focus on only the content. this sheet makes the students aware of the importance of the lay out of the text. 1997) Editing My Writing Name: -------------------------------------------- Date Edited:------------------------------------- Have I read my work aloud in a ppeer conference to check for correct punctuation? Have I started a new line each time someone new speaks and included quotation marks? Do I have the appropriate headings. spelling and so on. making a list. Between adjectives.Table 4. Students were also provided with the plan of writing different text types that could guide them to write the focal texts. such as capitalisation.8 and 4. which can make the reader interested in the text and other mechanics of writing. These printed materials are really relevant to the Indonesian context and can be used in the classroom to help students understand the writing process and to produce a better and more interesting text. Below are examples of plans the students used. punctuation. etc)? Have I put a full stop at the end of each sentence? HAVE I TRIED MY BEST? You are now reay to do your final draft in your good copy book. which are Narrative and Biography plans. proper nouns. Signed ________________ This “Editing Sheet” is very important and students seemed to use this to check their writing befote theu handed it in to the teacher. 144 . start of sentence. etc)? Have I used a comma each time I need to take a breath when reading my work (eg. Like the writing rublics above. The plans of these text types have been chosen to be presented in this chapter as these text types have not been described in the previous chapters.9 will provide the plan for a Narrative and a Biography. Table 4. subheadings/title? Have I used an exclamation mark where expression is needed? Have I checked my spelling using a have a go sheet or dictionary? Have I used a question mark at the end of each question? Have I used capitals when needed (names.6 Editing sheet (From Western Australia Department of Education. 7 A plan for a Narrative Framework Heading Make Notes or Drawings to help plan your story Title Orientation Events Complication Resolution Coda/Moral/Concluding Statement 145 .Table 4. I „ve got here what we should be aiming for. Subheading – Why I admire this person Conclusion – Finishing off comment that wraps report up. This is not surprising as previous research.Personal Details/Field of Contribution 2. These plans above are of significant importance to lead tostudents‟ understanding of the sctructure of the text that they write to make the text successful and fulfil its social purposes. suggests that today‟s writing classroom in both native language and ESL/EFL tends to be eclectic. All the printed materials above suggest that literacy learning in the classroom.. I use visual aids to help the children stay focus. particulalrly by both the process approach and the SFL GBA. 146 .8. the learning of writing in particular.. as described in Chapter 3. the teacher commented: I think I use the chart and the examples of work and I keep them around the room because I think children may need them. influenced. Subheading . had been impacted by both the process and the SFL GBA. the fact that the plas provide space for each stage can make students realise that each stage or element of structure in the text should be written in different paragraphs. Moreover.Table 4.Achievements/awards 3. they need a visual reminder. A plan for a Biography Biography of a Hero Introduction 1. Subheading . Regarging the availability of the printed materials and visual aids. This will prevent students from writing the focal text in one paragraph. as mentioned above. 1999: 263. 147 .4 Teaching learning process Regarding the teaching/learning process. this is more reliable as the observation was conducted in the class. An example of a conference sheet can be seen below. that they become critical about their reading and their writing and they can make judgment. This is also supported by the teacher‟s comment when asked whethet the program she conducted could enhance students‟ critical literacy Yrs.” (Barnes. as the observation was conducted in the regular class and the writer observed what was ging on when she was present. depending on the stage of the students‟ writing. In the first lesson observed. this chapter cannot provide a complete picture of the teaching/learning process from the beginning up to the end. This also goes with the argument from Barnes (1999) and Migdalek (2002) in EFL context. as described in Chapters 1 and 2. The teaching/ learning activities in writing can be described below. hopefully it does develop critical literacy. 1988. 1996). students can have a clear concept of the desired goal. Moreover. The teacher‟s comment above is relevant to the principles of critical literacy and critical pedagogy emphasised in this book. that “With the available model. 4. the teacher confidently did what is suggested by Hornsby & Sukarna (2007). another matter that shows the synthesis of the process approach and the SFL GBA can be seen from the teaching learning activities that will be described in the subsequent section. 2002 ). Of course other activities continued over the six weeks.This supports Christie‟s (1989) position on the importance of the provision of a model text for students to learn. Apart from the physical environment that has been described above. which were not observed. Moreover. to their life and to the world. Over the conference.5. three days a week. form opinion. 2006). and be aware of not just accepting everything that is said to them or everything they read in the internet. the teacher was doing a conference with students. be able to compare their work with the model and to decide how to close the gap between the two. the importance of the availability of the prints in the children‟s environment has also been emphasised by whole language advocates (Campbell. the teaching learning program in this class also put an emphasis on the students‟ critical literacy development. see also Migdalek. not created for a research purpose (van Lier. and being able to question and ask “why” . I think that‟s what it‟s all about really. with the availability of the poster that encouraged or reminded the students to relate the text that read or write to other texts. unlike other chapters in this book. She applied the principles of conference with students. In terms of research. (italis added). Think about more interesting words. What the teacher did can be seen in Picture 4. Table 4.M. 2007) Self corrected puctuation and spelling but no work on content. Add how we raised $2000 for Sacraed Heart Mission (Observation Notes. Organise writing into Beginning. “Tense –ed past tense (Observation Notes August 20.10. Make it more interesting for the Reader. An example of an authorial Conference Sheet Name: Date Notes Action required 13/8/08 Recount Compare lives. She used words beyond her spelling ability. the teacher‟s comments concerns grammar. 2007 An example of conferencing at this stage can be seen below. Where will you put your B (beginning) + M (Middle) +E (end) paragraphs?. said.9. No. Tense – ed past tense. Middle and End. In an authorial conference. Add how we raised $2000 for sacred Heart Mission. spelling and other mechanics of writing. which is good (Observation Notes. 20/8/07 Fr Terrys talked – Recount. B + M +E (Beginning.and E. These included: Check “Know”. went. In editorial stage. Focus on organising information into B. An Example of Editorial Conference Sheet Name: Date Notes Action required 13/8/08 Recount Paragraphs clear 20/8/07 Sacred Heart Mission report – added in paragraphs without changing any text – added fundraising effort. August 28. spelling and other mechanics of writing. 2007). more info and did a comparison with her life. Added Look for more interesting words: talked. when the teacher showed the students some grammatical mistakes. like incorrect use of prepositions.4 below. Middle and End) Check Know. “No”. Still brief and lacking important information. the teacher‟s comments were. among others: Write more about the comparison between your family and Steve. August 9th. 148 .Table 4. Moreover. The teacher‟s comment in students‟ book read: Peer conference with John (pseudonym) .. 1988 about what the teacher should do in conferencing with the students). These activities also indicate the teacher‟s sound understanding of the theory and her capacity to translate this theory into practice..3. the teacher asked the writer to do a peer conference. Activities in a writing conference (editorial conference) In the proofreading stage. Thus. the teacher could assist students with strategies for generating ideas (Peregoy & Boyle. The comments above. to help John (August 27. through the process of writing. These comments. were appropriate and beneficial. 2009). as reported by Peregoy & Boyle (1993:71-73) enable students to understand that they can concentrate on different aspects of writing at different times in the process which makes the writing task unthreatening (see also the discussion in Callaghan & Rothery. the teacher‟s comments above also show her attempt to do conference at any stage in the 149 .Picture 4. 1993). given at different stages of writing. Coffin et al. on the zone of proximal development. So. This was done both in groups and roups (of eight) and individually. which has been shared by the theorists of the teaching of writing (see Hyland. This conference.process of writing.b. I think they need the feedback..Oh yes. The teacher mentioned: . With respect to the conference.” The last point about the role of the teacher to assist students to go further is also consistent with the learning theory from Vygotsky. constitutes a significant help for students and allows the teacher to pay his/her attention to those who really struggle. a peer conference. could allow the teacher to observe what works and what does not work for each child as a writer. Emilia. At the moment I‟ve 150 . as Beach & Friedrich (2006) mention: “It also became clear that the nature and quality of the teachers‟ feedback during the composing process is critical to whether students revise.. Macaro (2003: 238) says that “Feedback is to a teacher as swimming is to a fish”. 1978: 90). in line with the point from the process theorists (Graves. Feedback will determine whether the students revise.. 2006. Christie. Finally. there were also activities drawn from the SFL GBA. as already shown in Chapter 3. Christie & Derewianka. In Indonesian EFL contexts. with a big number of students (generally more than 40). But I also want to say “you could do better or why didn‟t you mention this. I want the feedback to be positive and let them know that I hear what they are saying and I like what they are saying. Middle and End) and grammar.. In terms of the provision of feedback. 2006). Apart from obvious influence of the process approach on classroom activities as described above. or you could go further”. 2003. the number of children in the grade. then the feedback. the teacher seemed to have a strong belief in the benefits of feedback that she gave to her students. First of all was the conference when the teacher paid attention to the structure of the text (asking the students to think about Beginning. 1986. the teacher‟s suggestion to a student writer to peer conference to help others also reflects a classroom practice relevant to both the process and the SFL GBA. Hyland & Hyland. Hill. 2003). 2003. 2005. 1997a. The statement above seems to reveal the teacher‟s awareness of the value of feedback as a key component of teaching writing. especially to do with conferencing with students in terms of the time allocated and the number of students in the conference. 2005. the teacher did not seem to have any challenge in her teaching although from her verbalisation she mentioned there was indeed a problem encountered by the teacher. 2008). otherwise why do it. 1983. based on what happened in the classroom. which recognises the value of peer conference. Calkins. Macaro. that “Learning awakens a variety of internal development processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with peers”(Vygotsky.the time. She explained: I used visual aids to help students stay focused. it‟s very challenging . I think that‟s a part of being a teacher. This coincides with the suggestion from the SFL GBA that the teacher should lead the students to have a good control of the schematic structure and linguistic features of a text (Anderson & Anderson. according to Calkins (1986). . . then what they write is shallow. as the name suggests. as Gibbons (2002) argues. After the students had a holliday. that is students wrote in line with what happened in their school or in their society. and this was confirmed by her comments below: “I think if I don‟t spend time developing their ideas.got 8 children in a group and they are too many. the students wrote a Recount about their holliday. as writing had become part of their dailiy activities and the students were familiar with what to do. they should be able to connect the text to other text. Students sometimes worked in the library to find out relevant information needed for their writing.”. I am thinking if I make changes and I might only have 4 children in a group.. This is relevant to the teaching of critical literacy emphasised throughout the school that when students read or write a text. as proposed by Feez & Joyce (1998a) and Gibbons (2002) were: Building Knowledge of the Field. where the teacher explained about the topic that the students were going to write and asked the students to do research. Some times the teacher read a book or a short text book regarding a certain information. especially on how many students should be involved in a group conference and how long the conference should last with individual student and what aspects should be emphasised in each conference.. So. as revealed in Emilia (2005) can lead to the creation of an analytical text. This is relevant to the purpose of the stage. Regarding explicit teaching. Other activities relevant to stages in the teaching cycle of the genre-based approach. Text to Life and Text to the World”.. The teacher seemed to be aware of the importance of the Building Knowledge of the Field.. This warrants further investigation. The students‟ strong background knowledge of a topic. the students wrote a letter to their mother. One matter needs a brief mention here. when on the Mothers Day. as will be shown below. they would just do it (Gibbons (2009). to build the students‟ knowledge about the topic they are writing. This. they wrote about something relevant to Christian society.. showing the writer‟s critical thinking and critical literacy. . the teacher explained that explicit teaching reminded her and the students of “why we „re doing it and what is the purpose of it. Modelling when the teacher did some explicit teaching about the schematic structure and linguistic features of the text that students were assigned to write. as can be seen below in the Descriptive text about the Sacred Heart Mission. to their life or experience and to the world. can be seen from the avalilability of a poster showing “Text to Text.” This comment is in line with 151 . that is. It takes me too long to get through their eyes. . or the teacher explained in front of the classroom where students were sitting on the carpet. For example. So. In commemmorating a certain day in the Christian religion. the teacher was alert that she did not dictate the students to write in a certain genre.. I think we should concentrate on the content. the grade five. The teacher‟s teaching methods show overal that she could exploit the best features of both process approaches and the SFL GBA. and they could check their writing using the editing sheet above (Table 4. All classroom activities above were in fact supported by a strong belief in and undertstanding of the appoaches to the teaching of writing that are essential in Australia. I like to integrate reading and writing into enquiry learning. On the issue of creativity and prescriptivity in particular. Sometimes the teacher seemed to skip the joint construction and this can beseen that most of students‟ writing were written independently. She stated: 152 . The students did a joint project in other subjects. as the grade five students already learned about many genres before and in this grade the students are given feedom to choose the genre they like to write. 1998a: 73) which the students should follow in the course of the lessons.5. Unfortunately. Independent construction. This can be seen from the teacher‟s statement below: I like whole language (which is the umbrella of the process approach). This shows her understanding of the point that “the teaching cycle does not work as a lockstep sequence for the whole class” (Callaghan and Rothery.the suggestion from the SFL GBA that the teacher should explicitly explain about pathways (Feez and Joyce. After each draft students were encouraged to consult the revising sheet above (Table 4…). The students also did consultation in a conference with the teacher. 2002: 26). in the senior and the middle section of the school. the model of the text written in this joint construction was not collected. Joint Construction: writing together with the students a model text in focus.5. the students could edit.6). 1988: 48) and “there is no right way to sequence teaching learning activities” (Macken-Horarik. Then when their writing had gone through several drafts. Her teaching demonstrates that the two are compatible and the possible problems of the two approaches can be avoided. . This is when the students wrote their drafts several times. and then they had to sign if they thought they had done all the aspects suggested in the sheet. having to revise and to edit their texts. The texts that students wrote in the classroom can be seen in the subsequent section about texts students wrote in the classroom.. Some of the texts that were collected in this class will be presented in Section 4. We do use the SFL GBA in our instruction and the children are expected to learn how to do Narrative and Recount and Exposition and Procedural and Explanation. as suggested before. but also the teacher should become the subject of knowing and the teacher. She argued: I think that you keep learning as a teacher. 1987. and Personal Response to Literature. Narrative. 4.1. We went to the door and Wendy came out and we gace her lots of hugs.5. so we gave her two chocolate cadbury easter eggs. Text 4. Some times I might. Then dad went to work and we were watching Bobby. And we got there at 9. This comment goes with the argument that “good teachers are continuously learning” (Jacobson.. but usually they select because for grade four and five they have been taught different genres and the idea is they use them and they apply what they‟ve been learning in the younger grades .5. Record of Events The first day dad drove us up there at 8.00 am. lick the 153 . Wendy‟s dog. 1997). We said thank you to her and we were talking to her about what we did since last time we went there. I don‟t think you ever stop. 1985. the teacher believed that professional development is central to lead to teachers‟ comprehesive understanding of current concepts and development and best practices to scaffold the students in learning to write. Students’ texts Along the course of the observation and the school year. Freire and Shor. like his/her students is an apprentice. students in this class produced several texts as will be described below. The text types they wrote included: Recount. Examples of each text type can be seen below. Wendy gave us a chocolate bunny and 10 dollers (dollars) each. I don‟t think you ever get to a point where you said “OK. again relevant to the point from language education theorists. such as Leung (2009) who points out that professionalism is important for teachers... When we went inside and put our stuff in the rooms we were sleeping. Gadotti. I might dictate it has to be a Recount or a Procedural text. Regarding this. that not only the students. 1998:29) and the point from critical pedagogy theorists. someone who is also seeking (see Freire. I can do it now”..00 am. . I don‟t dictate.This statement is. A Recount Elements of the structure THE BEST THING I DID ON THE HOLIDAYS Orientation The best thing I did on the holidays was going to my neighbours. One thing that needs a brief mention regarding this teacher is her belief in the necessity of continuous learning for a teacher. one for her and one for Bill. Bill and Wendy‟s house at Mount Martha with my mother and sisters Tasha and Chloe. She said Bill wasn‟t there because he was working.. 00 am. Text 4. Then we went down to the village in the bright red Capri with the roof off because in February someone cutt the plastic window at night. It does not have a Reorientation. This is not surprising for a native speaker like him. Then we went in the bakery and bought some lunch. Appropriate use of causal conjunctions to show logical connections between one statement with another: We went down to the village in the bright red Capri with the roof off because in February someone cut the plastic window at night. In terms of the linguistic features. including: Orientation: The best thing I did on the holidays was going to my neighbours. Bill and Wendy‟s house at Mount Martha with my mother and sisters tash and Chloe. from the fact that the text does not have any grammatical mistakes. The first day dad drove us up there at 8. After lunch we put our bathers on and went to the beach for one hour. After lunch we put our bathers on and went to the beach for one hour. When we left the beach we went to Wendy‟s house. first of all. Successful use of longer unit Themes. At the village we went to the video store and hired some videos and then went to the supermarket and got some suplies (supplies) for the next two days. and this can be seen. It was nice. Wendy gave us a chocolate bunny and 10 dollers (dollars) each. Then we went down to the village in the bright red Capri with the roof off because in February someone cut the plastic window at night. Other linguistic features relevant to a Recount text are: Successful use of marked topical Theme.glass sliding door. Text 4. Wendy‟s dog. Then we went in the bakery and bought some lunch. the text shows the writer‟s capacity to use English. realising temporality. some of which are realised in a dependent clause as in: When we left the beach we went to Wendy‟s house. and has only two elements of a Recount.00 am. Successful use of textual Theme which help create the cohesion of the text: Then dad went to work and we were watching Bobby. and again strengthening the thematic progression of the text. then went to the supermarket and got some suplies (supplies) for the next two days. One longer unit Theme has a dependent clause Appropriate use of simple past tense. When we went inside and put our stuff in the rooms we were sleeping. as can be seen in examples presented above.1 above does not seem to be finished yet. When we left the beach we went to Wendy‟s house. through to the last sentence of the text: When we left the beach. lick the glass sliding door. we went to Wendy‟s house. Record of Events: Starting from the First day dad drove us up there at 8. 2 A Recount 154 . My brother got chips and fish. This reorients the reader to what has been said in the first part of the text.. In the cafe they have a mini book shop. written by a student categorised as high by the teacher. she had a friend doing a duo with her.. . I got a horse stencil book. When I walked through the door I could smell coffee toast and pasta. On the 27th of April. The text shows the writer‟s good control of the schematic structure of a Recount. It was called Volumes. The spring rolls felt oily. It was called Volumes. Record of Events: When I walked through the door I could smell coffee toast and pasta. They were dressing up as circus performers. Alice was brilliant at tap dancing. In terms of linguistic features. I got spring rolls with salad. but tasted nice. Reorientation I really liked the cafe. relevant to a Recount.2. Reorientation: I really liked the cafe. I got spring rolls with salad. The fish looked gross but the chips were nice. The salad tasted sour and disgusting. At the competitions all her five dances were tap. In the cafe they have a mini book shop. as suggested by the theorists of the SFL GBA as mentioned earlier..Structure Orientation A couple of weeks ago I went to a nice cafe in Eltham. through to the last sentence: My brother Liam got a pen with a book light on the end. The fish looked gross but the chips were nice. including: Orientation: A couple of weeks ago I went to a nice restaurant in Eltham. 3 A Narrative Title My Dancing Competition Date: 27/4/07 Orientation Once upon a time there was a girl named Alice. It was also her favorite. including: Successful use of paste tense: A couple of weeks ago I went to a nice cafe in Eltham. It was called Volumes. then I had to leave the smell. Record of Events When I walked through the door I could smell coffee toast and pasta. that the cafe is nice. she had to do five dances. My brother got chips and fish. My brother Liam got a pen with a book light on the end. The spring rolls felt oily.. Text 4. The writer successfuly gave a comment on the cafe and what he smelt there. the text reflects the writer‟s capacity in several aspects. The text has three elements of structure. then I had to leave the smell. She loved dancing and was great at it. It smelt delicious. I got a horse stencil book. Text 4. The salad tasted sour and disgusting. is another text classified into a Recount. My brother Liam got a pen with a book light on the end. It smelt delicious. but tasted nice. Complication They did lots of flexible things but when she was doing her kartwheel her skirt fell off! 155 . Her eyeliner was dripping down like a clown because of her tears. shone.. such as wondered. warm coat.. Complication: They did lots of flexible things but when she was doing her kartwheel her skirt fell off! Evaluation: She was soo embarrassed. cold North Wind. long. It uses the past tense. is a text classified into a Narrative. first. . as suggested by the theorists of the SFL GBA as mentioned earlier.3. warmly. SHE WOULD DO THE DANCE ! Coda The night ended up being better than it would of (have) been. All the dances she saw weren‟t very good. thought. Resolution She changed her mind. The text has five elements of structure. gentle Sun and to describe how actions occur: easily. It uses many action verbs which express material processes that describe what happens: blew. For example. asked. Resolution: She changed her mind. She decided to quit the other 4 dances and became one of the audience. replied. remembered. including: Orientation: Once upon a time there was a girl named Alice. Sometimes these saying verbs also indicate how something is said. Many Narratives also use thinking verbs that give us information about what participants are thinking or feeling. Alice‟s partner was more than happy to do the dance by herself. exhausted. .. 156 . It containes dialogues and uses a number of “saying verbs” (Verbal processes). The writer successfuly ended the story In terms of linguistic features. When she walked into the theatre people were stll laughing but she was strong and walked in. then. and this is signaled by a range of time connectives: once upon a time. . tightly. written by a student categorised as high by the teacher. disliked. The text shows the writer‟s good control of the schematic structure of a Narrative. instead of writing “He said “What is that?” one might say: “He whispered “What is that?”. Narratives use descriptive langauge to describe people and things: bitterly cold day. When the dance finished Alice‟s partner ran straight to her. thick. It is sequenced in time. wrapped. such as: said. harder. after a while. Coda: The night ended up being better than it would have been.Evaluation She was soooo embarrassed so she ran off stage and started to cry while the audience were crying of laughters.. felt. The End Text 4. e. saying I think the worst part of books are that Specky‟s dad and mum and his siter does (it should be do) not like footy.g. What team does Specky play for? Comment To finish off you are a great writer. the text has the following aspects appropriate for a personal response to literary works: Use first person pronouns I have been reading your Specky Magee. And I want to ask a question. Text 4. Contains verbs (processes) to show how the writer feels and thinks about bthe text: I think the worst part of the books are that Specky‟s dad and mum and his sister does not like footy. A Personal Response to literary work Personal Response to A literary work Specky Magee. Text 4. I‟ve been reading your Specky Magee Text Description I‟ve been reading your Specky Magee books and they are fantastic. I think the worst part of the books are that Specky‟s dad and mum and his sister does not like footy. saying that the writer is a great writer: To finish off you are a great writer. You are a great writer.Elements of Structure Text 4. In this case the writer describes the book as one of the best books he has ever in his life (It‟s one of the best book I‟ve ever in my whole life). I think the worst part of the books are that Specky‟s dad and mum and his sister does not like footy. The best book I‟ve ever in my whole life.4. a story book written by Felice and Garry) Orientation Hi. written by a student categorised as high by the teacher. the text shows the writer‟s good control of the schematic structure of a Personal response. Contains words which refer to the whole or parts of the text: Specky Magee books. The writer also describes the construction of the text. Text Description which tells the reader about the text the writer is responding to. Comment in which the writer gives a judgment and his personal reaction to the text indirectly. The writer usee words to evaluate. as suggested by the theorists of the SFL GBA as mentioned earlier. It‟s one of the best book I‟ve ever in my whole life. In terms of the linguistic features. A Description Title Sacred Heart Mission Definition Sacred Heart Mission is an organisastion that helps the poor people that have no 157 . my name is Jemy. The text has the elements of structure. is a text classified into a Personal response to Specky Magee books.4. 5. including: Orientation which tells the reader what the writer is responding to: I‟ve been reading your Specky Magee. Like other texts presented earlier. writing was taught as a process. 158 . The chapter also describes that writing in this classroom had become part of the students‟ daily activities at school and the topics they wrote about are relevant to what they experienced. Procedural. independent construction. including: 4. building knowledge of the field. categorised as a mid achiever by the teacher. The second aspect deals with the classroom activities. modelling. Recount. what was done and said by both the teacher and the students. In going through all the process of writing. Conclusion This chapter has focused on describing a teaching learning program in Australia. This allowed the students to relate what they learnt to their life. and to the world.5. an aspect of critical literacy development. 6. such as the presence of visual aids around the classroom (posters on stages of conference. Description of Activities Request Sacred Heart Mission also provied (provides) money for poor people to buy clothes and any other tings they need. These activities were among others: the conference. the text shows the writer‟s good control of the schematic structure of a Description. Explanation). They help ppeople who have a mental illness or a disease. belongs to a Description. written by a girl in the classroom. Each day 400 people came to eat a meal and on Christmas day over 400 poor people come to have Christmas lunch with the parish. explicit teaching on different aspects of a genre. The first aspect is concerned with the classroom physical environenment. to their life. Exposition. students can also be trained to connect their text to other texts. This could be seen from two aspects. In terms of the schematic structure.food. The text has the followinge elements appropriate for a Description. trays of students texts at different stages. can you please help Sacred Heart Mission? Text 4. drawing on the SFL GBA and the process approch. which can lead to their awareness of the social conditions around them. At school we raised $2000 for sacred Heart Mission by getting donations from our family by doing our jump rope for heart. visual aids on the schematic structure and model texts of different genres. such as Narrative. The chapter has shown that the teacher observed in this classroom used a synthesis of the process and the genre-based approaches to teaching writing. a feature of critical literacy. drawn from the theory of both the process and the genre-based approaches. So. water or a place to sleep in. with the topics related to their daily life. Like other chapters in this book. 159 . concepts and best practices in the teaching of English. particulalrly of writing to help students gain a better result of their learning. this chapter also demonstrates that teachers should have sound understanding of the most recent theories. All the issues regarding policy can be considered in terms of three contexts: Preservice teacher education.2 Policy contexts There are several matters that deserve attention in the development of programs for the teaching of English in Indonesia in the future. In view of these matters.1 Conclusion This book has provided a description of three different cases where current theories and practices of teaching English have been used in different contexts to help students to learn English. In the light of the research results and theories that have informed classroom practices described in this book. in the Reform Era. This book has shown that classroom practices described in the previous chapters are in many ways effective to help students achieve better results in their learning. like Indonesia. This can be seen from the way students achieved greater success in learning to write and in becoming independent writers and learners. systemic functional linguistics. particulalry the teaching of other language skills. It has been shown thoughout the book that the contemporary teaching of English from primary up to tertiary levels. These theories are to do with critical thinking. in both native language contexts. whole language philosophy. it is essential that critical skills of the kind that are developed using critical thinking and critical pedagogy should become part of the curriculum. especially learning to write in both native and foreign language contexts of English.Chapter 5: Conclusion. The teaching of English has been impacted by the development of both the teaching profession and lingusic studies. Globalisation and the increasing imperative for Indonesia to have effective speakers of English for trade and international communication require that our schools and universities provide excellent English programs of a kind produced using genre based pedagogy. such as listening and reading and teaching students from different social backgrounds and ethnic groups. and policy in schools. 160 . it is suggested here that a number of important issues and recommendations should be borne in mind by policy makers. policy context and future research 5. 5. has been informed by a number of different theories related to teaching and learning English in the modern world. it is proposed to conclude with some recommendations regarding policy contexts. and future research for the Indonesian context. including those in applied and educational linguistics. especially writing in English. critical literacy. Also there are a lot of areas that have not been touched upon. especially the process aproach. Moreover. such as Australia and foreign language contexts. and second or foreign language teaching. In service teacher education. This book obviously has been able to present only a summary and small part of the range of research findings in the various areas discussed and interested readers will be pointed to the references given if they want to find out more. critical pedagogy. achieve satisfactory completion of the teaching practicum. demonstrating practical ways to apply the theories they have been taught. Provide enhanced funding and scholarships for teachers to pursue further studies Develop more partnerships between national bodies and teacher-training institutes to promote shared expertise and research. 5.5. exams.2. Apply good and well articulated assessment principles that can lead to certification. Include an important component devoted to critical thinking. where they write reflective essays about teaching English. and to communicate easily with each other in the classroom. many of whom are not familiar with modern theories and research methods. This will include developing programs for good qualification and for strong competencies in English and the teaching of English. Provide good resources including a range of print materials and other resources for English learning and immersing students in a print-rich learning environment. Provide programs in functional grammar using systemic functional linguistic theory and genre-based pedagogy. 161 . Adopt innovative teaching practices through the use of multimedia. film and videos.2. critical theory. seating arrangements should be adjusted to enable students to work in groups.2 Policy in Inservice Techer Education Policy in Inservice teacher education should: Encourage teachers to upgrade their skills and knowledge.g. Retrain lecturers. critical pedagogy and critical literacy. requiring students: to create and maintain major portfolios of work devoted to English teaching. 5. Improve the physical arrangementS in schools e. expressed in good English. and reveal a thorough knowledge of theories and skills in conducting research through the writing of a thesis. and oportunities for further development. by providing better access to courses. CDROMs and computers. Apply fairer and more accountable portfolio assessments for teachers.1 Policy in Preservice Teacher Education Preservice English Teacher Education programs should: Provide student teachers with a strong theoretical framework and practical skills for teaching English. Establish a library where students can find information or materials they need for their writing and reading.2.3 Policy in schools Schools should make efforts to: Reduce the class sizes. further research should be focused on the following matters: The implementation of the SFL GBA in teaching other genres that are considered to be more difficult. how much time they need to produce a neat and successful argumentative text.3. The implementation of the SFL GBA at the university level in different contexts. This is to test such matters as whether students are able to write persuasive and convincing argumentative texts. Regarding the implementation of the SFL GBA. should be used in reading and writing to foster their critical thinking and reading at the different ages and stages of schooling? In conducting action reserach. Examination of what materials are most appropriate to promote students‟ ability in reading and listening. First of all. Future research With respect to future research. Consideration of what questions for different levels of education should be asked to promote students‟ critical thinking and critical literacy. and at what stage of the approach these two language skills might be most successfully developed. future research should address the following: What aspects of critical thinking should be developed at different levels of education? What questions. An investigation of the extent to which SFL GBA can help students develop other language skills. both at secondary and tertiary levels. such as argumentative or explanation genre. and whether the students‟ critical thinking development can more clearly be seen in writing different genres. regarding critical thinking and critical literacy. further research in different areas that have been described throughout the book should be conducted to confirm the findings revealed in our studies. what research they have to do.5. as suggested by the theory of critical literacy. 162 . several foci of research can be identified. especially listening and speaking. especially listening and reading. and their views about engaging with the views of parents and other adults. including in different departements to check the values and challenges of implementing the approach in EFL tertiary contexts. Investigation of the teaching of other language skills. further research might involve: Exploration of teachers‟ own and their colleagues‟ professional knowledge. Moreover. where the establishment of international standard classes has occurred. Investigation of the authenticity of materials for teaching listening and reading (Hadley. Finally. 1998.3 Summary This. such as Science and Mathematics. & Littlemore. Slatin. then is what the book ultimately expects to accomplish. 5. because. it is sometimes hard to determine whether they suit the students‟ need. A lot of research has reported the benefits of the use of computers (Swaffar. The teaching learning process is a complex task and activity. 163 . Chambers. especially in some parts of Indonesia. and their students. Further research should attempt to find out whether the use of computers can confirm the findings of research as reported by Swaffar (1998:3). to help create a better teaching learning process and better results in students‟ learning. and if they are authentic. provide immediate feedback in the teaching of writing.. as Hadley suggests. with the development of technology and the avalilability of computers in some schools. and therefore teachers should be flexible and responsive to the conditions of the classroom. readers will become better informed teachers themselves. Conducting observations to investigate whether students should use the laboratory or just practise listening in the classroom using a tape recorder to enhance their listening skillS. 2004). who suggested that computers can: foster students‟ cognitive development and promote increasingly sophisticated expressions in students‟ writing. it is not easy to determine whether materials used are really authentic. requiring that all subjects be taught in English. Research into the teaching of English in the content areas. 2001). without the delays inherent in written feedback in the traditional classrooms. reduce “teacher talk”. and willing to undertake further research in their own classroom. where this would include such matters as what basic concepts and thoughts of each approach can be made complementary in order to create a complete and comprehensive strategy for teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesia. 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