ELT Journal

Contents ELT Journal Volume 62 Number 3 July 2008 Articles Richard Cullen Gary Barkhuizen Simon Evans John Macalister Shosh Leshem and Rivka Bar-Hama Fumiyo Nakatsuhara Teaching grammar as a liberating force 221 A narrative approach to exploring context in language teaching 231 Reading reaction journals in EAP courses 240 Implementing extensive reading in an EAP programme 248 Evaluating teaching practice 257 Inter-interviewer variation in oral interview tests 266 Point and counterpoint Ramin Akbari Colin Sowden Ramin Akbari Transforming lives: introducing critical pedagogy into ELT classrooms 276 There’s more to life than politics 284 Education is filled with politics 292 Survey review Hitomi Masuhara, Naeema Hann, Yong Yi, and Brian Tomlinson Adult EFL courses 294 Reviews Marı´a Luz C. Vilches Bev Davies Linda Scott Sandie Moura˜o Gregory P.Glasgow How to Teach English (Second Edition) by J. Harmer 313 The Oxford ESOL Handbook by P. Schellekens 316 The CELTA Course by S. Thornbury and P. Watkins 318 500 Activities for the Primary Classroom by C. Read 320 Teacher Language Awareness by S. Andrews 322 Websites for the language teacher Diana Eastment Open access 325 IATEFL 329 Please visit ELT Journal’s website at http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org Teaching grammar as a liberating force Richard Cullen The idea of grammar as a ‘liberating force’ comes from a paper by Henry Widdowson (1990) in which grammar is depicted as a resource which liberates the language user from an over-dependency on lexis and context for the expression of meaning. In this paper, I consider the implications for second language teaching of the notion of grammar as a liberating force, and identify three key design features which, I propose, need to be present in any grammar production task in which this notion is given prominence. These are: learner choice over which grammatical structures to use; a process of ‘grammaticization’ where the learners apply grammar to lexis; and opportunities to make comparisons and notice gaps in their use of grammar. I then discuss, with practical examples, types of grammar task which exhibit these features. These tasks all derive from traditional E LT practice, but have been revitalized to support an approach to teaching grammar which emphasizes its liberating potential. The liberating potential of grammar In an essay entitled ‘Grammar, and nonsense, and learning’, Widdowson (1990: 86) wrote: . . . grammar is not a constraining imposition but a liberating force: it frees us from a dependency on context and a purely lexical categorization of reality. Given that many learners—and teachers—tend to view grammar as a set of restrictions on what is allowed and disallowed in language use—‘a linguistic straitjacket’ in Larsen-Freeman’s words (2002: 103)—the conception of grammar as something that liberates rather than represses is one that is worth investigating further. In this paper, I first explore the implications of this statement for our understanding of the nature of grammar and the role it plays in communication, and then go on to discuss how this understanding might inform approaches to teaching grammar in second language classrooms. Widdowson’s conception of grammar as a liberating force may be a striking image, but what he meant by it is not contentious. Without any grammar, the learner is forced to rely exclusively on lexis and the immediate context, combined with gestures, intonation and other prosodic and non-verbal features, to communicate his/her intended meanings. For example, the three lexical items ‘dog eat meat’ could be strung together in that order to communicate the intended message that ‘the dog has eaten the meat (which E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008; doi:10.1093/elt/ccm042 ª The Author 2008. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved. Advance Access publication March 15, 2008 221 ). 3 Dogs eat meat. . cit. etc. abruptness.: 197) illustrates how a writer might deliberately contrast two tenses to indicate approval and disapproval towards the respective subjects of the verb: Smith (1980) argued that Britain was no longer a country in which freedom of speech was seriously maintained. distant. such as time. The following example from Batstone (ibid. provided there is enough shared context between the interlocutors—the empty plate.. the utterance is potentially ambiguous and could convey a range of alternative meanings. We may wish to convey formality or informality 222 Richard Cullen . whereas the contrasting use of the present tense in the following sentence shows that Johnson’s argument is held to be of real and continuing relevance. grammar is a liberating force. tense. Batstone (ibid. number. Johnson (1983). we may wish to be very clear about what we want to say. or non-committal. As language users. and social intimacy or distance. and aspect. LarsenFreeman op. the meat and our plans for dinner—to allow the utterance to be interpreted correctly. or deliberately ambiguous.: 198) suggests that the use of the past tense signals that Smith’s argument is no longer worthy of current interest . such as: 1 The dog is eating the meat. . though. frequency. disapproval. the shared knowledge of the dog. We may wish to sound polite. 2 A dog must have eaten the meat. It is grammar that allows us to make these finer distinctions in meaning—in the above examples. In this sense. etc. cit. With insufficient contextual information. The liberating power which grammar gives us—to transcend the limitations of lexis and context in the communication of meaning—is also deployed in expressing attitudinal meanings. duration. politeness. (Batstone op. direct. Central to the notion of grammar as a liberating force is the view of grammar as a communicative resource on which speakers draw to express their intended meanings at both levels—the notional and the attitudinal. through the use of the article system. Notional and attitudinal meanings in grammar The above examples illustrate how grammar is used to indicate differences in ‘notional meaning’ (Batstone 1995)—that is differences in semantic categories. or even rude.we were going to cook for dinner)’. Commenting on this example. such as approval. definiteness. As such the use of a particular grammatical structure is a matter of speaker choice. The writer is here using grammar to signal something about his attitude to the ideas he is discussing. it is (in two significant senses) passe´. and generally enables us to communicate with a degree of precision not available to the learner with only a minimal command of the system. It thereby frees us from a dependency on lexis and contextual clues in the twin tasks of interpreting and expressing meanings. argues that Britain remains a citadel of individual liberty. second language researchers such as Swain (1995) and Skehan (2002) have argued strongly that output tasks which are both system-stretching. for example. and deploy them as effectively as they can to match specific contexts and meet specific communicative goals. To do all these things. a focus on specific grammatical forms as they arise in contexts of language use—is an essential ingredient ‘to raise the ultimate level of attainment’ (Long op. in the sense that they allow learners to become aware of gaps in their current state of interlanguage development. and awareness-raising. cit. an emphasis on grammar as a liberating force would favour a process rather than a product approach to teaching grammar (Batstone 1994.according to the context in which we are operating. However. In particular. Long 2001. speakers use the linguistic resources which the grammar of the language makes available to them: grammar is thus at the service of the language user. would be in the design of production tasks which challenge learners grammatically. Focus on form and output tasks The kind of liberating force attributed to grammar so far lies in its intrinsic nature—as a resource to enhance power and precision in the communication of meaning. are crucial elements in a pedagogy designed to provide the required focus on form. I propose that an approach to teaching grammar as a liberating force should include the following three elements: 1 Learner choice Given that the deployment of grammar in communication invariably involves the speaker or writer in making a free and conscious choice (notwithstanding the fact that having chosen a particular grammatical structure there are conventions to observe regarding its acceptable formation). whereby learners are not compelled to use a particular grammatical structure which has been preselected for them—it would be difficult to conceive of grammar being genuinely a liberating force if they were—but rather they choose from their stock of grammatical knowledge to express the meanings they wish to convey. In this respect. and the teaching of grammar—especially if we wish to present grammar to our learners as something which is liberating and empowering—should aim to reflect this. Three design features in teaching grammar as a liberating force From the foregoing discussion. There is a considerable body of evidence in second language acquisition research (see. Teaching grammar as a liberating force 223 . in that they push the learners to use their full grammatical resources.: 184). there is another sense in which grammar might be termed a liberating force. Ellis 2005) to suggest that a focus on form—that is. One of the practical implications of the notion of teaching grammar as a liberating force. the first element is that the learner must have a degree of choice over the grammatical structures they use. and also lead them to notice gaps in their knowledge of the target language system. and that is in its potential as a focus of second language instruction to drive forward learning processes and so help to liberate the learner from the shackles of the ‘intermediate plateau’. Thornbury 2001). therefore. for example. through a sustained programme of comparing and noticing ‘gaps’ and differences. It is not. which have stood the 224 Richard Cullen . Task types for teaching grammar as a liberating force Four task types which exemplify these different elements are discussed below. cit. where the learners are in effect asked to map grammar on to lexis. Willis 1996. where the meaning content is conveyed primarily through lexical items. I should point out that I do not claim any originality for them. Skehan op.2 Lexis to grammar If grammar liberates the language user by enabling him/her to transcend the limitations of telegraphic speech (using lexical items alone). however. and in the language we expect them to produce. to enable them to develop their proficiency and sensitivity in the target language to increasingly more advanced levels. and then have to slot lexis into it. as typically found in notes of a meeting or a newspaper headline. cit. Such tasks. These gaps are noticed through a process of comparing their output on a language production task with that of other learners or more proficient users. or a written transcript of native speakers doing the same task (Willis op. where the learners are typically asked to move in the opposite direction—they begin with a preselected grammatical structure.) and relates to the importance of allowing the learners to focus on grammatical forms which arise from their communicative needs. By engaging in this kind of activity. Indeed some. have partially fallen into disuse. there should be a progression from lexis to grammar both in the way language and materials are presented to learners. a sample text. particularly as exercises to develop writing skills. because it arises from the specific communicative needs which the learners discover in the processes of doing the task.). I would suggest. not just to help them express their meanings in a particular activity with greater precision. learners experience the process of using their grammatical resources to develop the meaning potential contained in the lexical items and express a range of meanings which the words alone could not convey. and in particular as a result of noticing gaps in their own use of grammar. The focus on grammar is thus ‘reactive’ rather than proactive (Doughty and Williams 1998). In this way learners experience the liberating potential of grammar. reviewing their performance and comparing it with others. involve a process known variously as grammaticization (Batstone 1994) or ‘grammaring’ (Thornbury 2001). a process promoted in traditional approaches to grammar teaching such as the presentation–practice–production format. since they all involve classroom activities which have been in use for many years. A grammar production task would typically require the learners to apply grammar to samples of language in which the grammar has been reduced or simplified. Such a process is not dissimilar to the processes involved in first language acquisition whereby the child moves from communication through telegraphic utterances involving strings of lexical items to the gradual deployment of morphemes and function words. What I am aiming to do here is to show how fairly standard techniques. 3 Comparing texts and noticing gaps The third element in teaching grammar as a liberating force derives from well-established principles of task-based pedagogy (for example. At the outset. but over time. The example in Figure 1 shows a grammaticization task using newspaper headlines. (Headlines 1. suitable for higher-level students—academic writing classes. and in this way naturally focus on and discuss some of the differences between their use of grammar and that of the original text. 16 August 2007. headline 2 from the Ashford Express. They can also be asked to look for any patterns in the way grammar is used in the opening paragraphs in all four stories. either individually or in consultation with others. for example—could include the use of bullet points taken from PowerPoint presentations prepared by the students themselves. and requires the use of various grammatical devices needed for the construction of complex sentences. purpose clauses and subordination. and 4 from The Times.) Other grammaticization tasks. 31 August 2007. after doing this. The three elements are clearly present in this type of task: first. figure 1 Grammaticization task using newspaper headlines. 3. Teaching grammar as a liberating force 225 . and the use of the passive. and third. they start with lexis and add grammar to it. the learners use their grammatical resources to develop and expand information presented in the form of notes in which grammatical features are reduced or even omitted altogether. The technique is a traditional sentence combination task done at text rather than sentence level. can be revitalized and adapted to support a more contemporary approach to teaching grammar. they compare their texts with one another and with the original paragraph in the newspaper. thereby giving practice in essay writing skills. clauses in apposition. the learners have a free choice over which grammatical features to use to expand the headlines. These would be used to ‘cue’ the writing of short paragraphs and summaries. Task type 1: Grammaticization tasks In these tasks. as well as cohesive devices such as linking words. second. Task type 2: Synthesis tasks Synthesis tasks (Graver 1986) are variations on grammaticization tasks and take the form of exercises which start with a short text. based on an idea in Thornbury 2001. consisting of a string of short. Kent Messenger Group. such as relative clauses. relative clauses. for example in the use of the present perfect tense.test of time. as well as any additional lexis that may be required to develop and elaborate the story. non-complex sentences which the learners are required to combine in some way so as to reduce the number of sentences and create a more natural piece of text. An example is given in Figure 2. as well as differences in content. London. it certainly moves from a text where the grammar has been artificially reduced or simplified to one in which it is more elaborated. Dictogloss clearly meets all three criteria for designing tasks which emphasize the liberating nature of grammar. before trying to reconstruct the text from their notes.Again it will be seen that the task combines the three elements noted above: the learners have choice over the grammatical devices they think are needed to reconstruct the text in the most effective way. A particular advantage of dictogloss is that the texts selected (or specially written. argumentative. although the task may not. The students move from lexis to grammar as they strive to grammaticize the notes they made while listening to the text. strictly speaking. The task also develops sensitivity to writing style and what makes a coherent. move from lexis to grammar. they choose from their own grammatical resources while reconstructing the text. Finally. In dictogloss. figure 2 Synthesis task (adapted from an idea in Graver 1986) Task types 3 and 4: dictogloss and picture composition These two task types are variations on the same procedure. They compare their versions with one another and with the teacher’s own version and so have the opportunity to expand their own knowledge. and finally they compare their versions with one another in order to improve and refine them (Thornbury 1997). if used with an upper-intermediate level academic 226 Richard Cullen . or grammar dictation (Wajnryb 1990). learners have to listen to and take notes on a short text read aloud to them. before comparing them with the original version. drawing on their own knowledge of the language. fluent narrative. etc. which.—depending on the aims of the lesson and needs of the learners. narrative. The example in the Appendix is a paragraph from a Wikipedia entry about the Hubble Telescope. as in Wajnryb’s 1990 book) can be of any type—descriptive. in that they require the students to reconstruct an original ‘text’ by supplying more grammar to it. and then comparing their new versions with those of others. figure 3 A procedure for a picture composition task Teaching grammar as a liberating force 227 . structures used with superlative forms of adjectives. astronomical). Picture composition is another traditional technique used in teaching writing which lends itself to this approach to teaching grammar. astronomer. perhaps as part of a unit on space exploration. presented at Step 6. some language can be built into the picture sequence itself. cit. I have made the element of comparing texts deliberately less direct in this task. as is typically found in a cartoon strip. In addition. the sequence of pictures used would need to be accompanied by key words (provided either by the teacher or ‘negotiated’ with the whole class).). The teacher’s version in fact is only a composite of the individual group versions (and it is important that it is presented as such) and is available as a source for comparison at the end of the process when the students correct any errors in their own texts. The procedure shown in Figure 3 begins by following a fairly traditional sequence (Steps 1 to 3) based on a similar task found in Ur 1988 (see the example in the Appendix). could lead to a focus on various grammatical features such as the use of the present perfect tense in descriptive texts of this kind. and word suffixes (astronomy. but adopts a more structured procedure for focusing on form at Steps 4 to 7. in order to avoid giving the students the impression that the stories which they composed in Step 1 and edited in Step 4 are less worthy or interesting than the other groups’ stories or the teacher’s ‘version’. one which is more consistent with the task-based cycle of teaching described by Willis (op.writing class. In order to provide for the ‘lexis to grammar’ dimension. As has been pointed out. and preferable at all times and for all levels of student. There are two further observations about the task types presented here which need to be made. we need at least to provide opportunities for our learners to experience its liberating potential through the kind of process-oriented grammar tasks described here. while having a written text to study and compare with another written text makes it easier to focus on form and to notice and record features of grammar which might otherwise be overlooked. in which grammatical items are not selected and presented in advance for learners to use. between active and passive verb forms. although I have argued in this paper that a process-oriented approach to teaching grammar is more consistent with the notion of grammar as a liberating force than a product-oriented approach. Such tasks would involve considering the effects created by changing some of the grammatical features used in a text. but rather grammar is treated as ‘a resource which language users exploit as they navigate their way through discourse’ (Batstone 1994: 224). Gaps in their knowledge are noticed later through the process of matching and comparing so that work can begin on trying to fill them. particularly for lower-level students. I am not claiming that such an approach is inherently superior. all the task types presented have involved the learners in the creation of written texts. or asking learners to make grammatical choices in a given text. Secondly. and are derived from fairly standard guided writing tasks. and as a general policy a balanced combination of the two approaches is likely to be the most effective teaching strategy to adopt. and then comparing their choices with the original text. The activities also follow a process approach to teaching grammar. the approach which these activities exemplify is task-based in design. There are many circumstances where it may be necessary and desirable to pre-select language items for attention prior to setting learners loose on a task. if we are serious about emphasizing the notion of grammar as a liberating force in our teaching. I have looked only at types of task which require learners to produce language and have not discussed receptive grammar tasks designed to raise awareness of the various notional and attitudinal meanings which can be expressed by grammar. This emphasis on writing is deliberate: writing is generally done with more care and attention to grammatical accuracy than speaking. and have gone on to show how these elements can be incorporated into the design of grammar production activities in the E F L classroom. given the scope of this paper. in that the focus on form comes after a freer activity in which the learners use whatever language resources they can muster: the teaching progression is thus from fluency to accuracy rather than vice versa.Conclusion In this paper I have identified three elements which I see as being central to an approach to teaching grammar which emphasizes its role as ‘a liberating force’ (as defined in Widdowson’s essay). However. Finally. for example. Final revised version received October 2007 228 Richard Cullen . Such awareness raising activities would also have an important role in teaching grammar as a liberating force since they emphasize the notion of learner choice in the use of grammar. Firstly. ‘Pedagogic choices in focus on form’ in C.References Batstone. Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Aspects of Language Teaching.). ‘Reformulation and reconstruction: tasks that promote noticing’. C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. IATEF L 2002: York Conference Selections. E LT Journal 51/4: 326–35.ac. . They have to ‘recover’ the rest by taking notes as it is read aloud to them (twice) and then reconstructing the text from their notes. B. Ellis. 1994. Oxford: Oxford University Press.). Hubble’s Ultra Deep Field is the deepest (most sensitive) astronomical optical image ever taken. The Hubble Space Telescope is a telescope in orbit around the Earth. Mercer (eds. M. Hinkel and S. which calculates the rate at which the universe is expanding. ‘Principles of instructed second language learning’. famous for his discovery of galaxies outside the Milky Way and his creation of Hubble’s Law. 1996. Cook and B. Doughty and J. Oxford: Oxford University Press. H. R.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope Teaching grammar as a liberating force 229 . London: Routledge. Advanced English Practice (third edition). A. teacher and trainer development. ‘The Grammar of choice’ in E. UK. it has become one of the most important instruments in the history of astronomy. Mahwah. Tonkyn. research and practice’ in A. Larsen-Freeman. 1995. R. and J.wikipedia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1990. Whitstable: I AT E F L. ‘Product and process: grammar in the second language classroom’ in M. and has also taught and trained teachers in Nepal and Greece.). Williams (eds. Seidlhofer (eds. Ur. Seidlhofer (eds. R. Fotos (eds. Wajnryb. M.uk Students are given the first sentence of the text. N. It is named after astronomer Edwin Hubble. His research interests include classroom discourse. and E. D. 1986. S. Batstone.). Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International. Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics.J. Willis. Williams (eds. He has worked for the British Council on teacher education projects in Egypt. Bangladesh. ‘Three functions of output in second language learning’ in G. Candlin and N. Bygate. A Framework for Task-based Learning. 1990. English Language Teaching in its Social Context. 1988. New Perspectives on Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Williams. P. Skehan. Oxford: Heinemann Macmillan. S. 1997. Uncovering Grammar. Graver.). 1995. Widdowson.). Long. 2002. Doughty. P. and Tanzania. http://en. 2002. Email: rmc1@cant. Appendix 1 Dictogloss text Swain. London: Longman. J. Cook and B. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. It has been responsible for many ground-breaking observations and has helped astronomers achieve a better understanding of many fundamental problems in astrophysics. The author Richard Cullen is Head of the Department of English and Language Studies at Canterbury Christ Church University. R. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics. ‘Grammar in discourse: attitude and deniability’ in G. Thornbury. and the teaching and learning of grammar. Grammar Dictation. ‘Focus on form: a design feature in language teaching methodology’ in C.: Lawrence Erlbawm Associates. and since its launch in 1990. with a particular interest in spoken grammar. Pulverness (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1998. 2001. 2001. Thornbury. 2005. Grammar and the Second Language Teacher. The telescope’s position outside the Earth’s atmosphere allows it to take sharp optical images of very faint objects. Grammar Practice Activities. ‘Task-based instruction: theory. System 33/2: 209–24. 2 Picture composition material (The sequence of pictures is taken from Ur 1988: 218) 230 Richard Cullen . the teacher herself. the primary school teacher tells of a time back in South Africa when. the worst was to be able to tell a kid off in English. A narrative inquiry case is presented to provide a framework for the discussion. and is followed by an illustration of each using extracts from the written story of one of the participating teachers. Advance Access publication May 29. It is easy to see how this extract from the interview is a story. and so I prepared a series of appropriate questions to ask during the semi-structured interviews. she was required to use both English and Afrikaans as the languages of instruction in her classroom. the South African E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008. You would do the whole thing in Afrikaans and the kid would look at you and. the sort of casual discussions one has with friends and family about familiar topics. as a result of recent language-in-education policy changes. a good starting point even though I smashed it all up when I came. My aim was to discover their language-related experiences as immigrants living and working in a new country. Instead of a basic question-answer format. A brief description of these levels is provided. Firstly. I soon discovered that the interviews took on a rather different shape from what I had planned and expected.1093/elt/ccm043 ª The Author 2007. which gave me a good ground to come here. She ends by saying that this early experience prepared her for teaching in New Zealand. ‘could you please translate that?’ It is a hard thing to be able to tell a kid off or to get mad in English instead of in Afrikaans. she struggled in this new English-only context. This article outlines a narrative approach for exploring context. a lot of what the teachers said took the form of stories. even though. Emerging from this narrative case are three levels of story applicable to the participant English teachers’ lives. the interviews looked more like conversations.A narrative approach to exploring context in language teaching Gary Barkhuizen In recent years there have been persistent calls for teachers to explore their teaching contexts in order to become more aware of them and to understand them. 2007 231 . So I had all of a sudden to be able to talk Afrikaans and English at the same time. all rights reserved. Below is an extract from one of these. Introduction I discovered the power of narrative inquiry while interviewing Afrikaansspeaking teachers from South Africa who had immigrated to New Zealand. Published by Oxford University Press. Doing so would enable teachers to make more informed decisions about their practice and their students’ learning. But it went very well and some of my senior classes I had to speak Afrikaans and English in the class at the same time. at first. there are people or characters in the story. Furthermore. In this extract. doi:10. It was rather hard to change. In this article. sharing. Any story is positioned within the matrix or space that these three interrelated dimensions create. of course. when she was teaching in South Africa. for example. 232 Gary Barkhuizen . Claims of narrative inquiry in teacher education There are substantial claims made about the value of narrative inquiry for teachers in both the theoretical and empirical literature on language teacher education. 2 And the consequence of this is meaning making. time. Johnson and Golombek 2002). analysing and interpreting their teaching stories. involves both introspection and interrogation.) Furthermore. teachers get the opportunity to reflect on their own practice and to articulate their interpretations of this practice. therefore. in other words. and decided to explore further how other teachers and teacher educators had engaged with narrative in their work. broadly South Africa and New Zealand. has important implications for teachers. and the students in New Zealand.students in junior and senior classes. I present a narrative inquiry exemplar (Lyons and LaBoskey 2002) located within a South African university context to provide a framework for my discussion. the story is located in different places. Constructing and thinking about stories in this way. and currently at the time of telling the story. These can be summarized as follows: 1 Narrative inquiry is reflective inquiry. a special issue of the journal Teaching and Teacher Education which focuses on narrative perspectives on research in teaching and teacher education. by both the teller of the story and the narrative researcher. Emerging from this narrative case are three levels of story applicable to the participant English teachers’ lives. there is a fast growing interest in narrative inquiry (Bell 2002. Gudmundsdottir 1997. I illustrate these story levels with narrative data from one of the teachers. 2 the time during which the story takes place. I very quickly became aware of this during my interviews with the immigrant teachers. in terms of their own practice and consequently in terms of the learning outcomes of their students. ‘context is crucial to meaning making’. and place) interrelate to produce what Clandinin and Connelly (2000) refer to as a threedimensional narrative space which provides context for any particular story. The three dimensions are as follows: 1 the participants in the story—their own experiences and their interactions with others. making sense or gaining an understanding of one’s teaching knowledge and practice. Finally. in the field of language teacher education. I argue that a narrative approach to exploring one’s teaching context leads to a good understanding of that context. As Phillion and Connelly (2004: 460) say. and 3 the physical settings or places in which the story is located. These three elements (characters in interaction. Through constructing. but also more specifically in schools and classrooms. (See. This. The story also refers to different times. when she first started teaching in New Zealand. including its temporal connections to history and the future. and it is within this context that the story is understood. My findings revealed that there is a relatively long history of narrative inquiry in general teacher education. The aim here is to emphasize the ‘particularity’ of teaching. There were only two students in this class. change within self and one’s practice. their own practice. The reasoning behind such an aim is that teachers teach best and learners learn best in situations that are compatible with their backgrounds. beliefs. that one way to achieve this understanding is to undertake narrative inquiry in the form of constructing. as opposed to focusing on only one or two isolated variables in a particular context. and reflecting on one’s personal teaching stories. location-specific pedagogy that is based on a true understanding of local linguistic. The potential for interaction was high and the content of the course lent itself to debate and open-ended discussion. a recent graduate with no classroom experience (I’ll call her Betty). I am suggesting in this article. the school and community culture. local contexts such as the needs and wants of their students. social. this is not always easy to do. In constructing stories teachers bring together many of these. they develop their personal practical knowledge to the extent that they act in the future with insight and foresight. cultural. one with 20 years’ English teaching experience (I’ll call her Roxanne). The purpose of such a particular.3 The result of this deeper understanding is change. and its focus was on recent issues to do with language teaching. dynamic arrangement of many factors. A narrative inquiry exemplar To explore narrative inquiry in language teacher education further. and expectations. Calls for a context approach to language teaching highlight the necessity of ‘placing context at the heart of the profession’ (Bax 2003: 278). to see the whole picture. When teachers articulate and interpret the stories of their practice.: 4) make this point. These conditions appeared to me to be ideal for engaging with narrative systematically for the first time. So. existing syllabuses and language-in-education policies. therefore. saying. can be educative if it enables us to reflect on our actions and then act with foresight’. beyond the literature. 5 Narrative inquiry is contextualized inquiry. stories include many of these linked together. Any teaching situation is a complex. with two-hour meetings 2–3 times a week. generally and in the South African context. which involves teachers exploring the numerous aspects of their particular. interpreting. one aspect of what Kumaravadivelu (2006: 69) calls a postmethod pedagogy: ‘Particularity seeks to facilitate the advancement of a context-sensitive. ‘inquiry into experience . as well as the wider sociopolitical context (even at the level of the state) in which the teaching and learning take place. I had the opportunity while visiting South Africa to collaborate in an inquiry with English teachers in the context of a university postgraduate ELT course. I was the lecturer on the course. Johnson and Golombek (op. and the other. The intensive course ran over the period of a month. and the process of making sense of the stories means unravelling this complexity. 4 As we know. . A narrative approach to exploring context in language teaching 233 . and political particularities’. context-sensitive approach is for teachers to make sense of their own working situations and thus to practise in a contextually-appropriate way. . the teaching resources and facilities available. cit. as others have done elsewhere. and in reflecting on the stories there exists the potential for them. and had observed teaching. as well as entirely new stories. concerns. those at varying levels of remove from our own. and so shared my own experiences of English teaching and being a teacher educator. that is. and then organizing the themes into categories meaningful to themselves as (prospective) English teachers (Ellis and Barkhuizen 2005. and these conversations. The following topics were suggested to provide some focus to the stories: a Introduce yourself and tell the story of your interest in English teaching. fears. Polkinghorne 1995). they were encouraged to use Clandinin and Connelly’s (op. analysing the stories for themes. and went to South Africa to complete her first degree and to study for an English teaching qualification. the students were required to conduct a content analysis of the three stories they constructed. revealed that our personal stories of these experiences interconnected with other stories.) three dimensional contextual space to guide their analysis and interpretation. My independent involvement included keeping narrative notes of my experiences during the course. Betty too was educated outside South Africa. in a different southern African country. Our narrative work involved the following: 1 The students were required to write a series of three personal narratives or stories (about 1000 words each) which together would form one long. Lastly. cit. Roxanne completed her teacher education in a west African country. To do so. 234 Gary Barkhuizen . as well as personally? c What are some of the desires. In these notes. Three interconnected levels of story When I analysed all these narrative data I noticed that our stories seemed to reflect context at different levels. The important word here is interconnected: the stories mutually construct each other. b What are your ideas regarding the process of becoming a language teacher—generally. our exploration of the contexts in which we had taught. and what we were learning. together with those stories which stemmed from them. This was done in an informal way. taught English there. Of course. I too was part of these conversations. about language teaching and language teacher education in the contexts in which we lived and worked. The stories were to be submitted to me as part of an assignment—see below. In other words. contributed to the data of the inquiry. moments of joy that language teachers experience? 2 Opportunities were created in class for the students to share their 3 4 5 6 stories with each other and with me. connected story. how our story telling and sharing was progressing. had been taught. I recorded what I was learning about narrative inquiry. and then worked in a southern African country before moving to South Africa. as part of their assignment (see point 1 above). All these stories were integrated with our more formal discussions and interpretations of the theoretical literature we were reading during the course.especially since the two students came from very different cultural and educational backgrounds. including that on narrative inquiry in the field of language teaching. both individually and collectively. during oneon-one conversations with students and colleagues. and consequently their stories. Here teachers have even less power to make decisions about conditions which influence their practice. The use of capital letters to refer to this level of S TORY merely signifies a wider. Examples of STO RIES include national language-in-education policy. as well as the many social interactions in which they take part during their teaching practice. for example. for example. a school’s language-in-education policy. 3 A third level of S T O RY (in capital letters) refers to the broader sociopolitical context in which teaching and learning takes place. 2 A second level of Story (with a capital S) spreads wider than the immediate psychological and inter-personal context of the teacher. expectations and prescriptions. macro context and the power often associated with it. imposed curriculum from Ministries of Education. and in teaching journals or portfolios. and the methods and materials which teachers are required to use by their supervisors and budget-conscious administrators. figure 1 Three interconnected stories A narrative approach to exploring context in language teaching 235 .I represent these levels as follows—see Figure 1: 1 The inner circle consists of a particular teacher’s story. This story is constructed in teachers’ immediate contexts. At this level of Story teachers usually have less control. and socioeconomic circumstances in a region. less power to manipulate the complex arrangement of variables that construct their practice. This story is personal. as well as their attitudes. the wants and needs of the community from which the students come. In no way does it diminish the worth of any individual teacher’s story. Included in this Story are consequences of decisions typically made by others in the work environment. emotions. ideas and theories of teachers. during classroom lessons. and embodies the inner thoughts. In the final 236 Gary Barkhuizen . This is to be expected. Roxanne reports on an external monitoring process. All of these are done to ensure that the required standard is maintained. I illustrate the three story levels by presenting extracts from Roxanne’s story constructed during our narrative inquiry exemplar in South Africa. but more importantly. in an unfamiliar cultural context. The following extract from her written narrative clearly suggests context at a personal level. especially my learning/teaching experiences in the [west African] ES L context’. The next extract is part of a longer story which relates her experiences of teaching a literature-based English course for the first time. This desire motivates me to prepare very well before going to the classroom to teach. it would be impossible to make sense of any one level without considering the others. Exploring context in language teaching. She then moved to South Africa and continued her teacher education by embarking on a further qualification. since the three levels of story are very much interconnected. the context is such that her control of her practice within it is not as intimate and secure as at the level of story (with a small s). necessarily means exploring all three levels of story. For any particular teacher. and S T O R Y In this section. that is. I desire to impart knowledge effectively to learners in a manner that they will clearly understand each topic of discussion and develop a love for English as a second language. and her comment suggesting that she learnt much from such surveillance is evidence of the story–Story connection. and at times it may be difficult to distinguish them. Roxanne’s story connects with Stories going on at a level outside her immediate domain.These levels of story are obviously interrelated. perform well in tests and exams. There is also the desire in me for my students to develop proficiency in the language and display this by participating actively in class activities. Story. Here. for them to acquire lifelong skills in effective communication (both in written and spoken) in English in different settings. Story At this level. Roxanne remarked in her analysis of her narrative (the second part of the assignment) that writing her story was the first time she had articulated this personal dimension of her teaching life: ‘it has given me the opportunity to reflect critically on some important aspects of my life that I have not given serious consideration to previously. therefore. I learnt a lot from all these experienced teachers. Roxanne’s story. specifically her inner thoughts about her philosophy of teaching and her goals for her students. The following extract illustrates this contextual level: School inspectors (experienced teachers) from the Department of Education also come regularly to inspect the teaching/learning activities going on in the schools. story Roxanne taught English at primary and high schools in a west African country (where she was born) before moving to another country in southern Africa where she taught English at university level. Once she qualified as an English teacher the government Education Department deployed her (as it did all graduates) to teach in a location different from where she lived: A program was designed to promote unity to some extent. I have come to learn how to continuously identify problems in my teaching beliefs and practice and . and future) and the many social interactions in which she engaged (with inspectors. South Africa. For example. She became aware of the importance of critical reflection and meaning making when writing her story. more numerous in number than each of the classes I had taught previously and a new course. I had a more mature group of students from an entirely different cultural background. therefore. which I had to relate to their society and culture. It was quite challenging at first.sentence she once again connects this wider context to her own personal practice. reflection which brought together the three contextual dimensions of place (her west African country of origin. present. She had no power to resist them. the bad economic situation in her country meant that she had to put off her teacher education for a few years. . . I had to work after high school in order to save some money for my university education because of the economic situation of my family and most families in [the country] under military dictatorship. as well as reflection which spanned the three levels of story. . A narrative approach to exploring context in language teaching 237 . Literature and Society. In order to qualify and work as a teacher in the context of this S TORY. Our collaborative narrative inquiry. to reflect always on my past learning/ teaching experiences and think of how I can make the needed changes in order to become a better language teacher in the future. time (past. Since I hail from [name of] state and speak [name of] language. are sent to states different from their states of origin in order for them to be introduced to different cultures and languages in the other part of the country. During this period. the economy of [the country] was in a very bad shape and many workers were retrenched from work without any benefits. Graduates who qualify . Roxanne had to go along with these conditions. Story. different schools and classrooms). . STORY Throughout Roxanne’s narrative she makes connections to S T O R I E S which relate closely to her own. and S T O RY. colleagues. Conclusion Roxanne ends the analysis of her three personal stories by commenting on her experience of writing them during the course. I was posted to [name of] state with a language and culture different from mine. students). was productive for her. I suggest that contextual explorations through narrative similar to those of Roxanne and Betty would be equally productive for other English teachers working in different contexts. and analysed their stories as part of a course assignment requirement. Narrative Inquiry: Experience and Story in Qualitative Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ‘The end of CLT: a context approach to language teaching’.Although I have presented only Roxanne’s experience of our narrative inquiry in this article. and F. expectations and personal meanings they experience in their daily teaching lives. My past plays a huge role in the decisions that I have made and it is amazing to see how teachers from my high school years have had such an influence on my growth and interest in language education. Roxanne and Betty constructed. Teaching and Teacher Education 13/1: 1–136. M. T ES O L Quarterly 36: 207–13. fears. Betty was a pre-service teacher with no English teaching experience. and through the telling. E. Teachers’ Narrative Inquiry as Professional Development. ‘TE S OL methods: Changing tracks. but they could just as easily have done so as practising teachers in their own schools away from the constraints of any assessment. 2002. and P. shared. She does this particularly by making connections to her past experiences as a language learner in high school. Johnson. S. E LT Journal 57/3: 278–87. 2000. D. . 2002. and interpretation of their stories they might begin to ‘impose order and coherence on the stream of experience and work out the meaning of incidents and events in the real world’ (Carter 1993: 7). 2003. . (eds. Kumaravadivelu. TE S O L Quarterly 40/1: 59–81. There are many ways that they could do this: they could write their teaching life histories. Barkhuizen. In her analysis of her narrative writing she remarks: From doing this narrative exercise I have learnt a lot about what it is that motivates my interest in language teaching.). By doing so they would necessarily engage with the context of their teaching. . they could record in story form significant or problematic teaching and learning events in their classrooms. . Educational Researcher 22/1: 5–12–18. 1997. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Analysing Learner Language. ‘The place of story in the study of teaching and teacher education’. Another reality thanks to this exercise is that my personal values have surfaced. 238 Gary Barkhuizen Ellis. 2005. J. R. This ‘real world’ is the context that so many in the field of language teaching are urging us all to explore. J. S. I am in the process of doing that though. Connelly. challenging trends’. Final revised version received December 2006 References Bax. Gudmundsdottir (ed. Golombek. K. Clandinin. Carter. 2006. 1993. It is evident that I am in a place of transition in my life where all the puzzle pieces have not been put together.). K. and G. they could relate to each other in scheduled conversations the desires. re-telling. this extract clearly shows that through her narrative reflections she has begun to interpret and understand her current development as a language teacher. Bell. ‘Narrative inquiry: more than just telling stories’. R. However. B. The same applies to other English teachers. Betty too found the experience useful. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. and V. K. diversity. His teaching and research interests are in the areas of language teacher education. 1995. Narrative Inquiry in Practice: Advancing the Knowledge of Teaching.nz A narrative approach to exploring context in language teaching 239 . ‘Narrative.Lyons. K. sociolinguistics.ac.barkhuizen@auckland. N. learner language. 2002. LaBoskey. The author Gary Barkhuizen works in the Department of Applied Language Studies and Linguistics at the University of Auckland in New Zealand. LaBoskey (eds. and all things narrative. M. New York: Teachers College Press. Lyons and V. Teaching and Teacher Education 20: 457–71. J. ‘Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis’.). 5–238/1. ‘Why narrative inquiry or exemplars for a scholarship of teaching?’ in N. Connelly. and teacher education’. 2004. and F. E. Phillion. Polkinghorne. D. Qualitative Studies in Education. Email: g. A reading reaction journal (RR J) is a notebook in which students summarize and react to texts they read. At the macro-level. and it may be safe to assume that L2 readers face similar problems. with connections 240 E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008. and the fact that the concepts in the text may be completely new to students. the rhetorical structure of a text may be unfamiliar for inexperienced readers. 2007 . A reading reaction journal (RR J) can provide a forum for students as they activate a variety of reading strategies when reading expository text and in addition. note the content of a text.). noting. there is a need to activate prior knowledge. and thus the process of reading. can provide a focal point for students as they critically respond to text(s) before engaging in formal reading-to-write assignments based on the text(s). with ideas and concepts presented in a special way to show relationships. Introduction Students in English for Academic Purposes (E AP) programmes are often required to read and write about expository texts. providing a focus for students to record their ongoing critical reactions to the ideas presented in a text before addressing formal writing tasks. Such texts present a number of specific difficulties to the first language (L1) reader (Merkley and Jefferies 2001).Reading reaction journals in EA P courses Simon Evans This paper looks at two specific problems faced by second-language university students attending courses in English for Academic Purposes: expository texts and reading-to-write tasks. Secondly. First. and writing up the notes is a fairly well-established E A P activity. Advance Access publication April 17. The reader also needs to be familiar with the organization of expository text. and specialized vocabulary. uninteresting writing styles. cit. all rights reserved. In essence. surveys of textbooks reveal that ideas are often poorly explained. Two further macro-level issues are particularly relevant here. while at the same time. Responses from one group of students who used RR Js appear to confirm that the journals can indeed fulfil such a purpose. At the micro-level. such as comparison and contrast (Merkley and Jefferies op.1093/elt/ccm018 ª The Author 2007. doi:10. the R RJ plays a bridging role in the reading-to-write process. Reading reaction journals and expository texts Problems posed by expository texts Expository texts present a number of difficulties for L1 readers. Published by Oxford University Press. the R RJ provides a focus for E A P students as they activate metacognitive reading strategies. such as the key role of the abstract and/or introduction in indicating the purpose of a text at an early stage. For the second language reader (L2) we may assume that these difficulties are similar (if not magnified). Thus. there are issues of marked language structures. and relate ideas to their own experiences. knowledge maps.) notes that student questioning of a text is important (strategy 6). 4. written in the journal as the text is read. and Kaakinen 2002). To assist deeper cognitive processing of the ideas presented in a text. Furthermore. consistent with metacognitive strategy 2. concept maps. Outlines can also begin to accommodate a greater range of cognitive learning styles. students need to go beyond outlines and summaries. Detailed outlines note the ideas contained within a text. Summarizing. RR Js allow for the simultaneous Reading reaction journals in EAP courses 241 . and knowledge transforming. In addition. filling in points not explicitly made (strategy 4). questioner and respondent probably know the answer. vee diagrams. cit. Asking questions. Slotte and Lonka (1998) distinguish between knowledge telling. There may not be an ‘answer’ as such questions are likely to seek justification and opinion.between ideas seldom made explicit (Hyona. With display questions. seldom demanding deeper cognitive processing. the deeper the cognitive processing. Filling in points not explicitly made. play an important part of in-class peer discussion. Relating ideas to readers’ lives. Such questions can serve to activate several metacognitive reading strategies and. requiring only that readers refer back to the text. Allen (op. It is these two issues which can be specifically addressed by RR Js. where ideas are applied to real world contexts. Thus. Lorch. students need to note their reactions. and the distinction between ‘display’ and ‘referential’ questions is important. a written summary (paraphrase) to accompany an outline should activate strategies 1. where ideas are repeated. Referential questions involve a genuine request where the questioner may not know. Making inferences. 3. Thus. or is unsure of. Referential questions demand greater cognitive involvement with the text and are normally dependent upon the reader finding ‘gaps’ in the writer’s ideas. and making inferences (strategy 5). there is growing recognition that the process of successful reading is dependent upon the activation of metacognitive reading strategies. as opposed to written. Outlining in the R RJ can incorporate the metacognitive strategies of deciding the most important points (strategy 1). Thus. and 5. as outlined by Allen (2003): 1 2 3 4 5 6 Deciding important points. representations of ideas. and graphic organizers) are visual representations of the overall rhetorical structure of a text. and how these ideas relate to each other. Such questions deal with surface issues. particularly with regard to students’ preferences for visual. Metacognitive reading strategies in reading reaction journals L1 studies indicate that the depth of cognitive processing by the reader is of key importance in the process of comprehension (Oded and Walters 2001). and/or the reader’s understanding of them. and can help confirm the source text’s main ideas. she does not discuss the nature of the questions. and may involve further selection and discrimination of relevant information. the answer. the more likely that ideas will be retained in memory (Friend 2001). frames. and can stimulate ideas when writing about the text. Outlines (often referred to as diagrams. However. ) Students later write argumentative essays based on the set texts. Students not used to such critical engagement can find this especially challenging. 242 Simon Evans . which trains students in critical thinking. (See Table 1. Students read set texts which form the basis of their Academic Reaction Papers (ARP). This interpretation considers reading-to-write as one of drafting and rewriting as part of a process to a final product. and present opinions on ideas contained in the set text(s) in an academic genre. synthesize. Such ‘reading-to-write tasks’ are particularly demanding as students are required to summarize. The reading-to-write process and reading reaction journals RR Js can help students as they engage in the reading-to-write process. and poorly explained relationships. follow-up writing tasks become that much more difficult. However. cit. and argumentative writing. Furthermore. where they summarize a writer’s arguments and ideas. analyse. Thus.activation of metacognitive reading strategies to assist the L2 reader with unfamiliar rhetorical structure. while the reading-to-write process has received little attention (Ruiz-Fines 1999). set texts and formal written responses are core aspects of the programme.: 47). and ways to activate them in the R R J Reading strategy Activity in the R R J 1 Deciding important points Outlining/paraphrasing/referential questioning 2 Relating ideas to readers’ lives Applying ideas to real world contexts/ referential questioning 3 Summarizing Paraphrasing 4 Filling in points not explicitly made Outlining/paraphrasing/referential questioning 5 Making inferences Outlining/paraphrasing/referential questioning 6 Asking questions Referential questioning Reading reaction journals and reading to write Problems posed by reading-to-write The difficulties posed by expository texts are especially significant for students required to write papers based on assigned texts. before presenting a critical response. and should be viewed as an ongoing approach in academic discourse. thinking critically should not be seen by students as a ‘one-off’ activity for a writing task. As one writer has observed. Thus. (See Fearn and Bayne 2003. Tokyo First-year students at ICU are required to enrol in the English Language Programme (EL P). students need to critically engage with the set text(s) before formal writing assignments are addressed. The writing process in general has been much discussed and researched. reading-to-write also requires students to think critically about the ideas in a text. if the set text has not been properly understood.) table 1 Summary of metacognitive reading strategies (Allen 2003). and can also help train students to develop a critical thinking habit. In other words. revise what they write and focus on meaning and on communicating their message to the intended audience’ (Ruiz-Fines op. ‘good writers are reader-centred. Reading reaction journals in one EAP class Programme of study at International Christian University (IC U). RR Js can fulfil an important bridging function as students develop a critical response to a text before addressing formal written tasks (such as an essay). reading expository texts. and one way to encourage this is to have at least one Reading reaction journals in EAP courses 243 . hence the solid line connecting these nodes. students are less likely to explore other learner styles. reference to the set text remains an option at all times. Students are informed that each time a reading is set. (See Appendix.Student engagement in the reading-to-write process in my classes is illustrated in Figure 1. The set text is the focus for the RR J entries. hence the broken lines connecting the set text and formal written assignments. and they may also require guidance in making outlines of a text. How well students are noting the ideas in a text can be determined in-class by content questions where students are only allowed access to their RR J. In writing A R Ps. Students need to give reasons and examples to support their reactions. Student reactions to the ideas and arguments presented in a text are extremely important. leading to the argumentative essay.) Examples of previous students’ journal work provide a valuable opportunity to observe the range of strategies that can be employed. and that they need to bring the journals to each class as a basis for peer group discussion. and so on. Students are encouraged to experiment until they find a style that they feel comfortable with. especially at the beginning. When writing essays. students are encouraged to draw upon previous work in the ARPs and RR Js. colour coding. abbreviations. students in the Spring term write three ARPs. and guidelines can help. Without such exposure. With set texts as a base. figure 1 Helping L2 students cross the reading-to-write interface at ICU Implementing reading reaction journals Students need guidance in how to keep the R RJ. Exposure to example R RJs quickly enables students to identify some of the basic functions of the journals. they are to use their RR Js. students are encouraged to draw upon the notes and comments already made in their RR Js. Students may decide not to follow this advice. tending to produce paragraph-level notes as opposed to outlines. 2 Improving summarizing skills. and were asked to sign a consent form. Peer review is not only motivating for most students. n A review tool. Student perceptions of reading reaction journals table 2 Student responses to: ‘In what way(s) do you think that the R RJ is useful?’ (n ¼ 22) 244 To investigate the effectiveness of RR Js. the dichotomy between referential and display questions is important. with five classes per week in a ten-week term. react. I present a number of referential and display questions and ask the students to decide which they find more ‘interesting’. n Accommodating different learner styles. Students were informed that their responses might be used as part of my ongoing research. 3 You cannot write if you don’t understand.) Function Number Example comments n An aid to comprehension ‘simple’ comprehension organization/structure writing as comprehension. (See Tables 2 and 3. As discussed earlier. and respond to each other in writing (this can be done in class or as a take-home exercise). and which they should be asking each other during their in-class discussions. n Writing skill practice. 22 students participated anonymously (names and identification numbers were not on the questionnaire). 4 A rough A R P. Simon Evans . In total. 8 You could reread your way of reactions toward the issue. n A prompt for in-class peer group discussion. Changing partners regularly exposes students to a variety of views through the term. Students invariably choose the referential questions and I tell them that it is these types of questions that I would like to see in their journals. 6 It helps us to understand the articles—helps us think logically. n An aid for academic writing (A R P and essay). n An aid to memory. To help distinguish between the two. but also less threatening than if the teacher reads and reacts. I surveyed students who used them during a course of study. The 24 students in this survey (16 female. Students were asked two open-ended questions regarding their use and perception of the R RJs. 8 male) were streamed by the EL P into a high intermediate/advanced group. 5 I’m not used to discussion in English. 1 Also.session a week where students exchange journals so that they read. so this kind of preparation is very helpful. and students are encouraged from the start to record referential questions in the R RJ. and students can simultaneously witness other ways peers are keeping the RR J. you remember more than mere reading. 5 To make clear the organization of the writing. 3 Can visually see the main points. it reminds me of what I was thinking when I read the section. I can develop some of my comments from journal. One of my initial beliefs about the functions of the R RJ is that they would not only assist comprehension of the set expository texts. Students who responded ‘not sure’ provided some interesting comments. because I write comments in the journal and when I write the A R P. This suggests that perhaps this student was not making adequate summary notes in the RR J. One reported that the RR J did not help develop ideas and therefore. Several of the metacognitive strategies assisting comprehension as identified by Allen (op. then I would reconsider using them in future. cit. question two aimed to see if students were using the RR Js for such a purpose. That two-thirds of students identified ‘comprehension’ as a function of the R RJ may be significant as it appears to support the notion that deeper cognitive processing of text is important for comprehension. responses may have been ‘primed’ by the rationale provided in the RR J guidelines given at the start of term. if the responses were overwhelmingly negative towards R RJs. Yes. and making inferences.) It may be significant that fifteen students reported that the RR J helped them with reading-to-write tasks. So. before answering the questions. The range of the responses goes well beyond the rationale provided in the R RJ guidelines. Students identified a range of functions associated with their work in their R RJs. with comments such as. suggesting that these functions were seen as connected. when I write ARP. students may report what they believe the instructor wants to hear. another reported that s/he seldom used the journal as it was ‘not useful yet’. summarizing. suggesting that the guidelines had a limited influence. Thus.table 3 Student responses to the question: ‘Do you use your journal when writing your A R P? Why?’ (n ¼ 22) Answer Number Yes Not sure No 15 5 2 With questionnaires. would also help students deal with reading-to-write tasks. and most were able to identify at least two ways in which the journals were of use. deciding important points. It is also interesting to note that four students reported that the RR J helped them with reading-to-write tasks.) However. filling in points not explicitly made. (See Appendix. it was stressed that genuine responses were sought and that these might well influence future classes. but in addition. Two students noted mixed feelings to the RR J because their opinions changed: Reading reaction journals in EAP courses 245 . ‘A rough A R P’. they had to reread the source text. (of the A R P) Journal has my comments and main points. Similarly. Typical examples include: Because in my journal there are many criticisms that can be used to write discussion part. rather than discrete. students in the study had not started their essays. In addition. and responses refer only to the use of RR Js when writing the A R Ps.) are implicit in the students’ responses. For example. (When the questionnaire was given. and at the same time. M. An important part of this process is the ability to think critically about the ideas presented (including reactions and questioning).Yes. ‘Guidelines for implementing a graphic organiser’. F. and J. ‘Teaching summarization as a content area reading strategy’. a point that needs to be made clearly in future classes. 1999. a skill requiring nurture and practice. and D.. helping them to deal with some of the problems posed by expository texts. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 44/4: 320–9. RR Js go beyond the conventional ‘read. ‘An analytic comparison of three models of reading strategy instruction’. and reading-to-write. and K. B. 2001. Journal of Educational Psychology 94/1: 44–55. note. Because when writing an A R P. V. S. System 29/3: 357–70. International Review of Applied Linguistics 41: 319–38. Hyona. Bayne. allows them to explore and use other learning styles. Friend. Presumably. The R RJ can help students to develop this skill in a less structured format than an A R P or essay. write up the notes’. Slotte. The insights provided by this group of students regarding their perceptions of the usefulness of RR Js suggests that the RR J can be a valid and useful tool in EAP programmes. and provides an important basis of peer discussions. ‘Individual differences in reading to summarize expository text: evidence from eye fixation patterns’. with particular reference to the structure of a text. Lorch. but not too much. they are comparing their original thoughts as recorded in the R RJ with those held at the time of writing the AR Ps. 246 Simon Evans Merkley. 1998. Conclusion EAP students face considerable challenges in reading. not now. The perceptions presented here of one group of L2 university students in a content-based course indicate that R RJs can be used as students activate metacognitive reading strategies necessary to begin successful reading comprehension. 2001. ‘Using notes during essay-writing: is it always helpful?’ Educational Psychology 18/4: 445–59. and the relationship between the ideas presented in it. I expand my notes over again so I don’t really go back to my journal ’cos journals are thoughts at that time. F. requiring that students engage with texts at deep cognitive levels. The Reading Teacher 54: 350–7. Sometimes I come up with a reaction that I didn’t write in the journal while writing ARP. 2003. Responses also indicate that the RR J can help students to cross the reading-to-write interface when assigned texts are to be used in writing assignments. ‘The process of reading to write used by a skilled Spanish-as-a-foreign-language student: a case study’. and finding their reactions have changed. Walters. Partly. ‘An introduction to Academic Reaction Papers’. Thus.. reactions noted in the R RJs should not be viewed by students as ‘final’ and should be open to reassessment. and J. Foreign Language Annals 32/1: 45–62. D. Fearn. 2003. Such appraisal of beliefs and reactions is crucial to critical inquiry and is to be encouraged and applauded. Lonka. 2002. R. and K. These responses are particularly revealing as the students are reflecting upon their initial reactions. M. Kaakinen. Jefferies. ‘Deeper processing for better E F L reading comprehension’. 2001. Jr. J. . I C U Language Research Bulletin 18: 19–45. R. Final revised version received October 2006 References Allen. Oded. K. Ruiz-Funes. n Note the structure and basic content of the text. teaching academic reading and writing to first. Appendix Reading reaction journal guidelines He has also run workshops for MA T E S O L candidates at Columbia University. questions. n Notes show that you are ‘talking’ to the text. Tokyo. Notes and abbreviations are fine. n Quote important points.ac.e. Teachers College (Tokyo) on developing critical reading and writing skills through reaction papers. What you should do n Note the writer.The author Simon Evans is an instructor at the International Christian University.jp Rationale n Taking notes is an important skill you will need all through your university life. bibliographic details). n Very important: React to what you read. write a one sentence summary. n Your reactions. and where the text came from (i. n Concisely summarize the text. His current interests relate to fostering and framing critical thinking skills in E A P programmes. n Each time you read part of a text. Reading reaction journals in EAP courses 247 . n Raise questions about what you read. n You don’t need to use sentences. Email: evans@icu. n Your journal should be a great help and should save you a lot of time when you write your reaction papers and the essay. n Try to make connections between different writers. and improve your understanding of the text. Do you have any experiences that relate to the writer’s idea(s)? Do you agree with the writer’s ideas or arguments? Remember to give reasons. or all of a text. and notes will form the basis of discussions in class. year of publication. Such ‘conversations’ should be more meaningful to you. n Use page numbers. Try using visuals to do this.and second-year students. they may gain other benefits from the program as well’. however. Extensive reading appears to be particularly absent in higher educational and English for Academic Purposes settings. doi:10. see Day and Bamford 1998. she said. Thus. most practitioners expect that vocabulary will be acquired incidentally during extensive reading. It tends to be present as a recommended. and attitudes to reading in the target language. all rights reserved. writing. reading comprehension and speed. examination performance.1093/elt/ccm021 ª The Author 2007. vocabulary. been backed up by research. 2007 . As Hafiz and Tudor noted (1989: 5) teachers find it ‘intuitively plausible’ that extensive reading will have a beneficial effect on language proficiency. many E F L and ESL teachers have promoted extensive reading to their students. extensive reading as a component of an English language teaching programme remains the exception rather than the rule. This is a view neatly captured in the reported comments of a teacher who asked that her class be included in Mohd Asraf and Ahmad’s Guided Extensive Reading programme (2003): ‘At least. extra-curricular 248 E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008. Intuition has. This paper reports on the implementation of an extensive reading component in a pre-university study EAP programme. Advance Access publication April 13. Introduction Ever since the report of the results of the ‘book flood’ experiment in Fiji (Elley and Mangubhai 1983). the reading would help them improve their vocabulary. Various studies have identified the impact of extensive reading on different skill areas including listening. this action research project shows that extensive reading can have a place in an E A P programme. Herman. but the inclusion of extensive reading in E LT programmes is far from universal.Implementing extensive reading in an EAP programme John Macalister For more than twenty years the benefits of extensive reading have been proclaimed to the E LT community. Despite this background. however. Published by Oxford University Press. (For a summary of twelve studies. it is clearly impossible for every word to be ‘taught’ in the classroom. As there are so many thousands of words a learner needs to ‘know’.) Research into vocabulary acquisition (Nagy. particularly if the learner intends to pursue a course of academic study. and perhaps. and Anderson 1985) has also reinforced the belief that extensive reading will have a positive impact on the rate at which learners acquire the target language. Learners responded positively to the loss of teacher-centred class time and a non-EAP focus for part of each lesson. While the implementation of extensive reading will vary from setting to setting. and the development of formal speaking Implementing extensive reading in an EAP programme 249 .activity. The teaching programme This E A P programme was a theme-based course of up to 19 contact hours per week. On the other hand. only twelve were planning to enter undergraduate or Foundation programmes in New Zealand. one from Indonesia. There is also. This class was ranked as the second-lowest proficiency class. perhaps. It is certainly the case. then. the ten students who had also taken an I E LT S examination had achieved overall scores ranging from 4.1 Fourteen of those hours were with the main class teacher. The teacher. and cloze scores from a university-developed placement test. dictation. Even teachers recognizing this and wishing to incorporate extensive reading into the teaching programme may be constrained by concerns that.). Of the remainder. presumably because ‘many language teachers at this level feel apprehensive about incorporating reading time into the course syllabus’. as Hermann (2003) remarks. for instance. however. and possible doubts about the impact of extensive reading in a course of relatively short duration may convince the teacher that advocating extensive reading is the best that can be done. Introducing extensive reading into an EAP programme This paper presents a teacher-initiated action research project carried out in a university in New Zealand. Four of the learners came from South Korea. who suggests that ‘the role of extensive reading needs to be examined more closely for its potential contributions to student success in advanced E AP settings’ (2001: 26). preparation for and review of a weekly guest lecture. silent reading is not perceived as ‘teaching’ or that reading can only have a limited role in an integrated four-skills class. the unspoken belief that extensive reading is most appropriately integrated into the elementary or junior secondary school teaching programmes.5 to 5. including work on study themes. Although the course was designed to prepare students for university study. and two with an elective teacher. All except one were in the 19–24 year-old age band. that ‘[comprehensive reading] agendas seem to be rare in foreignand second-language classrooms in higher education’. whether curricular or extra-curricular. the constraints of time. three with a co-teacher. ‘that without incorporating extensive reading as part of a class program. The class was one of nine. competition from other activities. the students might not read English books on their own’. is faced with a dilemma. Students are likely to use their free time for activities other than reading. there is the research and the intuitive belief that extensive reading will have beneficial effects on the learning of the language. Eighteen students (nine female and nine male) in a 12-week university preparation E AP class participated in this study. as were Mohd Asraf and Ahmad (op. Yet advocates of extensive reading need to be ‘aware of the fact’. and the remainder from People’s Republic of China.5. The time commitment is also recognized as one of the limitations on the use of extensive reading in EAP contexts by Grabe. five were intending to return to their home countries and one to study in Australia. and none was over thirty. To give a more internationally recognizable indication of the class’s level. and students’ placement in this class was determined by a combination of vocabulary. the demands of the syllabus. Every class shared common features. On the one hand. cit. Learners were introduced to the resources of the Language Learning Centre. and listed below. 4 Learners read as much as possible. in particular the allocation of time to different areas of skill development. information. or in any way overtly monitoring the students. For this class a considerable emphasis was placed on reading. with speed. nor to return and renew their readers. particularly the first. so no one was ever without reading material. intensive and extensive reading all being scheduled in the weekly programme. particularly its library of graded readers. At the start of the course the principles of and rationale for extensive reading were introduced. Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower. The teacher is a role model of a reader. and to vocabulary. indicated that two-thirds of the class did not have mastery of the 2000-word level and therefore reading centred around academic texts would not have been successful in extensive reading terms. such as marking. In the implementation of the extensive reading component of this teaching programme. there was no activity related to the reading included in the programme. The most unusual aspect of the class programme was the inclusion of 20 minutes of sustained silent reading at the end of each morning. which was administered at the start of the course. and to read as much as possible but at least two graded readers a week. or moving around the room.skills through seminars. Within this framework. Reading is its own reward. which had been catalogued into bands of difficulty. The reason why learners were encouraged to read graded readers was also related to these principles. Results for this class from the Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation 1990). therefore. 1 The reading material is easy. 5 The purpose of reading is usually related to pleasure. 2 A variety of reading material on a wide range of topics must be available. Learners would have been encountering too many unknown words in such texts. Teachers orient and guide their students. the main teachers had some flexibility in determining the teaching programme for individual classes. 6 7 8 9 10 and general understanding. the key features of extensive reading as usefully set out by Day and Bamford (2002). Reading is individual and silent. A set of New Zealand School Journals was kept in the classroom and a copy given to any student without a book to read. 3 Learners choose what they want to read. The teacher was not engaging in other activities. with reminders of opportunities to renew books. with the teacher modelling good reading behaviour by reading silently during this time. Learners were regularly encouraged to read in their own time. Time was also explicitly dedicated to each of the four skills. and fitted naturally into the first theme of the course (Introduction to Learning a Language). Students read from a range of genres including the media and theme-related readings. Most students had no trouble in remembering to bring their graded reader each day. Learners chose their readers from this library and read for pleasure only. 250 John Macalister . were identifiable. ‘Reading practice’ appeared to be the third most important to the largest number. every student had two one-to-one interviews with the class teacher. and students were free to choose their own reading material. The use of graded readers does not. almost one week of ‘teaching time’ was dedicated to extensive reading. This suggested that the learners may not have been as open towards a strong Implementing extensive reading in an EAP programme 251 . no restrictions were placed on materials they read in their own time. fifth. their progress. the learners spent around 100 minutes a week reading silently for pleasure in class which equated to between 16 and 17 hours throughout the course.2 Further. Of key interest was whether the students would accept this dedication of class time to such a ‘non-academic’ activity as reading for pleasure. Most mentioned were listening (9) and writing (7). However. Students’ response to extensive reading in an E A P class No overt attempt was made to gather qualitative data relating to students’ acceptance of the loss of teacher-centred class time and a non-EAP focus for part of each lesson. signal a focus on reading literature as both fiction and non-fiction are represented in such schemes. Interviews During the course. Pre-course questionnaire Initial information about the students. Attention was paid to the extensive reading programme in these interviews.and this in turn would potentially have interfered with the fourth. allowing for evaluation and assessment days at the beginning and end of the course. reading was mentioned only three times. but sometimes comments were offered. primarily because the students were well aware that the class teacher was enthusiastic about the benefits of reading. and their strategies for independent study. One question asked students to indicate the importance of twelve different course components using a six-point scale. Analysis of the valid responses suggested that ‘Writing practice’ was most important to the largest number. The initial interview also produced a slightly different picture from the pre-course questionnaire of the importance learners attached to different course components. it makes me sleepy’). If nothing else. it’s my hobby’) to the unenthusiastic (‘I don’t like reading. these ranged from the positive (‘I like reading. while students were encouraged to read graded readers in class. this question showed that students could be expected to view reading activities positively. with speaking having one more mention than reading. In other words. of twenty-five skill area mentions. their English language learning background. and seventh of Day and Bamford’s principles. No direct questions were asked about attitudes to reading. The interviews covered students’ learning goals. In the initial interview. followed by ‘Listening practice’ and ‘Speaking practice’ with identical results. however. and their goals for the course was gathered by a seven-item questionnaire. and thus were likely to answer direct questions with that in mind. followed by ‘Learning new words’. as a means of monitoring the reading suitability of readers chosen. In the interviews. and of encouraging further reading. data was gathered from a variety of sources. As a result of this commitment to extensive reading. Such a response is. he told the interviewer that he practised writing in his independent study. Four students said they would like to spend more time on reading. suggesting a developing awareness of their individual learning processes. On the other hand. acknowledged that reading speed was an issue for him. talking about the independent study they had been doing in the first half of the course. Comments under this item included: Reading. who was reading ‘about one book’ a week. but the majority of students included comments on reading. One (M4) said that he had taken to reading and then rereading his graded readers. These comments provided an assurance that reading was taking place outside the classroom. Students who spoke about reading sometimes made interesting comments. while maintaining that listening was the most important skill for him to improve. Responses during the second interview suggested that learners had not shifted their perceptions of what was important to them greatly. The mid-course questionnaire is particularly important as it provides a snapshot of students’ opinions of the course to date. it may not have been the case that what students said necessarily equated with what they did. students were required to write a letter to the main teacher. which asked about the skill area of greatest improvement. There was no directive to discuss reading habits. As Hitosugi and Day (2004) have observed of an extensive reading project in Japanese. and allows changes to be made if necessary. In addition. Because we do lots of reading and twice a week speed reading. reading was most often identified (6 mentions). ‘the project appealed more to some than others’. The main exception was one student (M2)3 who remarked that he no longer thought that writing was the most important for him. and was taken as encouragement to continue with the practice in the second half of the course. For example. Because it is very useful to me. and what they planned to do in the second half. The daily extensive reading time was included on this list and emerged with the vocabulary programme as the second most useful component. Reading. Another (M6). This suggested that students regarded the twenty minutes a day of sustained silent reading positively. in another question. not surprising. One question listed twelve components of the course and asked students to rank them for usefulness on a scale of 1 to 5. because we read it everyday. Mid-course questionnaire Standard practice in the course is the administration of questionnaires to students at the mid-point and the end. perhaps. there was a clear dissonance between the stated important skill area of another student (M3) and his actions. while two said they would like to spend less. of during the remainder of the course. Mid-course letters After the mid-course break. 252 John Macalister .38 out of a possible 5. Daily reading and five minute seminars. but that all skill areas were equally important. This questionnaire also gave students an opportunity to say what they would like more. and less. on 4.emphasis on reading in the teaching programme as the pre-course questionnaire responses indicated. I will do it in the second half of the course. . Help me read more books. Also I still will read news on internet. . We have reading time and LLC help us improve. . (M9) The letters also gave some indication that students had good intentions to increase the amount of reading they did during the second part of the course. improve my reading speed. I did remember that I could only read 50 words per min before. maybe one hour a day and I memorize twenty words a day. I want to keep it. and I can learn speaking. although students did not necessarily make an explicit link to the extensive reading component. I always read books and repeat academic words to remember the vocabulary. newspaper and easy book. but now I can read much faster. I think this is more interesting. (M7) . I found my English is improve during I study this course. Reading. (F6) In my own time. (M3) They also provided some evidence that students felt their language proficiency was improving as a result of the course. (M6) Now. . film. but I don’t read book home. but there was a space for students to make comments on ways in which the course had made them more independent learners. What kind exercise should we do such as reading 20–30 mins per day. .Sometimes I read books that I borrowed from library. I will read and write more than the first half of the course. No specific questions about course components were asked. and I also can watch TV. and I can also improve my reading speed. . with the following comments. (F8) Everyday I read letter. . . Teacher teachs [sic] us how to studty [sic] at independent time. especial cartoon. I read and write more English than before in E P P . but five mentioned reading. A number of students took this as an opportunity to comment on the Language Learning Centre. such as . . I like reading now. I will read books. especially my reading speed and vocab. It cause pently [sic] of benefits in my life. also my writing is improve. I can learn new words from books. I build vocabulary and my reading skills are better than before. Implementing extensive reading in an EAP programme 253 . (M2) Before sleeping. and un[der]stand the article’s meaning. I found that my English skills have improved a lots. (M4) I will reading more than first half of the course. newspaper. I often read news on computer. (F4) I consider general reading is good for me. my reading skill is improving so fast. . and I find lots of news website on internet. . (F6) End-of-course questionnaire This questionnaire provided an evaluation of the course and recommendations for future courses. I always read fiction book which borrow from school. . details about the programme taught. These reports are an administrative requirement. though. and that the reading was individuallyoriented. There were differences between the Hong Kong scheme and this programme. and possibly modelling of. By the end of the course most were engrossed in their books’. and in the learners’ responses. Conclusion The inclusion of extensive reading as a component of an E A P programme was positively received by the learners and at least in some cases created positive attitudes towards reading. Observation At the end of the course the co-teacher was asked to provide a written contribution to the class report. Interestingly. which suggested that they regarded the reading as 254 John Macalister . it was certainly not the case that the dedication of 16–17 hours of ‘class time’ to extensive reading impacted negatively on student performance. and an evaluation of the class performance. is the nature of the implementation of an extensive reading programme. and these may have contributed to the different results. however. extensive reading as a classroom activity. The co-teacher’s comments endorsed the class teacher’s own observations. There never appeared to be any reluctance about reading. To read book and listening. The principal differences were in the teacher’s attitude to. Day and Bamford (2002) have proposed ten extremely sound and well-grounded principles for teaching extensive reading but there must also be flexibility in approach. while this action research project shared some of the same features as the Hong Kong Extensive Reading Scheme in English that Green criticized. and at a minimum include the class profile. as Green (2005) has also suggested. One consideration. however. it is sufficient to accept the benefits of extensive reading that have been shown in controlled experiments. While it is not possible to measure the direct impact of extensive reading on language proficiency development in a teaching programme such as this. however. All areas. The main similarities with the Hong Kong scheme were that the extensive reading component described in this article was not integrated with other components of the programme. but she remarked that ‘The students appeared to enjoy this part of the morning particularly. and most in listening and vocabulary. The results appeared to indicate that students perceived least improvement in grammar. this is a positive endorsement of making a place for it in the E A P teaching timetable. were reported on positively. There was also a question asking students to indicate the effectiveness of the course in leading to improvement in seven skill areas. only occasionally did a student forget to bring their reader to class. it produced different results. and students actively exchanged readers when finished.Reading books at home everyday. In light of the research that demonstrates the benefits of extensive reading. No comment on the extensive reading programme was requested from the co-teacher. and focus instead on ensuring the acceptance of extensive reading in higher education and E A P courses. Perhaps. indeed. ‘Top ten principles for teaching extensive reading’. 3 Questionnaires were completed anonymously. just as the reading materials will vary depending on the learners’ proficiency and interests. ‘Integrating extensive reading in the task-based curriculum’. F. Reading Research Quarterly 19: 53–67. This may be related to the different teaching contexts.hawaii. Reading in a Foreign Language 14/2: 136–41. Hermann. Final revised version received July 2006 Notes 1 The programme has been slightly modified since this action research project was carried out. F. the New Zealand School Journal also includes a range of genres.edu/rfl/ October2002/day/day. It is worth noting that such an approach would also encourage better integration with other components of the language teaching programme. W. Different approaches to extensive reading as part of a four-skills class are certainly possible. 1983. 1998. Certainly the practice discussed in this article could be modified in a number of ways. ‘Linking literacies: perspectives in L2 reading-writing connections’ in D. M/F indicates gender with the numbers 1–9 being randomly ascribed. then. Hirvela (eds. similar to Lao and Krashen’s experiment (2000). this action research project has shown that extensive reading definitely can have a place in such four-skills teaching programmes.html. but could be extended to 25 or even 30 minutes. while the way in which extensive reading is incorporated in an E A P programme will vary from classroom to classroom. in the E A P timetable. 2005. 2 Similarly. ‘The impact of reading on second language learning’. http://nflrc. Elley. Mangubhai. Day. C. 2001.contributing towards their language learning needs. and I.). Belcher and A. ‘Extensive reading and the development of reading skills’. and that is the case for schemes ‘developed by teachers to suit local circumstances’ (ibid. References Day.html.edu/tesl-ej/ej25/a1. ELT Journal 59/4: 306–11. R. Green. Bamford. and J. when the learner’s identity is known. B. but teachers must decide whether expectations of effectiveness of language learning and acceptability to both learners and administrators would be enhanced by formalizing the extensive reading component of the programme. W. and F. 2002.: 310). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.E J 7/1: http:// www-writing. most obviously imaginative and informative prose. this different experience with a ‘stand-alone. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. adding an extra four or eight hours respectively to the time dedicated to extensive reading in a 12-week course n a weekly oral book report could be included in the programme. of which the following are indicative: n twenty minutes at the end of each class worked well. Grabe. non-integrationist’ extensive reading programme serves to underline one part of Green’s argument. Implementing extensive reading in an EAP programme 255 . For responses in interviews and letters. English Language Teaching Journal 43/1: 4–11. possibly replacing the weekly oral media report n the requirement for a weekly oral book report could also be tied to more accurate monitoring of the number and level of books being read by each student n embed an extensive reading programme using set texts. Tudor. R. and J. Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom. 1989.berkeley. However. ‘Reading-Writing Relations: Theoretical Perspectives and Instructional Practices’. 2003. Bamford. T E S L . As a result. Hafiz. ‘Differential effects of reading and memorization of paired associates on vocabulary acquisition in adult learners of English as a second language’. this would appear to defy two of Day and Bamford’s principles. ‘Extensive reading in Japanese’. ‘Learning words from context’. I.edu/rfl/April2004/hitosugi/ hitosugi.nz .: Heinle and Heinle.macalister@vuw. and S.ac. P. 2003. Reading in a Foreign Language 14/2: 136–41.html. S. R. I. Lao. ‘The impact of popular literature study on literacy development in EF L: more evidence for the power of reading’. Cambodia. Reading in a Foreign Language 16/1: http://nflrc. New Zealand. Herman. 1990. Krashen. Reading Research Quarterly 20: 233–53. Y. Email: john.hawaii. His research interests include reading and writing in a foreign or second language. C. C. Mass. Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. 1985. 2000..html. and R.hawaii. Mohd Asraf. He is currently a lecturer at Victoria University of Wellington. System 28: 261–70. Thailand. S. 256 John Macalister Nagy. Nation. Boston. Namibia. Anderson. W. 2004. and New Zealand. Day. and I. P. and R. ‘Promoting English language development and the reading habit among students in rural schools through the Guided Extensive Reading program’.Hitosugi. http:// nflrc. The author John Macalister has worked as a teacher educator in Vanuatu. Ahmad.edu/rfl/October2003/mohdasraf/ mohdasraf. consider the practicum experience as the most significant element in their teacher training (Zeichner 1990).) and it allows for evaluation of teachers. which is the application of the practical pedagogical knowledge acquired during the didactic lessons and workshops. which cannot be broken into discrete components so that it has to be assessed impressionistically? We believe that in order to construct a more comprehensive view of the issue. Can we evaluate the quality of teaching by observable behaviour and measurable components. in which case.1093/elt/ccm020 ª The Author 2007. can the lesson be assessed analytically by the use of discrete criteria? Or. ibid. Teacher trainers have tried to define quality in relation to teaching and to find ways to measure it in a reliable way. Introduction This paper presents a three-year practitioner-based research that emerged from our ‘reflection in action’ and ‘on action’ (Scho¨n 1983) as teacher trainers and lecturers in EFL pre-service training programmes in a teacher education college. It is their first hands-on experience with their chosen career. Quite often trainees claim that they benefit more from spending time in the field watching others teach. Cocard. Advance Access publication April 13. In the framework of the training programme. and Moser 2004: 626). During the practicum trainees can put into practice their beliefs based on language learning theories they acquired in the course of their studies. Published by Oxford University Press. one of the core requirements is the practicum. 2007 257 . all rights reserved. It creates opportunities for trainees to develop their pedagogical skills and ‘it is the best way to acquire professional knowledge and competences as a teacher’ (Hascher. it is pertinent to collaborate with our trainees and provide some space for their voices. In the literature.Evaluating teaching practice Shosh Leshem and Rivka Bar-Hama The evaluation of observed lessons has been the subject of much debate in the field of teacher training. doi:10. does a lesson constitute an entity. It also serves as a ‘protected field for experimentation’ and ‘socialization within the profession’ (Hascher et al. Evidence from a small-scale practitioner-based research project reveals that trainees need explicit criteria for effective teaching in order to identify their strengths and weaknesses and use them as guidelines for improvement. These ideas have been mainly expressed by those who design the programmes and are in charge of pre-service teacher training. as well. Trainees. than E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008. Thus it sets the stage for success or failure in student teaching and a trainee’s future in education may be determined by what happens during their training period. the practicum has been viewed as critical to the development of trainees. portfolios. and the other is a two-year certificate programme for people holding a BA in English. Furthermore. tests. This in itself creates conflicting perspectives concerning observation and role identity. We found that there is a plethora of literature dealing with multiple aspects of the practicum but there is a dearth in the field of practicum assessment. self-assessment. since the focus is more on development and progress than on the final product itself. The message that is conveyed to trainees during the practicum 258 Shosh Leshem and Rivka Bar-Hama . which entails multiple sources of assessment. observation has two main purposes: trainees’ development and accountability. The observation lesson is a critical component of the practicum. The formal assessment is carried out at least twice a semester by pedagogical counsellors who are usually their methodology teachers. peer assessment. This issue is the focus of our paper. who is appointed as a cooperating teacher. cooperating teacher assessment. At the beginning of the academic year. However. In our programme. For the purpose of this study. The trainees are assessed informally by their cooperating teachers who serve more as mentors than as assessors.from attending sessions at the university or colleges. development means improvement of trainees’ performance in class by identifying their strengths and weaknesses and by raising their awareness through providing feedback and recommendations. The practicum entails weekly observations of trainees in schools by teacher trainers. a trainee is placed in a host school with an experienced English teacher. A significant part of both programmes is the practicum. This usually commences after a short period of getting acquainted with the school. in our programme. and pedagogical counsellor assessment. This process can be regarded as formative assessment. is to determine the trainee’s suitability for entry to the educational system. Each one of these sources provides information about a different aspect of teaching. which pertains to accountability. which awards the students both a BEd and a teaching certificate. This assertion is supported by Tsui (2003) in her discussion on teachers’ personal values and beliefs. observation lessons. lesson observation is viewed as a lesson taught by a trainee and observed by a pedagogical counsellor. the final grade for the practicum is based primarily on the grades that trainees receive for their observation lessons. The second purpose. She claims that teachers consider classroom experience the most important source of knowledge about teaching. This could be described as ‘surprising’ given that assessing trainees’ practicum is a complex activity. assessment of the trainees’ performances in their practicum has far-reaching implications for their entry into our profession. In order to achieve a comprehensive profile of a trainee we. Here. The venue There are two teacher-training E F L programmes at our college: one is a fouryear programme. use different sources of assessment such as: reflective journals. The main requirement of the trainees in the practicum is to observe their cooperating teachers teach in their classrooms and gradually to start teaching on their own. How it is assessed reflects an equally critical issue for both evaluators and evaluees. methodological obligations to the cooperating teacher’s style of teaching. We are both veteran teacher trainers. and n metacognitive components: ability to analyse the lesson and to reflect upon their professional development. The latter may feel forced into a situation of assessor due to institutional policy or. beliefs. The most common tools are: 1 2 3 4 observation forms. department coordinators. Examples for each component are provided to show a model of what the forms entail: n instructional components: clarity of instructions. detailed written notes on the lesson.is that it represents a trial and error phase which is integral to their learning and professional development. worldviews. From our professional experience we realized that the observation forms that were used for assessment were changed from year to year both by us and by our colleagues. audio-recordings for reinforcement of written notes. This is intended to foster an element of trust and openness in the trainee–observer relationship. n affective components: giving feedback and reinforcement. the changes were not significant and the essence of the evaluation forms has remained the same. stating clear objectives. Common comments from trainees expressed operational constraints due to a particular school culture. oral. or experiences of the teachers teaching a particular group that year. However. If this happens. then they may sacrifice their own development and rapport with their observer. We then analysed our personal diaries where we had recorded comments from trainees and our own queries and impressions. Some items were changed due to different approaches. sequence of activities. and have been counsellors in a wide range of contexts. They are sometimes used by the trainee at a later stage for further reflection. This evidence made us ponder upon the issue with our colleagues. These contradicting roles of the observer constitute potential problems not only for the trainee but for the observer as well. and written proficiency. and dissatisfaction with grades. national demands. n language components: use of L1. Pedagogical counsellors use different observational tools to record data of the lessons that they observe. and video-recordings for use collaboratively by the trainer and the trainee during the feedback session. when their preferred tendency is to function as a coach rather than as an assessor. and designing activities to achieve lesson objectives. However. this trust can be impeded by the observer having to act as an inspector and final assessor. at times. n cognitive components: lesson planning. we noticed that the issue of the assessment forms appeared regularly on the agenda as a theme requiring modification. and classroom management. We discovered that they shared our Evaluating teaching practice 259 . Analysing minutes from three years of departmental meetings. Our main tool of assessment is the observation form that consists of several components. Trainees may put on an act in order to satisfy the observer’s expectations and gain a higher grade for their conduct. awareness of students’ needs. However. and transparently. for example. I try to narrow the gap. Each lesson is assessed by three people: the cooperating teacher. we felt that it was our responsibility to try and assess our trainees in a way that reflected their performance accurately. However. I feel that I cannot take off all the points for a certain criterion and this leads to an accumulated higher grade. Observer 2 I have enough experience to know immediately after the lesson what the grade is going to be. 260 Shosh Leshem and Rivka Bar-Hama . We believed that in order to construct a more comprehensive view of the issue. we realized that the voices of the trainees concerning this issue were not considered and decisions on assessment were top-down. the weight and the importance allotted by the college to the various assessors are not evenly distributed. who sees a need for students to participate actively in the construction and use of tests and assessment systems. Another problem is that despite each assessor having similar criteria against which to assess the lesson. I find that the grade is usually higher. it was pertinent to collaborate with our trainees and provide some space for their voices (Nunan and Bailey 1996). I know that this lesson does not deserve more than 80 percent. as experienced observers and assessors. we realized that quite often there was a gap between the two results. I use it and I often get annoyed with the fact that I can’t find the criteria that I would like to grade the student on.discontent about the way that trainees’ performance was assessed during the observation lesson. Each of the three assessors makes significant contributions to the developmental process of the individual teacher. Three of our colleagues who shared the same professional experience expressed the ‘gap’ as follows: Observer 1 While observing I already formulate a grade in my mind. Taking into consideration the critical role of the observation lesson in the practicum and in students’ professional careers. the pedagogical counsellor. or I find some of the criteria irrelevant to the context and to my frame of reference. At the end of the lesson I go over the assessment form and grade each item according to the weight allocated. when we assessed the lesson according to the benchmarks on the assessment form. These views reinforced our problem in accepting the reliability of assessment in the observation lesson. new trends in current assessment demand active student participation in their assessment. In addition. we were able to provide an impressionistic value judgement of the trainee’s performance. This is reinforced by Shohamy (1996) discussing ethical testing and assessment. However. their interpretation of those criteria is not always identical. When I use the assessment sheet. I personally don’t really need the criteria and would have preferred to ignore them. Moreover. If there are incongruities with my grading. Observer 3 I have to admit that initially I determine the grade during observation or immediately after that. reliably. The feeling that prevailed among us was that. and the trainees themselves. as I am required to provide a detailed assessment record. 5 adopting a quantitative approach is discouraging and undermining to teachers. Voices contradicting this approach maintain that observations tend to be subjective. 2 criteria for effective teaching differ for every instructional situation. thus defined criteria should be provided to lower the level of anxiety among students. In the same vein. There is a general consensus about the importance of observation in the development and assessment of a teacher. 3 checklists measure low inference skills and these are limited because they tell us very little about teacher behaviour and the learning process itself. To attain objectivity it is argued that we have to develop systematic observation tools. Leung and Lewkowicz (2006: 27) highlight the point of subjective interpretation and contend that due to the fact that ‘teachers can interpret assessment criteria differently. Mylonas. their pedagogical counsellor’s. classroom observation has occupied a prominent role in terms of its use as a tool by which to judge and subsequently promote good practice’. It also entails conflicting decisions concerning whose theories to implement. The observation lesson is considered a high stake test by the trainees and at times puts them under the tremendous pressure of a major test. and Hansford (1998) claim that an increased demand for quality and accountability in teacher education programmes requires a criterion-based standard reference framework for assessment. Muller. He supports his contention by claiming that: 1 a lesson is a complete entity and cannot be dissected into separate parts. 4 effective teaching manifests itself in high inference skills. the idea that teachers should observe what Evaluating teaching practice 261 . He also advocates a holistic way of assessing. the existing assessment approach contains a number of inadequacies that directly conflict with the fundamental aims of genuine teacher development’. based on the observer’s own teaching approach. He contends that ‘although it would be naı¨ve to discount classroom observation per se as a useful learning tool for teacher development . This led us to investigate the following issues: 1 To what extent are we actually assessing quality of teaching through observation? 2 What are the perceptions of our trainees regarding the way of assessment? Exploring the literature While surveying the literature we found unsettled perspectives on issues that underpin our questions. Acheson and Gall (1997) reflect students’ feeling of being threatened when they are unaware of the criteria by which they will be judged. This notion is also supported by O’Leary (2004: 14) who claims that ‘Traditionally. which are fundamentally qualitative. Brooker. the pedagogical counsellor undertakes most of the responsibility and has the final say in grading the trainee while the others can only slightly affect the grade. . or their own. their cooperating teacher’s.In terms of the teacher’s assessment for the purpose of accountability. One of his objections is to the assessment of a teacher’s ability by using a checklist of subjective criteria. . they claim that ‘teachers’ judgements are influenced by wider social and community practices and values’ and therefore might lead to different perspectives. how would you like to be assessed: analytically or holistically? 3 Which items on the observation form would you omit and which would you like to add? We explained to each group that the term ‘holistically’ implied assessing impressionistically by looking at the lesson as a whole. and that ‘analytically’ implied using set criteria to assess numerically each aspect of the lesson. going to the literature was a journey of mixed blessings. interviews. . Alderson (1991: 12) refers to the fact that ‘we know little about how to measure the progress of learners . We also realized that there is much concern about the reliability of examination scores as determinants of teaching qualifications. The timing of this corresponded with the end of the academic year when trainees had already finished their practice teaching duties. The interviews with twenty trainees were conducted after the questionnaires were read and analysed.learners say and do. and documents that included minutes from meetings and assessment forms. To aid completion. The questionnaire was distributed to trainees of two T E F L courses at a teacher training college. Broadfoot (2005: 127) is even more extreme in his assertion and claims that ‘we use what are a very blunt set of instruments to intervene in the highly sensitive and complex business of learning’. interpret their work. We concluded from this analysis that it was important to gain a wider set of trainee perspectives and achieve a richer picture of the trainees’ reasoning. the choices that were provided reflected the issues that trainees had mentioned to us regularly. and then provide guidance for improvement is an uncertain business’. We drew upon our involvement with the assessment process to draft a ‘simple survey’ with two closed questions and one open-ended question. Moreover. . Thus. His assertion is that performance tests that strive to be highly authentic are often extremely complex due to the extraneous social influences on the grade awarded. A questionnaire was designed to explore the preferences that students had towards how they might be assessed. As a result of these diverse views. we discussed the general responses that had been provided to the questionnaire with twenty randomly chosen trainees. we found McNamara’s (1995) point relevant to our argument even though he does not refer to observation lessons. As we consider the observation lesson to be a performance test. personal diaries. The study Data were retrieved from questionnaires. The three questions were: 1 How would you like your pedagogical counsellor to assess your observation lesson? By giving you a fail/pass or a numerical grade? 2 If you chose a numerical grade. and that we lack sensitive measures’. 262 Shosh Leshem and Rivka Bar-Hama . It supported our sense of discomfort and it became apparent to us that our problem warranted attention. Trainees of this group pursue a study programme. I can compare the form of my first observation and the second one and know exactly where I improved. they felt that this approach was more reliable since assessing according to set criteria is more objective. 2 third year trainees from group A. They justified their choice by lack of confidence and fear. These trainees are usually older than those on the BEd programme. none of the groups wanted a verbal grade of ‘pass’ or ‘fail’. The subjects constituted three groups: 1 second year trainees from group A. They explained that they saw the function of the criteria as guidelines to help them focus and construct better lessons. They actually preferred the unspecified nature of the holistic approach to a lesson being dissected by specific teacher behaviours. The subjects were trainees from the second and third years. I find them very useful. 2 Second year trainees on a two-year retraining programme. Evaluating teaching practice 263 . and 3 second year trainees from group B. They felt intimidated by the use of clear-cut criteria to analyse their lesson. which certifies them to teach both general subjects in the trainees’ mother tongue (Hebrew or Arabic) and English as a second/foreign language. It gives me a clear picture of what was good and what needs to be worked on. Group 2 chose the analytical approach. The criteria help you see the process. It really gives you a picture where you are and what to focus on next time. Group 3 preferred this form of assessment as they felt they did not need the criteria to analyse the lesson. Two groups (1 and 3) favoured holistic assessment for different reasons. The whole form is like an outline for a lesson plan. In terms of assessment. All three groups preferred a numerical grade. Trainees in this group hold a BA degree and study for a teaching certificate in English. Evidence from the interview showed how trainees’ voices reflected their choices: In favour of specified criteria on the observation forms The items on the form helped me remember what was discussed when I had to write a reflective journal on my lesson. Group 1 chose the holistic approach for the opposite reasons.Population The study was undertaken with 58 trainees studying on two different programmes: 1 A four-year Bachelor of Education programme in an English department of an Academic teacher training college in Israel. They claimed that the criteria helped them identify weaknesses and strengths and thus contributed to their pedagogical knowledge and their professional development. Findings In these findings. They claimed to be competent enough to analyse their lesson and reflect upon it independently without specific criteria. By that time in their training they were much more confident in their teaching and assessment. They were like post signs for me. These conclusions are situated in the limited context of just one practicum experience. It is too technical and robot like. the assessment of teaching quality through observation entails an internal paradox. Our research questions related to the extent to which quality of teaching is assessed through criteria-based observation and we found that our students felt that it was a valid method of assessment. with the majority choosing the holistic approach. This paradox encapsulates our initial urge to re-examine our own practice. I have to see how many points have been taken off or given for each item. Evidence of improvement from previous observations. there were differences between trainees in the choice between holistic or analytical approaches. Yet. and the constraints of social demands and norms. as it did not provide explicit feedback on their performance. Awareness of the teacher’s action zone. However. As a consequence. in spite of this approach enhancing reliability and transparency. a numerical grade on its own did not seem to be satisfactory. Their preferences for assessment show that they regard the observation lesson as both a test and a means for reflection and professional development. This may be a result of conditioning. Teaching is a web of interrelated dimensions. Our findings represent insights of 264 Shosh Leshem and Rivka Bar-Hama . Some are clearly observable and others are not. The fact that none of our subjects chose the ‘fail’ or ‘pass’ as evaluation criteria accords with Kennedy’s assertion that trainees prefer to receive a numerical grade for the observed lesson (Kennedy 1993). Credit for preparing extra time activities in their lesson plan.It gives you a fairer picture of the evaluation. The trainees who were in favour of the holistic approach needed the stated criteria on the assessment form to aid discussion during feedback sessions and to provide signposts for further reflection. However. of trainees’ upbringing. I do not like vagueness. Trainees need explicit criteria for effective teaching in order to identify the quality of their teaching. The sum of the parts represents quality of teaching. I feel as if my lesson has been put under a microscopic lens and it does not really depict the dynamics of the lesson. Although all trainees voted for numerical assessment. The criteria should be more general and not so detailed. Our small-scale investigation demonstrated that trainees at their initial stages of teaching perceive the lesson as separate parts and not as a whole entity. Not in favour of specified criteria on the observation forms There are too many details to process. as teachers researching our own field of practice. they did not want to be assessed analytically where each criterion was allotted numerical points. It confuses me. The following were some of the suggestions from the open-ended question: 1 2 3 4 Insights and conclusions Acknowledgement within the items of originality and risk taking. we gained deeper understanding and insights into a troublesome issue. I can’t focus on all the items. I would rather focus on one or two features of the lesson. thus they cannot have wide implications. C. and Prior Knowledge. Tsui.). Mylonas. and M. E. T. Nunan. K. Her publications are in the area of teaching English as a foreign language and teacher training and focus on testing and assessment. C. Zeichner. Broadfoot. Moser. Email: shosh-l@zahav. Inc. R. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ‘Inspecting the observation process: classroom observations under the Evaluating teaching practice spotlight’. 1983.net. Journal of Education for Teaching 16/2: 105–32. Birenbaum and F.an exploratory nature and they support the claim that quality and accountability should be achieved through explicit and objective criteria. Voices from the Language Classroom. ‘Changing directions in the practicum: looking ahead to the 1990’s’. IAT E F L Teacher Development SIG 1/4: 14–16.). 1995. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 23/1: 5–25. Y. Dordrecht. M.ac. 2004.il 265 . Her publications are in the area of teacher training and language teaching methodology. Email: rivkab@macam. Leung. Bailey (eds. Kennedy. ‘Dark alleys and blind bends: testing the language of learning’. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice 10/6: 623–37. She is currently teaching at Haifa University and Oranim. ‘Modelling performance: opening Pandora’s box’. The Reflective Practitioner. ‘Meeting the needs of the teacher trainees on teaching practice’. 1996. 2004. J. Muller. 1997. Academic School of Education. The authors Shosh Leshem is involved in teaching and teacher education in Israel. D. R. and B. ‘Language testing: matching assessment procedures with language knowledge’ in M. M. Cocard. 1993. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lewkowicz.). Dopchy (eds. 2003. M. She is also a visiting lecturer at Anglia Ruskin University in the UK. Shohamy. A. K. B. McNamara. P. Singapore: S EA M E O Regional Language Center. Norwood: ChristopherGordon Publishers. ‘Language testing in the 1990’s: how far have we come? How much further have we to go?’ in S. and P. Anivan (ed. Pajak. D. Gall. 1991. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. T. ‘Forget about theory—practice is all? Student teachers’ learning in practicum’. Scho¨n. Language Testing 22: 123–41. A. Alternatives in Assessment of Achievements. Applied Linguistics 16/2: 150–79. C. ‘Techniques in clinical supervision of teacher’ in E. 1990. and J. 2005.. Final version received October 2006 References Acheson. E LT Journal 47/2: 157–65. J. 1996. Brooker. M. Approaches to Clinical Supervision: Alternatives for Improving Instruction. ‘Improving the assessment of practice teaching: a criteria and standards framework’. Current Developments in Language Testing. 2006. Hansford. Hascher. T ES O L Quarterly 40/1: 211–34. 1998.il Rivka Bar-Hama is involved in teaching and teacher education in Israel. ‘Expanding horizons and unresolved conundrums: language testing and assessment’. D. R. Learning Processes. Understanding Expertise in Teaching: Case Studies of Second Language Teachers. focusing on doctoral processes from an ethnographic perspective.. O’Leary. and K. She taught at Haifa University and is currently head of the English Department at Gordon Academic College of Education. Alderson. such as slowing down the speech. To investigate a precise picture of the impact of interinterviewer variation. all rights reserved. 2007 . grammar.1093/elt/ccm044 ª The Author 2007. Advance Access publication June 4. This paper concludes with suggestions as to how the potential unfairness caused by interviewer variability could be solved. this research examines the variability of interviewer behaviour.) demonstrated that original complex questions might be re-formulated into simple yes-no questions or by stating question prompts as statements which merely require the candidate’s confirmation. more attention has been drawn to interviewer behaviour. a variety of speech accommodation strategies which interviewers practise towards interviewees was identified. fluency). there has been a proliferation of studies that analyse speaking test discourse to validate oral assessments. where native speakers accommodate their speech to non-natives to facilitate mutual understanding. and the video-taped interviews are rated by 22 raters on five marking categories. and the variability of interviewers’ behaviour has been focused on as a potential source of unfairness. Such interviewer accommodation is regarded as a parallel phenomenon to ‘foreigner talk’ discourse. cit. research has suggested that candidates’ test performances and scores are collaboratively achieved through interviewing/ scoring processes and there could be unfair situations caused by the interinterviewer variation. Lazaraton (op. The data are collected from two interview sessions involving the same candidate with two different interviewers. Ross and Berwick (op. The reasons for the differences are discussed based on conversation analysis findings. For example.) showed that candidates at a certain level were likely to get overaccommodated. The results show that a significantly different score was awarded to ‘pronunciation’ and ‘fluency’ in the two interviews. Despite the fact that these practices between interviewers and interviewees appear to be positive (because they validate the fact that these interviews could tap ‘natural conversation’ to some extent). Lazaraton 1996. If interviewers use more of such foreigner talk than the 266 E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008. Published by Oxford University Press. rephrasing questions and simplifying lexis (for example. pronunciation. it has been pointed out that inconsistent accommodation could have an influence on a candidate’s performance. Firstly.Inter-interviewer variation in oral interview tests Fumiyo Nakatsuhara Over the last two decades. Ross and Berwick 1992). cit. Accordingly. Previous research into inter-interviewer variation Over the last decade or so. doi:10. its influence on a candidate’s performance and raters’ consequent perceptions of the candidate’s ability on analytical rating scales (for example. they may fail to push an interviewee’s performance to its limits. Brown and Hill (1998) discovered a tendency that some interlocutors are likely to give raters a better impression of candidates’ performance than others. Thus.candidates deserve based on their wrong assumption of candidates’ proficiency. and the biggest difference among a group of raters they examined resulted in a difference of 0. A and B with the same candidate. The candidate C is a Chinese student. little is known about how these interviewer differences could be translated into analytical scores such as for pronunciation. Hence. As shown above. while B has assessed a number of in-house speaking tests without formal training. Both A and B are experienced teachers of English as a foreign language as well as experienced interviewers in speaking tests. are there any analytical marking categories which are especially affected by the difference in interviewer? 2 If so. explicit questioning. grammar. Secondly. Since this study is not investigating how to minimize inter-interviewer variability but discovering possible sources of unfairness caused by inter-interviewer Inter-interviewer variation in oral interview tests 267 . and fluency. they could also make the candidate appear to be a poor communicator by confusing them with frequent topic shift and using ambiguous closed questions to elicit extended responses. research has warned of the threat that the very characteristic can also be a source of unreliability associated with a lack of standardization across interviewers and potential unfairness to candidates.6 of a band on the IELT S speaking scale. as would happen when the second or third raters mark candidates’ performance while watching video/audio-tapes. C. the speaking test lasted about 12 minutes and employed only a single picture description task to stimulate their conversation. However. the research questions of this study are: 1 When the same candidate is interviewed by two different interviewers. as briefly described in Table 1. Brown (2003) further analysed the reasons for biased rating and found that while interviewers could make the candidate appear to be an effective communicator by their scaffolding. These studies examined the impact on scores considering the cases where a rater and an interviewer are separately allocated. Interviewer A has been formally trained for IE LT S and Trinity College London ESOL test. what types of interlocutor behaviour could have influenced the mark for the analytical components? The study: method of data collection and analyses Two interview sessions were conducted involving two different interviewers. In order to focus more specifically on interviewer–interviewee discourse. this study aims at investigating the precise effect of inter-interviewer variability so that we can make a useful application of these research findings to actual testing practices to improve fairness for candidates. whilst the unpredictable nature of the test interaction can contribute to the test validity by eliciting natural conversation. having studied English for academic purposes for two months in the University of Essex when she was interviewed. resulting in possible unfairness that some candidates’ best performance may not be elicited or that their lack of proficiency may not be revealed. smoothly extending topics and frequent positive feedback. such interactional features were studied together with their impact on rating scores. variability, a precise prescribed interview framework was not given to the interviewers, although several questions to be asked were provided. 1 Openings (1 minute) 2 Conversation on familiar topics (3 minutes) The interviewer asks the candidate to talk about him/herself. 3 Picture Description (2 minutes) The interviewer asks the candidate to describe a photo. Two different pictures (both taken from C A E practice book Harrison and Kerr 1999) were employed to avoid a practice effect. [Picture for A’s session] A mother trying to cope with her child [Picture for B’s session] A boy in front of the TV 4 Conversation on topics from the given picture (5 minutes) The interviewer asks the candidate questions linked to the picture (from general to extended questions). table 1 Interview structure 5 Closings (1 minute) The interviews were video-taped for rating and transcribing purposes. After an individual short briefing on how to use the rating scale, the video-tape was shown to 22 independent raters to judge the candidate’s performance in the two sessions respectively. To avoid an order effect, half of the raters saw A’s interview first and the other half saw B’s interview first. The raters, D–Z, all have rater experience in some speaking tests as well as teaching experience. Since this study aims at examining how the impact of interviewer-variability is realized on analytical scales, a criterion-referenced analytical scale with five marking categories was provided: pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary resources, fluency, and interactive communication. Each category contained four levels (rather than five or six), because it was considered that the criteria should easily be deployed by raters with limited rater training in this study. In addition to providing scores on each category, raters were also asked to summarize reasons for awarding those scores so that the retrospective verbal reports could help to uncover any relationship between interviewer behaviours, the candidates’ performance, and their ratings. The rating data were firstly quantitatively analysed to see if judges gave different scores systematically on certain analytical categories in one of the two sessions (for Research question 1). Inter-rater reliability was .7701 by Cronbach alpha (S P SS 14.0), which seemed acceptable for speaking tests, although it was not particularly high due to the limited rater training.1 Secondly, the video-taped interview sessions were transcribed, following conversation analysis (CA) conventions (Atkinson and Heritage 1984). The CA findings were used to explore the features of interviewer behaviour which might have caused the different ratings (for Research question 2). Results Results of quantitative analysis: effect on rating As shown in Table 2 and Figure 1, the mean scores of all analytic categories are higher in B’s interview except ‘vocabulary resources’, and the tendency is more clearly observed in ‘pronunciation’ and ‘fluency’. 268 Fumiyo Nakatsuhara Analytic categories Interviewer Mean S.D. Pronunciation A B A B A B A B A B 1.77 2.00 1.41 1.45 1.73 1.64 1.64 1.91 2.00 2.05 .69 .69 .59 .50 .70 .66 .66 .53 .87 .72 Grammar Vocabulary resource Fluency table 2 Rating result (N ¼ 22) Interactive communication figure 1 Rating result Paired sample t-tests indicate that the candidate, when interviewed by interviewer B, obtained significantly higher scores in ‘pronunciation’ and ‘fluency’, as shown in Table 3.2 table 3 Paired sample t-tests Result of qualitative analysis: interviewer variability P R O N_A – P R O N_B GR AM_A – GR AM_B VO CA B_A – V O C A B_B FLU_A – FLU- B INT ER_A – IN TE R_B Mean difference S.D. t df Sig (2-tailed) –.2273 –.0455 .0909 –.2727 .0455 .4289 .3751 .5263 .5505 .7854 –2.485 –.568 .810 –2.324 –.271 21 21 21 21 21 .021 .576 .427 .030 .789 Following Brown (op. cit.), the analysis of the nature of interaction is reported in terms of three phases of interaction: (1) questioning and topic nomination techniques, (2) topic expansion and management techniques, and (3) receipt tokens and feedback techniques.3 The interview by interviewer A is analysed first. Inter-interviewer variation in oral interview tests 269 Interviewer A Interviewer A seems to have her own typical approach to questioning, especially when nominating new topics. The following (1) is an excerpt from the initial part of her interview. 1 Interviewer A (I: interviewer, C: candidate) 1/ I: And (.) an’ Why did you choose to come to Essex?¼ 2/ ¼.Why did you want to come to Essex to study?, 3 C: Ah:: Because I:: I will take the Master course eh:: to study, eh my major will be (.) eh: (.8) economics or international relation, so I think eh I choose this 5 university because the ga::ment department and the economics department is 6 very .hh (.5) eh:: rentaful. So I choose this University?¼ 7/ I: ¼Right, What are you going to do when you finish your studies? 8/ Will you go back to Beijing?¼ 9 C: ¼Yah, of course. (.5) Haha:::¼ 10/ I: ¼N’ you want to be a manager? Or have your own company? 4 In line 1, she asks a question on C’s reason for choosing Essex University, and before C responds, she immediately rephrases the initial question in a ‘latched’ (¼) and speeded-up (.,) fashion in line 2. After the candidate answers, A develops the topic by asking another question about her future plans in line 7, and the question is added to by another easier question which could project the candidate’s possible answer. Facilitated by the second question, C answers ‘Yah, of course. (.5) Haha:::’, but fails to deal with the first question. Consequently, the interviewer returns to the unsuccessful question not by the same wh-question but by asking for confirmation of two possible answers in line 10. This approach to questioning is typical of interviewer A. She frequently rephrases the initial questions in her own turn. Once the topic has been introduced, A tends to systematically recycle the topic to expand the candidate’s response. In the following examples, she demands more of C’s opinions (see 2), requests reasons for her previous answer (see 3), and asks for examples (see 4). 2 Interviewer: A (I: interviewer, C: candidate) C: Yeh, freedom freedom for child n: (.8) if the child is crying, OK if crying OK 2 finish (.5) ah will be goo(h)d 3/ I: Right. Do you agree with that? Or do you ( ) 1 3 Interviewer: A (I: interviewer, C: candidate) 1 C: ¼but I I think she uh:: doesn’t care the ki(h)ds cry(hah)ing 2 (.5) 3/ I: All right. Hah hah ha What makes you say that? 270 Fumiyo Nakatsuhara C: candidate) 1 C: uh:: Maybe This another person? maybe it’s grandmothe-. which is subsequently confirmed and elaborated by the candidate. and something else. as in lines 2 and 5 in (5). 5 Interviewer: A (I: interviewer. C: candidate) 1 I: ¼So so in your idea or your point of view. 6 Interviewer: B (I: interviewer.5) 6/ I: For example? Concerning feedback. news. rather than asking a related question to expand the given topic. 4 C: [ just learn hahha 5 C: Yah. Do(h)esn’t matter what. B hypothesizes that she may not care too much about the programme itself. and a smile during the candidate’s in-progress story. 7 Interviewer: B (I: interviewer.) in line 3.) manage em something they should manage [and ha huh 4 I: [Right 5 (. and states it with a falling intonation (.4 Interviewer: A (I: interviewer. in (6).5) lot of toys lot of books and something:: (.5) a lot of things 5/ I: [((smiling)) Interviewer B Interviewer B also seems to have his own typical questioning method. He frequently uses statements as question prompts rather than explicitly asking the candidate questions. hahha I don’t like this roo(hh)m hah[ha 2 I: [You don’t like i(h)t? 3/ [hu so not your style 4 C: [hahha Yah hah[ha Inter-interviewer variation in oral interview tests 271 . advertisements. and waits for natural development of the interaction as in extract 7 below. he often ‘formulates’ (Heritage 1985) or re-presents what C has said. C: candidate) 1 C: ¼No. what makes a good mother? 2 (. eye contact. grandma? 2/ I: (1. 1 A similar technique is also employed to develop topics. For example. after C’s answer that TV is a beneficial source to learn English. To maintain the topics.8) but I think the room is a little mess 4 ha[ha (. In this excerpt. I think watching English is good fo(h)r me(h) huh 2 for my English. A tends to replace some possible verbalized receipt tokens with non-verbal behaviour such as nodding. Hah ha 3/ I: Oh OK Just for Eng[lish so doesn’t matter what programme. C: candidate) C: ¼Uh: hh but em: for me. the candidate is talking about her reaction to the room which she has just described in a picture.5) 3 C: Em:: (. Instead. 6 I watch haha all all can improve my English.0) ((nodding)) 3 C: And:: ah: (. she rarely gives comments on the information given by the candidate. 5 I: [Right 6/ C: I like more fashion, more eh light room you know I like I like eh 7 some gla:ss, some something else. That that is not like this room hahha In an assessment situation, using statements as questions (extract 6) and formulation (extract 7) are not considered as always desirable, since these techniques only voluntarily ask the candidate to continue to talk, and formulation may function as drawing a conclusion for the candidates thus depriving them of the opportunity to do it by themselves (Lazaraton op. cit.). However, as formulation tends to be preferable, for instance in a news interview, to preserve the interviewee’s prior statement as a topic of further talk (Heritage op. cit.: 106) and as this candidate successfully interpreted B’s implicit demand for more information and often elaborated her response as shown above, these techniques in the given interview functioned rather effectively. Additionally, as in excerpt 8 below, interviewer B tends to shift topics when the first questioning seemed unsuccessful in terms of the possibility of natural expansion of the topic. This can be contrasted with interviewer A, who returns to the unsuccessful questions as shown in 1 and systematically recycles the topic in 2–4 above. 8 Interviewer: B (I: interviewer, C: candidate) 1 I: ¼Do you have favourite artists or 2 C: Em hhahha my my favourite artist also is Chine(h)se. hahha 3 (1.0) 4/ I: Oh, Chinese. What about mu- movies? Which kind of movies do you like? As for feedback, B frequently provides comments, particularly giving positive evaluation as in (9). Giving evaluation is sometimes avoided in testing, since it may ‘mislead some candidates to believe that they are doing better than they actually are in the assessment; it also may impact on outcome ratings’ (Lazaraton op. cit.: 161). Nevertheless, this type of positive feedback is regularly observed in the classroom to encourage learners (Ur 1996: 242), and may consequently sound like natural interaction between such native and non-native conversation as observed here. 9 Interviewer: B (I: interviewer, C: candidate) 1 I: So their [parents should be responsible. 2 C: [Yah yah yah Yes. 3/ I: Oh OK Yah very good. yah, very very good. OK Additionally, B frequently echoes what C has uttered as in extract 8 above (‘Oh, Chinese.’). This receipt design of his may be a useful display of his involvement in her response and his effort to establish mutual understanding. In sum, while A is explicit in her questioning and systematic topic development, B does so ambiguously. Moreover, while A’s talk seems to be more teacher-like with great supportive behaviours and control of the topic the candidate needs to deal with, B’s behaviour could be seen as more 272 Fumiyo Nakatsuhara non-test-like with his lower-level control of the interaction. Whilst A gave a minimal amount of verbal response tokens, B gave a variety of feedback. Discussion Based on the CA findings described above, two possible reasons why different scores were awarded to the ‘pronunciation’ and ‘fluency’ components will be discussed.4 Firstly, it may be because A’s interview was more controlled with her systematic questioning and topic-development than that of B’s. Together with the great amount of supportive behaviour, her guidance was more explicit than that of B’s, and topics about which the candidate had to talk were clearly defined at every stage. Consequently, in order to deal with the clearly specified topic, the candidate may have been required to utilize unfamiliar vocabulary whose pronunciation she was not sure of. Some raters actually awarded a better score for the ‘vocabulary’ components in A’s interview session, probably because A pushed the candidate to her limits of vocabulary resources. On the other hand, B exercised less control over the direction of the interviews with implicit questioning, and shifted topics when the candidate had difficulty in expanding them. Thus, the candidate may have been able to avoid lexis whose pronunciation she did not fully know and might have got wrong. Similarly, the candidate might have spoken more fluently in B’s less directed interview where she could talk about whatever she wanted to and did not need to talk about any dispreferred topics in depth. This can be explained as a type of ‘avoidance strategy’, which is ‘motivated by the language user’s desire to use language correctly, i.e. to avoid errors, or to use it fluently, i.e. to avoid rules and items which cannot be easily retrieved and smoothly articulated’ (Faerch and Kasper 1984: 48). Secondly, the difference in types and the amount of feedback may have affected the perception of raters about the candidate’s fluency. While B frequently provided comments as well as usual response tokens such as ‘uh huh’, A gave minimal amount of feedback and replaced possible verbal receipt tokens by rich non-verbal tokens during the candidate’s in-progress utterance. This could be the result of the formal interviewer training that A has experienced. In particular, giving evaluative comments, as mentioned earlier, is normally treated cautiously. More importantly, Fulcher (1996: 217) points out that an interviewer tends to be ‘highly sensitive to the possibility that the student needs time to plan what is going to be said next, and therefore the amount of overlapping speech may be much less than in less formal interaction’. Therefore, being sensitive not to interrupt the candidate’s production, interviewer A may have failed to fill gaps which are normally filled in mundane conversation, and this could have increased the amount of silence and caused the raters to perceive that the candidate ‘was more hesitant when answering questions in A’s interview, while she generally kept flow of conversation going in B’s’ (Rater M). Conclusions and suggestions This investigation has explored specific aspects of the relationship between interlocutor behaviour and its impact on candidate performances and scores. To summarize, the two interviewers examined here possessed their own ways of questioning, developing topics, and reacting to the candidate’s response, and these differences translated into the different ‘pronunciation’ Inter-interviewer variation in oral interview tests 273 and ‘fluency’ scores in ratings. Although the results cannot be generalized due to the limited data treated here, this study has clearly exemplified a possible relationship between the characteristics of interviewer behaviour and particular components of language ability affected. It was particularly interesting to find interviewer A, who was more trained for standardized tests like IE LT S and thus followed such guidelines more closely than B, led the candidate to appear to perform less well. The fact that the I E LT S trained interviewer did not provide the opportunity for the best performance from the candidate leads us to rethink what interviewer training should be for. This is because it seems possible that the training, in the interests of standardization, systematically prevents interviewers from ‘biasing for best’ (Swain 1985: 42–3) for test-takers. Lastly, I would like to suggest how the findings of this study and of future studies along these lines can be useful to ensure that students are treated equally regardless of the interviewer they are paired with. Firstly, examination boards can refer to such research results to define what (and to what extent) interlocutor techniques should/should not be needed in what circumstances. Accordingly, more emphasis should be given in interviewer training programmes to highlighting these empirical data so that interviewers can be made aware of themselves as a possible factor to influence students’ scores. Secondly, the existing rating scales can be refined and the role of the interviewer in test interaction can be taken into consideration in the rater training procedure (Lazaraton op. cit.). If raters and interviewers establish mutual understanding on why particular interviewer behaviour is employed at each moment, interviewer behaviour will no longer be a source of random fluctuation of scores. Rather, this understanding will enhance both the validity and the reliability of the oral interview tests by providing candidates with systematic, consistent ‘conversation-like’ interlocutor interaction. Final revised version received February 2007 Notes 1 According to Lado’s (1964: 332) classic suggestion on reliability coefficient, the acceptable reliability for a speaking test is .70–.79, although there is now a general consensus that it is desirable to aim for .8 or above. 2 One may think that the obtained mean differences for ‘Pronunciation’ and ‘Fluency’ are rather too small to be discussed. However, considering that the rating category consists only of four levels and 5 out of 22 raters and 7 out of 22 raters gave better scores on ‘Pronunciation’ and ‘Fluency’ respectively in B’s session, it seems plausible to regard that the raters perceived the better performance of the candidate in these two categories in B’s session. 3 For further details of example interactions and CA, see Nakatsuhara (forthcoming). 274 Fumiyo Nakatsuhara 4 It can be argued that an interviewer’s gender/age or different picture prompts might be a factor. However, since these factors are out of the scope of this study, the discussion here focuses only on interactional differences between the two interviewers. References Atkinson, J. M. and J. Heritage. (eds.). 1984. Structures of Social Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, A. 2003. ‘Interviewer variation and the coconstruction of speaking proficiency’. Language Testing 20: 1–25. Brown, A. and K. Hill. 1998. ‘Interviewer style and candidate performance in the I E LT S oral interview’ in S. Woods (ed.). Research Reports 1997 Volume 1. Sydney: E L I C O S, 173–91. Lado. Kasper.E.A. A. New Directions in Language Testing. G. Harrison. F. P. Her research interests include the nature of co-constructed interaction in various speaking test formats. ‘Does thick description lead to smart test? A data-based approach to rating scale construction’. London: Academic Press. Lee.uk Inter-interviewer variation in oral interview tests 275 . Language Testing 13: 208–38. M. R. Kerr. A. J. ‘Analyzing news interviews: aspects of the production of talk for an overhearing audience’ in T. C. paired. group size. Heritage. Handbook of Discourse Analysis (vol. Language Learning 34: 45–63. ‘Impact of interinterviewer variation on analytical rating scores and discourse in oral interview tests’. 1996. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 14: 159–76. and G. M. forthcoming. Low (eds. 1999. Ur. S. Fork. Email: fnakat@essex. Language Testing 13: 151–72. New York: McGrawHill. Newcastle Working Paper in Linguistics 12. and group formats. A Course in Language Teaching.). Lord. and R. 1985. van Dijk (ed. Berwick. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ‘Interlocutor support in oral proficiency interviews: the case of C A S E’. Oxford: Pergamon. 1985. Lazaraton. Fulcher. ‘Two ways of defining communication strategies’. 1996. Her PhD research focuses on conversational style in group oral tests. 1964. Ross. 3). ‘Large-scale communicative language testing: a case study’ in Y. C.ac. Y. and R. 1996. P. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. such as interview. The author Fumiyo Nakatsuhara is a PhD student in Language Testing at the University of Essex. Y. 1992. considering the impact of candidate characteristics. Nakatsuhara. and task types. ‘The discourse of accommodation in oral proficiency interviews’.). R. Practice Tests. and G. A. 1984. C. Swain. Language Testing.Faerch. doi:10. In spite of its great potential. the same people who have the power to make decisions in society at large are the ones who also have the power to design and implement educational systems. In other words. or borrowing Pennycook’s (2001) terminology. social class. the practical implications of CP have not been well appreciated and most of the references to the term have been limited to its conceptual dimensions. Introduction The concept of critical pedagogy (CP) has been around in the E LT profession for almost two decades (Canagarajah 2005). ‘but a way of ‘‘doing’’ learning and teaching’ (Canagarajah op. What critical pedagogues are after is the transformation of society through education. CP is not a theory. Published by Oxford University Press. The present paper seeks to present a snapshot of CP by delineating its principles and suggesting some areas of application for L2 practitioners.point and counterpoint Transforming lives: introducing critical pedagogy into E LT classrooms Ramin Akbari Critical pedagogy (CP) in E LT is an attitude to language teaching which relates the classroom context to the wider social context and aims at social transformation through education. CP deals with questions of social justice and social change through education. all rights reserved. it is teaching with an attitude. and consequently. . their ideas and values get accepted and promoted while the values and ideas of others 276 E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008. the same biases are reproduced in educational systems. including language teaching. or gender (Giroux 1983). The present paper highlights the applications of CP for L2 classrooms and provides hints as to how L2 teaching can result in the improvement of the lives of those who are normally not considered in E LT discussions. Critical pedagogues argue that educational systems are reflections of the societal systems within which they operate.: 932). but it has only been relatively recently that we have seen heightened interest in its principles and practical implications.cit. however. and since in all social systems we have discrimination and marginalization in terms of race. for which it was originally intended.1093/elt/ccn025 ª The Author 2008. What is CP? Unlike most of the other concepts and ideas one encounters in the literature on L2 teaching. Most of the discussion on CP has been limited to its rationale and not much has been done to bring it down to the actual world of classroom practice. it is also Critical pedagogy in ELT 277 . since by taking the classroom as the point of departure. it is the discourse of liberation since it questions the legitimacy of accepted power relations and recognizes the necessity of going beyond arbitrary social constraints. cultural. however. . historical. For these people. its major variants in K-12 education in the US—critical literacy. At the same time. it helps the marginalized to explore ways of changing society for a better. two groups of people who are either left out of any serious treatment of the profession or represented superficially detached from their real-life experiences. critical pedagogy. and what it has done to others. The identity of a language is shaped as a result of what has happened to it. By viewing education as an intrinsically political. in general. In applied linguistics. However. Exposing some of the values that underlie the spread and promotion of English. and gives them scope to exercise power in their local context. and admitting that English is not an innocent language. is a political activity in which the rights of certain classes are systematically denied.—are united on at least the following very general aim: to help students to read with and also to read against . It is about recognizing language as ideology. not just system. and political dynamics of language use’ (Kumaravadivelu 2006: 70). they argue. The discourse of CP. and political symbols and relations (Pennycook 2001). CP puts the classroom context into the wider social context with the belief that ‘what happens in the classroom should end up making a difference outside the classroom’ (Baynham 2006: 28). CP is liberating in the sense that it legitimizes the voices of practitioners and learners. The problem is. CP is an acknowledgement both of the socio-political implications of language teaching and at the same time the possibility of change for both students and teachers. and L2 teaching in particular. is teaching a new system of communication and it does not have much political/critical significance. . if we look back upon the history of English and its close connection with the spread of colonialism. that any language is part of the wider semiotic system within which it was shaped and is infused with ideological. might not be completely evident to many professionals. and questioning some of the assumptions based on which the profession currently operates are at the heart of CP and discussions dealing with linguistic imperialism (Pennycook 1998). teaching English. supporters of CP seek to expose the discriminatory foundations of education and take steps towards social change in such a way that there is more inclusion and representation of groups who are left out. it is also the discourse of hope since it provides the potential for marginalized groups to explore ways of changing the status quo and improve their social conditions. In language teaching. It is about extending the educational space to the social. as a result. we find ourselves pausing. The political implications of education. and critical whole language practice . critical literacy is not just about interrogating texts. pondering. is the discourse of liberation and hope.are not given voice. . however. more democratic life: Critical education is not a unitary phenomenon. it can be viewed as the discourse of hope. critical practice is ‘about connecting the word with the world. . Education. power-related activity (Freire 1973). about ‘real world realities’ and the role of language. (Edelsky and Johnson 2004: 121. Even when the social dimensions of language are acknowledged. racial. In this international situation. If education in general and E LT in particular are going to make a difference. it has developed certain features which are not part of any specific national character. most of the communication carried out in English is between people who are themselves the so-called non-native speakers of English and with a distinct 278 Ramin Akbari . but ‘them’ or ‘others’. is different (McKay 2003). creating the context for positive action and a heightened awareness of the plight of those who are not us. . has been from the target language. since the justification has been that those who want to learn a new language want to communicate with the users of that language. but about preparation for public citizenship. Language teachers can play a more active social role by including themes from the wider society in their classes. the social reality of language learning and teaching is represented from a narrow perspective where social context is only treated as who is talking to whom about what. such as poverty. and due to the scope of its application both geographically and communicatively. disease. Seidlhofer 2001). The complexity of the social conditions students and teachers find themselves in is not given serious consideration and some of the grim facts that are part of the human condition. English has now turned into an international language. The following sections include some suggestions as to how teachers can transform their classes into more critical settings. Transforming classes Base your teaching on students’ local culture Culture has always been treated as an indispensable part of any language teaching/learning situation and in fact it has been used as a source of content for many language teaching coursebooks. The reality in which many other language learners find themselves. In other words. quoted in Reagan 2006: 4) The conservative forces that control education and society at large have tried to keep critical ideas out of school curricula and classrooms. This assumption. for civic agreement. As a result. or ethnic discrimination. and by drawing the attention of their students to the way marginalized people feel or act. and still language teaching is viewed mainly as a cognitive activity with few socio-political implications. nevertheless. then the totality of the experiences of learners needs to be addressed. however. E LT has not been completely responsive to the demands made by a CP. and successful communication would be impossible without familiarity with the cultural norms of the society with whose speakers the learner is trying to forge bonds. education for a democracy should not be about the development of products or even consumers. holds true for those groups of learners who want to migrate to countries such as the US or UK for work or study. power and representation in injustice . of course. Most cultural content. are ignored. English has become de-nationalized and re-nationalized as a result of its spread as the world lingua franca (Sridhar and Sridhar 1994. . They can also incorporate themes from students’ day-to-day lives to enable them to think about their situation and explore possibilities for change. domestic violence. Coursebook contents and teaching methods have been cautiously selected to make sure that only socially refined topics are addressed. they cannot do so unless due attention is paid to their own culture in the curriculum and opportunities are provided for critical reflection on its features. honour killings. The rationale for the total exclusion of L1 from classes. It is here that both the negative and positive features of their culture can be addressed and local cultural sore points (such as the spread of AIDS. what is needed more is for the learners to be able to develop the competence to talk about their own culture and cultural identity. in most communicative settings. and as a result. people involved in communication want to express who they are and what kind of cultural background they represent. while allowing for a more liberal use of the L1 to facilitate communication and comprehension. However. etc. There is little need in this context for the Anglo-American culture since neither party is a native with whom the other interlocutor is going to identify. and an opportunity to practise the use of those features. not those of the target language. there is not much evidence available in support of the total banishment of learners’ L1. must be sought mostly in the political/economic dimensions of L2 teaching and the inability of native English teachers to utilize the mother tongue potential of their learners. An L2 class is primarily designed to provide a setting for learners to be exposed to the features of the language they are trying to learn. In other words. people try to communicate their own cultural values and conceptualizations. however. The call for the use of learners’ L1 in the classroom does not necessarily mean that it can be used as the language of instruction. a learner’s first language can be regarded as an asset that can facilitate communication in the L2 and as part of her communicative experience on which to base her L2 learning. In addition.) brought to the attention of learners. A note of caution. From a critical perspective. L1 can be successfully used to maintain discipline in the classroom or to provide instruction for certain activities. Teachers have been advised to conduct their classes in the target language to minimize this negative effect and give students ample practice opportunities in gaining mastery over L2 features. Typically. an emphasis on target language is misplaced. and in fact there might be cases to the contrary. For example. must be on the L2. The focus of attention. reliance on learners’ culture as the point of departure for language teaching will make them critically aware and respectful of their own culture and prevent the development of a sense of inferiority which might result from a total reliance on the target language culture where only the praiseworthy features of the culture are presented.cultural identity of their own. therefore. If students are going to transform the lives of themselves and those of others. reliance on one’s own local culture has the added value of enabling learners to think about the different aspects of the culture in which they live and find ways to bring about changes in the society where change is needed. therefore. It can also be used for explaining delicate grammar points or abstract vocabulary items (Cook 2001). Critical pedagogy in ELT 279 . In addition. Regard learners’ L1 as a resource to be utilized The common practice in L2 professional literature has been the rejection of learners’ L1 as a negative force which will slow down their progress by interfering with L2 development. from a scientific perspective. extending their visa for another year or term. as well as political affiliations. cit. rural students’ needs are different from those of urban centres.: 25) where one would feel secure in being who he/she is. or what to wear for a friend’s party. language becomes an important refuge. which form the backbone of instruction in many mainstream language teaching contexts. While learners might have needs related to finding a part-time job. in most of the dialogues of such books the interlocutors talk about issues which are far removed from the lives of many learners. minorities have needs which diverge from those of the majority. in 280 Ramin Akbari . then the first step needs to be a respect for who they are and the values they represent. Iran’s Ministry of Education. these landmines are the leftovers of eight years of war with Iraq. is their disregard for the localness of learning and learning needs. in other words. that is. and through judicious use of the students’ L1 as a teaching aid. and most of the victims are children and adolescents. economic. ethnic. lack the required sensitivity to be able to address such concerns. and haves and have-nots need different types of instructional material and approaches. or ‘a stable point’ (Baynham op. Include more of students’ real-life concerns CP takes the ‘local’ as its point of departure. true respect for human rights and the dignity of people should start with one of the most basic rights they are entitled to. where most of the language introduced deals with the needs and concerns of middle and upper classes. but in terms of the purposes they serve in the social mobility and activism of students. which means that what students are taught will differ widely depending on their locale and linguistic. would object to a blanket approach to syllabus design where all students are assumed to have a common set of communicative goals. In other words. or negotiating their status as a refugee (Baynham 2006). In CP there is no separation between the communicative needs of learners and who they are socially and politically. Learners’ needs in CP are defined not just linguistically or in terms of tasks. A problem of commercially produced coursebooks. a safe haven. In addition. In Iran there are still regions that are contaminated by landmines. a badge of honour. language teachers can create the context where the first steps towards empowerment and positive social change can be taken. it is undesirable and even impossible to deny the significance of learners’ first languages. participants in coursebook dialogues worry about where to spend their vacation. Each year hundreds of people get killed or are wounded by these landmines. And when it comes to marginalized groups. in a critically inspired pedagogy. If people are supposed to become empowered and their voices recognized and respected. how people celebrate Mardi Gras. their linguistic human rights (Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson 1995). By including more of the learners’ first language in L2 settings. An example of how local concerns can be incorporated in a typical English syllabus may clarify the issue further. CP. Most such books make use of a language which is considered to be aspirational (Gray 2001). An individual’s L1 is part of his or her identity and a force which has played a crucial role in the formation of that identity. Commercially produced coursebooks. in fact.From a critical perspective. and local here includes the overall actual life experiences and needs of learners. Religion. Sex. places they are planted. has decided to offer a special crash course on landmines and safety measures needed in dealing with them for students living in affected areas. students in this situation can be exposed to a reading passage which makes them familiar with landmines. In addition to some guidelines (or maybe we can say ‘redlines’) provided by publishers. For example. poverty in the learners’ immediate society is not normally treated. Alcohol. In other words. are unaware of the way the majority of their society’s citizens negotiate their day-to-day lives or even their survival. CP can provide the needed insight for such learners so that through social activism they can transform the lives of those who are marginalized and help them attain better economic and social conditions. As a follow-up communicative activity. apparently harmless topics such as food. The majority of coursebooks used for English instruction have been anesthetized to make them politically and socially harmless for an international audience. some coursebook producers and writers either intentionally or unintentionally set themselves restrictions in refusing to recognize and represent certain groups of people who might not fit in exactly with the expectations of their middle and upper class language learning clients. As a result. and if Critical pedagogy in ELT 281 . or belief systems are in conflict with those of the mainstream groups and they are consequently denied certain rights or opportunities. Missing also in most coursebooks are people who are invisible due to their psychological or physical abnormalities. it would have been advisable and possible to include the landmine topic in the English lessons or instruction students receive in their curriculum and in this way come up with a content that is both relevant and transformative to the immediate lives of the learners. However. Most publishers advise coursebook writers to follow a set of guidelines to make sure that controversial topics are kept out of their books. Make your learners aware of issues faced by marginalized groups The majority of students who come to English classes do so because most of their basic needs in Maslow’s hierarchy have been met and they are now aiming at more social respectability and higher levels of self-actualization. and Pornography. the learners can be divided into groups of two and. in an information gap exercise using maps. Isms. which stands for Politics. it is usually with respect to a far away country or continent and groups of people with whom the learners can hardly identify. shopping. From a CP perspective. there are many groups in any society which are driven to the margins exactly because their political. This course is offered as an extra to the curriculum and is not integrated in any subject area students study in their regular programmes. help their partners get home safely while negotiating their way through farms dotted with landmines and suspicious objects. and if poverty is dealt with in a coursebook. one can hardly find any lessons dealing with the plight of amputees or the disabled. and cautionary measures that must be taken in contaminated areas.collaboration with the Red Crescent Society. or travel. Such learners. behavioural. most coursebooks deal with neutral. they mostly belong to the middle or upper classes of their society. by virtue of their social position. Narcotics. As an example. One such set of guidelines is summarized as PARS NIP (Gray 2001). teaching methodology. M. Theory and Resistance in Education: A Pedagogy for the Opposition. frequent hospital visits. C. L. CP is about the messy. 282 Ramin Akbari Giroux. Gray. In a sense. develops the required attitude. MA: Bergin. J. Pennycook. it provides a stable reference point for the marginalized groups to legitimate their own existence and claim what they are entitled to.). ‘The global coursebook in English language teaching’ in D. Canadian Modern Language Review 57/3: 402–24. in a word. ‘Critical whole language practice in time and place’. ‘Toward an appropriate E I L pedagogy: re-examining common ELT assumptions’. TE S O L Quarterly 40/1: 59–81. the true spirit of a real democracy. ‘Using the first language in the classroom’.psychological problems are dealt with. 1998. only cases with which the public is fascinated (such as autism or idiot savants) are represented. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 1/3: 121–41. B. starts at the local level. London: Routledge. space is provided for all citizens to make their voices heard. by creating a sense of respect and tolerance the first steps towards social change can be taken. Globalization and Language Teaching. S. By basing instruction on learners’ real-life worlds and identity. A. unpleasant aspects of social life and the people for whom such aspects are part of their day-to-day reality. Cook. As long as course contents and testing methods are decided upon by ministries in capitals. or how the world of ideas in education relates to the world of reality in society. Canagarajah. 1973. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 13/1: 1–22. 1983. Implementation of a critical model in any local E LT context has a number of requirements. E LT classes suffer from vague generalities and socio-political numbness. and testing) is of crucial importance. Johnson. 2003. English and the Discourse of Colonialism. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Among other things. Final revised version received August 2007 References Baynham. It is also the pedagogy of hope and understanding. 2006. 2001. H. ‘T E SO L methods: changing tracks. London: Writers and Readers. ‘Critical pedagogy in L2 learning and teaching’ in E. Old people are also left out of English coursebook contents. since without the possibility of change and a willingness to change criticism does not make much sense. Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Block (ed. 2005. Education: The Practice of Freedom. P. and the frustrations of losing one’s strength. South Hadley. and by extension E LT. London: Routledge. Linguistics and Education 17/1: 24–39. and all members of the society come to the realization that there are multiple perspectives on reality. S. and K. McKay. 2001.). 2004. The great potential CP has in curriculum development and student empowerment will be actualized only when education. among which decentralization of decision making (in terms of content. Mahwah. It is. it is not normally associated with disabilities. Freire. Edelsky. . challenging trends’. 2006. Conclusion CP is about the relationship between the word and the world (Freire 1973). ‘Agency and contingency in the language learning of refugees and asylum seekers’. Kumaravadivelu. V. A. The transformation of a society will be impossible unless trouble spots are identified. and acknowledges the significance of learners’ experiences as legitimate departure points in any meaningful learning enterprise. CP is about human dignity and respect. and if old age is mentioned. Hinkel (ed. S. T. and R. ‘Indigenized Englishes as second languages: Toward a functional Critical pedagogy in ELT theory of second language acquisition in multilingual contexts’ in R. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 11/2: 133–58. ‘Closing a conceptual gap: the case for a description of English as a lingua franca’. His research is on teacher education and critical pedagogy. Sridhar. T. K. 2001. N. L.). Reagan. K. Sridhar. and applied linguistics to MA and PhD students. Phillipson. Skutnabb-Kangas. Khanna (eds. Email: akbari_ram@yahoo. B. 2006. The author Ramin Akbari is an Assistant Professor of T EF L at Tarbiat Modares University in Tehran. (eds. Linguistic Human Rights: Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination. 1994. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 3/1: 1–22. Second Language Acquisition: Socio-cultural and Linguistic Aspects of English in India. language teaching methodology.Pennycook. where he teaches practicum. Critical Applied Linguistics: A Critical Introduction. ‘The explanatory power of critical language studies: linguistics with an attitude’. London: Sage. and K. 1995. Agnihotri and A. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2001. Seidlhofer.).com 283 . A. Mahwah. so E LT has increasingly embraced the second of these purposes. doi:10. the concept of critical pedagogy (CP) has been around for some time. such as sociology and anthropology. certainly in the previous paper. In trying to overcome this dilemma. In doing so. secondary school pupils studying it as a foreign language). In seeking to empower the marginalized and give a voice to those who are often excluded by the dominant political and social discourses. but has become of more central interest in recent years. thus reducing life to politics. Skills-training or education? Firstly. it is based on post-modern notions of knowledge. or whether the outcome would be the one anticipated. whose main interest in learning English is 284 E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008. There are also contradictions inherent in this approach: it is often most critical of the anglophone inheritance. or whether it should strive after broader objectives. As Ramin Akbari states in his article. diplomats. how such an aim can be achieved. It is not clear. I would argue that there are many groups around the world (business people. international students. though. accepting that no clear distinction is really possible between these two. there is the issue of whether language teaching is mainly about coaching a skill. which has done much to foster the right to criticize. it speaks a language of care. it is an attractive approach to English Language Teaching (E LT). they have sought to politicize teaching in a way that is unnecessary and potentially harmful. which seeks to effect political and social change through education. some of these practitioners have turned to the notion of CP to help justify their continuing involvement in the work. all rights reserved. and as professionals in the sector have naturally sought to enhance the significance and satisfaction of their work. not as value-free but as laden with an undesirable past and an ambivalent present.1093/elt/ccn026 ª The Author 2008. yet makes universal claims. At the heart of the matter stands the question of whether ELT is primarily concerned with skills-training or with education in the wider sense. As new theories of language learning have developed. moving into areas traditionally occupied by other disciplines. .point and counterpoint There’s more to life than politics Colin Sowden In order to broaden the range and increase the significance of their work. but its inherent dangers need also to be considered. As a result. the body of knowledge that practitioners seek to transmit has come under severe scrutiny and has been increasingly contested: linguistic norms once accepted as relatively self-evident are now seen as problematic. some English language teachers have embraced critical pedagogy. Published by Oxford University Press. but adopts a totalitarian view of society in which all relationships are treated as political. and that greater respect needs to be paid to local pedagogical traditions. Akbari does not give many concrete examples of classroom exercises. though he recognizes that outsiders might have problems if they are not familiar with local languages. they are likely to be more motivated and the English they acquire is likely to be more obviously relevant. then either party might know of a particular injustice or feel directly the effects of an oppressive practice. Akbari is quite right to lament the anodyne nature of most commercially produced textbooks. we still need to ask whether these are valid and feasible.instrumental. or those coming from different parts of the same country. They are well designed and should prove engaging. however. may bring to bear criteria which are not appropriate to the situation. and will look favourably on any activities which facilitate this. we accept the broader educational aims of CP. They are concerned to develop an adequate proficiency as efficiently as possible. They may not fully appreciate what factors operate in the local situation and.:165) is able to justify his teaching in this way as ‘based on my long-term work in the community and my recognition of the legitimacy that [my] approach has with my students’. So I believe that Akbari’s objections on these matters are justified. CP has little to say about the process of language learning itself: it does not promise that learners will increase their mastery of English. to encourage social change by raising critical awareness of social and political contexts. In fact. In the kind of setting that Akbari seems to envisage. if learners are involved in activities and with topics with which they can identify. though. Here. only that their learning will somehow be more socially and politically relevant. either those coming from overseas. questions of syllabus and materials design and teaching methodology become important. but such can be found in articles by Cots (2006) and Morgan (2004). particularly in the former case. His arguments. in which local teachers are teaching English as a second or other language to local students. they can make the value judgements for themselves. Morgan (ibid. Timmis (2002) too indicates that learners do not always exhibit the priorities expected of them. Clearly. Where the There’s more to life than politics 285 . although he acknowledges that this is largely the result of publishing companies trying to meet very widespread demand without giving offence. that might not be a priority for some groups. As suggested above. of course. can be applied within the established notions of learner-centredness and authenticity. One might add too that the emphasis on communicative methodology is also often misplaced. Raising awareness and political change If. perhaps metropolitans who move to a rural area. and wish to make that the subject of classroom study. They might feel that what they require from a language teacher is language. for whom its cultural baggage and ideological embedding is largely irrelevant. but at least the participants will probably be well informed on the subject and be able to draw some worthwhile conclusions. though this will occur as a result of good lesson planning rather than CP per se. so enabling learners to develop their language skills. Whether an English lesson is the most appropriate vehicle for such activity (as Akbari proposes regarding landmines in Iran) is questionable. The same cannot be said with assurance of outsiders. He is equally right to question methods which exclude the learner’s native tongue. as a distinct approach. they do not need to be subsumed under the heading of CP. My purpose here is not to attack Pennycook. it is presumptuous and possibly dangerous to excite one. no allowance seems to have been made for how Chinese Christians might respond to these missionary endeavours. and why therefore it is dangerous for ordinary practitioners to lay claim to too much. He felt obliged to give classes in which he drew the students’ attention to the fact that these colleagues were ‘fundamentalists’ and could be said to support the ‘right-wing’ policies of the US government. as an ideological enterprise. a better distinction might be drawn between liberal and authoritarian policies and governments: those that accommodate dissent and those that don’t. a fundamentalist is merely someone of strong beliefs who may wish to persuade others to share them. Strangely. then the response advocated by CP may well be right. too. How much more pernicious might be the effect of aspiring sociologists. are not actually the marginalized that CP is intended to 286 Colin Sowden . and cultural experts let loose in similar contexts. and that once persuaded of the need for change. However. one could consider Pennycook a fundamentalist on the question of CP. Rather it is to highlight how easily even a well-informed and conscientious teacher can be betrayed by their own prejudices and scope of experience. Such learners. But CP does aspire to this and much more. To the extent that the above objective is a matter of personal discovery and change. but CP is ostensibly about social and political transformation on a broader scale. even to the extent of persecuting or killing them. though. and it is here that problems arise. It is clear from the text that the terms ‘fundamentalist’ and ‘right-wing’ have negative connotations for the writer. and policies of language planning and teaching. as displayed directly and indirectly through conventions of language use. or to suggest that his decision was necessarily wrong in the circumstances. one who is prepared to force their opinions on others. particularly in places where Britain or the United States have played a colonial or neo-colonial role. This is an important omission because the growing Chinese church offers a powerful alternative discourse to those of the ruling Communist Party and the new urban rich. Beyond this there is also the matter of knowledge. Such a person is not necessarily a fanatic or extremist. then it is probably to be welcomed. The notions of right-wing and left-wing in politics are misleading and unhelpful. He refers to a situation in which some of his fellow-teachers were American Christian missionaries. but where no such demand apparently exists. How qualified are most English language teachers to pronounce on political or social matters? Phillipson (1992: 195) is concerned that the drive to export English in the 1970s and 1980s led to a plethora of under-qualified language teachers wandering the world doing damage in the classroom. Akbari seems to be saying (there is some ambiguity here) that most students of English ‘belong to the middle and upper classes’.initiative for such engagement comes from the learners themselves. It is not clear (certainly in Akbari’s article) how altered consciousness will lead to political action or how successful this is likely to be. political scientists. The possible problems arising from such a scenario are illustrated by Alistair Pennycook’s account of his experiences whilst teaching in China (1994: 313). whose work served as a vehicle to disguise their real purposes. they will lead the way towards a more just society. It is ideologically committed to uncovering and challenging anglophone hegemony. The point here is that status in a given context. In the nineteenth century. 17 September 2007). Among those scoring well on the Voice and Accountability Index are the anglophone nations. which in some respects may be higher where freedom is curtailed. including India and South Africa. which rather presupposes. it is worth considering the statistics recently released by World Wide Governance Indicators (Time. though the two are often incorrectly conflated) are no better and probably worse than those of locals who are subject to its domination. which they might not choose to do. one might question the validity of such an evaluation. as reflected in ease of access to the learning of a prestige language. in many cases the alternative to western colonization was not necessarily self-determination but domination by another local or foreign power. Nevertheless. These represent ‘the amount of freedom citizens [in different countries] have to voice opinions and select a government’. This is the problem which can face N G Os striving to help the most disadvantaged in grossly unequal societies: they may be hampered by those who have chosen not to relinquish their (often corrupt) hold on power. although how they are confronted is a legitimate matter for debate. Of course. Morality. when the company exercised an administrative rather than a commercial role. or the criteria used. on the post-modern assumption that all beliefs and practices are of equal worth. Of importance here. rather they are a privileged group who are being encouraged to take greater account of those less fortunate than themselves. which position also provided ground for some degree of mutual respect and learning. Similar action was taken in parallel circumstances over cannibalism among the Maoris of New Zealand and. except in very confrontational situations. However. freedom. During the eighteenth century the British East India Company chose not to interfere in local custom. this policy was reversed. that the teacher is operating in an environment where criticism is indeed permitted. the right kind of hegemony can be a good thing. is that local customs are not always to be preferred or to be given an equal voice. There’s more to life than politics 287 . eventually. and that those values associated with the Anglo-sphere (or the West in general. In other words. although top marks go to Scandinavia. On a more contemporary note.empower. whereby a dead man’s widow was expected to throw herself on her late husband’s funeral pyre. the statistics are not greatly misleading and should give pause for thought to all who propose a critical approach to education. and cultural norms Underlying CP is the belief that all groups have a right to an equal voice. therefore. but to keep relations with their trading partners on a strictly business footing. Against this background it was decided to put a stop to the practice of sati. over slavery among certain peoples of Africa. The reply will naturally come that such licence has not existed for those who have been the subjects rather than the perpetrators of anglophone domination. This was banned and declined as a result. in what are admittedly selective and extreme cases. may not be readily surrendered. It is sometimes appropriate to ask. If one then uses that freedom to subvert a culture which strongly guarantees the right to differ from and oppose established orthodoxies. and these results should not be taken as a measure of the quality of life. one is placed in an ambiguous position. and of the Judeo-Christian tradition. Edward Said. indeed. Jawaharlal Nehru. and found their own traditions of self-education usurped by intruders espousing different. as Akbari says. who demanded such values from colonial rulers’. for example. although it is difficult to see how else events could have turned out. The English language and power Of course it is right to see English as playing an integral role in the colonial and neo-colonial enterprise. Compulsory elementary education became the norm in Europe in the latter part of the century (the Education Acts to this end in Britain were passed in 1870 and 1880). CP itself is a product of European rationalism. . In this sense. 288 Colin Sowden . These priorities were absorbed by those subject to this hegemony. ostensibly superior. leader of the Congress Party and first prime minister of independent India. since most unskilled working men and. Many of those who would have felt these changes most severely were without a vote. it became necessary to communicate and establish concepts which often had no obvious equivalent in the languages of the local people. self-reflective and concerned with the welfare of the individual. particularly in the field of education. it is not innocent’. that opposition to continued colonial rule was in part fired by resentment that the West had failed to live up to its own ideals rather than by a rejection of those standards in themselves. That anglophone hegemony has been oppressive in various ways is well documented. created a breed of natives influenced by enlightened liberal democratic discourses. They lost the valuable income of children who had previously worked and were now confined to the classroom. which too were often not written down. .not only how blameworthy the respective colonial power was. (This gulf can be illustrated by present-day bilingual loudspeaker announcements on railway stations in Wales: the English words ‘gap’ and ‘platform’ can be heard in both versions. a well-known critic of imperialism. . As Canagarajah (1999: 58) says.) The decision then to enforce use of the colonists’ language was a natural step given nineteenth-century views on education. values (Steinbach 2004: 176–7). was a Protestant Christian. It could be argued. a prestigious public school in England. So it is important to recognize that colonial policies were not always peculiar products of their context but reflected more broadly based beliefs which operated in the home countries too. were excluded from the franchise until 1918. ‘. but the discourses formulated by its opponents often owe much to its traditions. whose father was American and who was educated in British and American institutions. When the European nations began to exercise territorial power rather than merely conduct trade overseas. Mahatma Ghandi was immersed in English common law and practised as a barrister before becoming involved in politics. ‘English education . whom it was avowedly designed to benefit. and the policy itself was often resented by working-class communities. As any perusal of Victorian literature will reveal. long associated with the notion of equal rights. but whether others would have behaved better and with better results. of course. had his education at Harrow. . the methods used in these new schools were often crude. with the aim of creating a literate population able to deal with the challenges of the new industrial age. presumably because no easy alternatives for these words exist in Welsh. all women from that class. then applied in return to the rulers themselves. . These are healthy developments that counteract the colonial and alien associations English holds in many periphery communities’. having to take into account the needs of all sections of society. either those who set local standards in education or those subject to them. not the directing hand of the teacher. at all levels. it is inevitable that as new societies have emerged from the colonial structure by which they were shaped. they are in fact retaining not transferring initiative.: 3) about the validity and role of applied linguistics as a separate discipline. . especially at a time when there is a ‘persistent and pervasive uncertainty’ (Widdowson ibid. which often imitated what went before. Gradually different groups. the student’s own daily life experiences .As far as English itself is concerned. not because of CP. who is determined to ‘challenge . As Canagarajah (ibid. educators and academics in the field of ELT are keen to maintain their authoritative status. see. will take place despite. to their up-until-then disempowered students’. . [that] chart her/his path toward self-definition and agency’. both the elites and the people at large. reflecting in part the natural processes of language change. an approach which undervalues the capacity of learners to determine their own lives on their own terms without any such intervention. for example Holliday 2006: 385) will here play a key role in determining this path of linguistic development. Furthermore. . With the politics of education being complex. they may in practice confirm rather than subvert stereotypes which reinforce unjust situations: in presenting ‘themselves as ‘‘liberating’’ oppressed students through the transmission of power . . . These developments. moulding it in accordance with their own needs and in symbiosis with their own languages. Indeed. ‘The negotiation of codes in periphery classrooms . Of course. and from those of the immediate post-colonial period. Occupying a dominant part of the power structure themselves. educators who adopt CP might well achieve different results from what they intend. it is doubtful whether what happens in individual classrooms will make a great deal of difference at the level of language policy. it actually enhances the authority of its proponents. . so there has been a natural pressure on the language to reflect this change. . As Ellsworth (1989: 309) recognizes. helps in the appropriation of alien languages by local communities. and there is likely to be continuing debate regarding international standards and norms as different regions vie for influence or strive to establish their autonomy. a point which Starfield (2004: 140) highlights but then maintains can be avoided. Perhaps this is what explains the attraction of CP: whilst apparently striving to empower the marginalized. those aspects of the [students’] voice which negate [the teacher’s] educational/political vision’ (Simon 1987: 378). . There’s more to life than politics 289 . are asserting ownership of the English on their own terms. in ELT literature this term is usually reserved for those from Anglo-Saxon countries. This process will probably result in the consolidation of different varieties of English. though their degree of divergence from what is referred to as Standard English will tend to depend on the priorities of the elites in the given societies. students’ independence might be compromised not strengthened if subsumed within an ‘analytic construct’ (Widdowson 2000: 23) generated by a teacher who is not prepared to tolerate diversity. Local native-speakers (strangely. it is ‘. .: 142) says. both those sanctioned by society and those which struggle to be heard or recognized (Simon ibid. where students feel able to express themselves. which is really what Akbari is saying. As Pennycook (op. and which should provide the ‘safe space’ (Ellsworth ibid. S. in another sense. Canterbury I AT E F L. If reality consists only in the particular discourses which people construct for themselves. CP is in fact undermined by its own relativism. and that language teaching in particular should encourage students to explore and construct different possible voices. It is right. not politics and ideology. Yet. why should we be so concerned about one another? Why should we pursue the truth about our own or another’s situation? Why should we try to ‘get outside ourselves or beside ourselves’. though it should certainly have a moral dynamic: serving the proper interests of the class. or have constructed for them. ‘Why doesn’t this feel empowering? Working through the repressive 290 Colin Sowden myths of critical pedagogy’. There may. and takes place in the classroom. ‘Native-speakerism’. Harvard Educational Review 59/3: 297–324.: 125) says. there is no transcendent truth outside of discourses and power relations’. This is a skilled. J. Kubota (2006: 220) echoes this sentiment: ‘. such a position is valid: we cannot claim to have a final version of how things are because new insights are always occurring to change our view of life. to be true to their own best values. however. English Language Teaching Journal 60/4: 385–7. to establish new ‘linguistic and cultural identities’ (Sole 2005: 6).cit. Resisting Linguistic Imperialism. A. This process. which has its own distinct reality. or that we are responding to a moral sense which is indeed transcendent. Kubota. while recognizing the worth of alternatives on offer. This charge is particularly designed to undermine the modernist Western claim to hold the key to all knowledge. Ellsworth. When it makes universal truth claims. Holliday. Cots. . . E. 2006. it is about service guided by experience and learning: a matter of vocation and professionalism. be an explicitly political dimension to this activity. ‘I am more interested in the truth effects of the discourses of linguistics than the truth itself (whatever that may mean)’. is essentially a personal or communal project for the students involved. so. References Canagarajah.: 375). 1999. In this context it is incumbent on the teacher to show integrity and flexibility. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . A.Professional priorities CP itself rests on the assumption that truth is relative: that no one interpretation or understanding of the world constitutes reality. 2006. but need not. In one sense. ethical enterprise. M.: 316). as Luke (2004: 26) demands that we should? Why bother with CP at all? The answer must be either that it is in our interest to do so. that pedagogy in all academic subjects should aim ‘to make possible the realization of a variety of differential human capacities’ (Simon 1987: 372). R. such relativism is self-contradictory and. If the relativist response that this sense of right and wrong is culturally determined. and different perspectives continue to offer various kinds of partial understanding. 2006. 1989. ‘Teaching ‘‘with an attitude’’: critical discourse analysis in E F L teaching’. English Language Teaching Journal 60/4: 336–45. then it must also be accepted that CP is one product of such conditioning. ultimately self-serving. ‘Critical approaches to culture in English language teaching’ in Harrogate Conference Selections. of course. A. ‘Native-speaker norms and international English’. The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language. English Language Teaching Journal 56/3: 240–9. ‘Why does this feel empowering? Thesis writing. Starfield. Timmis. 2002. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 17 September 2007. Oxford: Oxford University Press. concordancing and the corporatizing university’ in B. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. London: Phoenix. ‘Empowerment as a pedagogy of possibility’. ‘Two takes on the critical’ in B. Critical Pedagogies and Language Learning. G. Cardiff. Language Arts 64/4: 370–82. ‘Models and memories: A grammar lesson on the Quebec referendum on sovereignty’ in B. 2004. Abstracts from BA LEA P Professional Issues Meeting on Intercultural Communication: Bristol University of the West of England. 2005.uk There’s more to life than politics 291 . Simon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Toohey (eds. I. Critical Pedagogies and Language Learning. The author Colin Sowden lectures in Modern History and English at the University of Wales Institute.). Critical Pedagogies and Language Learning. S. I. R. 2004. Women in England 1760–1914: A Social History. Toohey (eds. His interests include intercultural communication and nineteenth-century politics and literature. R. Norton and K. 1992. Sole. ‘On the limitations of linguistics applied’.Luke. Norton and K. Email: casowden@uwic.). Applied Linguistics 21/1: 3–25. R. Toohey (eds. 2004. Widdowson.). Norton and K. S. ‘How free is your country?’: 14. Time Magazine. Pennycook. B.ac. Linguistic Imperialism. ‘Second language learners’ identities: A personal view’. 1994. H. Steinbach. 1987. A. Harlow: Pearson Educational. 2004. Phillipson. where he was previously Director of the International Foundation Course. Morgan. 2000. the conflict one reads about in the Apology deals with different views of education: the traditional view of the time. This disregard for the political. diplomats. is not freedom of expression. the point of the trial. and why? Do the values included belong to the people Colin Sowden refers to. they would raise. in a sense. such as bravery. When human misery is a daily routine for many people of the world (definitely not the ones Sowden has in mind). the poor and marginalized? There is no doubt the people Sowden has in mind never object to education as it is now. holocaust in Europe. or teach the young? In fact. Britzman (2000: 203) summarizes the concept as follows: 292 E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008. and ethnic cleansing in former Yugoslavia. since CP regards the question of values at the core of any educational practice. since they are sure that their lifestyles and preferences are incorporated by their peers who are in charge of educational establishments and printing houses. and the alternative. prejudice) have been at the heart of such tragedies as the genocide in Rwanda. Socrates. and patriotism. Published by Oxford University Press. The basic question for which Socrates is taken to court is: Who has the right to educate. can be viewed as the first critical pedagogue in history. and international students? Or are the values those of the minorities. questioning view that was proposed by Socrates. or doubts. how can education regard its mission as a simple transfer of knowledge and mastery of skills? A non-critical. which emphasized values embodied in Homeric poems. as many people have come to believe. Whose values must be assigned priority. honour. since the structure of society depended on what the young knew and what kinds of questions. hunger in Africa. all rights reserved. What happened during these events surpasses human imagination. . To think of education (and I do not hesitate to regard E LT as an educational entity) as an apolitical activity is the attitude critical pedagogy (CP) is rebelling against. indifference. For Socrates. or the right to speak your mind. doi:10. Educational failures (in the form of indoctrinations. making philosopher Theodore Adorno pose the question of what education will be like after such senseless instances of human suffering.1093/elt/ccn027 ª The Author 2008. value-based aspects of education has proved costly. as a quick look back at the twentieth century shows.point and counterpoint Education is filled with politics Ramin Akbari In Plato’s Apology of Socrates. business people. non-questioning view of education will result in what Gardner calls ‘furor to teach’ (1997: 3). this was the most basic political question of his day. the misfits. Journal of Teacher Education 51: 200–5. 293 . As a member of the education family. ELT needs to embrace the value of doubts and questions. Hillsdale. The furor to teach defends against this capacity to doubt and the interest in using knowledge as a means for world-making and self-making. P. 2000. it is a belated discovery. risk posing novel ideas. maybe even to spite them.By this. and if ELT has just recently realized the political potential of its practice. He also means that whereas we must believe in the knowledge we offer students. and make social transformation one of its priorities. References Britzman. R. NJ: Analytic Press. M. there is a centripetal tendency to freeze knowledge by undervaluing the question and forgetting the importance of doubting the very knowledge on offer. [Gardner] means forgetting the students or teaching in spite of them. On Trying to Teach: The Mind in Correspondence. if it is to make its proper contribution to the creation of a better society for all. The capacity for world-making and self-making were the values Socrates and his contemporaries were conscious of. Education is filled with politics Gardner. D. ‘Teacher education in the confusion of our times’. 1997. 288 pp. Harmer Pearson Education Limited 2007. . is dealt with in Chapter 3 which describes practical strategies including teacher deportment. 39). . . where learning and teaching (Chapter 4). new materials and techniques [to supplement the old ones that] have stood the test of time . also stresses that the teacher build a strong English environment in the classroom where he/she should spend more time talking in English than in the L1. a change of chapter order . 39). Harmer. at the end of the day.00 I S B N 978 1 405 85309 5 Today. references . and what it means to be an autonomous learner. . beginning with a list of the main headings just below the chapter title and ending with a summary of salient points. . . is readily available in its welldesigned glossary. Published by Oxford University Press. and where students need individual help or encouragement. . . imbued with the responsibility of facilitating the enhancement of his/her learners’ English proficiency. Especially for teachers newly initiated into the profession. and ‘Why English?’ (Phillipson 1992. Each chapter is well laid out for an easy skim of the important ideas in bold fonts. addressing the balance between student and teacher talk. and a glossary to help new teachers through parts of the mighty jargon swamp that our profession generates just like any other’ (pp. . also a big factor in ELT. 2005). for example: ‘When we have complicated instructions to explain. 313 . Classroom management. presence. It is a way of saying that what effective teaching begins with is a good teacher’s decision and not something that happens by chance (either you have it or you don’t!). using voice effectively. gives practical tips on creating lesson stages. we may want to do this in the L1. giving instructions clearly. where they are learning it. how motivation affects learning. or even crossreferencing of ideas. all rights reserved. In very strict English L2 classroom settings. the learners (Chapter 1). of course. This chapter.Reviews How to Teach English (Second Edition) J. The first five of these describe the key elements in the ELT classroom: the lead role. using E LT Journal Volume 62/3 July 2008 ª The Author 2008. 24). the English teacher. . Pennycook 1994). 23). this book departs from the 1998 version in the following aspects: ‘. more up-todate . how different learners are from each other. of the English language (Chapter 5) takes place. the book explores why students want to learn English. while the unprecedented spread of English as a world language (Crystal 1997. . handling the latter can be traumatic for teacher and students if the teacher insists that the students use English even if the classroom conditions have not been properly set. . £23. Graddol 2006) has spawned controversial debates over ‘Which English?’ ‘Whose English’ (Kachru 1986. the use of the L1 may have very beneficial effects’ (p. and addressing the issue of when to use and not to use the L1.. thus. 11–12). The teacher’s concern. and the decisions we take before and during lessons should help demonstrate that personality’ (p. . Graddol 1997. an excellent book for this purpose is Harmer’s How to Teach English. both roles managed in the classroom (Chapter 3). This idea translates into the following suggestion. Although the book uses E LT jargon—marked out in bold fonts—the reader can take comfort in knowing that ample explanation. Such a teacher can learn from Harmer’s constructive attitude towards the use of L1: ‘. in addition. The 14 chapters may be categorized into three major areas. will be concerned with how to teach English well or better—the kind of English that matches the expectations of the educational institution in which the teacher works. . In presenting the profile of the learner. a new chapter [on] testing . A new edition. is how to teach effectively and consequently help ‘provoke success’ (p. the supportive role. where the teacher and students share the same L1 it would be foolish to deny its existence and potential value’ (p. One of the striking points Harmer makes has to do with what constitutes an effective teaching personality: ‘We need to ask ourselves what kind of personality we want our students to encounter. the teachers (Chapter 2). A verb tense is the form of the verb we choose when we want to say what time (past. 80). and Taskbased Language Teaching (T BLT ). etc. a good digest of the key ideas in P P P . and TB LT. Chapter 4 describes learning and teaching against the backdrop of ideas related to how children learn languages and the distinction between language acquisition and learning. (p. tense and aspect. and listening suggestions that end the chapters. The chapter illustrates. For example in describing the verb phrase. vocabulary. language testing (Chapter 13). and language functions. By articulating the possible problems of implementing this method and offering ways of avoiding such problems. no matter how . 68) This chapter also recognizes the emerging varieties of English and gives examples of the differences that exist in English use among some of these varieties. study. The chapter ends with a description of students’ language learning errors and the different ways of correcting them. and grouping students. Figures of speech are described more simply and clearly with examples that show appropriate use. However.) the verb is referring to. The materials used in these lesson sequences include authentic texts taken from newspapers. CLT. Communicative Language Teaching (C LT ). that are suited to the interests of young and teenage learners. shows how knowledge of form and function relates to language use. The valuable segments of each of these four chapters are the extensive discussion of lesson sequences (tagged according to appropriate learner level) that illustrate ways of implementing teaching procedures step by step for each of the skills. Harmer. Chapters 8 and 9 begin with giving reasons for the teaching of writing and speaking and discuss practical strategies in dealing with students’ output effectively. present. via practical examples. storytelling) that enhances creative thinking. lesson planning (Chapter 12).g. activate (ESA )—in a sense. pre-recorded interviews. Chapters 7 and 10 discuss the importance of reading and listening in English. While some jargon is used it does not clutter the reader-teacher’s mind but. the last four chapters discuss issues that impact on classroom teaching and learning: coursebooks (Chapter 11). speaking (Chapter 9). demonstrates his sensitivity to novice teachers’ concerns. simple. Here. Finally. forming the core of the book—the language system (Chapter 6) and the four macroskills: reading (Chapter 7). These suggestions include the use of technology (e. email interviews).g. and listening (Chapter 10). Crucial to this chapter is a description of three elements for successful language learning: engage. etc. speaking. They describe the levels in each skill and the principles involved in teaching these. and replacing material in it. the Internet. Equally useful are the additional reading. how these elements work or do not necessarily work in a straightforward fashion. The aspect (continuous. and critical classroom situations (Chapter 14). Harmer says: In any discussion of verbs we need to bear in mind two main parameters. Chapter 6 addresses strategies of explaining meaning and language construction and gives a detailed lesson sequence for teaching grammar. writing (Chapter 8). perfect. Teachers who are tired of the often mechanical way of describing English as restricted to figures of speech and formal grammatical structures will find this chapter a refreshingly appropriate alternative. Chapter 5 describes the English language. etc. writing. The form of the verb also depends on whether we want to say the action is ongoing or whether it is complete. The guidelines in Chapter 11 on using coursebooks are helpful in determining what to do when adding. the experienced teacher. Having dealt with preliminary ELT issues in the first five chapters. instead. It also briefly summarizes the development of teaching methods from grammar-translation to task-based language teaching and discusses the relationships between Presentation-Practice-Production (P P P ).different types of seating arrangements. future. language utterance is treated within a meaningful communication context and the relationship between vocabulary and grammar considered in longer texts. and audio-visual aids (audio and video tapes listening/viewing). adapting. the book now proceeds with discussing the procedural details of teaching English in the next five chapters. as we saw on page 63. The idea of the teacher choosing a book. It 314 Reviews further reveals Harmer’s balanced position on how to deal with this phenomenon in the language classroom: ‘Students should be aware of the difference in language varieties and should be given opportunities to experience different Englishes. pronunciation. though not in such a way as to make things incomprehensible to them’ (p. A particularly useful instrument is the coursebook analysis checklist which is recommended for teachers’ use when deciding which coursebook to use. this is complicated by the fact that we can use the same tense (or form) to talk about more than one time. poetry reading.) which we choose for the verb describes this. literature (e. for example. it is. it describes different lesson type formats and how lesson sequences are planned to make students engage in the activities. it is only a proposal for action and not a rigid set of instructions to follow. The D V D task files’ answer key. uncooperative students.g. Another useful feature of the book is the task file sections that follow the last chapter. and supervisors who are charged with the responsibility of helping novice teachers develop teaching competence. or letting the reader (perhaps.appealing. These tasks. in talking about rules of use of the definite article. and teaching personalities. the need for the teacher to be receptive in order to deal with emergent matters more flexibly. . With detailed examples. big classes. The book and the D V D would also be useful to teacher trainers. study the language in focus. In this discussion. Each segment begins with a short film on a lesson related to the topic with extracts taken from actual classes. a non-native speaker of English reader) in on a ‘linguistic secret’ that puts him/her at ease because it articulates what the reader might have known for a long time but has been hesitant to express. different seating arrangements. on the other hand. is that we might lose control of the class’ (p. Harmer sometimes asks the teacher to explain why he/she did what she/he did in the film or poses a question that brings out the teacher’s beliefs about some E LT issues. however. asking for either factual answers or the reader’s opinions.) and provides a few suggestions on how to deal with these. The D VD has ten sections: student levels. speaking tasks. . Chapter 13 is all about language testing: reasons for testing and the characteristics of good tests. Thus. and games. Harmer’s How to Teach English is a goldmine for novice teachers. etc. otherwise. This chapter also reminds teachers about what they often overlook—that while a lesson plan is essential. friendly and congenial making the book enjoyable reading on topics that can otherwise be boring and dry. the other set accompanies each D VD segment. Chapter 12 discusses the essential ingredient of lesson planning: the good blend between coherence and variety. or verbalizing a teaching-learning issue that resonates with the experience of the reader-teacher but who might have difficulty openly acknowledging it lest it would cause loss of face. While experienced teachers may not find any new ideas in this book. One final and remarkable feature of How to Teach English is Harmer’s writing style: relaxed and casual. the wise teacher (the teacher’s mentor). aim to deepen the reader’s/ viewer’s understanding of the topics discussed. the book provides an answer key to the definite answers and possible answers to the opinion type questions. Chapter 14. brings up implications of such ideas for the teacher’s job of learning to teach English effectively. The first set contains exercises corresponding to each chapter. One feels as if Harmer. beginning the lesson.’ (p. for example. A truly valuable resource. just to confuse things. marking tests (with sample instruments). For Reviews each chapter’s task. . different test types. In overall terms. a reading sequence. has all definite answers. . his recorded interviews with teachers and students on ‘What makes a good teacher?’ (p. more importantly. Harmer’s book is also accompanied with a DV D ‘that provides real-life illustrations of a number of key teaching activities and techniques through extracts from classes and interviews with teachers’ (p. giving instructions. Harmer also. we do sometimes make general statements with the definite article and a singular noun. . for example. nevertheless. 24). experiences. or ‘we’ when describing an experience that people in the E LT world share. 67). Harmer’s book is not just a useful tool for English language teaching but also a delightful (and a must) read! 315 . be taken for granted in the daily grind of mindless teaching routine. ‘One of the recurring nightmares for teachers of adolescents. a valuable reference—a good reminder of practical ideas that can. All the task files are photocopiable—another bonus feature of the book. educators. They make the principles discussed in the book come alive. students not doing their homework. 245). The segments graphically illustrate how principles are translated into practice by teachers of different abilities. and designing tests. He uses ‘you’ when addressing the reader. may not go very far in educational systems where decision-making on textbooks rests with policy-makers rather than teachers. in particular. were just beside the reader walking him/her gently through the ideas in the book. punctuating the discussion once in a while with an appropriate anecdote. entitled ‘What if’. organizing student groupings. 15). describes common scenarios of critical situations in the classroom (e. ‘. It is followed by a discussion of the film’s topic between Harmer and a teacher or two who appeared in the film. more precisely. thus closing the formal gap between author and reader and building the reader’s trust in the author’s ideas. teaching vocabulary. the teacher in the classroom. and activate their practical application of language use. Far from simply informing the reader about influential ideas. Harlow. 1997. B. UK: Longman. A. The Future of English? London: British Council.References Crystal. She has wide experience in English language teaching and teacher development work—the latter with the British Council for South East Asian projects and with the Department of Education and the Commission for Higher Education for local projects. An Associate Professor of English language and literature at Ateneo de Manila University. and the language-literature interface in classroom teaching. D. London: British Council. English Next. and Models of Non-Native Englishes. English as a Global Language. The Cultural Politics of English as a Foreign Language. 1986. D. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kachru.1093/elt/ccn029 316 Reviews . E LT management. she has been Chair of the English Department and is currently Dean for the School of Humanities. 2005. Graddol. Pennycook.edu doi:10. Function. D. Kachru. The reviewer Marı´a Luz C. The Alchemy of English: The Spread. R. Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon. Phillipson. Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Philippines. 1994. Graddol. Vilches holds a PhD in Applied Linguistics from Lancaster University. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Email: mvilches@ateneo. B. 1997. 2006. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1992. Her research interests include teacher development. spiky skills profiles.language development needs of migrants into the UK are met.) needs. diagnostic assessment materials. teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. however.org.00 IS BN 978 0 19 442281 9 ESOL . Schellekens Oxford University Press 2007. and reflective practice.uk/ publications/Default. details of their publications are available at www. managing learning.niace. racism.org. ‘different sections are likely to appeal to different types of teachers’ (Introduction: xii). will The Oxford E SO L Handbook be a welcome addition to the existing body of research and publications? These are from national bodies such as N R DC (National Research and Development Centre for adult literacy and numeracy. E SO L is of course not just a UK phenomenon: in any country there are language classes encompassing such a range of age. considering why that might be and what teachers can do to promote their learners’ language development through observation and language analysis. and vocabulary. . The Oxford E S O L Handbook P.. and terminology of E S OL . word order.uk) and NI ACE (National Institute of Adult Continuing Education. It is the .htm). is the learners’ desire to learn the language and the aims in the Introduction reflect this: start from the learners and explore what they do with the language. country of origin. £17. is the objective that underpins the book and Schellekens makes clear from the start that ‘teaching is a constant cycle of observation and problem-solving’ (Introduction: xi).nrdc. and the difference between E S OL and literacy teaching. background (migrant worker. the context of E SO L teaching. The development of the National Literacy Standards and the Adult E S OL Core Curriculum with specific initial. language analysis and language teaching covering grammar. details of their publications are available at www. and diversity in the classroom. advice on language support. asylum seeker . . The common theme in ESOL . and the psychological aspects of culture shock. from assessment to individual learning plans and external qualifications. The challenge of such a book is how to encompass a field where obviously the ‘complexity can be bewildering’ (Introduction: xi) and to offer insights for UK-based teachers and those working in other countries. definition. the four skills and how they relate to the needs of E SO L learners. and profile of skills ability that it can present a challenging prospect to both the new and experienced teacher. Thinking about learning. being a reflective teacher. 236 pp. and a specific suite of examinations have revolutionized how the 316 Reviews Given that the book is for teachers in the classroom as well as trainee teachers or those who wish to move over to ESOL from E FL or first language literacy teaching. the learners and their backgrounds. As one of the first handbooks covering ESOL as a whole in the UK. specialist qualifications for teachers. The reader is guided from the start and encouraged to pick and choose from eight chapters covering the concepts. refugee. range of skills. has undergone massive change in the UK since the introduction of the Skills for Life strategy in 2001. 32–5). focus on this knowledge and pedagogy and offer a wide ranging discussion of language analysis and the four skills. Apparent from the start is the professionally supportive tone: case studies. and this eclecticism is underpinned by their clear professional vision’ (Baynham et al. strictly controlled according to the order of the ESO L core curriculum and the advice that learners may need to recognize certain structures before needing to produce them is key to teachers’ awareness. drawing on ‘both subject knowledge and subject-specific pedagogy and C P D [Continuing Professional Development] that encourages an interpretive and reflective stance on teaching and learning’ (ibid. 152). situate the author’s points in the real world and encourage readers to reflect on similar situations from their own experience. It is particularly insightful with regard to the importance of bottom-up processing in listening skills and the significance of word stress. Her discussion of teacher language. especially in the discussion of individual learning plans. aspects of all four skills are usefully discussed. The difference in focus between E FL and ESO L is taken as a starting point: ESO L needs to go beyond the everyday concern with vocabulary and grammar teaching and bring in functions and pragmatics as these are especially significant to the migrant’s experience. is also of great value and acts as a bridge to discussion of the functions in which they are used and practical examples of how learners at all levels need to work on choosing the right words for the right situation. is handled in some detail in Chapter 6. 36). which goes into some detail about how collocation and word strings can be taught effectively. the main source of input for many learners. It is here that using. but the inappropriate nature of most EF L materials for ESO L learners is stressed and the relevance of basing teaching on authentic materials is clear. which again ties the classroom to the learners’ needs (p. and suggested activities raise points in a practical way and underline the aims stated in the Introduction. Recognizing that there is no ‘magic bullet’ for effective E SO L practice. as it covers very helpful techniques and signposts useful texts for further reading. This approach echoes some of the insights from the NRDC ESO L Effective Teaching and Learning research project which suggests that the most successful E S OL teachers are bricoleurs ‘eclectic in using and designing materials and activities to be highly learner responsive. and offers a methodology for those 317 . weak forms. is a gentle reminder to the reader that a timely intervention by the teacher can build on learners’ insights into language use in their own experience. for example. reminds us that as E S OL teachers we need to enable our learners to develop the skills to understand natural spoken English and also to be understood. 159–64): given the range of topics covered in the chapter this section is concise. it highlights that the professionalism and expertise of the E S OL teacher makes the difference. The central chapters of the book. Here the author’s tone of professional critical friendliness plays an interesting role as it can both provoke and reassure. and I would recommend the entire chapter to any English language teacher working with low-level skills development. can be hidden in passive constructions in officialese. The case studies in the grammar section. and adapting materials is also briefly considered (pp. 2007: 9). with obvious additional relevance to writing. The example here is the instructions that Reviews In Chapter 5. Chapter 7 is devoted to language support. The reality of managing E S OL learning. creating. to pragmatics. tasks that are immediately followed by a relevant commentary. which are now fundamental to E S OL teaching and lesson plans. again to sensitize the teacher to the learners’ real world. The teaching of intonation is also raised. Chapters 4 and 5. A detailed section on vocabulary. even at the lowest levels. and work with individual learning plans and mixed ability classes. The list of references is comprehensive and it is true that most providers have a bank of resources that work.: 9). how teachers might deal with a ‘much longer learning trajectory that they might have imagined’ (p. as is how to manage formative feedback to learners. working with E S OL learners on mainstream vocational courses to support their language development. specifically in questions and lists. and awareness of linking consonants and vowels to do this. The language learners’ experience outside the classroom is not. where learners link grammar to real communication. The case study on the present perfect and past tense (pp.chapters on language analysis and the four skills that the author recommends as being of interest to all teachers. Schellekens recommends dictation as a diagnostic and developmental tool and offers a number of useful dictation activities. it is particularly useful to see learning presented as a process that takes place over time and leads one to reconsider how to build this into the institutional demands of schemes of work. of course. Reiterating that classroom observation has to drive classroom grammar focus. 1093/elt/ccn030 . Despite occasional proofreading lapses (readers will encounter several references to ‘p00’) and a reasonably brief Index. J. McGoldrick. The book is inevitably rooted in the UK experience in these chapters. C. and can be effectively read in any order. it signposts more detailed and current texts. does allow it to achieve the universality it aims for. Roberts.new to this area and valuable advice for those already engaged in it. J. 2007..uk doi:10. Email: beverley. 202–3) is really refreshing. References Baynham. the book offers extremely useful professional advice for the E S OL teacher in the UK and elsewhere. for example in working with low-level learners who are not literate in their own language (pp. London: N RD C . Her discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of teachers from a variety of language backgrounds (pp. and Canada (p. as is her reminder to us to consider the real-world language needs of the learner. as well as in the earlier discussion of the context of E S OL teaching. Cooke. Callaghan. it is possible to dip in and out of following the detailed advice and information in the Introduction and Contents pages. Ananiandou. but the underlying focus on the learner throughout that develops from the in-depth discussion of E SO L learners’ needs in Chapter 2. Her research interests are the effects of informal learning outside the classroom on intercultural and language skills development. recently took a year out to complete her MA in English Language Teaching and Materials Development and is currently based at Salford Museum and Art Gallery running a project to engage 318 Reviews E SO L learners through culture and heritage. She has recently become coordinator for IAT EF L’ s ES(O)L S I G committee. Where it cannot offer more than a brief overview. particularly involvement with museums and galleries.davies@salford. 201) that give an insight into how to balance support for the learner with stretching them enough to fulfil their potential. Starting from contexts that are specific to the UK will be of interest to colleagues internationally and allow them to reflect on similarities and differences with their own teaching situation. In her concluding chapter on reflective practice. having taught E S OL since 2002 (and EFL before that). It will be interesting to see how subsequent editions may take into account the effect of migration from Eastern Europe on the characteristics of ESO L classes in this country and what further changes the Skills for Life agenda may bring. Wallace. 101–2). M. Simpson K. The reviewer Bev Davies. New Zealand. Schellekens also suggests any teacher look at how E S OL is taught in other countries with interesting references to the situation in Australia. and C. Effective Teaching and Learning ESOL Summary Report. Through an approach that encourages reflection.gov. M. J. few of them appreciate just how much of a challenge the course will be. some fresh out of university. Candidates come from very different backgrounds and with quite different motivations. Whatever their background or motivation. there is a wealth of material available in the form of easy-touse introductions and manuals. £20 ISBN 978 0 521 69207 6 Trainee Book. Watkins Trainer’s Manual. 216 pp.95 ISBN 978 0 521 69206 9 The Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults (C ELTA ) qualification from Cambridge ESOL has long been the gateway for many thousands of people into the rapidly expanding world of ELT.The CE LTA Course S.000 candidates successfully complete the course each year. but until now there has not been any preparatory course endorsed by 318 Reviews . Fortunately. intensive 4. £15. Cambridge University Press 2007. Thornbury and P. some choosing the more leisurely part-time option spread over several months but the majority preferring the full-time. These provide comprehensive guidance pre-course and useful advice as the course progresses. Cambridge University Press 2007.. While there is also a smaller number of already experienced teachers who require some sort of recognized qualification in order to get promotion or more permanent employment. eager to see the world and finance their travels as they go. in addition to the excellent training and support candidates will receive on the course from their dedicated C ELTA tutors. Around 10. while others are thinking about early retirement in milder climates or may simply be disillusioned with their present life and ready for something really different.or 5-week course. the majority of candidates have little if any previous teaching experience. 184 pp.. to demonstrate rather than explain. partly because of the restrictions of Reviews time. This ties in very closely with the experiential nature of the course. Working together so closely in the training room and sharing so much common experience creates a strong bond between trainees and also a special relationship between trainees and tutors. we are told. where trainees are invited to discuss their own learning-based experience and is designed around classroom practice. Many of the activities in the coursebook will assist tutors in creating an appropriate and conducive environment. fail to follow the same pattern. however. as well as many other interesting and thought-provoking angles. but overall it fits very nicely with my perceptions of what the course should embrace and how it should feel. Their knowledge and experience have been combined here to produce this innovative approach to CE LTA . work together on a wide range of task types. as can sometimes happen. offers trainees the opportunity to try out what they have just learnt themselves. Trainees are actively encouraged to express their own ideas. a reflection of timetables used by centres from all over the world. Language analysis and awareness. must give trainers scope to pick and choose as well as providing trainees with additional material to reflect on. In the same way. In the Introduction.or peer-teaching. and to share their observations and conclusions. a quiz. This may comprise a summary table. All units conclude with a reflection task. there are a number of new sessions which have never made our own timetable. There are four main topic areas addressed: Learners and their contexts. The designing of the TP timetable in the latter stages of the course will also require close liaising and mutual support. pair and group work will be pivotal to their own training and will cultivate that spirit of respect and cooperation that is so central to C E LTA . it does feel comfortingly familiar. Many of the activities trainees set up in TP in the classroom will involve pair or small group work. Flexibility is clearly needed here and trainers are neither required to use everything nor necessarily to follow the sequence of sessions as presented. Where appropriate a later section on classroom application.Cambridge E S OL . integrated. True. or a game to help the trainees review the main concepts of the session and reach their own conclusions. the Trainee Book contains a glossary of essential E FL terminology and sections with useful advice on how to prepare for tutorials and get the best out of teaching practice and written assignments. Both authors have already written extensively on how to teach English and both are highly experienced teacher-trainers. Teachers know that students learn best by being actively involved in the learning process and from the start trainees are encouraged to produce lessons that are student-centred rather than teacherled. Classroom teaching. and Professional development. 319 . and Developing receptive skills come fairly early. Trainees can focus on a broad range of reflection and observation tasks from evaluating board work and error correction to calculating teacher talking time. Areas such as Teaching literacy or Exam classes and Professional development are left for the final week of the course. The course is undeniably practical in its approach. Such a generous bank of materials. The sessions in the Trainee Book could not be more trainee-focused. and they have done exactly that. How frustrating and confusing then if their own training sessions. Error correction. trainee-friendly section on the English verb. The units are sensitively and logically ordered so that fundamental topics like Classroom management. cooperative. the authors themselves insist upon the importance of combining these principles to design a course which will be practical. In addition to the input sessions. Presenting new language. experiential. The C E LTA Course by Scott Thornbury and Peter Watkins fills this niche perfectly. Each unit starts with a warmer. I suspect this is due to the fact that the course remains consistently true to the core principles of C ELTA . One of the things I like most about this course is that from my own experience as a C E LTA trainer. It is important that what they experience themselves as learners should reflect what they are attempting to do in the teaching practice (TP) classroom. The C E LTA Course approaches the course from two separate perspectives and offers full coverage of the C ELTA syllabus in a ready-to-use format organized over two parallel volumes: a Trainee Book containing 40 units of user-friendly easy-to-tailor input session materials and a Trainer’s Manual mirroring these same units and suggesting ways of setting up the various activities and generally getting the most out of them. The tone and the language are accessible. and reflective. This is true also of grouping. and the timetable adopted is. It is anticipated that each unit should take between 45 and 90 minutes which is certainly more than would be available on any intensive course. Extra goodies included are suggestions for warmers and fillers and a short. often involving micro. written assignments. and observation tasks with suggestions as to how to recycle and review earlier concepts and topics. The reviewer Linda Scott is the Director of Teacher Training at Studio Cambridge. Each unit opens with a shaded box setting out the main focus. and observation. So who will buy The C ELTA Course? Most established C ELTA centres will have their own time-proven courses modified and polished over the years and which they may feel justly proud of. In this respect. materials. personally.uk doi:10.Another invaluable service to tutors that The CE LTA Course provides is the integration of the different components of the course. ready-to-roll course which is. Taken together. learning outcomes. at the same time.and trainer-friendly. This certainly could be seen as a result but. designing the sessions and the courses themselves will teach them more than simply adopting these pages. it would be a pity to stifle the originality and different angles that individual tutors bring with them. There is always the danger on C ELTA courses that trainees can feel so bombarded by new input and new ideas that they fail to see any connection. there is an additional bank of advice for TP. From the point of view 320 Reviews of the trainers’ own development. trainee. the two volumes can be seen to offer a veritable treasure chest of ideas. As in the Trainee Book. the course should prove as useful to the trainer as to the trainee since the Trainer’s Manual is crammed full of helpful advice and suggestions. the Manual is easy to use and more than generous in its support. together with some supplementary materials including a light-hearted introductory quiz and a Snakes and Ladders input session review. While the idea of a CE LTA coursebook may be appealing to many overstretched trainers as they battle with the photocopier and struggle under mountains of [email protected]/elt/ccn031 . Although a certain amount of toing and froing between the two books is inevitable. Email: linda. and advice. and key concepts for that session and closely follows the layout of the Trainee Book. this would save hours of course and session design and provide them with a wellbalanced. Thornbury and Watkins not only strike the right balance between theory and practice but also constantly encourage connections to be made between elements of the course like input sessions and TP. and has also organized a number of training courses in Italy. I feel that it can only be a short-term solution. She is a C E LTA trainer and a course designer for overseas teachers’ courses. possibly adopt or at least experiment with many of the ideas and materials contained in it. excellent as they are. In 1999 she visited Argentina where she gave a series of talks and informal workshops. methodology. certainly. Naturally. feedback. New or relatively new centres would need years to develop a course such as this and may well jump in and adopt the course as it stands. or underlying pattern. These centres will certainly find food for thought in the pages of The C ELTA Course and may want to adapt.co. Trainers are given useful back-up with extensive guidelines as to how to conduct the class as well as suggested solutions to the comprehensive range of tasks. most centres are unlikely to adopt it wholesale and. workable ideas 320 Reviews . Linse (2005). I read it from cover to cover and thoroughly enjoyed it. I received the Spring issue of the IAT EFL Young Learners Special Interest Group publication. it covers theory. the book was given a high profile: difficult to miss. 320 pp. Read writes: ‘The main approach of the book is to provide immediate. Read’s book belongs.500 Activities for the Primary Classroom C. all refer to an age from 5 to 11–14 years old. Ellis. with a bright red cover featuring an inset photo of multi-coloured balloons. Brewster. all take a theoretical approach that is related to and supported by descriptions of practice to one degree or another. alongside these titles. My next trip to the UK was to Aberdeen and sure enough. I spent most of my flight back home and subsequent days reading what I now fondly call ‘the red book’. In her introduction. but the main difference is that it is essentially a book that shares practice. and Pinter (2006). without a doubt. Publications related to the teaching of young learners have been trickling in since the millennium: Cameron (2001). £16. All these titles cover the ‘how’ of teaching young learners. but it differs quite substantially.95 ISBN 978 1 4050 9907 3 A week or so before the 2007 Annual I ATE F L Conference in Aberdeen. it is for teachers who work with children from 4–12 years old. C ATs. and Girard (2002).. It is a book about ‘how’ to teach young learners. it caught everyone’s attention. Read Macmillan Education 2007. and on the back cover I saw a bright red advert for a new book by Carol Read. 7–16). Read has given us far more than 500. they include reflections on noticing/awareness raising and thinking skills. Each and every question jabbed me. A1/A2. When I first flicked through this part I was disappointed. ‘Vocabulary and grammar’. The former includes the practical side to using the book. I have lots of teaching experience and it was a really useful activity! What I particularly like about these ‘Reflect time’ sections is that each one has different reflection prompts. and a step-by-step procedure. though there is the occasional B1/B2 activity. 5) But that is not all. some with photocopy support. or reading (Nixon and Tomlinson 2005). most activities fall into the A band. There are not in fact 50 named activities per section. ‘Art and craft’. In Section 2. and timing. ‘Reading and writing’. ‘Listening and speaking’. one that runs parallel. ‘Reading and writing’. and how to organize the children. A. My all time favourite is her ‘‘‘C’’ Wheel’. and thank goodness. and about eight pages of theory called ‘Working with children’ (pp. I am not sure all teachers will notice the ‘Reflect time’. could in fact be a little misleading. and it can be easily found now on pages 7–11. These types of books come with short theoretical introductions and about 100 activities. But is it possible to provide us with 500 new activities? Activities usually come in the form of resource books or copy collections. the Resource Books for Teachers series (OUP) or the Cambridge Copy Collection (CUP). The information continues clearly with a description of language focus. ‘Contentbased learning’. and C. An activity we all do with our young learners. but many activities have variations and so these add up too! Each activity is described clearly marking level. she asks questions pertaining to motivation. The book is divided into two parts: the ‘General introduction’ and sections. Section 4. Each and every section focuses on different areas of the children’s learning and our teaching. for though there are descriptions of 500 activities. Read’s prompts include reflection on meaning. and tend to focus on particular areas like storytelling (Wright 2001). ‘Storytelling and drama’. as we are dealing with young learners. whole class. A pattern is forming and one which makes absolute sense. which not only enables us to understand a little better the ‘why’ and ‘how’ but also encourages us to reflect. ‘Storytelling and drama’. I particularly like the comments. In Section 1. for a book which just gives us ideas for Monday morning would be a waste. for example. materials. but it is one of the most useful inclusions in the book. Naturally. In Section 3. learning support. ‘Games’. The latter sections are hailed as reflecting ‘10 key areas in primary language teaching’ (p. and ‘Learning to learn’. assessment (Iannou-Georgiou and Pavlou 2003). 500 Activities. 293). We are led carefully through the ‘why’ and ‘how’ before being exposed to the activities. age. But after reading it all. The title. Section 5. or individual. This is followed by a comments and suggestions section. I was glad she had brought all her thoughts together: Read has written very beautifully about working with children and it is all here in one safe place. kinaesthetic learning. personalization. making me rethink how I had planned and given my recent lessons with listening and speaking in mind. ‘ICT and multi-media’. ‘Games’. B. which I think make this title so very special. chants and songs’. and feedback and correction. which explains a little about the reasons for doing this particular activity and/or variations and extension activities. It’s these so called ‘Reflect times’. whether it is group. purpose. writing (Reilly and Reilly 2005).5: ‘Label the picture’ (p. one that ‘emphasizes developing an awareness of the complex factors involved in working effectively with classes of children and laying a solid foundation in primary language teaching skills’ (p. An example is Activity 10. ‘Rhymes. ‘Vocabulary and grammar’. includes Reviews reflections on creative thinking. Read’s book aims at covering an average of 50 activities per area. immediately recognizing rewrites of articles and presentations. and Read successfully teases these out by using just the right questions. The levels are given in relation to the Council of Europe’s Common European Framework bands.and solutions to the perennial question of what on earth am I going to do with my class tomorrow?’ (p. and collaboration. includes reflections on competition versus cooperation and classroom management. She has skillfully given us an insight into the very best kind of teaching practice. But how many of us get the children to compare their pictures and labels and test each 321 . which I quote regularly. The last three are welcome additions to the usual areas. ‘Listening and speaking’. Read describes a second approach. 5). 5). Read successfully makes us think about our practice. preparation. some not. Read has written an introduction to each section. analyse. and evaluate the teaching and learning that takes place while using the described activities. modelling strategies. By asking the reader simple questions. which are userfriendly and jog our memories or help us see the importance of certain strategies for young learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reilly. and D. Ellis. Young Learners. Storytelling with Children. This is not rocket science. and though he has not bothered about the ‘Reflect time’ I like so much. it is not just because children enjoy colouring and labelling! Read goes on to encourage us to put these pictures into a ‘my picture dictionary’ and alerts us to the restraints of the younger age group. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The Primary English Teacher’s Guide Second Edition. J. There are activities describing self-assessment. Sandie is the I AT EF L Special Interest Group representative. It is indeed a self-assessment activity.pt doi:10. We are very lucky that Read has put all her experience into one book and shared it with us. I think ‘the red book’ is truly a book for every teacher.appi. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Writing with Children. and to my surprise he’d filled it with little pink markers. 2001. This is common sense. Teaching Young Language Learners. 3).pt/ Email: nettlehouse@mail. I shared my enjoyment of ‘the red book’ with my husband. the specialist and the generalist. Sections on special needs and even parental involvement could have been included—they are all areas which are rapidly becoming part of the E FL world. Primary Reading Box: Reading Activities and Puzzles for Younger Learners. I was disappointed not to find a chapter on assessment. G. 293). 2006. References Brewster. Pinter.org and is the coordinator of the Portuguese English Teacher’s Association Pre-school and Primary Interest Group. he says they’ve worked! Read’s dedication reads. She has been working with young learners for the past 15 years and is especially interested in storytelling. and V. it had become his bedside reading. ‘I like the section on listening and speaking’.iatefl. C. A. S. J. assessment. Cameron. A. Wright. teacher trainer. 2005. and many of us need reminding of this. and author based in Portugal. UK: Longman Second Edition.. Harlow. ‘For every teacher who tries to bring out the best in every child’ (p. 322 Reviews Nixon. colouring and labeling pictures at the end of units of work children build up a personalized visual record of their vocabulary learning’ (p. Sure enough. C. a Portuguese primary school teacher. A couple of days later I couldn’t find it and asked my husband if he’d seen it. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2003. 2001. 2005. I urge you all to make sure it is on your bookshelf. There are some lacunae. Reilly. On returning from Aberdeen. Girard. and the trained and the in-training. It is however a great book. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Linse. he said. The reviewer Sandie Moura˜o is a freelance teacher. Assessing Young Learners. 2002. and M. New York: McGraw Hill. Iannou-Georgiou. He’s gone on to use several activities in Portuguese with his children. and very young learners. but it appears in Section 10. A P P I nep http://appinep. nothing is perfect. ‘it’s upstairs by my bed’. but it is worth reminding us all of the reason. Teaching Languages to Young Learners. 2005.telepac. ‘Why yes’. http://www. Tomlinson. the new and the old.1093/elt/ccn032 . ‘E´ um grande livro’ (It’s a great book). Pavlou.other? Read’s comment for this activity is ‘By drawing. and P. A little family anecdote is worth sharing here. but it is not enough. ‘Learning to learn’. he replied. L. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Andrews Cambridge University Press 2007. and general use. and Stephen Andrews in Teacher Language Awareness (hereafter T LA ) provides the reader with a strong start in this direction. ix). However. Andrews asserts that ‘the possession of an adequate level of T LA is an essential attribute of any competent L2 teacher’ (p. As Andrews explores the importance of what it means for a teacher to be aware of language. ix). 232 pp.Teacher Language Awareness S. it is expected that the language teacher will have a holistic understanding of the language being taught in terms of its components. Based on 30 years of experience. A 322 Reviews . cultural nuances. whether or not this is usually the case is a relevant topic of further investigation. and on research conducted in secondary school teaching contexts in Hong Kong. he draws upon a working definition of TLA as ‘the knowledge that teachers have of the underlying systems of the language that enables them to teach effectively’ (p. £18.55 ISBN 978 0 521 53019 4 As the language teaching industry becomes increasingly professionalized.. with this awareness positively impacting upon student learning as well as teacher competence. By offering possible teacher profiles with variable levels of engagement with content. there are teachers who ‘have a degree of awareness. He also states the need for the L2 teacher to ‘possess a high level of explicit knowledge about grammar. 52). ‘ TLA and the native-speaker and non-native-speaker debate’). ‘ T LA and teachers’ subject-matter cognitions’. assuming the medium of instruction is the L2’ (p. In the first chapter. 99). reveals how the quality of engagement with language content can be undermined by teacher limitations in TL A . Andrews reinforces this idea with his comment that ‘anything teachers say about grammar will not only draw on their subject-matter knowledge. Andrews is able to clearly signpost his thesis that teacher’s ability to provide learners with appropriately personalized explanations of language points using a level of terms and concepts intelligible for them is a key tenet of T LA . orient the reader as to the background and key constructs that have implications for teachers and their awareness of language. examines the complex way in which teacher engagement with T LA and subject-matter content unfolds. a secondary school teacher from Hong Kong. as shown through Maggie’s difficulties in explaining active and passive forms accurately. In Chapter 7. Andrews does admit. but who lack knowledge’ (p. This suggests that T LA consists of more than just knowledge of grammar. It begins with a pair of vivid snapshots of two teachers confronting grammar points that arose in their classrooms with varying degrees of success. From these examples. ‘ T LA and student learning’ and ‘ TLA and teacher learning’). ‘TLA and the teaching of language’. In Chapter 6. with discussion questions after each chapter for further reflection. Chapter 2 proceeds to display Andrew’s vision of T LA . However. Andrews contends that there exist a variety of perspectives on the relation between explicit (learnt or declarative) knowledge and implicit (acquired or procedural) knowledge of language. practising teachers. setting the tone of the book. but will also be mediated through their language proficiency. Reviews The next two chapters relate closely to the pedagogical practice and cognition of the teacher and how it influences T LA . that language teachers need to keep reevaluating their conceptualizations of language beyond grammar to include lexis and discourse. and ‘TLA and the ‘‘grammar debate’’’. and language teacher educators. in his view—as he states the necessity of T LA being fully developed. Chapter 5. In order for successful TLA to manifest itself in the classroom. The book’s Prologue and first three chapters. in which knowledge of institutional and contextual factors is involved. Andrews seems to imply a strictly grammar-focused account of what constitutes T LA . with these two constructs not being entirely synonymous.text intended for teachers in training. and learning (Chapters 8 and 9. however. it is N NS teachers who may display a sound consciousness of where learners find 323 . nationality and identity (Chapter 7. ‘The T LA of expert and novice teachers’). a strong sense of communicative language ability will enable the teacher to be an effective communicator to the student. His discussion in this chapter leads the reader to the claim that novices may be overly concerned at the early stages of their careers with classroom management rather than content management. The rest of the book covers critical areas of T LA and how it relates to teaching experience (Chapter 6. which in my mind transcends just grammar. ‘Language awareness. Andrews employs Berliner’s five-stage model of expertise and alerts the reader to the difficulty in offering a clear distinction between expert and novice teachers. By claiming in Chapter 3 that ‘there is still a place for form-focused instruction and practice of grammar features which the learners have demonstrably failed to master’ (p. this book explores what it takes for a teacher to ‘know about language’ and what criteria measure the scope of the language awareness of the teacher. 27). By measuring the beliefs and attitudes of 17 teachers through multiple-choice item language awareness tests and evaluating their feelings about grammar (which were predominantly negative). As he rightfully states. this example exposes how critical the role of a teacher’s pragmalinguistic awareness of language (an understanding of how grammar forms relate to context and language use) is. 16). as is clearly shown by his Hong Kong secondary school examples. proposing that T LA interacts with other knowledge bases of the teacher. he proves to be diplomatic and reasoned in his analysis of the NS-NNS dichotomy—an unfortunate one. This may cause the reader to wonder since the principle definition of TL A offered in this book involves teacher knowledge of the underlying systems of language. explores the nature of teacher thinking and T LA . Andrews explores the tricky distinction between awareness and knowledge. which is mediated through the teacher’s pedagogical content knowledge. Chapter 4. Even if NS teachers may offer oral fluency as an advantage. ‘‘knowledge about language’’ and T LA’. whether or not that teacher believes in the value of learners’ developing of such knowledge’ (p. His case study of Maggie. ‘ T LA and pedagogical practice’. Andrews determines that attitude towards grammar may vary in terms of the scope of the role of explicit knowledge of grammar and how this affects instruction. no matter what the identity of the teacher is. Andrews’ overall vision of a teacher who is able to articulate specific language points and effectively mediate these points through appropriate classroom materials constitutes a model paradigm of ‘languageaware’ teacher. However. The Epilogue closes with a call for more contextspecific analyses of TLA . combine with grammar to create meaning. which is perhaps too narrow a conceptualization. But. reactive tokens. and such attention is long overdue in terms of closer analysis and investigation. Glasgow has completed his MA in TE SOL at Teachers College. Hopefully. Having trained novice NS teachers who struggled to understand. Despite this. and writing classes at Kanto International Senior High School in Tokyo. TLA is an area that has received scant attention. My experiential dealings with novice teachers (who happen to be native-speakers) have put me into contact with those who lack a sufficient declarative. how turn-taking. His teaching and research interests include pragmatics. In other words. and experiments in the same area so that there can eventually exist a broader spectrum of thought on what it takes for a teacher to be fully ‘aware of language’.related competences focusing on the balance between declarative and procedural knowledge. which may possibly be conducted by centring on teacher awareness of the metacognitive and metapragmatic aspects of reading. awareness of not 324 Reviews only grammar but also the pragmatic and prosodic intricacies that influence the successful implementation of a conversation in a socioculturally appropriate manner. With respect to teacher learning in Chapter 9. kinesics. this book essentializes language awareness as primarily grammar awareness. mitigation. and a stronger ability to abstract. with a special focus on the metapragmatic awareness of the L2 teacher. and the implementation of English language education policy in Japan. in any event. Additionally. However. it does not suggest more system-specific analyses of T LA outside of grammar. writing. and pragmatics. Andrews forewarns the reader and specifies that the discussion of TL A in this book will be explicitly focused on grammar. much less being able to explain them. The reviewer Gregory P. or failed to notice. and listening skills.com doi:10. Japan Campus.1093/elt/ccn033 . He currently teaches EFL oral. the Language Awareness Appendix found at the end of the book consists of sample test items which focus solely on grammar. there are conflicting needs that the trainee faces in his or her fledgling career. I could not help but wonder why the L2 teacher should not possess an explicit knowledge of language. as well as the need to be aware of the complexity and diversity of language while developing the ability to question how it is used. a teacher’s knowledge of language should not only comprise sentential. Andrews has successfully begun to engage readers more closely in the topic. Andrews’ book will open the door for future research about TLA which will cover a variety of teacher perspectives and reflections on all systems of language. as the combined systems of prosody. proxemics. and hedging work in conversation. but holistic. syntactic awareness but also pragmalinguistic sensibilities. I view the TLA construct as inclusive of language awareness in a communicative sense.difficulties. Chapter 8 claims there are links between effective TL A and student learning not resolved through the literature. and this volume should spawn other works. reading. Columbia University. such as classroom management issues as mentioned before. not to forget sociocultural considerations. studies. Email: ggenterprise68@hotmail.