ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
Deree-The American College of Greece: Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Natasha Tsantila, editor. | Jane Mandalios, editor. |Melpomeni Ilkos, editor. Title: ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives./editors, Natasha Tsantila, Jane Mandalios, Melpomeni Ilkos. Description: Athens: Deree-The American College of Greece, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: ISBN 9786188180307 Subjects: LCSH: English language–Study and teaching. | English language–Foreign countries–Discourse analysis. | English language–Globalization. Classification: LCC PE1072 E58 2016 | DDC 420--dc23
The publishers and editors of this volume do not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information contained therein and hereby exclude any liability of any kind of the information contained. The opinions expressed in the chapters of this volume belong to the author(s) alone and may not necessarily reflect the opinions of the publishers or editors.
Copyright for abstracts and papers written for this volume stemming from the 7th International Conference of English as a Lingua Franca is retained by the individual author/s, who should be contacted for permission by those wishing to use the materials for purposes other than those in accordance with fair use provisions of Greek No. 2121/1993 as last amended by No. 3057/2002 (article 81) and by 3207/2003 (article 10 par. 33) and International Βerne Agreement of Copyright Law.
ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
In honour of Henry G. Widdowson We want to express our deep gratitude to Professor H.G. Widdowson for his unstinting and generous support for the ELF7 conference. In addition to providing a motivating and uplifting opening address, he provided invaluable advice on all aspects of the organisation of the conference, both academic and practical. We were honoured by his presence and participation.
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CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
v
FOREWORD INTRODUCTION
Tony Buckby Natasha Tsantila, Jane Mandalios, Melpomeni Ilkos
AN INTRODUCTION TO HENRY WIDDOWSON A Widdowsonean perspective
vi 1 5
Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra
COLLOQUIUM 1
5 7
ELF aware classroom practices and teaching materials: Issues and new perspectives in ELT. Convenors: Lucilla Lopriore & Paola Vettorel 7 A shift in ELT perspective: World Englishes and ELF in the EFL classroom . Lucilla Lopriore & Paola Vettorel Network –based language teaching and ELF Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom
8 Enrico Grazzi
16
Kurt Kohn
25
The attitudes of learners and teachers towards ELF-oriented materials, with related implications Reiko Takahashi
33
COLLECTING ELF CORPORA AND DESCRIBING ELF
41
ACE Japan: A closer look at the `user language’
Anamika Sharma
42
ELF and code-switching: A corpus-based study of visa consultancy posts on Facebook webpages Laura Centonze
51
The localisation of ELF. Code mixing and switching between ELF and Italian in Italian internet accommodation forums for international students Thomas Christiansen
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THE SOCIOLINGUISTICS OF ELF
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ELF: Sociocultural characterizations and ELF reformulation strategies in the migration movie It’s a Free World Pietro Luigi Iaia & Mariarosaria Provenzano
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Humor in academic lectures: A case study in an ELF context
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Marina Tzoannopoulou
Japanese university students’ attitudes towards their English: Open-ended email questionnaire study Tomokazu Ishikawa 87 Positioning in ELF interactions ELF AND MULTILINGUALISM
Berat Baser
95 103
Plurilingual communication in science laboratory classrooms: A preliminary report on students’ interactive discourse in an English-medium degree programme in Japan. Harushige Nakakoji 104 Pedagogical implications of teaching through ELF: A case study of United World Colleges and the 1st International School of Ostrava Veronika Quinn Novotna 112 ELF AND LANGUAGE POLICY
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Competing discourses between English as a Lingua Franca and the “English without Borders” programme Telma Gimenez, Taisa Pinetti Passoni 122 English as a Lingua Franca: A weapon or a tool? Sophia Kitsou 129 Reflections based on experience in the Italian university system and in an EU-funded programme for early-career scholars Laurie Anderson 136
English as a Lingua Franca: The linguistic landscape in Lidras and Onasagorou Street, Lefkosia, Cyprus Dimitra Karoulla –Vrikki 145 ELF AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
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Unequal encounters in ELF immigration contexts: Failure and success in social, political and religious negotiation Maria Grazia Guido 156 Use of Lingua Franca in student mobility: A study of Turkish ERASMUS students Significance of intercultural competence development for study-abroad students Faruk Kural
Derya Duran 178 184
Study-abroad students’ ELF awareness and intercultural sensitivity prior to sojourn: Necessity for training Faruk Kural & Zeynep Kocoglu 193 Could we speak about ELF in Armenia? An exploration of Armenian adult EFL speakers’ attitudes towards English Iren Hovhannisyan 201 ELF learners and their refusal strategies: Use of English in ELF contexts Ratchaporn Rattanapumma 212 Achieving politeness in ELF conversations: A functional-pragmatic perspective
Bill Batziakas
ELF in independent learning: Lessons from an international blog project Joshua Lee & Claudia Kunschak Philosophical approaches to ELF and vice versa.
220 227
Ana Monika Habjan
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The negotiation of intelligible pronunciation in English as a Lingua Franca in Northeast Asia George O’Neal
241
English as a lingua franca in Kuwait’s secondary schools: The dimensions of the cultural content Marta Tryzna
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ELF AND LANGUAGE EDUCATION
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ELF-aware teacher education with pre-service teachers: A transformative and technology enhanced case from Turkey Elif Kemaloglu-Er & Yasemin Bayyurt 261 ELF in teacher education programs: Mapping the proposals presented in ELF5 and ELF6 Luciana Cabrini Simoes Calvo, Michele Salles El Kadri, Atef El Kadri
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ELF in Brazilian teacher education programs Michele Salles El Kadri, Luciana Cabrini Simoes Calvo, Telma Gimenez Making sense of new words and worlds: Early routes to L2 multiliteracies in the Greek context Alexia Giannakopoulou
278 283
Accent, attitudes, and ownership of English: Perspectives of Italian college-bound youth Jacqueline Aiello
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English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in relation to teacher cognition in international universities Sami Basheer Al-Hasnawi
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Pre-service English Language teachers' perspectives on ELF and ELF related issues in English language teaching Esma Biricik Deniz & Yonca Özkan ELF and teacher schizophrenia Domingos Savio Pimentel Siqueira & Juliana Souza da Silva
308 315
ELF across teachers' strategies in TEFL
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Vassilia Kazamia, Edgar Joycey
/kju:kʌmb∂(r) /or /kukumber/ ? Preferences and attitudes towards standard accents in the Greek ELF context Anny Georgountzou & Natasha Tsantila 330 Is ELF of benefit in a Japanese educational context?
Paul McBride
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ELF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Potential links between ELF and alternative assessment in the EFL multicultural class: Researching teachers’ perspectives Androniki Kouvdou 349 ELF LEARNERS
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Reconsidering the impact of gender on learners’ motivation to learn English Areti-Maria Sougari & Iren Hovhannisyan
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“I speak very good English even though I’m not American”: Implications from business students’ perspectives of ELF Roxani Faltzi 368 ELF AND TRANSLATION
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Exploring the mediated side of ELF: Emerging challenges in academic settings Claudio Bendazzoli
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ELF AND WRITING
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Exploring academic writing skills of Czech university students Renata Povolna
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LIST OF AUTHORS
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We, the ELF7 Organising Committee, wish to express our deep gratitude to all those who worked to make this collection a reality. First of all, we thank Erasmus, the Conference Secretariat, for having collected the authors’ original submissions. We also thank each one of the contributors of this volume for their commitment in finalizing and taking the responsibility to check and proofread their papers before submitting the final copies for publication. Our special thanks go also to Deree-The American College of Greece faculty and administrative staff members for their full support in the publication of this volume. Dr Thimios Zacharopoulos, Provost, Dr Hariclea Zengos, Head of the English and Modern Languages Department and Associate Dean of Academic Affairs, Ms Vicky Tseroni, Assistant Dean of Libraries, and Ms Angie Seferelis, Director of Procurement Services, and the Marketing Department fully supported this initiative throughout the process.
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FOREWORD Tony Buckby Director, British Council, Athens, Greece I am very pleased that we were able to support this conference, ELF7, which follows on from other very
successful ELF conferences. There is much to build on and much work to take forward in a context of growing interest and awareness. That interest seems to crop up in unlikely places. While looking at the BBC website a couple of days ago I read an article by the writer and journalist Will Self. It happened to be about George Orwell but essentially Self was writing about English and about people speaking the same language differently and one sentence in particular caught my eye when he refers to (quote) “‘small c’ conservatives who would rather peer at meaning by the guttering candlelight of Standard English frozen in time than have it brightly illumined by the high-wattage of the living, changing language.” I thought well yes indeed there is constant change with regard to attitudes and understanding about English. About ten years ago years when I was working for the British Council at our head office in London, part of my job was to lead on our research programmes for English and in the context of that work, I arranged with David Graddol for him to carry out specific research for us on where English learning might be going – and that is when he wrote the book we published in 2006 called English Next. I think one of the things that caught people’s attention at the time was the reference to really huge numbers such as more than a billion learners of English. Now we are very used to seeing these figures, they trip off the tongue much more easily, they do not surprise us so much and I think, I hope, there is more awareness generally about related educational needs and priorities. Also more awareness about what this all means for the concept of ‘’native speaker’ and about how diverse peoples can best talk to each other. In a room full of experts, I am not going to risk saying things on the topic that are all too obvious, in the sense of too obviously right or wrong, but I do want to stress that in the British Council we support different forms of English and increasingly we employ local teachers - and where we do get involved in or encourage educational solutions to challenges we certainly focus on ones which are suited to local contexts and which use and develop local talent. In particular, we do a lot of work with Higher Education providers, especially in partnerships in relation to students from Greece studying overseas and the Transnational Education market here, so one area we are very interested in is the shift from EFL to English as a medium of instruction for various academic subjects. We have been working with Oxford University Department of Education’s research centre on a global scoping research to look at issues around English as the Medium of Instruction. Some initial results show that policies on EMI exist in about 40% of the 50 or so countries looked at, which is surprising given that the research also shows that teachers interviewed seemed largely unaware of any policy in their universities. So there is clearly a lot of work to be done and a lot of questions to be looked at. It is a fascinating development and through the research we do hope at least we can make some contribution to knowledge and understanding of EMI as the study of it is increasingly important for language teachers, EMI instructors and educational materials and assessment development. Also, for the last two years, we have partnered with UK universities to find the best ELT Master dissertations. This scheme, where universities submit the best dissertation from their ELT Master programmes and then judge them along with a panel of British Council invited experts, is designed to recognise and celebrate the brightest minds in ELT at Master level. We hope that by publishing these dissertations they can become additions to the canon of research in ELT and accessible to practitioners. In fact, the recent winner of the British Council Master Dissertation Award with Best Potential for Impact on ELT was a student at Edinburgh University whose paper was entitled “Attitude towards English in relation to English as a Lingua Franca - in the context of Tanzania”.
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So in these various ways, through joint research and other partnerships, we hope to contribute to the development of this important area of study and research for teaching and learning English as a Lingua Franca and we are very pleased to support all of you in that work by supporting this conference.
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INTRODUCTION English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) has established itself as a major and expanding field of academic research over the last two decades. Since the 2000s, upon the publication of the pioneer work of Jennifer Jenkins (2000), Barbara Seidlhofer (2001), and Anna Mauranen (2003), ELF research has been abundant as the several research projects undertaken, the books and articles published and the main ELF corporai compiled indicate. The ELF-related Mouton de Gruyter publicationsii, conferences, symposia, projects, workshops, seminars with relevant topics, the ELF ReN, as well as the summer course on English as a Lingua Francaiii, to mention a few, have also significantly added to this area of enquiry. The ELF annual international conference, which has been hosted by different academic institutions iv since 2008, has undoubtedly been the ideal forum for researchers to present their work on ELF and discuss its interfaces with pedagogy, identity, language policy-making, intercultural awareness, technology, and language use at all levels. This thriving and continuous body of research, alongside with the widespread use of English as lingua franca as a result of globalization, indicates that far from being monolithic and prescriptive, ELF is a dynamic, multifaceted, fast-evolving field, describing processes of language change, divergence and convergence in many of its core domains, thus, offering its users new language options to cover their communicative needs, and influencing current thinking on English language use. This volume stems mainly from the ELF7 International Conference, held in 2014 at Deree – The American College of Greece in Athens. We, as the ELF7 organisers and editors of this volume, felt it was particularly fitting that this Conference was held in Greece. In ancient times, it was Greek that functioned as one of the world’s lingua francas. Now, in modern times, Greeks still use a lingua franca, but this time it is English. Despite the immense challenges brought about by the economic crisis, Greeks devote huge amounts of time and effort to learning English, with 65% of the population taking English classes outside school (Eurobarometer, 2012). English – indeed ELF - can be found in the daily realities of most Greeks, in their personal, academic and professional lives. It was very appropriate, therefore, to host a conference such as ELF where new and critical perspectives related to modern developments in language are still debated. Our main motivation for this publication is to provide the reader with relevant papers that were mainly presented in ELF7, thus contributing to the field by publishing current ELF research on a variety of issues that would undoubtedly lead to maintaining ELF interest, increasing ELF insight, and furthering ELF research. The theme of ELF 7 was ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives and explored the interfaces of ELF with disciplines such as, but not exclusively, pedagogy, inter-culturality, testing, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, language policy, clearly reflected by the four plenary presentations as well as the 188 paper presentations. Unlike previous conferences, the plenary sessions as well as some presentations were video recordedv offering thus the opportunity to educators, learners and users to: a) hear some of the most prominent scholars in Applied Linguistics, sociolinguistics, language policy, testing and teacher education discuss the links of ELF to other disciplines; b) develop an interest and get further insights in the field; c) make themselves part of the ELF discussion; and d) reflect upon and incorporate, ultimately, the possible implications as well as applications of ELF to pedagogy. The links between the past and the present in terms of linguistic enquiry, the adaptations to the teaching practices, and the necessity to “look for continuities” (Widdowson, 2015, p.359) was clearly explained by Henry Widdowson highlighting at the same time that this “retrospection can also provide a different [and critical] perspective which might show ELF in a new light” (Widdowson, 2015, p.359) for language and language learning in general. Elana Shohamy focused on language testing and the fact that test-takers are frequently penalized for their use of other-language, beyond native English, resources, like mixing codes, having L1-influenced performance, code-switching, impaired reading comprehension due to inadequate socio-cultural and historical knowledge of the L2 target group and so on. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Maria Grazia Guido’s talk1 was on case studies that explored the cognitive and communicative processes between “non-western supplicants and western experts in authority” (in this volume) Her analysis demonstrated that not acknowledging ELF variations in intercultural communication may lead to serious misunderstandings at all levels between those involved, thus, often raising ethical issues about social justice”. She, therefore, recommended that successful communication in cross-cultural immigration interactions between the western experts in authority and the supplicants can be achieved through the development of accommodation strategies of ELF reformulation and hybridization of an “ELF mode” among all those involved in cross –cultural encounters. Finally, Nicos Sifakis stressed that awareness of ELF principles can lead to teachers’ own autonomy and ultimately raise their own and their students’ intercultural competence and linguistic confidence. This 44 paper volume, following the thematic organization of the conference, is divided into eleven theme-focused sections and the papers reflect the interfaces of ELF with other disciplines. The first section is on a colloquium, titled ELF aware classroom practices and teaching materials: issues and new perspectives in ELT convened by Lucilla Lopriore & Paola Vettorel, whereas the next sections are divided in the following thematic areas:2
Collecting ELF Corpora and describing ELF The sociolinguistics of ELF ELF and multilingualism ELF and language policy ELF and intercultural communication ELF and language education ELF assessment and evaluation ELF learners ELF and translation/interpreting ELF and writing
The Editors, Natasha Tsantila
Jane Mandalios
Melpomeni Ilkos
References Europeans and their languages. (2012).Special Eurobarometer 386. Survey co-ordinated by the European Commission, Directorate-General for Communication (DG COMM “Research and Speechwriting” Unit), June 2012. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf. Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an International Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mauranen, A (2003). The corpus of English as lingua franca in academic settings. TESOL Quarterly 37(3), 513-527.
Maria Grazia Guido’s talk was not video-recorded but it is included in this volume under the theme: ELF and intercultural communication. 1
2
In this volume, summaries of papers precede each thematic area.
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Seidlhofer, B. (2001) “Closing the conceptual gap of English as a lingua franca”. International journal of Applied Linguistics 11(2), 133-158 Widdowson, H. (2015). ELF and the pragmatics of language variation. JELF 4(2), 359-372. VOICE: https://www.univie.ac.at./voice/ ELFA: https://www.helsinki.fi/elfacorpus WrELFA: https://www.helsinki.fi/englanti/elfa/wrelfa.html ACE (The Asian Corpus of English), https://corpus.ied.edu.hk/ace/ ii Journal of English as a Lingua Franca (JELF); DELF series iii a) PROJECTS: e.g. 1)ELF-TeD: http://teacherdevelopment.boun.edu.tr/; 2) ELF-GATE: http://elfgateproject.edu.gr/ b) WORKSHOPS: e.g. ‘ELF and multilingual practices in professional contexts’: http://www.english-lingua franca.org/activities/past c) ELF ReN:http://www.english-lingua-franca.org/about/elf-ren d) Summer course on English as a Lingua Franca: https://elfaproject.wordpress.com/2015/02/19/summercourse-on-elf/ i
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ELF CONFERENCES: ELF1, Helsinki (2008); ELF2, Southampton (2009); ELF3, Vienna (2010); ELF4, Hong Kong (2011); ELF5, Istanbul (2012); ELF6, Rome (2013), ELF7, Athens (2014), ELF8 Beijing (2015), ELF9, Lleida (2016), ELF10, Helsinki, (2017), ELF11, London (2018).
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PLENARY TALKS VIDEOS of the plenary talks and colloquia presentations are available (at the time of publication, anyway) as follows: Henry Widdowson: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EHr5rVyzzPM and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zvaM2ddMZ9o Elana Shohamy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9TvrV7_-PZQ Nicos Sifakis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovr95tQX8AI
COLLOQUIA Colloquium 1: ELF-Aware Classroom Practices and Teaching Materials: Issues and New Perspectives in ELT. Convenors: L. Lopriore & P. Vettorel ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8MVGrI_yK7A) Speakers: Enrico Grazzi (University of Roma Tre, Italy): Network-based Language Teaching and ELF Kurt Kohn (University of Tubingen, Germany): Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom Lucilla Lopriore (University of Roma Tree, Italy) & Paola Vettorel (University of Verona, Italy): A shift in perspective: ELF implications for the EFL classroom Aya Matsuda (Arizona State University, USA): Representation of English users and uses in Japanese EFL textbooks Reiko Takahashi (Gakushuin Women's College, Japan): The attitudes of learners and teachers towards ELF-oriented materials, with related implications Melissa Yu (University of Southampton, UK): Re-navigating classroom practice through critical resistance to NS-oriented materials
Colloquium 2: ELF-aware teacher education. Convenor: Yasemin Bayyurt: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CrhYPtkrI Speakers: Yasemin Bayyurt and Nicos Sifakis: Towards an ELF-aware teacher education Enric Llurda: Awareness, empowerment and overcoming (self-)imposed limitations among English language teachers Andrew Blair: Standard language models, variable lingua franca goals: How can ELF-aware teacher education square the circle? Martin Dewey: Language awareness and content knowledge among novice teachers: Incorporating ELF in pre-service training Stephania Kordia: Towards an ELF-aware pedagogy: A personal transformative journey Gülnur Şahin, Jale Sarıcı and Serpil Öztürk: New perspectives: ELF-aware classes in high schools, primary schools and teacher reflections Elif Kemaloğlu and Işıl Günseli Kaçar: ELF-aware teacher educatıon wıth pre-service teachers: transformatıve & technology-
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enhanced cases from Turkey Zeynep Mine Derince, Bahar Özgen and Pelin Tekinalp Çakmak: In-service English language teacher education in Turkish state schools: A transformative perspective Derya Altinmakas: Incorporating ELF awareness in an undergraduate course: Elements of transformation in students' perspectives
Colloquium 3: ELF in the Curriculum: Moving from Implication to Application. Convenor: Martin Dewey https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOGhUURg9rk:: Speakers: Sonia Morán Panero (University of Southampton, UK): Engaging with students’ metalinguistic discourse: A way forward for the language classroom? Laura Patsko (Saint George International/King’s College London, UK): Talking to novice teachers about ELF: Dealing with ELF in pre-service TESOL courses Inmaculada Pineda Hernández (University of Malaga, Spain): ELF for Science and Technology: A practical case study Melissa H. Yu (University of Southampton, UK): Re-constructing teaching theory: Critical perspectives on reproduction, resistance and the unexpected Alessia Cogo (University of Southampton, UK): Facing negotiations in business ELF: Between users and textbooks
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AN INTRODUCTION TO HENRY WIDDOWSON A Widdowsonean perspective Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra University of Athens It is with great pleasure that I have undertaken to chair the plenary talk of Professor Henry G. Widdowson and introduce him to the audience on the occasion of ELF7 in Athens. Professor Henry G. Widdowson was born in Leicester on May 28, 1935 and was educated at King's College, Cambridge where he read English, French and German; an indicator, in my view, of his interest in languages early on in his educational trajectory! He went on to the University of Edinburgh, where he was awarded a Diploma in Applied Linguistics in 1965 and his PhD in 1973. He started his teaching career as a Lecturer at the University of Indonesia in 1958-61 and went on to work as a British Council Officer in Sri Lanka (1962-63) and Bangladesh (1963-68). These early teaching experiences shaped his interest in English as a foreign/contact language. In 1969, he returned to Britain as a Lecturer at the Department of Linguistics, University of Edinburgh. He then moved to London as Professor of Education at the Department of English for Speakers of Other Languages, Institute of Education, University of London from 1977 to 2001. In 1993, he left for the University of Essex where he was appointed Professor of Applied Linguistics; there he taught and researched from 1993 to 1998. Finally, in 1998, he was appointed Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Vienna where he taught until 2001. Throughout the years, he continued his collaboration with the British Council as Chairman of the British Council English Teaching Advisory Committee from 1982-91 as well as Chairman of the British Council English Language Promotion Unit from 1989-92. He was also a member of the Kingman Committee of Inquiry into the Teaching of English Language and the author of its very influential minority dissenting report. In his long career, he has been awarded several honorary doctorates, has been honoured with two Festschrifts and has been involved with the editing of publications and journals relevant to the field. His interests cover all aspects of applied linguistics, language, learning, teaching, testing, teacher development among others in a range of contexts, and he has always been a generous participant in scholarly debate, offering responses, replies or reactions to other colleagues' publications regarding theory, policy and practice in Applied Linguistics in general and ELF in particular. I consider these responses as instrumental in pushing the boundaries of the fields of Applied Linguistics and ELF. Another aspect of his publishing activity that I would like to highlight is his re-introducing of ‘old masters’ such as Firth and Hornby to younger generations of researchers and practitioners and appraising their contribution to the field. Last but not least, a few words about his important contribution and impact to the field by contributing to the organisation of the ELF ReN (Research network) and its related activities. I would like to conclude my short introduction to Henry’s contribution and impact to our profession over the years by citing the poem he wrote on the occasion of the closure of the VOICE project in homage to Barbara, partner and colleague, and her Voices. To my mind, this poem succinctly encapsulates the spirit of ELF. VOICE Verses On the occasion of the closure of the VOICE Project In homage to Barbara and her Voices by Henry Widdowson
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When standard norms held undisputed sway, Textbooks, teachers, books of reference Told English users that there is no way Communication can be effective Without acquiring native speaker competence. Otherwise it is deviant or defective. Correctness is the order of the day. Conformity is all, there is no choice, You have to be correct. And then came VOICE. Revealing this is not the case of course. ELF users break free from these imposed norms: Exploiting their English knowledge as resource, Communicating without going native, They make their meaning out of varied forms, Express ELF-self in ways that are creative When normative constraints are not in force. So they discover they do have a choice VOICE has shown them how to find their voice. Thank you, Henry, for your legacy concerning ‘The ownership of English’ (TESOL Quarterly 28(2), 1994), for giving voice and empowering not only the ELF general and/or special users and their creativity to manage communication worldwide through ELF and learn through ELF on a global scale, but also the ELF NNS researchers and classroom practitioners. After all, ELF, NNS researchers and classroom practitioners working and researching in their own local contexts will never become native speakers and, why should they, after all? They will always be ELF advanced learners and users themselves much like the students they teach. On a more personal note, thank you once more for the thought-provoking conversations in London and elsewhere. As Alexander the Great said about his teacher, the philosopher Aristotle: «Οφείλω στους γονείς μου το “ζην” αλλά στους δασκάλους μου το “ευ ζην”», " I owe my life to my parents but my good life to my teachers"!
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A shift in ELT perspective
Lopriore & Vettorel
COLLOQUIUM ELF-aware classroom practices and teaching materials: Issues and new perspectives in ELT. Convenors: Lucilla Lopriore & Paola Vettorel Well‐attested findings in the fields of World Englishes, and increasingly in ELF research studies, would demand for a shift in perspective, both in teacher education programs and in the development of English language teaching classroom materials. Findings in ELF research studies, as well as several experimental projects carried out at international level, are gradually informing both teacher education programs and English classroom practices by enhancing learners’ active participation in awareness‐raising activities. Such projects, in some cases connected to teacher education programs, are aimed either at developing or at implementing pedagogical materials and activities at several school levels and in higher education. This colloquium aims at presenting findings from international research studies concerning how (and whether) innovations in textbook and task design, also in computer-mediated pedagogical practices, are currently taken into account in the ELT classroom. Exemplifications will include samples of experimental projects on the development of ELF‐related teaching materials and activities currently used in the English language classroom and oriented at raising learners' awareness of ELF. The Colloquium will deal with theoretical perspectives, with exemplifications from classroom practices, and with teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards these new ELF-inclusive perspectives. In particular, Lucilla Lopriore & Paola Vettorel discuss demands for a shift in perspective in materials development and in teacher education courses. They argue that new approaches in the ELT classroom are required and activities raising sociolinguistic awareness of World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca should be reconsidered and redesigned. Enrico Grazzi presents a European telecollaboration project carried out in the 2014-2015 academic year, whereby a community of Italian and Finnish high-school students interact online to improve their intercultural and communicative competencies. Kurt Kohn explores ways in which the rift between ELF and EFL can be bridged and sketches out a pedagogical approach geared to the requirements and purposes of ELF communication. Reiko Takahashi examines the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards materials that have an ELF perspective and discusses relevant findings with regard to the implementation of ELF-oriented materials.
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Lopriore, L., & Vettorel, P. (2016). A shift in ELT perspective: World Englishes and ELF in the EFL classroom. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 8-15). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
A shift in ELT perspective: World Englishes and ELF in the EFL classroom Lucilla Lopriore Paola Vettorel Abstract The socio-linguistic consequences of the current role of English in the world are reflected in the most recent research studies in the field of English as a Lingua Franca and of World Englishes. These studies bear significant implications for English language teaching and require both a careful rethinking and a new design in language planning, particularly in foreign/second language curricula, course-book and classroom materials and language tasks. The teaching of English should be oriented at fostering language and (inter)cultural awareness, as well as the use of effective communicative strategies in the classroom, in order to develop effective communicators in today’s world, where English is increasingly employed as a LF among speakers of different linguacultures. This contribution illustrates the shift in perspective required within a new WE and ELF aware approach in the ELT classroom and in teacher education courses. Exemplifications of teaching activities devised by ELT teachers in an in-service WE and ELF aware training course will also be described and discussed.
Keywords: World Englishes, ELF, EFL classroom, teacher education
1. Introduction Research studies in the field of World Englishes (WE), and increasingly of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), have in the last few decades represented two of the most vibrant and challenging areas in applied linguistics, bearing significant implications for English language teaching, too. Given the spread of English and its pluralization, as well as findings from some of the above research areas, reflection on the socio-linguistic consequences of the current role of English, particularly as an international lingua franca, is needed. Implications for the development of classroom materials, activities and tasks in ELT are manifold, within an orientation towards the development of language and (inter) cultural awareness, as well as of effective communicative strategies – that is, providing learners with tools to become effective communicators in today’s world, where English is increasingly employed as a lingua franca (LF) among speakers of different linguacultures. Research related to the representation of English in its plurality, as well as ELF, above all in its international language function (EIL) in ELT materials has amply shown that representations rarely go beyond activities aimed at raising awareness of the current plurality of English, are generally more present in ‘civilization’ rather than language textbooks, and frequently with a focus on (inter)cultural rather than language skills (e.g. Gray, 2002; Lopriore & Ceruti, 2012; Lopriore & Vettorel, 2015; Naji Meidani & Pishghadam, 2013; Vettorel, 2010; Vettorel & Corrizzato, 2012; Vettorel & Lopriore, 2013). Furthermore, ELF, when included, receives in the great majority of cases a token representation of its ‘global’ spread. In this paper we will first discuss how this new scenario demands for a shift in perspective in materials development and in teacher education courses and how new approaches in the ELT classroom are required. In the second section, specifically aimed at looking at activities raising socio-linguistic awareness of WE and ELF, exemplifications of teaching activities directly proposed by trainee teachers involved in a teacher education course will be presented.
Roma Tre University.
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University of Verona.
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2.Shifting perspectives in the language classroom The adoption of a WEs and ELF aware perspective in language teaching demands for a shift in the design and implementation of the FL curriculum, of classroom practice as well as the identification of new teaching and learning tools. Introducing WEs and ELF does not just imply the insertion of ELF and/or WE-oriented language activities, it rather requires a careful rethinking of the construct of FL teacher education courses, of their components and of the EFL/ESL curricula and syllabi at all school levels. This global perspective, once embedded in the foreign language curriculum, will require careful reconsideration in the choice and use of foreign language materials and course-book organisation. Such a shift involves revisiting several diverse pedagogical aspects such as the approaches adopted by teachers or the extension of learners’ roles in their contacts with the language within and beyond classroom walls, as well as devising appropriate activities and materials specifically suitable for the growing number of multilingual classrooms. 2.1 A shift in language planning constructs
The new emerging ELT scenarios, more and more characterised by the presence of glocal Englishes and by the widespread use of ELF by non-native speakers, pose new challenges and demand for the definition of the construct underlying the components of an EFL curriculum. Within a WEs and ELF awareness perspective in language planning of curricula and syllabi, several aspects of the traditional language curriculum need to be revisited and reconsidered in an international perspective. Aspects such as, for example, the expansion of the language functions conventionally introduced in language courses and too often limited to traditional transactional exchanges, or a dynamic process approach to grammar and pronunciation sections, that are almost always presented as monolithic models of rules, or the introduction of elements of pragmatic awareness in interactive spoken tasks, should be taken into consideration. Among the principles underlying this plurilithic approach to English language learning, aims such as developing learners’ intercultural communicative skills (Kohn, 2015; Kramsch, 2009), valuing and enhancing their multilingual repertoires (Mauranen, 2012; Seildhofer, 2011) as well as promoting learners’ capacity for languaging and translanguaging (Canagarajah, 2011, 2013; Blommaert, 2010; Swain, 2006) should thus become central components of the curriculum. There are different, yet powerful ways to achieve these goals, particularly through innovative language policies and curricular guidelines mirroring the plurilingual contexts of many European and Asian contexts. New perspectives in the development of materials and course-books by revalidating their design, their contents and their multimedia texts may well represent an innovative change in the foreign language curriculum. Course-books, to start with, are a very powerful tool for introducing innovations in language teaching since they are usually based upon research on language learning, and they are growingly focussed upon material development (Tomlinson, 2011, 2012, 2013; Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2010). They are usually aimed at meeting the needs of global markets in order for publishers to widen their business, but this way they often fail to respond to local needs, too often confused with the glocal ones (Gray, 2002). Course-books are very often characterised by a very ‘centred’ perspective of the language (Pennycook, 1994; Phillipson, 2009) where authors’ and publishers’ beliefs about the language are rarely challenged, and grammar, for example, is still presented in a very traditional way, often laid as a set of arbitrarily fixed standard rules. Even if most of the internationally sold course-books tend to overlook some of the emerging pedagogical issues linked to local needs, they could be designed with a careful outlook at what
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language is being presented and at how future users of WE and of ELF may be best prepared to interact in glocal contexts. If the curriculum needs careful revalidation in the light of this new global perspective, the same applies to the ELT syllabus that should be mostly usage-based and aimed at developing learners’ ability to: understand and make sense of a variety of English native and non-native speakers’ accents; intelligibly interact in intercultural encounters; recognise as well as use a variety of language functions; use interactive and intercultural communicative strategies (Cogo & Dewey, 2012; Hülmbauer, 2009; Seildhofer, 2011); grammaring1, i.e. to use grammar structures accurately, meaningfully and appropriately (LarsenFreeman, 2001); languaging2, or rather ‘Englishing’, whereby language is being used to make meaning when interacting with texts (Swain, 2006). 2.2 A shift in teaching approaches and in learners’ roles
In order to develop learners’ above mentioned skills and competencies, both course-book authors and classroom teachers – in an authentic learner-centred approach - should provide students with appropriate materials and activities gradually leading learners to become independent language users, capable of: engaging in interactive communicative encounters with mono- and plurilingual English speakers; exploring and resorting to the English resources present in their environment, e.g. their linguistic landscapes and opportunities for encounters with English in the media; identifying, understanding, and using pragmatic features in English-using contexts; resorting and referring to English(es) and ELF corpora when involved in lexical development and text analysis activities; observing, discussing and reflecting upon their own and their mates’ forms of code-switching; identifying, reflecting upon and successfully using communication strategies. Within an ELF aware learner-centred approach, English language teachers, particularly those who graduated from very traditional academic approaches to language studies, may be involved in challenging their own beliefs about the language they teach as well as their view of language learning and teaching. This process can only be enhanced through a reflective approach within teacher education pre- and inservice courses where teachers should be exposed to samples of different World Englishes and ELF, in order to view English as a complex and plurilithic system. Teachers-to-be need to experience and learn to resort to different WE and ELF resources when planning their teaching and to rely upon authentic samples of English usage through media and corpora. In order to reflect upon the learning and teaching process underlying an ELF aware approach aimed at developing their learners as independent language users, teachers will also need to reconsider the notion of communicative competence (Leung, 2005) and to learn how to engage the students in using their multilingual competencies. The whole construct of assessment and evaluation would therefore need to be redefined, too, since the degree of acceptability of the students’ performance might need to be extended. 1
“I created ‘Grammaring’ to convey the idea that grammar is a dynamic system, which needs to be taught as a skill, the fifth skill (the other four being reading, writing, speaking and listening), rather than as a fixed body of rules. If you understand that what you are trying to do is to get students to use grammatical structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately, then you realize that you need to provide students with an opportunity to use grammar structures in meaningful and engaging activities.” (Pérez-Llantada, 2007, p.158) 2 “Languaging about language is one of the ways we learn a second language in an advanced level” (Swain, 2006, p. 96)
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2.3 A shift in devising tasks and classroom activities
Classroom based activities as for example the organisation at school or in the school district, of intercultural communicative encounters through school exchanges, or the implementation of project work beyond classroom walls through a more extensive use of technologies and on-line resources, have become central in an intercultural and ELF aware approach. These activities should be aimed at enhancing learners’ ability to notice L2 as well as L1 cultural and pragmatic features (House, 2013), at using languaging and cross-languaging tasks (Swain, 2006), or presenting and having learners practise a wider variety of communicative functions. Teachers should, therefore, start planning their lessons, with or without reference to their own course-books, by drawing from a variety of multicultural and multimodal resources, exposing learners to multilingual contexts through a wide number of aural and oral tasks, skills too often neglected in traditional classroom-based activities. In multilingual classrooms, teachers may also elicit learners’ reflection upon their different L1s as well as challenge their capacity for language use and for talking through their language learning process, by resorting to their often pluringual repertoires Tasks and activities would engage learners in comprehending non-native speakers using English in authentic exchange contexts and in noticing similarities and differences in idiomatic uses, in sounds, in values, in different forms of politeness in their first language as well as in the English they are being exposed to. Learners would thus become aware of cultural and linguistic differences among non-native users of English. In devising activities, teachers should thus expose students to cross-cultural realisations of English and ELF, while engaging them in negotiating practice through a process of active crosscultural mediation with and through English. The following sections will illustrate samples of activities devised and implemented within a teachertraining course where trainees had been introduced to WEs and ELF, and their implications in ELT. 3. Exploitation of existing ELT materials In the following sections we will provide some exemplifications of WE and ELF-related activities that were developed by a group of trainee teachers attending a Percorso Abilitante Speciale (PAS3), a teacher education course for English teachers in lower secondary schools in Italy, at the University of Verona (Italy). During the course component devoted to English language out of the 6 total lessons (36 hours) one was dedicated to World Englishes, one to ELF, and one to the pedagogical implications of these two research areas in ELT; besides face-to-face lessons, trainees had the opportunity to reflect upon the topics dealt with during classes on the online Moodle dedicated space, too. As part of the programme, all trainees were required to write a final report, including one, or a series of, teaching lessons/units on a topic of their choice. Out of the 42 trainees, 9 specifically focused on aspects related to WE, ELF, and/or the presence of English in the media, advertisements, music and the linguistic landscape; some other, while not dealing specifically with these areas (tackling topics such as cinema, world citizenship, sports), took into account activities related to the spread and diversification of English. Several among these teaching units take ELT textbooks as a starting point for the development of activities aimed at raising awareness of the spread of English, as well as of concepts related to L1, L2, ENL/ESL/EFL/ELF, generally in connection to Kachru’s three circles; awareness of cultural differences is generally included, too, with reference to the Ministry guideline document Indicazioni Nazionali per il Curricolo della Scuola dell’infanzia e del primo Ciclo di Istruzione4. The PAS courses were activated by the Italian Ministry of Education as a complementation to the Tirocinio Formativo Attivo (TFA) courses and addressed to teachers who had some teaching experience. 4 Cf. http://www.indicazioninazionali.it/documenti_Indicazioni_nazionali/Indicazioni_Annali_Definitivo.pdf 3
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Quite a few reports include tasks and activities connected to Inner Circle varieties (four focus on American English lexical differences; two on Australian English, 1 with hints to Maori - the Haka dance), and one on South African slang. Outer Circle varieties are taken into consideration in six cases, four focussing on Indian English, (two with activities related to phonetic awareness/accents too, two involving an Indian student in the class), and three on Bollywood (Bride and Prejudice; Bend it like Beckham, in one case in conjunction with Slum Dog Millionaire). Two projects comprise tasks related to Kenya, one in connection to an existing pen pal correspondence, and the other with some activities related to the Swahili language. Two reports also comprise aspects closely connected to the presence of English in the students’ environments, focusing on loanwords in English from other languages, and from other languages into English, on English in advertising, music and the printed media. 3.1.1 English in the world
All the projects focusing on the pluralization of English include an initial activity about areas where English is spoken in the world, either with the support of a geopolitical map from the web projected on the IW, or, in the majority of cases, from a textbook activity (e.g. Banzato & Dalziel, 2009: 8-9, T15). In an initial brainstorming session future students are invited first of all to reflect upon their own experiences with English through prompts such as “In which countries do people speak English? Do you use English when you go on holiday? Do you find English in public spaces? Where? Do you listen to English songs? Do you need English when you use the computer?” (ER). This step is then followed by a reflection on the different territories in the world where English is spoken, and with group activities on the related concepts and definitions of first/native, second and foreign language. A reading activity from existing published materials is frequently included at this stage, in most cases related to the global spread of English. As mentioned earlier, the fact that passages related to ELF are only occasionally included, and mostly in ‘civilization’ textbooks rather than ‘curricular’ ones, is confirmed also in the reference materials used by the trainee teachers. In the case of ‘The role of English’ (Banzato & Dalziel, 2009, p. 9, T1, T2), for instance, a reference is made to English as the “global lingua franca”, with information about the different functions of English in the world, too. At times the activities provided in the textbook materials are personalized: students are invited to reflect upon their first-hand experiences with English-speaking students (see 3.2 below). Some reports further develop the interconnection with the presence of English in the students’ environment, setting forward activities aimed at fostering ‘noticing’ processes to be then organized in spider-grams or grids. In two cases, the noticing phase is accompanied by a reflection on lexical items currently used in English, but originally coming from other languages (T1, T2) (hints provided, e.g. Banzato & Dalziel, 2009), followed by a reflection session through questions such as “Does Italian use many English words?, Do you use foreign words when you speak Italian?, Can the use of foreign words be difficult for some people?, Do you read or write in English on the Net? If you do so, what do you write about? Is it important to study English at present?, Do you think that within a few years everybody will speak English in your country?” (T1). 3.2 World Englishes
Several teaching units were developed with reference to Outer Circle Englishes, some drawing from textbook materials, others taking advantage of web resources, videos in particular. One proposal (T3) refers to the animated video “The English language in 30 accents”6 that, although at times representing stereotyping views, constitutes an interesting starting point to raise awareness of the different accents with which English is spoken in the world, from the Inner to the Expanding Circle. 5
6
Pseudonyms for each trainee teachers are as follows: T1 ER; T2 OB; T3 LF; T4 MLB; T5 GM; T6 BT. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtB1W8zkY5A
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Another proposal is related to South African English: after watching a video7 focusing in particular on slang expressions, where the 11 languages spoken in South Africa are also cited, students are asked to take notes of the words mentioned in the video and to match them with the British English equivalent (awesome/ great/cool, not cool, barbecue, goodbye, terrible, hit, a lover, empty-headed, swim-suit, a friendly greeting) (T4). As to Kenya, a text related to the different languages spoken in Kenya is proposed, together with a short text on ‘Chai Tea’ (Tomkinson & Lee, 2013, p. 64, adapted by T1) containing several localized lexical elements. In one case, a letter exchange is proposed and students are invited to reflect on a sample letter, quite formal in style (MLB) As regards Indian English, rather than referring to textbooks, projects rely on videos from YouTube, ranging from Apu, a character of Indian origins from The Simpsons8, to a recorded (and subtitled) problematic food ordering telephone conversation9 , to an extract of a video introducing the Project Voices of India10. It should be noticed that, apart from the last one, these materials contain quite stereotypical representations, which would call for further reflection. Nevertheless, the accompanying activities created by the trainee teachers (a lexical matching activity Indian/British English (T5), a reading comprehension passage about characteristics of Indian English, T5) seem a reasonable starting point to raise awareness of the current plurality of English. An interesting example of connection with the school environment can be found in the proposal to invite a student originally from India to class in order to provide an example of Indian English accent, with the students noticing differences from what they usually hear from the teacher and recorded material (T2). Similarly, as part of activities related to the film “Slum Dog Millionaire” (D. Boyle), the students of Indian origin are invited to explain to the rest of the class the meaning of ‘Chai Wallah’, with the support of pictures projected on the IW. As to the teaching plans related to film extracts (Bride and Prejudice; Bend it like Beckham: Slum Dog Millionaire), they are in general focused more on the film plots than on World Englishes, although they naturally contain some activities aimed at reflecting on cultural differences. In one case, however, an awareness-raising and noticing activity related to the pronunciation of dental fricatives /ð/ and /θ/ is included (T6). 4. Implications and concluding remarks In the rapidly emerging scenarios in English language teaching within a global perspective English has achieved a status of an international language and it is spoken by a growing number of non-native speakers; these scenarios demand for a change in language policies and in language planning. These changes involve the organization of foreign language curricula, the syllabus design, the type of material and English course-book development, since English is being now taught at all school levels almost all over the world and it is being used to teach subjects other than English, too. A careful rethinking of English language learners’ new competencies and language profiles as well as of language teachers’ education approach is needed. Unfortunately most of course-books and materials used by teachers in the language classroom do not yet fully take into account the current status of English, not to mention teachers’ preparation. Teachers are still most often trained in a traditional way and more and more frequently they suffer the contradictions between the language they teach and the language they and their learners encounter every day. What teachers need is a more profound engagement with and exposure to 7
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4v4JRHMdayw&hd=1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zXccMf1cBgQ 9 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_eDB70lYP_A 10 http://www.voicesofindia.org/ 8
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World Englishes and ELF, an engagement that would result in a different approach to material development and to task design. If awareness of the current plurality of English is raised in teacher education courses, there are good chances that this perspective is taken into account, hence the importance of theoretical concepts linked with hands-on activities in teacher training courses, to provide chances to experience implications of WE and ELF in a plurilithic perspective. Course-books, for example, could be used as a starting point for a ‘less Anglophone-centred’ and a more inclusive and realistic approach. As the examples quoted in this contribution prove, even if course-books do not always provide extended activities on WE, teachers are more willing to include them rather than ELF-related practices. This tendency may possibly be due to the fact that ELF is still too young as a research field, or it is perceived as too difficult and maybe destabilizing to fit the current curricula and thus ‘less pedagogically viable’. Further research in this area could certainly provide important and positive insights into this field. About the authors
Lucilla Lopriore is associate professor at Roma Tre University. Research interests: ELF, teacher education, assessment, CLIL, early language learning. Recent publications: (2014) “ELF in the Primary Classroom”. TEXTUS, 27/1:119-135; (2015) ELF and Early Language Learning. In Bayyurt & Akcan, Current Persectives on pedagogy for ELF. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter. Email:
[email protected] Paola Vettorel is assistant professor in the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures - University of Verona. Her recent publications include: (2014) English as a Lingua Franca in wider networking. Blogging practices. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter; (2015) (Ed.). New Frontiers in Teaching and Learning English. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. Email:
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References Banzato, D., & Dalziel, F. (2009). New culture lab. Milano: Pearson Paravia Bruno Mondadori/Lang. Bianco, M., & Chiosi, L. (2012). Let’s take off. Napoli: Elledue Edizioni. Blommaert, J. (2010). The sociolinguistics of globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Canagarajah, S. (2011). Codemeshing in academic writing: Identifying teachable strategies of translanguaging. The Modern Language Journal, 95(3), 401-417. Canagarajah, S. (2013). Translingual practice. London: Routledge. Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2012). Analysing English as a Lingua Franca. A corpus-based investigation. London: Continuum Gray, J. (2002). The global course-book in English language teaching. In D. Block & D. Cameron (Eds.), Globalization and language teaching (pp. 151–167). London: Routledge. House, J. (2013). English as a Lingua Franca and translation. The interpreter and translator trainer (ITT), special issue: English as a Lingua Franca. Implications for translator and interpreter education, 7(2), 279-298. Hülmbauer, C. (2009). We don’t take the right way. We just take the way that we think you will understand. The shifting relationship between correctness and effectiveness in ELF. In A. Mauranen, & E. Ranta (Eds.), English as a Lingua Franca. Studies and findings, (pp.323-347). Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Kohn, K. (2015). A pedagogical space for ELF in the English classroom. In Y. Bayyurt & N. Sifakis (Eds.), Current perspectives on pedagogy for ELF. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Kramsch, C. (2009). The multilingual subject. What foreign language learners say about their experience and why it matters. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Larsen Freeman, D. (2001). Teaching languages: From grammar to grammaring. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Leung, C (2005). Convivial communication: Recontextualizing communicative competence. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15(2), 119-144. Lopriore, L., & Ceruti, M.A. (2012). Lexicon and intercultural competence in EFL manuals. In R. Facchinetti (Ed.), A cultural journey through the English lexicon (pp. 235-264). Newcastle-upon-Tyne: ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Lopriore L., & Vettorel P. (2015). Promoting awareness of Englishes and ELF in the English language classroom. In H. Bowles & A. Cogo (Eds.), International perspectives on ELF-oriented teaching. London: Palgrave McMillan. Mauranen, A. (2012). Exploring ELF: Academic English shaped by non-native speakers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Naji Meidani, E., & Pishghadam, R. (2013). Analysis of English language textbooks in the light of English as an International Language (EIL): A comparative study. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 2(2), 83-96. Pennycook, A. (1994). The cultural politics of English as an international language. London: Longman. Pérez-Llantada, C. (2007). New trends in grammar teaching: Issues and applications. An interview with Prof. Diane Larsen-Freeman. Atlantis, 29(1), 157–163. Phillipson, R. (2009). Linguistic imperialism continued. London: Routledge. Seildhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Swain, M. (2006). Languaging, agency and collaboration in advanced language proficiency. In H. Byrnes (Ed.), Advanced language learning: The contribution of Halliday and Vygotsky (pp.95-108). London: Continuum. Tomlinson, A., & Lee, E. (2013). Think global. A cultural journey through the English-speaking world. Recanati: ELI. Tomlinson, B. (Ed.). (2011). Materials development in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tomlinson, B. (2012). Material development for language learning and teaching. Language Teaching, 45(2), 143-179. Tomlinson, B. (Ed.). (2013). Applied linguistics and materials development. London: Bloomsbury. Tomlinson, B., & Masuhara, H. (Eds.). (2010). Research for material development in language learning. London: Continuum. Vettorel, P. (2010). EIL/ELF and representation of culture in textbooks: Only food, fairs, folklore and facts? In C. Gagliardi & A. Maley (Eds.), EIL, ELF, global English: Teaching and learning issues (pp. 153185). Bern: Peter Lang. Vettorel, P. & Corrizzato, S. (2012). World Englishes and ELF in ELT textbooks: How is plurality represented? In R. Facchinetti (Ed.), A cultural journey through the English lexicon (pp. 201234). Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Vettorel, P. & Lopriore, L. (2013). Is there ELF in ELT course-books? Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 3(4), 483-504.
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Grazzi, E. (2016). Networked-based language teaching and ELF. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 16-24). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Network-based language teaching and ELF Enrico Grazzi Abstract This chapter is based on the assumption that studies on English as a lingua franca (ELF) and telecollaboration can be pulled into a common framework whenever research is focused on the dynamic process that combines web-mediated communication and second language learning. The purpose of this paper is to examine a similar issue and present a European telecollaboration project that is being carried out in the 2014-2015 academic year, whereby a community of Italian and Finnish high-school students interact online to improve their intercultural and communicative competencies. Results from a previous research (Grazzi, forthcoming) show that whenever the English classroom is connected to the Internet to let students practice network-based language teaching (NBLT), the authentic environment in which participants interact transforms the closed context of schooling into an open virtual space, which consequently turns English from a foreign language (EFL) and a school subject into a lingua franca that is socially constructed by its users. In this view, the distinction between EFL and ELF is contextually defined and conceived of as a continuum rather than a dichotomy. My contention is that once the English classroom is turned into an open ecosystem (van Lier, 2004) that is connected to the world outside through hypermedia technology, EFL and ELF tend to converge and become complementary in the L2-user's performance. Finally, the kind of e-partnering that has been activated through the current telecollaboration project is expected to provide examples of cooperative negotiation of forms and meanings between interlocutors, which enhance their language awareness in a Vygotskian zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Lantolf and Thorne, 2006).
Keywords: ELF, telecollaboration, intercultural competence
1. Foreword The research project that is reported here is called Intercultural Telecollaboration: Italy-Finland. It was first presented at 7th International Conference on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF7) that was held in Athens, Greece, on September 4-6, 20141. This research is taking place in the current 2014-2015 academic year, hence, it is still in progress while this chapter is being written. For obvious reasons then, it would be premature to draw firm conclusions at this stage, when participants are still in the process of implementing their assignments. Therefore, this contribution is primarily concerned with the description of the operational framework of the project in order to look closely at the well-grounded practical experience that has been carried out so far. Essentially, my intent is to describe the phases of this research, to show how a focus on telecollaboration (Antoniadou, 2011; Belz, 2002; Ware & O'Dowd, 2008) and innovative language teaching/learning practices via web-mediated communication (Warschauer & Kern, 2000) can grow out of a focus on the pedagogical implications of ELF (Cogo & Dewey, 2012; Grazzi, 2013; Jenkins, 2015; Lopriore, 2010; Seidlhofer, 2011; Sifakis & Sougari, 2010; Vettorel & Lopriore, 2013). These two foci are then combined into a blended approach that allows language teachers to transform the isolated, selfcontained environment of the traditional EFL classroom into a virtual agora, where students from diverse languacultural backgrounds meet and use ELF as an affordance to mediate their social relations in an authentic communicative environment. My contention is that thanks to NBLT learners may activate a sociocultural process (Vygotsky, 1978) whereby they simultaneously internalize (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006) English and reshape it through its usage. In this constructionist perspective, the emergence of ELF is the result of the processes of ‟grammaticalization and syntacticization” (Tomasello, 2003, p.13) that characterises the evolution of human verbal languages. In this sense, Grazzi (2013) says, ‟[..] each English classroom becomes a thriving ecosystem (van Lier, 2004) [..] where EFL is inevitably adjusted by the learning community to suit its communicative needs and specific sociocultural profile” (p. 66). University of Roma Tre, Dept. of Foreign Languages, Literatures and Cultures.
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This presentation was given in a Colloquium entitled: ELF aware classroom practices and teaching materials: issues and new perspectives in ELT, which was convened by Lucilla Lopriore (University of Roma Tre) and Paola Vettorel (University of Verona). 1
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The impact of ELF on English language teaching (ELT) has long been debated in the literature since the early days of ELF research (see e.g. the discussion on the Lingua Franca Core and the teaching priorities in Jenkins, 2000; Seidlhofer, 2004), nevertheless it is still the subject of a major unresolved issue of our time. The growing number of non-native speakers (NNSs) of English who belong to the outer circle and the expanding circle (Kachru, 1982) has led to the emergence of glocal Englishes, which diverge both from standard English (SE)2 exonormative models and other native-speaker (NS) varieties of English at phonological, lexicogrammar and discourse levels. This complex sociolinguistic phenomenon, which has turned the inner circle (Kachru, 1982) of NSs into a comparatively minority population, questions whether ELT should resist this process of language change and diversification, or instead, following Cogo and Dewey (2012), adjust to it and reformulate its models and practices to “become more engaged with contemporary developments in language and sociocultural realities” (p. 168). Myclaim is that the second option is possible, as the following sections of this chapter intend to prove. The assumption underpinning this choice is that innovative activities like telecollaboration could well integrate the current pedagogic practice and offer the opportunity for teachers and pupils to experience the reality of ELF. 2. A conceptual shift This study is directed to high-school teachers of English, as well as to applied linguists and ELF scholars, to explore the practicability of the line of research presented above and show how possible it is to integrate mainstream English school syllabuses, which are traditionally geared towards NS communicative competence, with a more open approach to ELT that incorporates ELF as a viable option whenever learners are involved in real intercultural communication. This, however, entails a shift in perspective as regards the way language practitioners experience and understand ELF and the various sociolinguistic phenomena connected to it. To begin with, there has been no general agreement on a shared definition of ELF, which instead remains problematic and causes heated disputes not only among linguists and foreign language educators, but even among students and public opinion at large. For instance, a few years ago Seidlhofer (2003) reported a lively debate between two eminent scholars, Randolph Quirk and Braj B. Kachru, who held opposite positions on the global spread of English and, as Schneider (2011) defines it, the consequent ‟indigenization and nativization process of English in many countries” (p. 3). Even today, despite the development of a rich literature on ELF studies, Quirk's and Kachru's views are emblematic of the unyielding polarity of those who still support the primacy of SE and native language teaching (NLT) versus those who claim the right of NNSs to appropriate and adapt English to their languacultural identities, as it normally happens in language contact situations (Heine & Kuteva, 2005; Mauranen, 2012). Moreover, between these extremes we find several intellectual middling postures, where the degree of acceptability of non-standard ELF forms may depend on considerations about a) the ad hoc contexts of use where ELF communication takes place; b) the use of ELF for different discourse types and genres; c) the relative felicity (Potts, 2006) of ELF utterances in relation to the achievement of pragmatic goals3. On the other hand, shareholders in English education−teachers, students, parents, administrators−often tend to misinterpret the notion of ELF, which they either confuse with the diffusion of NS English internationally, or else identify with the learner's ‘interlanguage’ (Corder, 1981; Selinker, 1972)−that is a fallacious form of SE−, or simply disparage as a sort of broken English. Understandably, though, the practitioners' resistance to disregard the static NLT paradigm and reconfigure English as a dynamic lingua franca in the age of globalisation might have been induced by Namely, the British Received Pronunciation (RP), and the US General American (GA). Potts's (2006: 1) notion of ‟maximally felicitous utterance (in context)” is borrowed here to provide a pragmatic definition of successful ELF communication. Hence, we have ‘pragmatic felicity’ when interlocutors negotiate meanings through ELF and accomplish their pragmatic goals. 2 3
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the dominant orientation in ELT to meet grade-level proficiency standards that are set according to NS competencies. For example, since the end of 20th century, the institutional English curricula within the EU usually have incorporated the descriptors of competence indicated in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2011), where the idealised adult, educated native speaker is essentially regarded as the ‟Pole Star” for language learners. As Jenkins (2007) observes, “Still less surprising is it, then, that the majority of English language teachers remain unconvinced of the wisdom of an ELF approach to teaching and unable to make the necessary conceptual shift” (p. 16). Undercutting teachers' intense scepticism about ELF and changing their deeply ingrained pedagogic beliefs and practice is not an easy task, though, and cannot result from a ‟sudden conversion” based on sound, albeit theoretical, principles. Hence, it seems reasonable to believe that bridging the gap between advanced academic research on ELF and the practitioner's attitudes and classroom routine is an enterprise that goes well beyond the individual teacher's conceptual shift. By definition, teachers tend to reproduce the way they were taught and trained. Besides, they generally act in compliance with national curricula, so it would be quite illusory to think that a radical change in ELT should start from them. For a paradigm shift to happen, it takes first of all financial resources to invest in long-term training programmes, with the joint effort between educational institutions, Universities, teachers, school professionals, teacher-training agencies and textbook publishers. In other words, a coordinated action that is comparable to the communicative revolution, which laid the new foundations for language pedagogy, in the 70's. This is not to say that EFL will be rendered obsolete and that NLT should be replaced by ELF-based syllabuses altogether. NS varieties of English should in fact continue to play a fundamental role in language teaching. Nevertheless, as Cogo and Dewey (2011) point out: language pedagogy needs to go beyond focusing so predominantly on the reproduction of encoded language forms. Successful communication is primarily not norm dependent. In language teacher education this needs to be addressed by enabling teachers to investigate this particular environment and sociocultural context in which their students will use English. It is important for teachers to have greater exposure to the variety of ways in which English is used globally, in order that they can present students with alternative variants when highlighting language forms and the pragmatic functions this can be used for. (p. 183)
In this view, the purpose of the research project that is sketched out in the following section is to provide an empirical picture of ELF-based learning activities and signal that change in schooling is possible. 3. Intercultural telecollaboration: Italy-Finland The research project Intercultural Telecollaboration: Italy-Finland started in April 2014 and is supposed to finish in February 2015. It follows from a similar project (Grazzi, 2015) called Intercultural Telecollaboration: Italy-U.S.A.4 that was carried out in the 2012-2013 academic year. The main goal of this year's project is to improve the students’ intercultural competence, a) by fostering their mutual understanding through the use of ELF as a mediational tool, and b) by supporting cooperative practices through web-mediated communicative activities (Belz 2005a, 2005b; Thorne 2003, 2010). This project was designed by Grazzi, and is supported by the following local high-school teachers of English: Rosella Manni, from the Liceo Classico Statale “Ennio Quirino Visconti”, Rome, Italy; Jari Aalto and Päivi Meinander, from Kallio Secondary High School, Helsinki, Finland. The Italian-Finnish 4
This project was a recipient of the European Language Label Award for Innovative Projects in Language Teaching and Learning 20122013. It was co-designed by Stefano Maranzana, a PhD student in Second Language Acquisition and Teaching at the University of Arizona, and Grazzi. It involved the participation of 10 volunteer Italian high-school students of English, and 10 American volunteer university students of Italian.
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partnership includes the participation of two groups of volunteer high-school students in the final grade: 12 Italians and 14 Finns respectively. Participants have been assigned to 12 teams. 10 are composed of one Italian and one Finnish student each; two are composed of one Italian and two Finnish students each. Team members were matched randomly. This way, a multicultural and multilingual community of practice (CoP) (Wenger, 1998) has been created, that is implementing newly developed collaborative activities informed by NBLT (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). The rationale behind the teaching experience presented here is that the Internet provides a learning space whereby the remediation (Bolter and Grusin, 1999) of linear written discourse via the integration of digital sources (e.g. verbal texts, audiovisual documents and hyperlinks) can promote authentic interaction and favour sociocognitive processes in language use (Batstone, 2010; Thorne, 2010). 3.1 Step 1: Preparation
When the implementation of the project began (October 2014), the teachers informed their students about the purpose of intercultural telecollaboration and described their assignments with a focus on the importance of ELF as an affordance to connect people with different languacultural backgrounds. First of all, a presurvey5 was conducted online by the project coordinators to gather relevant information about the participants' approach to telecollaboration. Students were asked 12 questions on the following areas: their use of the Internet and social networks; their interest in different cultures; topics they would like to engage in as regards the contemporary Italian and Finnish cultural backgrounds; their basic knowledge of the Italian and Finnish cultural backgrounds; their expectations as regards the use of ELF in telecollaboration; their command of ELF. Secondly, the project coordinators explained how participants should accomplish their tasks by using the digital resource that had been set up, namely a wiki called Intercultural Telecollaboration: Italy-Finland6, which is accessible only to members of the CoP (i.e. the students and the project coordinators). The wiki contains several pages, where participants can find: a. A homepage that welcomes participants and gives an overview of the project. b. A detailed powerpoint presentation of the project and a powerpoint manual to operate on the wiki. c. A list of 10 relevant cultural topics to choose from, with short background notes and links to websites that could provide participants with additional informative materials. d. A list of participants and teams. Here is the list of topics that participants are free to select in order to carry out their online discussions: 1. Talk about yourselves (e.g. family, school, plans for your future, etc.) 2. Hobbies and sports 3. Food and cuisine 4. Fashion and style 5. Mass media (radio, TV, cinema, newspapers and magazines, etc.) 6. New media (the Internet, social networks, mobile apps, etc.) 7. Travelling around Europe. Your meaning of travel 8. Italy and the Italians. Finland and the Finns 9. Using English as a Lingua Franca 10. Developing European citizenship
5 6
See Appendix. This wiki (http://intercultural-telecollaboration-italy-finland.wikispaces.com/) was created on Wikispaces (http://www.wikispaces.com/), a website that is free for educational institutions.
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These themes were either proposed by the project coordinators or by the students through the presurvey. 3.2 Step 2: Implementation
Students have been working on this project at school, during regular English classes that their teachers dedicate to telecollaboration. However, they are also expected to continue their work at home. Understandably, it is impossible to interconnect the Italian and the Finnish groups at the same time during the English classes, because they have different timetables. Moreover, it is unlikely that Italian and Finnish partners are simultaneously connected online to carry out their work at home. Therefore, the project coordinators have opted for asynchronous computer-mediated communication (ACMC). Here is a step-by-step description of the students' main assignment: 1. Each team chooses a topic from the list of themes provided on the wiki. 2. They carry out asynchronous discussions by uploading their written texts onto their personal page on the wiki. Here, they can also add audiovisual materials (e.g. pictures, videos, etc.) and links to other websites (e.g. You Tube, Wikipedia, etc.) to share additional information. 3. In each team, one of the students uploads their text between Monday and Wednesday, to start a discussion. 4. Their partner replies by Saturday, the same week. 5. Teams are free to exchange language feedback (i.e. corrective peer review). 6. Each team may choose to develop the same topic or move to a different one the following week. Students are free to elaborate their discussions as they chose, but they are encouraged to use the links provided for each topic as a source of inspiration. They have been told that the main goal of their activity is to promote intercultural learning, therefore, they are expected to complement their personal views with opinions that are also typical of their culture. As regards the so-called netiquette (e.g. socially acceptable conduct online), participants are expected to post their contributions in time. Besides, they have been told that expressing one’s personal disagreement is acceptable, provided they explain their different ideas and show respect for their partners'. Thanks to a forum hosted on the wiki, every participant is allowed to follow the ongoing discussions by reading the contributions that each team has uploaded, and then interact with them by posting their messages. This way, participants are interconnected within their CoP. Students are allowed to use online monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, if necessary. As for the teachers, their task is to provide guidance and advice when asked by participants. They are not supposed to correct or mark the students' work, however they are expected to assess the whole process together with the students and assign them credits for their commitment. They also provide participants with technical support in the use of digital technology. 3.3 Step 3: Peer review
An important component of this research project is the participants' reciprocal corrective language feedback to improve the overall intelligibility of their texts. Peer review, as Grazzi (forthcoming) explains, helps ELF users, ‟to disambiguate opaque or inappropriate lexicogrammar expressions, but most of all promote[s] a reflexive attitude intrinsic to the interlocutors' communicative performance”. This is what Ware and O'Dowd (2008, p. 46) also call e-partnering, a practice that is based on Vygotsky's (1978) notion of zone of proximal development (ZPD), whereby participants, Grazzi (forthcoming) continues, ‟commit themselves to offer reciprocal support in order to negotiate meanings and carry out their joint intercultural endeavour successfully”. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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In line with the results of the presurvey, where respondents have expressed their wish to improve their English, it seems reasonable to expect that e-partnering and the use of ELF will foster the students' communicative competence and enhance their language awareness. In this perspective, the manual that is available on the wiki recommends that participants be selective and deliver corrective feedback only when their partners' texts contain ‟deviant” lexicogrammar expressions that affect successful communication. This should lead to a process of negotiation of forms and meanings between team members and to the implementation of accommodation strategies (Jenkins, 2000), which are fundamental features of both ELF and telecollaboration respectively. 4. Conclusions As was anticipated in the first section of this chapter, the research project that has been presented here is not over yet, hence it is impossible to provide a quantitative and qualitative data analysis. Nevertheless, this study should have exemplified the compatibility of ELF and telecollaboration within a theoretical framework that leads to a reconceptualisation of ELT. The description of the activity design contained in 3rd section was intended to show that pedagogical innovations in the English classroom can be based on a blended approach whereby the variability of English as a global language, the technological innovations of web-mediated communication, and the potential of multicultural collaborative learning practice converge to enhance the L2-user's ‟intercultural communicative competence” (Byram, 1997: 3). Additionally, peer-to-peer language feedback is expected to improve the learner's language awareness and focus their attention on the pragmatic goals of verbal communication, leaving them free to express their languacultural identity through the use of ELF. To conclude, it is advisable that future research efforts be focused upon integrating NBLT and ELFmediated communication to develop a new landscape of innovations in the field of ELT. About the author
Enrico Grazzi is associate professor of English Language and Translation at the University of ‘Roma Tre’, Italy. His main interests are: English as a lingua franca, educational linguistics, and sociocultural theory. In 2013, he participated in an Italian-American project called Intercultural Telecollaboration, which was a recipient of the European Language Label Award for Innovative Projects in Language Teaching and Learning, 2012/2013. He is the author of a monograph on ELF: The Sociocultural Dimension of ELF in the English Classroom. Rome: Editoriale Anicia 2013. Enrico Grazzi is a qualified teacher trainer, textbook writer and past President of TESOL-Italy (2002-2004). Email:
[email protected]
References Antoniadou, V. (2011). Telecollaboration 2.0: Language, literacies and intercultural learning in the 21st Century. Language and Intercultural Communication, 11(3), 285-288. Batstone, R. (Ed.). (2010). Sociocognitive perspectives on language use and language learning. Oxford: OUP. Belz, J.A. (2002). Social dimensions of telecollaborative foreign language study. Language Learning & Technology, 6(1), 60-81. Belz, J.A. (2005a). Telecollaborative language study: A personal overview of praxis and research. In I. Thompson & D. Hiple (Eds.), Selected papers from the 2004 NFLRC symposium: Distance education, distributed learning, and language instruction, (pp. 48-86). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i, National Foreign Language Resource Center. Belz, J.A (2005b). Intercultural questioning, discovery and tension in internet-mediated language learning partnerships. Language and Intercultural Communication, 5(1), 3-39. Bolter, J.D., & Grusin, R. (1999). Remediation. Understanding new media. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2012). Analysing English as a Lingua Franca. London: Continuum. Corder, S.P. (1981). Error analysis and interlanguage. Oxford: OUP. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Council of Europe. (2011). Common European Framework of Reference for Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Council of Europe. Retrieved from: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/framework_en.pdf. Grazzi, E. (2013). The sociocultural dimension of ELF in the English classroom. Roma: Editoriale Anicia. Grazzi, E. (2015). ELF and the development of intercultural communicative competence: An ItalianAmerican telecollaboration project. In P. Vettorel (Ed.), New frontiers in teaching and learning English. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Heine, B., & Kuteva, T. (2005). Language contact and grammatical change, Cambridge: CUP. Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford: OUP. Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: OUP. Jenkins, J. (2015). Global Englishes (3rd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. Kachru, B. B. (1982). The other tongue. English across cultures. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Lantolf, J.P., & Thorne, S.L. (2006). Sociocultural theory and the genesis of second language development. Oxford: OUP. Lopriore, L. (2010). World Englishes and language teacher education in a world in migration: A shift in perspective. In C. Gagliardi & A. Maley (Eds.), EIL, ELF, Global English: Teaching and Learning Issues (pp. 69-91). Bern: Peter Lang. Mauranen, A. (2012). Exploring ELF - Academic English shaped by non-native speakers. Cambridge: CUP. Potts, C. (2006). Integrated pragmatic values. Amherst, MA: UMass Amherst. Retrieved from http://semanticsarchive.net/Archive/WFmYjRmM/potts-pragmatic-values.pdf Seidlhofer, B. (Ed.). (2003). Controversies in applied linguistics. Oxford: OUP. Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 209-239. Seidlhofer, B (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: OUP. Schneider, E. (2011). English around the world. Cambridge: CUP. Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241. Sifakis, N.C., & Sougari, A.M. (2010). Between a rock and a hard place: An investigation of ELF teachers' beliefs on what keeps them from integrating Global English in their classrooms. In C. Gagliardi & A. Maley (Eds.), EIL, ELF, Global English: Teaching and Learning Issues (pp. 301-320). Bern: Peter Lang. Thorne, S. (2003). Artifacts and cultures-of-use in intercultural communication. Language Learning & Technology, 7(2), 38-67. Thorne, S. (2010). The “intercultural turn” and language learning in the crucible of new media. In F. Helm and S. Guth (Eds.), Telecollaboration 2.0 for language and intercultural learning (pp.139-164). Bern: Peter Lang. Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Vettorel, P., & Lopriore L. (2013). Is there ELF in ELT course-books? Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4(3), 483-504. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge: CUP. Ware, P. D., & O'Dowd, R. (2008). Peer feedback on language form. Telecollaboration, Language Learning & Technology, 12(1), 43-63. Warschauer, M., & R. Kern (Eds.). (2000). Network based language teaching: Concepts and practice. Cambridge: CUP. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice. Cambridge: CUP.
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APPENDIX Pre-survey Intercultural Telecollaboration: Italy-Finland 2014-2015 school year * This question requires an answer You are cordially invited to participate in a research study about intercultural telecollaboration between Italian and Finnish students, using English as a lingua franca (ELF). This study is being conducted by Enrico Grazzi, a researcher of the University of Roma Tre, Rome, Italy; Rosella Manni, a teacher of English of the "E.Q. Visconti" high school, Rome, Italy; Jari Aalto and Päivi Meinander, from Kallio Secondary High School, Helsinki, Finland. You will be given a questionnaire that will take about 10 minutes to complete, to gather relevant information about your current approach to your foreign partners' culture and the use of (ELF). Thank you for your cooperation! By checking the Agree button, you give the project coordinators consent to use your anonymous responses as well as your telecollaboration contributions in this study. * o I AGREE o I DO NOT AGREE 1) Have you ever used the Internet to get in touch with people from other countries? o o o o
Social Network Forum E-mail Other:
2) Do you think it's important to learn about other peoples' cultures? o o
Yes No
2b) Why? 3) What topics would you like to engage in during your telecollaboration as regards the contemporary Italian and Finnish cultural backgrounds? 4) What aspects of your foreign partners' culture are you interested in? History Art Cinema Economy Cuisine o Fashion o Music o o o o o
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o Sport o Politics o Other: 5) In what way do you believe it is different from your culture and way of life? 6) How would you define the Italians/Finns? 7) Could you mention three famous Italian/Finnish people? 8) Have you ever used ELF for real communication with a foreign person? o o
Yes No
9) If yes, please explain why. 10) How long do you think it takes you to write 300 words in English? o o o o
20 minutes 30 minutes 40 minutes More
11) What do you expect to learn by participating in a telecollaboration project on the Italian/Finnish cultural backgrounds, using ELF? o o o o
More English vocabulary More English grammar More about Italy/Finland Other:
12) How do you consider your command of ELF? o o o
Adequate to communicate with my foreign partners. Partly inadequate to communicate with my foreign partners. Quite inadequate to communicate with my foreign
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Kohn, K. (2016). Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 25-32). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom Kurt Kohn Abstract In my paper, I explore ways in which the rift between ELF and EFL can be bridged to establish a common ground for integrated pedagogical solutions. Guidance and orientation are provided by an ensemble of communicative-constructivist assumptions concerning the communicative nature of ELF competence, a constructivist understanding of language acquisition as individual and social creation, the role of speaker satisfaction as a criterion of communicative success, and a constructivist reconceptualization of Standard English as a teaching/learning goal. Against this backdrop, I sketch out a pedagogical approach geared to the requirements and purposes of ELF communication. Learning objectives include awareness-raising as well as knowledge and skills development for comprehension, production, and interaction. Special attention is given to enabling learners to trust and explore their own non-native speaker creativity. Learning tasks and activities suitable for ELF practice and development are described and discussed with reference to online resources and environments available from various OER projects. These include BACKBONE narrative interviews with European ELF speakers, TELF small group discussions with ELF speakers from lingua-cultural backgrounds around the world, PELLIC practice enterprise interactions in business English in a Moodle-based virtual learning environment, and TILA telecollaboration exchanges (videoconferencing and 3D virtual worlds) for intercultural foreign language learning in secondary school settings.
Keywords: ELF competence, ELF-aware pedagogy, English classroom, ELF communication, intercultural language learning, Standard English, EFL, e-learning, telecollaboration, social constructivism
1. Conceptual clarifications ELF is increasingly being recognized as a learning objective in educational standards for secondary schools and teacher education, e.g. in the state of Baden-Württemberg, Germany (Kultusministerium Baden-Württemberg, 2016). ELF pedagogy thus seems to be gaining ground in traditionally “hostile” EFL territory. At the same time, however, EFL professionals on all levels of expertise are still harboring the suspicion that teaching ELF is all about "teaching incorrect English". Much of the persistent antagonism between ELF and EFL is due to misunderstandings based on hidden differences regarding focal interests and key conceptualizations both in research and pedagogy. The way we think and talk about “ELF in the English classroom” is strongly influenced by the way we think and talk about ELF in the first place. If we conceptualize ELF as some kind of language, some kind of variety of English, our pedagogic focus will quite naturally be on sounds, words and phrases and structures that should or should not be taught. This is why many EFL teachers tend to associate ELF and ELF pedagogy with teaching incorrect English. If on the other hand we conceptualize ELF as communication, the pedagogic task will be understood as helping speakers/learners further develop and use their own English for purposes of communication under ELF conditions. This opens up a more differentiated view on “teaching towards ELF competence”. Before we proceed, we need to clarify our understanding of language learning: what does it mean to acquire a language? From a social constructivist perspective, the best we can achieve when acquiring a language is to develop and create our OWN version of it – in a complex individual and collaborative construction process that is influenced by a number of forces including our native language, our chosen target orientation, the effort we invest, who we are and who we want to be (Kohn, 2007, 2011; see also Seidlhofer & Widdowson, 2009). This raises, once again, the issue of Standard English (SE), a beacon of EFL, and its role in the ELF-aware English classroom. Is a SE orientation necessarily in conflict with University of Tübingen, Germany. Email:
[email protected]
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successful ELF communication? Obviously not, since communication among ELF researchers does not seem to be handicapped by the fact that most of them are native or non-native speakers of some kind of SE. Yet, in discussions around the ELF/EFL divide (Swan 2012, 2013; Widdowson 2013) the pedagogic status of SE is a key element of disagreement. Informed by a social constructivist understanding of language learning and my personal identity as a non-native ELF speaker with a SE orientation, my own perspective on these issues is quite clear: there is no intrinsic conflict between SE and ELF (Kohn, 2011). This view is compatible with Barbara Seidlhofer’s (2011) line of reasoning according to which the choice of the target language is not ELF-specific but rather depends on local educational decisions. More important than the choice of the target language, she argues, is what ELF speakers do with their target language when they appropriate it, and make it their own, for ELF communication purposes (p. 198). The distinction between a “rigid” and an “open” SE orientation1 might help to better understand and, hopefully, resolve the conflict between EFL and ELF regarding the pedagogic status of SE. According to a rigid SE orientation, learners are required to strictly comply with pedagogically mediated and imposed SE norms – deviations might be tolerated (in particular in communicative approaches) but the closer they get, the better. Such a view is quite common in EFL circles even among otherwise modern and “enlightened” teachers. On closer inspection, however, it becomes clear that a rigid SE orientation conceptualizes language learning as some kind of behavioristic copying and cloning process, i.e. as something we just do not believe in any more. An open SE orientation, on the other hand, incorporates a social constructivist view according to which the adopted SE target model provides guidance but at the same time leaves room for the cognitive and emotional processes by which learners create their own brand of English. Adoption of an open SE orientation acknowledges non-native speakers’ creativity as an essential and non-detachable part of foreign language learning. It is of crucial importance for teachers and other language teaching professionals to see this creativity as pedagogically positive and valuable. Accepting non-native speakers’ natural creativity goes hand in hand with granting them stronger agency in connection with the assessment of success. Speakers’ own satisfaction with their communicative performance needs to be acknowledged and pedagogically implemented as a key criterion for success. Speaker satisfaction is the force that links creativity with autonomy. 2. Dimensions of ELF competence Against this backdrop, issues of ELF competence development are now addressed with regard to five dimensions: awareness, comprehension, production, communicative interaction, and non-native speaker creativity. On each of these dimensions, speakers’ attitudes and requirements, their linguisticcommunicative knowledge as well as their strategic knowledge processing and interaction skills are involved, challenged and adapted in special ways. Overall orientation and monitoring is provided by the speakers’ desire and intention to communicate under lingua franca conditions successfully and to their own satisfaction. ELF competence on all five dimensions plays a crucial role in connection with “third space” negotiation in intercultural encounters between speakers from different lingua-cultural backgrounds (Kramsch, 2009). From a pedagogic perspective, speakers first of all need to develop awareness of linguisticcommunicative lingua franca manifestations of English and the conditions and requirements of successful and satisfactory ELF communication. To achieve this, it is necessary for them to perceive and evaluate ELF communication in relation to their own requirements of success and satisfaction. At the same time, these requirements need to be open for change in the light of speakers' ELF exposure and 1
These terms replace the „strong“/”weak” dichotomy used in Kohn 2012a and 2015.
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experience. For many ELF speakers, this includes reevaluating their familiar focus on correctness, as adopted from the common EFL classroom, and readjusting it within a more complex constellation of requirements of accuracy, fluency, comprehensibility and participation balanced in relation to the respective communicative situation (Kohn, 2011). This goes hand in hand with perceiving and accepting themselves as agents of their own communication and development. All in all, awareness helps stimulate speakers’ linguistic and cultural tolerance, both for others and for themselves, as a crucial element in their endeavour to make English their own. Awareness-raising tasks include explorations of one’s own and others’ manifestations of genuine ELF communication with a focus on language, communication styles and cultural differences, combined with an assessment regarding efficiency and speaker satisfaction. Reflective follow-up activities help learners digest their exploration experience. These activities can be performed alone, in pairs or in larger (class) groups. Online support (e.g. a Moodle forum) can be used depending on availability or pedagogic preference. Explicit learning about characteristics and possibilities of ELF communication and about the challenges and strategies involved complements the experiential insights and puts them in a wider research-informed context. With regard to ELF-aware comprehension skills, special attention should be given to unfamiliar pronunciation and sentence structures, to unclear utterance meanings regarding lexis, proposition or illocution, and to weak discourse coherence due to lack of explicit markers (cohesion) or unfamiliar organization. In terms of exposure to linguistic-communicative means of expression, it is evident that comprehension reaches out far beyond what a speaker should be able to master for production purposes. Suitable tasks involve exposure to and practice with pedagogically selected manifestations of genuine ELF communication. Focus should be on the identification and analysis of comprehension problems due to unfamiliar linguistic-communicative means of expression, unclear meanings or lack of coherence. Learners need to get accustomed to these phenomena and they also need to develop appropriate processing strategies. Further diagnostic consolidation of the insights gained is achieved through reflective follow-up activities, alone or in (online) collaboration with others, as well as through learning about comprehension including challenges and strategic solutions. Helping learners develop ELF-aware production skills crucially involves inviting them to reset their own requirements of performance and to better align them with the challenges involved in communicating outside the protected enclosure of the classroom. This concerns in particular a more relaxed and functional attitude towards correctness and a stronger focus on fluency. It is also important to help learners expand and strengthen the communicative power and specialization of their linguistic repertoire with regard to, e.g., politeness, agreeing and disagreeing, topic and conversation management, paraphrasing, or handling misunderstandings. In general, learners need to develop and consolidate their ELF-specific “pragmatic fluency” (House, 2002) and “express-ability” (Albl-Mikasa, 2013). Relevant tasks draw on participation in authentic ELF interactions with a focus on communicative form and function and an overall social constructivist Standard English orientation. Fluency practice should be foregrounded and combined with the identification and analysis of production problems, attention to linguistic means of expression specifically relevant for intercultural ELF communication, and facilitation of collaborative output processing and languaging (Swain, 2006). Reflective follow-up explorations as well as learning about the conditions and strategic processes of successful non-native speaker production, preferably in collaboration with others and enhanced by e-learning tools, further consolidate and enrich the learning experience. Comprehension and production processes converge in strategic communicative interaction. On this competence dimension, the requirements speakers impose on their own communicative performance play a key role. Speakers usually want to get their meaning across, they may want to comply with certain linguistic standards and conventions they consider educated, or they want to be accepted as members in a preferred community. To meet these requirements they activate and creatively stretch the linguistic ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Teaching towards ELF competence
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means of expression at their disposal the way they deem most appropriate. “Third space” negotiation is a shaping force since it requires strategic moves of various kinds, from avoiding and handling misunderstandings (Mauranen, 2006) to mutual accommodation, meaning negotiation, and letting-itpass. From a pedagogic perspective, it is important to understand that all these strategies, albeit ELFspecific adaptations and uses, are firmly anchored in speakers’ ordinary communicative competence and behavior. Suitable tasks should be designed around authentic ELF communication with a focus on meaning and community-related communication intentions, the identification and analysis of problems, and the exploration of strategic solutions. Relevant back-up support is provided by reflective follow-up and complementary learning about activities. The most challenging part of ELF competence formation concerns non-native speaker creativity. In traditional EFL contexts, this quality is commonly neglected with detrimental effects on learners’ motivation, comfort and learning success. However, being able to make creative use of one’s linguisticcommunicative resources is a speaker’s most natural and distinguishing capability. It is at the root of communicative adaptation, learning and development, and it holds for native and non-native speakers alike. As Widdowson (2003) states, "learners are creative in spite of themselves, and their nonconformities are taken as evidence of incompetence, for all their appealing inventiveness" (p. 49). Being allowed to creatively appropriate the target language is a necessary and constitutive condition for non-native speakers to develop a feeling of agency and ownership, self-confidence and satisfaction. Helping learners to explore and trust their natural non-native speaker creativity is thus of foremost importance in teaching towards ELF competence (Kohn, 2015, p. 62). Relevant tasks begin with raising learners’ awareness of the need and possibility to reconceptualize their SE orientation (or whichever target orientation they might have adopted) from a social constructivist perspective. Such a move renders their requirements of performance, including those concerning compliance with a (SE) target model, more pliable and easier to adjust to varying communicative situations. And it provides leeway for learners to reset their requirements of performance to include the dimension of speaker satisfaction. Next are tasks for the development and practice of strategies for the creative exploration and extension of one’s own linguistic-communicative resources. This includes developing a critical monitoring sensitivity for communicative success and speaker satisfaction through collaborative and mutual self-assessment combined with reflective follow-up activities. A convenient framework of thought is provided through learning about the fundamentally social constructivist nature of communication, language acquisition, and language change. 3. E-learning resources and environments for ELF competence development In this chapter, four projects are briefly described that offer different e-learning perspectives on communication-based language learning (see also Grazzi 2013). The respective practice materials and environments are characterized with regard to their pedagogic potential for the development of ELF competence. The EU project BACKBONE (“Pedagogic Corpora for Content and Language Integrated Learning”)2 offers several corpora of video-recorded natural narratives in various European languages (Kohn, 2012b). Included is an ELF corpus with 50 narratives by French, German, Polish, Spanish, and Turkish speakers. All narratives are available as an online open educational resource (OER) along with video and sound access as well as transcripts annotated with regard to topics and language characteristics. Flexible search procedures combine annotation-based queries with lexical searches and displays.
2
http://projects.ael.uni-tuebingen.de/backbone (2009-2010)
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The ELF narratives represent speakers from different walks of life and exhibit a variety of pronunciations, speaking styles and levels of proficiency. They are thus particularly suitable for awareness raising and comprehension practice. Watching the video recordings and listening to speakers trying to find expression for what they want to say, first of all exposes users to different manifestations of ELF performance. What is more, however, it also makes it possible for them to evaluate what they see, hear and understand in relation to themselves: it helps them sharpen their own requirement profile and target orientation, and enables them to make peace with who they are in ELF communication. In a more practical vein, the ELF narratives can be used for repeated listening comprehension in order to get used to unfamiliar accents and ways of speaking and to develop appropriate strategic solutions. This can be done with or without transcript support depending on scaffolding needs. Both awareness raising and comprehension practice would greatly profit from collaborative reflection and languaging. Production activities could be facilitated and integrated in connection with follow-up tasks involving e.g. summary writing or discussions. The small-group discussions offered by the TELF corpus project (“Tübingen English as a Lingua Franca”)3 shift the focus of pedagogic exploitation towards communicative interaction. The TELF corpus (ca. 100,000 words) contains 36 intercultural ELF discussions about a critical incident topic involving 160 speakers (including native speakers) from 30 different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The discussions are available as sound files of the original video recordings along with transcripts, speaker profiles concerning learning history and requirements of performance as well as retrospective comments about problems and challenges encountered and strategic solutions found. This combination of performance and introspection data offers insights into ELF communication conditions and strategies beyond mere output recordings (for a similar approach see Salakhyan, 2014). The TELF discussions can be used for ELF awareness-raising and comprehension practice. Different from the BACKBONE narratives, the focus is on communicative exchanges in small groups. In addition to noticing ELF-specific peculiarities and familiarizing oneself with speakers’ pronunciation or speaking styles, learners can study and evaluate the strategic dimension of ELF communication. Do speakers show consideration for each others’ linguistic-communicative capabilities? How do they agree or disagree? Do they develop meaning collaboratively? Do they notice and tackle communication problems? Which roles do speakers take and with what linguistic means? Collaborative reflection helps to reach deeper levels of noticing and evaluation. At the same time, reflective languaging introduces an element of production practice, which itself can be carried further through follow-up summaries or discussions. The EU project PELLIC (“Practice Enterprise for Language Learning and Intercultural Communication”)4 offers a more interactive quality of pedagogic deployment (Glombitza, 2012). With its virtual learning environment based on Moodle and Google Apps, PELLIC demonstrates how business students from different universities across Europe set up Practice Enterprise companies and engage in business interactions in English. Emphasis is on written communication in connection with businessrelated activities including e.g. starting a company, advertising, buying and selling, as well as attending trade fairs and exhibitions. The PELLIC approach enables speakers to change from observers and evaluators of other people’s communication to active agents in their own authentic communicative interactions. This brings production practice to the fore, along with the struggle for and exploration of communication strategies. Communication problems and challenges can be identified and analyzed with the aim of finding a solution. The original PELLIC focus on written business communication can be easily extended to include spoken interactions as well.
3 4
http://projects.ael.uni-tuebingen.de/telf (2006-2013) http://projects.ael.uni-tuebingen.de/pellic (2009-2011)
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The EU project TILA (“Telecollaboration for Intercultural Language Acquisition”)5 sets out to explore the pedagogic potential of telecollaboration for intercultural foreign language learning on secondary school level (12-18 years, A2-C1) (Jauregi, Melchor-Couto, & Beltrán 2013). This objective is motivated by two complementary assumptions: (a) successful language learning is essentially driven by communication, and (b) telecollaboration facilitates and supports authentic intercultural communication beyond and outside the natural limitations of the physical classroom. In order to provide pupils from different European countries with opportunities for intercultural contact and written as well as spoken communication, blended learning task ensembles are used to enrich the face-to-face classroom approach with practice activities in asynchronous and synchronous telecollaboration environments including forum, blog, chat, videoconferencing, and 3D virtual worlds in OpenSim (Hoffstaedter & Kohn, 2014). In addition to the traditional native speaker oriented tandem constellation, TILA also offers a lingua franca format in which pupils use chat or video communication to talk with each other in pairs or small groups in a shared target language, e.g. English, French, German, or Spanish (Hoffstaedter & Kohn, 2015a). Familiar topics such as "fashion", "eating habits" or "use of social media" are chosen to enable pupils to draw on their own experiences, opinions and preferences and thus to make their conversations authentic for themselves. Telecollaboration access is available from the pupils’ homes instead of from their schools’ computer rooms. This helps to avoid sound problems due to congested school networks and to grant pupils more flexibility for making appointments. Most importantly, however, home access provides the kind of communicative privacy generally lacking in a crowded computer room. Under these conditions, all ELF-related competence dimensions from awareness to comprehension and production to strategic interaction are activated, explored and extended. Both pupils and teachers, including those who initially lean more towards native/non-native speaker tandems, come to appreciate the ensuing ELF conversations because of their rich thematic and linguistic diversity, overall cooperativity and motivational force. Quite obviously, the ELF format holds the potential for learners to exploit and develop their non-native speaker creativity, the most advanced and most challenging dimension of ELF competence. By experiencing themselves in interaction with others and by evaluating their own communicative achievements against their own communicative intentions and requirements of success, learners are able to reach deeper levels of awareness and self-awareness as speakers. While struggling for ways to express themselves (Swain, 2006), they become sensitive to the need and possibility to creatively explore and extend their own linguistic-communicative resources. And by finding themselves in the same non-native speaker boat, they learn to hone their sense for communicative empathy and collaboration (Hoffstaedter & Kohn, 2015b). 4. Conclusions Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom requires two things: (a) a social constructivist reconceptualization of SE as a pedagogic target model that allows for creative appropriation and development, and (b) flexible and pedagogically sustainable access for learners to intercultural ELF communication. The first requirement addresses the key “culprit” for the pedagogic rift between EFL and ELF. Even when informed about empirical insights gained by ELF research regarding the creative nature of ELF communication, teachers from traditional EFL contexts often seem to be unable to appreciate the pedagogic value of an ELF perspective. The stumbling block, however, is not so much their SE orientation as such but rather a rigid, behavioristic view leaving no room for non-native speaker creativity.
5
www.tilaproject.eu (2013-2015)
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An open, social constructivist reconceptualization of learners’ (and teachers’) SE orientation is argued to provide the necessary common ground for EFL and ELF interests and perspectives. The second requirement follows from the view that communication is more than a goal of language learning; it is its very medium. This view is all the more important in connection with learning and teaching towards ELF competence, i.e. competence for intercultural ELF communication. Successful implementation of an ELF perspective in the EFL classroom thus crucially hinges on the availability of opportunities for learners to experience authentic intercultural ELF communication. E-learning resources and telecollaboration exchanges are demonstrated to offer innovative pedagogic solutions for developing the ELF-related competence dimension of awareness, comprehension, production, interaction, and non-native speaker creativity. Currently debated ELF-aware teacher education programs with their post-normative (Dewey, 2012), plurilithic (Hall, Wicaksono, Liu, Qian, & Xiaoqing, 2013), or transformative (Sifakis, 2014) orientation could be significantly enhanced by a social constructivist pedagogic revision of SE and the incorporation of e-learning approaches based on open online resources and telecollaboration environments for intercultural ELF communication. About the author
Kurt Kohn is emeritus professor of Applied English Linguistics at the University of Tübingen and director of the Steinbeis Transfer Center Language Learning Media (www.sprachlernmedien.de). His research and teaching interests include theoretical and empirical issues of second language learning and teaching, e-learning for languages, English as a lingua franca, translation and interpreting. Since the early 1990s, he has been involved in EU projects focusing on multimedia content authoring, pedagogic corpus development, intercultural telecollaboration, interpreter training in virtual reality, and language teacher education. Email:
[email protected]
References Albl-Mikasa, M. (2013). Express-ability in ELF communication. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 2(1), 101-122. Dewey, M. (2012). Towards a post-normative approach: Learning the pedagogy of ELF. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 1(1), 141-170. Glombitza A. (2012). A blended practice-enterprise course for language learning in an international business community. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society, 8(3), 67-77. Grazzi, E. (2013). The sociocultural dimension of ELF in the English classroom. Rome: Anicia. Hall, Ch. J., Wicaksono, R., Liu, S., Qian, Y., & Xiaoqing, X. (2013). English reconceived: Raising teachers’ awareness of English as a “plurilithic” resource through an online course. London: British Council. Hoffstaedter, P., & Kohn, K. (2014). Task design for intercultural telecollaboration in secondary schools: Insights from the EU project TILA. In S. Jager, L. Bradley, E. J. Meima, & S. Thouësny (Eds), CALL design: Principles and practice. Proceedings of the 2014 Eurocall conference, Groningen, The Netherlands (pp. 146150). Dublin: Research-publishing.net. Hoffstaedter, P., & Kohn, K. (2015a). Telecollaboration for intercultural foreign language conversations in secondary school contexts: Task design and pedagogic implementation. Research report of the EU project TILA: Telecollaboration for intercultural language acquisition. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/14428714 Hoffstaedter, P., & Kohn, K. (2015b). Cooperative lingua franca conversations in intercultural telecollaboration exchanges between pupils in secondary foreign language education. Research report of the EU project TILA: Telecollaboration for intercultural language acquisition. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/14428436 House, J. (2002). Pragmatic competence in lingua franca English. In K. Knapp & C. Meierkord (Eds.), Lingua franca communication (pp. 245-267). Frankfurt (Main): Peter Lang. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Jauregi, K., Melchor-Couto, S., & Vilar Beltrán, E. (2013). The European Project TILA. In L. Bradley & S. Thouësny (Eds.), 20 years of Eurocall: Learning from the past, looking to the future. Proceedings of the 2013 Eurocall conference, Évora, Portugal (pp. 123-128). Dublin: Research-publishing.net. Kohn, K. (2007). Englisch als globale Lingua Franca. Eine Herausforderung für die Schule. In T. Anstatt (Ed.), Mehrsprachigkeit bei Kindern und Erwachsenen (pp. 207-222). Tübingen: Narr. Kohn, K. (2011). ELF and the Standard English misunderstanding. In A. De Houwer & A. Wilton (Eds.), English in Europe today. Sociocultural and educational perspectives (pp. 72-94). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kohn, K. (2012a). ‘My English’ - Second language learning as individual and social construction. TESOL convention Philadelphia, 28-31 March 2012. Retrieved from http://youtube/yCfpD49YhSg Kohn, K. (2012b). Pedagogic corpora for content and language integrated learning. Insights from the BACKBONE Project. The Eurocall Review 20 (2). Retrieved from http://www.eurocalllanguages.org/review/20_2/index.html Kohn, K. (2015). A pedagogical space for ELF in the English classroom. In Y. Bayyurt & S. Akcan (Eds.), Current perspectives on pedagogy for ELF (pp. 51-67). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Kramsch, C. (2009). Third culture and language education. In V. Cook (Ed.), Language teaching and learning (pp. 233-254). London: Continuum. Kultusministerium Baden-Württemberg (2016). Bildungsplan für Gymnasien. Englisch als erste Fremdsprache. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2eoK4Hg Mauranen, A. (2006). Signaling and preventing misunderstanding in English as lingua franca communication. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 177, 123-150. Salakhyan, E. (2014). Eastern European manifestations of English as a lingua franca. Doctoral dissertation, University of Tübingen. Retrieved from http://tobias-lib.uni-tuebingen.de/volltexte/2014/7223/pdf/dissertation_printing_bib_2.pdf] Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford: OUP. Seidlhofer, B., & H. Widdowson (2009). Conformity and creativity in ELF and learner English. In M. Albl-Mikasa, S. Braun, & S. Kalina (Eds.), Dimensionen der Zweitsprachenforsching. Dimensions of second language research. Festschrift for Kurt Kohn (pp. 93-107). Tübingen: Narr. Sifakis, N. C. (2014). ELF awareness as an opportunity for change: A transformative perspective for ESOL teacher education. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 3(2), 317-335. Swain, M. (2006). Languaging, agency and collaboration in advanced second language proficiency. In H. Byrnes (Ed.), Advanced language learning: The contributions of Halliday and Vygotsky (pp. 95-108). London: Continuum. Swan, M. (2012). ELF and EFL: Are they really different? Journal of English as a Lingua Franca 1(2), 379389. Swan, M. (2013). ELF and EFL: A reply to Henry Widdowson. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca 2(2), 391-396. Widdowson, H. G. (2013). ELF and EFL: What’s the difference? Comments on Michael Swan. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 2(1), 187-193. Widdowson, H. (2003). Defining issues in English language teaching. Oxford. OUP
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Takahashi, R. (2016). The attitudes of learners and teachers towards ELF-oriented materials, with related implications. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 33-40). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
The attitudes of learners and teachers towards ELF-oriented materials, with related implications Reiko Takahashi Abstract It has been a while since Jenkins (2004) suggested that applied linguists and publishers would need to find ways of promoting a greater ELF perspective in teaching materials. However, “the prevailing orientation in [..] ELT materials remains undoubtedly towards ENL” (Jenkins, 2012, p. 487). It is not yet clear how well ELF perspectives have been integrated into teaching materials, or how users are likely to respond to new materials in the future. These areas are open to investigation. The aims of this paper are: (1) to examine the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards materials that have an ELF perspective; and (2) to discuss relevant findings with regard to the implementation of ELF-oriented materials. I first identify an ELF-orientation in the representation of coursebooks, as well as in the content of coursebook readings, by analysing ELT coursebooks according to ELF traits. I then go on to investigate the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards ELF-oriented features by means of questionnaires, focus groups and interviews. The survey data revealed that informants showed diverse reactions to ELF-oriented features that were closely related to issues of a target model (e.g., written forms of non-standard English). There were participants (both students and teachers) who expressed concerns regarding the varied forms of English. Even those teachers who were positive about the inclusion of these forms remained concerned about the level of the learners and the stage of their learning when using such materials. In the meantime, student comments implied that they became more aware of such issues throughout the focus-group sessions, where they exchanged ideas concerning the use of English varieties and standard/non-standard English. Based on an analysis of this data, I conclude my paper by proposing pedagogical implications for the future use of ELF-oriented materials.
Keywords: English as a Lingua Franca, teaching materials, pedagogical implications
1. Introduction It has been a while since Jenkins (2004) suggested that applied linguists and publishers would need to find ways of promoting a greater perspective of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in teaching materials. However, “the prevailing orientation in [..] ELT [English Language Teaching] materials remains undoubtedly towards ENL [English as a Native Language]” (Jenkins, 2012, p. 487). It is not yet clear how well ELF perspectives have been integrated into teaching materials, or how users are likely to respond to new materials in the future. These areas are open to investigation. The aims of this paper are: (1) to examine the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards materials that have an ELF perspective; and (2) to discuss relevant findings with regard to the implementation of ELF-oriented materials. I first identify the ELF-orientation in the representation of coursebooks (such as the nationality of characters represented there), as well as in the content of coursebook readings, by analysing ELT coursebooks according to ELF traits. I then go on to investigate the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards ELF-oriented features by means of questionnaires and focus groups. For the purposes of this paper, I will devote the majority of space to the pedagogical implications, rather than solely reporting the results of the analysis and research. 2. Literature review Graddol (2006, p. 87) claims that “some of its [ELF’s] ideas are likely to influence mainstream teaching and assessment practices in the future.” Indeed, a new approach to teaching and learning English has recently emerged: teaching English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). Although ELF is not a single variety, the philosophy of teaching ELF could be reflected in the purposes, goals, target models, teaching materials and assessment methods of English learning and teaching. It would be “premature to make detailed
Gakushuin Women’s College.
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pedagogical suggestions” regarding teaching ELF at this stage (Seidlhofer, 2004, p. 226). However, Seidlhofer (2004, p. 226) does suggest that “it is worth attempting a broad outline of likely consequences of an orientation towards teaching ELF.” As a suggestion for ELT practice, scholars including Jenkins (2004) have proposed exposing learners to a wider range of varieties of English, including outer-circle (OC) and expanding-circle (EC) varieties (Kachru, 1985). This exposure would expand a learner’s knowledge and move him/her beyond a monomodel to a polymodel understanding of the English language (Brown, 1995, p. 237). In addition, exposure to varieties of English other than a target model could help learners understand that “the variety they are learning is one of many and may differ from what their future interlocutors use” (Matsuda, 2012, p. 173). Furthermore, “[d]ifferences in vocabulary, grammar, and usage can also be presented through media texts and other written materials (Friedrich & Matsuda, 2011, p. 338).” McKay (2012, pp. 73-74) recommends having “readings on the diversity of standard in English today” which include “examples of differences in specific features of English.” As suggested by Jenkins (2004), we will need to find ways of promoting the inclusion of a greater ELF perspective in teaching materials. For that, we should first identify the specific ways in which we could include the ELF perspective in materials. In addition, we should investigate how people are likely to respond to such new materials in the future. I hereby present my research question: What are the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards ELF-oriented features in coursebooks, and what are the implications of the implementation of ELF-oriented coursebooks? 3. Research methodology I first identify the ELF-orientation in the representation of coursebooks, as well as in the content of coursebook readings, by analysing ELT coursebooks according to the presence of ELF traits. I then go on to investigate the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards ELF-oriented features by means of questionnaires, focus groups and interviews. 3.1 Coursebook analysis
For the coursebook analysis, I employed a taxonomy that I first created for a project in 2011 (Takahashi, 2011). More specifically, I investigated the following features in the representation of coursebooks, which are based on categories originally proposed by Matsuda (2002): (1) nationality of characters, (2) number of words uttered by each character, (3) locations of dialogues, and (4) types of communication. Regarding the content of coursebook passages/topics, for each coursebook I searched for sections and sentences that contained information on any of the following ELF-related contents/topics: (1) the current/future situation of English and number of speakers, (2) English varieties, (3) linguistic imperialism and critical awareness, (4) ELF contexts and uses, (5) new model(s), and (6) multicultural topics. The analysis (above) was necessary in order to find the coursebook features that are comparatively more (or less) ELF-oriented. Through the analysis, I identified some features that display more (or less) ELF orientation, compared between the different coursebooks. The following list shows the eight ELF features that I discovered (see Takahashi 2011 and 2014 for details): Representation Feature 1: Number of Non-native Speaking (NNS) Characters Other than Japanese Feature 2: Number of Different NNS Characters Other than Japanese (Range of Different Nationalities) Feature 3: Number of Words Uttered by NNSs Other than Japanese Feature 4: Number of OC and EC countries other than Japan as places of English uses ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Feature 5: Instances of Communication exclusively between NNSs Content of readings/topics Feature 6: Number of Chapters which Contain ELF Issues Feature 7: Number of Different ELF issues Feature 8: Number of Topics about OC and EC Countries other than Japan 3.2 Research on the attitudes of learners and teachers of English
I investigated the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards how the users and the uses of English are featured in the coursebooks (Representation) and also their attitude towards the contents of the passages/topics by means of questionnaires, focus groups, and interviews. In total, 454 eleventh-grade students from three state SHSs (SHS A, SHS B and SHS C) and 28 teachers were involved in the questionnaire survey. I designed the questionnaire by including the ELF-oriented features which I found in the coursebook analysis (above). The questionnaire consists of four parts: Part 1 included questions regarding the coursebooks’ representation of English users and uses; Part 2 contained questions about the content of the passages/topics; Part 3 consisted of questions about audio materials (although the results of this section will not be reported since they are not the focus of the current paper); and Part 4 included questions about the informants' background and experience of learning English. I conducted two student focus-group sessions (16 students in total), two mini-group sessions with the teachers (9 teachers in total), and two one-to-one interviews. This is part of a wider study about the features of ELF in English coursebooks (see Takahashi, 2011 for details). For the purposes of this paper, I will report my main findings from Parts 1 and 2 of the questionnaire; in particular, findings which are related to the implementation of ELF-oriented materials. 4. Results Overall, the survey data revealed that informants expressed little objection to ELF features which were related to contextual factors of ELF, for instance, representation of characters in a dialogue. In contrast, they showed diverse reactions to ELF-oriented features that were closely related to issues of a target model (e.g., written forms of non-standard English). 4.1 Reactions to representation of characters
In Part 1 of the questionnaire, the informants were asked to choose their preferred combination of characters out of five possible combinations. The five choices were: (1) 2 Japanese (JP) and 1 Native speaker (NS) (2) 1 JP and 2 NSs (3) 1 JP and 2 NNSs (more ELF-oriented) (4) 1 JP, 1 NS and 1 NNS (5) 3 NSs (less ELF-oriented) The combination of 1 JP, 1 NS and 1 NNS (Choice 4) was the preferred choice of SHS students. Two hundreds and fifty-four student informants (55.9%) chose it. Both students and teachers expressed their favourable attitudes towards a wide range of characters. Some students wrote on their questionnaire that it was good because they could see different opinions, values, customs and cultures. The following are a few examples of their written comments:
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“I thought the content [of the coursebook] would become interesting because the values of the three people were different from each other.” “I think it [the coursebook] will become more interesting if it features differences in ways of thinking and in cultures”. “I think it is more interesting if there are thoughts of mother-tongue speakers and those of non-mother-tongue speakers”.
The focus-group data also showed that the students felt positive about the combination of characters (1 JP, 1 NS and 1 NNS). There were also some student focus-group participants who did not give me any definite reasons for their preferences other than to say “[including a variety of characters is] fun.” Another student participant commented on the use of conversations between NNSs in English coursebooks as follows: “I think, in the future, it will be taken for granted, but for now I think it is a bit strange.” In summary, the informants and participants did not show objection to ELF-oriented features in the representation of characters in a dialogue. 4.2 Reactions to ELF-related passages/topics
In Part 2 of the questionnaire, the informants read eight short extracts related to ELF issues. They rated them on a five-point scale according to how important they thought each extract was for learning English in Japan – thus indicating whether or not they thought that these extracts should be included and taught in a senior-high-school English coursebook. The eight extracts included the following contents: current situation of English, existence of different English(es) and the names and characteristics of these, ELF contexts and uses, “standard English,” new model(s), international intelligibility as a goal, and learner’s choice. Due to the limited space available, I will report the reactions to the following two extracts: (1) the extract on the existence of different varieties of English and the names of these (Extract 1); and (2) the extract on the characteristics of a non-standard variety of English (Extract 2) (for the extracts, see Appendix 1; for all the results, see Takahashi 2011). The teacher reactions to Extract 1 appeared to be positive: more than 85 percent of the teachers thought that it was extremely important or somewhat important, with 71.4 percent choosing “extremely important.” Approximately 60 percent of the students thought that it was extremely important or somewhat important. Extract 2 is different from Extract 1 because it presents the forms of a non-standard variety of English. The informants here felt comparatively less positive about Extract 2, which included authentic examples of English in Singapore, than they felt about Extract 1. Nevertheless, approximately 60 percent of the teachers still thought that it was extremely important or somewhat important. There were participants (both students and teachers) who expressed concerns about including the varied forms of English in a coursebook. The focus-group data reveals that even those teachers who were positive about the inclusion of these forms remained concerned about the level of the learners and the stage of their learning when using such materials. Similarly, while being aware of the merit of including non-standard English, some teachers mentioned a possible negative influence on the learners: Data 1 Male Teacher 1: It wouldn’t be a problem at all to tell students that people can communicate using this type of [varied] forms in Singapore, but, for Japanese people, upon learning English, well, if people feel: “Oh, then we do not have to memorise the correct [forms of] English,” I feel it is a bit dangerous. (JHS A, Teacher’s interview, Time: 6:50 – 7:22)
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Focus-group students from two different SHS schools expressed similar concerns about including the forms of English spoken in Singapore. One student made the following comment: Data 2 Researcher: What do you think about including such a sentence [as Extract 2]? Female Student 1: Not good. Researcher: Not good. Do you have any reason(s)? Female Student 1: I think proper English should be taught. (SHS B, Student’s focus group, Time: 18:30 – 18:47) In the meantime, student comments implied that they became more aware of such issues throughout the focus-group sessions, where they exchanged ideas concerning the use of English varieties and standard/non-standard English. 5. Discussion In this section, I will discuss the relevant findings with regard to the implementation of ELF-oriented materials. 5.1 Contextual factors in coursebooks
The contextual factors for the ELF-features in my analysis were (1) representation of characters, (2) location of dialogues, and (3) types of communication. I consider that these have been included in the coursebooks for the purpose of exposing learners to different uses of English, different speakers of English, and different types of communication. The participants in my study did not show strong reactions to contextual factors in textbook representation. Other ELF features related to the contextual factors in the current study appeared in texts about the current situation of English, the existence of different varieties of English, ELF contexts and uses. The students’ reactions towards these extracts were comparatively more positive than those directed towards the extract about characteristics of a non-standard variety of English. One possible reason why students rated the extract on the characteristics of a variety less positively (than the extracts which included contextual factors) may be because it presented non-standard forms of English in a written text, or also because it was related to the issue of a target model. 5.2 Features related to the issue of a target model
The survey data revealed that informants showed diverse reactions to ELF-oriented features that were closely related to issues of a target model (e.g., written forms of non-standard English). There were participants (both students and teachers) who expressed concerns regarding the varied forms of English. Even those teachers who were positive about the inclusion of these forms remained concerned about the level of the learners and the stage of their learning when using such materials. Therefore, we should at least take special care when including and dealing with the written forms of non-standard in English coursebooks. 6. Conclusion and implications Based on an analysis of this data, I conclude my paper by proposing pedagogical implications for the future use and development of ELF-oriented materials. Firstly, the following features, which I regard as contextual factors, could be relatively easily incorporated into ELT coursebooks:
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1. Representing active participation of NNS characters in dialogues 2. Including contents of readings on: - the current/future situation of NNS users - the diversity of English 3. Including more multi-cultural topics These contextual factors can be seen as safe options when compared to the passages which include the actual forms of non-standard English, which differ from the learners’ target model. Secondly, the reasons for using ELF-oriented materials should be clearly communicated to the students. The participants in the current study expressed more sensible attitudes towards the features which were closely related to the target model than towards the contextual factors in coursebooks. One of the possible purposes behind the inclusion of ELF features is to make learners become aware of the existence of different varieties of English. Another purpose is to make people more aware that the primary reason for English learning and teaching in certain contexts is to help learners attain a level of international intelligibility (not necessarily NS-like accuracy), at least under the aims advocated by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) in Japan. Finally, I found that the discussion topics afforded learners with opportunities to think about issues related to the diversity of English. Student participants in my study exchanged their ideas in focus groups that considered such issues as English varieties, “standard English,” and new models. Some student participants said that they had never thought about these issues before. These responses from the students indicate the potential of discussion opportunities, as suggested by Matsuda (2003, 2005, and 2006). An alternative means of raising a learner’s awareness of English varieties is to increase his/her “meta-knowledge about Englishes” (Friedrich & Matsuda, 2011, p. 339; Matsuda, 2012, p. 174). This effort to increase a learner’s meta-knowledge about Englishes can be put into practice either in English or in a learner’s first language. About the author
Reiko Takahashi is Junior Associate Professor at Gakushuin Women’s College in Tokyo. She graduated from the University of Edinburgh, and her doctoral research is on ELF-oriented features in ELT materials and the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards ELF-oriented materials. Her current research interests include English as a Lingua Franca, World Englishes, and ELT. Email:
[email protected]
References Brown, K. (1995). World Englishes: To teach or not to teach? World Englishes, 14(2), 233–243. Friedrich, P., & Matsuda, A. (2011). English as an international language: A curriculum blueprint. World Englishes, 30(3), 332–344. Graddol, D. (2006). English next. London: British Council. Ichikawa, Y., Hestand, J. R., Shiokawa, H., Kobayashi, C., & Hagino, S. (2004). Unicorn English Course II. Tokyo: Buneido. Jenkins, J. (2004). ELF at the gate: The position of English as a Lingua Franca. In A. Pulverness (Ed.), IATEFL 2004 Liverpool Conference Selections. Canterbury, UK: International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. Jenkins, J. (2012). English as a Lingua Franca from the classroom to the classroom. ELT Journal, 66(4), 486–494. Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the World: Teaching and learning the language and the literatures (pp. 11–30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press in association with the British Council.
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Matsuda, A. (2002). Representation of users and uses of English in beginning Japanese EFL textbooks. JALT Journal, 24(2), 182–200. Matsuda, A. (2003). Incorporating World Englishes in teaching English as an international language. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 719–29. Matsuda, A. (2005). Preparing future users of English as an international language. In A. Burns (Ed.), Teaching English from a Global Perspective (pp. 63–72). Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Matsuda, A. (2006). Negotiating ELT assumptions in EIL classrooms. In J. Edge (Ed.), (Re)Locating TESOL in an age of empire (pp. 158–170). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave MacMillan. Matsuda, A. (2012). Teaching materials in EIL. In L. Alsagoff, S. L. McKay, G. Hu, & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Principles and practices for teaching English as an international language (pp. 168–185). New York, NY: Routledge. McKay, S. L. (2012). Teaching materials for English as an International Language. In A. Matsuda (Ed.), Principles and practices of teaching English as an international language (pp. 70–83). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2003). The establishment of an action plan to cultivate “Japanese with English abilities.” Retrieved from: http://www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/03072801.htm Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 209–239. Shimozaki, M., Iida, R., Iwasa, Y., Kuroiwa, Y., Sasaki, H., Sugeno, A., & Taylor, G. (2004). Crown English series II. Tokyo: Sanseido. Takahashi, R. (2011). English as a Lingua Franca in a Japanese context: An analysis of ELF-oriented features in teaching materials and the attitudes of Japanese teachers and learners of English to ELF-oriented materials (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK. Takahashi, R. (2014). An analysis of ELF-oriented features in ELT coursebooks. English Today, 30(1), 28– 34. doi:10.1017/S0266078413000539
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Here are some extracts regarding the current situation of and facts about English. How important do you think it is for you learning English in Japan that these sentences be included and taught in a senior high school English coursebook (English II)? Please indicate your preference using the following scale and circle the appropriate number. If you have any comments, please feel free to write them in the space provided below. (5 = extremely important, 4 = somewhat important, 3 = neutral, 2 = not very important, 1 = not important at all) Extract 1 As the English language grows in the world, it is creating new dialects called “Englishes” “American English, British English, Indian English, and several other “Englishes.” There are many kinds of English used in the world. For example: Indian students generally use the variety of English common in India, even when they travel abroad; an Italian businessman often speaks English with an Italian accent. (p. 85, Lesson 6: “Singlish Bad, English Good,” Crown English Series II; p. 144, Lesson 10: “English as a World Language,” Unicorn English Course II) Extremely important Any comment?
5
4
3
2
1
Not important at all
Extract 2 Often the grammar [of English in Singapore] is a little simpler, or just different [from standard English]. For instance, in a shop in Singapore you may hear the customer bargaining with the salesclerk, “Cheaper, can or not?” “Every Singaporean speak. Me too. It not a dialect.” (Examples of English in Singapore. Emphasis added.) (p. 142, Lesson 10: “English as a World Language,” Unicorn English Course II; p. 86, Lesson 6: “Singlish Bad; English Good,” Crown English Series II) Extremely important Any comment?
5
4
3
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COLLECTING ELF CORPORA AND DESCRIBING ELF In this section contributors report on studies based on corpora compiled in different geographical, socio-cultural and educational settings and through various media. Anamika Sharma reports on a study aimed at contributing to the Asian Corpus of Englih by recording communication-focused interactions amongst Asian speakers of English. Laura Centonze uses social network interactions of authentic use of ELF by participants from different L1s to compile a corpus of Facebook posts dealing with visa consultancy services in order to examine the extent to which politeness and codeswitching are interconnected and represent an effective means of eliciting preferred responses in asymmetric communication contexts. Thomas Christiansen’s study, which analyses students’ internet messages regarding accommodation arrangements in Italy, identifies extensive code-switching, but also shows how ELF is informed by Italian, concluding that ELF is a complex and varied linguistic repertoire.
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Sharma, A. (2016). ACE Japan: A closer look at the `user language’. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 42-49). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
ACE Japan: A closer look at the `user language’ Anamika Sharma Abstract This paper will explore part of the data gathered to identify potential common features of an emerging Asian ELF, examples of communication breakdown and repair, which result from linguistic or intercultural misunderstanding, and use of successful ELF communication strategies for “mutual negotiation[s] involving efforts and adjustments from all parties” (Jenkins, 2009, p. 201). This goes on to reiterate that the language used is a not a `learner language` but a 'user language' like any other.” (Breiteneder, 2009, p. 257). The scrutiny will accentuate the need of a feature pool to document the way “speakers assert their multilingual identities and their joint ownership of the lingua franca they are using – and in using it, they are shaping and developing it ” (Seidlhofer, 2009, p. 242) albeit inadvertently. The awareness of these potential linguistic forms may lead to an eventual acceptance in case they form part of the shared linguistic system. This type of linguistic analysis of ELF as used in Japan will further some fruitful mediation and address concern raised by Jenkins (2009) that “pedagogical decisions about language teaching should not follow on automatically from language descriptions.” (p.202).
Keywords: Emerging Asian ELF, mutual negotiations, `user language`
1. Introduction This study emerged from a research project, which involved collecting samples of English being used as a lingua franca in the Asian context. The Project Title is: “Investigating English Use in Asia: Building and researching a Corpus of Asian Corpus of English (ACE)”. It is aimed towards building a general corpus of naturally occurring ELF interactions. Following the VOICE convention, the intention is to divide the data into 3 domains at the first level: educational, leisure and professional to be further divided into other subdivisions. The corpus, once large enough to draw conclusions, is aimed towards providing a basis for large–scale and in-depth linguistic descriptions of ELF. The following paper took shape while researching the gathered data as the interest kept growing on how the real time interactions were actually taking place vs. the nearly entrenched views towards English usage. 2. Research questions Drifting away from the practice of imitating traditional varieties of English in their discourses, a more inclusive communication-focused usage was getting recorded. So, in an attempt to have a closer look at some real conversations, few questions were drafted and focused upon. There can be many focal areas in this data and many research pointers can be derived but for the purpose of this study, the focus is on some accommodation strategies. The focus questions are:
How do speakers from different contexts use different discourse strategies? Does Japanese English achieve comprehensibility and interpretability? Can this analysis take us a step further in deciding about ELF- variants in this region? What are its implications – both pedagogical and/or for ELF research?
Department of British & American Studies, Nagoya University of Foreign Studies, Nagoya, Japan:
[email protected]
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3. Structure of the research The data used for this study is an interaction between five speakers: 2 from Japan (namely, H & T), 2 from India (namely A & U), and 1 born in India but raised in the UK (namely M). These are regular and proficient users of ELF in their personal, professional and academic domains. The four basic external criteria for ELF recordings were also adhered to for this recording, so the corpus captured naturallyoccurring, real-life interactions between English users who can be considered `fairly fluent non-native speaker of English` (Seidlhofer 2001, p. 146). The interaction recorded is naturally occurring, as opposed to elicited or arranged, in the sense that they were `talks that would have happened anyway, whether or not researcher was around to record it`(Cameron, 2001, p. 20) and falls under one of the 3 domains following the VOICE conventions: leisure, the others being educational and professional. It is clear that the speakers recorded represent a very small `discourse community` (Swales, 1990, p. 24) and that there is an inclusion of a native speaker. Her upbringing of many years has been in England but then ELF is a question, not of orientation to the norms of a particular group of English speakers, but of mutual negotiations involving efforts and adjustments from all parties (Jenkins, 2009, p. 201). The duration of the talk was for 40 minutes. The recordings will be made available for analysis to broaden the understanding of researchers about the language being constructed to suit the immediate and practical requirement as “it is in the immediacy of interaction and the co- construction of spoken discourse that variation from the familiar standard norms becomes most apparent”(Seidlhofer, 2004, p. 223). 4. Basic premise for the research Basic premise of this particular study is as Seidlhofer (2001, p. 143) puts it “at the most general level […] ELF interactions often are consensus- oriented, cooperative and mutually supportive”, and that the most important cooperative strategy underlying successful ELF talk is accommodation (Seidlhofer 2005, p. 160). Accommodation means the process in which speakers “usually unconsciously, adjust their speech and non-verbal behavior, fine tune these to become more accessible and more acceptable to each other” (Seidlhofer, 2005, p.160). Thus, ELF speakers may make their speech resemble that of their interlocutors both to enhance intelligibility and to signal solidarity and invoke approval (Cogo 2007; 2009). In the process, “speakers assert their multilingual identities and their joint ownership of the lingua franca they are using – and in using it, they are shaping and developing it” (Seidlhofer, 2009, p. 242) albeit inadvertently. Hence, the language used is a not a `learner language` but a 'user language' like any other. ” (Breiteneder, 2009, p. 257). In the field of ELF, accommodation strategies are seen as having multiple functions. Firstly, they may directly enhance mutual understanding; secondly, they may project lingua-cultural identities (e.g. Polzl, 2005); and thirdly mainly as a side-effect/ process in the collaborative meaning-making, they may contribute something positive at the interpersonal level of talk. That is, they may simultaneously express solidarity (e.g. Cogo 2007, 2009), and establish rapport (Kordon, 2006). Through accommodation for convergence, speakers “prioritize communicative effectiveness over narrow predetermined notions of ‘correctness’” (Jenkins, 2011), and jointly create a shared ELF repertoire on the spot. To understand these clearly, following strategies were analyzed in the recorded data.
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4.1 Cooperative utterance building
A key and highly influential finding of early CA research, based on spoken American English, is that “one party talks at a time” (Sacks et al., 1974, p.706). Such a claim is based on the assumption that speakers have the ability to project, and the interlocutors to foresee when a transition relevance place is approaching. The one-party-at-a-time principle suggests that interlocutors do not take over during a speech, but rather wait until the current speaker reaches a transition relevance place. 4.1.1 Cooperative overlapping/ simultaneous talking
However, it would be wrong to assume that all simultaneous talks are disruptive and problematic (Sacks, 1992). Some simultaneous talks cannot be seen as competitive. In fact, some are cooperative as they smoothen the progression of talk. In addition, researchers who do not use CA but another form of discourse analysis emphasize that simultaneous talk can be linked to emotional and affective meanings such as the show of engagement, support, camaraderie, rapport and listenership (e.g. Levinson, 1983; Murata, 1994; Tannen, 1984;1994 as cited in Archibald, Cogo & Jenkins, 2011). Thus, cooperative simultaneous talk is designated not with the notion of interruptions, which has negative connotations, but with notion of overlaps (Archibald, Cogo & Jenkins, 2011). 4.1.2 Rapport function
In the light of Cogo’s (2007) work, collaborative utterance building at a moment of word search can also be analyzed as an ELF interactional strategy. The main functions of the interactional strategies are best described and summarized by Kordon (2006). The “flow function” serves the purpose of making the communication smooth and successful; whereas “rapport -function” concerns itself with the speakers’ show of interest, involvement and investment in the conversation, and help the speakers create a positive atmosphere and display friendliness. In the field of ELF, Cogo (2007) examines simultaneous talk most thoroughly. She identifies different groups of overlaps. Of particular relevance to the present paper are the so called “completion overlaps”, which involve collaborative utterance building in overlapping speech. They have two main varieties. One is where the interlocutor provides the missing notion in overlapping speech “as a way of helping out”; the other is where they complete the current speaker’s utterance in simultaneous talk as a way of showing their involvement and listenership. 4.1.3 Code-switching
It is under focus in ELF research to examine the social dynamics of code switching (Gumperz 1982. In ELF, code switching is not “flagged” unless it is used as a compensatory strategy at a problematic moment. Cogo (2007, 2009) sheds light on accommodative function of code switching, and on the ways in which it is further used to express social relationships. She claims that when speakers shift to their L1 or their other additionally learnt languages, they act upon the assumption that the co-participants are multilinguals who will be able to make sense of the code-switched utterance. In this sense, then, their code switching is an attempt to express more nuanced meanings while at the same time; they mean to adjust their language to the linguistic and cultural diversity characterizing the ELF situation. When, in return, a co-participant repeats the code switched element, or responds with another code-switched utterance, they engage in another act of accommodation. They are expressing solidarity with the interlocutor, invoking approval and/or showing membership in the same community of multilingual speakers. Therefore, code switching may just as well be used for expressing cultural identity. The corpus was then explored to find out if these above mentioned and established strategies often employed in ELF interactions, were used in this data too and if used, were they effective.
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5. Analysis 1. Cooperative overlapping: U – Yeah! There is certain amount of heels that they can wear like 2 inches… because its a school area and they are always there and generally wear like comfortable clo… shoes, but outside school, they wear high heels …on special occasions, they wear high heels. A – Ya, but I thought you told me that your girls wear pretty high… U- Ya, they do.. H- maybe outside of school U- When they can wear, they do … A – Even I don’t understand this whole concept of high heels!! Because I think it …they must be very uncomfortable M- But If they can manage it T- Yeah H- Its there! M- its just…T – yeah, M- it takes a lot of hard work H- that make… M- City life , I think…its demanding… T- superficial H- It looks good A-….Ya, because it has to be T – it looks sexier, H- hhhmmm (in agreement) T - it looks nice, that’s why people wear H- hhmmm looks skinnier M- right! Do you think it looks sexy? U- It does put the human figure in different form H- Yeah, T- Yeah, M- Yeah Laughter (in agreement) In the recorded data, there were instances of providing language support to each other across the board irrespective of their geographical differences as well as the differences in their level of language prowess, which was obviously different for each one. This pattern was also available between the two Japanese speakers, which was quite contrary to their general pattern of being non-intrusive in each other`s speech. This finding supports Smit’s (2010, p. 377) “principle of joint forces” according to which ELF speakers, engaged in social practice, are willing to bring to the exchange whatever is perceived as interactionally and transactionally necessary to make the linguistic practice work. 2. • • • • • • • • • •
Rapport function: A - But cutting would not be a problem for parents as well as teachers? M- Because… T – Ya, It’s a problem but we don’t make it too short… H – (agrees smirking) so that we can wear just normal like … H - (within T’s answer) – smart enough … to survive… A – enough to survive T – We rolled it up… A – even that you rolled up T- mmmm H- mmmm (Joined Laughter)
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• U – Our school was trying to bring it in, but all the students actually wrote a petition that don’t bring it in… So our teachers couldn’t. • T – It was a Christian school • M- Oh… • T – Ya, it was a Protestant, very strict… • H – Should be strict… • T- Ya…a – there goes your short dress • M- up in the air!!!! (Joined Laughter) This excerpt brought out a very palpable collaborative utterance building in the form of word search as observed by Cogo (2007) and help provided to each other by the participants. In this sense, it became a very effective ELF interactional strategy. In this case of collaborative utterance building as a way of helping out, speakers were involved in the conversation to a point where they could guess what the current speaker is to say next. Another example of simultaneous talk as an effective ELF strategy used by participants in this data is as follows: 3. Completion overlaps: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
H- (17.40) You know, I used to work as a secretary and my boss only let me wear high heel… A – Sorry?? H- My boss only…M- high heels?? A - Only the boss is allowed to?? T – Only your boss? H- My boss ONLY let me wear high heel… M- ahhhh (in surprise) H- when I was working M- How high H- More than like 5 cms, M- that’s so high H- Centimetres (self-questioning) and I wore that more than 10 hours a day A – Ehhhhh, now I don’t understand, when you say that your boss allows you?? H- Yeah U- Only allows her to wear high heels H- me to… A- Means who is not allowed H – no no no no… I can only wear high heel shoes A – Oh, so, you can wear a simple… H- No… suppose you want to go in … H- No, like slippers T – She can’t wear flat shoes M- Normal flat shoes H- No, I couldn’t! coz that makes me look beautiful!
Supporting Smit’s “principle of joint forces” (2010, p. 377) and by employing Cogo`s (2007) concept of “completion overlaps”, the participants provided many instances of language support to each other. For example U intervened to say ` Only allows her to wear high heels ` when the meaning was not becoming
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clear to A and once again T provided meaning clarity as part of collaborative utterance building by saying ` She can’t wear flat shoes` to clarify H`s statement about who was wearing high heel shoes. 4. Code switching -1: • • • • • • • • • • •
T – That’s how I was dressed. H- Ahhhhhhhh (in agreement) T – Ya, because I had to dress like that. A – December, January, February, suddenly everybody will become black. H- Ne….Ne…(Japanese agreement) The hair would be black, the dress would be black completely, as if you know …and You ask them they will say – Oh! we have joined job hunting H-Recommended ne…. (Japanese agreement) T – Yeah! I mean you shouldn’t stand out just because of the attire. M- Oh H- Have to be the same… T- You have to look the same…but maybe you should stand out because of your skill or your personality, not because of your looks, because you have to look formal in front of the company
5. Code switching -2: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
M- Laughter…. He said that with such innocence on his face, so sincere!!!! T – laughter M- Priceless!!!! T – yeah H- laughter T – But my… A – As if it was bonhomie and ‘I stand with you’…. Joined laughter U – That’ll be weird if we don’t agree to that… T - Ya A – You stood by them because they were your fellow students H- Ya, Yeah laughter T – Agreement with laughter A – Not have any other reason, right?? T – laughter –No U – So, we do have the 2 inch rules and all the other stuff… H- Heyyyyyyyyyyyyy (Japanese verbal exclamation style) T, H – hhhhhh with laughter
6. Code switching -3: M- Like I said. I really admire when they can crack it and look very graceful, like sometimes I have seen girls walk with their • A – yeah, wobbling ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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T- yeah H – doesn’t fit them A – they wobble!! Badly… A – that’s when I feel M- Gambatte for trying… U – There’s a certain height which fits…
Following the accommodative function of code switching of Cogo (2009), these seemed to be three instances with three different functions:
When speakers use their L1, they are sure that the co-participants will be able to make sense of the code-switched utterance (instance-ne) They switch codes as a way of enhancing intelligibility beyond cultural differences (instance-heyyy) Speaker employ their additionally learnt language to invoke bonhomie, approval, increase weightage in their utterance (instance- gambatte)
By code switching without flagging it, the speakers provided an extra flavor and additional emphasis, which was understood by all the participants and gave a smooth flow to the conversation. Thus, they used it, as a marker of “in – group status” as a resource taking their English conversation forward, emphasizing that plurilingual repertoires enhance an ‘ELF situation’. In this sense, “English worked with, rather than against, multilingualism: it helped gained access into a multilingual environment where further languages could then be used” (Seidlhofer, 2001, p. 133). 6. Answers to research questions 1. These ELF speakers coming from different contexts, carefully and skilfully employed sophisticated processes and different discourse strategies towards a smooth & successful interaction. 2. All the participants including the otherwise generally reticent Japanese participants were engrossed in the conversation and were mutually comprehensible, intelligible as well as interpretable. 3. This data can help demonstrate “degree of independence of ENL norms” and in that sense provide valuable recorded data, which in near-future can help realize the `sociolinguistic reality` of the English being spoken by Japanese speakers in an ELF situation. 4. The National curriculum prepared by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology 2003, states that teaching practices should enable Japanese students to understand different varieties of English, including non-native ones, and on the other hand, it stipulates that “for compulsory foreign language instruction, English should be selected in principle” (ibid) illustrating that English is categorized as a foreign language. Hence, there is a conflict between the two concepts of EFL & ELF. Corpus of this kind can help researchers resolve such issues paving way for clarity in approaches and methodology required in the pedagogy of English language in Japan. Needless to say, such a compilation of interactions is a mine for varieties of research probes. 7. Conclusion Since ELF focuses on international intelligibility, not native-like accuracy, in my understanding as in many others too, a different teaching approach is needed – one that should prioritize the ability to understand diverse English varieties (Graddol, 2006; Jenkins, 2009c). ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Once extensively collected and finalized, ELF variants can be established with the help of this data to demonstrate “degree of independence of ENL norms” and also how “speakers assert their multilingual identities and their joint ownership of the lingua franca they are using…shaping…developing…”(Seidlhofer, 2009, p. 242). In that sense, creating “Japanese with English abilities” as in the Directive from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT 2003) may become a possibility and not a distant dream. About the author
Anamika Sharma has a PhD. in Linguistics (2005), Department of Linguistics, University of Delhi, Delhi, India, and is affiliated with the Department of British & American Studies, Nagoya University of Foreign Studies, Nagoya, Japan. Her areas of academic interests include teaching and researching English for academic purposes, ELF corpus analysis, curriculum development and teacher training. Email:
[email protected]
References Archibald, A., Cogo, A. & Jenkins, J. (2011). Latest trends in ELF research. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Breiteneder, A. (2009). English as a lingua franca in Europe: An empirical perspective. World Englishes, 28(02), 256-269. Cameron, D. (2001).Working with spoken discourse. London: Sage Publication. Cogo, A. (2007). “Intercultural Communication in English as Lingua Franca: A Case Study.” PhD Dissertation, King’s College, London. Cogo, A. (2009). Accommodating difference in ELF conversations: A study of pragmatic strategies. In A. Mauranen & E. Ranta (Eds.), English as a Lingua Franca: Studies and findings (pp. 254-273). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press. Graddol, D. (2006). English next. London: British Council. Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: OUP. Jenkins, J. (2009c). English as a Lingua Franca: Interpretations and attitudes. World Englishes 28(2), 200207. Jenkins, J. (2011). Accommodating (to) ELF in the international university. Journal of Pragmatics 43, 926936 Kirkpatrick, A. (2010). English as a Lingua Franca in ASEAN. Hong Kong: HKU Press. Kordon, K. (2006). “You are very good” – Establishing rapport in English as a Lingua Franca: The case of agreement tokens. Vienna English Working Papers 52(2), 58–82. Pölzl, Ulrike. (2005). Exploring the third space. Negotiating culture in English as a Lingua Franca. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Vienna. Sacks, H. Schegloff, E. A. & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organisation of turn taking for conversation. Language 50(4), 696-735. Retrieved from: www.cs.columbia.edu/~julia/cs4706/Sacks_et_al_1974.pdf Sacks, E. (1992). Lectures on conversation. Oxford: Blackwell. Scotton, M. (1993). Social motivation for code switching: Evidence from Africa. Language in Society, 24(2), 302-305. Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of English as a Lingua Franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 133-158. Seidlhofer, B. (2004) Research perspectives on teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 209-239. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a Lingua Franca. ELF Journal, 59(4), 339-340. Seidlhofer, B. (2009). Common ground and different realities: World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca. World Englishes, 28(2), 236-245. Smit, U. (2010). English as a Lingua Franca in higher education: A longitudinal study of classroom discourse. Berlin: Mouton. Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. NY: CUP
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Centonze, L. (2016). ELF and code-switching: A corpus-based study of visa consultancy posts on Facebook webpages. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 51-59). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
ELF and code-switching: A corpus-based study of visa consultancy posts on Facebook webpages Laura Centonze Abstract Previous research in the field of computer-mediated types of discourse has focused on discourse-specific features of language (PérezSabater, 2012; Lee, 2002), on the contrastive study of different forms of web communication (Lin and Qiu, 2013), on the proximity factor in interned-based communication (Grabher and Maintz, 2006) as well as on the emergence of new theoretical models of interpersonal communication and information-processing (Walther 1996; Maldonado et al., 2001). Notwithstanding this, although the worldwide phenomenon of social-networking involves the interaction of large numbers of people from all over the world, rarely does literature analyse interactions among people from different ‘linguacultural backgrounds’ (Cogo et al. 2011, p. 2) using English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) (cf. Seidlhofer, 2001; Mauranen, 2007; Jenkins, 2007) for mutual understanding over the web. This paper combines the analysis of social network interaction with an examination of the authentic use of ELF by participants from different L1s. A corpus of posts was compiled from a number of Facebook pages dealing with Visa consultancy services (e.g. Global Visa Support, Spouse Visa and USA Visa Experiences) where people from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds use ELF either to ask for help to obtain a Visa or simply to tell their stories and express their disappointment with ‘red tape’. We adopted a quantitative as well as a qualitative method for the analysis of such linguistic and pragmatic aspects as politeness formulae (Brown and Levinson, 1978, 1987; Mills, 2003) and code-switching (Nilep, 2006) in ELF, using the AntConc 3.4.1 software (Anthony, 2014). In particular, we examine the extent to which politeness and code-switching are interconnected and represent an effective means to elicit preferred responses in asymmetric communication contexts.
Keywords: ELF; Facebook; code-switching; politeness; VISA.
1. Introduction The present study focuses on the use of English as a Lingua Franca (henceforth ELF) in socialnetworking, by analyzing a corpus of Visa consultancy posts on Facebook webpages of different types as well as the interconnections between code-switching, (henceforth CS), (Nilep, 2006) and politeness formulae (PF) (Brown and Levinson, 1978, 1987; Mills, 2003) for the complete achievement of preferred answers within communication. Computer-mediated types of discourse have been thriving over the last few decades with the advent of social networks (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, etc.) and, more specifically, of web pages aimed at sharing information, clarifying doubts or simply sharing views and any form of experience – either positive or negative - related to a given topic being generally displayed in the title of the page itself. In the light of the aforementioned, our study shall combine the analysis of social network interaction with an insight into the actual use of ELF made by participants from different L1s – i.e., in this case, migrants to the UK. A small corpus of posts (which we shall call The VISA Corpus or VC for short) was compiled from five different Facebook pages dealing with Visa/work permit consultancy services (e.g. Global Visa support, Spouse Visa, USA Visa Experiences) where people from diverse (lingua)socio-cultural backgrounds use ELF either to ask for help to obtain a Visa permit or simply express their disappointment with ‘red tape’ and bureaucrats. The prevalence of certain types of CS (either initial, intersentential, or final) according to circumstances is an effective means to elicit preferred responses on the part of ‘the administrator’ (the person who is in charge of the webpage, which might also coincide with the person working at the office in question) and of the other members of the group. The innovation of such a study lies in the fact that generally three such theories are applied to the analysis of casual/structured conversation and not in cases like that of Facebook, which represents a peculiarity in that it is a hybridized (asymmetric) form of discourse displaying the characteristics of both a written and
Università del Salento, Lecce, Italy:
[email protected]
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a spoken one: namely, it is the written report of verbal requests and/or thoughts on the part of the member, who is asking for clarification on certain procedures. 2. The study corpus: The VISA Corpus Our corpus (henceforth VC) is made up of different Facebook webpages dealing with Visa/work permit consultancy services provided worldwide, and is constantly under construction. A breakdown of the sections of VC is represented below: Table 1. Breakdown of The VISA Corpus
As we can see from the table above, the number of words for each corpus sub-section is not homogeneous: by considering the current year 2014 and 2013, the smallest one is represented – despite the title – by ‘1st for Immigration-UK Visa Experts’, with only 852 words; the biggest one is represented by ‘USA Visa Experience’, with its 7,849 sub-corpus. As regards the general topics being discussed, the privileged one is undoubtedly a VISA-related type of request (how to obtain a VISA, who to address the request, VISA interviews, etc.), followed by requests for career opportunities, enrolment to university degrees and requests for information concerning procedure the disappointment with unsuccessful VISA interviews. 3. Corpus research methodology As stated previously, our aim will be to identify and isolate the different types of code switching (CS) in VC and see their occurrences in context; the next step will be to associate the different responses / non responses to the Facebook posts in which CS occur and make some general observations. Of course, although the corpus sections we analysed were relatively small (i.e. 17,192 words), sorting out the different posts presented quite a challenge, especially because of the fact that each post had comments in it, so it was necessary to copy and paste each post into a table and show the relation to the main post (e.g. main post/comment to main post). In addition to this, most of the time the Facebook pages that we analysed underwent some changes both in terms of webpage title (e.g. Global Visa Support turned into Global Admin Visa) and in terms of posts (especially due to the fact that members of the ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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group answered with a certain delay – even weeks or months after the main post had been posted), and some groups were also closed so it was impossible to expand the corpus and/or update it with the latest news. Notwithstanding this, we activated notifications for the webpages under analysis, so we received an email every time someone posted something and/or commented previous posts, and we managed to filter them albeit to a limited degree. As far as the corpus methodology is concerned, we used AntConc (Anthony, 2014; version 3.2.4w) to retrieve all instances of CS in our corpus. Before moving on to their retrieval, however, we had to convert files into the format which was most convenient for an analysis of this kind: we generated a table for each corpus, which displayed the names of the group members on the left, and the content of posts on the right. Where more than one comment belonged to the same ‘main post’, we made a distinction between Answer 1 and Answer 2 and so on (A1, A2). Where possible, we also indicated the origin of the speaker. Since it was not a mere quantitative analysis but rather an overview in context of the use of CS in the study corpus, we did not apply any specific formulae in order to weigh the number of occurrences against the actual number of words in the corpus – especially given the fact that CS constitutes a subcategory and results are thus relatively low if compared to the whole corpus under examination. 4. Results For the purposes of our study and as stated in the previous sections, we isolated each instance of CS so as to easily identify the frequency of words and languages. Here follows a sample of CS within VC: Table 2. Sample of code-switching in The VISA Corpus
As can be seen, instances of CS are highlighted in yellow and one can understand the different degrees of CS within discourse: one goes from a switch from one language to another at word level (e.g. where in ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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makati po?) to much more complex sentence structures such as the longest one by a Malayan (pag complete na po reqs ko at IELTS 7 passer po..). Of course, the object of our study will only be the analysis of CS at an intersentential/final/initial level, not the complete switch from one language to another because, as also stated – among others – by Gumperz (1982) and Muysken (1995), CS occurs in individual utterances. 4.1 Analysis 1. Code-switching in The VISA Corpus
Here follows a table with the occurrence of CS in the study corpus sorted out by web page and whether it is initial, intersentential or final with respect to the utterance: Table 3. Different types of code-switching in The VISA Corpus: Some findings
As we can see from the table above, CS does not seem to occur in all the file sections of VC: they are only present in two web pages, namely Global Visa Support and UK Visa and Work Permit. The occurrences are also relatively low, but this is of course because CS is a very specific phenomenon within discourse if compared to other linguistic phenomena such as, for instance, tag questions, ellipsis, substitution, anaphora, etc. Another important aspect is represented by the fact that CS predominantly occurs in the corpus at an intersentential level and switches within the same sentences are so frequent that it became impossible to easily categorize them as either initial or final. 4.2 Analysis 2. Insights into the use of code-switching: The cases of po and other related particles.
As stated in the previous paragraph, the use of CS is present in some specific sections of our study corpus, and the modality in which it occurs is predominantly an intersentential one (see Table 3). In this section, however, we shall gain insights into the use of CS from a linguistic point of view, by examining more closely the particles which are used and the patterns that regularly co-occur in specific sections of VC. For the such purposes, we looked at each post containing instances of CS and compared the use of English words with the co-occurrence of local language varieties. Figures for these words were then put onto a table:
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Table 4. Particles co-occurring within the code-switching event: Global Visa Support
As one can see from the table above, most of the instances of CS are represented by the occurrence of the po particle (21 tokens), followed by ko (6 tokens – only relatively low, if compared to other figures for switches). Here follow some examples: Table 5. Concordances with po: A sample
The po particle occurs in a very interesting set of data, given its frequency (21 instances); its closest correspondence in English is ‘please’ as well as ‘Sir’ and belongs to Filipino, the standardized form of Tagalog, i.e. the language spoken in The Philippines, and is used as a politeness formula to show respect towards elderly people as well as to those in authority. The breakdown of the po particle shows it is used mainly in an intersentential position:
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Table 6. Position of po within sentences
The frequent use of po can be explained by the nature of the webpage itself: Global Visa Support is with an official administrator appointed by the agency in question. The use of po can be also justified by comparing the results found on another Facebook page of different nature, i.e. UK Visa and Work Permit, a much more informal webpage where people discuss issues related to Visa but where there is no official administrator. Table 7. Particles co-occurring within the code-switching event: UK Visa and Work Permit
As can be seen from the table above, in contrast to previous results, the most common particle is ka (a definite article cfr. the) followed by hai (third person of be) and kiya (what). Unlike findings in the first Facebook sub-corpus that we analysed, here there are no specific politeness formulae, but rather we find a more concise and ‘straight-to-the-point’ strategy, in which there is the narration of personal experience and no emotional commitment on the part of the speaker as in the previous corpus. Compare two excerpts from the two different sections of corpora:
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Tables 8 & 9. Global Visa Support vs UK Visa and Work Permit: A comparison of two excerpts
4.3 Code-switching and preferred / dispreferred answers in The Visa Corpus.
In this final section we shall look in more detail at the extent to which CS and politeness might be related in order to elicit preferred/dispreferred responses from other participants (i.e. the administrator, or other group members). As previously stated, in the study corpus, CS predominantly occurs in an intersentential position and, in the first subcorpus that we analysed, it is characterized by the use of politeness particles (see po), whereas in the second, no specific politeness pattern was found (CS being confined to articles and third-person verbs). In the light of the aforementioned, we extracted – again by means of AntConc - all instances in which CS occurred in order to see whether such a phenomenon might affect the preferred (PREF) or dispreferred (DISPREF) response on the part of the speaker to some extent. Results are here represented and divided up into categories; the number in brackets represents the total number of instances for that CS: Table 10. Code-switching and preferred/dispreferred answers in The Visa Corpus.
As can be seen, the use of CS combined with the use of such politeness formulae as the po particle tend to elicit positive/preferred responses. In order to examine more closely intersentential CS once again and, more specifically, on the collocation immediately before and after the switch, we first run a wordlist through Antconc and take as a point of reference all the English words in their vicinity.
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Table 11. Foreign vs English terms: Co-occurrence in The VISA Corpus.
As we can see, the use of CS and the English-local language switching is a (relatively) frequent pattern and seems to be employed as a way of putting emphasis on the focus of the conversation, by resorting to English to designate the information that is requested (e.g. seminar; UK university; IELTS), the typology of application form (e.g. application; nursing) or the result of a process (e.g. pag complete); use of the local language is confined to prepositions, conjunctions, relative pronouns and determiners (in Tagalog, respectively: ko: my; na: that; ng: of; sa: of; ang: the), i.e. to those discourse particles that do not prevent members of the group from understanding the request and which do not necessarily have to be translated, as the main focus of the information exchange is, in this very specific case, the successful completion of the application form (which is why ‘application’ is translated into English thus allowing the member to reach a wider audience and eventually get the most reliable answer). 5. Conclusions To conclude, in the present study it has been shown that CS is not simply used in order to compensate for a lack of linguistic competence on the part of the interactant, but – as also stated by Watts (2003) becomes a sociolinguistic practice serving pragmatic needs within interaction at all levels, most of all because the speaker wants to 1) elicit the right (preferred) answer by putting the emphasis on the subject of the conversation and thus resorting to the English language for the achievement of such a goal, and 2) reach a wider audience by means of the same language that is shared by the Facebook community. In addition to this, the use of CS combined to politeness formulae (e.g. po) in our corpus proves to be a very successful strategy for eliciting positive answers on the counterpart in general, not least from those in authority, as also displayed in our results. This inevitably adds a new function to the already-existing pragmatic nuances that CS may acquire in context, especially when seen in multicultural settings where ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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meaning has to be negotiated and CS becomes a doubly valuable way in order to both bridge the gap between different linguistic competences and, at the same time, obtain the desired answer. About the author Laura Centonze is currently a PhD student and a lecturer in English language and translation in the Departments of Humanities and of Engineering (Università del Salento, Lecce, Italy). She holds a Master’s degree in literary translation and has recently completed a 1st level postgraduate Master programme in Cross-cultural Language Mediation in immigration and asylum contexts, in collaboration with the Italian Council for Refugees. Her main interests include the translation of specialized texts as well as corpus linguistics applied to the study of synchronic aspects of ELF in both academic and multicultural domains. Email:
[email protected]
References Anthony, L. (2014). Antconc 3.2.4w, Tokyo, Japan: Waseda University. Retrieved from: http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/ Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1978). Universals in language usage: Politeness phenomena. In E. N. Goody (Ed.), Questions and politeness .Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cogo, A., Archibald, A., & Jenkins, J. (Eds.). (2011). Latest trends in ELF research. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Grabher, G., & Maintz, J. (2006). Learning in personal networks: Collaborative knowledge production in virtual forums. In Working Papers Series, New York: Centre on Organizational Innovation, Columbia University. Retrieved from http://www.coi.columbia.edu/pdf/grabher_maintz_lpn.pdf Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and identity. New York: OUP. Lee, C. K. M. (2002). Literacy practices in computer-mediated communication in Hong Kong. The Reading Matrix, 2(2), 1-25. Lin, H., & Qiu, L. (2013). Two sites, two voices: Linguistic differences between Facebook status updates and Tweets. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 80(24), 432-440. Maldonado, G., Mora, M., García, S., & Edipo, P. (2001). Personality, sex and computer-mediated communication through the Internet. Anuario de Psicología, 32(2), 51-62. Mauranen, A. (2007). Hybrid voices: English as the lingua franca of academics. In K. Flottum (Ed.), Language and discipline perspectives on academic discourse (pp 243-59). Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Mills, S. (2003). Gender and politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Muysken, P. (1995). Code-switching and grammatical theory. In L. Milroy & P. Muysken (Eds.), One speaker, two languages: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on code-switching (pp. 177–98). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nilep, C. (2006). Code switching in sociocultural linguistics. Colorado Research in Linguistics 19, 1-22. Pérez-Sabater, C. (2012). The linguistics of social networking: A study of writing conventions on Facebook. Retrieved from: http://www.linguistik-online.de/56_12/perez-sabater.html Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of English as a Lingua Franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11, 133-158. Walther, J. B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction. Communication Research, 23, 3-43. Watts, R. J. (2003). Politeness. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.
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Christiansen, T. (2016). The localisation of ELF. Code mixing and switching between ELF and Italian in Italian internet accommodation forums for international students. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 60-69). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
The localisation of ELF. Code mixing and switching between ELF and Italian in Italian internet accommodation forums for international students Thomas Christiansen* Abstract In this research, we look at a corpus of approximately 2,000 messages posted on internet forums regarding requests for and offers of accommodation for international students in Italy. The approach will be largely quantitative (via a statistical analysis of the occurrence of relevant phenomena). We will examine the way ELF in this context is informed also by Italian, as a particular type of code mixing and switching as appropriate given the specific extra-linguistic context of students coming to Italy largely to learn about Italian art, culture, history and language. Such mixing and switching is found not only in the micro-aspects of the languages such as in names of places (proper nouns) and of culture-specific concepts, but also in longer discourse segments such as phatic expressions, for instance, salutations. We argue that the code switching, in particular, constitutes a deliberate strategy whereby speakers from expanding circle countries in particular would seem to be deliberately displaying affinity with Italian language and culture.
Keywords: ELF; Italian, code mixing, code switching, hybridisation.
1. Introduction While the importance of the link between languages, culture and community (or society) has long been established (see Halliday’s 1978 social semiotics), their role in Lingue Franche1 and, ELF in particular, remains difficult to define, at least using existing models. ELF can be seen as a collection of fluid variations rather than a set of distinct and static varieties. Consequently, there is a need to look at each discourse situation separately, including the backgrounds of the specific participants, the discourse domain (Douglas and Selinker, 1985) and the general context of situation (Firth, 1957; Malinowski, 1922). When ELF is used in a particular geographical context, there may be mixing and switching (the former entailing hybridisation or merging of codes, the latter, movement from one language to another)2 with local languages resulting eventually in convergence (Auer and Di Luzio, 1988). This constitutes a process of localisation whereby the ELF variation comes to reflect the specific locality (intended both literally and “virtually”, i.e. via the net) of its use. In this paper, we will examine this phenomenon in the specific context of a popular online forum, mostly in English, where mainly international students can seek accommodation in Italy. Our aim is to ascertain how and in what circumstances Italian (code switching) and hybrid forms (code mixing) occur in this specific variation of ELF. 2. The corpus The corpus used for this research is taken from the Studentsville3 site. In all, we downloaded 2,995 posts, dating from 2006-2014 (January) amounting to approximately 143,998 words, after removal of irrelevant posts and duplications. The posters represented over an estimated 80 different nationalities. Broadly speaking, one could divide participants into accommodation providers and accommodation seekers.
*Università del Salento, Italy,
[email protected]
lingue franche (coincidentally, the origin of the expression lingua franca is Italian). See Romaine and Kachru (1998, pp228-229). 3 Date of retrieval 04/03/14: http://www.studentsville.eu/italyforum/forums/default.asp. 1
2
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Most of the former, but not all, were Italian. Indeed, among those seeking accommodation, were also some Italians using English.4 3. Research method After downloading posts, we converted the individual posts to text files. A second and time-consuming stage was to eliminate unwanted posts (e.g. spam) and duplicates, because often the same post was posted more than once in identical form or, in people’s replies to posts, the original one was also quoted. We then categorized each post according to speaker origin (nationality) and assigned to one three categories (IC, OC, EC) inspired by Kachru’s (1985) three circles: model inner, outer and expanding circle. We next compiled a wordlist from the corpus using Concordance 3.3 software (Watt, 2009). This, we then analysed, manually, identifying non-standard and non–native English speaker forms. Finally, we recorded the frequency of each of these according to speaker origin. Assigning a nationality or linguistic origin to a given speaker was not, however, always a straightforward matter. The country from where the message was posted was indicated but this merely meant that the person had used a computer based in that locality. Some speakers did however choose to indicate their nationality with phrases such as “Hi, I’m Matteo, I live in England but I am from Perugia” (in a message posted from Italy). To cope with the many cases where speaker origin was indicated only by place of posting, we had to add extra categories to those described above. In all, we identified ten different types of speaker in the corpus: IC; IC? (i.e. presumed IC on the basis of the country of posting); IC/OC (e.g. Canada, South Africa), OC; OC?; OC/EC? (e.g. Cameroon); EC; EC?; IT and IT?. As the latter two categories show, Italian speakers were allocated to a specific category. Technically, these fall within EC or EC? but seeing that our focus is on code-mixing and switching between Italian and ELF, it is obviously useful to single out this linguistic group.5 As regards contributions (in English) to the corpus, the percentages for the different categories of speaker are given in Figure 1 below. From this, it emerges that the categories of EC, EC?, IT, and IT? contribute the majority of the discourse (together 68%), with OC, OC?, IC, IC? etc. contributing only 32%.The category of IC/OC? returns a figure of 0%. This does not actually mean there were no occurrences – if that were indeed the case then the category would not exist – but rather that they were too few to enter into the calculation of the overall percentages. Figure 1. Percentage of corpus (in English) contributed by speaker category
Within the corpus, English was used for approximately 96% of the time, Italian for 3%. The other 1% was made up of examples of such diverse languages that we identified as German, Spanish, French, Dutch and Portuguese, as well as smatterings of what appeared to be Bulgarian, Czech, Greek, and Turkish. 5 IT? is perhaps the most problematic group, as discrepancies (discussed below) between the results for this group and that of IT show. The reason for this is that it can be assumed that many of those speakers posting from Italian are international students or renters residing in Italy, speaking a variety of L1s. 4
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4. Results In the sections below, we will go through the results of our analysis of the use of Italian (code switching) and Hybrid words and expressions in the corpus (code mixing). As Figure 1 shows, the contributions of different categories of speaker are not uniform which makes direct comparison misleading. To rectify this problem, we adopted a weighting system whereby the number of occurrences of an item are divided by the number of words produced by that specific speaker category (choosing always the lowest possible level as possible i.e. specific L1 or variety of English). The result was then multiplied by 10,000: an arbitrary number chosen to avoid tiny numbers with an excessive number of decimal places.6 4.1 Use of Italian within posts in English (code switching)
In Figure 2, we give the frequency and percentages of Italian words and expressions used within posts in English in the corpus, according to speaker category. Figure 2. Percentages for Italian words and expressions within posts in English
As can be seen, the largest speaker category for their use is EC? (33%) followed by EC (24%) and then OC/EC? (16%) followed by OC (13%) and then by OC? (8%). Surprisingly perhaps IT and IT? come lowest out of all the categories (0% and 1% respectively) behind even IC and IC?. These first results indicate that the use of Italian words and expression within the ELF variations found in this corpus cannot be put down to mere interference from Italian, but rather would seem to be deliberate strategy employed for rhetorical purposes. It is noticeable that the two general groups who avail themselves most of this device are EC and OC. Revealingly also, although IC and IC? only use Italian rarely (combined 5%), they still use it more than L1 Italian speakers. It would seem therefore that international students in Italy and non-Italian property renters (including some from the IC group) show the greatest propensity to Italianise their ELF discourse. In doing so, they are perhaps showing a tendency not so much of assimilation (Berry, 1997) but rather of identification and association with their specifically Italian context; as Romaine and Kachru (1998) note, code switching can be used as kind of deictic device to differentiate between ‘in’ and ‘out’ groups, informal versus formal, and close at hand and more distant events. In the examples they cite however, it is use of the ELF user’s L1 that seems to signal proximity of one sort of another; here we have the local language, Italian, used by ELF users in a similar sense but to indicate closeness to the local or host community. That the L1 Italian speakers do not participate in this show of affinity with Italy is perhaps explained by a perceived greater need on their part to identify themselves with the international discourse 6
For example, ‘ciao’ as an opener is found three times in the subcategory of IC AUS (Inner Circle / Australian English). Dividing this by the number of words in that section of the corpus (2,492) gives 0.00120385 which, multiplied by 10,000, becomes 12.0385.
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community and not their own L1 one. It would seem that they avoid code switching so as not to treat the other ELF users as an ‘out group’ even if, ironically, by not doing so they may in effect be doing just that. 4.2 Use of Hybrid words and expressions within the corpus (code mixing)
As well as Italian words and expressions, we found examples of mixing of English with other languages (Hybrid). These may be considered as of particular interest because a particular ELF discourse community may be characterised by the Hybrid forms it uses, these distinguishing it both from other ELF communities and the local community. Code mixing may represent an important step in the direction of endonormativity whereby the ELF variation in question begins to take on an identity of its own, and its users can begin to recognise themselves and each other as part of the same in-group. Many of the Hybrid forms found were however identifiable as being cases of interference from Italian centro historico, momolacale, indipendent, polytechico. In many cases however, it was not clear what the source languages were for the hybridisation: turistic, accomodations, University Bocconi, palace, Genovas. Our original intention had been to distinguish between mixes of English and Italian and those of English and other unidentified languages, in practice, it proved impossible to draw a clear line between the two and so we decided to treat all such cases as a single category.7 In Figure 3 we give the figures for the percentages for Hybrid forms. Figure 3. Percentages for Hybrid words and expressions within posts in English
By far the largest users of Hybrid forms are EC and EC?: respectively, 48% and 28% (together 76% of the total). It is therefore among speakers from the expanding circle where the tendency to code mix is most marked. In their case, it could be argued that, as many are residents in Italy or students of Italian, there is some genuine interference between English and Italian, which are to them two foreign languages, and much of the mixing may be a case of unsuccessful attempts to use Italian. The figures for IT and IT? support this interpretation. The figures for mixing are very low, only 1% for IT but none for IT? (remembering that 0% means the figure is not absolute zero but too low to affect overall percentages): Italian speakers tend to use either English or Italian but not confuse the two. The fact that IC and IC? use Hybrid forms (2% and 3%) more than IT or IT? also supports the hypothesis that many mixed forms may be the product of interference from English on Italian, not vice 7
For example, University Bocconi, displays the right branching head-modifier word order typical not just of Italian but also of many, if not most, languages.
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versa. The use of Hybrid forms in this corpus may thus not signal a move towards endonormativity per se but again be a sign of affinity with the local Italian community.8 That said, Figure 3 does suggest that the EC speakers adhere less to NS English as a model and are, for whatever reason, developing their own norms. Indeed many of the Hybrid norms, such as head modifier word-order (see footnote above), are features of many languages (excluding English) and there may thus be a natural tendency for this to be used in variations of ELF that are thus becoming more endonormative. Indeed, in a process similar to that of accommodation (Giles et al., 1991), some IC speakers are also using such Hybrid forms. 4.3 Use of Italian and Hybrid words and expressions within specific semantic fields
In this section, we will examine in which precise kinds of semantic contexts Italian and Hybrid terms are used within the corpus. This we did by noting down each example and categorising it according to the semantic field to which it belonged. In Table 1, we list the categories which we identified together with some representative examples of the Italian and Hybrid words and expressions which were found in the corpus. Table 1. Categories of Italian and Hybrid words and expressions found in corpus, with examples Public Transport
Location
Funicolare (Funicular) Metro A termini (Termini Line A Metro Station) Tramvia (Tramway)
centric ubication (centrally located) colocation (location) disposition (layout)
About Town (features of cities) centro historico (old town) duomo (cathedral) edicola (newsagent’s / newspaper kiosk)
Names of Institutions Accademia Di Belle Arti (Academy of Fine Arts) Scuole civiche di Milano (Civic Schools of Milan) Università Bocconi (Bocconi University)
Place Names Basilica San Paolo (St Paul’s Basilica) Citta di studi (university complex) Roma (Rome)
Organised Events
Calendar Months
Education dottorati (phd) istituto (institute) poleticnico (polytechnic)
februario (February) mai (May) Phatic (expressions used to establish and maintain interpersonal relations) ciao (hi / bye) buongiornio (good morning / goodbye) grazie (thank you)
Salone dei Mobile (Furniture Fair) Salone Satellite (Satellite Fair)
Accommodation (things found in accommodation or related to housing) condominio (condominuium) frigo (fridge) climatization (air-conditioning)
rented
Miscellaneous (not assignable to any of the above categories) bonifico (postal/bank payment order) fidanzato ((steady) boy/girlfriend) trasformed (transformed) 8 There
is a notable discrepancy between the high figure for OC (17%) and the low one for OC? (1%), which indicates that this latter group may contain many diverse speakers, not all of whom are actually from the outer circle. The figure for OC? resembles that for IC more than it does EC which indicates that the OC? category may who adhere closely to a NS model of English or who may even be IC.
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Concentrating on these different categories, we can compare the frequency of Italian and Hybrid items according to semantic field (except in the case of Miscellaneous which is just a basket into which we have put items that do not fit in the other categories). The results for this analysis, we present below in Figure 4 and 5 below. Figure 4. NS English vs. Italian / Hybrid combined forms according to semantic field.
Figure 5. Italian vs. Hybrid forms according to semantic field.
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Looking at Figure 4, it can be seen that in every category, English terms outnumber the Italian and Hybrid forms, with the notable exception of Place Names and Names of Institutions. Figure 5 shows that Italian forms are also more frequent than Hybrid forms in every category and that Hybrid forms occur only in a discernible number in the categories of Public Transport, Place Name, Miscellaneous, Institutions and Education. Speaking generally, as regards Place names and Names of Institutions, both of these groups constitute names (often equated, erroneously with proper nouns – (Christiansen, 2009, p130), which by convention are normally left in the local language except in a few historical cases where conventional translations do exist (Taylor:1998, p30). It is interesting that in the cases of many Italian cities, all also important historically, English forms do exist (e.g. Naples, Florence, Genoa, Milan, Rome, Turin, Venice) but Figure 4 shows that the local, Italian, form is still fairly widely used even though, overall, the English form is more frequent. Again, as with Hybrid and Italian forms generally (see Figures 2-3), this tendency is most pronounced with EC and EC? participants not with IT or IT? or IC and IC? Of the other categories where the frequency of Italian and Hybrid items is highest are Institutions, Education, Phatic and About Town. These would seem correspond to those areas of life in Italy where international students would have most contact with the local population. Phatics are especially interesting in this respect because they consist of phrases, expressions and formula used to establish and maintain social relations. The use of Italian forms seems to confirm that there exists a degree of affinity with the local community and culture, in so far that they constitute not ways of referring to items (real, imaginary, concrete or abstract) in the cognitive environment,9 but rather markers of social relations among participants. At play here then is not reference at the ideational level of discourse but identity, stance and social position, at the interpersonal level. 4.3 Frequency of colloquialisms in corpus
From Sections 4.1 and 4.2, it emerges that all categories of speaker, except IT, use Italian or Hybrid forms to varying but notable degrees. One interpretation of such data as evidenced in Figures 2 and 3, is that the increased use by EC, EC? is that of interference with Italian, or some other L1, not code switching or mixing as discourse strategies. This however would not account for the figures for OC (or IT, IT?). To remove this doubt, it is illuminating to look at use of colloquialisms and slang terms both in NS English and Italian in the corpus, as these can, in the case of the former, be indicative of general degree of familiarity with NS English, and in the case of the latter of affinity with Italian. Colloquialisms and non-standard forms in general are also significant because they constitute a breaking away from standard usage and are thus another step in the direction of endonormativity. By colloquialisms and slang we mean either non-standard forms usually identified as such by reference works10 and also apparently deliberately unconventional spellings. In the case of NS English colloquialisms, the assumption is that if EC and EC? use them then they are comfortable with English and it is thus more likely that their use of other codes is a conscious choice. The colloquialisms which we identified in the corpus are summarised in Table 2.
9
See Christiansen (2009). On the difficulties of providing a precise definition for the term slang, see Christiansen (2008).
10
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Table 2. Colloquial words and expressions found in corpus, with examples Colloquialisms found in corpus NS English bamboozled by lingo cheeeep cheers (closer) da (the) de (the) fellows gal(s) goood greetz (greetings) guy(s) hai hey hi hiya
Italian Info (information) infos (informations) opp. (opposite) pleaze (please) plese (please) pls (please) plz (please) pubbing r (are) rgds (regards) sbdy (somebody) thank u thanks a bunch thankss thanksssss
thanx thks thnx thx thx a lot tnx tx txs u (you) wana wanna yo (you)
ciaooo!! (hi / goodbye) grazissimi (thanks a lot) ragaazi (guys) ragazzi (guys)
In Figure 6 we give the frequency of use of the two general categories of NS English and Italian colloquialisms. Figure 6. Frequency of general categories of Italian and NS English colloquialisms according to speaker category
It transpires that while Italian colloquialisms are relatively rare, here again they are used most by the categories of EC, and also OC? not, as may have been expected, by IT or IT?. Furthermore, use of NS
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English colloquialisms is most prevalent with EC? then OC/EC? then EC followed by OC and OC? and not IC or IC?.11 5. Conclusions The fact that the same subjects in this study that use Italian and Hybrid forms also use NS English colloquialisms, as well as a few Italian ones too, indicates that the ELF users in question have command of a varied linguistic repertoire which they can exploit for rhetorical effect. Within this specific ELF discourse community existing within a specific social context, code mixing and switching between ELF and the host community’s language (Italian) can be seen as a sign of identification with that community: in terms of acculturation,12 an act of assimilation or integration. This constitutes, in effect a mirror process to that where ELF users adopt NS English colloquialisms, which serves as a sign of the appropriation of ELF as their natural means of expression within certain discourse domains. This shows that ELF need not be only oriented to NS English but may draw on other languages which, like ELF, are additional to the typical ELF user’s L1 (assuming that they are not NS English or L1 Italian). This creates a much more complex picture of ELF: one in which a specific variation of it is not just a syndrome made up of different speaker’s versions of English but also, to a lesser but still important degree, of their variations of additional languages, typically deriving from the location in which the discourse takes place, as well. This no doubt reflects the fact that ELF is in reality first and foremost an international Lingua Franca and only secondarily a variation of English. About the author
Since 1987, Thomas Christiansen has taught in various positions at various universities in Apulia (Italy), the UK, and Poland. He is an associate professor in English Language and Translation at the Università del Salento (Lecce, Italy). He has published on various areas of linguistics including systemic linguistics and functional grammar, varieties of English, ELF, teaching English, language testing, and analysis of different corpora, including spoken discourse. Email:
[email protected]
References Auer, P., & Di Luzio, A. (Eds). (1988). Variation and convergence: Studies in social dialectology. Berlin: Walter De Gruyter. Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5-68. Christiansen, T. (2008). Trends in the use of slang in the panel show Just A Minute in the period 19672006. In S. Kermas & M. Gotti (Eds.), Socially-conditioned language change: Diachronic and synchronic insights (pp. 445-469). Lecce: Edizione del Grifo. Christiansen, T. (2009). Identity chains and noun phrase selection: A case study of Italian. Berlin: VDM Verlag Dr Müller. Douglas, D., & Selinker L. (1985). Principles for language tests within the 'discourse domains' theory of interlanguage. Language Testing, 2(2), 205-226. Firth, J.R. (1957). Papers in Linguistics 1934-1951. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Giles, H., Coupland, J., & Coupland, N. (1991) Accommodation theory: Communication, context, and consequence. In H. Giles, J. Coupland & N. Coupland (Eds.), Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied sociolinguistics (pp.1-68). New York: Cambridge University Press. Indeed, the fact that EC use NS English and Italian colloquialisms more than even IC (in the former case) or IT (in the latter) resembles the phenomenon of hypercorrection as illustrated by the overuse of certain forms associated with the upper middle class by members of the lower middle class as found by Labov in his landmark study of rhotic R in New York City (1966). 12 See Berry (1997). 11
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Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. London: Edward Arnold. Kachru, B.B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp.11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Labov, W. (1966). The social stratification of (r) in New York City department stores. In W. Labov, The social stratification of English in New York City (pp. 40-57). Washington, D.C: Center for Applied Linguistics. Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the western Pacific: An account of native enterprise and adventure in the archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Romaine, S., & Kachru, B.B. (1998). Code-mixing and code-switching. In T. McArthur (Ed.), Concise Oxford companion to the English language (pp. 228-229). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Taylor, C. (1998) Language to language: A practical and theoretical guide for Italian / English translators. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Watt, R.J.C. (2009). Concordance v. 3. Available at: concordancesoftware.co.uk
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THE SOCIOLINGUISTICS OF ELF In this section contributors explore the interfaces of ELF with the various sociocultural and education settings. Pietro Luigi Iaia & Mariarosaria Provenzano explore the socio-cultural and linguistic characterisations of migrant workers in both original English and Italian dubbed/subtitled versions of the migration movie It’s a Free World, and argue ELF variations should be identified not only in the lexicosyntactic properties of the language, but in the asymmetrical relations identified in the dialogues and distinctive traits of the speech also within a comparative-discourse framework as well as in relation to the perlocutionary dimension of the dubbing translation. Marina Tzoannopoulou analyses the use of humor in academic lectures by non-native speakers of English where English is used as a lingua franca and examines the various ways in which humor is manifested linguistically in spoken academic discourse. Tomokazu Ishikawa investigates Japanese university students’ attitudes to the English spoken by Japanese people, finding extensive evidence of a negative of ‘non-standard’ English. Berat Başer presents a preliminary study which investigates issues of positioning in ELF interactions, where speakers do not share linguacultural conventions.
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Iaia, P. I., & Provenzano, M. (2016). ELF: Sociocultural characterizations and ILF reformulation strategies in the migration movie It’s a Free World. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 71-77). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
ELF: Sociocultural characterizations and ILF reformulation strategies in the migration movie It’s a Free World Pietro Luigi Iaia Mariarosaria Provenzano1 Abstract This paper explores the socio-cultural and linguistic characterisations of a group of migrant workers in both original English and Italian dubbed/subtitled versions of the migration movie It’s a Free World… (In questo mondo libero…, Ken Loach, 2007). Scenes are selected on the basis of their relevance to the main objective of the study, i.e. to analyse the pragmalinguistic aspects of the perception of the migrant workers in their work context characterized by power-asymmetry relationships between high-status SE speakers and low-status immigrants. It is argued that in this movie ELF variations should be identified not only in the lexico-syntactic properties of the language, but in the asymmetrical relations identified in the dialogic ‘moves’ (Guido, 2008) and distinctive traits of the speech (brevity of sentences, disfluency of rhythm) also within a comparative-discourse framework (cf. Brown & Yule, 1983; Provenzano, 2008) as well as in relation to the perlocutionary dimension of the dubbing translation, since the source and target scripts of a number of selected interactions shall be analysed in order to enquire into the Italian translation strategies for the dubbing and subtitles. In fact, the dubbed version resorts to Italian linguafranca reformulation strategies by means of specific lexical and structural features deviating from standard uses (Seidlhofer, 2011), consistent with the original illocutionary and perlocutionary dimensions (Austin, 1962). Subtitles, instead, because of spatial and temporal constraints (Díaz Cintas, 2005; Neves, 2009), condense the original utterances (Bogucki, 2011) and retextualising the features of the ELF variation adopted into standard Italian, providing a target version that is not the pragmalinguistic equivalent of the source script.
Keywords: ELF, English as a lingua franca, audiovisual translation, conversation analysis, migration movie, film
1. Introduction and rationale This paper focuses on the English and Italian lingua-franca variations employed in the construction and translation of the migration movie It’s a Free World. The analysis aims at identifying the ELF variations in the lexico-semantic properties of language, in the dialogic moves (Guido, 2008) and traits of speech, as well as the strategies adopted to provide an equivalent representation of the illocutionary, locutionary and perlocutionary levels (Austin, 1962) for target receivers, accounting for the interaction between the linguistic and extralinguistic dimensions of the source and target scripts. By means of the analysis of the original interactions, this paper will raise awareness of the new ELF usage variations of the language, and of their pragmatic implications in conflict situations. Our focus will be on the moves employed by participants in the movie interactions to authenticate the inaccessible/specialized concepts, and also on the pragmatic consequences determined by these interactions in the building of knowledge-sharing. The theoretical concept of “authentication” (Guido, 2008, p. 21) should be underlined, insofar as it serves to justify the processes of adaptation and negotiation of some specialized concepts in the making of the conversations. Such an interpretation will take into account the “preferred/dispreferred moves” in some relevant oral exchanges (cf. Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975), and try to justify them in terms of: (a) the ‘power-asymmetry’ relationships among the participants in the interactions, and (b) through the Conversation Analysis method, aimed at also reflecting on the social relationships represented.
University of Salento, Italy:
[email protected] University of Salento, Italy:
[email protected] 1 While both authors are responsible for the design of this study and for sections 1, 4.1 and 5, and have co-revised the paper, Pietro Luigi Iaia is responsible for sections 3, 4.3, 4.5 and 4.7, and Mariarosaria Provenzano for sections 2, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6.
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At the same time, the focus on the Italian translations for the dubbing and the subtitles will detail the alternation between the Standard Italian and the lingua-franca variations in the former, and the selection of Standard Italian in the latter, eventually enquiring into the effects of such strategies in terms of the linguistic and pragmatic equivalence to the source version. 2. ELF uses and pragmatic implications One focus will be on the ELF variations employed in the three extracts analysed, where attention is placed particularly upon the pragmatic features of the exchanges, i.e. on the use of such variations as representatives of a different social status characterization ascribed to the characters represented. It is appropriate here to apply Guido’s (2008) theory, mainly in relation to the role of “knowledge schemata” considered in the case of cross-cultural communication and ‘power-asymmetry’ relationships. In particular, we will consider the construct of “transfer”, and the way(s) this comes to be involved at the interpretation level. We will look and try to account the modalities by which it comes to construct interactions and specifically, the pragmatic implications associated to the ELF uses of the language. Among these problems, there is the practical focus on ‘tax-paying’ and, hence, the analysis will take into account the moves and acts enacted by the Western producers of the movie, in order to point out: the mismatching between the illocutionary force of the acts and the perlocutionary effects achieved on the migrant subjects. 3. Lingua-franca variations in the translation of multimodal scripts The exploration of the Italian audiovisual translation strategies will identify the lexical, syntactic and pragmatic features of the language variations in dubbing and subtitles. In fact, the former resorts to an Italian ‘lingua franca’ variation marked by short or incomplete sentences and non-conventional lexical choices, to provide a multimodal characterisation of low-status, non-native speakers in opposition to Angie, the high-status protagonist. Such translation strategy is connected to the colonising trend of dubbing (cf. Paolinelli & Di Fortunato, 2005), which usually omits or replaces those references or characteristics considered too culture-specific and not appropriate for target audiences. In It’s a Free World…, whereas all the Polish characters have a foreign accent reproduced by the Italian dubbing artists, not all of them resort to the lingua-franca variation. The latter alternates with Standard Italian when it comes to Karol, whose utterances do not contain the fragmented syntax and non-standard pronunciation that identify the workers’ ‘lingua franca’, and who is not involved in conversations whose turn-taking systems resemble those unequal encounters where the native speakers’ status and will are imposed (Guido, 2008). If this suggests that translators may have seen such alternation as a strategy to deal with the different social distance between the man and Angie, it is also true that an equivalent target script is not attained in terms of socio-linguistic characterisation, since Karol’s ELF variation is one of the elements that label him as a migrant who sees English as the only means for communication (cf. Seidlhofer, 2011) in a foreign country. As for the subtitles, the target text only resorts to Standard Italian and to more syntactically-complex sentences, which are condensed in order to comply with the number of characters and lines that have to appear on screen, and with the duration of their superimposition (cf. Díaz Cintas, 2005; Neves, 2009). The focus on the technical dimension, though, leads to consequences in the linguistic features of subtitles, since translators are expected to shorten utterances by including only those parts of the scripts that they consider relevant (Bogucki, 2011) according to their source-text interpretations. For these reasons, a different training for audiovisual translators is advocated, underlining that in migration movies the original linguistic features should be examined and rendered in translations, as they deliver the speakers’ ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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socio-cultural characterisations along with the communicative and semantic dimensions of the scripts. In fact, the exclusive adoption of standard Italian produces partially-equivalent target texts that do not actualize the participants’ status by means of their utterances, whereas if the speakers’ hesitations, repetitions, and lexically- and syntactically-marked utterances were preserved in subtitles, receivers could identify non-native speakers also from their language variations which interact with their attitudes and tones of voice. 4. Analysis 4.1 Corpus
Three scenes from the migration movie It’s a Free World…, are analysed: a dialogue between Angie and a migrant worker protesting over pay; a worker describing the migrants’ conditions; an interaction between the female protagonist and Karol. The selected case studies will highlight the different linguistic and multimodal construction of the unequal and equal encounters, along with the different Italian translation strategies, enquiring into the effects in terms of equivalence of the alternation between the Italian ‘lingua franca’ and standard variations in dubbing and the selection of Standard Italian in the subtitles. 4.2 Case study 1: ELF uses
What follows is the analysis of case study 1, with a focus on the representation of the problems of ‘pay’ and of ‘tax and other financial commitments’ emerging from the dialogue between the British employer, on the one hand, and the migrant worker, uttering “Your tax isn’t my problem”, which is a ‘refuse’ move. This is followed by the ‘backchannel’ move, “What? Do you reckon we just pick it from a tree?”, signalling unacceptance by the British native speaker, and pointing out the need for further clarification of the illocutionary force in the move uttered by the low-status participant, as far as the pragmatic interpretation is concerned. It is interesting to note here the communicative uses of ELF, wherein the ‘refuse’ move is rendered through Standard English, although with a peculiar ELF accent, and thus becomes functional (cf. Seidlhofer, 2011) to the interpretative needs of the interlocutor: denouncing a conflict situation associated to tax payment. Similarly, a functional perspective of analysis is applied to the ILF translations, where differences with the original version exist and may be accounted for in terms of “register reformulation” (van Dijk, 1980). A relevant example is the rendering of the native speaker’s cue relating to tax (see the move above) into the ILF version, “Ci sono le tasse! Paghiamo l’assicurazione, per tutti voi. Questi soldi da dove li prendiamo?!”, where pragmatic equivalence is preferred over the semantic one, and the need to extend meaning is realized by either adding information through the exclamation-based utterance, and by means of the marked emphasis on the thematic subject “Questi soldi”, eliciting urgent attention on the part of the target audience to this subject. This exchange 1 is also characterized by other challenging moves, mainly associated to the non-native speaker in relation to the lack of acceptance of different culture-bound concepts, as these become instantiated through the sentences “You asked., “Where is my money? Where is payslip?” 4.3 Case Study 1: AVT
Two different strategies are adopted for the audiovisual translations of the interaction: a ‘lingua franca’ variation for the dubbing, and Standard Italian for the subtitles:
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Table 1. Interaction between Angie and a migrant worker, 00:36:44 – 00:37:07 ANGIE:
English Script “That’s your hours, that’s your tot. If you don’t like it, there the guy, you can go.”
MAN: ANGIE:
“Oh, no, no, no, no.” “Look! Tax, national insurance, where do you reckon we get it from?”
MAN:
“Your tax isn’t my problem”
ANGIE: MAN:
“What? Do you reckon we just pick it from a tree?” “I—er… I worked for you all week. You must pay me 200 pounds per week.”
ANGIE:
“We will sort it out later.”
MAN:
“…you asked me. Where is my money? Where is payslip?” “[to Karol] Can you tell him if—if—if he doesn’t go to work, he will have no job? Can you tell him?”
ANGIE:
Italian Dubbing “Queste sono le ore che hai fatto, questa è la paga. Se non ti sta bene, quella è l’uscita, puoi andartene.” “No, no, no.” “Ci sono le tasse! Paghiamo l’assicurazione, per tutti voi. Questi soldi da dove li prendiamo?!” “Le vostre tasse non sono problema mio.” “Credi che noi i soldi li troviamo sugli alberi?” “Io ho lavorato per tutta la settimana. Voi dovete pagare 200 sterline a settimana. Tu mi hai chiamato…” “—di questo ne parliamo dopo.” “…dove sono i miei soldi?”
Italian Subtitles “Queste sono le ore che hai fatto e questa è la paga. Se non ti sta bene, puoi anche andartene.” [Not rendered] “Ci sono le tasse, l’assicurazione. Da dove prendiamo questi soldi?” “Non è un mio problema.” “I soldi li troviamo sugli alberi?” “Ho lavorato tutta la settimana. Dovete darmi 200 sterline.” [Not rendered] “Dove sono i miei soldi?”
“[a Karol] Gli vuoi dire che “Digli che se non va a se ora non va a lavorare non lavorare, non avrà più un avrà più un lavoro, che la lavoro.” faccenda la risolviamo dopo? Glielo dici, per favore?”
The dubbing translation multimodally represents the speakers’ characterisation by resorting to the Polish man’s different accent (a characteristic which will be shared by all non-native, low-status participants) and by means of the syntactic features of his cues, characterised by short sentences whose structures deviate from standard norms. For example, consider “le vostre tasse non sono [un] problema mio [‘your taxes aren’t [a] problem of mine’]”, which lacks the non-definite article un, ‘a’. The different variation is not preserved in the subtitles, which display shorter sentences in order to respect the technical constraints. Yet, this decision leads to the omission of important turns, such as the second and the eighth. Though the omission of the second turn may be not relevant, since Italian receivers can still listen to the original man’s No, no, no, no, by not reproducing Angie’s cues, the focus on her disrespect of the workers’ requests is missed, whereas it is conveyed by the original and dubbed scripts. 4.4 Case study 2: ELF uses
After a period without being paid, a group of migrant workers ask for an explanation from Angie. Since she is still not able to satisfy their demands, one of the workers describes their desperate conditions in exchange n.2. The latter is also representative of an asymmetrical relationship, which is mainly realized ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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through the main utterance by the foreign man, “This is the third time is happening.” As in the previous case study, here also incomprehension arises and is represented through the syntactic deviation in the third person of the singular, in which case Seidlhofer’s (2011) theory of ‘functional varieties’ of ELF may apply. In other words, this comes to be justified in terms of the relevance attributed to the contents rather than to the form of the proposition, i.e. to the claim of the utterance. 4.5 Case study 2: AVT
The features identified in the audiovisual translations of the previous case study are preserved in the following interaction: Table 2. One of the migrant workers describes their conditions, 01:00:31 – 01:00:46 MAN:
English Script “This is the third time is happening. Liverpool, Birmingham and now. This is not good. We have families, we came here to work, we work very hard. You treat us like animals, we work very hard, we’re desperate. We need money now. We can’t wait anymore.”
Italian Dubbing “Questa è la terza volta che non ci pagano. Liverpool, Birmingham e ora qui. Questo non è buono. Abbiamo una famiglia e veniamo qui a lavorare. Lavoriamo tutto il giorno, ci trattate come animali, lavoriamo tutto il giorno e siamo disperat[e]. Vogliamo soldi ora. Noi non possiamo aspettare più.”
Italian Subtitles “È la terza volta che non ci pagano, Liverpool, Birmingham e ora qui. Abbiamo una famiglia. Veniamo qui per lavorare. Ci trattate come animali, lavoriamo sodo. Ci servono i soldi adesso.”
Besides the different accent identifying the non-native speaker, the dubbing translation is characterised by specific syntactic features such as the omission of articles or non-conventional structures. For example, in “Questa è [la] terza volta… [‘This is [the] third time’]” the definite article la is omitted, whereas “Questo non è buono [‘This is not good’]” entails a non-conventional lexical choice for a native Italian speaker. A different adjective would be selected, for example bello [‘nice’], or a more complete syntactic structure would be adopted, such as Questa non è una cosa buona [‘This is not a good thing’]. From a pragmatic perspective, those structures provide the non-native speakers’ difficulty in mastering Italian, respecting the source-script construction and proposing the similar selection and repetition of the present simple tense. Also in this case, the translation for the subtitles is shorter and in Standard Italian, not reproducing the speakers’ socio-cultural and linguistic characterisation. For example, the sentence “È la terza volta che non ci pagano [‘It is the third time that they haven’t paid us’]” condenses the original subject clause and resorts to a written, more formal style that respects the temporal and spatial constraints, but which is unexpected from a non-native speaker who instead generally resorts to repetitions such as “we work very hard” to communicate his difficulties with the language. 4.6 Case study 3: ELF uses
In this exchange, the relation between the two participants is represented as less asymmetrical than in the two previous ones, since they have had an affair and are now friends. So, the analysis is meant to provide evidence of this peculiar relationship in terms of the moves employed and of the register associated to them. In the exchange between Angie, the British employer, and Karol, the Polish mediator, the reduced social distance is mainly reflected in the move “And you know the old saying Never return a favour, pass it on?”, where also the relatively colloquial Tenor becomes symptomatic of a different, social relation between the two. The dialogue indeed concludes with the reiteration, as a “Backchannel”, of the previous ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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one by the Polish man, “Pass it on”, mainly aiming to reintroduce the idea of ground-sharing between them. 4.7 Case study 3: AVT
Differently from case studies 1 and 2, the interaction between Angie and Karol reveals a different strategy adopted in dubbing: Table 3. Interaction between Angie and Karol, 01:02:23 – 01:02:42 ANGIE:
KAROL: ANGIE: KAROL: ANGIE: KAROL:
English Script “It’s for your help. You really, really helped me out, all right? All your translating?” “Cash?” “Yeah.” “And you know the old saying, ‘Never return a favour, pass it on’?” “You sound like my Dad. You should meet him, actually. There you go.” “Pass it on. Not everything is money.”
Italian Dubbing “Per l’aiuto che mi hai dato. Mi sono servite davvero moltissimo, sai, le tue traduzioni.” “Contanti?” “Sì.” “Lo conosci il detto: ‘Non pagare mai un favore, ricambialo’?” “Mi sembri mio padre! Avrei dovuto fartelo conoscere. Tienili!” “Ricambialo: non tutto si può comprare.”
Italian Subtitles “Per l’aiuto che mi hai dato. Mi hai aiutato moltissimo con le tue traduzioni.” “Soldi?” “Sì.” “Conosci il detto: ‘Non rendere mai un favore, fanne un altro’?” “Sembri mio padre. Dovevo fartelo conoscere. Tieni.” “Non tutto si può comprare.”
The dubbing translation is almost exclusively based on the phonological features, for Karol is identifiable as a non-native speaker only by his different accent, whereas his cues are not marked from the lexical and syntactic perspectives, as in “Non tutto si può comprare [‘You can’t buy everything’]”. The selection of Standard Italian does not provide an equivalent target script from the linguistic and pragmatic perspectives, since even though it may be meant to guide the receivers’ interpretation of Karol and Angie’s different relationship, the original association between the non-native speakers and their linguafranca variation is not rendered. We sustain that the Italian lingua-franca variation should have been preserved and preferred, leaving the original audiovisual dimension, for example Angie’s attitude and the participants’ body movements, as a hint of their lower social distance. The Standard Italian is adopted in the translation for the subtitles as well, which shares some equivalence issues with the dubbed script. For example, in the translation of Karol’s saying, the verb ‘to return’ is rendered as pagare, ‘to pay’, whereas the repetition of some cues such as Karol’s “Pass it on” is avoided, underlining that subtitles do result from what cues translators consider relevant for the transmission of the original semantic dimensions. Actually, since such relevance is based on the translators’ interpretation of the original scripts, a crosscultural training of audiovisual translators is advocated, in order to avoid the omission of some characteristics such as the repetitions or hesitations, which should be reproduced for target receivers also in the subtitles of migration movies. The reason is that such characteristics are relevant insofar as they construct more credible representations of low-status, non-native participants.
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5. Conclusions This paper has analysed the adoption of ELF variation in the script of the migration movie It’s a Free World and the Italian translation strategies for the dubbing and the subtitles. The analysis of the original ELF features has revealed that the variations associated to the characters reflect a complex dynamics between them and are mainly the representation of (a) a knowledge gap, and (b) of the cultural difference between them, which has been manifested in the moves selected. The Italian audiovisual translation strategies have confirmed the tendency to alternate the ‘lingua-franca’ and standard variations for the dubbing, and the prevalence of the standard variation for the subtitles. Such conventional choices, however, should be revised to promote the pragmatic and linguistic types of equivalence of migration movies, whose scripts resort to the audiovisual and linguistic features to convey the socio-cultural construction of the unequal encounters and of the represented participants. About the authors
Pietro Luigi Iaia is a lecturer in English Applied Linguistics and Translation in the University of Salento, Italy. His research interests focus on ELF in cross-cultural audiovisual discourse. E-mail:
[email protected] Mariarosaria Provenzano is a tenured researcher and Adjunct Professor in English Applied Linguistics and Translation at University of Salento, Italy. Her research focuses on ELF and Specialized Discourse. E-mail:
[email protected]
References Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Bogucki, Ł. (2011). The application of action research to audiovisual translation. In L. Calcaterra, M. McLoughlin, M. Biscio & Á. M. Ní Mhainnín (Eds.), Audiovisual translation: Subtitles and subtitling: Theory and practice (pp. 7-18). Bern: Peter Lang. Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Díaz Cintas, J. (2005). Back to the future in subtitling. In H. Gerzymisch-Arbogast & S. Nauert (Eds.), Challenges of multidimensional translation: Conference proceedings. Paper presented at the Marie Curie Euroconferences MuTra: Challenges of Multidimensional Translation, Saarbrücken (pp. 16-32). Retrieved from: http://www.euroconferences.info/proceedings/2005_Proceedings/2005_DiazCintas_Jorge.pdf Guido, M. G. (2008). English as a Lingua Franca in cross-cultural immigration domains. Bern: Peter Lang. Neves, J. (2009). Interlingual subtitling for the deaf and hard-of-hearing. In J. Díaz Cintas & G. Anderman (Eds.), Audiovisual translation: Language transfer on screen (pp. 151-169). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Paolinelli, M., & Di Fortunato, E. (2005). Tradurre per il doppiaggio. La trasposizione linguistica dell’audiovisivo: Teoria e pratica di un’arte imperfetta. Milan: Hoepli. Provenzano, M. (2008). The EU legal discourse of immigration: A cross-cultural cognitive approach to accessibility and reformulation. Milan: Franco Angeli. Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sinclair, J., & Coulthard, R. M. (1975). Towards an analysis of discourse: The English used by teachers and pupils. London: Oxford University Press. Van Dijk, T. A. (1980). Macrostructures. An interdisciplinary study of global structures in discourse, interaction and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Tzoannopoulou, M. (2016). Humor in academic lectures: A case study in an ELF context. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 78-86). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Humor in academic lectures: A case study in an ELF context Marina Tzoannopoulou Abstract This study analyses the use of humor in academic lectures where lecturers and students are both non-native speakers of English and where English is used as a lingua franca. It examines the various ways in which humor is manifested linguistically in spoken academic discourse by focusing on the forms and functions of humor and also on the pedagogical implications of its use. A further purpose of the study is to inform the design of English for Academic Purposes courses for international university settings. The data involve the analysis of a small corpus of five university lectures which were delivered as part of an English-medium program in a Greek university. Seven main types of humor were identified: ‘teasing’, ‘irony’, ‘self-deprecation’, ‘hyperbole’, ‘black humor’, ‘personal anecdote’, and ‘word play’. Analysis of the transcriptions reveals that the lecturers use humor mainly to build rapport, to manage anxiety and to maintain social order in the classroom.
Keywords: humor, ELF, spoken academic discourse, English for Academic Purposes
1. Introduction Humor is a topic that has attracted considerable interest over the years in linguistic research (Attardo, 2001; Bell, 2009; Norrick, 1993). Humor in academic lectures has been explored mainly in the fields of communication studies and psychology resulting in a number of taxonomies of lecture humor types (Bryant, Comisky, Crane, & Zillmann, 2008). Recently, in the field of applied linguistics, there have been a number of studies focusing on the use of humor in spoken academic discourse most of which point to cultural differences and to the difficulties international students face in comprehending humor coming mostly from British or American lecturers (Lee, 2006; Nesi, 2012; Wang 2014). In the increasingly globalized world of academia, however, most Englishmedium instruction (EMI) at universities takes place with English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), since students and teachers do not share a first language (Jenkins, 2007; Seidlhofer, 2011). In this study I explore the under-examined phenomenon of humor in academic lectures where both lecturers and students are non-native speakers of English and where English is used as a lingua franca. More specifically, the paper focuses on the linguistic forms and interactional functions of humor in speech episodes derived from a corpus of social sciences lectures and delivered as part of an English-medium program in a higher institution in Greece. 2. Theoretical background The academic lecture is part of institutional discourse and is considered to be one of the more clearly defined genres of this particular community of discursive practice. However, there are differences to be found in the level of formality of a lecture which has led researchers to distinguish between lectures that are more monologic and lectures with a more conversational style (Morell, 2004). Traditionally, a lecture has been defined as an extended holding of the floor in which one speaker, usually reading aloud from a pre-written paper, imparts his view on a subject using a slightly impersonal style (Goffman, 1981, p. 165). However, the process of internationalization of higher education with the increasing use of English as the main language of instruction in lectures where both the audience and teachers are very often non-native speakers of English, has had an impact on what may be considered the traditional lecture. Conversational style lectures where teachers deliver the lecture from notes, using a more informal style and allowing some conversation/interaction with students (Dudley-Evans, 1994, p. 148) are increasingly becoming
Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki:
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more common in contexts where non-native listeners are involved (Morell, 2004), such as is the case with ELF settings. With regard to the use of humor in education a number of studies show that it is an important part of classroom discourse (Neuliep, 1991; White, 2001). However, most studies derived from educational research tend to discuss humor in pedagogical terms by highlighting its purposes (e.g. increasing student learning and participation) rather than by focusing on its social functions (creating social order, building rapport, enhancing the speaker’s positive face). The work of scholars such as Attardo (2001), or Norrick and Chiaro (2009) focuses on the form and functions of humor in discourse, mainly spoken discourse, whereas previous research either explored theories of humor or examined written sources, for example scripted jokes (Glenn, 2003). Research into the functions of humor in spoken discourse revealed that it is an adaptable discourse strategy which can be used for a number of communicative purposes, such as the construction of in-group cohesion, the delineation of personal boundaries or the mitigation of conflict (Holmes, 2006). Few studies of humor in lectures exist and most of them (but not all) involve native speakers of English as lecturers. Lee (2006) uses data from the Michigan Corpus of Spoken English (MICASE) to demonstrate that laughter is common in American academic spoken discourse and he points to the difficulties international students studying in the US might have in understanding American humor and its linguistic forms. Cultural differences, in particular, can cause problems in lecture reception. Wang (2014), for example, pointed to a remarkable mismatch in intention and comprehension between British lecturers’ use of humor and its reception by Chinese students in the UK, and Zhang (2005) goes so far as to suggest that humor is inappropriate in lectures delivered in Chinese college classrooms. Zhang’s findings revealed that the instructors’ use of humor during the lectures increased students’ classroom communication apprehension, thus pointing to the suggestion that attitudes towards humor may be culture-specific. In the British academic context Nesi (2012) draws data from the British Academic Spoken English corpus (BASE) to analyze the types and functions of laughter episodes in lectures. The study shows the prevalence of face-work humor in the lectures, as British lecturers seem to tease their students frequently. ‘Lecturer self-deprecation’ appears also to be a frequent form of humor in the BASE lecturers which is used to “signal modesty and approachability” and, therefore, to build rapport between students and lecturers (p. 85). On the whole, Nesi argues that British lecturers use humor to maintain social order, to release tension and to build rapport in the classroom. She also points out that the teacher and student scripts which are shared in a UK university context may be unrecognizable or even inappropriate outside this context and she makes the suggestion that British lecturers should adjust their use of humor when lecturing to international students or outside the UK. However, Nesi (2012) also makes a comment about the frequency of laughter in English-medium lectures delivered in non-ENL (English as a native language) contexts: “Laughter episodes in lectures may also be less common in countries where English is used as a medium of university instruction but is spoken as a second or foreign language, because lecturers who deliver the information content of their lectures in English tend to revert to their first language for other social and class management purposes” (p. 87). What appears to be missing from this suggestion is that English-medium instruction in many universities worldwide is practiced in English as a lingua franca settings, since students and teachers do not share a first language. The ELFA corpus (English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Settings), which was collected from university speech events in Finland provides useful evidence as to the existence of plentiful laughter episodes in ELF settings. The corpus includes speakers of 50 first languages other than Finnish, thus switching to Finnish for “social and class management” was not an option. A recent re-calculation by Carey (2014) of the laughter episodes in the ELFA corpus and a subsequent comparison of the ELFA figures with those from BASE and MICASE has shown that “while the monologic lectures in ELFA show a lower frequency of laughter than the monologic lectures in BASE and MICASE, a strong preference for laughter episodes is found in the dialogic ELFA ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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lecture discussions”, which even surpasses similar findings in the native-speaker corpora (p. 118). It seems, then, that relatively infrequent laughter may be a characteristic of ELF monologic lectures but this does not suggest that non-native speakers of English are unable to experience humor or perform relational work in a foreign language, as the ELFA corpus has demonstrated (see Mauranen, 2012, p. 224-227). Indeed, the higher frequency of laughter in interactive discussions in the ELFA findings points to where laughter may be found in academic ELF. According to Nesi (2014) “there is a great deal of variation in the frequency of laughter and the use of humor generally in academic events around the world, depending on the interplay of temporal, disciplinary, linguistic, regional and generic factors” (p. 48). 3. Data analysis The data of this study involves the analysis of five lectures delivered in the framework of the English-medium program offered by the School of Journalism and Mass Communications, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, during the spring semester 2014. The International Program offers 16 courses in English to Erasmus and exchange students and it is one of the very few English-medium programs in Greece. This is an ELF setting, as both teachers and students are non-native speakers of English and they don’t share an L1. The participants were 21 Erasmus students of different nationalities (Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Estonia, The Czech Republic, Turkey, France, Spain and Sweden). Their level of English satisfies the B2 level of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), an official requirement by the School. The study also involves semi-structured interviews with the lecturers and the students who participated in the study, in an attempt to examine the perceptions and attitudes of both parties towards humor. The lecturers who volunteered to participate in the study are four male and one female native speakers of Greek. As self-reported their levels of English ranged between high intermediate and advanced and all of them had experience in lecturing in English before. The main body of the study involves the analysis of 5 lectures (6 hours of recordings, approximately 40,000 words). The courses and length of the lectures can be seen in Table 1. There are variations in the length of the lectures ranging from 27 minutes to 2.20 minutes. Table 1. Courses, duration and number of humorous episodes in the lectures Courses
Duration (hours, minutes)
TV and Entertainment International Relations Globalization and the Arts TV Production Electronic Mass Media Technology
1:02 0:27 2:20 1:37 1:18
Number of humorous episodes 9 7 11 16 9
Total
6:04
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The purpose of the study is three-fold: 1) What are the forms and functions of humor in the academic lectures under investigation? 2) How do the Erasmus students perceive humor in these lectures? 3) How do the lecturers account for their own use of humor in these lectures?
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However, due to limitations of space the present paper will only offer an analysis of the types and functions of humor in the recorded lectures and references to the interviews will be made only to complement some of the findings. Table 2 shows that 7 types of humor were identified in the lectures. The typology was constructed inductively from the data, however some categorizations were used from the relevant literature, especially by Nesi (2012) and Lee (2006). Since this is small corpus it was manually analyzed. What became evident during the analysis was that not all humor elicits laughter, a finding which has also been identified by previous research (Attardo, 2001), which has shown that laughter and humor are related but are not co-extensive. Indeed, laughter does not necessarily indicate a reaction to humor as laughter can be instigated by anxiety or relief (Ross, 1998). Table 2. Types of humor in the corpus and number of humorous episodes Types of humor Lecturer-student teasing Irony/sarcasm Register/word play Jokes/personal anecdotes Lecturer self-deprecation Hyperbole/exaggeration Black humor
Number of humorous episodes 13 12 8 6 5 5 3
Total
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With regard to the functions of humor identified in the data, Table 3 offers a breakdown of each type of humor with its associated functions. Three broad categories of functions were identified, associated with facework, with anxiety management and with maintaining social order. Table 3. Types of humor and their functions in the lectures Types of humor Lecturer-student teasing Irony/sarcasm Register/word play Jokes/personal anecdotes Lecturer self-deprecation Hyperbole/exaggeration Black humor
Functions of humor breaking the ice, building rapport, releasing from tension/anxiety, maintaining social order releasing from tension/ anxiety, demonstrating individualism, critiquing building rapport, breaking the ice, making content memorable demonstrating spontaneity, breaking the ice, building rapport, making content memorable building rapport building rapport, breaking the ice releasing from tension/anxiety
The most common type of humor identified in the lectures was lecturer-student teasing. In extract 1 the teacher makes a teasing reference regarding the absence of some students. Extract 1 I see some of the students are not here this morning probably their quilts were heavy they could not lift them up this morning but I have their e-mails
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It is interesting to note that the lecturer translates literally an idiomatic expression from Greek to English (when ‘somebody’s quilt is heavy’ it means that he/she often sleeps late and cannot get up in the morning). The students laughed and later mentioned in the interviews that they understood the idiom as it was quite clear and straightforward. Lecturer-student teasing is used here in order to maintain some form of social order in the classroom. The lecturer reprimands the absent students as their misbehavior threatens the lecturer’s ‘competence’ face. However, the teacher defuses the potentially face-threatening act by using a funny voice, so that the reprimand is not too harsh and the ensuing laughter relieves the tension. Fine and Soucey (2005) refer to the role of teasing: “the member who has violated group expectations is reprimanded; but because the frame is a joking one, there is formally no criticism; the reputation remains formally unsmudged; this is, after all, only ‘joking’” (p. 11). In the native speaker corpora the teachers frequently tease the students for coming in late, for not working hard and for partying or drinking, especially in the case of the British lectures where partying, drinking and not working hard is part of the student script which all the students share (Nesi, 2012). In the present study lecturers tease students about coming in late, falling asleep or talking to each other but no references to alcohol were recorded, probably because it does not seem to be part of the student script in Greece. Another type of humor is lecturer self-deprecation which is quite common in the BASE and the MICASE lectures. It is the type of self-effacing joke that is used to express modesty, humility and approachability on the part of the speaker. Extract 2 comes from a lecture on Television and Entertainment where the teacher is discussing the Big Brother show. Extract 2 It managed (the Big Brother show) to score some huge numbers on the ratings even I I’m ashamed to say I watched it it was a huge success The teacher’s remark serves to build rapport with the students, adding as such to community building. The teacher’s embarrassment for watching a show which is not very sophisticated is actually a face saver as it bonds him with the students who have most probably watched the show themselves. The next form of humor identified in the data was irony and sarcasm, a familiar form of humor in many academic genres. Extract 3 comes from the course TV and Entertainment where the teacher shows video clips of popular Greek shows to the students. The video clip discussed here is that of the weather news forecast from STAR channel which is famous for its lifestyle news, its news program being full of gossip and news about celebrities and TV personalities. Extract 3 And now the not-exactly weather forecast of STAR channel they chose a different approach for STAR channel on the weather see why this is Petroula (video is on showing the weather forecaster wearing a bikini) nobody would watch it for the weather as you understand but for the girl only there was no way to learn about the weather from this particular program OK (video is off) do you want more of Petroula? Sarcasm usually takes the form of an understatement (the not-exactly weather forecast of STAR channel) and it can be easily recognized only when it involves something explicitly absurd or openly mocking (Lee, 2006). In the same extract the lecturer teases the students after the video is off asking them if they want to see more of the sexy weather forecaster. Some of the types of humor identified in the data are not mutually exclusive and occasionally co-occur as in this case. The next type of humor is that of hyperbole/exaggeration. The following extract comes from the introduction of a lecture. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Extract 4 Now let’s talk about something really useful don’t worry we’re going to tell you everything here you’re going to be very very satisfied The humor here is to be found in the exaggerated nature of the description, it takes the form of an overgeneralization (we’re going to tell you everything here) and of an exaggeration to an extreme extent (let’s talk about something really useful, you’re going to be very very satisfied). It serves the purpose of breaking the ice and making the students more at ease. Hyperbole is a common type of humor mostly to be found in the opening and closing sections of lectures as evidenced in the MICASE corpus (Lee, 2006). Previous research (Ohlrogge & Tsang, 2004) has shown that hyperbole tends to be avoided in academic speech since lecturers tend to be very accurate when developing their ideas and do not appear to exaggerate when talking about their subject matter. There were some instances of black humor in the data. Extract 5 comes from the Electronic Mass Media Technology course, a laboratory course where the teacher and students are having a discussion about their final-term projects at the end of the lecture. Extract 5 Teacher: By the way each one of you who wants to be virtually present in the system that we used last week you can send me an e-mail and we will do it of course you will be in Canada I think and the time will be a little different but if you really want to participate just tell me and I will change the time for you we can all wear pajamas to class Student: Can I give you my project by the middle of June? Teacher: Until the last day you are in Greece you are leaving your bones in the lab The episode that involves black humor (you are leaving your bones in the lab) relieves the tension of the student as to the deadline of the project. Black humor is quite common in the native speaker corpora, however only 3 instances were identified here. Another type of humor identified in the data is that of the personal anecdote where the teacher narrates a story with a humorous effect. The following story comes at the end of a lecture on International Relations when the students are discussing their projects; the atmosphere is relaxed and they are only a handful of students in the classroom. Extract 6 I had the most horrible experience from Italian taxi-drivers They are as we say in Greece ‘arpachtable’. (i.e. try to rip you off) they cannot be compared to anyone else they were telling me take a taxi-driver with a meter so I would ask do you have a meter? of course I would go in the taxi where is the meter? it is broken do you know? what can you do? The purpose of the story, as the teacher later explained in the interview, was to release the tension in the class after the lecture and also to build rapport with the students; he was sure that they had heard or even experienced similar incidents with taxi-drivers in the southern part of Europe. It is interesting that the teacher uses some form of code-switching in this episode. Although he does not seem to know the English word for someone who tries to overcharge you he does not appear to be daunted and he forms a Greek-English blend (arpachtable) with the Greek word αρπαχτή (a rip-off) and the English suffix -able to mark it as an adjective. The students later said in the interviews that they understood the meaning of this blend from the context.
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Extract 7 is another example of personal anecdote which directly follows the previous one where the lecturer narrates what happened to him with another taxi-driver in Italy. This episode combines two types of humor, the personal anecdote and that of register as we notice the use of taboo language. Extract 7 In Italy I once asked a taxi driver to take me to we were a big company of men in somewhere near NATO in Napoli that was back in 1992 a group of journalists and academics you know the Americans took us to NATO so after the meeting with the generals there we the same taxi driver yeah he was always in front of us we tell him take us to a club we meant a bar to drink something you know and he misunderstood and he was driving driving driving after about two hours we arrived at some very dark place he says the club is here you know so we go down the stairs and it was it was a brothel full of whores and you know we were searching for him to tell him that he misunderstood probably the word club in Italian means something else rather than bar be careful with the words you choose in international politics the wrong word can get you in serious trouble (.) but they were really terrible they would ask us what do you want to eat? spaghetti ah to my sister’s It is interesting to note here the use of taboo language, the frequency of which is usually low in academic discourse. Mild swearing consisting of old-fashioned or time-worn words can occasionally be found in the MIKASE corpus (Lee, 2006) and four-letter words sometimes make an appearance in the BASE corpus (Nesi, 2012). The use of mild vulgarity may have a social management role, as the lecturers try to break the ice and build rapport. It may also be seen as an attempt on the part of the lecturers to create a positive face by appearing spontaneous. What also deserves some attention here is the final remark of the lecturer regarding the misunderstanding of the word club by the taxi driver. He urges the students to be careful with the words they choose as “in international politics the wrong word can get you in serious trouble”. Therefore, humor seems to serve a pedagogical purpose in this episode as the teacher tries to make the content of his lecture memorable to the students. Previous research has highlighted the pedagogical use of humor in education and its importance in increasing student learning and participation (Neuliep, 1991; White, 2001). 4. Discussion and conclusion The question that inevitably needs to be addressed here is: “Is it possible to fully experience humor when using (and lecturing in) a foreign language?” There is, however, no straightforward answer as the use of humor varies from individual to individual (there are people with no sense of humor in any language) and from culture to culture. Humor can be culture-specific; it is common knowledge that even native speakers of the same language coming from different cultural backgrounds (e.g. British and Americans) are prone to misunderstandings when cultural references are made. And the situation is made even more complicated with lingua franca interaction. The findings of the present study, which involved an ELF academic setting, reveal that lecturers, although non-native speakers of English and addressing an audience of students coming from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, use humor to build rapport, to manage anxiety and to maintain social order in the classroom. Occasionally, the lecturers seem to draw on their L1 resources for help (translating literally an idiom from Greek into English, or using some form of mild code-switching as in blending a Greek and an English word) but this does not seem to hinder the humorous effect on the students. Indeed, this could be a creative strategy on the part of the lecturers which they use deliberately in an effort to preserve their humor and spontaneity in a language other than their L1.
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Finally, we need to consider the pedagogical implications of the present study, especially since we are dealing with an ELF context. It is well-known that unlike local or national languages ELF is an international medium of communication and as such it has no native speakers and no prevalent cultural norms (Seidlhofer, 2011). Therefore, it could be argued that it is everyone’s property. Since it lacks native speakers and a native culture, it may also lack culture-specific pragmatic aspects such as idioms, collocations, slang, puns, and, consequently, humor. However, the present study points to the existence of humor in academic ELF. A question that, evidently, arises is whether English for Academic Purposes courses which address students coming from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds should involve teaching ‘humor awareness’ or strategies for recognizing and responding to humor. Some pedagogical consciousness-raising tasks aimed at helping students decipher the various types and functions of humor in academia would be helpful, including activities on the culture-specific uses of humor. What we should bear in mind, however, is that humor is universal and that it has the potential to create connections among people from different nationalities and cultures. Thus it would be useful to highlight cross-cultural similarities in forms and functions of humor in order to give students the opportunity to compare their own cultural patterns with those of their fellow-students and to examine real examples of humor coming from native speaker and ELF corpora. Humor is a fundamental part of life and its understanding (or misunderstanding) should be openly discussed. Therefore, it would not be unreasonable to suggest that incomprehension of humor in academic ELF should be given some space for open negotiation, exchange and feedback. About the author Marina Tzoannopoulou is a lecturer at the School of Journalism and Mass Communications, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. She holds an M. Phil. in Applied Linguistics from Trinity College Dublin and a PhD in Linguistics from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. She currently teaches courses in Academic Writing and English for Specific Purposes. Her research interests lie in the areas of second language acquisition, English for Specific Purposes, Content and Language Integrated Learning and English as a Lingua Franca. She has published in journals and international conference proceedings and has co-edited books in applied linguistics. E-mail:
[email protected]
References Attardo, S. (2001). Humorous texts: A semantic and pragmatic analysis. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Bell, N. D. (2009). Learning about and through humor in the second language classroom. Language Teaching Research, 13(3), 241-258. Bryant, J., Comisky, P. W., Crane, J. S., & Zillmann, D. (1980). Relationship between college teachers' use of humor in the classroom and students' evaluations of their teachers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(4), 511-519. Carey, R. (2014). A closer look at laughter in academic talk: A reader response. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 14, 118-123. Dudley-Evans, T. (1994). Variations in discourse patterns. In J. Flowerdew (Ed.), Academic listening: Research perspectives (pp. 146–158). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fine, G. A., & Soucey, M. D. (2005). Joking cultures: Humor themes as social regulation in group life. International Journal of Humor Research, 18(1), 1-22. Frymier, A. B., Wanzer, M. B., & Wojtaszczyk, A. M. (2008). Assessing students' perceptions of inappropriate and appropriate teacher humor. Communication Education, 57(2), 266-288. Glenn, P. J. (2003). Laughter in interaction. Studies in interactional sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goffman, E. (1981). The lecture. In E. Goffman (Ed.), Forms of talk (pp. 162–195). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Holmes, J. (2006). Sharing a laugh: Pragmatic aspects of humor and gender in the workplace. Journal of Pragmatics, 38(1), 26-50. Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Lee, D. Y. (2006). Humor in spoken academic discourse. NUCB Journal of Language, Culture and Communication, 8(3), 49-68. Mauranen, A. (2012). Exploring ELF: Academic English shaped by non-native speakers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Morell, T. (2004). Interactive lecture discourse for university EFL students. English for Specific Purposes, 23(3), 325–338. Nesi, H. (2012). Laughter in university lectures. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 11(2), 79-89. Nesi, H. (2014). A closer look at laughter in academic talk: A response to Carey. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 15, 48-49. Neuliep, J. W. (1991). An examination of the content of high school teachers' humor in the classroom and the development. Communication Education, 40(4), 343. Norrick, N. R. (1993). Conversational joking: Humor in everyday talk. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Norrick, N. R., & Chiaro, D. (Eds.). (2009). Humor in interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Ohlrogge, A., & Tsang, J. (2004). Hyperbole in academic and research speech? MICASE Kibbizer 3. Ross, A. (1998). The language of humour. London: Routledge. Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wang, Y. (2014). Humor in British academic lectures and Chinese students’ perceptions of it. Journal of Pragmatics, 68, 80-93. White, G. W. (2001). Teachers' report of how they used humor with students perceived use of such humor. Education, 122(2), 337-347. Zhang, Q. (2005). Immediacy, humor, power distance and classroom communication apprehension in Chinese college classrooms. Communication Quarterly, 53(1), 109–124.
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Ishikawa, T. (2016). Japanese university students’ attitudes towards their English: Open-ended email questionnaire study. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 87-94). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece. .
Japanese university students’ attitudes towards their English: Open-ended email questionnaire study Tomokazu Ishikawa Abstract English is currently used as a global lingua franca (ELF), involving people from diverse socio-linguacultural backgrounds (e.g., Seidlhofer, 2011; Jenkins, 2015). However, as a former English teacher in Japan, I observed many Japanese students see no tangible connection between themselves and ELF. Indeed, they appeared overtly pejorative about their own English, or more generally, Japanese people’s English. To investigate these issues, my research explores the following two research questions with reference to ELF theories: 1) How do Japanese university students orient to Japanese people’s English including their own? and 2) What factors are associated with the students’ orientations, and how do these factors work to form their orientations? My research theorises people’s orientations to language as language attitudes, in other words, the evaluative concepts directed to a linguistic phenomenon (e.g., Niedzielski & Preston, 1999/2003; Preston, 2010). To answer the above research questions, an open-ended email questionnaire was disseminated, through my intermediaries, to 516 Japanese students at leading Japanese universities. Of this number, 95 students sent back their completed questionnaires, to which I applied qualitative content analysis (e.g., Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014; Schreier, 2012). As the preliminary findings of the first research question, my respondents’ two sets of evaluative concepts (i.e., attitudes) were identified as underlying their generally negative accounts. The first set of negative attitudes was the perceived prioritisation of ‘correctness’ in American and possibly British English as a Native Language (ENL) at the expense of effective oral communication. The second set of negative attitudes was a deficit perspective on Japanese-influenced English use. Also, as the preliminary findings of the second research question, it seems that school English and English tests collaboratively presented to my respondents geographicallybounded ‘correct’ ENL in the US and possibly the UK as the English. Provisional pedagogical implications are briefly discussed at the end.
Keywords: language attitudes, English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), English education in Japan, sociolinguistics, social psychology of language
1. Rationale and research questions The impetus for my research stems from both my English teaching experience in Japan and my encounter with Jenkins (2000). As a former English teacher at institutions for university-entranceexam preparation, I had opportunities to teach upper secondary school students who aimed to enrol in leading Japanese universities. Although teaching them was rewarding, I was not satisfied that many of them appeared overtly pejorative about their own English, occasionally with the excuse that they were Japanese. Meanwhile, as a part-time Masters student, I happened to read Jenkins’s (2000) monograph on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). Casting a sceptical eye on the sole ownership of English on the part of particular nationalities (e.g., Widdowson, 1994), she presents empirical evidence to demonstrate how English can be used internationally without sacrificing diverse socio-linguacultural identities. Even though her focus confines itself to phonology, she left me delighted at the positive feelings of freedom and independence as an international English user – freedom from and independence of the nationalistic “doctrines of linguistic correctness” (Woolard and Schieffelin, 1994, p. 64) enshrined even in an international setting, irrespective of intelligibility. While delighted, I realised that the possible lack of ELF perspectives through some factors in Japan might have something to do with my former students’ negative orientations to their own English, or more generally, to Japanese people’s English. It seems that university undergraduates are in a good position to offer some insight to my research because they are highly intelligent and also able to draw on school, university preparation and university experiences. Some studies have been concerned with how Japanese people perceive ‘Japanese English’ vis-à-vis the global spread of English (e.g., Matsuda, 2003; Jenkins, 2007). Indeed, a few of them specifically target Japanese university students from a quantitative research approach (McKenzie, 2010; Sasayama, 2013). However, at present, there seem to be few qualitative research counterparts. In addition, taking account of global English use, scarcely any research has
Centre for Global Englishes, University of Southampton:
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explored the factors associated with Japanese orientations to Japanese people’s English. Thus, bearing ELF theories in mind, my research aims to explore the two research questions below. How do Japanese university students orient to Japanese people’s English including their own? What factors are associated with the students’ orientations, and how do these factors work to form their orientations? 2. Theoretical framework In order to theorise people’s orientations to language, my research borrows the commonly used academic term language attitudes. Accordingly, my theoretical framework consists of not only ELF but also language attitudes. Integrating diverse theoretical arguments, my research identifies language attitudes with a reservoir of evaluative (i.e., some degree of positive or negative) concepts directed to a linguistic phenomenon (e.g., Niedzielski & Preston, 1999/2003; Preston, 2010). Even though language attitudes are expressed as and inferable from observable responses, such as verbal accounts, these responses are not language attitudes per se, but are constructed in a situational context based on the underlying evaluative concepts (e.g., Eagly & Chaiken, 2007; Potter & Wetherell, 1987). While ‘cognitive’ language-attitude responses can be regarded as beliefs about language, they may well be inevitably imbued with affect (e.g., Cunningham & Zelazo, 2007), thus not necessarily a distinguishable construct. My research also draws on ELF theories. As a result of the global expansion of English, people from different socio-linguacultural backgrounds use English for lingua franca communication in and across all three Kachruvian circles (e.g., Seidlhofer, 2011; Jenkins, 2015). The ‘correctness’ in geographically-bounded English varieties is not pertinent to ELF communication, but instead, any given communicative needs take priority (e.g., Cogo & Dewey, 2012). At the same time, accommodation to listeners/readers is key not only for the purpose of intelligibility but also for the sake of interactants’ socio-linguacultural identities (e.g., Jenkins, 2000; 2014). In so doing, ELF interactants may employ their linguistic resources as bi- or multilinguals dynamically and situationally, although ELF communication may include monolingual native English speakers (NESs) who can accommodate their English as necessary (e.g., Jenkins, Cogo, & Dewey, 2011). While the same first-language (L1) users in the expanding circle probably share parallel L1 influence, the concept of variety in the traditional sense does not apply to their English, because there is no English speech community for them (e.g., Mauranen, 2012). These two sets of theories lay a foundation for answering my research questions. More precisely, my research infers Japanese university students’ language attitudes and explores associative factors with reference to ELF theories by way of their accounts. 3. Method Jenkins (2014) provides a precedent, demonstrating that an open-ended email questionnaire may serve as a research tool for profound exploration, as long as respondents have the capability to express themselves in written words and feel the theme very relevant to them. Seeing that my participants were all highly intelligent, and that my research enquiry was their English, I adopted her questionnaire method so that my enquiry would be open to “the range of possible answers” (e.g., Dörnyei & Taguchi, 2010, p. 36). The pilot questionnaire, with which I found no major problem, was conducted at a UK university. The main study questionnaire and attached participant information sheet were emailed, between January and June 2014, through my 25 intermediaries, to 516 Japanese university students (including seven postgraduates who were accidentally involved). Both the questionnaire and attached sheet were written bilingually in Japanese and English. Out of that number (i.e., 516), 94 undergraduates and one first-year Masters student sent back their completed questionnaires. The ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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questionnaire from this Masters student was included as valid data, given that my respondents included year 5 undergraduates. The respondents were students at one of the following fifteen universities, which all have a high academic reputation in Japan: the national institutions of Kyoto, Osaka, Tokyo and Tsukuba, and the private institutions of Doshisha, the Jikei University School of Medicine, Kansai, Keio, Kwansei Gakuin, Meiji, Rikkyo, Ritsumeikan, Sophia, the Tokyo University of Science, and Waseda. The respondents’ disciplines ranged widely across arts and humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and medicine. It should be admitted that an email questionnaire is not without limitations. First of all, it is not certain that targeted respondents have completed it alone. In addition, respondents can answer it through any terminal (e.g., iPad) and in any place, thereby possibly influencing the data (Robson, 2011). Furthermore, the response rate tends to be low (e.g., Bryman, 2012) and even lower in the case of an open-ended questionnaire (Jenkins, 2014). In my research, I needed to recruit additional intermediaries in the process, hoping that the number of my respondents would reach at least 100. 4. Analytical framework As the sole constituent of my analytical framework, I employed qualitative content analysis (e.g., Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014; Schreier, 2012), by which I mean coding the written data, integrating the assigned codes into a smaller number of hierarchically organised categories, and interpreting the relationships between the developed categories as well as between the codes under the same or different categories. In effect, by way of categorising and connecting (Maxwell & Miller, 2008), qualitative content analysis, such as mine, works towards capturing “the deep structural meaning conveyed by the message” (Berg & Lune, 2012, p. 355, emphasis in original). My analytical framework suits language-attitude theories in my theoretical framework. As the theories identify language attitudes as a conceptual reservoir on which a respondent’s accounts about language are based, it is the above-mentioned deep structural level that my analysis needed to reach. My analysis was also conducive to exploring not only “what” but also “how” (in my second research question) by adding interpretive depth and breadth through the trilogy of coding, categorising and interpreting. Seeing no plausible reason to do otherwise, I treated each questionnaire question separately in analysis. Due to word limitation, this paper omits actual codes, categories and interpretation process. 5. Preliminary findings The questionnaire consisted of ten items, among which question 9 simply asked for an optional email address. Out of my 95 respondents, 64 submitted their email addresses, enabling me to pursue their questionnaire answers in later emails. The final analysis being in progress, this section reports preliminary findings under each research question. It should be noted that since almost all the respondents answered in Japanese, all the quotations in this section are my translations into English. 5.1 Research question 1
The questionnaire included four items to explore my first research question. These were questions 1, 3, 4 and 5. Question 1 was: In your view, what is positive and/or negative about Japanese people’s English? Overall, my respondents’ accounts were considerably skewed to the negative side. Even though positive comments were somewhat noticeable on grammatical knowledge, reading skills and, to some extent, writing skills, 89 answers (out of 95) argued that Japanese people were weak in their actual English use, mostly in oral communication. In fact, no positive comments appeared on English oral communication, except that Japanese people might be polite and sincere to their interlocutors, and that their English might be easy at least for fellow Japanese to understand. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Importantly, across those 89 answers, two sets of negative evaluative concepts (i.e., attitudes) manifested themselves. First, while none of my respondents appeared to doubt the equation of ‘correct’ English as a Native Language (ENL) with ‘good’ English at any linguistic levels (e.g., phonology, lexis, grammar), they indicated that Japanese people’s perceived prioritisation and thus high evaluation of ‘correctness’ in ENL, mainly in terms of grammar, would hinder oral communication. As one example: As for their weakness, having been made to cram grammar into their heads too much, Japanese people worry about grammatical mistakes and become obsessed with perfect sentence structure when speaking English. (Respondent 1, Waseda) This answer implies that Japanese people attach more importance to grammatical ‘accuracy’ than conveying message. Similar concerns emerged across the universities involved. Second, along with a possible lack of usable English vocabulary and idiomatic expressions, my respondents seemed to regard Japanese-influenced English use as deficient, mostly without discussing the issue of intelligibility, or possibly with their presumption that needless to say, such was not intelligible. As one example: The weaknesses include the tendency not to be able to avoid Japanese-influenced English words and sentence structures. (Respondent 2, Rikkyo) The assumption here is that the Japanese influence should always be avoided. Some respondents offered a more specific criticism of Japanese people’s English as not straightforward in expression (for example, “euphemistic” or “circumlocutory”), while assuming such to be always problematic. As another example: As for their weakness, Japanese people … use a unique intonation (katakana pronunciation etc.). (Respondent 3, Tokyo) The assumption here is that including intonation, Japanese people’s “unique” pronunciation itself is a “weakness”, although it is true that the pronunciation derived from Japanese phonograms katakana may undermine intelligibility (e.g., Jenkins, 2000). All the above considered, it is no wonder if Japanese people are shy about, unconfident in, or even reluctant about speaking English. Such is the situation which some respondents explicitly claimed was the case. Question 3 was: What about your own English in relation to questions 1 and 2? Only the relation to question 1 is the target here. My respondents’ accounts were akin to those in question 1, except that 22 respondents saw themselves as somewhat better in English oral communication than other Japanese people. These 22 respondents’ accounts seemed to consider Japanese people’s English oral communication ability in general to be poor, and nativelike competence in English oral interaction, particularly that close to American NESs, to be the most desirable. Question 4 was: What word(s) would you use to describe Japanese people’s English? (for example, “beautiful”). Again, my respondents’ main concern was Japanese people’s perceived lack of ability in actual English use, mostly in oral communication. Even though many respondents wrote only words or short phrases, 70 answers pertained to this lack of ability. Among these 70 answers, 23 included pejorative words, such as “awkward”, “inadequate”, and the like. Again, my respondents suggested that the same two sets of negative attitudes as found in question 1 (mentioned above) underpinned their concern with this particular aspect of Japanese ability. Perhaps as a corollary of these attitudes, some respondents claimed English in Japan to be either learned for knowledge or a symbol of effort, independently of its communication function. Two examples (below) are:
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For the purpose of studying, but not using. (Respondent 4, Keio) This respondent expressed the view in the previous questionnaire questions that even if Japanese school students did not need English outside their classrooms, they were supposed to gain its knowledge. Thus, her answer implies that knowledge itself is the target to learn in the school English classroom. Proof of effort! (Respondent 5, Rikkyo) This respondent later discussed in an email how much effort she and her peers had devoted to English, despite not being confident in speaking English. It could possibly be extrapolated that English functioned as an effort indicator in the form of test scores for my respondents. Question 5 was: What word(s) would you use to describe your own English? (for example, “beautiful”). My respondents’ answers about their own perceived lack of ability to use English, mostly in oral communication, were prevalent. Again, although many respondents wrote only words or short phrases, 79 answers pertained to this lack of ability. Among these 79 answers, 39 included pejorative words, again, such as “awkward”, “inadequate”, and the like. Such being the case, at least some respondents were unconfident in English oral communication, possibly also feeling unsure of being able to make sense to NESs, as was the case with this respondent. I have no idea whether I can get my message across. (Respondent 6, Tsukuba) Having said that, according to this respondent’s later email, she had some experiences of successful English communication in continental Europe. She apologised in the same email that she could not recall any communication instances with NESs. Indeed, including her, 29 respondents suggested in their questionnaires and/or later emails, without being prompted, that their English should be understandable to NESs. On the other hand, despite being relatively confident in English oral communication, a few respondents seemed dissatisfied with their own spoken English due to its ‘inaccuracy’, mainly in terms of grammar, and its Japanese influence. Given the significant role that American and British people’s English seems to play in Japanese university students’ attitudes towards English (e.g., McKenzie, 2010; Evans & Imai, 2011), the questionnaire included questions 6 and 7. Question 6 was: What do you think about American people’s English? Question 7 was: What do you think about British people’s English? The answers to question 6 mostly admired American people’s English, including its assumed high intelligibility. Example phrases are “absolute authority” (Respondent 7, Waseda), “real English” (Respondent 8, Kwansei Gakuin), and “the English generally accepted in the world” (Respondent 9, Keio). On the other hand, the answers to question 7 tended to describe a relative unfamiliarity with and only a moderate acceptance of British people’s English along with its assumed low intelligibility. The questionnaire also included question 8: Please comment freely on English used by people not mentioned above (i.e., those who are not American, British or Japanese). Even though comments on low intelligibility, often with reference to accentedness, were noticeable, my respondents still tended to view those other people as better English speakers than Japanese. Also, a very few respondents touched on the existence of indigenised types of English in the world, and none of them saw Japanese people’s English as such a type. Moreover, while another few respondents observed international English users prioritising communicative needs rather than conformity to ENL, it seems clear that none of them was entirely positive about this phenomenon. 5.2 Research question 2
The questionnaire included two items to explore my second research question. These were questions 2 and 3. Question 2 was: What experiences make you say “positive” and/or “negative”? My respondents tended to discuss the Japanese educational context. Indeed, 64 respondents (out of ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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95) placed some blame on school English, English tests and/or English use at university inside Japan. Regarding secondary education, my respondents indicated that school English marginalised communication use, particularly in oral interaction, and emphasised the importance of ‘correct’ American and possibly British ENL not influenced by Japanese, mainly through grammar, in conjunction with reading and, to some extent, writing. In their view, this school English was in accordance with English tests, particularly entrance exams. Two examples describing such coupling of school English with English tests are: I think both school English education and English for university entrance exams specialise in the same thing. (Respondent 10, Osaka) This respondent later added in an email that both focused extensively on ‘correct’ grammar and reading. Thus, her answer implies that both are likely to disregard communication use. Through English classes, Japanese students will become relatively good at reading, writing and grammar in tests. But I often see them thinking too much or hesitating when speaking English. (Respondent 11, Ritsumeikan) This respondent later claimed in an email that Japanese English education before university would instil apprehension about making ‘mistakes’. Her answer implies, then, that school English in Japan is primarily a subject for paper tests. Regarding tertiary education, my respondents suggested that Japanese university students could have few opportunities to use English regularly with foreign people, except possibly with North American or other NES English instructors. They also clearly suggested that a Japanese university English classroom was likely to make L1 Japanese speakers use English among themselves, however unlikely this is to happen in real-world communication. Outside the educational context, my respondents appeared to have few opportunities to use English in Japan. Also, a small number of respondents suggested two things: first, my respondents regarded English-origin loanwords in Japanese as no longer English, and second, they regarded it as a matter of course that teachers from the inner circle would predominate in private, commercialised eikaiwa (English conversation) schools. Meanwhile, even my respondents’ experiences abroad did not allow them to see second-language (L2) English in its own right. One respondent, for example, described the “non-native” English she had heard in a Middle East country as “messed up in grammar” and “not properly educated” (Respondent 12, Tsukuba). It may be that their language attitudes, formed inside Japan, set limitations on how to view other people’s English abroad. Again, question 3 was: What about your own English in relation to questions 1 and 2? Only the relation to question 2 is the target here. My respondents generally did not seem to have anything new to say after question 2. Accordingly, no major difference emerged between the answers to questions 3 and 2. All things considered, it seems that both school English and English tests served as main factors in forming my respondents’ language attitudes, on which English use at university did not add any major influence. Meanwhile, it seems unlikely that their daily lives and even experiences abroad had any counter influence on their language attitudes. The questionnaire also included question 10, which asked for optional further comments on my research. My respondents’ comments included their encouragement, the difficulty they had in answering the questionnaire, and their concerns about Japanese people’s and/or their own English oral communication ability. There emerged nothing remarkably new in relation to either research question 1 or 2.
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6. Summary and provisional pedagogical implications Through qualitative content analysis in the light of ELF theories, my respondents’ two sets of negative attitudes became manifest, and underlay their generally negative accounts about Japanese people’s and their own English. The first set of negative attitudes was the perceived prioritisation of ‘correctness’ in American and possibly British ENL, mainly in terms of grammar, at the expense of effective oral communication. The second set of negative attitudes was a deficit perspective on Japanese-influenced English use. It seems that school English and English tests collaboratively presented to my respondents geographically-bounded ‘correct’ ENL in the US and possibly the UK as the English, without heeding how to make use of classroom knowledge for real-world international and intercultural communication or valuing the exploitation of plurilingual resources. Given the native-speakerism (e.g., Holliday, 2006; Houghton & Rivers, 2013) indicated by answers across questionnaire questions, it may be that my respondents valued Japanese people’s and their own English only in terms of how much it resembled ENL, mostly American ENL. I do not claim the enhancement of ELF awareness in Japanese English education to be a panacea for alleviating such negative attitudes as expressed by my respondents. However, if the Japanese English classroom regards English as an international language rather than a national language of a particular country, it might be worthwhile not only to introduce the global diversity of English but also to provide opportunities to use English for lingua franca communication, possibly via online communication, and discuss, for example, the following questions. When English is used in an international setting, what do you think constitutes correctness in English communication? what do you think is the rationale for trying to avoid all the Japanese-influenced English use without much consideration of the issue of intelligibility? Such discussion might assist Japanese students in preparing themselves, as international English users, not simply to “replicate what is taught, but use it as a means for developing effective communicative strategies related to their own [socio-lingua]cultural reality” (Wen, 2012, p. 373). Acknowledgements I gratefully acknowledge the financial aid provided by the Gen Foundation, London. Also, I would like to thank Erin Bruni Suzuki (Shorin Global Junior & Senior High School) for her invaluable comments and suggestions. About the author Tomokazu Ishikawa is a PhD candidate at the University of Southampton, a member of the University’s Centre for Global Englishes, and a former English teacher at Japanese institutions for university-entrance-exam preparation. He holds an MA from Teachers College, Columbia University, and an LLB from Keio University. Email:
[email protected]
References Berg, B. L., & Lune, H. (2012). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (8th ed.). London: Pearson. Bryman, A. (2012). Social research methods (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2012). Analysing English as a lingua franca: A corpus-driven investigation. London: Continuum. Cunningham, W. A., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Attitudes and evaluations: A social cognitive neuroscience perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 97–104. Dörnyei, Z., & Taguchi, T. (2010). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction, administration, and processing (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Başer, B. (2016). Positioning in ELF interactions. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 95-102). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Positioning in ELF interactions Berat Başer Abstract When people communicate with others whose values and lingua-culture they share and with whom they have similar schematic knowledge, they can quite quickly position themselves in relation to the other, because of the social conventions that they both subscribe to. If the people communicating do not share a language and familiarity with shared values, as is the case in using English as a lingua franca (ELF), then they have got work to do to establish a position. How, then, do ELF speakers use English to establish relative positions in their interactions? This paper reports on the early stages of an exploration of this question. It outlines the issues that arise, through a synthesis of the following three related approaches: the Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975), the Speech Act Theory (Searle, 1969, 1979) and Labov’s sociolinguistics (Labov, 1972). The concepts and findings of these three approaches in the literature have been related to samples of ELF data from Vienna Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE), in order to arrive at a useful operational framework for the empirical analysis of how positioning is enacted more specifically in ELF interactions. All three approaches have to do with preconceived assumptions in communication, regarding how a speaker should position the hearer in order to ensure that effective communication takes place. There is a strong connection, for instance, between the uncooperative flouting of the maxims of the Cooperative Principle, and not fulfilling the Speech Act Theory’s conditions necessary to perform non-defective illocutionary acts. Searle discusses that there are some conditions that have to be contextually met for a particular utterance to count as a certain illocutionary force. The conditions Labov mentions, on the other hand, are much more social conditions, i.e. more related to social factors, such as status and power.
Keywords: Communicative conventions, positioning in ELF, meaning making, illocutionary force, mitigation, intercultural pragmatics.
1. Introduction This paper addresses the issues arising in the early stages of an investigation of how English as a lingua franca (ELF) speakers use English to establish relative positions in their interactions. If the people communicating do not share a language and familiarity with shared values, as is the case in using English as a lingua franca, then they have got work to do to establish a position. How, then, do ELF speakers use English to establish relative positions in their interactions? This paper reports on the early stages of an exploration of this question. It outlines the issues that arise, through a synthesis of the following three related approaches: the Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975), the Speech Act Theory (Searle, 1969, 1979) and Labov’s sociolinguistics (Labov, 1972). These are three of the approaches that deal with preconceived assumptions in communication, regarding how a speaker positions the hearer in order to ensure that effective communication takes place. Then, the interconnected concepts of these three approaches are related to one sample of ELF data from Vienna Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE). 2. General remarks on positioning People have been acting together to accomplish some tasks through communication for centuries. How, then, do they communicate? How do they understand what their conversational partner(s) mean? In order to find an answer to these questions, let’s start our investigation with a look at a general model of communication. P1 (sender) makes contact with P2 (receiver) to get some meaning across. This meaning can be described in Speech Act terms. So, what does Speech Act Theory tell us about it? For speech acts to be successfully enacted – for P1 to engage with P2- there has to be cooperation. So this leads on to a discussion of the co-operative principle where intentionally
University of Vienna, Department of English. Email:
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flouting the maxims results in implicatures – which relate to perlocutionary effects. One way of thinking about co-operative behavior is in terms of Labov’s sociolinguistics – so what does Labov’s formulation tell us about that? In Grice’s Co-operative Principle, the speaker flouts the maxims in order to show his position in relation to what has been said, and in order to make it more acceptable, accessible, and imposing to the hearer (Widdowson, 2012, p. 13). According to Widdowson (2012, p. 15), there are two imperatives in communication, the territorial and communicative imperatives. Territorial imperative is “the natural urge to assert one’s own personal space and protect it against intrusion” (Widdowson, 2007, p. 63), and “co-operation is a communicative imperative” (Widdowson, 2012, pp. 3-4). The former is the reason for the violation of the maxims, and the latter is the cause of observing the maxims. So, as Widdowson (2007, p. 64) states, one reason for not observing the maxims is to establish territorial rights and to present one’s self. The other reason is that co-operation necessitates intrusion on the territory of the other. This should be tactfully managed. Invading the other’s territory may not be liked by the other, and it can cause offense, embarrassment, and force the other to make an adjustment that (s)he is not ready to make. In return, the other may create the same problems for you. As such, it is to our benefit to keep good relationships with the other by respecting each other’s wants and rights (Widdowson, 2007, p. 64). In Grice’s Co-operative Principle, there are maxims for conversational engagement that every participant is expected to obey. These maxims are contextually constrained and very general (Widdowson, 2004, p. 52). The Co-operative Principle says “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” (Grice, 1975, p. 46). According to Widdowson (2004, p. 52), the contributions that participants make are required by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk (Widdowson, 2004, p.52). Therefore, their utterances are formulated to correspond to some agreed pattern of interaction (Widdowson, 2004, pp. 52- 53). This pattern is considered as suitable for the occasion. Participants understand the type of the exchange that they are involved in, and behave accordingly. Co-operation requires conformity to certain conventions that define kinds of communication; or, to put it another way, to what is interpersonal schemata (Widdowson, 2004, p. 53). Interpersonal schemata are customary ways in which participants engage with others, and conventions participants take for granted that relate to how participants interact with each other (Widdowson, 2007, p. 33). It can, then, only be possible to realize that the maxims are being disregarded or flouted in connection with the accepted schematic conventions. This would be true for spoken and written discourse. It is not possible to think that the maxims can be violated in a way that is isolated from the schema (Widdowson, 2004, p. 53). “If you say that an instance of speech or writing is obscure, or over-elaborate, or irrelevant as such, without regard to what is required by its accepted purpose, then you are making a statement about text in dissociation from the discourse it is designed to realize” (Widdowson, 2004, p. 53). To illustrate, when the language user, in a legal document, uses prolix and obscure expressions on the condition that people accept such expressions as conventionally appropriate to their purpose, it cannot be said that the manner maxim requiring him / her to be perspicuous is violated (Widdowson, 2004, p. 53). “Implicatures would arise if the expressions were not appropriately prolix and obscure. Similarly, in an obituary, or other kinds of ritual encomium, the quality or quantity maxims are not violated by being economical with the truth” (Widdowson, 2004, p. 53). Widdowson (2004, p. 53) suggests that the same case is valid for ideational schemata -- “a mental construct of reality or frame of reference which represents a customary and predictable way of seeing things” (Widdowson, 2007, p. 130). Ideational schemata represents “what a group, large or small, considers to be customary, normal, natural ways of thinking about events” (Widdowson, 2007, p. 33). Similarly, assumptions about how the world is ordered and ideated by cultural convention regulate the Gricean maxims’ activation. Participants do not verbalize ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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the information that is recoverable schematically. When you have grounds to believe the truth has already been known, it is not possible to evade the truth by not mentioning it (Widdowson, 2004, p. 53). The maxims of Grice are engaged in the actualization of both ideational schemata and interpersonal schemata (Widdowson, 1984, p. 110). The sets of conditions that define illocutionary acts suggested by Searle (1969) or the ones proposed by Labov (1972) could be examples of interpersonal schemata (Widdowson, 1984, p. 110). Widdowson (2004, pp. 55-56) underlines that both Searle and Labov define conditions necessary for the act of request or command. Here is Searle’s account: Propositional content: Future act A of H Preparatory: 1. H is able to do A. S believes H is able to do A. 2. It is not obvious to both S and H that H will do A in the normal course of events of his own accord. Sincerity: S wants H to do A Essential: Counts as an attempt to get H to do A Comment: Order and command have the additional preparatory rule that S must be in a position of authority over H (Searle, 1969, p. 66).
The following is the account suggested by Labov for construing any utterance as a request for action (or command). (Widdowson, 2004, p. 56) suggests that “Labov’s formulation, as he points out, is focused on rights and obligations ‘which are plainly social constructs’ ”: If A requests B to perform an action X at a time T, A’s utterance will be heard as a valid command only if the following preconditions hold: B believes that A believes (= it is an AB- event that): (a) X needs to be done for a purpose Y (b) B has the ability to do X (c) B has the obligation to do X (d) A has the right to tell B to do X (Labov, 1972, p. 255).
Searle, in the Speech Act Theory, is concerned with “conventions of use at a level of philosophical abstraction, and focuses on the conditions that have to be (sic.) met for utterances to count as particular acts of communication” (Widdowson, 2004, p. 56). On the other hand, Labov’s definition is sociological rather than philosophical in orientation. It is different in the following aspects: it concentrates on the conventions affecting the way in which interactions are managed, and it makes use of the actually occurring conversational data (Widdowson, 2004, p. 56). The conditions Labov mentions are much more social conditions. Labov is concerned with social things; therefore, the conditions that he talks about are more related to social factors, such as status and power. As such, one can argue that the work of Labov complements and extends the work of Searle. To summarize, what these three approaches have in common is the assumption that P1 and P2 have a mutual knowledge of what is customary or conventional. But then what about people – like ELF users - who do not have this mutual knowledge of linguacultural conventions? How do they accommodate to each other, how does politeness work with them? How, in short, do they position themselves? 3. ELF data To find a possible answer to these questions, let’s move onto the authentic ELF example that I am going to bring to your attention now. It is taken from Vienna Oxford International Corpus
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of English (VOICE) and its ID number is: EDcon496. Its written text and audio recording is available in VOICE. It is a conversation between business students at a study booth at the university library in Amsterdam, Holland. It is taking place while the speakers are preparing the group presentation that they are going to make together in class tomorrow. Table 1 shows the speaker ID’s, and speakers’ sex, age, first language (L1), role in the conversation, and occupation. Table 1 Speaker information (http://voice.univie.ac.at) ID S1 S2
Sex male female
Age 25-34 25-34
L1 Role spa-VE participant eng-GY, dut-NL participant
Occupation business student business student
S3 S4 S5
male female female
25-34 25-34 17-24
ind-ID ger-AT ita- IT
business student linguistic researcher business student
participant researcher non-participant
3.1 The script of the ELF data (EDcon496, http://voice.univie.ac.at)
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4. Discussion What can I say with this bit of data? How far can my comments be informed by the concepts discussed in these three aforementioned approaches? Searle would say that there is a defect in S2’s utterance « i could bring a plate and chop your finger» (EDcon496: 588) when S2 says this to S1 right after saying « you want my cut? your paper cutter is better than mine you know » (EDcon496: 588). It would be difficult to count it as a threat or as a promise. S1 responds by telling S2 «oh you’re so: sweet you know» (EDcon496: 589), to which S2, in turn, responds with laughter. Then, S1 says « bring a plate and chop me finger you (.) you PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you (rasta1) » (EDcon496: 591) by switching to a variety of English spoken in Jamaica. Here, again, it is possible to bring in the notion of defect in relation to this particular data. These words of S1 do not count as an attempt by S1 to insult S2. The literal meaning of these words uttered is so bad that it could easily create offense. But, all in all, why would S1 want to insult S2 - why could he want to insult? There is no reason for this in the context. S2 does not take this as an insult. That is obvious from her reaction; she starts to laugh right after hearing « (..) you PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you (rasta2) » (EDcon496:591), rather than reacting in an angry way. Apparently, S1 switches from Standard English to a variety of English which is used in the Caribbean where S2 is from, and S2 acknowledges it. Also, the In line 591 of EDcon496 in VOICE, the word rasta is spelled wrongly. It should be rasclat, which is a deeply offensive term, used in Jamaican English. It is used throughout the Discussion Section of this paper in the way that it is misspelled in VOICE. 2 See Note 1. 1
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following utterances of S1, e. g. «i used to live with a jamaican in the states» (EDcon496: 593) make it apparent that his previous utterances are not meant to be an insult. If it is not possible to take these as insults, how can we explain them then? These utterances can be explained by another term from the Speech Act Theory: perlocutionary effect. S1 utters the words in line 591 in order to commune. So, by uttering these words, what S1 has in mind is to create a sense of togetherness, and closeness with S2. This is also the case in S2’s utterance: « i could bring a plate and chop your finger » (EDcon496: 588). Widdowson (2004, p. 79) would call these a pretext, a term used to refer to a primary motive, that is a pretension of doing one thing with the intention to do another thing. Widdowson (2004, p. 79) suggests that the definition of pretext can, then, be extended to cover perlocutionary purpose in general, and to explain such situations in casual conversations, (Widdowson, 2004, p. 85) says “Never mind about the meaning of the words as such, it is the effect that counts”. At the same time it is possible to propose that the co-operative imperative is not conformed to by S1 since he creates an irony when he tells S2 «oh you’re so: sweet you know» (EDcon496: 589) and « bring a plate and chop me finger you (.) you PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you (rasta3)» (EDcon496: 591). It can clearly be understood from S1’s accent and the word choice, e.g. rasclat (sic.), that he is imitating a variety of English spoken in Jamaica. Jamaica is one of the island countries in the Caribbean where S2 is from. This bit of information can help us understand the real meaning of the words uttered. S1 says these things to S2, right after being told «i could bring a plate and chop your finger» (EDcon496: 588) by S2. Most probably, S1 utters these words in order to signal that he does not believe that S2 really means that she could bring a plate and chop his finger. By uttering the words in (EDcon496: 589) and (EDcon496: 591), he most probably tried to signal that he acknowledges that S2 means something else other than the literal meanings of her words, and he follows the same strategy to respond to it. He, himself, repeats what she says, and, then, utters in a Jamaican accent some words which could offend people seriously if they are taken literally. Basically, he chooses to use the words uttered by his Jamaican ex-roommate. He states this in line 607. S1 and his ex-roommate must have had an informal relationship since they were roommates, which made S1 take his ex-roommate’s words as a sign of closeness, other than as an offense. S1’s audience, S2, understands that S1 does not believe in what S1 himself has said, and S2 is aware that S1 is sure that this is obvious to his audience. This is why S2 responds to it by laughing and giving him her impression of the kind of English accent he is imitating. If it is not the literal meanings of the words uttered that is taken into consideration by S1 and S2, what is it then? How can the Co-operative Principle explain this? Grice would say that both S1 and S2 are intentionally flouting the co-operative maxims and this results in implicatures – which relate to perlocutionary effects of the Speech Act Theory. This flouting of maxims results in an irony as Başer (2016, p. 298) puts it: Based on what Grice (1975 [1989]: 34) says about irony, it is possible to say that if the S1’s utterance is not entirely pointless, which does not seem to be the case, S1 must be trying to communicate some other proposition than the one he appears to be putting forward. This proposition must be a related one. What is the most related proposition is the contradictory of the one S1 appears to be putting forward. What S1 tries to communicate by telling S2 «(..) you PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you (rasta)» (EDcon496: 591) must be just the reverse of what he says.
In this example, S1 must be intending to communicate more than what is said; in other words, to exploit the maxim through irony, resulting in a conversational implicature, in order to create an effect. Most probably, S1 is trying to show his respect and appreciation for S2’s identity and where S2 comes from. 3
See Note 1.
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The same applies to S2’s utterance «i could bring a plate and chop your finger» (EDcon496: 588). This utterance is also a case in point. What S2 makes is an irony, and what it means is most probably just the reverse of what is said. With this utterance, S2 tries to show affection to S1 for his wounded finger. Related to this particular data, Labov would say that speakers are fellow students who are trying to prepare a presentation together, so they have no reason to offend each other. Labov would add that the preconditions necessary to construe this utterance as an offense do not hold in an obvious way. Labov would also say that S1 and S2 have equal power relationships. When S1 tells S2 «(..) you PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you (rasta4)» (EDcon496: 591), there is no reason for S2 to get offended since S1 is not in a position to impose anything onto S2 - they have similar power relationships. So, S2 understands that what S1 must be trying to communicate must be something different than what S1 is actually saying. We can see that from S2’s reaction. S2 starts to laugh, and starts to give explanations about the accent that S1 imitates, since S2 is from the region where this accent is spoken. The utterances of S1 are not taken as an offense, considering the social factors of the speakers effecting the communication. 5.
Conclusion
To conclude, we can perhaps think of the Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975), the Speech Act Theory (Searle, 1969, 1979) and Labov’s sociolinguistics (Labov, 1972) as essentially different perspectives on positioning, and all concerned with the tension between the co-operative and territorial imperatives. What all these approaches reveal is the pragmatic significance of positioning. Another point they have in common is the assumption that P1 and P2 have a mutual knowledge of what is customary or conventional. When it comes to understanding how ELF users – who do not have this mutual knowledge of linguacultural conventions – position themselves, this study reveals we need to analyze more data, which I am going to undertake in a follow-up study. About the author Berat Başer is an instructor in the School of Foreign Languages at Boğaziçi University, Turkey. She is currently a PhD candidate in the Department of English at the University of Vienna, Austria, working on English as a Lingua Franca for her dissertation. She holds an MA degree in English from the same department. She also holds a BA degree in Foreign Language Education from Boğaziçi University, and a BA minor in American Studies from the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Boğaziçi. Email:
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References Başer, Berat. (2016). Negotiating interpersonal relationships in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interactions. In E. Grazzi & L. Lopriore (Eds.), Intercultural Communication (pp. 291-300). Rome: Roma Tre University Press. Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics, Speech Acts, 3 (pp. 41- 58). New York: Academic Press. Labov, W. (1972). The study of language in its social context. In W. Labov (Ed.), Sociolinguistic Patterns (pp. 183 - 259). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Miššíková, R., Povolná, R., & Tomašcíková, S. (Eds.). The Interpersonal language function: Across genres and discourse domains (pp. 9-26). Ostrava: Universitas Ostraviensis. Searle, John R. (1969). Speech acts. London: Cambridge University Press.
4
See Note 1.
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Searle, John R. (1979). Expression and meaning: Studies in the theory of speech acts.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seidlhofer, B. 2014. VOICE: The Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of English (version 2.0 Online). Available at http://voice.univie.ac.at. Widdowson, H. (1984). Explorations in applied linguistics 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H. (2004). Text, context, and pretext: Critical issues in discourse analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Widdowson, H. (2007). Discourse analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H. (2012). Interpersonal positioning and genre conventions. In G. Miššíková, R. Povolná & S. Tomašcíková (Eds.). The interpersonal language function: Across genres and discourse domains (pp. 9-26). Ostrava: Universitas Ostraviensis.
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ELF AND MULTILINGUALISM Harushige Nakakoji presents the initial data from a study of plurilingual language use in an English-medium degree programme in Japan. Veronika Quinn Novotná’s study reports on successful and extensive use of ELF at international globally- and locally- based postsecondary schools, which derived from open and flexible attitudes to language use by both teachers and students. She draws pedagogical recommendations for both monolingual and multilingual institutions.
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Nakakoji, H. (2016). Plurilingual communication in science laboratory classrooms: A preliminary report on students’ interactive discourse in an English-medium degree programme in Japan. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 104-111). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Plurilingual communication in science laboratory classrooms: A preliminary report on students’ interactive discourse in an English-medium degree programme in Japan Harushige Nakakoji Abstract With a growing number of universities offering English-medium degree programmes worldwide, the role of English as an academic lingua franca seems to be expanding in the realm of higher education in various countries including Japan. This study highlights the distinct features of the interactive discourse by the first-year undergraduate students during laboratory sessions of an Englishmedium degree programme in science and engineering at a Japanese university. While the students in the programme are from a wide range of lingua-cultural backgrounds, the study mainly explores the plurilingual features of the language use by Japanese returnees and Chinese-speaking students in the programme. In the laboratory sessions, the students were engaged in tasks to work mostly in pairs on scientific experiments, and condensed edited audio-recordings of 227 minutes from nine pairs or triads in interaction with their peers, the lecturers, and the teaching assistants are analysed in this study. In particular, it illustrates the language choice and code-switching by the students in the contact situations where they tried to solve problems in completing tasks assigned in their pair or small-group work or understanding related academic content by communicating with their partner(s) or the instructor. Based on the preliminary findings from the data, this study highlights the roles played by English, the L1s, and L2s of the students in this lingua-culturally diverse community of learning where English functioned as a lingua franca to some extent, but the other languages, especially another common language among interactants (i.e., Japanese or Chinese), also served to the mutual understanding and meaning construction between them. Code-switching by Chinese speakers in a triad and the use of English for academic and technical terms in the interaction between a Japanese-speaking pair are also examined with specific examples from the transcribed data.
Keywords discourse analysis, ELF, EMI, plurilingual communication
1. Introduction The world-wide spread of English-medium instruction (EMI) and English-medium Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programmes is certainly one of the most remarkable phenomena characterising the past few decades in language education and related fields of study (Chang, 2010; Dalton-Puffer, Nikula, & Smit, 2010; Gill & Kirkpatrick, 2013; Hazel & Mortensen, 2013; Kirkpatrick, 2013; Smit & Dafouz, 2012; Wächter & Maiworm, 2008). With the introduction of new EMI or CLIL programmes, partly promoted by the governmental initiatives for the internationalisation of tertiary education, Japan is not an exception for this trend (Global 30, 2014; MEXT, 2008, 2014; Sasajima, 2011). These new programmes have resulted in the creation of lingua-culturally diverse classrooms, or space of learning, in Japanese institutions where students from a broad range of lingua-cultural backgrounds come together to study specific academic disciplines and communicate with one another using the plurilingual linguistic resources available to them. Unlike some precedent studies on English as a lingua franca (ELF) (Jenkins, 2011; Seidlhofer, 2011) or as αn academic lingua franca (Bjӧrkman, 2013) which focused on European institutions (e.g. Björkman, 2009; Hynninen, 2012; Smit, 2010), the present study conducts a case study at an English-medium undergraduate programme in science and engineering at a Japanese tertiary institution. Focusing on such linguistic phenomena as code-switching and language choice, and on problem-solving sequences in the university students’ communication, this paper will try to illustrate the features of the ELF and plurilingual communication performed by these students during interaction in science laboratory sessions. Since this study is conducted in a Japanese context, it is also investigated whether Japanese, the local language, functions as a lingua franca (Ikeda & Bysouth, 2013) among non-native speakers of Japanese in this community.
The University of Vienna.:
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2. Literature review In this section, the underlying concepts and ideas important for this study are examined. The analysis of the audio- and video recorded data in this research project is partly based on Conversation Analysis (CA). It is employed in this study for its suitability for the detailed sequential analysis of naturally occurring classroom interaction, and its repair trajectories of trouble - repair initiation - repair proper are applied to those of the problem-solving sequences analysed in this study (Dalton-Puffer, 2007; Ikeda & Bysouth, 2013; Seedhouse, 2004; Smit 2010). In regard to the terminologies in this paper, the term language choice refers to the speaker’s deliberate selection of language code in contact situations with the interlocutor(s). The term codeswitching is defined in this paper as an umbrella term for describing the phenomena of more than one language being used by a bilingual or plurilingual speaker in the same sentence or conversation (Deuchar, 2013). Code-switching is distinguished from lexical borrowings, which are words or short expressions taken from another language and integrated into the base language through phonological modifications (Cantone, 2007). Nonce borrowings, or unassimilated loan words in some literature, are the borrowings uttered by bilinguals which are not accepted as established words or expressions in the base language. It could be hard to distinguish this type of borrowings from code-switching especially when they are not modified into the phonological system of the base language, but pronounced as in the original language (Bullock & Toribio, 2009; Cantone, 2007). However, in the cases where an individual word (e.g., a technical term) is used in isolation from other words in the original language, it is decided in this paper that it is generally categorised as a nonce borrowing. Lin & Li (2012) present three major functions of code-switching – ideational, textual, and interpersonal functions pursued by the teacher and other participants in classroom settings (Lin & Li, 2012, p. 474-475). Ideational functions are pursued when the speaker tries to give some aid to those who are limited in their L2 proficiency through switching into their L1 or stronger language. The textual and interpersonal functions seem to have overlaps with the concept of situational codeswitching as a contextualisation cue in Gumperz (1982) in the sense that they are used as a signal for a shift in topics, situations, and so forth. In the domains of ELF research, Klimpfinger (2009) examines four functions of code-switching in audio-recorded data from an academic conference. The four functions categorised in her study are specifying an addressee, signalling culture, appealing for assistance, and introducing another idea. The concept of plurilingualism in this paper is based on the definition given in Common European framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching, assessment published by Council of Europe in 2001. In contrast to multilingualism, plurilingualism is conceptualised in this document as a type of linguistic or communicative competence in which all knowledge, skills, and experience in various languages that one speaks are integrated in order to fulfil one’s communicative needs. This is achieved by the flexible use of linguistic resources across languages according to the interlocutor or situation in which the communication occurs (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 4). This integral view of linguistic competence and language use seem to have some overlapping features with the concept of translanguaging as it “celebrates and approves flexibility in language use and the permeability of learning through two or more languages” (Lewis, Jones, & Baker, 2012, p. 659). In this study, hence, the use of English, the L1s, and the local language (i.e., Japanese) by the students is to be explored in the light of these concepts of plurilingualism and translanguaging. Finally to add, various sociolinguistic studies including Bell (1984, 1991), Broner (2001), Giles, Coupland, and Coupland (1991), and Nakakoji (2014) suggest that the choice or use of language by the speaker is affected by the context or the interlocutor (or audience) of the speech. Based on the points presented above, the following research questions are formulated: In interaction with other students or the instructors during science laboratory sessions of an English-medium undergraduate programme in science and engineering at a Japanese university,
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Q1: how are the L1 and L2s, including the local language (i.e., Japanese), used by the first-year students from various lingua-cultural backgrounds when they attempt to solve problems in understanding academic content or completing the assigned tasks? Q2: what kind of impact do the homogeneity and heterogeneity in the language repertoires of interactants have on their language choice and use in communication? How does the use of L1 or L2s by the students differ in these two types of settings? 2. Methodology This study is based mainly on qualitative analysis of transcribed audio-recorded data from laboratory classroom interactions by students of the English-medium programme. A simple demographic information sheet and a closed-ended questionnaire with 24 question items were also collected from the students to obtain the demographics including their native language(s) and selfevaluated proficiency in each language they spoke. The data used in this paper derive from a research project for my PhD study pursued at the University of Vienna, and the data collection was conducted in conjunction with a professor of the English-medium programme investigated in this project. The data collection was conducted at laboratory experiment sessions of a laboratory module in the English-medium programme over a semester. In the module, the students had to attend a laboratory session on a different scientific topic each week, which lasted for around six to seven hours in each day. They were divided into two groups to attend one of the sessions held in two different classrooms. The classroom interactions of the participating students with their peers, the lecturers, and teaching assistants during the sessions were audio- and video-recorded on five days in total, with field notes taken each day. The number of students who agreed to take part in the data collection of the entire research project was 38 out of 42 first-year students of the programme. The participating students were from various lingua-cultural and educational backgrounds including native Chinese speakers who formed the biggest group, constituting around half of the whole group. Native or near native Japanese speakers with Japanese nationality remained a minority group of seven, and most of them had long experience of living and studying abroad. In each laboratory session, the students had to engage in tasks to work on mostly in pairs, and they were assigned a different partner by the administrator on each day. An audio-recorder was used to record the language use by each selected pair or triad, and one or two video cameras were also placed in each classroom most of the days in order to record the activities and interactions by these selected pairs or triads. In the entire research project, 48 audio-recordings were collected from 48 pairs or triads from two laboratory classrooms on five days. One audio-recording consists of a recorded data from a pair or triad in one day’s laboratory session, which often involves their interaction not only with their partner(s), but also with other peers and the teaching staff. In most cases, each recording has a length of approximately four hours in the original audio files. The selection of pairs and triads to record was largely decided by the native language(s) indicated in the demographic information sheet filled in before the first day of the recording. The audio-recorded data used in this paper have been edited for noise reduction and shortening the length by removing mainly non-interactive parts with the focused pairs or triads. Then, the data have been transcribed according to transcribed conventions based on VOICE Transcription Conventions [2.1] (VOICE Project, 2007) with modifications made in some part. Consequently, nine recordings of 227 minutes in edited audio files, which equalled to approximately 680 minutes in the original audio files, were used in this study. In the analysis of the transcribed audio-recorded data, the portions which relate to problem-solving sequences are mainly focused. The problem-solving sequences analysed in this study owe their ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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structure to the repair trajectories in CA, and the sequences are most typically formulated when the speaker has a problem in solving an assigned task or understanding something (e.g., understanding the meaning of a maths equation or of a technical term), then asks a question to her or his peer or a teaching assistant, and finally the one who was asked the question answers it or provides help. 3. Preliminary findings The major points in the preliminary findings based on the transcribed data from selected participants and the classroom observation in this study are presented below. The following five points are found as general tendencies. (1) English was used as the most commonly used language of communication among students except the cases where another common language (i.e., Chinese or Japanese) was shared by the students from a Chinese or Japanese background. (2) Frequent code-switching between Japanese and English was found in some communication between native or near native speakers of Japanese. (3) The use of Japanese between non-Japanese students seems to have been very limited in amount. (4) English was used almost exclusively, if not entirely, throughout the interactions between the lecturers (all of whom were non-Japanese) and the students regardless of their language backgrounds. (5) With Japanese teaching assistants who did not have good command of English, both non-Japanese and native or near native Japanese-speaking students tended to use Japanese. The following specific points were also found. (i) The use of English for academic or technical terms was observed even in the instances when two Japanese speakers were mainly speaking in Japanese. (ii) English switches were made by Chinese students when a Japanese-speaking member of the triad joined the conversation. (iii) While Chinese was used fairly dominantly in communication between Chinese participants, an exceptional case was found in the pair interaction between a native Mandarin Chinese speaker and a native Cantonese speaker even though the Cantonese speaker had good command of Mandarin. The following excerpts are displayed for the qualitative analysis of the points (i) and (ii) above. The examples of the use of English for academic or technical terms are found in Excerpts 1 and 2 from an interaction in a physics laboratory session between S1 (male) and S2 (female), both of whom are native or near native Japanese speakers with long experience of living outside Japan. Italicised in brackets is an English translation of the original utterances. Excerpt 1 6. S2: (..) [LNjap] chotto ma tte kore dou ya tte kore suru no [/LNjap] 7. {wait a second this how to do this} 8. S1: [LNjap] (de) [/LNjap] (lower) the axis [LNjap] tsukeru (.) de okkei (.) rashii [/LNjap] 9. {then it seems OK to (lower) and put the axis} 10. S2: [LNjap] hun [/LNjap] 11. {yeah} 12. S1: point (the) axis [LNjap] (de) kuso ganba tte run dakedo [/LNjap] 13. {point (the) axis and I’m working so hard}
The lines 8 and 12 in this excerpt show code-switching between English and Japanese by S1. It is hard to completely judge the reason for his use of the underlined English phrases in these lines, but it might have been for filling lexical gaps he had or his preference of using the original English expressions as used or learned in the class. The following excerpt is taken from a conversation that occurred only a little later in the same interaction as Excerpt 1. Excerpt 2 19. S1: that’s (it) numerical calculations of [un] par xx [/un] (.) monte carlo
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S2: (it) increases until five S1: [LNjap] koko ni sa: [/LNjap] monte carlo [LNjap] kaite nai n da kedo [/LNjap] {monte carlo isn’t written down here} S2: monte carlo [LNjap] tte (.) nan da kke [/LNjap] {what was monte carlo} S1: [LNjap] are dayo hora [/LNjap] statistics [LNjap] de i tte ta (yatsu) [/LNjap] [un] xx [/un](draw) one (..) … {oh yeah it’s that the one mentioned in statistics xx (draw) one}
In this excerpt, the English term Monte Carlo is uttered by S1 in lines 19 and 21, and also by S2 in line 23. It is the name of a method used in the fields of numerical analysis and simulation, and it is interesting to see that the English term is uttered in predominantly Japanese sentences in lines 21 and 23. It could be interpreted as being articulated as a Japanese word if the pronunciation had been adapted into the Japanese phonological system, but it is considered as an English word here due to the pronunciation of the word by these speakers retaining mostly, if not completely, the features of the original English word. It is judged as a nonce borrowing for the retention of its original English pronunciation and for it is an academic term used in isolation from other English words. The word statistics is uttered in the middle of a Japanese sentence in line 25. Speculating from the Japanese words that follow it, the word seems to refer to the title of a module or class which these participants had taken in prior to this laboratory session. Hence, it is probably used here as a familiar proper noun rather than an ordinary noun, and is not judged as a lexical borrowing. The next excerpt is from an interaction among two native speakers of Chinese (S3 = male, S4 = female) and a native speaker of Japanese (S5 = male) in a chemistry laboratory session. It contains examples of code-switching by Chinese speakers when a speaker of another language background took part in the conversation. An English translation of Chinese utterances is shown in italics with brackets. SX indicates an unidentified speaker. Excerpt 3 17. S4: er [un] x x xx xxx xx (something) but we don’t know how to put [un] xx [/un] 18. S5: I also don’t know 19. S4: oka:y ask [un] xx [/un] 20. ((Silence)) 21. SX: I don’t know 22. S4: erm [un] x xx [/un] 23. ((loud noises)) 24. S3: erm 25. S5: o:h what? 26. S4: wow xx x (3) [LNchi] ni yue chen zai lai a? [/LNchi] 27. {wow xx x are you sure/willing we do it again?} 28. (S3): here 29. S4: [LNchi] zhe yang zhi jin? zhe yang zhi ma? [/LNchi] 30. {is this how you put it in? like this?} 31. S3: a:h (1) [LNchi] xxx tang wo zi jie (cai ke yi ma) [/LNchi] 32. {a:h xxx have to wait for mine to finish} 33. S4: a:h okay okay 34. S5: how do we put this one to here 35. S3: just (.) mhm 36. S5: how do we put this [un] xx [/un] to here 37. S4: four?
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In lines 17 and 19, S4 directs her speech to S5, a Japanese participant, using English. But, S4 switches into Chinese in line 26, probably addressing to S3, and continues her use of Chinese in line 29. She seems to switch into English in line 33, but, considering its widespread use as a (nonce) borrowing across languages, it is arguable to what extent the use of the word okay alone should be regarded as English switches in this line. Nonetheless, S4’s utterance in line 37 with the word four would be an English utterance since it is unlikely that such a word is used as an English borrowing. It is uttered here perhaps in response to S5’s repeated question in lines 34 and 36. In any case, S5’s turn-taking in English in these lines seems to have triggered the use of English by S3 and S4 in lines 35 or 37. Examining the language choice and code-switching observed in this excerpt, it seems that these Chinese speakers, S4 in particular, select their language code according to the interlocutor to whom they direct their speech. 4. Discussion In this section, the general tendencies and specific points reported in the preliminary findings in the previous section are discussed. In the points (1), (4), and (iii) in the previous section, frequent use of English was reported in the communication among students and also between students and the lecturers. This can be seen as pieces of evidence that English is truly functioning as a means of communication or an academic lingua franca in the classrooms of this EMI programme. However, the frequent use of Chinese or Japanese between Chinese- or Japanese-speaking students reported in the points (1) and (2), and the preferred use of Japanese by both Japanese and non-Japanese students in interaction with Japanese teaching assistants in the point (5) seem to require some modification to an English-only monolingual view of the classroom communication in this EMI programme. The reason for the very limited use of Japanese as a lingua franca among non-Japanese students as reported in the point (3) is yet to be explored, but it might have been due to their limited command of Japanese, especially in comparison to that of English or the L1. The code-switching between English and Japanese and the English lexical borrowing identified in Excerpts 1 and 2 in Section 3 illustrated the plurilingual characteristics of the communication between the Japanese-speaking pair. In excerpt 3, the L1 or the language repertoire of the interlocutor seems to have influenced the language choice by S3 and S4 when they switched their language into Chinese or English. The code-switching by these Chinese speakers should be taken as examples of its function of specifying the addressee in Klimpfinger (2009). The other functions of code-switching in Klimpfinger (2009), Gumperz (1982), and Lin & Li (2012) are yet to be examined in the course of the research. Summarizing the points discussed above, the preliminary findings of this study seem to illustrate the reality of the communication by the students in the EMI programme in which they use their plurilingual linguistic resources in order to achieve their communicative goals in different situations or with different interlocutors. Nonetheless, the preliminary findings presented in this paper are based on limited portions of all the audio-recorded data collected, and therefore the analysis of the rest of the relevant data is awaited for more profound research results. Furthermore, the scope of the whole study is limited only to a relatively small number of participants in one grade level at a single institution, which would be still too small in size to produce highly generalizable results. It should also be noted that it is possible that the very presence of the researchers in the process of data collection and the very act of using devices for audio- and video-recording might have violated, to some extent, the authenticity of the data used in the study. 5. Conclusion Based mainly on the preliminary findings from the audio-recorded data, this paper reported on the language use by the students in an English-medium programme in science and engineering at a ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Japanese university. The plurilingual characteristics of these students’ communication are highlighted with the analysis of such linguistic phenomena as language choice, code-switching, and lexical borrowing. The full analysis of the data is still awaited in the progress of the study. About the author
Harushige Nakakoji is a part-time lecturer at Sophia University in Japan where he teaches courses in English. He also pursues his doctorate at the University of Vienna. Previously, he taught English at other universities and private high school in Japan. His research interests include ELF, EMI, CLIL and sociolinguistics. Email:
[email protected]
References Bell, A. (1984). Language style as audience design. Language in Society, 13, 145-204. Bell, A. (1991). Accommodation in the mass media. In H. Giles, J. Coupland & N. Coupland (Eds.), Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied sociolinguistics (pp. 69-102). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Björkman, B. (2009). From code to discourse in spoken ELF. In A. Mauranen & E. Ranta (Eds.), English as a lingua franca: Studies and findings (pp. 225-251). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Bjӧrkman, B. (2013). English as an academic lingua franca: An investigation of form and communicative effectiveness. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Broner, M. A. (2001). Impact of interlocutor and task on first and second language use in a Spanish immersion program. CARLA Working Paper, 18. Retrieved from: http://www.carla.umn.edu/resources/working-papers/ Bullock, B. E., & Toribio, A. J. (2009). Themes in the study of code-switching. In B. E. Bullock & A. J. Toribio (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of linguistic code-switching (pp. 1-17). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cantone, K. F. (2007). Code-switching in bilingual children. Dordrecht: Springer. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from: www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/framework_en.pdf Chang, Y. (2010). English-medium instruction for subject courses in tertiary education: Reactions from Taiwanese undergraduate students. Taiwan International ESP Journal, 2(2), 55-84. Retrieved from: http://tiespj.tespa.org.tw/?p=488 Dalton-Puffer, C. (2007). Discourse in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) classrooms. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Dalton-Puffer, C., Nikula, T., & Smit, U. (2010). Charting policies, premises and research on content and language integrated learning. In C. Dalton-Puffer, C. Nikula & U. Smit (Eds.), Language Use and Language Learning in CLIL Classrooms (pp. 1-19). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Deuchar, M. (2013). Code switching. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (Vol. II, pp. 657-664). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Giles, H., Coupland, J., & Coupland, N. (1991). Accommodation theory: Communication, context, and consequence. In H. Giles, J. Coupland & N. Coupland (Eds.), Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied sociolinguistics (pp. 1-68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gill, S. K., & Kirkpatrick, A. (2013). English in Asian and European higher education. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (Vol. IV, pp. 1916-1920). Oxford: WileyBlackwell. Global 30. (2014). About Global 30. Retrieved from: http://www.uni.international.mext. go.jp/global30/ Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Hazel, S., & Mortensen, J. (2013). Kitchen talk – Exploring linguistic practices in liminal institutional interactions in a multilingual university setting. In H. Haberland, D. Lønsmann & B. Preisler (Eds.), Language alternation, language choice and language encounter in international tertiary education (pp. 3-30). Dordrecht: Springer. Hynninen, N. (2012). ICL at the micro level: L2 speakers taking the role of language experts. AILA Review, 25, 13-29. Ikeda, K., & Bysouth, D. (2013). Japanese and English as lingua francas: Language choices for international students in contemporary Japan. In H. Haberland, D. Lønsmann & B. Preisler (Eds.), Language alternation, language choice and language encounter in international tertiary education (pp. 31-52). Dordrecht: Springer. Jenkins, J. (2011). Accommodating (to) ELF in the international university. Journal of Pragmatics, 43, 926-936. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2010.05.011 Kirkpatrick, A. (2013). English in higher education in the postcolonial world. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (Vol. IV, pp. 1929-1935). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Klimpfinger, T. (2009). “She’s mixing the two languages together” – Forms and functions of codeswitching in English as a lingua franca. In A. Mauranen & E. Ranta (Eds.), English as a lingua franca: Studies and findings (pp. 348-371). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Lewis, G., Jones, B., & Baker, C. (2012). Translanguaging: Developing its conceptualisation and contextualisation. Educational Research and Evaluation: An International Journal on Theory and Practice, 18(7), 655-670. doi: 10.1080/13803611.2012.718490 Lin, A. Y. M., & Li, D. C. S. (2012). Codeswitching. In M. Martin-Jones, A. Blackledge & A. Creese (Eds.), Routledge handbook of multilingualism. Oxford: Routledge. MEXT (Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology). (2008). Study in English at Japanese universities. Retrieved from: http://www.uni.international.mext.go.jp/jaJP/documents/international_students_plan_jp.pdf MEXT (Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology). (2014). Selection for the FY 2014 Top Global University Project. Retrieved from: http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/houdou/26/09/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2014/ 10/07/1352218_02.pdf Nakakoji, H. (2014). Using English or Japanese? Japanese high school students’ language choice in interaction with Japanese and Chinese peers. Sophia Linguistica: Working papers in Linguistics, 61. Sasajima, S. (2011). CLIL: Atarashii hassou no jugyo - Rika ya rekishi wo gaikoku go de oshie ru!? [CLIL: Lessons with a new idea – Teaching science and history in a foreign language!?]. Tokyo: Sanshusha. Seedhouse, P. (2004). The interactional architecture of the language classroom: A conversation analysis perspective. Malden: Oxford: Blackwell. Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Smit, U. (2010). English as a lingua franca in higher education: A longitudinal study of classroom discourse. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Smit, U., & Dafouz, E. (2012). Integrating content and language in higher education: An introduction to English-medium policies, conceptual issues and research practices across Europe. AILA Reviews, 25, 1-12. doi: 10.1075/aila.25.01smi VOICE Project. (2007). VOICE Transcription Conventions [2.1]. (2014, July 14). Retrieved from: http://www.univie.ac.at/voice/voice.php?page=transcription_general_information Wächter, B., & Maiworm, F. (2008). English-taught programmes in European higher education: The picture in 2007. Bonn: Lemmens.
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Quinn Novotná, V. (2016). Pedagogical implications of teaching through ELF: A case study of United World Colleges and the 1st International School of Ostrava. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 112-120). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Pedagogical implications of teaching through ELF: A case study of United World Colleges and the 1st International School of Ostrava Veronika Quinn Novotná Abstract This paper is to serve as a synopsis of research findings presented at the ELF7 conference in Athens of an on-going case study of the use of English at the United World Colleges (UWCs). UWCs are globally based, pre-university schools educating students from over 140 countries through the medium of English (Content and Language Integrated Learning; CLIL). To provide a comparison with a local context, we surveyed the 1st International School of Ostrava (the 1st ISO) in the Czech Republic. The methods employed are both qualitative and quantitative in nature. We report results of two questionnaire surveys among UWC and the 1st ISO students and teachers and direct observations of teaching practices. Analysis of the results reveals that due to the linguistically and culturally liberal school culture, written and unwritten language policies and classroom techniques employed by both teachers and students, UWC students possess a high a level of linguistic awareness (LA) and linguistic sensitivity. We explore what attitudes to language use and (non)-native speakers and other factors foster the overall efficient use of English as a lingua franca (ELF) in this international multilingual setting. Finally, the pedagogical implications of our findings and their applicability at other international and monolingual institutions are discussed.
Keywords: ELF, CLIL, language awareness, IB programme, language policy, (non)-native speakers, multilingualism, teacher training, international schools
1. Introduction This paper provides a synopsis of the research findings presented at the ELF7 conference in Athens of an on-going study focused on how English is viewed and used as the main means of instruction and a chief tool of social and academic communication among international students and staff at United World Colleges (UWCs). UWCs are post-secondary schools with a standardized curriculum geared towards the International Baccalaureate (IB) diploma. UWCs have been selected for this study since they represent a globally based institution where English especially in its lingua franca (LF) function plays a crucial linguistic and social role and because they are marked not only by their unique language management and language policies but also by very inspiring general school philosophy. In the light of current political events the institutions’ goal posted on their website ‘to unite people, nations and cultures for peace and a sustainable future’ resonates more than ever. To provide a comparison with a local context, we also surveyed the 1st International School of Ostrava (the 1st ISO), which is an IB-providing institution located in a largely monolingual area of the north-eastern part of the Czech Republic. In line with current efforts of ELF researchers, we aim to formulate pedagogical implications for teaching through ELF and to provide recommendations for integrating CLIL with ELF both at multilingual and monolingual teaching institutions. We also comment on the thus far somewhat overseen areas, such as the specific teacher and learner practices and techniques used to promote language awareness (LA). Furthermore, we analyse what particular language policies applied at UWCs help to co-create successful ELF environment. The chapter is divided into three parts. The first part briefly describes the background of the International Baccalaureate® (IB) programme, the UWCs and the 1st ISO; it also introduces the key theoretical concepts. The second part of the study presents the method of data collection, i.e. questionnaire surveys and direct on-site observations, and an overview over the data set. The final section summarizes the pedagogical implications of our findings and key tendencies of ELF usage at the schools.
Department of English Language and ELT Methodology,Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague:
[email protected]
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2. Global context - IB and IBDP The International Baccalaureate® (IB) offers four different high quality international education programmes to more than one million students aged 3 to 19, in 146 countries. According to information provided on the IB website, originally, IB was founded in 1968 in Geneva. The UWC Atlantic College was the first school to abandon the national curriculum in favour of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IB DP). 2.1. UWC background
World-wide there are fourteen United World Colleges (UWCs). The Colleges are pre-university schools that reside on four continents and they provide education for students from over 140 countries. Based on the official UWC website and on the information our interviewees provided, the admission process to the colleges is mostly done through national committees; it is designed so as to provide an equal opportunity of receiving the UWC educational experience for everyone. Once admitted to a UWC, students live a residential life at their college. It is not only education that is supplied by the colleges, but extracurricular activities are organized and provided as well, including exchanges, and community and volunteer programmes. Consequently, the institutions aim to provide truly holistic experience to each of its attendees, and offer countless opportunities for the students to socialize with each other and to build on their relationships within a multinational and multilingual community. This aspect will be discussed in detail below since the social involvement seems to play a crucial role in the students’ engagement through ELF. 2.2. IBDP and English
The online posted IB language policy (LP) clearly states that English is the ‘organization’s internal working language […]; it is also the language of its governance, management and academic committees.’1 Based on our findings, interaction in the students’ mother tongues (L1s) is not explicitly prohibited, but it is avoided or prevented by the fact that the number of students that speak the same language at any given institution is usually rather low. 2 UWC students and teachers come from vastly different educational and cultural backgrounds and are speakers of dozens of different mother tongues3. Clearly, also the level of English command significantly varies on a scale from native speakers to speakers with fairly low English command. Fluency in English is not stated as a necessary requirement for enrolment to the UWC programme, the second round of the admission process, however, usually includes an interview both in the applicants’ MT and in English. 3. Local context – The 1st ISO background The IB programme in the Czech Republic is offered through seven different secondary institutions. All of them offer the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IB DP) and the 1 st International School of Ostrava (ISO) is also authorised to teach the Middle Years Programme (MYP). During our research we approached six schools in the Czech Republic. The 1st ISO decided to participate in this research project.
1
The IB has three working languages of Level 1 (the highest level offering the widest range of services and materials) and those are English, French and Spanish. 2 However, there may be exceptions such as the UWC Atlantic College in Wales, or the UWC Li Po Chun in China, where there are higher numbers of local nationality students 3 For a more detailed respondent profile see also Quinn Novotná, Dunková (2015).
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The 1st ISO website lists various reasons why they decided to start offering the IB programmes. Probably the strongest and most repeated one is to provide high quality education for the local and international students ‘living and working in the Moravian-Silesian region of Central Europe.’ This region suffered large-scale decrease in work opportunities since the 1990s due to the gradual decline in its main industry – mining. This has been followed by calls to revive the region and significant investment, including from abroad, in it. The school, moreover, endorses one of the core IB principles of the ‘development of intercultural awareness and understanding among young people.’ In alignment with the IB ideology, hence similarly to UWCs, the 1st ISO emphasises ‘holistic education’, and ‘higher-order cognitive skills such as critical thinking, analysis, problem-solving and creative thinking’. With respect to language policy (LP) ‘the language of instruction at the 1st ISO is primarily English’; the school, nevertheless, ‘is committed to additive bilingualism (where another language and culture does not replace that of the mother tongue).’ Hence, the local language ad students’ mother tongue, i.e. Czech, is officially promoted. Lastly, the 1st ISO regards their LP as a ‘working document’, and as such it is always open to an annual review. 4. Theoretical concepts When analysing concepts pertinent to English as a Lingua Franca in multilingual environments, we ground our approach in two key methodological topics and theoretical concepts. First, we observe in UWCs a high level of language awareness (LA) (see also Quinn Novotná, Grosser, & Dunková, 2013; henceforth Study I). Language awareness is a concept the approach to which differs in the literature and is hence somewhat fuzzy. Nevertheless, it is, essentially, understood as increased sensitivity towards language and the ability to reflect upon language use, culture, creativity and meaning and to act accordingly (see Andrews, 2007; Carter, 2003; Edmondson, 2009; James & Garret, 1991). Second, we concentrate on various aspects of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). CLIL is an educational approach with a dual focus, which employs a vehicular language through which the content is learned. According to CLIL research the emphasis should be put equally on both content and language. Further, it stresses multi-lingual and multi-cultural education (see Coyle, Hood, and Marsh, 2010; Dalton-Puffer, Nikula, and Smit, 2010; and Georgiou, 2012). 5. Previous research On the question of whether UWC schools represent an ‘ideal’ English as a Lingua Franca 4 (ELF) environment, we had come to the conclusion in our previous work (Study I) that indeed UWCs provide an example of best practice in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and a stimulating setting for the development of heightened language awareness (LA). In the previous studies we focused on the interdependence of the following key variables: linguistic proficiency, knowledge of language forms, language models, efficient (LF) communicative strategies; language confidence; linguistic identity; personal and professional attitudes to language use; metalinguistic skills - general linguistic sensitivity, ability to reflect upon language; general study skills - studying through the medium of a FL; school language policy. In this paper we expand chiefly on how all these variables relate to students’ and teachers’ LA and to teaching and learning via the medium of English in a multilingual environment. 4
For terminological issues, especially the difference between ELF, WEs, EIL, GEs, see also Quinn Novotná (2012: 31) and Quinn Novotná et al (2013).
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6. Method and data set Our study included both a quantitative and a qualitative part. The quantitative component consisted of an eleven-question survey for students and a ten-question survey for teachers. In order to compare and contrast their answers regarding similar topics, our survey targeted both UWC and 1st ISO students and teachers. The on-line questionnaire was designed in SurveyMonkey. Upon approval of UWC and the 1st ISO representatives, the link was sent to all students and teachers attending or working at the particular institution that academic year. The questionnaire was voluntary and anonymous. The qualitative aspect was first embedded in the character of the questions, which combined a multiple-choice character with space for more extensive comments and explanations. Secondly, our research team performed on-site classroom observations at UWC Atlantic College in Wales (five lessons and four semi-structured interviews) and at the 1st International School of Ostrava (11 lessons and three interviews)6. The observations were designed to be as unobtrusive as possible and were recorded in a form of field notes in specifically devised Observation sheets. In setting out the results, where relevant, we juxtapose the quantitative findings with data of qualitative nature, which are a focal point of this study. 6.1. Sociolinguistic background of respondent groups
To assemble as broad a scope of novel data as possible, we contacted all twelve UWC colleges. We collected in total responses from 314 UWC students, 64 UWC teachers from nine different UWC institutions based on four continents. At the 1st ISO we collected responses from 11 teachers and 19 students. The sample size is, of course, incomparable; hence no major generalizable conclusions of comparative nature can be drawn. Nevertheless, by conducting the small-scale research in the Czech Republic we hope introduce a novel ‘glocal’ perspective on the phenomena under investigation. Looking at potential parallels between global and local teaching contexts may help to infer recommendations for good teaching practice in both multi- and monolingual contexts, and especially in IB programmes. The survey yielded a vast amount of sociolinguistic information7; in this short overview of the study we only report information relevant to the points discussed. The multilingual and international character of UWCs is given by the fact that the 315 students who responded were of 87 nationalities and spoke 71 declared mother tongues (MTs)8. The 64 participating teachers were of 20 nationalities and had 18 different MTs. The monolingual character of the 1st ISO is given by the fact that regionally the school is placed in a monolingual area9; also, this area, unlike the country’s capital, is not characterized by an extensive expatriate community. Based on our results, more than half of the teachers and students are Czech (11 participating teachers were of three different nationalities and two MTs; 19 participating students were of four different nationalities).
Mostly because of logistical and financial constraints we were only able to personally visit UWC Atlantic College. We would like to thank Julie Harris from UWC Atlantic College for her kind assistance with organizing our observations in Wales. We would also like to thank David Grosser for helping to collect and analyse some of the data. Special thanks also belong to Dr. Tamah Sherman from the Faculty of Arts, Charles University, who provided her invaluable expertise regarding socio-linguistic aspects and language management. 6 I would like to thank Jiřina Dunková, MA for helping me to design this project and for carrying out most of the research targeted at the 1st ISO 7 The sociolinguistic profile derived from answers to questionnaires from UWC respondents can be referenced in Quinn Novotná & Dunková (2015). 8 Students were left freely to interpret and report what they feel is their mother tongue. Interestingly, some students stated that they have up to three different mother tongues. Therefore, at least some of the students attending the UWCs appear to be accustomed to multilingual, and probably multicultural, environment from their birth. Also it suggests that their language abilities are varied and that they have one, two or three other languages as resources for their ELF interactions. 9 Many speakers from this region, however, have a functional command of Polish, Slovak and German.
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7. Institutional teaching implications The findings that surfaced from the analysis of the data we collected may be translated into a set of teaching implications and recommendations that are summarized in the next section. 7.1. Multilingual institutions
First, we observe at these schools an overall focus on content, on communicating ideas and conveying message. The focus on content is expressed by the teachers’ self-reported fairly strict attitudes towards the knowledge of the subject matter on the one hand, and quite relaxed or liberal attitudes to language form on the other. Based on classroom observations, the focus on content is underscored by the fact that neither teachers nor peers pointed out non-standard linguistic behaviour, i.e. grammatical and pronunciation variations were passed in silence. Second, crucially, we detected a thread running through most of all answers and throughout all observations, i.e. a strong focus on (subject specific) vocabulary (see also Study I: 65, 68-70). It is argued here that the importance of the precise and extensive knowledge of terminology goes hand in hand with the focus on subject matter. Third, a linguistically friendly and stimulating environment is enhanced by the help and support provided from teachers and peers, e.g. by offering tutorials. UWC teachers also seem to possess a marked ability to accommodate to students with different language proficiencies. Also, “fair”10 treatment especially towards NNS students is stressed by several respondents, as shown by comments such as “students […] aren't favoured if they know English and the teachers do their best to be fair,” or “[t]eachers treat all their students equally.” Fourth, the amount of language exposure to English plays a vital role in the usage of English at UWCs. Almost all teachers (89.1%, 57) agreed that they observe “massive”, “noticeable”, “marked”, “dramatic difference” in the students’ English over the course of the two years of study. Indeed with respect to English, the IB programme run at UWCs and the “immersion” in the use of English it offers seems to have a “transformational effect” on the students. Further, a key observation based on teachers’ comments is that it is not only the curriculum itself that contributes to the overall improvement of students’ proficiency but how much the students improve also “may have something to do with how socially involved they become here at school”; the progress is much more marked in those who are socially more active. The “[l]anguage immersion” offered at UWCs enhanced by the increased access to “extracurricular activities” and “social involvement” leads in turn to increased “motivation” and intensifies language “acquisition”. Fifth, students’ and teachers’ linguistically sensitive attitudes, i.e. its wide array of communicative strategies, liberal and varied linguistic behaviour and linguistically open attitudes, and the ability to draw on multilingual resources allow for efficient communication in English and facilitate the process of learning. Sixth, official language policy may be in place but it is not explicitly enforced. It is presented and demonstrated in more implied and suggestive ways, or “made clear” through its practical application in the school. The rule that English is the main medium of communication and instruction seems to be of a rather implicit nature at all participating institutions, i.e. teachers speak of a(n) “understanding”, “assumption”, “default”, of being “aware of a policy”, or report that it “seemed obvious”, or mention it was “done unofficially.” Seventh, studying through the medium of a foreign language (CLIL) poses extra challenges to NNS students. When asked if they ever felt disadvantaged in their studies because of their nonnative status, 41.6% of UWC students felt disadvantaged, whereas 26% did not11. In the 1st ISO there were eight students who felt disadvantaged by their NNS status, eleven did not; 89.47% reported that their level of English affects their grades. Students reported challenges of linguistic, 10
Double quotation marks are used to indicate the students’ verbatim quotes. selected the option ‘Not applicable’
1132.38%,
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temporal, socio-cultural, psychological and emotional nature; these included e.g. lack of vocabulary, difficulty to express ideas, difficulty to write essays, not having enough time for tests and homework, and difficulty in making friends and conveying culture-specific humor. Also, several subjects, such as biology and history, seem to be more difficult than others. With respect to this, the recognition that these areas and subjects are more challenging implies that more pedagogical focus should be given to them. 7.2. Monolingual institutions
In this section we attempt to apply the above recommendations to monolingual teaching settings. Each teaching context is very specific. Therefore, we narrow our scope and provide tentative recommendations solely for our target group, i.e. secondary schools educating students of the age group 15 – 20 years geared towards a school leaving examination and/or the IB diploma. The key question that needs to be addressed is how the intense exposure to English found at institutions such as UWCs can be replicated in monolingual settings. Below we discuss ways how to achieve this. First, we believe that the above guidelines that work at multilingual schools can also be followed at monolingual institutions. Crucially, the focus on content and vocabulary in classes geared towards the school leaving examination should be stressed. With respect to this, students and teachers would be expected, for example, to shift their focus to small “c” culture pertinent to EC countries. Secondly, we recommend for monolingual schools to reach out. In the Central European context, reaching out to other monolingual teaching institutions in the neighbouring countries can provide contact with SOLs. Furthermore, the geographical proximity makes it easier and cheaper to launch school partnerships. Teachers can organise mutual school visits, establish on-line discussion forums and/or blogs on selected topics with partner schools, and swap ideas regarding the factual and linguistic content that makes up the local ‘maturita’ examination. Thirdly, we propose to draw on multilingual resources at hand. For example, teachers can invite guest speakers, i.e. SOLs, LF users, to schools, e.g. a German businessman or a French backpacker to talk about their work and experience in English. Fourthly, we think that it is crucial to select the right teaching materials. Selecting textbooks that are EIL / WEs / ELF informed (see e.g. Alsagoff, McKay, Hu, & Renandya, 2012; Matsuda, 2012; or Quinn Novotná, 2013, 2014) may slowly lead to a change of perception of English and hence linguistic attitudes in general.12 Fifthly, we see a big potential in adopting CLIL, even if schools were to implement teaching of just one subject through English. In spite of the presumed initial difficulty, students may find this beneficial in the long run. All the above requires extra resources, effort and work but even slight modifications and inexpensive solutions can make a difference in improving teaching English and increase motivation for learning. 8. Summary and conclusions In this paper we provided a brief overview of a case study focussed on the use of English at two IB diploma-providing institutions, i.e. at the United World Colleges (UWCs) and the 1st International School of Ostrava (the 1st ISO). UWCs were found to provide a unique multilingual setting, which enables English in all its forms, varieties and functions to thrive and flourish and become a mutually shared code of understanding and an efficient vehicle of learning regardless of individual particularities and idiosyncrasies of its many users. 12
For more about global paradigmatic changes see Quinn Novotná (2012: 110).
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The factors that foster the overall efficient use of what can be expertly identified as English as a lingua franca (ELF)13 (even though the UWC practitioners may not always call it that) in this international multilingual setting include a combination of linguistically and culturally liberal school environment, open and flexible attitudes to language use combined with demanding attitudes when it comes to subject content, written and unwritten, official and unofficial language policies and classroom techniques employed by both teachers and students. Also, crucially, UWC students and teachers are found to possess a high a level of linguistic awareness (LA) and linguistic sensitivity, which facilitates multilingual and multicultural communication14. Consequently, based on these findings and drawing on the comparison of the two selected institutions, we find that the following teaching recommendations are essential for best practice in international multilingual post-secondary institutions: focus on content; focus on (subject specific) vocabulary; help and support provided from teachers and peers; high level of language exposure to English; developing linguistically sensitive attitudes and the ability to draw on multilingual resources; liberal language policies; focus on extra challenges that NNS students may experience when studying through English (CLIL). In monolingual contexts teachers may find it beneficial to model, or simulate the multilingual setting, e.g. by reaching out, employing multilingual resources at hand, selecting the right materials, and adopting CLIL. In sum, we conclude that the mixture of liberal and relaxed attitudes, help, support, sensitive approach, enhancing students’ confidence, focus on learning, on content, on ideas, encouraging thinking, expressing ideas freely and asking questions all go hand in hand with heightened language awareness and have impact on increased proficiency and enhanced linguistic and study performance. As one teacher commented: “Students should feel comfortable expressing themselves but should be gradually given the toolkit to express themselves with more precision. Language should be used to embolden not to intimidate.” About the author
Veronika Quinn Novotná has a PhD in English Linguistics. She teaches at the Department of English Language and ELT Methodology, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, Charles University in Prague. She also specializes in teaching English to students with special needs (visual and hearing impairment). Her current research interests include World Englishes, pedagogical implications of ELF, language attitudes, linguistic identity and CLIL. She also works as a freelance teacher, translator, teacher trainer and tutor of academic writing. Email:
[email protected]
References Alsagoff, L., McKay, S. L., Hu, G., & Renandya, W.A. (2012). Principles and practices for teaching English as an international language. New York: Routledge. Andrews, S. (2007). Teacher language awareness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Carter, R. (2003). Language awareness. ELT Journal, 57(1), 64–65. Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content language integrated learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dalton-Puffer, C., Nikula, T., & Smit, U. (Eds.). (2010). Language use and language learning in CLIL classrooms. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Edmondson, W. (2009). Language awareness. In K. Knapp, B. Seidlhofer & H. Widdowson (Eds.), Handbook of foreign language communication and learning (pp. 163–190). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Georgiou, S. I. (2012). Reviewing the puzzle of CLIL. ELT Journal, 66(4), 495–504. IB DP general information. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/diploma/. IB DP history. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/history/. IB language policy. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/mission/languagepolicy/. 13 14
For UWC students’ definitions of ELF see Study I. For more details about all of these factors see Study I and Quinn Novotná & Dunková (2015).
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IB language policy - Information on the International Baccalaureate’s support for languages, language courses and languages of instruction. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/globalassets/ib-language-policyen.pdf. Language policy. Retrieved from: http://is ostrava.cz/secondary/userfiles/file/Documents/1st%20ISOstrava%20Language%20Policy.pdf. James, C., & Garret, P. (1991). Language awareness in the classroom. London: Routledge. Matsuda, A. (2012). Principles and practices of teaching English as an international language. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Quinn Novotná, V. (2012). World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca: A reflection of global paradigmatic changes in the Czech Republic. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague. Quinn Novotná, V., Grosser, D., & Dunková, J. (2013). UWC schools: An ideal ELF environment? Boğaziçi University Journal of Education, 33(1), 51–76. Quinn Novotná, V. (2013). On the potential transformation of English textbooks – A global perspective, Part I. Lingua Viva, 17, 22–31. Quinn Novotná, V. (2014). On the potential transformation of English textbooks – A global perspective, Part II. Lingua Viva 18. Quinn Novotná, V., & Dunková J. (2015). Teaching through ELF at international post-secondary institutions. A case study at United World Colleges. In H. Bowles & A. Cogo (Eds.), International Perspectives on English as a Lingua Franca: Pedagogical insights. Hampshire: Palgrave. UWC – Core selection principles. UWC Documents. Retrieved from: http://www.uwc.org/includes/documents/cm_docs/2013/c/core_selection_criteria_selectio n_policy.pdf. UWC guiding principles. UWC Documents. Retrieved from: http://www.uwc.org/includes/documents/cm_docs/2013/g/guiding_principles_new.pdf. UWC – Mission and values. UWC Homepage. Retrieved from: http://www.uwc.org/about_uwc/mission_and_vision.aspx. What is the International Baccalaureate?. Retrieved from: http://is-ostrava.cz/secondary/98-1st-ISOand-the-IB. List of abbreviations CLIL EFL ELF FL IB IB DP IC IE ISO L1 LA LP PEU LF MLS MT N NS
Content Language Integrated Learning English as a Foreign Language English as a Lingua Franca Foreign language International Baccalaureate International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme Inner Circle International English International School of Ostrava First language Language awareness Language policy Proficient English user Lingua Franca Multi-lingual speaker Mother Tongue Number Native speaker
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Non-native speaker Speaker of other language(s) United World Colleges World Englishes
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ELF AND LANGUAGE POLICY In this section, Telma Gimenez & Taisa Pinetti Passoni problematize the attitudes towards English in the ‘English Without Borders’ programme in Brazilian universitites, finding evidence that current policy seems to show an aversion to ELF perspectives. Sophia Kitsou analyzes the findings of a Eurobarometer survey on ELF learners in France and Germany, and their profile and attitude toward Anglophone countries while projecting the language and cultural policies developed toward ELF. Laurie Anderson discusses the importance of local context in English Medium Instruction (EMI) institutions profiling examples in Italy where ELF is one strand of the multilingual educational repertoire of students and staff. Dimitra Karoulla-Vrikki reviews two parliamentary bills aimed at regulating the languages utilized in public spaces in Cyprus and examines today’s linguistic landscape in the streets of Lidras and Onasagorou in Lefkosia.
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Gimenez, T., & Passoni, T.P. (2016). Competing discourses between English as a Lingua Franca and the “English without Borders” program. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.). ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 122-128). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Competing discourses between English as a Lingua Franca and the “English without Borders” program Telma Gimenez Taisa Pinetti Passoni Abstract Discourses around the English language in developing countries have stressed that being able to use this language is fundamental to effective participation in a global world. Driven by the internationalization of the economy, the internationalization of universities is now considered inevitable. Many Brazilian institutions have been encouraged to strengthen the teaching of English in order to facilitate this process. In the context of the program “Science without Borders”, whose pillar is student mobility, English became the “object of desire”, as university students struggle to obtain one of 100.000 scholarships offered from 2011-2015. Due to the lack of language proficiency of the potential candidates, an ancillary program was created: “English without Borders”. This program, while aiming at preparing the candidates to pursue studies abroad, unintentionally promotes the ideology that English belongs to the native speakers from the Inner Circle. Although not explicitly adopting a language model, the practical decisions suggest that English belongs to the Americans, since TOEFL ITP is the test widely administered. This paper will address the dilemma faced by the academic community as university teachers engage with the English without Borders program and, at the same time, acknowledge that understandings of the English language as a lingua franca (ELF) have provoked the need to move away from a close association with a particular country. The focus is on the discourses in the ELF literature and on the justifications offered by the team in charge of the program.
Keywords: English without borders, internationalization of higher education, language policy
1. Introduction In the last few years there has been an intensification of university initiatives in many parts of the non-speaking world to internationalize its course offerings (Chowdhury and Phan, 2014), what has further promoted the strengthening of the English language as the medium of instruction (EMI) (Dearden, 2014). Likewise, discourses around the English language in developing countries have been drawing on the notion that being able to use this language is fundamental to effective participation in a global world. Driven by the internationalization of the economy, the internationalization of universities is now considered inevitable. Many Brazilian institutions have been 1encouraged to strengthen the teaching of English in order to facilitate this process. In the context of the program “Science without Borders” (SwB), whose pillar is student mobility, English became the “object of desire”, as university students struggle to obtain one of 100.000 scholarships offered from 2011-2015. Due to the lack of language proficiency of the potential candidates, an ancillary program was created: “English without Borders” (EwB). This program, while aiming at preparing the candidates to pursue studies abroad, unintentionally promotes the ideology that English belongs to the native speakers from the Inner Circle. Although not explicitly adopting a language model, the practical decisions suggest that English belongs to the Americans, since TOEFL ITP is the test widely administered2. This paper addresses the dilemma faced by the academic community as university teachers engage with the EwB program and, at the same time, acknowledge that understandings of the English language as a lingua franca (ELF) have provoked the need to move away from a close
Universidade Estadual de Londrina:
[email protected] Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná:
[email protected] 1 http://www.cienciasemfronteiras.gov.br/web/csf-eng/. 2 Source:Programa de ensino de inglês vai atender 500 mil alunos até 2014 [Program aimed at teaching English will reach 500 thousand students by 2014]. Available at: < http://portal.mec.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=18321> Access: 10 Nov 2014.
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association with language varieties associated with a particular country. As Chowdhury and Phan (2014, p. 7) write: “[…] many scholars have pointed out that although English has become a global language, native speaking English varieties from North America, the UK, Australia and New Zealand are still often regarded as the desired standards for international education.” They continue by stating something that rings especially true in the case of Brazil: “Consequently, the internationalization of higher education is still largely geared towards importing and exporting English-language products and services from the English-speaking West.” (Chowdhruy and Phan, 2014, p. 7-8). By adopting Fairclough’s view of discourses (Fairclough, 2006), the focus is on the contrast between what some scholars writing within the ELF paradigm have argued for and the ideology underlying the decisions adopted by those in charge of the program. 2. ELF as discourse We take the view that globalization “is in part a discursive process, involving genres and discourses” (Fairclough, 2006, p.13). One of such discourses is ELF, understood as a particular way of representing some aspect or area of social life, and in this case, about the role of the English language in the context of globalization. From our perspective, ELF is a representation of English that shares some of the characteristics associated with globalization, such as: 1) De-territorialization3and elimination of borders (ELF is language usage that has travelled away from native speaker’s countries and can no longer be geographically located): “the very fact that English is an international language means that no nation can have custody over it.” (Widdowson, 2000, p. 42). “If there is one predictable consequence of a language becoming a global language, it is that nobody owns it any more’ and that ‘everyone who has learned it now owns it and has the right to use it in the way they want.”(Crystal, 2003, pp. 2–3).
2) Mobility, adaptability and fluidity (interactions in ELF are hardly predictable, and many of its features are produced ongoing) “[…] the consequence of increased mobility and the global interconnected system of social organization it gives rise to is that it is has a profound effect on the way that people interact and on the cultural practices which mediate this interaction.”(Seargent, 2012, p. 159) “ELF involves online modification of English language resources to suit the particular communicative needs of interlocutors, resulting in innovative uses of lexicogrammatical, pragmatic and sociocultural forms (and so is a legitimate manifestation of English in its own right).” (Cogo and Dewey, 2012, p.18).
One of the predominant notions among ELF scholars is that we need new lenses to frame the type of communication taking place among speakers from communities where English is neither a native nor a second language. The adoption of native speaker‘s norms as a guiding referent for judgment about one’s communicative performance is questionable (Widdowson, 2012). Actually, one of the main arguments in ELF is to show how speakers who are able to use English for communicative purposes do not need to depend on native speakers’ standard norms. Moving away from strict adherence to standards and judging success on other grounds, the ELF literature has managed to present good arguments about alternative ways of thinking about language use. This does not mean it has not met criticisms (O’Regan, 2014; McKenzie, 2014; Park and Wee, 2014), 3According
to Blommaert (2010, p. 42) “deterritorialization stands for the perception and attribution of values to language as something which does not belong to one locality but which organizes translocal trajectories and wider spaces.”
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but we take the view that as one representation of English in a globalizing world, ELF studies merit special attention in countries like Brazil, for our communicative needs go beyond interaction with native speakers. Emerging economies establish particular connections between English and participation on a global scale, and this is not different in our case, as de Mejia (2012) points out in relation to South America. Developing countries are being pushed toward internationalization. The design of educational policies follows international trends and that is the case of the EwB program. Given our understanding of ELF and globalization as discursive constructions that share features, it would be expected that internationalization (as one feature of globalization) would adopt an ELF perspective. However, this is far from what is happening. 3. English without borders The terminology that suggests a world without frontiers has been adopted rampantly. In 2011 the Brazilian government created the “Science without Borders”, described as a mobility program that “could revolutionize the R&D system, the Brazilian students and researchers exposed to an environment of high competitiveness and entrepreneurship” (CNPQ4, 2014). It offers scholarships to undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well to established researchers. The rationale for the initiative is presented on the program website as follows: “Every highly qualified academic or research center around the globe is experiencing an intense process of internationalization, increasing its visibility and addressing the needs of today's globalized world. Brazilian institutions need to rapidly engage in this process since several factors still hinder a more international view of the Science made in the country. The educational system, for instance, has no current actions aimed to effectively amplify the interaction of native students with other countries and cultures.” Because many Brazilian academics do not have the required level of proficiency to apply for the scholarships, an ancillary program was created: the “English without Borders” 5 (http://isf.mec.gov.br/o-programa). One of the main aims of this emergency program was to enable applicants to succeed in obtaining the necessary language proficiency scores to receive a scholarship to attend or participate in academic activities in institutions abroad; hence the program focuses on international mobility. In addition to administering proficiency and placement tests, the program also offers language courses (online and face to face). The majority of the universities partnering with SwB and other mobility programs accept the TOEFL ITP results as evidence of English language proficiency. According to the ETS6 website, the TOEFL ITP tests can be used for placement, progress, evaluation, exit testing and other situations. In the case of EwB it was adopted to provide a diagnostic of the language proficiency of potential candidates. The TOEFL ITP tests are paper-based and use 100 percent academic content to evaluate the English-language proficiency of nonnative English speakers, giving them confidence about their own ability in a real-world academic setting. All questions are multiple choice and students answer questions by filling in an answer sheet. The tests evaluate skills in three areas:
4Conselho
Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - "National Counsel of Technological and Scientific Development" 5In 2014 other foreign languages were included as an amplification of the program is under development (Languages without Borders), including the Portuguese language (Portuguese without Borders). 6 English Testing Service, organization in charge of the tests (www.ets.org).
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Listening Comprehension measures the ability to understand spoken English as it is used in colleges and universities Structure and Written Expression measures recognition of selected structural and grammatical points in standard written English Reading Comprehension measures the ability to read and understand academic reading material in English The choice for TOEFL ITP (level 1), although justified in terms of hosting universities’ requirement, seems to reinforce the view that the language is Standard American English, since these parameters are defined according to that variety. The same is true of the online course, My English Online (http://www.myenglishonline.com.br/), developed by National Geographic Learning in partnership with Cengage Learning. The ideology of the English language belonging to native speakers from the United States is also reflected in the support given by the Fulbright English Teaching Assistants (ETAs), by placing 90 native speakers of English to help with EwB. The ETAs are in charge of giving support to EwB as well as to develop other activities at the Brazilian public universities which necessarily involve their home country language and culture; however, having a teaching degree or experience is not a requirement for their recruitment. Research studies on the program are at beginning stages and it remains to be seen to what extent the classes given in the 43 federal university language centers7 as part of the program resist or reinforce this ideology. Our suspicion (to be confirmed by further research) is that the tendency will be to reiterate it, since the goal is to complement the teaching provided by the online courses. With courses lasting for a maximum of 64 hours, it is highly probable that the TOEFL ITP test will exert a strong influence on teaching. From what we have exposed so far, it seems that the ELF discourse and the EWB actions go in opposing directions: one challenging and the other apparently strengthening the notion that an American variety of English is internationally intelligible. However, we wanted to understand the rationale for those decisions related to the implementation of the EWB program and in 2014 sent a questionnaire to the Management Team in Brasília, headed by academics with large experience in Applied Linguistics. Their written response (translated from Portuguese) is presented next. 4. EWB choices One of the questions we asked related to the reasons for choosing TOEFL ITP: An initial assessment test was necessary for diagnosis. The EWB Program establishes that a placement test must be administered. TOEFL ITP was chosen for the following reasons: a)
The EWB program came to aid the CSB program and 60% of the places for undergraduate applicants are from American universities. The rule is that the university of destination determines which kind of test to accept in order to enable the student’s mobility. The American universities accept, primarily, TOEFL IBT, and because of that CAPES negotiated with the Institute of International Education (IIE) that for undergraduate candidates, a Placement test would be accepted instead of a proficiency test. Thus, the TOEFL ITP was the naturally accepted choice by the American universities; b) TOEFL ITP is a paper based placement test, and therefore easier to apply considering the structure of Brazilian universities and the number of students with whom we needed to make the survey;
7
At the time of writing (2015), this number had increased to 63.
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c) It is a test which allows the student to have his or her placement established by it. It is not a test for which the student must enroll to be certified at a specific level, as it is the case of other kinds of assessments. For diagnosis, such format would not be adequate; d) It is an international acknowledged test, which made it also accepted by other universities apart from the American ones.
From this response, it is clear that the internationalization of tests is integral to internationalization of higher education, as one imposes a universally accepted form of assessment on prospective applicants. Here we see one example of the powerful effect of the testing industry, as pointed out by Gray (2012, p. 157) when he discusses tests such as TOEFL, TOEIC and IELTS in relation to the diversity of the English language: “Canagarajah is not alone in suggesting that the testing industry needs to become more sensitive to the sociolinguistic realities of the multiplicity of ways in which English is used in today’s world. He argues that, in a globalised world, varieties of English are no longer so geographically sealed off from one another. In turn this means that proficiency in many settings entails some kind of ‘shuttling’ between dialects or ability to cope with plurality.”
Perhaps somewhat obviously, we can establish links between decisions made by the Brazilian authorities and the availability offered by the market. The justification by the EwB Management Team is a practical one, although not without implicit ideological consequences, as Shohamy (2007) has already alerted. The next question was about the choice of the online course: The didactic material to be used was not a choice made by EwB program. CAPES8 had already purchased many resources from Cengage Learning and from National Geographic to feed the Portal de Periódicos (Scientific Journals Gateway) and the passwords for My English Online were offered as part of that deal. Here we can see what in the market is called “tie in sales”. Because one of the government funding agencies was already a buyer of other products offered by Cengage Learning and National Geographic Learning, it made sense to include an online course. Regarding the varieties to be privileged, the response was: The choices are made depending on the partnerships established by the Program. The aim of the program is not to privilege any variety of English. All the English language speaking countries’ embassies, governments and universities are in touch with the EWB managing team in order to set new partnerships. A single partnership with only one country could not take into account all of our needs. There are ongoing negotiations with other countries, but due to the worldwide crisis, it hasn’t been easy for the partners to contribute with the program. It is interesting to note that all the embassies of English speaking countries were contacted, thus revealing that the Inner Circle countries might have been privileged by this decision, what reinforces the view that English is seen primarily as a native speaker’s language within a monolingual orientation (Canagarajah, 2013). The final question was about the potential washback effects of those decisions. The response was that there was awareness about it:
8Coordination
for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel
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For every established examination/assessment there is a washback effect. The program involves a group of academics who are constantly re-evaluating it. However, we believe that one test is better than none and the process has to start somewhere. It doesn’t necessarily mean that we must keep the current tool as a standard. The program requires a placement test as a tool to make diagnostic assessment and to assist the internationalization initiatives. These considerations are made to illustrate the tide ELF is against. The pragmatic decisions taken at a national level for a program of such dimension show some of the mechanisms through which ideology operates: thanks to its successful ability to generate products that can be universally consumed, a standard variety of English finds its ways into the world of policy-making. 5. Final remarks Given the internationalization of higher education, it is likely that academics participating in the Science without Borders program will be involved in lingua franca communication in at least two different contexts: where English is a native language (such as in the United States) and where it is a medium of instruction (such as in Japan, Germany or Italy). In both cases, given the trend towards internalization worldwide, Brazilians are likely to encounter non-native speakers irrespective of the country they go to. The fact that the tests administered do not measure the applicant’s ability in negotiating online, as ELF proponents suggest, may cripple the good intentions of decisionmakers. Paradoxically, a world without borders (and ELF) is a discursive construction that currently finds no resonance in actual policy decision- making, largely (and understandably) dictated by practical concerns. As such, the internationalization of higher education highlights the tensions between English Native Language and ELF as it reinforces the varieties of English that have been more successful in creating and selling ‘products’ widely accepted as the norm. In that sense it tends to promote the varieties of English that have successfully crafted technologies (such as dictionaries, grammar books, tests, coursebooks, online courses) that support classroom teaching. The challenge for ELF is, of course, how to promote its values (e.g. innovation, creativity, pragmatic strategies) in contexts such as this. In relation to the EwB program, it seems that the ELF discourse is viewed as a representation of English that has little relevance in the ‘real world’ of policy-making. Given the dynamicity of the program, it is hoped that the research on its impact will bring considerations of an ELF perspective. In this text we hope to have illustrated the gap between the competing discourses of EFL and ELF; i.e. between the teaching of English heavily dependent upon the notion of standard language and prestige variety, and the one that pushes for alternative ways of conceptualizing successful communication in lingua franca settings. About the authors
Telma Gimenez is an Associate Professor at Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), with a PhD from Lancaster University (UK). Her research interests are in the areas of English language teacher education, globalization and educational policies. Currently she is a Visiting Academic at the Institute of Education, UK, with a scholarship from the Brazilian Ministry of Education (CAPES). Email:
[email protected] Taisa Pinetti Passoni is an Assistant Professor at Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná (UTFPR/PB). She has a BA in Language Teaching (Portuguese and English) and holds a Master’s degree in Language Studies (UEL-PR). Currently she is developing research at doctoral level on foreign languages policy and planning in Brazil. Email:
[email protected]
References Blommaert, J. (2010) The sociolinguistics of globalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chowdhury, R., & Phan, L. H. (2014). Desiring TESOL and international education – market abuse and exploitation. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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CNPQ (2014). The Program . Retrieved from: http://www.cienciasemfronteiras.gov.br/web/csf-eng/ Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2012) Analysing English as a Lingua Franca. A corpus-driven investigation. London: Continuum, 2012. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction: A growing global phenomenon – phase 1. An interim report. London: The British Council. De Mejia, A.M. (2012). English language as intruder: The effects of English language education in Colombia and South America – a critical perspective. In V. Rapatahana & P. Bunce (Eds.), English language as Hydra: Its impact on non-English language cultures (pp. 244-254). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Fairclough, N. (2006). Language and globalization. London: Routledge. Gray, J. (2012). English: The industry. In A.Hewings & C.Tagg (Eds.), The politics of English: Conflict, competition, co-existence, (pp.137-162). Abingdon: Routledge. McKenzie, I. (2014). English as a lingua franca: Theorizing and teaching English. London: Routledge. O’Regan, J. (2014) English as a Lingua Franca: An immanent critique. Applied Linguistics, 35(5) 533552. Park, J.S., and Wee, L. (2014) Markets of English: Linguistic capital and language policy in a globalizing world. London: Routledge. Seargent, P. (2012) Exploring World Englishes: Language in a global context. London: Routledge. Shohamy, E. (2007). Language tests as policy tools. Assessment in education: Principles, policy and practice. 14 (1), 117-130. Widdowson, H.( 2000). Object of language and the language subject: On the mediating role of Applied Linguistics, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 20, 21–33. Widdowson, H. (2012) ELF and the inconvenience of established concepts. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 1(1), 5-26.
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Kitsou, S. (2016). English as a Lingua Franca: A weapon or a tool? In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.). ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 129-135). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
English as a Lingua Franca: A weapon or a tool? Sophia Kitsou Abstract The English language has shifted from being a language that was originally used to serve native speakers’ needs to becoming a communicative tool also used among non-native speakers in their interactions. The term ‘English as a lingua franca’ (ELF) refers to communication in English among speakers with different first language backgrounds across all three Kachruvian circles without, however, precluding the participation of English native speakers (Seidlhofer, 2011). In its purest form, ELF is a ‘contact language’ used only among non-native speakers, and “for whom English is the chosen foreign language of communication” (Firth, 1996), thus implying that English is a neutral, free-choice, instrument for international communication. Languages, however, are not just different word systems but different systems of values. Learning to communicate in another language entails developing an awareness of the ways culture and language interrelate (Liddicoat, 2003). Foreign language learning is believed to contribute to the better knowledge of other cultures, to the improvement of understanding of other people as learners decentre from their own culture-based assumptions and the borders between the “self” and “the other” are explored and challenged. In this context, countries take great interest in promoting their own national languages abroad as these enhance their soft power that is, their ability to get the outcomes they want through attraction rather than coercion (Nye, 2004). ELF is a critical instrument, for others a weapon still in the hands of Anglophone countries, in the ongoing process of globalization. But can ELF be a source of soft power and influence positively ELF learners toward the inner circle countries? This paper critically discusses these issues by exploiting the findings of a Eurobarometer survey on ELF learners in France and Germany, their profile and attitude toward Anglophone countries while projecting the language and cultural policies developed toward ELF.
Keywords: ELF, linguistic imperialism, language policy, cultural policy, soft power.
1. Introduction English is the lingua franca of our globalized world. The global spread of English has to do with power, the power of the people who speak it as their mother tongue (Crystal, 2003, p.9). The English language was sent around the globe by British political imperialism during the nineteenth century and managed not only to maintain but also to expand its world presence in the twentieth century through the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its emergence as a global superpower (Crystal, 2003, p. 10). This spread of English is described by Kachru (1985, pp.12-13) in terms of three concentric circles: the Inner, the Outer and the Expanding Circle with the Inner Circle including countries where English is said to be spoken and used as a native language (ENL), the Outer Circle comprising countries where English plays an important 'second language' role (ESL), whereas the Expanding Circle refers to the territories where English is learnt as a foreign language (EFL), as the most important means for international communication (EIL), or else known, as a lingua franca (ELF). Despite its limitations and being strongly criticized for oversimplification, Kachru’s model will be used, for the purposes of this paper, as a schema in order to examine whether ELF can be a source of soft power and influence positively ELF learners in France and Germany (expanding circle countries) toward the inner circle countries and more specifically, the USA. The terms ELF and ELF learners will be used because as it was already mentioned and will become evident in this paper one of the main reasons why English is learned in France and Germany is because of its magnitude as the most widely spoken language in the world.
Zanneio Model Experimental Junior High School of Piraeus
[email protected]
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2. English as a Lingua Franca and soft power ELF as a term has arisen to refer to communication in English among speakers with different first language backgrounds across all three Kachruvian circles without, however, precluding the participation of English native speakers (Seidlhofer, 2011, p.7). In its purest form, ELF is a ‘contact language’ used only among non-native speakers, and “for whom English is the chosen foreign language of communication” (Firth, 1996, p. 240), thus implying that English is a neutral, freechoice, instrument for international communication. Languages, however, are not just different word systems but different systems of values. “Every national language is another taxonomy of the world, another approach, a total of choices that give a distinctive value to each language, the value of the collective expression of a whole nation” (Babiniotis, 2009). As George Babiniotis claims “there is no other way, more direct, more substantial, no shorter way to get to know a people than by learning their language”(Babiniotis, 2009). Language is the most salient feature of the culture of a people as it not only represents it but it also reproduces it. For Phillipson (1992), English has been actively promoted as an instrument of foreign policy and is a deadly weapon, still in the hands of Anglophone countries, which poses a serious threat to national languages and to multilingualism. It does not only replace but also displaces other languages (Phillipson, 1992, p.27). Language displacement leads to language shift which eventually can end up in language death or, rather, in language murder or linguicide, a more accurate term, according to Tove Skutnabb-Kangas (1999, p. 65), since “linguicide, in contrast to language death, implies that there are agents involved in causing the death of the languages”. It is true that states have always taken great interest in promoting their national languages and cultures abroad as these enhance their soft power, that is, their “ability to get the outcomes [they] want through attraction rather than coercion” (Nye, 2004, p. x). Lingual power is such a particularly effective means of spreading one’s influence that states spend millions on networks such as the British Council, the Alliance Française, the Goethe Institute, etc. (Johnson, 2009, p. 137). The British Council is not only the UK’s key agency for promoting the teaching of English worldwide but, above all, it is its leading cultural relations organisation building overseas influence for the UK by developing mutual understanding between peoples, societies and countries. Its activity and programmes deliver benefits for Britain at home and abroad. Similarly, the USA “has a variety of government and private organisations exercising a corresponding range of functions, and slightly different constituencies at home and abroad” (Phillipson, 1992, p.136). Joseph Nye (2004) one of the most influential international relations scholars of our era, who was the one to coin the term “soft power” argues that a country’s soft power rests primarily on three sources: its culture, its political values and its foreign policies. America’s soft power undoubtedly comes through its culture. U.S. cultural power is its greatest weapon in the era of globalization and is “even larger than its economic and military assets” (p.11). According to Zbigniew Brzezinski, another prominent international relations scholar, U.S. world cultural attractiveness is, inter alia, facilitated by the rapid spread of the English language as the international common language (2004, p.185). In fact, the language that now dominates the world is called English, the culture, however, carried with it is American (“The triumph of English”, 2001). ELF is a critical instrument in the ongoing process of globalization. As Warschauer (cited in Mydans, 2007) claims, “English and globalization have spread hand in hand through the world. Having a global language has assisted globalization, and globalization has consolidated the global language”. Nevertheless, there is widespread disagreement on whether the rise of ELF should be viewed as a positive development (tool) or as a negative one (weapon).
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3. English as a Lingua Franca: A language of communication or a language of identification? For linguists, such as Hüllen (1992) there is a distinction between a language of communication (‘Kommunikationssprache’) and a language of identification (‘Identifikationssprache’) with the latter having a symbolic function by enabling the speaker to identify with a language and through it with a culture to which s/he feels a sense of belonging whereas the former, as is the case with ELF, is a language selected for communication only and thus, the culture associated with this language is not activated by its users. Hüllen (as cited in Phillipson, 2009), years later, however, to some extent distances himself from this earlier position by admitting that seeing English as neutral, with ‘nothing to do with the cultural identity of speakers’, is problematical, since we are in an age: with the United States as a kind of new empire. This makes it difficult to believe in the hypothesis that English as a national language and English as an international language are two separate systems, the latter being equidistant to all other languages and cultures (p. 97).
Learning to communicate in another language, however, inevitably entails developing an awareness of the ways culture and language interrelate (Liddicoat et al., 2003) as the knowledge of a language’s culture is thought essential for a thorough understanding of a language’s nuances of meanings and necessary for avoiding experiencing misinterpretation and miscommunication. Still, Hoffman (2000, p.20) separates communication and culture by arguing that “being proficient in English does not mean that one has to be bicultural: a superficial knowledge of Anglo-Saxon culture is sufficient, there is no need to develop feelings of dual identity and shared loyalties”. Brumfit (2003), on the other hand, claims that learning a language even simply as a means of communication involves, opting for a relationship with some kind of language-using community and thus, involves a twoway process with the language both a bearer and a mediator of that community’s socio-cultural attitudes, values and beliefs. Kramer (1993) also argues that foreign language learning is a hermeneutic process where learners expose their own cultural identity to the contrasting influences of a foreign language and culture. It is in this context that foreign language learning is believed to contribute to the better knowledge of other cultures, to the improvement of understanding of other people, to the breaking down of stereotypes and to the development of tolerance as learners not only decentre from their own culture-based assumptions but also the borders between the “self” and “the other” are both explored and challenged. Thus, it is interesting to investigate whether learning English, the lingua franca of our globalised world, can influence positively those who learn it toward the inner circle Anglophone countries and more specifically, the USA. 4. The study: Attitudes of ELF learners in France and Germany toward U.S.A. 4.1 The context
Our case study draws on a Eurobarometer survey (EB 63.4) which was carried out in May-June 2005 and investigated, inter alia, English language knowledge. At that time, the percentage of English language knowledge turned out to be 33.2 percent (336 out of 1012) in France and 47.6 percent (723 out of 1520) in Germany. This Eurobarometer was mainly designed to inquire about European citizens’ knowledge and opinions on issues such as the European Union policies, their fears concerning the loss of their national identity and culture, etc.; however, another issue tackled was their attitude toward U.S. role in major international issues such as world peace, the fight against poverty, environment protection, etc. This survey took place two years after the transatlantic rift created between traditional partners such as the United States and the FrancoGerman Axis because of the U.S. unilateral decision to go ahead with the war in Iraq in 2003. Foreign positive perceptions of the United States had greatly declined and consequently, it seemed ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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quite intriguing to divide the French and German respondents of this Eurobarometer survey into two categories English-speaking and non-English speaking ones and examine their perceptions and attitudes toward U.S. role in: world peace, world poverty, environment protection, etc. 4.2 The findings
Interestingly enough, it became evident that those French and Germans with English language skills did not have a more positive opinion and attitude toward the United States than those who did not speak English (see Tables 1 & 2 below). What is more, in certain cases they were even more critical (see Tables 1 & 2 below). For instance, of the 336 English-speaking French, only 41 people (12.2 percent) responded that the United States play a positive role in world peace. On the other hand, of 676 non-English speaking French, 117 people, that is, 17.3 percent answered that U.S. role in world peace is positive. In Germany, of the 723 English-speaking Germans, only 132 people (18.3 percent) perceived the U.S. role in this issue as positive whereas of the 797 non-English speaking Germans, 187 people (23.5 percent) viewed the U.S. role as positive. Table 1. English-speaking and non-English speaking French and Germans’ attitude toward US role in world peace
Positive Negative
Neither positive DK nor negative
Total
41
256
36
3
336
12.2% 117
76.2% 406
10.7% 116
.9% 37
100.0% 676
17.3%
60.1%
17.2%
5.5% 100.0%
132 18.3% Germany 187 Non English-speaking 23.5%
516 71.4% 482 60.5%
70 9.7% 109 13.7%
5 .7% 19 2.4%
Country
English-speaking France Non English-speaking English-speaking
723 100.0% 797 100.0%
Table 2. English-speaking and non-English speaking French and Germans’ attitude toward US role in the fight against poverty in the world. Country
27 8.0% 81 12.0% 79 10.9%
259 77.1% 449 66.4% 483 66.8%
Neither positive nor negative 39 11.6% 97 14.3% 144 19.9%
131 16.4%
474 59.5%
152 19.1%
Positive Negative English-speaking
France Non English-speaking English-speaking Germany Non English- speaking
DK
Total
11 3.3% 49 7.2% 17 2.4%
336 100.0% 676 100.0% 723 100.0%
40 797 5.0% 100.0%
Furthermore, the English-speaking French and Germans were not afraid of losing their national identity and culture within the EU contrary to their compatriots with no English skills who seemed rather worried (see Table 3). ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Table 3. English-speaking and non-English speaking French and Germans’ attitude toward the fear of losing their national identity and culture within the EU Country
Currently afraid Not currently afraid DK
93 27.7% France 296 Non English-speaking 43.8% 187 English-speaking 25.9% Germany 346 Non English-speaking 43.4% English-speaking
Total
241 71.7% 348 51.5% 518
2 .6% 32 4.7% 18
336 100.0% 676 100.0% 723
71.6% 428
2.5% 100.0% 23 797
53.7%
2.9% 100.0%
5. Discussion and conclusions Why does the power influence wielded by the United States through the English language and their culture not produce the desired outcomes? Joseph Nye who pioneered the theory of soft power warns that “soft power - like all power must be taken in context” (2004, p. 16). In our case, France and Germany are two states with bulk of power in economic, political and cultural terms. In this strong cultural context, it is inevitable that both French and Germans have built strong national and cultural identities. What is more, with regard to foreign language learning, they take a utilitarian approach. When inquired in another Eurobarometer survey (EB 64.3) about the reasons why they think it is important that young people should learn a foreign language, the culture associated with the language was ranked as the ultimate reason among French respondents; the Germans did not consider it as an important reason, either (see Table 4). Table 4. Reasons why it is important that young people learn other languages at school or University. November– December 2005 (ΕΒ64.3:QA4 ) For what reasons do you think it is important that young people learn other Country languages at school or University? France Germany To understand what life is like for people in other countries 27.7% 35.4% To improve their job opportunities
75.5%
86.6%
Because the language is widely spoken in Europe
21.2%
35.1%
Because the language is widely spoken around the world
47.2%
52.2%
To be more tolerant and accepting toward people from other cultures
26.0%
41.4%
Because of the culture associated with the language 13.0% To be multilingual 19.8% To be able to communicate with family or friends in a region where the 23.7% language is spoken To feel more European 18.1%
21.0% 36.0%
To feel more comfortable when going on holiday to a region where the 22.9% language is spoken
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Not only that but also the status ascribed to English as a foreign language within the national education system and the existence of an institutional framework for the protection of national language use, as is the case with France, seem to be some other factors explaining the ineffective power influence wielded by the English language and U.S. culture. While in most E.U. countries the learning of English is obligatory at a particular stage of compulsory education and this is the case with Germany, in France, the status of English within the national education system does not differ from that of the other languages included in the curriculum: it is optional (Eurydice, 2005). Additionally, in France, the Toubon law mandates the obligatory use of the French language in certain circumstances of the French citizens’ daily lives in order to guarantee their right to use their national language. Moreover, the policy of “cultural exemption” that allows E.U. member-states to limit cultural imports of non-European audiovisual products and the adoption of dubbing for audiovisual products, a practice which is regarded as an ethnocentric adaptation of the “foreign” to the target country’s cultural values, a process which eradicates “foreignness” and weakens the power of the source country’s cultural images, further moderate the power of the English language and U.S. culture. Actually, in 1989, the European Union passed the Television Without Frontiers directive which requires that E.U. member-states reserve a majority (51 percent) of entertainment broadcast transmission time for programs of European origin (Rinaman, 1996). France has since adopted the strictest quotas and in Germany, although there are no official quotas that the broadcasters must observe, relevant legislation ensures that television broadcasters comply with the European directive. As it becomes evident, English is just a tool and cannot induce empathy toward inner circle Anglophone states especially in states such as France and Germany which have outer and expanding circles of their own. English is undoubtedly an asset for Anglophone countries but there are constraints to its use as soft power source. Its use as a weapon needs a more concentrated effort on the part of Anglophone countries while it depends largely on the context. At the moment, for the countries examined, English is just a tool toward an end, a communication language and by no means, an identification language. Similar empirical research in countries with less powerful national languages could give us more valuable insights on the role of English as a source of soft power and as to whether it is still a weapon in the hands of Anglophone countries. About the author
Dr. Sophia Kitsou received her Ph.D from the Ionian University’s Department of Foreign Languages, Translation and Interpreting where she completed her thesis, “The Anglophony in France and Germany: geocultural analysis in the first decade of the 21 st century”. She holds an MA in Translation from the Surrey University and a BA in English Language and Literature from the University of Athens. Her research interests include ELF, ELT, language and cultural policies. She is a board member of the Panhellenic Association of State School Teachers of English and she teaches English in Zanneio Model Experimental Junior High School of Piraeus. Email:
[email protected]
References Babiniotis, G. (2009). The Greek language: Its contribution to basic concepts of Greek civilization. Retrieved from: http://www.babiniotis.gr/wmt/webpages/index.php?lid=2&pid=7&catid=M &apprec=23 Brumfit, C. (2003). Individual freedom in language teaching: Helping learners to develop a dialect of their own. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brzezinski, Z. (2004). The choice: Global domination or global leadership? New York: Basic Books. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Anderson, L. (2016). Why context matters in English-medium instruction (EMI): Reflections based on experience in the Italian university system and in an EU-funded programme for early-career scholars. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 136-144). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Why context matters in English-medium instruction (EMI): Reflections based on experience in the Italian university system and in an EU-funded programme for early-career scholars Laurie Anderson Abstract This paper presents and motivates a framework for analysing English-Medium Instruction (EMI) in higher education from a comparative perspective with a focus on teaching by disciplinary specialists in non-immersion (lingua franca) settings. Drawing on a dual notion of context (societal, top-down; emergent, bottom-up) three contextual factors are discussed and their pertinence to EMI illustrated: language repertoires and language ideologies (what other languages are present in the context; what value is attributed to these languages and to English), cultural expectations about the teaching-learning process (how students and teachers expect themselves and others to act in pedagogic interactions), and the degree to which educational and hiring policies (national, institutional) reflect a market orientation to HE (this last discussion draws on the GATS, 1995, definitions of modes of crossborders exchange in order to recast EMI as part of the broader process of the international provision of educational services). A typology of types of students and teachers that can be found in EMI classrooms is then presented; this typology draws on Smit (2010) and Fontanet-Gómez (2013) but takes students’ and faculty members’ institutional status explicitly into consideration, thus taking the three contextual factors identified as pertinent to EMI more systematically into account. The final section of the paper illustrates the utility of the proposed framework for the comparative analysis of English-Medium Instruction by using it to highlight variation in EMI within the Italian context and continuities across European settings with similar contextual characteristics.
Keywords. (EMI), (ELFA), language policy in higher education, language diversity in higher education, English in Continental Europe, (ICLHE).
1. Why worry about context in the English-medium classroom? Recent work has begun to shed light on English-medium instruction in higher education from a variety of perspectives and on how it intersects with broader issues regarding the use of English as a lingua franca in international academia. One line of inquiry involves the analysis of language policies and how they are implemented in various national contexts and specific institutions; recent contributions in this area include Doiz, Lasagabaster and Sierra (2013), Fortanet-Gómez (2013) and Jenkins (2014). A second line of inquiry focuses on processes of classroom interaction in settings in which faculty and/or students are speakers of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF); recent publications on this topic include Smit (2010) and Smith and Dafouz (2012). Drawing on these two strands of research and on the author’s involvement in research on and training for Englishmedium instruction in two contexts – one regional (an EU-funded training scheme aimed at earlycareer faculty in the European Higher Education Area), the other national (the Italian university system) – the present contribution outlines a framework for examining English-medium instruction (EMI) in higher education (HE) from a comparative perspective. The focus is on curricular teaching through the medium of English by disciplinary specialists (lecturers, professors, instructors) in non-immersion settings, i.e. in contexts in which English is being used as an academic lingua franca.1 The notion of ‘context’ in educational research has a long and illustrious history, ranging from the rather deterministic view that informed early work on comparative education (e.g., Noah & Eckstein, 1969) to more recent theorizations taking a constructivist approach to the teachinglearning process (cf. Larochelle, Bednarz & Garrison, 1998). The former strand of research tends University of Siena (Italy)
[email protected] 1
The special case of curricular teaching through the medium of English by EAP specialists is not dealt with here. However, readers interested in this form of EMI should find the observations about contextual factors and the student typology proposed useful.
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to conceptualize context in top-down terms, focusing on how cultural and political factors together with specific aspects of institutional design and policy contribute to shaping educational processes. The latter body of research tends to view context as an emergent property of face-toface interaction, focusing how teachers and learners in specific local contexts and individual classrooms co-construct what Holliday (1994) has termed the “small culture” of the class. Both approaches –focusing, respectively, on context ‘writ large’ and context ‘writ small’ – have in my opinion much to contribute to the current reflection on the role of English as a lingua franca in the international classroom. In section 2 I highlight three factors that affect the reception of EMI in different national and local contexts and the way in which English is actually used in the classroom when the decision is made to implement it. These factors are not the only ones that influence language use in classroom settings, but in my view their impact is significant and has not been sufficiently emphasized in some discussions of EMI. Section 3, which draws on the preceding discussion, proposes a typology designed to help identify salient features of the student-teacher mix in specific EMI classrooms. Section 4 briefly illustrates how reference to the contextual factors discussed can provide insights into EMI, in terms of both variation within national contexts and continuities across different parts of Europe. 2. Some reflections on context “writ large”: societal and institutional factors impacting EMI 2.1 Role of multilingualism in the socio-political context: language repertoires and language ideologies
Language constitutes an important socio-political reference point in all societies due to its dual function as a vehicle of communication and as a marker of social identity. The latter function is often mentioned in connection with language debates within the European context in reference to the Romantic concept of ‘one language, one nation’.2 In reality, however, many contemporary European countries are highly multilingual. These include not only countries traditionally considered as such, in which national or regional languages are typically distributed on a territorial basis for example, Belgium (French, Dutch), Switzerland (French, German, Italian) and Spain (Castilian Spanish, official throughout Spain; Catalan, Basque, Galician, co-official in the regions in which they are traditionally spoken). They also encompass countries usually thought of as monolingual but which now contain substantial numbers of residents who speak migrant languages due to immigration from outside Europe and to the increasing integration of the European labour market. In this second group of countries, the geographical distribution of plurilingual speakers differs, with most concentrated in urban or industrial areas. In recent years, an increasing number of settings in Continental Europe (in particular major cities) are characterized by both heritage multilingualism and multilingualism linked to migration. This brief panorama highlights how patterns of language diversity differ considerably from one country to another and from one part of a country to another. It also highlights how different patterns of multilingualism may reflect different historical processes and hence the meaning that language choice and language diversity assume in given national and local contexts. This ideological dimension of language use, I would suggest, is pertinent to a comparative analysis of EMI. Where language carries with it a strong identity function (whether national, as in France or Italy, or regional, as in Catalonia), one would expect language choice in public settings such as higher education to have a high symbolic value and proposals for introducing English-medium instruction to be more intensely scrutinized. Where minority heritage languages are present (such as Catalonia in the Spanish context), concerns about possible ‘crowding out’ of such languages within the public sphere may make this scrutiny even more intense. This does not mean, as I will highlight below, 2
Cf. Blackledge (2000) for some interesting reflections on how this monolingual ideology surfaces in the media and in public debate, even in officially multilingual polities.
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that EMI does not get implemented in such settings; my claim is, rather, that linguistic repertoires and the ideological dimension that language choice assumes may be more or less pertinent in different contexts, and that this will affect both how EMI is received and put into practice.3 2.2 Role of national pedagogical traditions and practices
A second factor I feel is frequently underestimated in discussions of English-Medium Instruction is the role of pedagogical traditions and practices. Expectations about what is normative in classroom interaction can vary considerably from one national context to another, and even what may appear to be the same pedagogical genre for instance, a “lecture” or a “seminar session” can involve different interaction patterns in different settings. Research carried out with colleagues from Italian and British universities a number of years ago (and validated by more recent observation in the Italian context) drives home this point (Anderson & Piazza, 2005; Ciliberti & Anderson, 1999). Classroom observation showed lectures to be more monologic in Italy than in Britain, where the notion of ‘interactive lecturing’ (although often honoured in the breach) tends to hold sway. The structure of the lectures collected in Italian universities was also more additive and ‘accretional’, with frequent digressions (Zorzi, 1999), quite different from the British tendency to announce the lecture structure beforehand and to organize it in blocks. Differences in interaction patterns were also found in seminar settings, even when the activity underway was nominally the same. For instance, in undergraduate reading seminars in which students and instructors were discussing preassigned texts, student participation in the Italian context was almost always initiated by the instructor, who called upon a specific student to intervene; in the British seminars, instead, students frequently volunteered (Anderson, 1999). Differences even extended to the way in which texts were read and critiqued, with citations from the readings generally much more faithful to the original in the British setting and greater liberties taken with the text in Italy (Anderson & Piazza, 2005). These examples highlight how teaching and learning in higher education classrooms in different national settings is permeated by a series of subtle differences in terms of interaction norms.4 In conducting a comparative analysis of EMI, it is important to keep in mind the potential impact of such normative expectations about appropriate language use in the university classroom.5 2.3 Openness of national university systems and individual institutions to foreign staff and students
In today’s increasingly globalized academia, a prime reason for offering study programmes in English is to attract ‘international’ students and domestic students interested in an international dimension (‘internationalization-at-home’). Viewed in this light, EMI is a particular service for particular types of consumers: a ‘tradable commodity’. A third contextual factor to take into account are thus economic considerations. To grasp the significance of this fact, it is useful to situate EMI within the more general scenario of cross-borders provision of services. To do so, it is helpful to consider how EMI fits into the framework of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS, 1995), which identifies four types of cross-border exchange (Table 1 below).
3
In support of this claim, see P. van Parajs (2011) for a provocative discussion from a political philosophy perspective of how vehicular and identity functions of language come into play in the reception of English as a lingua franca in the current European context. 4 Cultural differences in university teaching have been documented by similar research carried out in other national contexts; for a recent comparison of Italy and Germany, for example, see Hornung, A., Carobbio, G. & Sorrentino, D. (2014). 5 In support of this view, see a recent empirical study by Brown and Adamson (2014) which highlights how the EMI classroom culture in Japanese universities remains rooted in local academic norms.
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Table 1. Cross-borders educational provision viewed through the lens of GATS, 1995
Table 1 draws attention to the existence of a ‘market economy’ in international HE. It invites us to consider, for example, how pressure to recruit students from abroad may relate to the size of a country, the number and size of the institutions of HE within it, and particular characteristics of a given institution (for example, its geographical position with respect to neighbouring countries). The utility of a political economy perspective on EMI finds confirmation in an interesting retrospective article by Wilkinson (2013) focusing on Maastricht University, in which the author identifies five phases and motivations for the expansion of EMI in this Dutch institution over a period of 20 years: cross-border (practical); Europeanisation (idealist); consolidation (educational); globalisation (survival); monetisation (financial). The birds-eye view of the process he provides underlines the role played by specific economic considerations, such as the institution’s position near the Belgian and German borders and the presence of a stagnant home market for HE. The table also draws attention to the impact on EMI of structural characteristics that are linked to the other three modes of exchange. Curricular teaching in English, for example, is affected not just by the presence of ‘international’ students but also by the recruitment of foreign staff. National HE systems in Europe vary widely in this respect. As documented by various contributions (i.e., Gagliarducci, Ichino, Peri & Perotti, 2005; Kim 2010; Marimon, Lietaert & Grigolo, 2009; among others), some national university systems are relatively receptive to foreign academics (e.g. the UK and the Netherlands), while others are relatively impenetrable (e.g. France, Italy and Spain). Moreover, in countries in which both public and private institutions of HE exist, the latter usually have more flexible recruitment policies (Marimon et al., 2009), a fact that generally translates into higher concentrations of English-speaking teaching staff (e.g. Bocconi, a business university in Italy; Central European University, a private institution in Hungary). The result of these differences across countries and institutions is that the actual faculty-student mix in the English-medium classroom may vary greatly from one setting to another. The following section briefly considers the implications of this fact for the comparative study of EMI. 3. Some reflections on context ‘writ small’: variation in the faculty-student mix in Englishmedium classrooms In the preceding section, I have argued that contextual factors have an impact on EMI. Among these, I have suggested that of particular importance are language repertoires and language ideologies (what other languages are present in the context; what value is attributed to these languages and to English), cultural expectations about the teaching-learning process (how students and teachers expect themselves and others to act in pedagogic interactions), and the degree to which educational and hiring policies (national, institutional) reflect a market orientation to HE. If these factors are important to investigating EMI in a comparative perspective, then it is clearly ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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necessary to understand who is in a particular classroom (what type of students? what type of teachers?).6 As regards students, a useful point of departure is the classification of the types of students that can be found in multilingual university classrooms proposed by Smit (2010, pp. 35-36) and taken up and expanded by Fontanet-Gómez (2013, pp. 154-55). The following classification draws on these two authors’ proposals but has been reorganized in order to take the institutional and sociolinguistic status of students more systematically into account. It has also been adjusted so as to refer specifically to EMI in non-immersion contexts (such as Continental Europe): 1. ‘Home’ students majoring in modern languages, among which English, attending curricular courses in English: a. with majority language backgrounds b. with ethnolinguistic minority backgrounds c. with immigrant backgrounds 2. ‘Home’ students in other areas of study, attending curricular courses (or entire study programmes) in English: a. with majority language backgrounds b. with ethnolinguistic minority backgrounds c. with immigrant backgrounds 3. Foreign students participating in short-term mobility programmes (e.g., Erasmus); 4. Foreign students who have enrolled on an individual basis to follow undergraduate or graduate courses of study taught entirely or partially in English: a. intra-regional, i.e. from other European countries b. across regions (‘international students’), i.e. from Asia, Africa, Americas The first level of this reorganized typology allows us to see more clearly what sort of relationship students have towards the institution, both in terms of time frame (long or short-term) and level of commitment, including financial (nationally subsidized, wholly or in part; EU-funded; individually funded). It also highlights the role of English as a component of their studies (core, instrumental). These elements are useful to predict what expectations about the teaching-learning process students may have. The second level highlights the different linguistic repertoires that students may bring into the classroom and the social value that these may be attributed, both by themselves and by other class participants. Categories regarding institutional and sociolinguistic status can likewise be used to classify teachers. A possible breakdown is as follows: 1. Part of institution’s staff (tenured or fixed term) a. ‘nationals’ (recruited from within national system/setting) i. with majority language backgrounds ii. with ethnolinguistic minority backgrounds iii. with immigrant backgrounds b. ‘international’ (recruited from abroad) i. ‘native-speaker’ of English ii. ‘native speaker’ of other language (not national majority or minority language(s), nor English) 2. Temporary (e.g. involved in short-term mobility, such as Erasmus teaching exchange) 6
Referring to what she terms ‘The Human Factor’, Fortanet-Gómez (2013) identifies three groups of actors who participate in the higher education process: students, academic staff and administrative staff. Here I focus only on the first two categories, students and teachers, as it is ultimately through interaction between these two groups in specific pedagogic settings (lecture halls, seminar rooms, laboratories) that EMI takes place.
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Again, the first-level division in terms of institutional status makes it possible to distinguish this second actor in the pedagogic process in terms of time frame (long or short term) and level of institutional and personal commitment.7 The second level helps capture contextual variation in the market structure of academic recruitment. Finally, the third level helps delineate the sociolinguistic profile of teachers, although it is evident that some of the categories proposed (such a ‘native speaker’) are difficult to pin down and subject to controversy. It will be observed that a third aspect often present in discussions of EMI, i.e. that of language proficiency (in English, in the national or host institution’s language), has not been explicitly incorporated into the two classifications proposed. This decision can be motivated on two grounds: practical and theoretical. On the one hand, language proficiency is a continuous variable that cuts across all groups. Secondly, and more crucially, what constitutes successful communication in ELF contexts is, as has amply been documented in the literature, linked to the full range of language resources mutually available to participants. ‘Proficiency’, in other words, is not only a question of individual ability, but is also – and perhaps more importantly relationally defined. In this sense language skills are perhaps best thought of not as a contextual factor “writ large” that can help explain certain characteristics of interaction in EMI classrooms, but rather as an emergent quality of that interaction itself. 4. Putting EMI in European higher education into perspective: The case of Italy The contextual factors outlined above and the suggested categorizations of types of students and teachers constitute, I argue, a useful framework for comparing curricular teaching in English in different national and institutional contexts. They resonate with both personal experience in the classroom in the Italian university context and with extensive observation of EMI teaching in Italy and abroad. As I have had ample occasion to observe over the last few years in my role as academic communications consultant for the training component of the EU-funded Max Weber Postdoctoral Programme for the Social Sciences,8 references to such factors in some shape or form are recurrent when scholars and teachers of different backgrounds discuss their experiences in the EMI classroom. In closing, I will therefore try to illustrate the utility for a comparative analysis of the perspective proposed, by offering a brief reflection on EMI in Italy against the backdrop of English-medium teaching in Europe in general. EMI has rapidly increased in Continental Europe in recent years, although levels of diffusion and rates of growth vary greatly from one country to another. Generally speaking, curricular teaching in English started earlier and is much more widespread in Northern European countries. However, a 2013 study of EMI master’s programmes (Brenn-White & Faethe, 2013) indicates a steep increase in such programs in Spain, Italy and France in the last five years. In Italy the number of EMI Master’s programs increased over 40 times from 2007 to 2013 (from only 7 programs in 2007 located in a handful of universities to 304 programs in 2013). This strong surge in EMI in the Italian context has sparked a highly charged debate, both in academic circles (Maraschio & De Martino, 2012) and in the media; in this debate, a leading role has been played by the Accademia della Crusca, the language academy dedicated to the conservation and promotion of the Italian language (for further details, see Tosi, 2011). The issue of EMI received particular attention in 2013 in occasion of a court ruling against one of Italy’s leading public technical universities, the Milan Polytechnic, following its decision to teach all of its master’s programs in English in order to increase its attractiveness to international students. The ruling 7
Other institutional distinctions of potentially relevance do of course exist. For instance, it is conceivable that teaching style may vary systematically with institutional status. Fontanet-Gómez (2013: 162-64) distinguishes between ‘content lecturers’ and ‘language lecturers’ (i.e. between those who are expected to ‘teach the discipline’ and ‘teach language’). Furthermore, teaching roles are ordered hierarchically (instructor/associate professor/full professor; junior/senior lecturer etc.). 8 http://www.eui.eu/ProgrammesAndFellowships/MaxWeberProgramme/Index.aspx
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invoked the constitutionally-recognized status of Italian as the national language and the principle of equal access to higher education by domestic students as the rationale for its decision to suspend the university’s decision.9 The debate exposed a number of broader concerns, ranging from issues of domain loss to worries about the potential impact of a shift towards EMI on the already declining literacy skills of Italian students. Observing this debate through the lens provided in Section 2 of this paper, one can discern how ideological and pedagogical factors played a central role. Shifting our attention to the actual distribution of English-medium courses of study within the Italian context, economic concerns come to the fore. A first point of interest is the fact that secondcycle (two-year master’s) degree courses taught in English outnumber first-cycle (Bachelor’s) courses by about three to one.10 The bulk of undergraduate teaching, in other words, takes place in the national language and is addressed to ‘home students’. In addition to pedagogical concerns about the English language proficiency of incoming Italian students, this relatively limited interest in promoting EMI at this level may be linked to the existence of a sufficient domestic market for undergraduate education within Italy itself. As regards EMI at the second-degree (master’s) level, one can note high levels of implementation in elite business and technical universities located in the North. These institutions include both private universities such as Bocconi (a private, highranking business university in Milan) and public universities with closed admissions policies (e.g. the Politecnici in Torino and Milano). In contrast, the number of EMI programmes is still limited in less research-intensive public universities with open admissions, in particular in the South or outside of major metropolitan areas or areas of touristic interest. These differences are clearly linked to the different capacity of the institutions in question to attract students from abroad and have important repercussions in terms of the actual teacher-student mix in the classroom in different settings. The above, necessarily brief overview of the Italian situation illustrates how an attention to contextual factors can help illuminate variation in EMI within a particular national context. In closing, I would like to provide a brief example that highlights the utility of the framework proposed for the comparative analysis of EMI across countries. In talking with colleagues and policy makers and in observing classroom interaction over the last few years, I have at times been struck by similarities in how EMI has been implemented in apparently disparate contexts. Pompeu Fabra University in Barcelona and the Università di Bolzano/Bozen, located in the Alto Adige/South Tyrol region of Italy close to the Austrian border are a case in point. Both universities are located in areas characterized by the presence of one or more heritage minority languages (Catalan, on the one hand, German and Ladin – a RhaetoRomance language spoken some remote mountain valleys on the other) and both have highly developed trilingual language policies that take the pedagogical implications of multilingualism explicitly into account (at Pompeu Fabra, for example, students following a course taught in one language have the option of being tested or writing term papers in the language of their choice). In both settings, rather than emphasizing the presence of English-medium instruction in promoting course offerings, the emphasis in on the multilingual nature of instruction and of interaction among students and staff (for example, the Faculty of Economics and Management at Bolzano/Bozen, which teaches in Italian, German and English, advertises itself as “trilingual and intercultural”). In these two settings, in short, the international character of education is not associated with EMI but rather with the active presence of linguistic diversity. In the panorama of HE in the European context, these examples provide some interesting food for thought, including how to recast English
9
In the current academic year (2014-15), the university in question has 24 two-year master’s degrees taught in English, 5 in Italian, 9 partly in English and partly in Italian. 10 It should be noted that these estimates should be approached with caution, as they are based on an e portal, StudyPortals, rather than on an analysis of the individual websites of each university.
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as a lingua franca for academic purposes as part of a broader repertoire of language skills. It is my hope that the analytic tools suggested in this paper may contribute to this endeavour. About the author Laurie Anderson is professor of English at the University of Siena (Italy). Her research engages with issues related to English as a lingua franca (ELF) in Continental Europe, with particular reference to higher education. Her recent publications include “Publishing strategies of young, highly mobile academics: The question of language in the European context”, Language Policy, 12/3: 273-288 (2013). She collaborates with the Max Weber Post-doctoral Programme at the European University Institute (Florence) and is a founding member of the FIESOLE Group, a network of applied linguists from various European institutions dedicated to developing a reflexive, transnational approach to training for academic practice. Email:
[email protected])
References Anderson, L., & Piazza, R. (2005). Talking about texts: Production roles and literacy practices in university seminars in Britain and Italy. In M. Bondi & J. Bamford (Eds.), Dialogue within discourse communities: Metadiscursive perspectives on academic genres (pp. 147-178). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. Anderson, L. (1999). "Scusi, io vorrei dire una cosa": dare e prendere la parola nei seminari universitari [“Excuse me, I’d like to say something”: Taking the conversational floor in university seminars]. In A. Ciliberti & L. Anderson (Eds.), Le forme della comunicazione accademica (pp. 102-132). Milan: FrancoAngeli. Blackledge, A. (2000). Monolingual ideologies in multilingual states: Language, hegemony and social justice in Western liberal democracies. Estudios de Sociolingüistica, 1(2), 25-45. Brenn-White, M., & Faethe, E. (2013). English-taught master’s programs in Europe. 2013 update. Institute of International Education. Retrieved from: http://www.iie.org/Research-andPublications/Publications-and-Reports/IIE-Bookstore/English-Language-Masters-BriefingPaper-2013-Update. Brown, H., & Adamson, J. (2014). Localizing EAP in the light of the rise of English medium instruction at Japanese universities. OnCUE Journal 6(3), 5-20. Ciliberti, A., & Anderson, L. (1999). Le forme della comunicazione didattica: Ricerche linguistiche sulla didattica universitaria in ambito umanistico [Forms of academic communication: Linguistic research on university teaching in the humanities]. Milan: FrancoAngeli. Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J.M. (Eds.) (2013). English-medium instruction in universities: Global challenges. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Fortanet-Gómez, I. (2013). CLIL in higher education: Towards a multilingual language policy. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Gagliarducci, S., Ichino, A., Peri, G., & Perotti, R. (2005). Lo splendido isolamento dell’università italiana [The splendid isolation of Italian universities]. Paper prepared for the conference ‘Oltre il Declino’ organized by the Rodolfo Debenedetti Foundation, Rome, February, 2005. Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate methodology and social context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hornung, A., Carobbio, G., & Sorrentino, D. (Eds.) (2014). Discursive und textuelle Structuren in der Hochschuldidaktik [Discursive and textual structures in university teaching]. SprachVermittlungen, Band 12. Münster: Waxmann Verlag gmbH. Jenkins, J. (2014). English as a lingua franca in the international university: The politics of academic English language policy. London: Routledge. Kim, T. (2010). Transnational academic mobility, knowledge, and identity capital. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 35(5), 577-591. Larochelle, M., Bednarz, N., & Garrison, J. (1998). Constructivism and education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Maraschio, N., & De Martino, D. (Eds.) (2012). Fuori l’italiano dall’università? Inglese, internazionalizzazione, politica linguistica [Is Italian being kicked out of the university? English, internationalization, language policy]. Bari-Rome: Laterza. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Marimon, R., Lietaert, M., & Grigolo, M. (2009). Towards the ‘fifth freedom’: Increasing the mobility of researchers in the European Union. Higher Education in Europe, 34(1), 25-37. Noah, H., & Eckstein, M.A. (1969). Toward a science of comparative education. New York: Macmillan. Smit, U., & Dafouz, E. (Eds.). (2012). Integrating content and language in higher education: Gaining insights into English-medium instruction in European universities. AILA Review, 25. Smit, U. (2010). English as a lingua franca in higher education: A longitudinal study of classroom discourse. Boston: Walter de Gruyter. Tosi, A. (2011). The Accademia della Crusca in Italy: Past and present. Language Policy, 10(4), 289-303. van Parijs, P. (2011). Linguistic justice for Europe and the world. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wilkinson, R. (2013). English-medium instruction at a Dutch university: Challenges and pitfalls. In A. Doiz, D. Lasagabaster & J.M. Sierra (Eds.), English-medium instruction in universities: Global challenges (pp. 3-24). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Zorzi, D. (1999). La lezione accademica: Aspetti informative e interpersonali delle digressioni [Academic lectures: Informational and interpersonal aspects of digressions]. In A. Ciliberti & L. Anderson (Eds.), Le forme della comunicazione accademica (pp. 64-83).
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.Karoulla-Vrikki, D. (2016). English as a Lingua Franca: The linguistic landscape in Lidras and Onasagorou street, Lefkosia, Cyprus. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives. (pp. 145-154). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
English as a Lingua Franca: The linguistic landscape in Lidras and Onasagorou Street, Lefkosia, Cyprus Dimitra Karoulla-Vrikki Abstract The paper first reviews the 1990s parliamentary discussion of two bills aimed at regulating the languages utilized in public spaces in Cyprus. In order to decrease the dominance of English, the bills promoted Greek as mandatory and placed English on an optional basis. The protection of Greek language and Greek ethnic identity in Cyprus, the freedom of speech and expression, the promotion of the identity of Cyprus as an independent state, the boosting of the island’s economy and tourism were some issues raised in the parliamentary debate suggesting symbolic-versus-pragmatic perspectives of language planning. The bills were never enacted into laws. Currently, that is, two decades later, the linguistic landscape expresses freedom of expression for some people, while for others it reflects a linguistic chaos. The paper proceeds to the examination of today’s linguistic landscape in Lidras and Onasagorou, the two high streets in the old town of Lefkosia (Nicosia), Cyprus. The examination demonstrates the visibility of English as a lingua franca through a quantitative analysis of data deriving from 600 photos of all written signs. Linguistic items involve signs in English, signs in Greek, signs presenting Greek words and names transliterated into the Latin alphabet, bilingual signs in which the Greek inscription is either followed or preceded by a word-for-word translation in English, signs showing code switching between Greek and English, that is some words or phrases may be in English and others in Greek often suggesting dominance in one of the two languages, signs presenting registered trademarks in English, and signs in other languages (e.g., Turkish, Italian, Russian). Finally, these linguistic tokens, such as road signs, commercial shop signs and advertising signs as well as names of streets, buildings and shop owners suggest a public space of variation associated to economic, political, cultural and social developments on the island.
Keywords: ELF, linguistic landscape, symbolism, pragmatism, public and commercial signs, English, Cyprus.
1. Linguistic landscape (LL) The notion of linguistic landscape (LL) as defined by Shohamy, Ben-Rafael & Barni (2010) “refers to linguistic objects, that mark the public space” (p. xiv). It includes “any written sign found outside private homes, from road signs to names of streets, shops and schools”. The study of LLs “focuses on analysing these items according to the languages utilized, their relative saliency and syntactic or semantic aspects” (p. xiv). These language tokens are facts of language that relate to “cultural, social, political and economic circumstances” (p. xi). According to the same authors, “the core of the public space” usually refers to urban metropolitan space, that is, the “areas designated as ‘center’ or ‘downtown’” where one now finds “fashion boutiques, … cafés, restaurants, fast-food places, offices, municipal buildings, theatres, movie houses and above all huge department stores” (pp. xiv-xv). This “LL of contemporary urban-metropolitan spaces” may be seen as a “heterogeneous whole” which is “marked by a multitude of LL items mostly offering the image of a genuine jungle of signs” an “extreme example of disorder”.a “chaos”. It is also marked by an “instability” caused by the sprouting of new items, the “inauguration of new institutions and stores”, the “launch of new gadgets and products”, the “changing window displays”, and the disappearance of old LL items, as well as “personal preferences”, “fashions originating from outside”, “linguistic innovations and borrowings from diverse tongues” (Shohamy, Ben-Rafael & Barni, 2010, p. xv). It is worth noting, however, that this “heterogeneous whole”, these “diverse and intrinsically incoherent and independent ‘contributions’ to the totality of the LL” may also be perceived as ‘one whole’ that is, as a gestalt (a configuration) and may be viewed as ‘the centre’, or ‘downtown’. In this sense, gestalt and chaos are two sides of the same reality” (p. xvi).
Associate
Professor of Linguistics European University Cyprus.
[email protected]
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In parallel, linguistic landscape is linked to globalisation and the importance of English as the language of globalisation in the present era. “The anglicization of public signs, and “the wide occurrence of English in non-English-speaking societies –independent of immigration or the presence of English speakers-” is marked and is rather related “to the flows of tourists or the current status of the language in the eyes of the locals” (Shohamy, Ben-Rafael & Barni, 2010, p.xx). 2. Language policy aimed at public and commercial signs in Cyprus The present study presents the first results of a research project on the linguistic landscape in the two main streets of the centre of Lefkosia (Nicosia), namely Lidras Street and Onasagorou Street. It aims at showing the extent to which this linguistic landscape appears as a chaos and disorder on the one hand, or as one whole and an expression of freedom of speech, on the other. It also aims at showing the visibility of English as a lingua franca and the extent to which the languages utilized relate to cultural, social, political and economic circumstances on the island. Traditionally, these two parallel streets have been shopping areas, but they have recently developed into entertainment areas too. The two streets have political significance. They are close to the UN buffer zone and the dividing line that separates both the capital of Lefkosia and the entire island into the north, which is occupied by Turkish army, and the south which is controlled by the Republic of Cyprus. The barricade was removed in April 2008 and Lidra Street became the sixth crossing point through which citizens can move to and from the southern and northern parts of Cyprus. To better understand the present linguistic landscape, however, we need to review the 1990s parliamentary discussion of two bills that aimed at regulating the languages utilized in public spaces in Cyprus. The bills seem to have been drafted on the basis of the language policy adopted in Quebec in the 1970s. This language policy aimed at limiting the use of English. It favoured the Francization of Quebec through legislative measures to make French dominant and protect the ethnocultural French-Canadian identity of Quebec (Bourhis, 1984; Oakes, 2004). The French language became mandatory on public signs, shop names and commercial signs. Any foreign language inscription had to appear along with the corresponding French one, but the French inscription had to be dominant. As a result, the linguistic landscape became overwhelmingly French. A similar effort to decrease the dominance of English in Cyprus took place in the 1990s (Karoulla-Vrikki, 2013b). The two bills were submitted to the parliament by MP Rina Katselli to promote Greek as mandatory and place English on an optional basis. The first bill was: The 1991 law on the obligatory inscription in one of the official languages of the Republic of names, advertisements and other signs placed in public places. The second bill was: The 1991 law on the display of advertisements (Control) (Amending Law). The bills provided for the obligatory use of one of the two official languages (either Greek or Turkish) in the names of products, shops, businesses and companies, commercial advertisements and other signs placed. Like in Quebec, the inscription in a foreign language would follow the inscription in the official language and have characters of equal or smaller size. In fact, the bills would promote Greek as dominant in the linguistic landscape. The other official language, namely Turkish, would be out of use due to the unresolved political Cyprus problem which kept Turkish-Cypriots in the occupied areas in the north of Cyprus. At the time no crossing through the checkpoints was possible. The bills on public signs were never enacted into a law even though the 1990s was a landmark pro-Greek period for language policy in Cyprus (Karoulla-Vrikki, 2013b). Language policy strategies at the time involved a succession of government decisions and interventions that led to the replacement of English by Greek in the law courts and the civil service (Karoulla-Vrikki, 1991, 2005, 2009, 2013a). English was replaced by Greek, or it remained as a foreign language along with Greek, on passports, driving licences, government salary slips, instructions and descriptions on
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medicines and products, on hospital documents, on restaurant menus, on second-hand vehicle manuals and in the correspondence of government departments with citizens. The parliamentary debate revealed the symbolic-versus-pragmatic perspectives of the decision that would regulate the languages utilized on public signs (Karoulla-Vrikki, 2013b). The symbolic perspective involved the protection of the Greek language and Greek ethnic identity in Cyprus or the promotion of the identity of Cyprus as an independent state. The pragmatic perspective involved the boosting of the island’s economy and tourism. There were also ideological aspects affecting the discussion: Hellenocentrism and Cyprocentrism. The Hellenocentrists, on the one hand, believed that the primary identity of the Greek-Cypriots was the Greek ethnic identity and stressed the primordial cultural, religious and linguistic commonalities between the Greek-Cypriots and mainland Greeks. On the other hand, the Cyprocentrists placed emphasis on the fostering of Cypriot state identity among all communities in Cyprus (Mavratsas, 1989; Peristianis, 1995). According to the hellenocentric language policy, laws should strengthen the Greek language and Greek ethnic identity and replace English with Greek. On the contrary, the Cyprocentric language policy placed emphasis on the fostering of Cypriot state identity. It promoted the two official languages Greek and Turkish, as well as the Cypriot-Greek dialect, whenever possible. In parallel, it permitted the prolonged use of English due to its international status and its use on the island during the British rule and after the island became an independent state. The parliamentary debate 1 Discussions in the parliament involved the members of parliament and representatives of ministries, organisations and associations. They were held in the Interior Committee of the Parliament and in one plenary session meeting. In these discussions also present were representatives of the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Office of the Attorney-General. In addition, representatives of organisations and associations expressed their views before the Interior Committee, functioning as pressure groups in favour or against the two Bills.2 When the issue was discussed in the plenary session of the Parliament in 1994 (M.H.R., 1994), the Members of the Parliament agreed in general that there was a need of protecting Greek in Cyprus, but they asked for further investigation of the issue and postponed the enactment of the law. Before this conclusion, the symbolic and pragmatic perspectives of the arguments had become distinct. Those in favour of the bills, such as the Cyprus Language Association, believed in the symbolic value of the Greek language which they considered as inextricably linked to the Greek civilisation, the Greek identity of Cyprus and the cultural survival of Greek-Cypriots. They expressed a Hellenocentric view. On the contrary, those who placed themselves against the enactment of law, such as the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Cyprus and the Cyprus Hotel Association, adopted an instrumental approach as their arguments were governed by pragmatic considerations. They valued the functional quality of English, seeing it as a tool of international communication and a means to the economic and tourist survival of the Cyprus state. They expressed a Cyprocentric view. In particular, the supporters of the bills put forward several arguments (Karoulla-Vrikki, 2013b). Greek needed to be protected while foreign language signs constituted a threat to the Greek culture and ethnic identity of Cyprus. They also argued that Greek-Cypriots needed to break free of British colonial identity, which promoted English, and that the avoidance of using Greek derived from
2.1.
For an extended presentation of the parliamentary discussion, see Karoulla-Vrikki (2013b). These were, for instance, the Cyprus Language Association, the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Cyprus, the Cyprus Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Cyprus Consumers’ Association, the Pancyprian Organisation of Professional Craftsmen and Shopkeepers (P.O.V.E.K.), the Municipality of Engomi, the organizations of primary and secondary schools (P.O.E.D, O.E.L.M.E.K., O.L.T.E.K.) and labour federations of various political parties (S.E.K., P.E.O., D.E.O.K.). 1 2
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psychological insecurities that Greek-Cypriots needed to rid themselves of. They referred to the invasion and the occupation of 37% of Cyprus by the Turkish troops as the source of insecurities among Greek-Cypriots. For the supporters of the bills, not using Greek on public and commercial signs was also a question of mentality, rather than cost. Similarly, they believed that foreign language signs (mainly English signs) constituted downgrading of the state entity and the political independence of Cyprus. Moreover, the proponents of the enactment of the law believed that the use of Greek would have positive effects on tourism and trade. They also stressed that Greek is a language of high value and that the state had the right to determine the language on public signs in accordance with the United Nations committee on Human Rights. Finally, they argued that the enactment of the law would secure the human and constitutional rights of the Greek-Cypriots. The arguments against the two bills were equally valid. The MPs who were against the enactment of the law involved translation difficulties. Reservations about translating commercial registered trademarks into Greek such as Coca Cola, Seven-Up and the World Cup were expressed and difficulties were predicted in regard to the translation of foreign language names and their transcription to the Greek alphabet. There were some amusing questions like the one applying to the signs of shops selling sandwiches: ‘What is the translation of “Hot Dogs” in Greek?’ an MP wondered (M.H.R., 1994, p. 2248). The MPs opposing the enactment of the law also predicted negative effects on the economy of Cyprus. In view of the globalisation of economy, they foresaw the prevalence of English as the global and international language. Moreover, they argued that the liberalisation of economy was incompatible with enforcing linguistic restrictions. In their view, such a law would have negative effects on tourism on the island. It would mean unnecessary expenditure too, since the majority of the signs would have to be modified. Finally, they believed that the law constituted a violation of constitutional rights, specifically a violation of the right to freedom of speech and expression in any form, as stipulated in article 19 of the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus. The bills were not enacted into a law. The legal opinion of the Attorney-General, Michalakis Triantafyllidis determined the outcome of the debate. He considered the law as violating both the provisions of the Constitution of Cyprus and the European Convention on the Protection of the Human Rights. In his view, “Article 19 of the Constitution safeguards the right of freedom of speech and expression which includes the right of an individual to use the language of their choice. Any direct or indirect state order, prohibition, acknowledgement, or punishment concerning the use of a particular language is incompatible with the freedom of expression there is no obligation by individuals to use any of the official languages of the Republic during their personal dealings or activities (Triantafillidis, 1992). Another reason the law was not enacted, was the position of the Department of Registrar of Companies, according to which, registered trade-marks should always be used the way they are registered and not in any translated form. Today, the language on public signs for some may reveal freedom of expression, but for others, a linguistic chaos. 3. The linguistic landscape project in Lidras and Onasagorou street The present project in progress involves the study of the linguistic landscape composed of the first 600 out of about 1000 pictures taken in Lidras street and Onasagorou Street, the two main streets of the old-city centre of Lefkosia (Nicosia), on 16th February 2014 and 1st November 2013 respectively. The data include every linguistic token exposed to the public eye, such as street names and road signs, shop and offices signs, building names, names of cafeterias and restaurants, notices on
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shop windows, and commercial and advertising signs.3 These linguistic items are separated into the following eleven categories: 1) Items exclusively in English, such as shop signs, notices, restaurant menus (Appendix 1) 2) Items exclusively in Greek (Appendix 2). 3) Items presenting Greek words and names transliterated into Latin characters. For example, a shop sign may bear the name of the shop owner transcribed into Latin, e.g., Papadopoulos. Similarly, the shop sign ‘caramelotopos’ presents the transcription of the Greek word ‘καραμελότοπος’ (the candy place) (Appendix 3). 4) Items presenting Greek names transcribed into Latin characters but followed by English inscriptions. For instance, the shop sign may present the name of the owner in Latin letters followed by the English phrase ‘Italian leather’, suggesting the product on sale. 5) Items presenting names in both the Greek and the Latin alphabet, e.g. Ανδρέας Νικολαΐδης - Andreas Nikolaidis, Λήδρας - Lidras, Ελένειος Στοά - Helenios Stoa (Appendix 4) 6) Bilingual signs in which the Greek inscription is preceded or followed by a word-for-word translation into English. There is equal dominance between the two languages. For example, the shop sign featuring the menu of snacks on sale presents all items in both Greek and English e.g., ‘τυρόπιτες’ followed by ‘cheese pies’, ‘ελιόπιτες’ followed by ‘olive pies’. Similarly, the sign presenting the working hours of the shop presents the timetable as ‘Ωράριο Εργασίας, ΔευτέραΠέμπτη 11πμ-11μμ’ etc. followed by its English translation ‘Opening Hours, Monday- Thursday 11am-11-pm’ etc.(Appendix 5). 7) Bilingual signs presenting items in both Greek and English, but the Greek language is dominant. This dominance is suggested by the fact that items written in Greek on the sign bear bigger characters or the Greek version of the translation is more explanatory and contains more words. 8) Bilingual signs presenting items in both Greek and English, but the English language is dominant. Items written in English on the sign are dominant because they bear bigger characters or because the English version of the translation is more explanatory and contains more words. 9) English registered trademarks, such as Coca Cola and Mc Donald’s, which appear without any translation. 10). Items presenting code-switching (or mixing of linguistic codes), that is, some words or phrases on the sign may be in English and others in Greek, without translation of each item (Appendix 6). 11). Items in other languages (items in Italian, Arabic, Turkish, Romanian, Russian or French). 3.1 Results
The quantitative analysis of the data on written linguistic items demonstrates the visibility of English as a lingua franca. As shown on Graph 7, signs exclusively in English hold 37,83% of the total signs as opposed to signs exclusively in Greek that make up 20,17%. However, the visibility of English increases as it is present in combination with inscriptions in other languages or characters. For instance, the mixed-code signs, which hold 11.67%, and present to their majority codeswitching between Greek and English. Moreover, English is present in English registered trademarks (10%) and on items of balanced translation between English and Greek (6.67%). It is also visible on signs presenting Greek and English translation, with English being dominant (3,83%), on signs presenting Greek names transcribed into Latin characters, followed by English words (1.50%) and finally on signs presenting translation between English and Greek, even though Greek is dominant (1.83%).4 In parallel, it becomes evident that the presence of languages other
3
A warm thank you to my BA English Language and Literature students Constantinos Tsiartas, Nicolas Zavros and Vassos Kyriacou who enthusiastically assisted in the collection of the photo data. 4 To note here that the Latin transcription of Greek names is often anglisized. For instance, the Greek name Φιλιππίδης is transcribed as Philippides and not as Filippidis, which reflects a transcription on the basis of the Roman alphabet.
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than Greek and English is minor (4.67%).5 Most of these are commercial signs/registered brand names in Italian (e.g., fashion boutiques). Finally, the use of Greek only, holds 20,17% of the items, but it is present in other categories too in combination with other languages. 4. Conclusions The present investigation of the linguistic landscape in Lidras and Onasagorou, the two main streets in the old town of Lefkosia (Nicosia), presents the results drawn from the study of 600 out of around 1000 pictures. The investigation has not come to its completion yet. However, it becomes evident that the examination of the items on the basis of the languages utilised reveals the prevalence of pragmatic aspects over symbolic ones. That is, the market itself determines the languages chosen. English as a lingua franca is dominant in various ways (either as English-only items or as English combined with other languages). In parallel, the visibility of Greek is lower than English, but Greek is visible enough to reflect the local culture and identity of the largest community on the island, namely the Greek-Cypriots who reside in the southern part. The study also demonstrates that the political aspects of linguistic landscape are reflected in the very limited visibility of Turkish, which can be seen in the category of “other languages” holding only at 4,67%. Although Turkish is an official and national language along with Greek, it is scarcely present in the area of the Republic of Cyprus, due to the de facto 1974 division of the island into the north Turkishspeaking part and the south Greek-speaking part. Since 2003, crossing between the two parts has been possible, but contacts between the two communities are still limited, a fact that is reflected in the linguistic landscape. Finally, this chaos and disorder in the centre of the old city can be considered as one whole “a gestalt”. It is the illustration of the right to the freedom of speech and expression, which was put forward at the parliamentary debate of the 1990s. About the author Dimitra Karoulla-Vrikki is an Associate Professor of Linguistics and the Chair of the Department of Humanities at European University Cyprus. Her teaching interests include Sociolinguistics, Applied Linguistics, English as a Global Language and World Englishes. Her research focuses on language policy and language planning, the linguistic landscape, and the role of Greek and English in Cyprus. She co-ordinates the MA English Language and Literature programme and the Lecture Series in Linguistics “Invited Local Linguist”. She is also the secretary of the Cyprus Linguistics Society and a member of The Cyprus Permanent Committee for the Standardization of Geographical Names. Email:
[email protected].
References Bourhis, Y. R. (1984). Conflict and language planning in Quebec. Clevendon: Multilingual Matters. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gorter, D., & Shohamy, E. (2008). Linguistic landscape: Expanding the scenery. New York: Taylor & Francis Books. Graddol, D. (2006). English next. London: British Council. Karoulla-Vrikki, D. (2013a). Which alphabet on car number-plates in Cyprus? An issue of language planning, ideology and identity. Language problems and language planning. 37(3), 249270. Karoulla-Vrikki, D. (2013b). Public and commercial signs in Cyprus: Should language policy foster an identity? In M. Karyolemou & P. Pavlou (Eds), Language policy and planning in the Mediterranean world (pp.210-224). Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Karoulla-Vrikki, D. (2009). Greek in Cyprus: Identity oscillations and language planning. In A. Georgakopoulou & M. Silk (Eds), Standard languages and language standards: Greek, past and present (pp.187-219). Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Karoulla Vrikki, D. (2005). Language planning in Cyprus: A reflection of an identity conflict (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of London, London, UK. Worth noting is that in coastal tourist areas on the island the use of Russian is widely visible, while Chinese is currently being introduced to the linguistic landscape. 5
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Karoulla-Vrikki, D. (2001). English or Greek language? State or ethnic identity? The case of the courts in Cyprus. Language problems and language planning, 25(3), 259-288. Mavratsas, V. C. (1998). Aspects of Greek nationalism in Cyprus [Όψεις του Ελληνικού εθνικισμού στην Κύπρο]. Athens: Katarti. M.H.R. 1994, Minutes of the House of Representatives. Parliamentary Committee on Internal Affairs. Report of the Parliamentary Committee on Internal Affairs on the bill: The 1991 law on the display of advertisements (Control) (Amending Law). [in Greek]. Parliamentary period F, Session C: 2245-2252. June 23. Peristianis, N. 1995. Right-Left, Hellenocentrism-Cyprocentrism: Τhe pendulum of the collective identifications after 1974 [Δεξιά – αριστερά, Ελληνοκεντρισμός – Κυπροκεντρισμός: Το εκρεμμές των συλλογικών ταυτίσεων μετά το 1974]. In N. Peristianis & G. Tsangaras (Eds), Anatomy of a metamorphosis. Cyprus after 1974 – society, economy, politics, culture [Ανατομία μιας μεταμόρφωσης. Η Κύπρος μετά το 1974 – κοινωνία, οικονομία, πολιτική, πολιτισμός] (pp.123-156). Nicosia: Intercollege Press. Oakes, L. (2004). French: A language for everyone in Québec? Nations and nationalism, 10 (4), 539- 558. Shohamy, E., Ben-Rafael, E., & Barni, M. (2010). (Eds). Linguistic landscape in the city. Multilingual Matters. Triantafyllidis, A.M. (1992). Letter to Director General of the House of Representatives.[in Greek] File: C.E.62/38/III 50/89/N33. Law Office of the Republic of Cyprus, Republic of Cyprus. March 26.
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Appendix 1: Linguistic items exclusively in English (Category 1).
Appendix 2: Linguistic items exclusively in Greek (Category 2)
Appendix 3: Greek words / names transliterated into Latin characters (Category 3)
Appendix 4: Names in Greek and Latin characters (Category 5)
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Appendix 5: Greek-English Translation- Equal dominance (Category 6)
Appendix 6: Codeswitching (Category 10)
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Appendix 7: Percentage of types of
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ELF AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION In this section, Maria Grazia Guido, in her keynote talk, explores the cognitive and communicative processes involved in situations of unequal encounters between nonwestern supplicants and western experts in authority and recommends that accommodation strategies among the multi-cultural, multilingual interactants should be developed for effective communication to be achieved. Derya Duran looks at how the attitudes of Turkish students of English towards ELF were affected by their experiences of studying abroad. Faruk Kural & Yasemin Bayyurt investigate intercultural competence needs of government-sponsored Turkish international graduate students from an ELF perspective. Faruk Kural & Zeynep Koçoğlu present a critical view on normative based study-abroad preparatory programs, their deficiencies in the area of intercultural competence development, and ELF awareness needed for successful interaction in the ELF context of English L1 countries. Iren Hovhannisyan examines Armenian adult speakers’ attitudes towards English, the role of English within Armenia and outside its boundaries, the importance of English and usage in daily life and whether English is perceived as a Lingua Franca in Armenia. Ratchaporn Rattanaphumma aims to study the use of English refusal speech acts employed by undergraduate ELF learners in Thailand. Bill Batziakas looks at the naturally occurring audio-recorded discourse from a group of international students at the University of London and observes how they drew on on flexible ELF strategies to achieve politeness. Joshua Lee & Claudia Kunschak report on a blog project of two university level English classes in Japan and Macau and focus on topics, stance and linguistic gambits used by students. Ana Monika Habjan examines linguistic rules and norms from an interdisciplinary perspective and discusses parallels between the roles played in sociolinguistics and philosophy of language. George O’Neal examines the repair of the intelligibility of pronunciation in English as a Lingua Franca interactions in Northeast Asia. Marta Tryzna problematizes the content of ESL textbooks in the Kuwait school system, arguing for greater inclusion of intercultural content and skills.
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Guido, M. G. (2016). Unequal encounters in ELF immigration contexts: Failure and success in social, political and religious negotiation. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 156-177). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Unequal encounters in ELF immigration contexts: Failure and success in social, political and religious negotiation Maria Grazia Guido
[KEYNOTE PRESENTATION] Abstract The cognitive and communicative processes involved in situations of unequal encounters between non-western supplicants (i.e., African immigrants and asylum seekers) and western experts in authority shall be explored through a number of case studies aimed at illustrating that the ELF variation that each contact group uses obeys different linguacultural conventions entailing a detachment of ELF from ENL, since ELF is seen as developing from non-native speakers’ processes of transfer into their English uses of their L1 typological, logical, textual, lexical-semantic and pragmatic structures. A number of case studies will illustrate how the lack of acknowledgement of other ELF variations – due to the fact that they are often perceived as formally deviating and socio-pragmatically inappropriate in intercultural communication – may have serious consequences in contexts involving social, legal, health and religious matters, thus giving rise to misunderstandings that often raise ethical issues about social justice. It is therefore argued that principled pedagogic initiatives aimed at making western experts in authority aware of the strategies for achieving a ‘mutual accommodation’ of ELF variations could, on the one hand, protect the social identities of the participants in unequal encounters and, on the other, facilitate the conveyance of their culturallymarked knowledge, thus fostering successful communication in cross-cultural immigration encounters with the ultimate aim of developing a ‘hybrid ELF mode’ of cross-cultural specialized communication that can be acknowledged and eventually shared by both interacting groups.
Keywords: ELF immigration encounters; ELF variations; ELF accommodation; L1 typological and pragmalinguistic transfer.
1. Research context and topic This paper intends to enquire into the extent to which ELF used in immigration domains typically reflects the power/status asymmetries between the participants in cross-cultural interactions (Guido, 2008), which are here explored with reference to legal, social, health and religious contexts. It will be argued that in such contexts, the conditions for achieving successful communication through ELF may not occur because of the difference in the participants’ native linguacultural backgrounds from which they appropriate English without conforming to native-speaker norms of usage (Seidlhofer, 2011). Such a communication failure, together with possible solutions for successful interactions, will be explored by means of a number of ethnographic case studies investigating the cognitive and communicative processes of ELF use in unequal encounters between (a) ‘non-western’ (African) immigrants coming from the socalled ‘outer circle’ (Kachru, 1986) – namely, from former British colonies where English is a second language used for institutional/interethnic communication – and speaking ELF variations that make endonormative reference to sanctioned non-native grammar codes, and (b) ‘western’ (Italian) experts in authority from the ‘expanding circle’ (ibidem), speaking ELF variations typical of countries (like Italy) where English is a foreign language that is used for international communication and that, as such, makes exonormative reference to the native ‘inner-circle’ (ibidem) Standard-English code. This explains the fact that western experts perceive the immigrants’ ELF variations as defective ‘inner circle’ ones – in fact, they evaluate such variations against the native Standard English code and, therefore, they consider ‘ELF deviations’ as ‘errors’. This is so because it is common belief in Global-English research (Brumfit, 1982; Trudgill & Hannah, 1995; Crystal, 2003) that the Standard-English grammar code and the pragmatic behaviours conventionally ascribed to the ‘English as a native language’ (ENL) variation are shared norms in ELF intercultural interactions and international transactions. The contention in this paper, instead, is precisely University of Salento, Italy.
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that the enquiry into the Global English has so far actually eluded the full acknowledgement of different non-native speakers’ unconventional ELF uses and of their consequent non-conformity to ENL specialized conventions. 2. Theoretical background At the grounds of the present research there are the notions that ENL is not the authentic English variety against which non-native registers and interlanguages are assessed, and that ELF is not a unique and shared international English variety meant as a pre-constructed ‘foreign language’ for efficient interaction (Pennycook, 1994; Firth, 1996; Bhatia, 1997; Knapp & Meierkord, 2002). On the contrary, ELF is viewed principally as developing from the transfer of the speakers’ L1 structures into L2-English. Differently from the notion of ‘L1→L2 transfer’ in Interlanguage research (Selinker, 1969, 1992), which justifies L2speakers’ syntactic errors (Corder, 1981), in ELF research it entails instead the speakers’ L1 schemata interfering with L2-English grammar, thus generating ELF variations. By ‘schemata’ is meant the background knowledge of the L1 social-semiotic (Halliday, 1978), its grammaticalization, and the sociopragmatic behaviours shared by a speech community (Carrell, 1983). The focus of this paper, therefore, is on different ELF variations in contact, regarded as the speakers’ processes of language ‘authentication’ (Widdowson, 1979) – or appropriation – by means of their different native linguacultural conventions. Consequently, ELF variations are here regarded as: (a) independent from – and not approximating to – ENL (Widdowson, 1994, 1997; Jenkins, 2000, 2007; Seidlhofer, 2001, 2004, 2011; Guido, 2008, 2012); (b) inclusive of ‘fossilized interlanguages’ and pidgin/creole Englishes, all of them considered as diatopic variations; (c) not accounting for ‘interlanguage errors’ in need of defossilization and for ‘code deviations’ produced by ‘uneducated’ L2-speakers; (d) also inclusive of ENL that, when dislocated in non-native contexts of intercultural communication, becomes just one among other ELF diatopic variations which are likewise liable to cause misunderstandings. An instance of the lack of acknowledgement of ELF variations is contained in the Italian Ministry of Education’s TFA test for the admission of ESOL school-teachers to attend in-service training courses. The specific question was: “The non-native speaker’s language system that contains features of his/her mother language, features of the target language, and features that are peculiarly his/her own” is defined as: (a) interlanguage (b) idiolect (c) dialect (d) lingua franca The expected answer was ‘interlanguage’, not ‘lingua franca’, as the reference was still to the native speaker’s ‘target language’, which would entail disregarding any possibility of teaching ‘lingua franca’ variations and, thus, of preventing misunderstanding by promoting ELF accommodation strategies in intercultural communication.
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3. Research rationale and hypothesis Misunderstandings in ELF intercultural interactions are here held to be less frequent when the participants’ L1 grammar structures are typologically similar (Greenberg, 1973), hence, once transferred to ELF, they are perceived as cognitively shared, linguistically convergent – and, thus, familiar and ‘unmarked’ (Eckman, 1977), and therefore facilitating pragmatic accommodation. Misunderstandings, instead, are here deemed to be more frequent when the participants’ L1 grammar structures are typologically different and thus, when they are transferred to ELF, they come to be perceived as linguistically divergent, unfamiliar and ‘marked’ (ibidem), formally unavailable and conceptually inaccessible to the participants’ respective L1 schemata, and pragmatically inappropriate (Scotton, 1983; Kasper, 1992) with reference to the participants’ respective ELF variations. The hypothesis, in this study, is that to non-western immigrants’ native schemata, also the western conventions of Standard-English specialized discourses may be perceived as cognitively and linguistically inaccessible, conceptually unavailable (Widdowson, 1991), and socio-culturally and ethically unacceptable – thus affecting the immigrants’ own pragmalinguistic behaviours and interpretative strategies, ultimately leading to communication failure (Thomas, 1983; Hymes, 1996). 4. Research objectives and case-study method The objective of the research reported in this paper is instead the possible achievement of a ‘mutual intelligibility’ (House, 1999) also in such power-asymmetry cases of interaction with non-western immigrants, and this can be attained by developing in western experts in charge of the interactions an awareness of ELF variations at different levels of markedness – more precisely, in the cases in point, between: (1) two different L1 typologies in contact through ELF, i.e., Accusativity and Ergativity; (2) two different culture-bound textual typologies in conflict, i.e., ‘western’ forensic and ‘non-western’ ethnopoetic patterns; (3) specialized lexis (i.e., in conventional psychiatric discourse) and native idioms (i.e., idioms of distress); (4) different uses of epistemic and deontic modality; (5) culturally-marked, divergent notions of counterfactual and factual logic; and (6) opposite schemata (i.e., ‘utopian’ vs. ‘dystopian’ socio-political schemata in responsible tourism). The ultimate aim is in fact a co-construction of ELF specialized discourses that groups in contact may find accessible and acceptable. For this reason, some case studies will enquire into possible hybridization strategies of reformulation aimed at making ELF discourse conform to the immigrants’ different native linguacultural backgrounds in order to protect the social identities of participants in unequal encounters, facilitate the mutual conveyance of their culturally-marked knowledge, foster successful intercultural communication through ELF, and finally promote the social inclusion of marginalized immigrants. The method adopted in the case-study enquiries has initially entailed an ethnographic data collection, consisting in recording exchanges in unequal encounters to explore how western experts and non-western migrants interact through ELF and make sense of the situations they are involved in. The investigation followed the procedure of protocol analysis (Ericsson & Simon, 1984) when transcribing the taped exchanges. To this purpose, a Conversation Analysis (Moerman, 1988) was then applied1, consisting in annotating the transcribed exchanges by using both formal and pragmatic tags, such as: Pref/Dispref M → Preferred/Dispreferred Move Acc-St / Erg-St → Accusative/Ergative (typological) Structure The following conversation symbols are also employed in transcription (Edwards 1997): [ ] → overlapping speech; underlining → emphasis; ° ° → quieter speech; (.) → micropause; (..) → pause; :: → elongation of prior sound; hhh → breathing out; .hhh → breathing in; > < → speed-up talk; = → latching. 1
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NPE-ELF → Nigerian Pidgin English as ELF variation Krio-ELF → Sierra Leone Krio English as ELF variation It-ELF → Italian-English as ELF variation (NPE/Krio) TM → (NPE/Krio) pre-verbal Tense Marker (NPE/Krio) AM Perfect/Continuous/Habitual → (NPE/Krio) pre-verbal Aspect Marker [Ment→Mat] → Mental processes → Material processes 5. Case study 1: Accusative and ergative L1 typologies in contact through ELF Case study 1 is an instance of ELF accommodation failure. It consists in an Italian intercultural mediator (IM1) interrogating a Nigerian asylum seeker (AS1), who is an illegal immigrant suspected of hiding the identity of the smuggler who brought his boat to the Italian coasts. Here, miscommunication is caused by the two participants’ unawareness of their respective L1→ELF transfer processes. The focus is precisely on two event conceptualisations in contact, transferred from the participants’ typologicallydifferent L1s (NPE-ELF and domain-specific Italian-ELF) into their respective ELF variations. On the one hand, there is the Italian intercultural mediator’s Accusative L1, where the animate Agent is grammaticalized as a ‘dynamic cause’ foregrounded in Subject position. This is the typical transitive SV[O] structure that emphasizes the Agent’s responsibility in determining the action, as in the examples that follow: Active transitive clause: “The smuggler sailed the boat” Subject: Agent → Object (Medium) Passive transitive clause: “The boat was sailed [by the smuggler]” Subject: Medium → Agent (in the background) On the other hand, there is the African immigrant’s Ergative L1, where the inanimate Object, or Medium (e.g., the boat, the car), is grammaticalized as animate Agent in Subject position in the typical OV[S] structure, in which the ‘dynamic cause’ of the illegal journey is not represented by the actual animate Agent (i.e., the smuggler), as in the following example: Ergative clause: “The boat sailed” Intransitive Subject: Medium (action as self-caused) The point is that Ergative structures do not deliberately leave Agents unspecified (as in transitive Passive clauses). This is due to the fact that Ergative conceptualizations of events, which are typical of ProtoIndoeuropean and Proto-Afroasiatic languages, are believed to have evolved from the primordial experience of perceiving natural inanimate objects as animate agents with their own autonomous force controlling people’s lives. The Ergative account of facts as ‘epic events’ can be found in ancient oral narratives that report the early human beings’ unsettling sensations of being at the mercy of natural phenomena – which is also reflected in today’s animist belief that every natural element has its ‘spirit’ (as in African animist religions). Indeed, Ergative structures are still evident in Central Saharian and WestAfrican languages (DeLancey, 1981).
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An emblematic past example of Ergative journey reports, which today is considered as ‘epic poetry’, is represented by Homer’s Odyssey. What follows is an extract from Book XII, translated from Ancient Greek into English2. This is the episode in which Ulysses and his crew are going through the Scylla and Charybdis Straits between Sicily and Calabria and, like today’s immigrants, feel at the mercy of natural elements – i.e., a huge ‘tsunami’ wave, a vortex in the rough sea, the furious wind, the lightening, and the ship struggling against them – which are all personified in Ergative Subject position (underlined in the extract) within the clauses: “Then we entered the Straits in great fear of mind, for on the one hand was Scylla, and on the other
dread Charybdis kept sucking up the salt water. As she vomited it up, the spray reached the top of the rocks on either side. […] While we were taken up with this, and were expecting each moment to be our last, Scylla pounced down suddenly upon us and snatched up my six best men, and in a moment I saw their hands and feet struggling in the air as Scylla was carrying them off. […] Then Jove let fly with his thunderbolts, and the ship went round and round, and was filled with fire as the lightning struck it. The men all fell into the sea. The wind got into the South again and the waves bore me along all night.”
Another typical past example of Ergative journey reports that today is considered as ‘poetry’ is the anonymous Anglo-Saxon verse tale The Seafarer, where again natural elements threatening the seafarer’s life are in Ergative Subject position. Here is an extract translated into Modern English3: “I can tell the true riddle of my own self, and speak of my experiences – how I have endured cruel anxiety at heart and experienced the terrible surging of the waves. […] There storms would pound the rocky cliffs whilst the tern, icy-winged, answered them; very often the sea-eagle would screech, wings dappled with spray. […] The shadow of night would spread gloom; it would snow from the north, rime-frost would bind the ground; hail, coldest of grains, would fall upon the earth.”
Modern reproductions of such early Ergative journey narrative are, in ‘western’ cultures, cast into the literary category of ‘epic poetry’, thus losing their characteristics of ordinary oral reports of emotionallycharged events, as in S.T. Coleridge’s ballad The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1834), where, again, the natural elements are personified in an Ergative Subject position as in the extract reported below: And now the STORM-BLAST came, and he Was tyrannous and strong: He struck with his o’ertaking wings, And chased us south along. With sloping masts and dipping prow, As who pursued with yell and blow Still treads the shadow of his foe, And forward bends his head, The ship drove fast, loud roared the blast, And southward aye we fled. And now there came both mist and snow, And it grew wondrous cold: And ice, mast-high, came floating by, As green as emerald.
2 3
http://www.online-literature.com/homer/odyssey/12/ http://www.apocalyptic-theories.com/literature/seafarer/mesea1a.htm
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This typical feature of the Ergative clause structure can be identified in case study 1. In it, the Conversation Analysis is aimed at identifying whether, on the one hand, the Nigerian immigrant’s oral report in Nigerian Pidgin English (NPE) as ELF variation contains Ergative structures transferred from his L1 (Igbo – cf. Nwachukwu, 1976) – as well as phonetic traits of African speakers (reproduced in the phonetic transcription (Faraclas, 1996), with the interdental fricatives // // replaced by the alveolar stops /t/ /d/; with no indefinite schwa /Ə/ sound; and with the addition of the pronoun dem (‘them’) after nouns to mark the plural. Other NPE features are: the ‘all-purpose’ preposition fo (‘for’) indicating all directions in spatial orientation, and the use of pre-verbal markers to signal Tense and Aspect in place of the modal auxiliary verbs and suffixation of the Standard-English code. On the other hand, the Italian intercultural mediator associates Ergative features transferred by the African migrant to his NPE-ELF variation with his own Accusative use of Passive constructions in Italian. Hence, he misinterprets the immigrant’s report as a deliberate attempt to shift responsibility away from the Agents (smugglers) who made his illegal journey possible. It is important to remark that, although English is an Accusative language, it possesses a flexible clause structure that allows also the expression of Ergative structures. What follows is the transcription of Exchange 1 – an interaction between the Nigerian asylum seeker (AS1) and the Italian mediator (IM1). Since the NPE-ELF and Italian-ELF variations used by the participants in this exchange may sound unfamiliar, their cues are here also reformulated into Standard English for a better understanding of the conversation development: Exchange 1 (1) IM1: .hhh who bringed you to Italy? [Who brought you to Italy?] [Elicit-M – Pref; It-ELF: Acc-St.] (2) AS1: a-after (.) after di waterwork dem (.) for Libya (.) hard work o o (.), °for money°. .hhh di ca::r bin don drop for Al Zuwa::rah. (.) .hhh di b-boat bin sai::l against won stro::ng wind. .hhhh °won night° (.) di se::a bin swe:::ll (.) bi::g big round di boat, =di boat bin sink (.) heavy (.) and dee:::p o o. (.) .hhhh di boat bin don fight di sea and di::ve = and fight (.) til i bin stop >mek water cold cold bin break against di boat< .hhh water don de kom for di boat every wie, no use di hand dem bin de throw dat water out, out, out, o o.= [After the waterworks in Libya, a very hard work, for money, the car had dropped at Al Zuwarah. The boat sailed against a strong wind. One night the sea swelled tremendously around the boat, the boat sank, heavy and deep! The boat had fought against the sea and dived and fought till it stopped so that the freezing water broke against the boat. Water started entering from everywhere, it was no use that the hands were throwing it out, out, out.] [Inform-M – Dispref; NPE-ELF: Erg-St.; TM Past (bin) AM Perfect (don] (3) IM1: =sorry (.), d’you mean that the pilot stopped the boat in the mi::ddle of the big sea? (.) or that the boat (.) uh b- was stopped (.) itself (.) to him (.) who is he [Sorry, do you mean that the pilot stopped the boat in the middle of the rough sea? Or that the boat got stopped on him? Who is he?] [It-ELF; Acc-St; FocusM; Elicit-M] (4) AS1: (.) di boat (.) .hh di all boat bin stop (.) for di sea (.) >big biglehk pipul lehk mi na awtloh< dehn foh go bak na dehn Kohntri / [3] hhh dehn kin de push mi te a lehdohn >kpata-kpata shatta na grohn< / [[2] Yes, they say like, those like me are outlaws, they must go home/ [3] they go on pushing me till I lie down completely shattered all over the ground The metaphorical meaning of some idiomatic expressions in Krio-English has been identified thanks to the precious help of a number of native-speaker mediators. Thanks are also due to Professor Malcolm Awadajin Finney (California State University Long Beach) for his most helpful comments on the Krio field transcriptions. 4
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/] [Krio-ELF; [2] awtloh = outlaw; foh = deontic must; [3] [Ment→Mat]; AM Habitual/Continuous (kin de); lehdohn = lie down; [Ment→Mat]] (5) IM2: uh (.) they push you? [It-ELF; literal-sense misinterpretation] (6) AS2: [4] hhh dehn se >bega-bega noh de pik ehn chuz> / [5] (.) dehn no noh se pohsin dehn we noh de tot lod no noh se lod hebi (.) / [[4] they say that a beggar can’t pick and choose / [5] they don’t know that people who are not carrying the load don’t know that the load is heavy /] [Krio-ELF; [4] [Ment→Mat]; [5] [Ment→Mat]] (7) IM2: [have you (.) have you (.) uh] pain in your body? [It-ELF; literal-sense misinterpretation] (8) AS2: [6] o (.) a kin geht pain insai tu fut dehn joint °ehn leg dehn masl° / [7] .hhh we dehn bin kam na mi ples dehn bin tek mi wit dehn bay fo::s ehn dehn bin fos mi foh tot wata, ebi lod (.) foh [feht wit dehn]/ [[6] Oh … I have pains in the joints of my feet and the muscles of my legs / [7] when they came to my place, they took me with them by force and they forced me to carry water, heavy loads, to fight with them /] [KrioELF; [6] literal sense; [7] reference to past time & place; TM Past (bin] (9) IM2: [you must refu::se] to work for them, you know? [It-ELF; reference to present time & place] (10) AS2: [8] (.) afta a bin dohn rohn frohm rebel dehn a bin mit di Nigerian a::rmi (.) boht mi nohto Nigerian lehk we dehn say na ya >a kohmoht na Salone< / [[8] After I had run from the rebels I met the Nigerian army, but I'm not Nigerian like they are saying here, I come from Sierra Leone /] [Krio-ELF; [8] reference to past time & place; T/AM Past Perfect (bin dohn); kohmoht = “come out/from”; Salone = Sierra Leone] The opening cue (1) shows IM2 using his Italian-ELF variation, characterized by the lack of auxiliary fronting in the interrogative clause, and introducing the indexical co-ordinates of time (present) and place (the reception camp) by means of the deictic adverb ‘here’, thus setting the contextual circumstances of the whole exchange. This implies that also AS2 is expected to embed all his ensuing utterances in the situational context of his recent experience in the reception camp. Therefore, when AS2 replies in (2) to IM2’s query about his conditions in the camp, he makes exophoric reference to the Camp Staff by simply indicating them as implied Agents by using the pronoun dehn (they). Moreover, AS2 attributes to them specific mental processes which he typically renders into his Krio-ELF variation as material processes. Thus, in [1], AS2 describes the Camp Staff’s continuous determination to make him understand the limits of the Italian immigration law by resorting to the Krio-ELF Continuous Aspect marker (de), as well as to the folk metaphor expressing the sense of ‘undergoing insistent mental conditioning’ in terms of ‘forceful and painful tactile sensations’ (blow blow) (cf. Sweetser, 1990). In cue (3), IM2, still using an Italian-ELF variation characterized by the absence of auxiliary fronting in the interrogative clause and the dropping of the personal pronoun, misinterprets the metaphor in its literal sense. AS2, in cue (4), tries first [2] to disambiguate the metaphorical blow through an exemplification based on relational processes of an intensive type (i.e., “those like me are outlaws, must go home”), rendered through his Krio-ELF variation (awtloh = outlaw; foh = deontic must). Then, in [3], AS2 again employs the Krio metaphorical ways of expressing mental processes by means of actions from the material, physical domain. He conveys the sense of an ‘unrelenting attempt to exert an influence on a person’ by means of the folk physical metaphor of ‘pushing’. This is assumed to refer back to a proto-semantic use of the vocabulary of ‘forceful and painful tactile sensations’ to express the disturbing emotional experience of ‘undergoing persistent mental conditioning’ (Talmy, 1988; Sweetser, 1990, p. 43). The sense of a continuous and insistent conditioning is conveyed by the Krio Habitual/Continuous Aspect markers (kin de). AS2 also specifies in [3] that such psychological pressure on him has had the effect of the ‘tactile pressure’ of knocking him ‘down completely shattered all over the ground’. This is rendered in Krio-ELF by a phrasal verb perceived and transcribed as one word (lehdohn = lie down). Furthermore, in this way, AS2 resorts to another concrete ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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image informed by the proto-semantic bodily metaphor of the ‘crushed Self’ (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999, p. 276), according to which the well-balanced ‘stable Self’ is perceived as an ‘intact container’, whereas a confused ‘crushed Self’ is represented as a ‘shattered container’. The presupposition, in this case, is: the Staff’s conditioning has been so persistent as to make AS2 lose the sense of his own normal Self. This is triggered by the temporal clauses that, by introducing change-of-state verbs, metaphorically convey the emotional effect of the ‘pushing’ experience on AS2. In cue (5), IM2 poses another question (again, characterized by a lack of auxiliary fronting) to AS2 which presupposes a literal misinterpretation of the metaphor (“they push you?”). To this, AS2 replies in cue (6) with a transidiomatic expression in Krio [4] in which the notion of the ‘immigrant with no legal rights’ is metaphorically rendered into the image of a ‘beggar with no decisional rights’. Moreover, in [5], the notion of ‘distress’ is metaphorically rendered into ‘loads’, whereas the notion of ‘lack of distress’ is rendered into the metaphor of the ‘ignorance of physical strength needed to carry loads’. In cue (7), IM2’s question “Have you pain in your body?” not only introduces another literal-sense misinterpretation, but it also works as a ‘time/place-shift trigger on AS2 since this very question suddenly prompts him to shift the indexical co-ordinates, set by IM2 at the beginning of the exchange, from the present of the reception-camp context to the past of the Sierra Leonean civil war. In cue (8), therefore, AS2 refers to the actual, physical perception of pain he feels in his legs and feet [6] as the ‘present effect’ of a more ‘distant cause’ (Sierra Leone civil war) that he introduces in utterance [7] by using the Krio Past-Tense marker (bin). The causal source of AS2’s persisting pain is represented by the circumstances of his past abduction and, then, reduction to slavery and forced labour [7] through the agency of Sierra Leonean Rebel Soldiers, here cataphorically referred to as dhen (they) (he will explicitly identify them later in his discourse). The processes that AS2 was forced to perform in the past are, thus, actual material processes. In IM2’s misinterpretation, in cue (9), on the contrary, the situational co-ordinates of AS2’s discourse remain the same as before (i.e., time = present; place = reception camp; them = Camp Staff). This being so because IM2 fails to realize AS2’s time/place shift into past experience in his home country, as well as his deictic reference to the Sierra Leonean rebels as the new ‘actors’ of the reported material processes. In fact, IM2 still keeps ascribing agency to the Reception-Camp Staff. In the context of such ‘unshared indexicality’, therefore, IM2 misinterprets AS2’s utterance as the painful physical effect of the Camp Staff’s cruel ‘material’ pushing and knocking AS2 down. Such misattribution of agency is evident in cue (9) when IM2 interrupts AS2 to inform him that he “must refuse to work for” the camp staff (again, deictically referred to as them). But, as evident in cue (10), AS2 misses IM2’s reference to the present context, so he goes on, in [8], with his account of distantpast events (signalled by the use of the Krio Past-Perfect Tense-Aspect markers bin dohn) presupposing, by means of the temporal clause, that eventually ‘he escaped from the rebel soldiers’ and managed to reach the Nigerian Army which rescued him, finally contending that his nationality is not Nigerian ‘like they are saying here’ (thus returning to the initial time/place co-ordinates of the exchange), but he comes from Sierra Leone – expressed through the phrasal verb condensed into one word (come out/from = kohmoht), and ‘Sierra Leone’ pronounced as Salone. In the transcription of AS2 report for forensic purposes, a possible accommodation strategy can be represented by a form of ‘ethnopoetic’ entextualization consisting in a five-line verse, referred to the present context of AS2’s report, followed by a three-line verse, referred to the past context of AS2’s report. Both contexts are respectively characterized by psychological and physical pain. The concrete metaphors used by AS2 are here entextualized into ‘as if’ similes and paraphrases in order to disambiguate them. In the first five-line verse, there is an obsessive repetition of They at the beginning of each line, referred to the Italian ‘Camp Staff’ – and emphasizing AS2’s sense of distress at recalling the psychological pressure put on him by the Staff informing him of the limitations of the Italian laws. In the last threeline verse, instead, They refers to the ‘RUF Rebels in Sierra Leone’.
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(b)) Ethnopoetic entextualization of AS2’s report 5-line verse (present context) [1] The Camp Staff give me shocking news, as if they were blowing me continuously / [2] they say that those like me are outlaws, then they must go home / [3] they keep on distressing me till I get a nervous breakdown, as if they went on pushing me till I lie down completely shattered all over the ground / [4] they say that a beggar like me can’t pick and choose because I have no legal rights / [5] they don’t know that people like them who are not carrying the load, that is, who have no distress, don’t know that the load is heavy, namely, that distress is unbearable / 3-line verse (past context) [6] I have pains in the joints of my feet and the muscles of my legs / [7] When the Rebels came to my place, they took me with them by force and they forced me to carry water, heavy loads, to fight with them / [8] After I had run from the Rebels I met the Nigerian army, but I’m not Nigerian like the Camp Staff are saying here, I come from Sierra Leone / IM2’s forensic entextualization of AS2’s oral report into a conventional paragraph is instead characterized by his literal misinterpretation of the Krio-ELF metaphors, idioms and pre-verbal markers. The outcome is the following tagged paragraph: (c) IM2’s forensic entextualization into a paragraph of AS2’s report [1] The Camp Staff hit me with many blows. / [2] They tell me that people like me must go back to their own country [awtloh=outlaw – omitted]. / [3] Then they are keen to [kin de→keen to(on)] push me till I [literally] lie down shattered all over the ground. / [4] [5] I beg [beggar→to beg] them repeatedly not to beat me with their shoes [chuz=choose], because they don’t understand that they are pushing [pohsin=persons] me with a tough [tot=take] load and they don’t know that the load is heavy [literally]. [6] As a consequence, I have keen [kin→keen] pains in the joints of my feet and the muscles of my legs. / [7] Some times they have come to my place and they have taken me with them by force. They have forced me to take water and heavy loads. [feht=to fight – omitted] / [8] When I did not succeed in running away from the reception camp, and then I rebelled against the Camp Staff [rebels→to rebel], it was only because I didn’t want to go back to Nigeria, under the Nigerian army. [Salone=Sierra Leone – omitted] As evident, IM2 misinterprets the Krio-ELF metaphors of mental processes by rendering them into actual material processes (as in [3] and [5]). in IM2’s entextualization of [1], the Camp Staff’s decision to give AS2 the information about the restrictions imposed upon him by Italian immigration law is misinterpreted as the physical action of ‘pushing’ him, while the Staff members themselves are explicitly indicated as the ‘actors’ of such a reprehensible material process. AS2’s specification that he is referring to the Camp Staff’s mental and verbal processes is retained in IM2’s entextualization (They tell me that…), though he misses the meaning of the Krio word awtloh (outlaw), which he omits. Yet, in [3], IM2 not only opts for the literal reading of the bodily metaphor (push), but he even misunderstands completely the Krio Habitual/Continuous-Aspect markers kin de, preceding push in the original Krio transcript of [3], as they are here misinterpreted by assonance as the Standard English expression keen to in ‘they are keen to push me’, where the new presupposition is triggered by the material sense of the implicative verb ‘they (the Camp Staff) push me’. This also justifies what, in IM2’s version, appears to be the logical consequence of such ‘physical pushing’: i.e., ‘till I (literally) lie down shattered all over the ground’. IM2’s literal interpretation of [3], however, is already evident from his question in cue (5): (‘they push you?’). The ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Habitual-Aspect marker kin is once again misinterpreted by assonance in [6] as the Standard-English adjective keen which IM2 attributes to pains. Furthermore, IM2 renders [6] and [7] into his entextualization as if they represented other instantiations of the inhuman treatment that the Camp Staff inflict upon AS2. Such a misapprehension is substantiated by the addition of ‘link expressions’, as in [6] (as a consequence) and the adverbial phrase in [7] (some times), which are absent in the original version of AS2’s report. IM2’s failure to render in [6] and [7] the discursive shift that AS2 makes into his past experience is principally due to a failure to recognize in both utterances the Krio pre-verbal Past-Tense marker bin. In fact, IM2 misinterprets bin by its assonance with been, which is a part of the Present-Perfect structure in Standard English and thus, transferred into the context of IM2’s entextualization, is seen as signalling recent actions taking place in the reception camp, rather than past actions occurred in Sierra Leone, as in AS2’s original version. Accordingly, IM2 fails to infer also the real identity of the ‘actors’ in [7] (namely, the Sierra Leonean rebel soldiers) from the pronoun dhen (they), which he assumes to be still referring to the reception-camp Staff. Also in [8], IM2 again misunderstands not only the Past-Tense marked by the Krio pre-verbal particle bin, but also the Perfect Aspect marked by the particle dohn, which he associates by assonance with the Present-Tense negative auxiliary don’t in Standard English, thus presupposing circumstances that are completely different from the actual circumstances presupposed by the original version (‘When I did not succeed in running away from the reception camp, and then I rebelled against the Camp Staff, it was only because I didn’t want to go back to Nigeria, under the Nigerian army’). This is due to IM2’s erroneous clarification in [8] (running away from the reception camp) and (I rebelled against the Camp Staff), aimed at making narration consistent with his own interpretation. Furthermore, he omits some words uttered by AS2 because he does not grasp them in their Krio pronunciation, as in [2] (awtloh), in [7] (feht), and, crucially, in [8] (Salone). Other times, IM2 misinterprets the meaning of other words spoken with a Krio accent because he associates them with other Standard-English words by assonance (as in the three cases reported in [5] (chuz, poshin, tot). Then, IM2 misinterprets nouns as verbs, as in [5] (beggar→to beg) and [8] (rebels→to rebel). Hence, IM2’s attempt at disambiguating AS2’s report ends up in a case of communication failure because AS2’s original claim becomes completely lost. In conclusion, the pragmatic problem of misinterpretation examined so far reveals how two different conditions of interpretability were brought together into this cross-cultural encounter. On the one hand, in adopting a displaced perspective and a transidiomatic code reflected in his use of Krio English as a lingua franca, AS2 did not seem to acknowledge the official position of Italian immigration law, as explained by the reception-camp Staff. In fact, he considered it as rather an arbitrary psychological abuse against his person because he had not been granted refugee status. On the other hand, in preferring concrete to abstract meanings to support his interpretation of ‘the refugee undergoing physical abuse in the reception camp’, IM2 actually selected the context and topic of the interview on the basis of his own ideological perspective. Accordingly, IM2 distorted the locutionary-reference plan of AS2’s discourse and, in this way, he also modified the illocutionary force of AS2’s original report in order to justify the perlocutionary effect it had on him and, ultimately, to convince his readers of the existence of cultural and linguistic background schemata that he shared with AS2. This may explain IM2’s self-attribution of the authority to ‘disambiguate’ the pragmatic presuppositions in AS2’s report, which, however, turned out to be a case of meaning imposition upon the original discourse, rather than of ‘meaning accommodation’, revealing only IM2’s own biased perspective in interpreting it. 7. Case study 3: Specialized lexis and native idioms of distress Case study 3 introduces other instances of ELF accommodation failure and success by focusing, this time, on the use of ‘western’ specialized lexis in conventional psychiatric discourse which considerably differs, experientially and pragmatically, from the native idioms of distress employed by ‘non-western’ immigrants, as well as from culture-based different uses of epistemic and deontic modality. The topic of ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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this case study is taken from a corpus of African refugees’ ELF-mediated PTSD reports which, on the one hand, are informed by the structures and idioms of their respective L1 ‘situated narratives’ that acquire pragmatic and experiential significance only by reference to their native contexts of use, but, on the other, they are entextualized by western specialists through the Standard-English registers established by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). APA, in fact, describes clinical cases mostly by reference to western (US) military veterans’ war trauma, representing it as a private, individual experience, which may not correspond to the way other ‘non-western’ cultures experience war trauma and convey it verbally (Mattingly 1998). Indeed, with reference to non-western trauma narrative, Linde (1993) asserts that ‘Self’ narratives are unknown in many cultures. To this, Mattingly (1998) adds that non-western trauma narratives are more about socio-political welfare than individual wellbeing, thus requiring a therapeutic ‘fictional coherence’ aimed at a community recovery through processes of socio-political reconciliation. Hence, reducing non-western immigrants’ oral trauma narratives into the written APA categories of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is indeed a case of failure in accommodating divergent experiences through the use of a specialized English discourse that should not be intended as a hybrid ‘lingua franca’ for intercultural communication. The objective of this case study is precisely to develop hybrid ELF registers accommodating divergent western/non-western categorizations of the trauma experience to be used in medical encounters in immigration contexts. To this purpose, a corpus of Standard-English scientific articles was initially selected from the US specialized journal Transcultural Psychiatry (henceforward TP). It was observed that the use of specialized lexis not only is consistent with the APA PTSD categories, but it is resistant to any semantic change which could comply with divergent categorizations of the trauma experience. Furthermore, in these articles, there was noted a recurrent use of a tentative tone, mostly conveyed by epistemic modals and hedges, which diminish the therapists’ commitment to the truth of their own interpretation of other, different ways of experiencing and narrating war trauma – as evident in the following extract: (1) Very little is known about the consequences of trauma exposure in the survivors’ lives. […] After exposure to some traumatic event, one’s initial response may include symptoms in the domains of physiology (e.g., rapid heart rate, body heat, sleep disturbance, appetite disturbance, nausea, shortness of breath, dizziness and palpitations, chocking sensation, chest tightness, shaking, sweating, chills/hot flashes and numbness/ tingling). In a series of interviews to some Italian specialists who were asked to comment on the TP articles in the corpus by using their Italian-ELF variation, there was observed a clear influence of the western PTSD specialized register marked by the use of APA lexis and epistemic modality, as in the following extract (2), which is also characterized by features of L1→ELF transfer – such as, the lack of the third-person suffixation and the reduplication of the negative specifier: (2) Well, the symptoms of trauma can be nightmares, the heart that beat very fast, suddenly, without reason, and rage, and then depression, and often there is not no cure that work, no remedy. Then, to explore the register divergences between non-western trauma narratives and the way they are reported in western specialized articles, a small corpus of West-African ELF trauma narratives was collected and, for the purpose of this specific case study, explored in particular with reference to the concrete metaphors that inform the West-African idioms of distress in the last three ethnopoetic lines of the immigrants’ oral trauma reports. In them, it was noted that the first-person trauma effects are often rendered as third-person animate subjects affecting the patient by ‘deontically’ compelling him/her to ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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undergo the traumatic symptoms and, afterwards, to take a political action aimed at recovery, as in the following extracts from the trauma narratives by, respectively, (3) a Ghanaian woman and (4) a Sierra Leonean man: (3) When I escaped, I saw many bodies on the side of the road and they look straight my
eyes for they want revenge / and I felt that the worms on them they started crawl up slow slow under my skin. / I often feel the worms creep creep and must make my blood to sleep (skin reaction → loathing). (Ghanaian woman) (4) I suffer wind sickness, fonyo kurango we say [in Mandinka], when I smell burning, like my village burning. / Wind attack my brain and rise. I hear wind inside ears, like woo woo (bloodpressure perception → panic attack). It rise rise and press the eyes and I see black and my brain spin and I must fall (fainting). / I must go for pick all them and burn them and them village and them families and so wind must end. (Sierra Leonean man) Finally, a number of Italian trainee-mediators were asked to reformulate such reports into a possible ELF hybrid register in order to accommodate both western specialized-discourse lexical conventions and the non-western native use of deontic modality and idioms of distress, thus disambiguating native metaphors by as if clauses – as in the following extract (5): (5) West-African people usually somatise trauma effects and describe them as if they were real beings that must attack them - e.g., they describe sensations like creeping flesh when they recall disgusting views of worms on dead bodies as if worms were slowly creeping beneath their skin to make blood numb, or like feeling woozy, sick and fainting when they recall sensations of panic as if wind was blowing in their brain and fog dimming their eyes to make them collapse. Such symptoms must be treated by helping patients to achieve social justice within their communities. However, ELF accommodation cannot always be achieved easily and in every specialized domain of immigration discourse. In fact, the accommodation of different ELF variations in specialized domains is particularly difficult in situations of intercultural communication where the aims of the specialists in charge of the exchange are unclear – if not, indeed, ambiguous. In such cases, miscommunication occurs not because of L1→ELF transfer processes at the syntactic, lexical-semantic and pragmatic levels, but rather because of different culture-bound schemata respectively informing the participants’ discourses in ELF, as in the last two case studies on ELF accommodation failure that shall follow. 8. Case study 4: Counterfactual and factual logic This case study regards misunderstanding in ELF communication caused by different cultural schemata. This will be explored in the context of the Synod convened by Pope Benedict in 2012 on the New Evangelization [NE] for the Transmission of the Christian Faith (Synod of Bishops, 2012), focused on the ways in which the NE in Catholic Church (Wuerl, 2013) – aimed at the “proclamation of the Gospel in the contemporary world” of mass migration and globalization (Pope Benedict XVI, 2012) – is enacted through ELF in unequal encounters where the Italian clergy offer practical assistance to non-western immigrants in reception camps, often on condition that they accept their Evangelization message. This, therefore, seems a one-way NE transmission which, however, is apparently in contrast with the view of the NE as an “inculturation of faith” aimed at having “the Gospel take flesh in each people’s culture” (Synod ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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of Bishops, 2012), thus seemingly advocating a process of appropriation by embodiment by those non-western people who want to ‘authenticate’ the Christian religion according to their own cultural and experiential schematic parameters (cf. Widdowson, 1994). And yet, again, the notion of ‘NE transmission’ is instead in line with the view of a ‘one-way process’ that entails an evaluation of “what is positive in every culture”, by “purifying it from elements that are contrary to the full realization of the person according to the design of God revealed in Christ” (Synod of Bishops, 2012) – thus, indeed, allowing non-western receivers only to activate a mere acculturation process of uncritical acceptance of the NE message (Schumann, 1978). The rationale underlying this case study is therefore concerned with the Italian Catholic clergy’s attempts to achieve the “inculturation of the Divine Word” by bringing it to “migrant people from far-offlands” (Pope Benedict XVI, 2012). Yet, the clergy do not seem to realize that the western Catholic discourse is intrinsically metaphysical (Guido 2005), that is, constructed on patterns of possible-world semantics (Stalnaker, 2001) characterizing its counterfactual logic. In adopting such a discourse type, the clergy actually disregard the divergent ways by which non-western immigrants make ‘religious’ sense of their life. This justifies the reactions of a number of bishops representing non-western dioceses across the five continents at the Synod, who warned against such an ‘acculturation’ process covertly required by the NE message5. Thus, for instance, Cardinal Pengo, from Africa, argued: “Globalization introduces rapidly undigested foreign values, making it hard for Christians on the continent to be truly Africans.” – and Archbishop Reter, from Latin-America, remarked: “The Church cannot ignore the very concrete social, cultural, historical context in which its members live. It lives in very concrete social, cultural contexts.”, a view which was shared by Cardinal Gracias from Asia: “Traditional Asian values, much cherished traditions, and cultures are being impacted and eroded.” A position in line with a view of ‘inculturation’ as ‘appropriation’ today is taken precisely by Pope Francis who, in a recent meeting with young people in Korea, stopped reading his ‘metaphysical speech’ in English to start using his spontaneous ELF variation in order to avoid the audience’s sense of estrangement caused by the ‘counterfactual religious discourse’ and to convey instead, his NE message in a ‘new language’ meant as a ‘lingua franca’ for global communication (MacGabhann, 2008), as in the transcript reported below,6 with some phonetic transcriptions of his ELF pronunciation: “(Pope Francis reads his speech) […] He enter your heart [her] on the day of your [iur] baptism, He gave you His sprite, His spirit of the day [dai] of your [iur] confirmation, and he [stre] (?) hands you constantly [con'stantli] by his presence in the Eucharistic, so that you can be his witnesses before the world. Are you ready to say ‘yes’? (He raises his head and looks smiling at the audience of young people) Are you ready? (Audience: “Yes!” – The Pope stops reading and goes on talking directly to the audience) Thank you! Are you tired? (Audience: “No!”) Sure? (Audience: “Yes!”) aaa our [a] beloveds [belafs] friend of mine, excuse [asku] to me [dƷestiti] (?) (He gestures with his arms and hands). You must can’t to speech the your [dƷur] paper with paper (He raises his paper showing it to the audience – Audience’s applause). You must (Audience’s applause) you must speech, address the your [dƷur] paper spontaneous, by heart [her] (He indicates His heart – Audience’s applause). But, but I have a great difficult, I have a poor English (Audience: “No!”) Yes, yes! (Audience: “No!”) But, if you desire, I can to say other things spontaneous, are you tired? (Audience: “No!”) May I go on? (Audience: “Yes!”) But I do it in Italian.”
Retrieved from: http://www.vatican.va/news_services/press/sinodo/documents/bollettino_25_xiii-ordinaria2012/02_inglese/b05_02.html 6 Retrieved from: http://youtu.be/FjQUirErPvo?t=1h15m42s (from 1:15:40 to 1:18 minutes). 5
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Pope Francis uses adjectives as adverbs, nouns as verbs, ignores Standard-English syntax, and yet this is an example of how the so-called ‘poor English’ can work successfully as a ‘lingua franca’ to communicate the Word of God in a simple and sincere way. Pope Francis, however, generally avoids using ELF, rather preferring for this purpose Italian – which cannot, however, be considered a proper international ‘lingua franca’ since the Pope has to rely each time on consecutive translation into Standard English, which would reduce the innovative straightforwardness characterizing his communication style. But Pope Francis is, however, an exception. In this study, the NE discourse is in fact analyzed by applying a Possible-Worlds Semantic Model typical of Modal Logic (Stalnaker, 1994). The hypothesis is that, to make sense of the NE discourse, non-western immigrants are required to activate in their minds, on the one hand, a suspension of disbelief, as they are ‘epistemically’ induced to believe that the clergy’s possible-world mystical representations are logical and true – and, on the other, an experiential pliability, as they are ‘deontically’ compelled to adapt their real-life experience to such counterfactual constructions (whereas many African religions are related to the referential domain of actual, socio-political world). This assumption is explored in the following Exchange 3, where the participants are: an Italian Catholic Priest (P) and a Liberian (possibly ‘animist’) woman (W) whose young daughter has died during the sea crossing to reach Italy. Both use their respective ELF variations. Exchange 3 (1) P: can I do something for you (.) daughter? (2) W: (.) my daughter .hhh (.) dead hhh (.) >you cannot do nothing< (3) P: how? when? (4) W: .hhh in the boat (.)°to come here° (.).hhh the sea keep her (5) P: (.) >where’s your husband?< (6) W: (.)°killed° (.) >he wanted to vote and they killed him< (.) I got no job (.) I’m here for better life >for me and my child< (.)°but° .hhh (7) P: (.)°don’t be sad° (.)°have faith in God° (.) you kno::w? (.) it’s quite (.) unbelievable (.) that God wanted that his Son (.) >I mean Jesus< (.) he should die (.) and then he res- (.) returned to the life (.) >with the resurrection< (.) and (.) it’s sure that also your dau::ghter should return to the life (.) °have faith in the Holy Spirit >that’s with your daughter now° (8) W: (.)°what° (.) °spirit° (.)°the ghost?° (9) P: the Holy Spirit (.) yes (.) yes (.) you can say also the Holy Ghost (.) yes (.) >you know?< (.) it’s ma::rvellous that God (.) °I mean° (.) his spirit entered inside the body of his Son (.) °Jesus° (.) and it’s ma::rvellous that the Holy (.) Ghost bring the Son inside every person to (.) >to give the hope< (.) >of life eternal< (.) >you know?< this is the mystery of the Trinity (.) the Father (.) the Son (.) and the Holy Ghost (.) >they are three [and one Godcome inside my body< (.) °and I speak with her voice° (.) she must come out the sea (.)°but (.) I cannot move (.) >to go down in the sea [for take heras I said you< (.) it’s sure (.) >it’s sure< that Jesus must surely come (.) in the day of the resurrection (.) and take your daughter >out the sea< (.) °have faith (.) courage° (.) believe in God and I’ll see what I can do for (.) to make you to stay here. In P’s NE discourse conveyed through his Italian-ELF it is possible to notice a series of indexical belief reports expressed by the use of that-clauses (Schiffer, 1996) which are set within a possible world where propositions are true – e.g., “it’s quite unbelievable / sure / marvellous” “that God wanted that his Son. / that also your daughter should return to life. / that the Holy Ghost bring the Son. / that Jesus must surely ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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come.” (in this last instance, the expression must surely actually conveys both deontic and epistemic significance, thus paradoxically weakening the strength of the faith in Jesus’ ultimate promise). Indeed, such that-clauses do not convey at all a direct affirmation of belief, on the contrary, they are agentless, indirect belief reports introduced by the impersonal pronoun it as Subject placeholder. This entails that God’s anthropomorphic image is rendered as a logical Agent, but not as a grammatical Subject (Halliday, 1994), thus distancing its concept as a ‘fact report’ of a metaphysical kind. This could be an epistemicillocution strategy activated by P to reassure W that his discourse is objective and unchallenging – yet, P’s covert deontic-illocution strategy may instead be that of inducing W to share his metaphysical beliefs. Furthermore, in P’s discourse it is also possible to identify instances of a ‘false hypothetical syllogism’, specifically in the conveyance of the mystical notion of Trinity, which is built on clauses, on the one hand, of illogical compatibility, accounting for epistemically-modalized polarities (i.e.: a positive-polarity mood adjunct quite followed by a negative-polarity prefix -un in unbelievable) and, on the other, of illogical contingency, accounting for contradictory concepts linked by relational processes (i.e., God as triune – namely, as one and trine at the same time). In such a context, the possible perlocutionary effects of P’s discourse on W can be that, firstly, P’s addressing W as daughter actually triggers in her mind the traumatic memory of her dead daughter and, then, P’s reference to the Holy Spirit/Ghost triggers W’s animist ghost-possession schema, with the factual representation of the metaphysical event of embodying her daughter’s spirit as an obligation (signalled by the use of the deontic must) to recover her by defying an ergative personification of the inanimate Medium of the sea which is ‘holding her prisoner’. The next – and last – case study shall explore another case of ELF accommodation failure due to different culture-bound schemata. 9. Case study 5: Utopian and dystopian schemata This last case study shall explore ELF misunderstandings due to different ‘migration’ schemata in contact, leading to an ELF accommodation failure. The topic regards the specialized domain of Responsible Tourism – namely, an emerging branch of tourism aimed at advertising holidays that allow tourists to experience local socio-cultural situations. To this purpose, it generally involves a hybridization between Voluntary-Work and Place-Marketing discourses. The case study will focus on the local tourist promotion of places – often seaside resorts – affected by migrants’ arrivals that deter tourism. The aim is to bring tourists back, as in the emblematic case of Lampedusa, the Italian island between Sicily and Africa, where migrants’ landings take place daily. In these places, administrators often have to act as tour operators, offering tourists accommodation in voluntary-work camps where they can play the role of ‘mediators’ who help local communities and immigrants to integrate. At the same time, they can also learn how to enhance their own sympathetic understanding of the migration experience. Parallel to the Italian experience of Responsible Tourism can be considered the case of the Mediterranean island of Malta, where a website advertises the need for volunteers willing to assist African refugees massively landing there and educate them in English on “European customs”7. Another case in point can be found in Africa, where an agency for Refugee-Camp Tourism provides in Rwanda “life-enriching activities” that offer “unique insights into the harsh lives of refugees”8. Indeed, also African immigrants in Italy tend to adapt western ‘touristic’ schemata to their culture-bound ones – often, however, to elude legal control, such as for instance, in the case of family trips to Africa, which immigrants deceitfully define as ‘holidays’ but are actually aimed at forcing young daughters undergo female genital mutilation (Sperti, 2014).
7 8
Retrieved from: http://www.gooverseas.com/blog/volunteering-in-malta-beyond-tourism-websites Retrieved from: http://newdawnassociates.com/new/signature-tours/akagera-humure-refugee-community-visit/
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Lampedusa (and other seaside resorts in the South-Italian insular and peninsular regions of Sicily, Sardinia, Puglia and Calabria can in fact be seen as an actualization of the ‘Utopia vs. Dystopia (antiutopia)’ archetype. The term ‘Utopia’ has two Ancient-Greek etymologies: eu-topos, meaning ‘place of good and harmony’, and ou-topos, meaning ‘no place’, ‘nowhere’. Utopia in the classical literature (i.e., Thomas More’s Utopia, Francis Bacon’s New Atlantis, and – to some extent – Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels, to name but a few) is represented as a counterfactual island of happiness and justice which is an alternative to the Observer’s real corrupted society. The Observer is portrayed as a traveller who lands in Utopia after a difficult journey, and by this literary device he adopts an estranged stance in the description of the island. In this case study, the ancient utopian archetype has been revisited with reference to the two opposite contemporary schemata of the ‘social utopia’, typical of left-wing political movements, and the ‘recreational utopia’, typical of light-hearted touristic resorts, which unexpectedly come to be reconciled in situations of intercultural communication through ELF taking place in contexts regarding Responsible Tourism. In such situations, on the one hand, the Italian tourists – who have undertaken this experience with the aim of playing the role of ‘intercultural mediators’ with immigrants and asylum seekers – consider the place they arrive at as a Utopia where they end up acting as ‘tourist-resort entertainers’ who try to brighten up the guests’ stay. In this way, they embody the traveller’s bottom-up estranged position on the Utopian place, which is however soon reduced to a reassuring top-down familiar stance, turning the ‘immigrant-reception schema’ into a ‘tourist-reception schema’. In doing so, they find themselves playing the ‘Robinson Crusoe’ role, casting immigrants and refugees in the supporting ‘Friday’ role to make ‘responsible tourists’ in the resort (as well as themselves) familiar with the migration experience. On the other hand, the immigrants consider instead this place as a Dystopia in which they embody the traveller’s top-down estranged stance on an anti-Utopia that imposes unfamiliar roles on them. This is due to the ‘New Touristization’ of the migrants, who are expected to tell their stories every time they are asked to (as Ulysses did when he was asked to narrate his journey at each landing) and, at the same time, to play beach games and participate in anti-racist football tournaments, to be involved in flashmob demonstrations, disco dances, karaoke singing, card games, boat trips for tourists to experience migration, and even in the tourist promotion of the place – as in the case with Lampedusa, where a group of African immigrants were organized into a reggae band singing songs specifically written by local people to advertise events organized on the island to promote Responsible Tourism, as in the brief extract from a reggae song, reported below, referring to the immigrants’ ‘epic’ journey which also includes the invocation to the ‘sweet Muse’ who should bring them to Lampedusa9: Row, row, to Lampedusa we go, Go, go, for a better life we row, yeah, O dolce Musa, portami a Lampedusa [O sweet Muse, bring me to Lampedusa] O dolce Musa, bring me to Lampedusa, yeah […] The case-study data collected in landing places show that ELF variations used by tourists-as-mediators and immigrants are initially aimed at co-creating a new language for successful communication, but then they often report cases of a ‘dystopian manipulation’ of semantic meanings (e.g., the migrants’ ‘resigned desperation’ comes to be misinterpreted as ‘serenity’ and even ‘intimate joy’ by the improvised mediators’ dominating schemata, which alienate migrants). Furthermore, the language issue has always been crucial in Utopian literature (e.g., More’s Utopia was written in Latin which was the 16th/17th-century lingua franca to spread scientific and politicalphilosophical works so as to reach the wider reading public of the European Renaissance humanists). 9
Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szZ84o6H7Qw (from the beginning to 0:23 minutes).
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Dialogue, in particular, is a constant feature in the Utopian literature as it is used as a stylistic device through which the divergences between opposite stances emerge. In this case study, the dialogue is between an Italian female mediator (IM3) participating in a voluntary-work camp in a seaside resort and speaking the Italian-ELF variation, and a Nigerian male asylum seeker (AS3), speaking NPE as ELF variation. AS3 was kept in a CIE (Centre for Identification and Expulsion) after having fled from Nigeria, due to religious persecution by Boko Haram, with his sister (caught and detained in Libya just before he set sail, with his having heard nothing about her since) and his brother (thrown overboard by smugglers as a ‘warning’ for mutinous migrants on the boat). Exchange 4 (1) IM3: °you see° (.) when I left to come here I was excited to be in a voluntary-work camp (.) we really hoped to witness a landing (.) what you expect from this place? (2) AS3: .hhh a no expect noting special (.) >wen a bin arrive di police bin take mi fingerprint dem< en shut me in de CIE (.) pipul hie sometime give blanket (.) food (.) hhh but dem no help os get di permit fo leave (.) °tis strange° (.) >dem tink se a migrant no lek oda pipul< [I don’t expect anything special. When I arrived, the police took my fingerprints and shut me in the CIE. People here sometimes give blankets, food, but they don’t help us get the permit to leave. This is strange, they think that a migrant is not like other people] (3) IM3: what do you mean? (4) AS3: .hhh °dem look os lek animal dem° (.) a veks °we no walk wit four leg dem° (.) we no eat pipul (.) dem turn dem head fo fear we dem see os [They consider us like animals. I’m vexed, we don’t walk with four legs, we don’t eat people. They turn their head for fear when they see us] (5) IM3: >but we can help them to change the idea they have of you< (.) no? (.) we had a great fun together (.) we eat sing karaoke dance (.) play football together every day (.) this is wonderful (.) eh? (.) an example that can help the other people >to understand the migrantsa never bin look di sea bifo a bin get fo di boat fo come hie< (.) di sea bin >swell swell< fo kill os [No, they don’t understand the migrants, they don’t understand the sea. I’d never seen the sea before I took the boat to come here. The sea did swell tremendously to kill us] (7) IM3: but now your relation with the sea is changed (.) you don’t fear it no more no? hhh we made many baths together and you were so:: happy (8) AS3: °you know?° (.) >dem bin trow mi broda down di sea< (.) fo warn di oder pipul in di boat >so dem no go complain fo di bad journeyyou told us< (.) °I’m sorry° (.) he know to swim? (10) AS3: a (.) a (.) wen a bin look in di sea mi broda bin de swim (.) yes= [When I glanced in the sea my brother was swimming, yes] (11) IM3: =so don’t worry (.) he got safe (.) be sure (12) AS3: .hhh a (.) °a hope° (.) °yes° (.) >hhh wen a bin come hie wit di boat dat night< (.) tourist dem bin de dance on di beach (.) but a bin cry >because in Libya dem bin keep mi sista< (.) °en a come safe hie° [I … I hope, yes. When I arrived here with the boat that night, the tourists were dancing on the beach, but I cried because in Libya they kept my sister, and I arrived safe here] (13) IM3: .hhh yes (.) we understood more of your journeys when the organizers took us for the trip in the boat that night and we throwed the little paper boats in the sea >in memory of the dead migrants< (.) and when all we made the flashmob on the beach with the liberating shout >to make tourists to understand the migration problem> (.) °that was nice° (.) you remember their big appla::use?= ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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(14) AS3: =a tink tis cra ::zy= [I think this is crazy] (15) IM3: =yes (.) crazy (.) wo::nderful moments (.) >like when on the beach we played the wayfarer game< with a word on each card >that started a story< (.) eh? (.) your stories were not sad (.) you seemed serene (.) not a victim (.) for example the story of the dolphins >that say that the sea could not swallow you in the boat< is full of joy (.) because even if many migrants are died you arrived alive [>to become my friends< (16) AS3: wen dem ask mi] to tell mi story a se no (.) because dem no understand (.) but hie a tell someting °so a tink a do what dem want and so dem go help me wit di permit (.) [°di asylum° [when they ask me to tell my story I say ‘no’, because they don’t understand, but here I tell something so I think I do what they want and so they will help me with the permit, the asylum] (17) IM3: >but you see?you remember the landing that we saw together?< (.) I’m sure that I could see the joy in the eyes of the migrants even if they looked sad and tired (.) oh I don’t want to go away from this wonderful place (.) and you?= (18) AS3: =no (.) a want go away quick [No, I want to go away as soon as possible] As evident, here misunderstanding is not due to differences in ELF semantic, syntactic and pragmatic features, because IM3 and AS3 understand each other very well. Misunderstanding, rather, is due to schematic divergences on migration issues and how to deal and solve them – hence, the outcome is, once again, ELF accommodation failure as the two participants are unable to use the lingua franca to achieve a satisfactory communication. 10. Conclusions In conclusion, to achieve a successful communication in specialized ELF interactions, each group in contact should, first of all, become aware of those of the other groups’ L1 features which are typologically divergent from the equivalent ones in their own L1s – and, as such, perceived as formally deviating and pragmatically inappropriate when transferred to ELF. Then, they should also recover the ‘situatedness’ (Gumperz, 1982) of the immigrants’ displaced ELF, by recognizing the original socio-cultural and pragmalinguistic dimensions determining sense and reference in their respective experiences. Finally, they should develop mutual accommodation strategies of ELF reformulation and hybridization in order to make culture-bound discourses conceptually accessible and socio-pragmatically acceptable to each other’s native schemata. About the author Maria Grazia Guido is Full Professor of English Linguistics and Translation at the University of Salento, where she is Director of: the Interfaculty Language Centre, the Ph.D. Programme in ‘Modern and Classical Languages, Literatures and Cultures’, and the Masters Course in ‘Intercultural and Interlingual Mediation in Immigration and Asylum Contexts’. Her research interests are: cognitive linguistics applied to ELF in intercultural communication and specialized discourse analysis. Her monographs include: English as a Lingua Franca in Cross-cultural Immigration Domains (2008), The Acting Interpreter (2013), The Acting Translator (2012), The Acting Reader (1999), The Imaging Reader (2005) and Mediating Cultures (2004). Email:
[email protected].
References Bhatia, V. (1997). Introduction: Genre analysis and World Englishes. World Englishes, 16, 313-319. Blommaert, J. (1997). The slow shift in orthodoxy: (Re)formulations of ‘Integration’ in Belgium. In C. Briggs (Ed.), Conflict and violence in pragmatic research. Special issue of Pragmatics,7, 499-518. Brumfit, C. (Ed.). (1982). English for international communication. Oxford: Pergamon. Carrell, P.L. (1983). Some issues in the role of schemata, or background knowledge, in second language comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 1, 81-92. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Corder, S.P. (1981). Error analysis and interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DeLancey, S. (1981). An interpretation of split ergativity and related phenomena. Language, 57, 626-257. Eckman, F. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning, 27, 315-330. Edwards, D. (1997). Discourse and cognition. London: Sage. Ericcson, A.K., & Simon, H.A. (1984). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Faraclas, N.G. (1996). Nigerian pidgin. London: Routledge. Firth, A. (1996). The discursive accomplishment of normality: On ‘Lingua Franca’ English and conversation analysis. Journal of Pragmatics, 26, 237-259. Greenberg, J.H. (1973), Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. In J.H. Greenberg (Ed.), Universals of language, Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 73-113. Guido, M.G. (2005). The imagingr: Visualization and embodiment of metaphysical discourse. Toronto: Legas. Guido, M.G. (2008). English as a Lingua Franca in cross-cultural immigration domains. Bern: Peter Lang. Guido, M.G. (2012). ELF authentication and accommodation strategies in cross cultural immigration domains. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 1(2), 219-240. Gumperz, J.J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar. London: Edward Arnold. House, J. (1999). Misunderstanding in intercultural communication: Interactions in English as ‘Lingua Franca’ and the myth of mutual intelligibility. In C. Gnutzmann (Ed.), Teaching and learning English as a global language (pp. 73-89). Tubigen: Stauffenburg. Hymes, D. (1994). Ethnopoetics, oral formulaic theory, and editing texts. Oral Tradition, 9 (2), 330-370. Hymes, D. (2003). Now I know only so far: Essays in ethnopoetics. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an International Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kachru, B. 1986. The Alchemy of English: The spread, functions and models of non-native Englishes. Oxford: Pergamon. Kasper, G. (1992). Pragmatic transfer. Second Language Research, 8, 203-231. Knapp, K., & Meierkord, C. (Eds). (2002). Lingua Franca communication. Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge to western thought. New York: Basic Books. Linde, C. (1993). Life stories: The creation of coherence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. MacGabhann, S. (2008). The new evangelization of Catholics: In a new language. Victoria: Trafford Publishing. Mattingly, C. (1998). Healing dramas and clinical plots: The narrative structure of experience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Moerman, M. (1988). Talking culture: Ethnography and conversation analysis. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Nwachukwu, P.A. (1976). Stativity, ergativity and the –rV suffixes in Igbo. African Languages, 2, 119-143. Pennycook, A. (1994). The cultural politics of English as an international language. London: Longman. Pope Benedict XVI. (2012). ‘Migration and the new evangelization.’ Message of His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI for the World Day of Migrants and Refugees. 21 September 2011. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Sarangi, S., & Slembrouck, S. (1996). Language, bureaucracy and social control. London: Longman. Schiffer, S. (1996). Belief ascription. Journal of Philosophy, 92, 102-107. Schumann, J. (1978). The acculturation model for second language acquisition. In R. Gingras (Ed.), Second language acquisition and foreign language teaching (pp.27-50). Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Scotton, C.M. (1983). The negotiation of identities in conversation: A theory of markedness and code choice. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 44, 116-136. Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of English as a Lingua Franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11, 133-158. Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 209-239. Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Selinker, L. (1969). Language transfer. General Linguistics, 9, 67-92. Selinker, L. (1992). Rediscovering interlanguage. London: Longman. Silverstein, M. (1998). Contemporary transformations of local linguistic communities. Annual Review of Anthropology, 27, 401-426. Sperti, S. (2014). Phonopragmatic dimensions of ELF in specialized immigration contexts. Ph.D. Dissertation, Lecce: University of Salento, Italy. Stalnaker, R.C. (1994). Modality and possible worlds. In K. Jaegwon & E. Sosa (Eds.), Blackwell companion to metaphysics (pp. 333-337). Oxford: Blackwell. Stalnaker, R.C. (2001). On considering a possible world as actual. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 65, 141-156. Sweetser, E.E. (1990). From etymology to pragmatics: Metaphorical and cultural aspects of semantic structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Synod of Bishops. (2012). XIII Ordinary General Assembly. The new evangelization for the transmission of the Christian faith. Instrumentum laboris. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Talmy, L. (1988). Force dynamics in language and cognition. Cognitive Science, 2, 49-100. Thomas, J.A. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 4, 91-112. Trudgill, P., & Hannah, J. (1995). International English: A guide to varieties of standard English. London: Edward Arnold. Urban, G. (1996). Entextualization, replication and power. In M. Silverstein & G. Urban (Eds.), Natural histories of discourse (pp. 21-44). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Widdowson, H.G. (1979). Explorations in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H.G. (1991). Types of equivalence. Triangle 10. The role of translation in foreign language teaching. Paris: Diffusion Didier Erudition. Widdowson, H.G. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 377-389. Wuerl, D.W. (2013). New evangelization: Passing the Catholic faith today. Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor.
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Duran, D. (2016). Use of Lingua Franca in student mobility: A study of Turkish ERASMUS students. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 178-183). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Use of Lingua Franca in student mobility: A study of Turkish ERASMUS students Derya Duran Abstract The purpose of this study is to reveal how study abroad experiences of exchange students in English as a lingua franca (ELF) communities affect their perceptions on ELF. The participants of the present study were six Turkish ERASMUS exchange students as members of an ELF community of practice in two European countries. The study drew upon three data sources: semi-structured interviews before and after the study abroad program and controlled journals. The data was analyzed qualitatively by using thematic analysis. The results of the study indicated that the primary concern of the participants was to reach mutual intelligibility in the only shared language available to them with co-operative and supportive behaviors. Thus, they made use of many strategies to reach their goal such as using gestures and mimics, drawing, code switching, simplifying language which shows the importance of accommodation skills for convergence in accomplishing mutual understanding in ELF-resourced community. Another finding of the study was that ERASMUS students, who were initially quite strict in teaching ‘standard English’ and concerned about teaching different accents, had a more flexible stance in teaching different varieties of English after the program. However, they were still not sure about to what extent they would integrate what they had experienced as an ELF speaker into their future teaching practices and most of them were in favor of giving just simple examples from the ELF-resourced community in their classes. Regarding the findings of the study, the contribution of the study is that intensive orientation programs prior to study abroad should be provided and students should be more familiar with the term ‘ELF’ and its real implications in ELF contexts.
Keywords: international students, language perceptions, English as a lingua franca
1. Introduction Today, non-native speakers comprise about 80% of the English speakers in the world (Jenkins, 2007), which is a fingerprint for inner circle countries, such as the UK and the USA not being able to function as norm-developing anymore. 80% of non-native English speakers come from the expanding circle English speakers as the largest group. In communication, the main concern of these speakers’ is ‘not formal correctness but functional effectiveness’ (Hülmbauer et al., 2008, p. 28). This pragmatic concern of language use is everywhere, especially in Europe where international communication is an indispensable part of daily life. As mobility is a part of European integration and internationalization, there is a great need for communication to use on exchange and this need necessitates English as a lingua franca (henceforth ELF) in the European countries. As for the essentials of ELF communication in these multi-cultural settings, accommodation and negotiation of meaning come to the forefront. ELF speakers resort to accommodative strategies, such as adjusting their speech and using non-verbal behavior, in an attempt to become more approachable, negotiate meaning and resolve misunderstandings and non-understandings. Firth (1996) states a principle of “let it pass” adopted by ELF speakers which is a strategy to ignore trouble sources rather than explicitly correcting them as long as the message is understandable. ELF communication as Haberland (2011) points, asks for a certain tolerance since the ELF speakers frequently deviate from language norms. Instead of labelling themselves as deficient language users, they appreciate each other for the attempts to become intelligible. The present study has the potential to contribute to the relevant literature by focusing on the interaction between exchange students’ study abroad experiences and their perceptions on ELF. To understand how their perceptions of study abroad can be explained by their experiences in ELF communities, the overarching research question of the current study follows as such: Hacettepe University.
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What are the changes in Turkish exchange students’ beliefs about ELF during pre- and post-study abroad? 2. Methodology 2.1. Participants
Data for this study comes from 6 female exchange students who were in Spain and Portugal for the 2012/2013 spring semester. They were all in the department of English Language Teaching (ELT) as sophomores. They were aged between 21-22 and their English language learning experience ranged between 11-13 years. Of all the participants, none had been abroad before. 2.2. Data collection
The data collection instruments consisted of background information questionnaire, pre- and post-study abroad interviews and monthly journals. The background information questionnaire inquired about participants’ age, gender, English language learning experiences, and previous experiences abroad. Preand post-study abroad interviews, as the name suggests were conducted just before they went abroad and after they arrived in the home country and the questions posed to the participants were prepared in accordance with the research question. Lastly, there were monthly journals adopted from Kaypak (2012), participants were asked to write a journal every month; there were 4 journals for each student and 24 journals in total. For these controlled journals, there was a scale ranging from “1” representing horrible to “7” representing excellent for the question of how is your ERASMUS going? In addition, there were three questions to be answered as paragraphs and they were related to a) their academic life, b) social life, and c) use of English throughout their study abroad. The academic life was related to their interactions with their teachers and classmates in the ELF-resourced community, the social life was about their genuine experiences in the multi-cultural settings and the use of English focused on sense of accomplishment or failures while using English. 2.3 Data analysis
The data analysis was done qualitatively by using thematic (content) analysis as making a content analysis helps to picture the study in more condensed form. The analysis began with reading the interview materials carefully to find out recurring themes in the answers and in the same way the data from the controlled journals were analyzed qualitatively by means of thematic analysis and recurrent themes were categorized. To show it clearly, the procedure followed as such: Pre-Belief Interviews → Controlled Journals → Study Abroad Perception Interviews 3. Results 3.1 Accommodation and negotiating meaning cooperatively
The primary concern of the participants was to reach mutual intelligibility in the only shared language available to them with co-operative and supportive behaviors. Thus, they made use of many strategies to reach their goal such as using gestures and mimics, drawing, code switching, simplifying language. Informant 2: While using English I pay attention to English proficiency of the people I speak, which accent she is using, word capacity, idiom and grammar usage are important to me and I accommodate in accordance with them. For example, when my interlocutor does not know I am going to, I just say I go to. I feel like I am high school teacher who is teaching right now secondary school students. Or if the person does not know ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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English, I speak in Spanish or with different English words (paraphrase) I explain what I try to tell. If a person uses British accent, I feel mad about that, I met some friends with a great British accent and sometimes I could not understand what they meant and seeing almost everybody can speak English to a certain extent makes me happy and having a mutual communication language is opening many doors for you. (Journal 3) 3.2 The presence of co-participants
In a moment of word search or struggling with mutual understanding, one of the co-participants joined in and offered the language support. When a speaker was in need of a word search or struggling with interpreting the previous turn, one or more of the co-participants joined in and provided the assistance. Language support in word search activities was treated by them as co-operative processes (Mauranen, 2006). Informant 1: When I could not communicate with him or her, sometime there were people who understood me beside him or her and in the same way when I could not understand him or her, I had a friend beside me who understood. To give an example. I am speaking with a Spanish friend and s/he cannot speak English well and she does not understand me, at that point a Portuguese friend comes to help by translating what I had said to him/her. Since they can understand each other more easily as Portuguese people know also Spanish she explained it either in Spanish or English, but as it is easier for them, they used romance languages more. (Post study) 3.3 Integrating ELF usage into future teaching or not
The findings of the study revealed that participants took upon a monolithic point of view in their future teaching practices before their exchange experience; most of them wanted to teach British English (BrE) for aesthetic purposes and they considered BrE as the only ‘correct’ and ‘real’ variety of English. Put differently, they elaborated on ownership of English (Widdowson, 1994) and according to them, English belongs to British people. Generally, they held more positive attitudes toward BrE and American English (AmE) than nonnative varieties of English. Informant 5: Real English belongs to British, British English sounds more polite and it was born in Britain. In American English words are more intelligible, but in British one words sound more beautiful and both (American British English) have prestige in my eyes. (Pre study) Informant 6: Real English seems to me like British or American English, and especially American English as we are more exposed to that. But British English sounds more fantastic, attractive to me and they are both real English for me. (Pre study) In regard to exposing students to different accents, they advocated the idea that students should be exposed to all accents (they meant BrE and AmE). Although they thought being exposed to different accents was important to avoid misunderstandings, they insisted on the Standard varieties of English so they contradicted with themselves. Nonnative pronunciation seemed problematic because it would be unintelligible for the students. Some participants were totally against the idea and they claimed nonnative accents should be prohibited in classes since native accents were the only sources students get exposed to as most of the teachers were incompetent sounding like a British or American. Informant 2: I think the most widely used English should be taught, I mean if you try to teach different versions, world Englishes, it will be confusing for the students. In my classes I would give just simple examples, but would not teach it as a complete component. I mean giving different examples from word usage can be interesting, but otherwise there is no need. (Pre study) ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Exchange students, who were initially quite strict in teaching ‘standard English’ and concerned about teaching different accents, had a more flexible stance in teaching different varieties of English after the program. However, they were still not sure about to what extent they would integrate what they had experienced as an ELF speaker into their future teaching practices and most of them were in favor of giving just simple examples from the ELF-resourced community in their classes. Informant 4: I do not want to teach the English I have used in Spain because it was a bad accent. Put differently, it is better to say it was not the proper accent. It is necessary to teach English with pure accent free manner. It is like to teach a few versions and expect from students to develop their own natural accent. I would teach different greeting styles from a few cultures such as British and American. I would try to integrate more cultures in accordance with curriculum and at the end students would create their own style. (Post study) The results, in general, demonstrated that participants held a monolithic perspective regarding the current status of English by focusing on just Anglo-American parts, and they did not seem to internalize what ELF truly means which emerged from their answers contradicting with each other. 4. Discussion and conclusion The purpose of the present study was to see changes in the beliefs of Turkish exchange students about ELF during pre- and post-study abroad. On the basis of the results of the research, it can be concluded that the participants were mostly concerned with standard/native English which is in the ownership of the UK or the USA for them. Therefore, participants were not very much concerned about the reality of English as an international language, which shows that the participants did not have a strong ELF perspective. Some of the participants gave conflicted answers about the issue of ELF. On the one hand, they seemed to be in favor of ELF, but some other time they gave somehow contradictory answers which may be the sign of their not being much familiar with the ELF perspective or they might have found it a bit conflicting to embrace it entirely. Therefore, the coexistence of English as a native version or an international one in the participants’ thinking indicates that the participants are trapped between conflicting ideas on the issue of ELF and which also shows that there is a fluctuation in the participants’ beliefs between a tolerance for non-native accents and a concern for standard English especially in their professional lives. After the program they raised their tolerance for deviation from native norms, a characteristic feature of an ELF speaker; they are not bothered with mistakes other learners of English make as long as they understand each other as the message is more critical than the quality of the language used; however, in the professional life they do not completely accept the non-native speakers and their accents; in other words, native speaker norms were regarded more prestigious to them. Seidlhofer (2005) formulates this duality as follows: “English is being shaped at least as much by its non-native [sic] speakers as by its native speakers. This has led to a somewhat paradoxical situation: on the one hand, for the majority of its users, English is a foreign language, and the vast majority of verbal exchanges in English do not involve any native speakers of the language at all. On the other hand, there is still a tendency for native speakers to be regarded as custodians over what is acceptable usage’’ (p. 339).
From the findings above, the current study has yielded possible pedagogical implications for English language classrooms. Teacher education programs play a crucial role in introducing teachers to linguistic ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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variation in World Englishes; as in Turkey, pre-service education in ELT programs is generally American or British-oriented, teacher candidates should be equipped with skills of looking at Englishes and conceptualizing English language teaching. Although the current English language teacher education program in Turkey does not have an ELF course, with the raised awareness on the issue, it could be possible to include it into the future curriculum so that in that globalized world, it would be more realistic and relevant to learn varieties of English. In that way, ELF situations will be accepted as more appropriate and practical in intercultural communication. In addition the study indicated that there should be more intensive orientation programs prior to study abroad so that students would be more familiar with the term ‘ELF’ and its real implications in ELF contexts since they offer an interactive situation of established turns in a particular community, they will enlighten our most fundamental aspects of human communication, thereby broadening our horizons in aspects of language contact and change, and of foreign language use. Moreover, as Aydin (2012) rightly puts to overcome the communication problems with the local people, their foreign friends and lecturers, more language courses should be provided for the native languages in the host countries since ELF is not the only language exchange students would depend on as it is pictured in the study so vividly (Spain and Portugal context). The teaching materials should include a wider variety of accents to promote cultural tolerance and equality. Although the participants in the study talked about the unintelligibility of nonnative accents in their first days in the host countries, the lack of exposure to nonnative accents is the reason of the difficulty in understanding them. Therefore, exposure to nonnative accents will improve learners’ comprehension skills, thereby increasing their awareness of English varieties. Moreover, different accents also should have a room in the classes to help students feel at ease in using the language so that they will not describe themselves as deficient users of the target language, but with their own accent peculiar to them they can collapse the privileged position of native speakers, since they can realize that they are able to have smooth conversations with anyone through fluency and accommodation skills. This can be achieved through the use of media texts and other written materials so that student can be exposed to different varieties; however, these varieties are not just confined to pronunciation, but they are also related to cultural, linguistic and other values. Therefore, there should be a variety in teaching materials in terms of depicting different cultures (Kirkpatrick, 2010) so that exchange students will avoid stereotypes and prejudices against other English varieties and Canagarajah (2007) supports a practice-based model which focuses on students’ negotiation practices, communicative strategies, language awareness and they will understand and appreciate hybridity, fluidity and variability of English in the context of ELF. Last but not least, the awareness of ELF can change language users’ perceptions and have a positive impact on their use of English, which will be more realistic in the globalized world where English has gained a lingua franca status and the present study clearly depicts that it is crucial to stop accepting only the native speakers as worth investigating but listening especially in multi-cultural settings where intelligibility is the key. About the author
Derya Duran is a research assistant in the department of English Language Teaching at Hacettepe University in Turkey. She graduated from the department of Foreign Language Education at Middle East Technical University and currently pursuing her PhD in the same field. Her fields of interest include language policy and planning, conversation analysis and English as a lingua franca. E-mail:
[email protected]
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References Aydin, S. (2012). I am not the same after my ERASMUS: A qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 17 (55), 1-23. Canagarajah, A. S. (2007). Lingua Franca English, multilingual communities, and language acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 91 (5), 923-939. Firth, A. (1996). The discursive accomplishment of normality. On “lingua franca” English and conversation analysis. Journal of Pragmatics, 26, 237-59. Haberland, H. (2011). Ownership and maintenance of a language in transnational use: Should we leave our lingua franca alone? Journal of Pragmatics, 43, 937-949. Hülmbauer, C., Heike, B., & Barbara S. (2008). Introducing English as a lingua franca (ELF): Precursor and partner in intercultural communication. Europe, 3, 25-36. Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford University press. Kaypak, E. (2012). The interconnectedness of English as a lingua franca (ELF), study abroad, and language learner beliefs. Unpublished masters thesis, Bilkent University. Kirkpatrick, A. (2010). English as an Asian lingua franca and the multilingual model of ELT. Language Teaching, 44, 212-224. Mauranen, A. (2006). Signaling and preventing misunderstanding in English as lingua franca communication. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 177, 123-150. Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 59, 339-341. Widdowson, H. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28 (2), 377-89.
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Kural, F. (2016). Significance of intercultural competence development for study-abroad students. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 184-192). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Significance of intercultural competence development for study-abroad students Faruk Kural* Abstract This study investigates intercultural competence needs of government-sponsored Turkish international graduate students from an ELF perspective. Being the first one to take up the opportunity of identifying IC needs of government-sponsored students undertaking an English language preparatory program, it intends to provide remedies to potential communication problems they face in the context of English L1 through an intercultural competence development course to equip them with the capability of communicating their own identities, affairs, opinions and reflections in global settings as well as providing utilizable information for the stakeholders in the areas of setting goals and objectives consistent with the students’ IC development needs, and developing instructional material selection/adaptation criteria to match the recipients’ needs in intercultural competence. Based on e-mail interview responses of 25 subjects, 19 males and 6 females, to ten open-ended questions focusing on the assessment of their own intercultural experience in the ELF context of English L1 countries during their sojourns, the study identifies the subjects’ orientation to the English language, awareness of ELF and intercultural sensitivity by analyzing their views within five overarching themes and categories that emerged from their: perceptions of the “ideal English” and native speakerism; perceptions of their own English; views on their English learning experiences; receptivity to ELF; and intercultural awareness and views on intercultural development needs. Along with a considerable shift in the subjects’ perceptions of the “ideal English” and native speakerism indicating that communication was more important for them than conforming to the norms, the study stresses the subjects’ lack of intercultural sensitivity and awareness prior to their departure, their desire for intercultural competence development training prior to their sojourns, and their propensity to ELF as contributory factors that would contribute to their adjustment and successful communication in the host country.
Keywords: Intercultural competence; ELF awareness; native speakerism
1. Introduction Foreign language competence has been an indispensable dimension of communication needs of Turkish international students, like many others from all the nations throughout the world, and it has been dealt with as an important educational issue within the state’s policy of modernizing the education system (Karagözoğlu, 1985). Under the current provisions, those who lack sufficient language skills are required to undertake a 6-month long preparatory language course, prior to their sojourns, offered at the departments of foreign languages of certain state universities to be prepared for internationally recognised exams such as TOEFL and IELTS. According to the announcement of the Ministry of Education (2012), during the 2012/13 academic year 1475 graduate students were sponsored by the Ministry of Education under the Act to pursue their studies in foreign countries, and 396 of them were required to undertake preparatory courses in Turkey prior to their sojourns at eight state universities in four cities. Despite the long history of English preparatory programs offered for government-sponsored Turkish international graduate students, there has been scant research to date to demonstrate to what extent these candidates could develop sufficient intercultural competence (IC) needed for their academic progress abroad. While the success criteria of these programs are bound by the candidates’ sufficient preparation for TOEFL and IELTS exams, which are also set as the primary achievement objectives by the program providers, there has not been any academic attempt that would address the views of the students who attend these programs on their IC needs based on their own experience and reflections. ––––––––––––––––––––––––––– *Yeditepe
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Furthermore, IC development has also become an inseparable dimension of communication domains in the context of English L1 countries as cross-cultural communication in these countries is the reality of everyone’s daily interaction, and thus it has to be considered in terms of the global nature of English, from the perspective of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), particularly for those whose first language is other than English. 2. Literature review As English becomes the overwhelmingly dominant language in a large number of domains throughout the world, the number of its non-native speakers of different L1 backgrounds who use English as ELF in education and academic settings, also, increasingly outnumbers its native participants who take part in such settings; and in most cases its native speakers are absent from these settings. Participants of speech events in these settings belong to different primary lingua-cultural communities, and ELF users do not themselves constitute a speech community with an established distinct legitimate “variety” that would characterise regular local networks of interaction. Gnutzmann (2000, p. 358) indicates that when used as lingua franca, English is no longer founded on the linguistic and sociocultural norms of native speakers and their respective cultures. Widdowson (1994, p. 385) claims that language learners cannot be autonomous in a learning environment where another culture and its language are imposed upon them and which proposes to “shift the emphasis away from context of use to context of learning, and consider how language is to be specially designed to engage the student’s reality and activate the learning process” (p. 387). One dimension that needs to be considered as an essential factor that is inseparable from ELF communicative competencies is IC. Although much of the studies concerning IC have been conducted in various fields and have been defined differently according to interpretations of the researchers (Hoskins & Crick, 2010), a lot of recent studies in the area focuses on IC as an essential element of global culture, global citizenship, and global communication skills and their development, and thereby, as an inseparable aspect of ELF and the development of ELF skills. In a broad sense, IC can be defined as “a complex of abilities needed to perform effectively and appropriately when interacting with others who are culturally and linguistically different from oneself” (Fantini, 2006). Although there is no complete agreement on the definition of IC between researchers and scholars, a recent study conducted by Deardoff applied both survey and Delphi methods to bring a range of intercultural experts, scholars and administrators to encapsulate the many perspectives on IC into a single consensus definition that could serve as the compromising basis and starting point for future IC development attempts and purposes (Deardorff, 2006). The model was developed through identifying the aspects on which the experts reached consensus and then being categorized and placed into a model (See Figure 1) that lends itself to understand and to further the development of measurable outcomes. In brief terms, the model defines IC as “the ability to interact effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations, based on specific attitudes, intercultural knowledge, skills and reflection” (Stiftung, 2006, p. 5). The model describes IC as a process orientation that is organized at two levels or stages - an individual level and an interactional level, each containing separate steps. At the individual level, the first step requires one to possess the attitudes of respect, value for other cultures, openness, ability to withhold judgments, and curiosity to discover while tolerating ambiguity. The second step requires one to develop specific knowledge and comprehension that would include cultural self-awareness, deep cultural knowledge, and sociolinguistic awareness. Consequently, to continually acquire and comprehend this kind of knowledge, one must possess the skills to listen, observe, evaluate, analyze, interpret, and relate. At the interactional level, this definition of IC distinguishes between two types of desired outcomes: ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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internal and external. The internal desired outcomes demonstrating IC are an informed frame of reference change that would come through adaptability, flexibility, ethnorelative view, and enthusiasm. The external outcome desired from this process orientation is that all of these developmental gains are integrated holistically so that the individual demonstrates effective and appropriate communication and behaviour in an intercultural setting. Figure 1. Process model of intercultural competence. (Deardorff, 2006)
The model is process-oriented as its focus on internal and external outcomes of IC as being based on development of specific attitudes, knowledge, and skills inherent in IC. Given that these items are still broad, each item can be developed into more specific measurable outcomes and corresponding indicators depending on the context. The overall external outcome of IC is defined as an effective and appropriate behaviour and communication in intercultural situations, which again can be further detailed in terms of indicators of appropriate behaviour in specific contexts. Much of the literature concerning IC development (Barnlund & Namura, 1985; Bennett, 1993; Zhao, 2002; Chen & Starosta, 2000) has noted that the more intercultural sensitivity a person has, the more intercultural competent s/he can be” (Penbek et al., 2009, p. 5). Altshuler, Sussman, and Kachur (2003) indicated that gender and multicultural experiences could influence the level of intercultural sensitivity in a positive way as well as attending culturally related programs (Klak & Martin, 2003). Chen & Starosta (2000) stated that “successful intercultural communication demands the interactants’ ability of intercultural awareness by learning cultural similarities and differences, while the process of achieving awareness of cultural similarities and differences is enhanced and buffered by the ability of intercultural sensitivity” (p. 6). They identified five intercultural sensitivity areas which could be used as indicators of IC development and assessment, which are: Interaction Engagement Respect for Cultural Differences Interaction Confidence ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Interaction Enjoyment Interaction Attentiveness Focusing on the significance of the teacher’s role and the learner’s perceptual change in ELF teaching, Bayyurt & Altınmakas (2012) reported that some significant changes were observed in the students’ perspectives about native speakerism during the implementation of the ELF based oral and written communication course designed for an English Language and Literature undergraduate program in Turkey. They indicated that despite the students’ rigid view of native-speaker forms being the ideal forms and emphasizing the primacy of learning these norms, their exposure to global varieties of English led to the recognition of the significance of mutual intelligibility, which also was reflected on the shift in their concepts of self and attitudes to other cultures. Emphasizing the significance of the teacher’s role in the development of global culture through ELF, they reported that the students’ initial stereotypical images were mainly stemmed from their high school education and their teachers’ lack of knowledge about ELF. Such stereotypical attitudes developed through all stages of English language teaching based on native speakerism is one of the main characteristics the Turkish education system (Bayyurt, 2006). 3. The study 3. The purpose of the study
The purpose of the study is to identify the IC development needs of government-sponsored Turkish international graduate students by focusing on the communication problems they experienced during their sojourns in English L1 countries where ELF is used as a medium of real communication, and to provide utilizable information based on their own experience to develop an IC development course that could equip them with the capability of communicating their own identities, affairs, opinions and reflections in global settings prior to their departure. 3.2 Research questions
In order to identify the participants’ IC development needs the study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What are the IC needs of government-sponsored Turkish international graduate students who are prepared to undertake studies in English L1 countries? 2. How can we design a course that could better equip and prepare these students with the capability of communicating their own identities, affairs, opinions and reflections in global settings? 3.3. Participants
The participants of the study were 25 government-sponsored Turkish international students, 19 male and 6 female, who had completed an English preparatory program during the Spring-2013 academic term in Turkey to pursue their studies in the U.S. and U.K. Their ages ranged from 23-27. An overwhelming majority, 19, of them participated in the study from the U.S. with 5 from England and one from Canada. 3.4 Instruments
The Turkish versions of the following research instruments were used in order to investigate the research questions: Demographic Questionnaire (DQ): Based on Bayyurt (2009) and consisting of 17 items, this questionnaire gathered data about students’ educational background in general with special emphasis on their learning and experience in English. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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E-mail interview questionnaire: Administered during the participants’ sojourn in English L1 countries after their departure upon completion of their preparatory program, it consisted of open ended questions the participants were asked to assess their own intercultural experience in the ELF context which included the following questions: Where do you live and study? Are your colleagues, close friends and lecturers native speakers of English? Do you have any non-native English speaker colleagues, friends and lecturers? Where do they come from? 4. Did you have any knowledge about their culture? Please explain briefly. 5. Did you have any adjustment problems such as language, cultural shock, differences in body language, religion, ethnicity, nationality, gender, clothing etc.? Please explain. 6. What are the important issues required for intercultural communication (openmindedness, social initiative, emotional stability, flexibility, patience, humour, curiosity, ability to deal with stress)? Please explain. 7. Since you are abroad is there any change in your perception of what the ideal English language is and who its speakers are? Please explain. 8. What kind of advices would you give to those who will go to study abroad if they encounter problems resulting from culture, national, ethnic and language differences? 9. In terms of these issues, do you think the English preparatory program you attended prepared you to live and study abroad? 10. In your opinion, what can be added to the English preparatory program you attended in Turkey in terms of its contents and subjects that would facilitate convenience for living in these countries and ease up communication with people living in these countries? 1. 2. 3.
3.5 Data collection and analysis procedures
Using the instruments stated above the data collection was accomplished from the participants about 6 months after their departure during their sojourns. The participants’ demographic information came from their responses to the demographic questionnaire. The qualitative data analysis method was used to analyze their responses to ten open-ended questions focusing on the assessment of their own intercultural experience in the ELF context of English L1 countries during their sojourns. The strategy employed for the analysis of the qualitative data involved thematic analysis and grouping of the responses from different subjects to the same questions or the same points emerged from different questions. The responses obtained through the e-mail interview questionnaire were first translated into English and the responses were grouped up according to the research themes based on their contents for discussion. 4. Results and discussions The results of the study have been presented according to the research questions and displayed in consistent with the sequential order of the research themes. First, the results of the data analysis were presented which provided an answer to the first research question, and which demonstrated the IC development needs of government-sponsored Turkish international students in the ELF context to pursue their graduate studies in English L1 countries. This also provided information to answer the second research question that offered guidance to how an IC development course could be designed to better equip and prepare Turkish international graduate students with the capability of communicating their own identities, affairs, opinions and reflections in global settings. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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In order to identify the participants’ orientation to the English language, awareness of ELF and intercultural sensitivity, their responses were analyzed within the following five overarching themes categorised and emerged from their: perceptions of the “ideal English” and native speakerism; perceptions of their own English; views on their English learning experiences; receptivity to ELF; intercultural awareness and views on intercultural development needs. Perceptions of the ideal English and native speakerism: The responses of the participants to Question 7, which inquired whether or not their perceptions of the “ideal English” and its speakers had changed since their arrival in the host country, revealed that their opinions on this issue had changed considerably since their arrival indicating a shift away from a normative approach that considers native-American or British English the “ideal variety” towards the realisation of the existence of many varieties in the host country. The opinion shift was also evident in their responses concerning native speakerism. The participants stated that English used in daily communication was much different in the way it was used in academic writing and in teacher-student communication in the classroom context and that native speakers also made a lot of mistakes in their oral interactions like non-native speakers do. Although almost half of the participants expressed that their views on the “ideal English” had changed since their arrival in the host country, they all firmly believed that communication was more important than conforming to the norms, including those whose views remained unchanged on the issue. Some of the subjects drew attention to the existence of a variation amongst the native speakers and difficulties posed by lack of familiarity with such a variation. Perceptions of their own English: The responses of participants concerning their perceptions of their own English revealed that they had difficulties especially in their oral communication with native speakers contrary to their expectations that native speakers would strictly conform to the rules in the way they were instructed. Views on their English learning experiences: As one of the enrolment prerequisites of the participants’ graduate programs in the host country was to obtain a sufficient achievement result in the internationally recognised normative exams such as TOEFL and IELTS and their English preparatory program is based on achieving this objective, the participants did not dispute the programs’ contents and activities directly related to the preparation for these exams. However, their dissatisfactions became apparent when they viewed their English learning experiences in terms of their interaction with people of different cultural backgrounds in the host country. An overwhelming majority (15) of them expressed their dissatisfaction by suggesting the addition of listening and speaking classes and an interactive teaching approach to be used in all the classes where they could have an opportunity of interaction in the classroom context. Intercultural awareness and views on intercultural development needs: The participants’ responses to Question 4 revealed that only four of them had some brief, general and partial intercultural awareness of their nonnative associates in the host countries with 21 affirming that they did not have the faintest idea in the area. The participants also stressed the significance of intercultural training prior to sojourn as a contributory factor to adjustment problems. In some of their responses to Question 4 they suggested that the English preparatory programs should provide some intercultural training to their candidates that would enable them to develop sufficient awareness in the cultures that might exist in the host country prior to their departure. They considered such training as a way to establish understanding to ease up their adjustment process and interaction with those of other cultural backgrounds. Receptivity to ELF: When the e-mail interviews were conducted for the purpose of this study an overwhelming majority of the participants were attending either internationally recognised normative ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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English exams preparatory programs or academic English programs; and thus their success and expectations were heavily bound by the objectives of these programs, which were contrary to the nature and perspective of ELF which intends to develop intercultural communication skills in global settings. On the other hand, although the host countries where they pursued their graduate studies were innercircle countries, they came to face to face with the reality of ELF posed by the presence of people of different backgrounds using different varieties of English as their second languages for communication. Although the participants, in a technical sense, did not know what ELF referred to, their responses revealed that they had a strong propensity towards the notions related to ELF as such that the instruction content and model they desired reflected the ELF perspective of the global communication model. Considering their views expressed more than suggesting exposure to different varieties of English and the cultures of the associates in the host country and their advice to those who would like to pursue their graduate studies abroad after themselves in their responses to Question 8 clearly indicated their receptivity to ELF, which requires attention on IC development and sensitivity in the way presented openly, i.e. in the remarks of the majority (16) of the participants stressing the significance of the development of IC qualities prior to sojourn such as flexibility, open-mindedness, being tolerant and respectful, and avoidance of stereotypes. Along with a considerable shift in the subjects’ perceptions of the “ideal English” and native speakerism indicating that communication was more important for them than conforming to the norms, the study stresses the subjects’ lack of intercultural sensitivity and awareness prior to their departure, their desire for intercultural competence development training prior to their sojourns, and their propensity to ELF as contributory factors that would contribute to their adjustment and successful communication in the host country. 5. Conclusion The information gathered from the participants clearly indicates the necessity of IC training prior to their sojourns. The process oriented IC development model of Deardorff (2006) and intercultural sensitivity areas identified by Chen & Starosta (2000) could be used as a guideline for the development of an IC syllabus in setting its goals and objectives, shaping up and sequencing its content layout, and the instruction methodology to be used in its implementation. The content of the syllabus should be conceptualised and presented as ELF topics in a sequential order spread over a semester-long period to implement by focusing on a topic to be specified for each week. The goals and objectives of the syllabus should be accomplished in consistency with the Deardorff’s process oriented model that defines the involvement of the participants in their attainment of the IC development by their own involvement in in-class activities at two levels: individual and interactional. The instruction materials should be chosen to expose the participants to the ELF varieties in the context of English L1 countries and intercultural topics that were essential for the development of sufficient intercultural awareness and competence needed for global communication. They should include films, videos and written material in which ELF varieties and cultures were presented; and topics concerning the development of sociolinguistic knowledge and intercultural awareness should be introduced for discussion as part of in-class activities, such as linguistic variation, errors and irregularities, stereotypes, awareness of self, native speakerism, monolingualism, multilingualism/multiculturalism. The adaptation could be accomplished by redundancy and simplification to match the participants’ linguistic level and the IC development areas identified in the syllabus. The medium of instruction model in the implementation of the syllabus, as well as in the redundancies and simplifications for material preparation, should be conceptualized according to Matsuda & Friedrich (2011) who suggest that the most appropriate medium of instruction for an ELF programme for learners from the same region or country should be based on the established variety that is dominant in these ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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areas as they would be consistent with the learners’ background in English. However, this should not contradict and make any negative impact on the syllabus objectives which are to expose the participants to many different ELF varieties used in their host countries and every instructor and participant to develop their own idiolect eventually. The participants should be guided to acquire the information presented in the materials as their own socially-constructed knowledge through their own involvement and interaction in a process during which they could develop adaptability, flexibility, ethnorelative view, and enthusiasm. Their involvement in the syllabus activities and their progress are to be guided and followed by the IC development focus areas specified for each week along with an IC development and intercultural sensitivity goals set to be accomplished for that week. The IC development and intercultural sensitivity goals are to be conceptualised within the frameworks and references provided by Deardorff (2006) and Chen & Starosta (2000). The IC development goals in the syllabus should consist of withholding judgements, tolerating ambiguity, valuing other cultures, cultural self-awareness, sociolinguistic awareness, and deep cultural knowledge; and the intercultural sensitivity goals should consist of interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and interaction attentiveness. About the authors Faruk Kural is a coordinator of Fine Arts English language programs at the School of Foreign Languages of Yeditepe University. He is currently doing his PhD at the ELT department of the same university focusing on the significance of ELT training for Turkish international graduate students. He has a BA degree from Deakin University and a MA in Applied Linguistics from Monash University. He is interested in ELF, ESP, syllabus design, multicultural education and language policy. Email:
[email protected]
References Altshuler, L., Sussman, N. M., & Kachur, E. (2003). Assessing changes in intercultural sensitivity among physician trainees using the intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 387-401. Barnlund, D., & Nomura, N. (1985). Decentering, convergence and cross-cultural understanding. In L. Samovar & R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (4th ed., pp. 347-366). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Bayyurt, Y. (2006). Non-native English language teachers’ perspective on culture in English as a foreign language classrooms. Teacher Development, 10(2), 233-247. Bayyurt, Y. (2009). MLARG Project [2009-TR1-EO05-08674]. Bayyurt, Y., & Altınmakas, D. (2012). “A WE-Based English Communication Skills Course at a Turkish University”. In A. Matsuda (Ed), Principles and Practices of English as an International Language (pp. 169182). Multilingual Matters: London, UK. Bennett, J. M. (1993). Toward ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21-71).Yarmouth, Me.: Intercultural Press. Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity scale. Human Communication, 3, 2-14. Deardorff, D. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241-266. Fantini, A. E. (2006). Exploring and assessing intercultural competence. Retrieved from http://www.sit.edu. Gnutzmann, C. (2000). Lingua franca. In M. Byram (Ed.), The Routledge encyclopedia of language teaching and learning (pp. 356-359). London: Routledge. Hoskins, B., & Crick, R. D. (2010). Competences for learning to learn and active citizenship: Different currencies or two sides of the same coin? European Journal of Education, 45,121–137. Karagözoğlu, Galip. (1985). Atatürk’ün Eğitim Savaşı [Atatürk’s Education Campaign]. Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi [Journal of Atatürk Research Center], II. Ankara: Atatürk Research Centre. Retrieved ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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March 19, 2013, from atam.gov.tr. Kim, Y. K. (1993). Cross-cultural adaptation: An integrative theory. In R. L. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 170-193). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Klak, T., & Martin, P. (2003). Do university-sponsored international cultural events help students to appreciate “differences.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 445-465. Matsuda, A., & Friedrich, P. (2011). English as an international language: A curriculum blueprint. World Englishes, 30(3), 332-344. Ministry of Education. (2012). Announcement on July 13th, 2012. Retrieved from www.meb.gov.tr. Penbek, S., Yurdakul, D., & Cerit, A. G. (2009). Intercultural communication competence: A study about the intercultural sensitivity of university students based on their education and international experiences. Paper presented at the European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems in July, 2009, Izmir. Stiftung, B. (2006). Intercultural competence – The key competence in the 21st century? Retrieved from www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de. Widdowson, H. G. (1994).“The ownership of English”. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 377-389. Zhao, C. M. (2002). Intercultural competence: A quantitative study of significance of intercultural competence and the influence of college experiences on students’intercultural competence development. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.
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Kural, F., & Koçoğlu, Z. (2016). Study-abroad students’ ELF awareness and intercultural sensitivity prior to sojourn: Necessity for training. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), Athens: ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 193-200). Deree – The American College of Greece.
Study-abroad students’ ELF awareness and intercultural sensitivity prior to sojourn: Necessity for training Faruk Kural Zeynep Koçoğlu Abstract The study investigates the preparedness and readiness of Turkish international graduate students in ELF awareness and intercultural sensitivity during their English preparatory programs undertaken prior to their departure to pursue their studies in English L1 countries. Focusing on the extent the normative English preparatory program could contribute to their preparedness and readiness to live and pursue their studies in the ELF context of English L1 countries, the study demonstrates the significance of intercultural competence development training within an ELF perspective at the preparatory stage. It is based on 9 students’ open-ended 6-videoclip responses in which different varieties of English were presented for their comments. The subjects’ intercultural sensitivity was measured and evaluated in terms of their interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and interaction effectiveness; and their EFL awareness was accounted for their attitudes towards the English spoken in the videoclips, their awareness of the cultures of the speakers, and their tolerance for the cultures of these speakers, their willingness and readiness for participating in conversations with these speakers if need be. The study presents a critical view on normative based study-abroad preparatory programs, their deficiencies in the area of intercultural competence development, and ELF awareness needed for successful interaction in the ELF context of English L1 countries.
Keywords: Intercultural sensitivity; ELF awareness; normative approach
1. Background Much of the study abroad literature is based on those who either seek to have education in English speaking countries or those who travel to or from these countries to others to study. Obviously, there is a good reason for that and that is basically because the role that English plays in global communication due to its function as a lingua franca. Advancements in communication technology fostered by the globalisation process, reciprocally, have brought people from different nations into day to day contact for a variety of economic, social and political reasons where English is primarily used as a means of exchange, which has made the language most sought after commodity. Fostered by this new trend, there has been an increased inflow of international students into English L1 countries in their pursuit of undergraduate and graduate programs in the language of globalism. Despite the long history of English preparatory programs offered for government-sponsored Turkish international graduate students, there has been scant research to date to demonstrate to what extent these candidates could develop sufficient intercultural sensitivity (IS) needed for their academic progress abroad. While the success criteria of these programs are bound by the candidates’ sufficient preparation for TOEFL and IELTS exams, which are also set as the primary achievement objectives by the program providers, there has not been any academic attempt that would address the views of the students who attend these programs on their IS needs based on their own experience and reflections. Furthermore, IS development has also become an inseparable dimension of communication domains in the context of English L1 countries as cross-cultural communication in these countries is the reality of everyone’s daily interaction, and thus it has to be considered in terms of the global nature of English, from the perspective of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), particularly for those whose first language is other than English.
Yeditepe University:
[email protected] Yeditepe University:
[email protected]
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2. Literature review The characteristics of global speech events are inconsistent with the principles and priorities of traditional native norm-based ESL teaching pedagogy. Hülmbauer, Böhringer & Seidlhofer, (2008, p. 28) suggest that there is a common misconception of ELF related to the differences between the two types of pedagogies, which is that ELF speakers are conceived to be in the process of learning a language repertoire rather than using it effectively. They are considered merely learners trying to conform to nativespeaker norms and not primarily users of the language, where the main consideration is not formal correctness but functional effectiveness. Indicating that using and learning are related (you can learn while using), they emphasize that in ELF the emphasis is on the use and the learning is incidental. They state that the ELF user’s language may certainly exhibit the same forms as the learner’s English, but the significance of the forms is essentially different. Gnutzmann (2000, p.358) indicates that when used as lingua franca, English is no longer founded on the linguistic and sociocultural norms of native speakers and their respective cultures. Taking this view one step further and asserting that the proponents of Standard English emphasizing grammatical correctness and functions as gatekeepers to keep the nonstandard ways on the periphery, Widdowson (1994, p.385) claims that native speakers have no right to intervene or pass judgements. Seidlhofer (2003, p.22) suggests that the ELF’s pedagogic perspective with its global features and cross-cultural role shifts the focus of English teaching towards communication skills and procedures abandoning unrealistic notions of achieving “perfect” communication through “native-like” proficiency language awareness. She claims that exposure to a wide-range of varieties of English and a multilingual/comparative approach are likely to facilitate communication strategies and accommodation skills which include drawing on extralinguistic cues, gauging interlocutors’ linguistic repertoires, supportive listening, signalling noncomprehension in a face-saving way, asking for repetition, paraphrasing, etc. Smith (1992) suggests that language teachers should expose learners to different varieties of English to raise their awareness, indicating that being familiar with the different varieties of English provides convenience for the listener to comprehend the speaker. He claims that “understanding is not speaker or listener – centred but is interactional between speaker and listener” (p.76). Chen & Starosta (2000) stated that “successful intercultural communication demands the interactants’ ability of intercultural awareness by learning cultural similarities and differences, while the process of achieving awareness of cultural similarities and differences is enhanced and buffered by the ability of IS” (p.6). Bennett (1993) also indicates that IS could bring interlocutors from rejection to integration in the process of the development of intercultural communication, effectively, cognitively, and behaviourally. Thus, people with intercultural sensitivity could develop dual identity and enjoy cultural differences by gradually overcoming the problems associated with denying or concealing the existence of cultural differences and attempting to conform to, and defend, their own outlooks, and moving to develop emphatic ability to accept and adapt cultural differences (Chen and Starosta, 2000, p.6). Zaho (2002) also noted that IS with intercultural effectiveness and cross-cultural adaptation could positively contribute to the capability of living and working successfully with people from different cultures. Chen (1997) identified six components of IS: self-esteem, self monitoring, open-mindedness, empathetic attitude, interaction involvement, and being non-judgemental. Barnlud and Namura (1985) noted that one must face the challenge of understanding someone of different cultural background with sufficient margin of empathy, while empathy defined IS. Much of the literature concerning intercultural competence development (Barnlund and Namura, 1985; Bennett, 1993; Zhao, 2002; Chen and Starosta, 2000) has noted that the more IS a person has, the more intercultural competent s/he can be” (Penbek et al., 2009, p.5). Altshuler, Sussman, and Kachur ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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(2003) indicated that gender and multicultural experiences could influence the level of IS in a positive way as well as attending culturally related programs (Klak and Martin, 2003). Chen and Starosta (2000) stated that “successful intercultural communication demands the interactants’ ability of intercultural awareness by learning cultural similarities and differences, while the process of achieving awareness of cultural similarities and differences is enhanced and buffered by the ability of IS” (p.6). They identified five IS areas which could be used as indicators of IC development and assessment, which are: Interaction Engagement Respect for Cultural Differences Interaction Confidence Interaction Enjoyment Interaction Attentiveness Thus, educating students to use ELF means to accustom them to being interculturally sensitive; and to equip them with the ability of acting as cultural mediators, seeing the world through others’ eyes, and consciously using culture learning skills (Sen Gupta, 2002). Within this framework of intercultural learning, the learner is viewed as an “intercultural speaker”, someone who “crosses frontiers, and who is to some extent a specialist in the transit of cultural property and symbolic values” (Byram and Zarate, 1997, p.11). Deardorff (2006) suggests that a fundamental aspect of the study abroad programs is adequate preparations of students in intercultural learning that occurs beyond declaring “it changed my life”, indicating that adequate preparation means helping students gain an understanding of IC frameworks, vocabulary and concepts so that they can apply them to the learning before, during, and after the experience. 3. The study 3.1. The purpose of the study
The purpose of the study is to investigate the preparedness and readiness of Turkish international graduate students in ELF awareness and IS during their English preparatory programs undertaken prior to their departure to pursue their studies in English L1 countries, and to demonstrate the significance of intercultural competence (IC) development training within an ELF perspective at the preparatory stage. 3.2. Research question
In order to demonstrate the participants’ preparedness and readiness in terms of their ELF awareness and IS the study seeks to answer the following research question: What are the EFL awareness and IS needs of government-sponsored Turkish international graduate students who are prepared to undertake studies in English L1 countries? 3.3. Participants
The participants of the study were 9 government-sponsored Turkish international students, 6 male and 3 female, who had completed an English preparatory program during the Spring-2013 academic term in Turkey prior to their sojourns to pursue their graduate studies in the U.S. and U.K. Their ages ranged from 23-27.
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3.4. Instruments
Videoclip responses questionnaire This questionnaire was administered to the participants upon watching each of the 6 video-clips asking them to write down their opinions about four areas of each of the video-clip content in responses to four questions, all of which started with “Please write down your opinion about the video-clip you have just watched in terms of” and each of which was completed by focusing on a different dimension: a) understanding what was talked about; b) the cultural features of the person(s) presented in the clip; c) whether or not, and if yes why, you would have any difficulties in having a conversation with the person(s); and d) what you would do if you did not understand the person(s) in the clip. The participants’ responses to the video clips were analyzed and discussed in terms of the five main factors used as the assessment criteria by Chen & Starosta (2000) (i.e., interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and interaction attentiveness) to identify the participants’ IS development needs in the ELF context prior to their sojourn to English L1 countries. The video-clips were downloaded from Youtube, and they were presented to the participants who volunteered to participate in the study upon completion of the preparatory program prior to their sojourn. Each of the videoclips had a different speaker talking to an audience and using a different dialect of English peculiar to the linguistic contexts of the U.S. and the U.K. The contents of the video-clips were as follows: Videoclip 1: Young man with a BVE (Black Vernacular English) using ordinary daily language on a stage criticising the Democrats’ policies on social insurance, health services, oil importation and sending troops to Iraq; Videoclip 2: Young man with a Scottish accent, using ordinary daily language on a stage comedy program comparing Australia’ sandy beaches with rocky Scotland coasts in a funny tone; Videoclip 3: Indian male student talking about the reason why he chose to pursue his graduate studies in Ireland; Videoclip 4: Mexican girl, who has just moved to Mississippi, talking about why she is trying speak English instead of Spansih referring to the importance of English for her own future and career; Videoclip 5: Irish student talking about the differences in accents and giving the definitions of a set of words presented to him prior to his appearance; Videoclip 6: American baseball player from Colorado talking about how he viewed his first baseball match experience played away from home. 4. Results and discussions When we consider the subjects’ opinions in terms the IS dimensions, it is possible to suggest that they lack a considerable degree in all the dimensions, i.e. interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and interaction effectiveness. The following table demonstrates the participants’ concerns in their responses to the videoclip questionnaire items indicating their lack of IS within these dimensions according to the subject, the speaker on the clip for whom the response was made, and the subject’s response.
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Table 1. Participants’ opinion on IS dimensions Speaker Subjec whom t No response made
for the was
Subject’s response
Lack of IS dimension
Yes, I would have difficulties. I do not know street language. He speaks very fast. BVE speaker
1
Scottish speaker
US baseball player
BVE speaker
I can understand the words, but it is not possible to understand all the sentences because he speaks very fast. You have to be a native as he speaks a street language. He is very difficult to understand as he is very competent in his language. I would look for others whom I would be able to communicate with. It is very difficult to understand the speech. I could figure out only a few words.
Interaction engagement Respect for cultural difference Interaction confidence Interaction enjoyment Interaction effectiveness
I would have a lot of problems. He has a very good command of his language. What is the matter with the man? It would not make any difference if I did not understand this man. I would not say anything about the culture. I think he was born by coincidence and lives unwillingly. If he were my son I wouldn’t go home so that I would not see him.
2
Scottish speaker
Indian student
Irish student
US baseball player BVE speaker 3 Scottish speaker
I would have acted as if I did not understand him. He is trying to grab people with the way he speaks and what he says rather than his posture. I think this is sign of a high intelligence, and therefore, he might be from one of the Asian countries. I would have problems. I think I would not be able to understand a good flow of language. His pronunciation is bad, but it seems intelligible. I have to make a lot of effort to understand him, I think.
Interaction engagement Respect for cultural difference Interaction confidence Interaction enjoyment Interaction effectiveness
I would not have forced myself to understand him. His accent is not like one that I could understand. I would have problems. I would have asked him to speak slower and explain the words I did not know. We would have probably stopped the conversation in 3-4 minutes as I would have got exhausted. He is not the only pebble on the beach; I would have found another friend or someone else whom I would have understood. He seems very excited; he swallows the words. I did not understand what he said. I do not have the faintest idea.
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Study-abroad students’ ELF awareness Mexican girl BVE speaker Scottish speaker Irish student 4
I would because he has a very different accent. Indian student US baseball player
BVE speaker 5 Scottish speaker Irish student US baseball player BVE speaker 6
7
US baseball player BVE speaker
BVE speaker
It is very difficult to understand. I could not understand anything except for a few words. I would sometimes because his mother tongue is English and uses words that I do not know. He might be of middle or lower socioeconomic background and grown up with street culture. I could have difficulties because he is aggressive and he seems like a person who has difficulty in controlling himself. I did not understand anything. I did not understand much.
Indian student
BVE speaker
Interaction engagement Respect for cultural difference Interaction confidence Interaction effectiveness
Interaction engagement Respect for cultural difference Interaction effectiveness
I understood a little. I could not understand most of what was said, it was very fast for me. It is difficult to understand. I probably would have difficulties. Unintelligible, except for a few words. Absolutely. He speaks too fast to understand. He has a speaking style that represents street language, not considering whether the other person understands or not. It has a very fast style for international students. If I catch 2 words I miss 3. Although the gesture contributes to the intelligibility, it is not possible to speak with this man. I would; it is totally unintelligible.
8
9
I would not have tried very hard. Yes, I would because he speaks very fast and aggressively. I probably would because he speaks by swallowing some of the words. He is probably very close to his mother.
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If were to ask something, I would have asked someone else. I he were to ask me, I would have put on my earphones and avoided him completely. Quite possibly yes; the speaking style is very boring. I would have found someone else to talk to. I think I would have difficulty in talking to him as he talks very fast. The inability of understanding everything he would say would cause communication problems. He has a defiant speaking style. His speech was more like street language.
Interaction confidence Interaction engagement Interaction confidence Interaction effectiveness Interaction engagement
Interaction engagement Respect for cultural difference Interaction enjoyment Interaction effectiveness
Interaction engagement Respect for cultural difference
The table clearly demonstrates that all of the subjects expressed a significant degree of lack of sensitivity, varying between two to all the five dimensions identified in IS, and lack of sensitivity was evidently expressed for all the speakers, though at a varying degree, ranging between with BVE speaker being the ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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highest and the Mexican Girl being the lowest. All of the nine subjects expressed negative IS for the BVE speaker, three for the Scottish speaker, three for the Irish student, three for the U.S. baseball player, and one for the Mexican girl. Two of the subjects expressed negative IS for 5 of the viedoclip speakers, one for four speakers, two for three speakers, two for two speakers, and two for one speaker. The subjects’ responses were also accounted for their attitudes towards the English spoken in the videoclips, their awareness of the cultures of the speakers, and their tolerance for the cultures of these speakers, their willingness and readiness for participating in conversations with these speakers if need be. Their responses indicate that they had a lot of difficulties in comprehending the speakers which is probably due to their unfamiliarity with the variants of English used in most global communication. The participants’ tolerance for the cultures depended heavily on their comprehension level, their familiarity with the speakers’ cultures, and their perceptions on the nativity of the speakers’ English. The nativity of the speakers’ English and awareness of their cultures seem to be two of the major criteria for their tolerance, respect and their willingness for participating in conversation. 5. Conclusion The outcome of the study indicates that the participants need to have sufficient IC training during their preparatory programs that would enable them to interact effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations, based on specific attitudes, intercultural knowledge, skills, and reflection. This could be achieved by exposure to ELF varieties used in the host country that could be done using audiovisual materials integrated to an ELF syllabus whereby IC development would be achieved by the participants their own involvement through exposure to such ELF varieties. Upon completion of the instruction period the participants should develop sufficient intercultural awareness and competence, feeling of global citizenship and positive attitude towards other cultures, and self-confidence in ELF communication through their own involvement with enhanced IS in interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment and interaction effectiveness. The outcome of the study also has some pedagogic implication for English language education in general, especially indicating the significance of IC training for all sojourners regardless of their competence in internationally recognised formative exams, such as TOEFL and IELTS. Inseparable dimensions concerning the pedagogical implications that are primarily important for ELF training can be identified as sufficient intercultural awareness and competence, feeling of global citizenship and positive attitude towards other cultures, and self-confidence in ELF communication through their own involvement with enhanced IS in interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment and interaction effectiveness. Furthermore, the pedagogic implication of the outcome of the study should be considered in terms of all the areas of language education in general especially in the fields of syllabus design, corpus planning, teacher training, and language policy. About the authors Faruk Kural is a coordinator of Fine Arts English language programs at the School of Foreign Languages of Yeditepe University. He is currently doing his PhD at the ELT department of the same university focusing on the significance of ELT training for Turkish international graduate students. He has a BA degree from Deakin University and a MA in Applied Linguistics from Monash University. He is interested in ELF, ESP, syllabus design, multicultural education and language policy. Email:
[email protected] Dr. Zeynep Kocoglu is an Assistant Professor at the English Language Teaching Department, Yeditepe University, Turkey. She received her doctorate in Applied Linguistics from Bogazici University, Turkey. Her research interests include teacher education with a focus on technology, program evaluation and language testing. Email:
[email protected]
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References Altshuler, L., Sussman, N. M., & Kachur, E. (2003). Assessing changes in intercultural sensitivity among physician trainees using the intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 387-401. Barnlund, D., & Nomura, N. (1985). Decentering, convergence and cross-cultural understanding. In L. Samovar & R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (4th ed., pp. 347-366). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Bennett, J. M. (1993). Toward ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R. M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21-71). Yarmouth, Me. : Intercultural Press Byram, M., and Zarate, G. (1997). The sociocultural and intercultural dimension of language learning and teaching. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Chen, G. M. (1997). A review of the concept of intercultural sensitivity. Paper presented at Biennial Convention of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association, Honolulu, HI. Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity scale. Human Communication, 3, 2-14. Deardorff, D. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241-266. Gnutzmann, C. (2000). Lingua Franca. In Byram, M. (Ed.). The Routledge encyclopedia of language teaching and learning. (pp.356-359) London: Routledge. Hülmbauer, C., Böhringer, H., & Seidlhofer, B. (2008). Introducing English as a Lingua Franca (ELF): Precursor and partner in intercultural communication. Synergies Europe 3, 25-36. Klak, T., & Martin, P. (2003). Do university-sponsored international cultural events help students to appreciate “differences”? International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 445-465. Penbek, S., Yurdakul, D., & Cerit, A. G. (2009). Intercultural communication competence: A study about the intercultural sensitivity of university students based on their education and international experiences. Paper presented at the European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems in July, 2009, Izmir. Seidlhofer, B. (2003). A concept of international English and related issues: From 'Real English' to 'Realistic English'? In Council of Europe. Language Policy Division. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Sen Gupta, A. (2002). Changing the focus. A discussion of the dynamics of the intercultural experience. In G. Alfred, M. Byram & M. Fleming (Eds.), Intercultural experience and education (pp.155-178). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Smith, L. (1992). Spread of English and issues of intelligibility. In B. B. Kachru (Ed.), The other tongue: English across cultures (pp.27-47). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Widdowson, H. G. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 377-389. Zhao, C. M. (2002). Intercultural competence: A quantitative study of significance of intercultural competence and the influence of college experiences on students’intercultural competence development. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.
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Hovhannisyan, I. (2016). Could we speak about ELF in Armenia? An exploration of Armenian adult EFL speakers’ attitudes towards English. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 201211). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Could we speak about ELF in Armenia? An exploration of Armenian adult EFL speakers’ attitudes towards English Iren Hovhannisyan Abstract The aim of this paper is to examine Armenian adult speakers’ attitudes towards English, the role of English within Armenia and outside its boundaries, the importance of English and usage in daily life and, most importantly, an attempt is made to establish whether English is perceived as a Lingua Franca in Armenia. This paper reports on the findings of a survey conducted among Armenian adult EFL speakers (N=175) residing in Armenia. The data were collected with the help of an on-line questionnaire shared via the Facebook. The questionnaire addressed the respondents’ attitudes towards English, the frequency of using English for different purposes, the respondents’ profiles and their opinion about the most influential foreign languages in Armenia. The results unveil the EFL situation in Armenia as reported by those who use English on a daily basis for their personal and professional needs and, therefore, have shaped their sound opinion about the role and function of English within their country. What is more, the results present quite an interesting and paradoxical picture; on the one hand, the existence and the necessity of ELF in the Armenian context is questioned due to the peripheral role of English and supreme dominance of Russian in Armenia as acknowledged by the vast majority of the respondents. On the other hand, the respondents recognize the importance and the role of English as a lingua franca in the world. Based on the findings, it becomes pertinent to acknowledge that in certain contexts and under certain conditions, English may not exert its international power and may still function as a mere foreign language with a slight advantage over other foreign languages.
Keywords: Adult Armenian speakers of English; EFL; English as a Lingua Franca; attitudes
1. Introduction Language attitudes along with motivation are believed to determine success or failure in language learning, determine the language choice and the amount of time and energy that one is going to invest in language learning (Dörnyei & Csizér, 1998). Attitudes towards a language are those predispositions which spur one’s interest in the given language and endorse its acquisition. It is quite natural that together with the emergence of a new paradigm or linguistic phenomenon, the examination of attitudes towards it acquires special importance as this is the case for English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). This novel concept is open to research and discussion. The aim of this paper is to present the findings of a study, which investigated Armenian adult EFL users’ attitudes towards English, in general, and towards ELF, in particular. This study has undertaken to unveil the EFL situation in Armenia and whether ELF has a functional role in the given socio-educational context. This study carries an explorative character, because, to our knowledge, no study has ever examined Armenian adult EFL speakers’ attitudes towards English, in general, and towards ELF, in particular. The results are believed to provide comprehensive answers to the following questions: a) What is the role of English in Armenia? b) What are adult Armenian EFL speakers’ general attitudes towards English? c) Does English function as a Lingua Franca in the Armenian context?
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki:
[email protected]
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2. Theoretical background 2.1 Language attitudes
As presented in the introduction, language attitudes are perceived as a person’s inner dispositions (favourable or unfavourable) to an object (e.g. language learning, the English language, native speakers, etc.) and determine success or failure in language learning. When talking about language attitudes, the plural form is usually used, as “language attitudes” is an umbrella term, under which a variety of specific attitudes resides (Baker, 1992, p. 29). For instance, research has focused on the investigation of attitudes towards language variation and dialect; learning a specific language; a minority language, language groups, communities and minorities; learning materials and methods among others. Research on attitudes to a specific language is based on the reasons for favourability and unfavourability towards those languages. However, the more typical scope of research on attitudes to a specific language is on gender, age or background differences between groups of individuals. Attitudes towards the speakers of the language and their culture are researched in SL and FL contexts (e.g. Csizér & Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei & Clément, 2001; Gardner 1985, 2001; Gardner et al., 1976; Sougari & Iliopoulou, 2012). Attitudes can be influenced by such factors as the language learning milieu (Clément & Kruidenier, 1983), the individual learner’s characteristics (Dörnyei, 2005) as well as the target language itself (Clément & Kruidenier, 1983). In the present study, attitudes towards a specific language (English) and language variety (ELF), will be examined. 2.2 English as a Lingua Franca
ELF is a considerably novel concept, a new paradigm, in which English is examined within its international and intercultural dimension as a common language for international communication. Firth (1996) defines ELF as “a contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of communication” (p. 240). Seidlhofer, a prominent scholar in the field of ELF, holds that “ELF can be thought of as ―any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communicative medium of choice, and often the only option” (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 7). Basing on the above definitions, we can assume that ELF is a culture-free and neutral tool for international communication (House, 2002). On the other hand, some argue that ELF carries the culture of its speakers (Pölzl & Seidlhofer, 2006). Likewise, Hülmbauer (2007) believes that ELF users develop their own markers of identity (European, international or individual). In this respect, ELF is not exactly culture free, it is rather multicultural. As mentioned above, ELF research is in its initial, descriptive phase and the scope of interest of many researchers has mainly focused on the examination of issues, such as attitudes and identity (Jenkins, 2007; Meierkord, 2002); language ownership (Brutt‐Griffler & Samimy, 1999; Widdowson, 1994); standards and new varieties (Kachru, 1985); and of course, the role of ELF within English language teaching (ELT) pedagogy, ELF-aware teacher education (Sifakis, 2014). 2.3 Attitudes towards ELF
In recent times, many studies have been conducted on ELF attitudes; some key studies in this field (Decke-Cornill, 2002; Matsuda, 2003; Sifakis & Sougari, 2003, 2005; Sougri & Sifakis, 2007; Timmis, 2002; Young & Walsh, 2010) provide a very informative insight into the issue of teachers’/learners’ attitudes towards ELF. In their studies on teachers’ and learners’ attitudes towards ELF, the researchers sought to explore issues such as pronunciation, grammar, ownership, identity, possible changes in ELT, ELF-awareness raising, international posture among others.
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The results of the above-mentioned studies highlight the following general findings: in the case of teachers, they still tend to confine to native speaker (NS) norms in grammar and pronunciation (Jenkins, 2007; Sifakis & Sougari, 2005; 2010; Timmis, 2002); they acknowledge the importance of ELF, on a practical level, though, express doubts about the incorporation of ELF in their teaching practices (DeckeCornill, 2002, Young & Walsh, 2010);they believe that English belongs to its native speakers; and many teachers admit that they have to teach the standard NS model due to students’ demand for finding a good job or passing language proficiency exams (Hsuan-Yau, 2008). Therefore, the findings of the above mentioned studies show that teachers in the majority of cases are not ELF-aware or otherwise are reluctant to incorporate ELF into their teaching practices. The same tendency can also be noticed among the learners, as the results of the above studies display reluctance and resistance to acknowledge or to accept ELF and, what is more, lack of ELF-awareness. Consequently, learners prefer NS norms and varieties (particularly AmE) (Friedrich, 2000, Timmis, 2002); acknowledge the international status of English, but claim that English belongs to its NSs (Matsuda, 2003); and show poor knowledge of Outer Circle varieties i.e. countries, where English is the second official language/mother tongue or has a special status (e.g. Indian English). In this light, it would be very insightful to examine attitudes towards ELF in the Armenian context, because of the lack of such studies in this particular FL context. 3. Method 3.1 ELT in Armenia
Armenia is a small monolingual, monoethnic and monocultural country where 96% of population is Armenian, the official language is Armenian and the official religion is Christianity. In the Armenian socio-educational context, Russian has always been the second language (or later on first foreign language) for teaching and communication and it is due to the special role that Russian has in the Armenian society. Therefore, Russian is taught from Grade 2 onwards as the default first foreign language (Syllabus for the subject “Russian” in general secondary education). English, French and German are introduced to the national curriculum from Grade 3 onward as a second foreign language. However, the choice of the foreign language is optional and it is up to the school councils to decide upon the default second foreign language. Some schools offer languages such as Spanish, Italian or Greek as a second foreign language in the framework of intergovernmental agreements or in cooperation with the Embassies of the given countries. It must be mentioned here that around 85% of state primary and secondary schools select English as the default second foreign language. With respect to time allocation, English is taught for two hours per week from Grades 3 to 9, i.e. throughout compulsory secondary education (Syllabus for the subject “English” in general secondary education). Armenia’s language education policy are being appropriated to Council of Europe language policy principles, which are called up to develop plurilingualism, language diversity, mutual understanding, democratic citizenship, multicultural skills and abilities of individuals contribute to the active participation in democratic and public processes in a multilingual society and social cohesion. In this way, the learners are provided with equal conditions for individual development, education, work, free movement, accessibility to information and cultural heritage. In an attempt to follow the above outlined principles and more specifically, to develop multilingualism and language diversity, the third foreign language (English, German or French) has been introduced from Grade 5 onwards, which is taught for two hours per week. With regard to the role of English in higher education, English is a compulsory subject in the higher educational system and Centralized English/Foreign language examination is a requirement for entrance
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to the majority of universities (state and private) (Applicant’s Guide 2014). What is more, the TOEFL certificate is required for post-graduate programme admission in almost all schools and faculties. 3.2 Level of internationalization of Armenia
To be able to interpret the findings of the present study, it is considered important to present the level of internationalization of Armenia, in other words, the degree, to which Armenia is involved in the international community and open to international communication. Armenia is a member of the following major international organizations: International Monetary Fund (IMF), World bank (WB/IDA), International Finance Cooperation (IFC), World Trade Organization (WTO), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Council of Europe (CoE), United Nations (UN), UNCTAD/UNESCO, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), World Tourism Organization, World Customs Organization, International Telecommunications Union and Black Sea Economic Cooperation. What is more, many international companies operate in Armenia and realize long-term projects and investments. Judging from the above, it could be assumed that Armenia is a rightful member of the world society developing harmonically its international relations in different areas. Nevertheless, the dominance of Russia is palpable in every area and at any level. Armenia is considered the most loyal ally of Russia in the region. At the economic level, the greatest share of good import and export is realized to and from Russia and former USSR republics. Russian companies are the greatest shareholders in key industrial, strategic and manufacturing companies. Eventually, it becomes evident that Armenia is socially, politically and strategically over dependent on Russia. 3.3 Participants, the questionnaire and data collection
The participants of the survey were Armenian adult EFL speakers (N=175), whose age ranged from 18 to 41 years. The questionnaire, which contained 32 items was in an on-line format and was devised in English because it initially targeted competent English users. A link to the questionnaire was sent out via e-mail and shared via Facebook in different groups, on different pages and on friends’ walls. Once the questionnaire was filled out, it was immediately synchronized with the Dropbox folder, thus being available online as well as backed up in the Dropbox folder. To be able to collect valid data, all the parameters and settings were treated with special attention. For example, the online questionnaire was adjusted to accept only complete questionnaires, only IP addresses from Armenia and to accept only one questionnaire from the same IP address to avoid duplicate questionnaires. 3.4 Methods of statistical analysis
The data were exported to and statistically treated by the SPSS® 21 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) software. Frequencies, means, standard deviations and percentages were calculated in terms of descriptive statistics while for inferential statistics, t-tests were run in order to calculate attitudinal items in relation to age and gender and the chi-square test and cross-tabulations were run to test the interrelation of educational background with language certificate and preferred FL. The significance level was set at pI know. I know.< japanese idol. (1.0) japanese idol group? yeah.
In line 1, Shan asks Emi a question, but in line 3, Emi says “sorry,” which simultaneously orients to the entire previous turn as a trouble source, catalyzes repair, and demonstrates that intelligibility has faltered. In line 5, Shan orients to Emi’s “sorry” as an indication that Emi does not understand [dʒɛniz], which is manifest in the fact that Shan just repeats [dʒɛniz] again. But the repetition does not restore intelligibility, and the repair continues. In line 11, Emi orients to [dʒɛniz] as a possible articulation of “Japanese,” which is manifest in the fact that Emi proffers “Japanese” as a lexical repair candidate, but in line 14, Shan rejects this. In lines 14~16, Shan mentions “gamati,” which seems to be the catalyst, but not sufficient condition, for restoring intelligibility. (To this day and multiple Google searches later, this author still does not know to what “gamati” refers, but Emi does.) In line 18, Emi continues the repair, and proffers the candidate repair pronunciation [dʒæniz], which Shan affirms in line 21. This demonstrates that the intelligibility of the word oriented to as problematic has been restored. The phonetically interesting aspect of this example is the segmental phoneme change that restored intelligibility. [dʒɛniz] was oriented to as an unintelligible pronunciation, but Emi segmentally repairs [dʒɛniz] to [dʒæniz] in line 18, and Shan confirms the new pronunciation in line 21. There is one segmental phoneme difference between the unintelligible and intelligible pronunciations: the vowel quality in the first syllable is modified from a mid-low front /ɛ/ to a low front /æ/. Accordingly, it can be said that vowel quality modification was significant in the process of restoring intelligibility for this dyad of ELF speakers. The previous example demonstrates that ELF speakers can orient to vowel quality as problematic. Yet vowel quality is not the only phonetic feature that ELF speakers repair. In the second example, Matias, a male Chilean exchange student who majors in Japanese, and Yuma, a male Japanese university student who majors in computer science, are talking about keyboard shortcuts, which leads to the following exchange. Example 2: 1 2 3 4
Matias: Yuma:
and are you still have problem with (0.4) [kɛmænz]? (0.9) with what? (0.5)
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Negotiation of intelligible pronunciation in NE Asia 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
Matias: Yuma: Matias:
Yuma: Matias:
Yuma: Matias:
Yuma: Matias: Yuma: Matias: Yuma: Matias: Yuma: Matias: Yuma: Matias: Yuma: Matias: Yuma: Matias: Yuma:
O’Neal
[kɛmænz]. (0.6) [kamənz]? (0.7) yes for example (.) eh:: (0.1) how to: (0.8) paste. (0.5) how to coat. (1.0) how to::. (0.5) coat. (0.2) >for example a word< (0.2) .hhhh. when you choose a word. yeah. (0.4) you cyute it. (0.9) or you copy. (1.5) I copy. I- I don’t get your question. >I’m sorryfor example when you use a computerword< speech that is said faster than the surrounding speech speech that is said slower than the surrounding speech
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Tryzna, M. (2016). English as a lingua franca in Kuwait’s secondary schools: The dimensions of the cultural content. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 249-259). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
English as a lingua franca in Kuwait’s secondary schools: The dimensions of the cultural content Marta Tryzna Abstract The present paper examines the context of English language teaching in Kuwait, a representative country within the GCC region, where the existing cultural, religious, and political constraints shape the pedagogical practices and the content of the instructional materials in an ESL classroom. It is argued that the current demographics as well as the labor-market model in Kuwait necessitate the teaching of English as a lingua franca, including intercultural skills for successful communication. Against this background, the content of the English as a Second Language textbooks at high-school level is analyzed with a view to identifying specific limitations of the cultural input from both theoretical and practical (i.e., language learning oriented) perspectives. As a theoretical tool, the static-dynamic approach to cultural content is employed (Liddicoat, 2005), coupled with the three dimensions of culture proposed by Kramsch (1998). It is observed that language learning with a severely restricted cultural content and limited cultural learning practices ceases to satisfy the needs of the local community, whose primary goal of learning English is to function successfully in a multicultural environment.
1. Introduction: Conceptualizing the reality A few important facts are brought to light here with a view to conceptualizing the reality of teaching English in Kuwait within the existing cultural, political, and religious constraints. Kuwait ranks among the freest countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region according to Reporters Without Borders and Freedom House rankings of the world's freest countries in terms of civil liberties and political rights. The relative freedom of expression is secured by the Constitution whose Articles 35 through 37 guarantee freedom of belief, opinion, scientific research, and the press, provided that the content and the style of expression do not conflict with the public policy and Islamic morals. In order to safeguard Islamic morals and public policy, the government of Kuwait screens all media and publications distributed within the country’s borders, including books in Arabic and English, school textbooks, and other instructional materials. Websites containing offensive content for political or moral reasons are blocked, while tweets and comments on social media are monitored. The Ministry of Education publishes specific regulations on sensitive topics which must never be broached in the educational environment including religion, politics, and tradition. The religious topics range from personifying prophets, making comments about Islam, or comparing different religions, while the political ones protect the policies or rulers of the country from criticism. They also protect Kuwaiti customs, values, and traditions by strictly forbidding displaying nudity, teaching about human sexuality, discussing alcoholic beverages as social drinks, or presenting Darwin’s theory as a fact. Many of the above acts are criminalized, and may result in a variety of sanctions against teachers who engage in them, including termination of a contract, deportation, or imprisonment. In the words of Elizabeth Warkentin, a former librarian and teacher at Gulf International School, which is a Kuwaitiowned, expat-managed and staffed private educational institution with a British curriculum, “To flout the norms of Kuwait would be to disrespect the culture and brand myself a troublemaker, a sure way to get fired, deported, or worse: arrested and slammed with a travel ban,” (Warkentin, 2011). Thus, the first and the most powerful cultural filter is applied at the government level, with the constraints clearly articulated and imposed without exceptions.
Gulf University for Science and Technology, Kuwait.
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The background
2.1. Culture-related objectives in the school curriculum
The public school system in Kuwait, within the purview of the Ministry of Education (MoE), is free for the citizens and gender-segregated in accordance with the public policy. Arabic language is the medium of instruction, while English is taught as a foreign language from first to twelfth grade, 5 hours per week. The MoE oversees all educational activities, and is in charge of teacher licensing, the curriculum, instructional materials, and assessment. In 2005, the English Language Division within MoE introduced a new English curriculum, and has been gradually implementing at primary, middle, and secondary levels. The present paper focuses on the secondary school curriculum and instructional material only (years 10, 11, and 12), first introduced in 2011. The new textbook series for the Kuwaiti high school is called Over to You, ostensibly authored by Simon Hines. It has been approved by the Evaluation and Adaptation Committee consisting of fourteen MoE officials, directed by the ELT Supervisor General. The book claims to adopt an integrated approach to language teaching, and boasts the use of cross-cultural topics, among others. It closely follows the MoE’s educational guidelines and strategic objectives. The fifty-two strategic objectives are subdivided into five categories (or ‘sets’): (1) learner-centered; (2) teacher-centered, (3) curriculum and methods; (4) assessment and evaluation; and (5) extracurricular activities. From the perspective of language teaching involving cultural references, five of the fifty-two MoE objectives appear directly relevant, all under the curriculum and methods heading. Specifically, the goals of the educational content, teaching methodology, and the instructional materials for the English language teaching in Kuwait are the following: to instill pride in the learners’ national identity, values, and Islamic morals; to meet community expectations regarding learning outcomes; to meet the requirements of the labor market to acquire knowledge and skills that enable learners to be successful as local, national and global citizens. Towards the end of the outcomes list a cultural objective reads as follows: “[To] enable learners to be culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social contexts” (p.22). Thus, in relation to culture, the goals are stated in terms of the broad religious paradigm (Islamic values), community values and expectations, as well as professional requirements. The reference to global citizenship is a significant departure from the proposed points of reference, but it does not constitute a priority. Also, the apparent ‘range of social contexts’ promised in the lone culture-centered objective makes no specific references to a particular culture, but it is safe to assume that cultures other than the domestic one play a minor role in the curriculum. It seems that at the level of the objectives, the cultural references are exclusive of unsanctioned influences and elements that do not conform to the broader religious paradigm or community values. In other words, intercultural references and cultural contexts other than nationally and locally relevant seem to be actively discouraged. Strategic objectives are further operationalized by means of numerous standards and benchmarks, only one of which contains broadly defined cultural references: “Texts and dialogues within the course will also help the students show pride in Islam but also expose them to lifestyles and information about the world around them. Students will be encouraged to compare and contrast these with their own country and to learn to appreciate differences.” (p.27)
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Thus, the educational objectives for teaching English in Kuwait are defined primarily in terms of strengthening the national and religious identity, and only then does the attention shift towards intercultural content. Before taking a closer look at the exact composition of the cultural content in the textbooks, three expressions from the above statements of objectives require closer scrutiny, namely: ‘requirements of the labor market’, ‘a range of social contexts” and ‘the world around them.’ Kuwait has a diverse population of over 3 million, composed of various ethnic groups: Kuwaiti 31.3%, other Arab 27.9%, Asian 37.8%, African 1.9%, and other 1.1%, including European, North American, South American, and Australian (Annual Statistical Reports, 2012). Arabic is the official language of the country, while English is widely spoken, although it does not enjoy the status of a second language. While citizens typically use Arabic for business communication, religious practices, and social interaction, English functions as a lingua franca - a vehicle for communication across business contexts for the various ethnic groups. A form of English approximating the standard variety can be found in educational contexts such as private schools (British or American) and private universities and colleges, largely enjoyed by the elite. Realistically, the range of social contexts in which the students need to use their English includes interacting with domestic servants such as maids, drivers, gardeners, typically from countries like India, Ethiopia, Sri Lanka or the Philippines, sales clerks and servers, as well as English teachers, typically non-native speakers themselves. The nature of the labor market is such that close to 90% of employed Kuwaiti citizens hold government positions (administration, the oil sector), where the language of communication is Arabic, while expats are employed in the private sector. Kuwaiti citizens in the private sector typically hold managerial positions; they also tend to be better educated and more proficient in English. Thus, on the surface, diversity is a defining feature of the Kuwaiti society. However, de facto, nonKuwaitis hold a much lower social status, as they are classified as ‘expatriate workforce’ with no real access to the Kuwaiti society other than that allowed by their professional capacity (domestic servants, street cleaners, construction workers, sales clerks, mechanics, teachers, etc.) In spite of the co-existence of diverse ethnic groups with their distinct linguistic and cultural practices, the perceived differences in social status afford very little social and cultural exchange between Kuwaiti nationals and the various expat communities. This is not to say that long-term business relationships - which do exist - cannot produce the kind of culturally relevant interaction that could increase intercultural awareness and exchange. In principle, this would be the case; in reality, the citizens enjoy a privileged position which allows them to impose their view of the world on the expatriate labor force surrounding and outnumbering them 3:1, thus significantly reducing the intercultural influences. In addition, there seems to be little mutual curiosity about other ethnicities and very little cultural exchange as a result across all ethnic groups. This produces a cultural vacuum, easily filled with stereotypes and misconceptions on all sides of the cultural divide. For example, the prime sources of cultural knowledge about the so-called West are the tabloids and Hollywood productions. Going back to the statement of objectives in the ESL curriculum in Kuwaiti public schools, the references to ‘the world around’ the students, their exposure to ‘a range of social contexts,’ or ‘the demands of the labor market’ seem vague and ambiguous, given the current social environment and the labor market model in Kuwait. 2.2. Cultural content and English language teaching in Muslim countries
The inclusion of cultural content in the ESL curricula and language textbooks has been a controversial topic. Although research has delineated the main issues related to defining the nature, importance and the place of the cultural content in a language curriculum (Kramsch, 1993, 1998; Lange & Paige, 2003; Risager, 2006), the topic is still debated in language education contexts world-wide. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Some researchers question the necessity of including socio-cultural factors in the language teaching process (Wardhaugh, 2006). Those in favor of culturally-specific teaching may further question the amount and type of socio-cultural information made available to ESL learners (Byram and Feng, 2004). The strong view is that the target language and the target culture are sold as a package. However, the target culture does not need to be British, American, or Australian and might include a variety of Englishspeaking cultures. Those against including socio-cultural content in ESL curricula, often advocate the teaching of English as a lingua franca: a culturally neutral international communication tool bridging the linguistic gap between speakers of different languages. Another school of thought does not only advocate eradicating countryspecific cultural content, but also appropriating the English language practices by the home culture to satisfy the local requirements, dictated by the cultural or religious norms, or by the labor market demands. This seems to be the preferred option in many Muslim countries around the world. An important debate once swept across the Islamic states whose leaders and educational authorities felt uneasy about promoting the teaching of English in general, and including non-Islamic or secular cultural content in particular. In Pakistan, for example, English was seen not only as a relic of colonialism, perpetuating social inequalities, but also as a threat to the religious and cultural identity of the local people, who perceived it as the language of the ‘unbelievers’ (kafir), through which un-Islamic values were being spread (Mahboob, 2009). In Malaysia, the spread of English was seen as culturally subversive, leading to the widening of social inequalities, and dividing the society into the urban educated elite and the rural illiterate poor. It was believed that the teaching of English posed a threat to national and religious identity (Mohd-Asraf, 2005). In Saudi Arabia, the debate on the status of English still rages on, with the current compromise being the introduction of English in fourth grade of primary school, after the children have completed their first three years of formal education in Arabic, to prevent – or at least postpone - the contamination of the young minds (Golam Faruk, 2014). Gradually, many Islamic countries have devised a formula for appropriating English to fit their specific religious, national, and cultural requirements. Thus, Pakistani linguists are now advocating the infusion of English with Islamic references and expressions (Mahboob 2009). Malay researchers noted a shift in attitudes towards learning English, once it became apparent that it can be used a vehicle for spreading the Islamic creed at international level (Mohd-Asraf 2005). Saudi Arabia now recognizes the necessity of teaching English, with support from the Islamic holy book and the Hadith, according to which a foreign language like English can be used as a shield to protect the religion, nation, and culture from the foreign aggression. The Hadith says: “He whoever learns other people’s language will be secured from their cunning” (Elyas and Picard 2010). More importantly, however, English is seen as a tool for access to and dissemination of knowledge, as well as for social and technological advancement. In some rare cases, young Saudis tend to see English as superior to Arabic (Golam Faruk 2014). These new attitudes toward teaching and learning English have been greatly facilitated the systematic and comprehensive cleansing of the undesirable cultural content from the ESL educational materials, Kuwait being a case in point. 2.3. Approaches to cultural content in language textbooks
The view of language as a social practice has at its core the understanding of language as an ‘open, dynamic, energetic, constantly evolving and personal’ system (Shohamy, 2007). Language is thus seen as a dynamic, ever-changing system which encompasses the complexities of communication. Language itself is not the object of study but an individualized and unique way of perceiving, comprehending and communicating about reality. Since language is used for purposeful communication, learning a new language should ideally involve not only the learning of the vocabulary, grammar rules, and knowledge about the language itself, but also its use for creating shared meanings with other with other speakers of
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the language. Thus the language learning experience becomes more engaging and more relevant for students. This perspective on language sees it as more than a body of knowledge to be learnt but essentially as a social practice in which the learners are invited to participate (Kramsch, 1993). Language is an everyday experience and a tool for expressing and creating meanings as well as establishing and maintaining relationships. Thus, the social practice of meaning-making and relationship-building requires far more than the knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and functional expressions. Students should be given a chance to learn how meanings are created through language, and how to engage in communicate with others. This requires the development of awareness of the nature of language, its relation to culture, and its impact on the perception of reality (Svalberg 2007). Since in Kuwait the majority of interactions in English are also multicultural, there seems to be a need to shift the attention towards the intercultural skills which multilingualism facilitates. A more practical goal of infusing language curricula with intercultural themes is to prepare students to live, work, and function successfully as global citizens (Ainsworth, 2013). Linguistic competence, coupled with intercultural communication training, plays a critical role in equipping students with language and intercultural communication skills necessary for succeeding in the global workplace. Thus, focusing on language proficiency as well as intercultural skills presents an exciting opportunity for language curriculum designers. While the inclusion of intercultural skills is largely uncontroversial, a debate among ESL curriculum designers has highlighted conflicting viewpoints as to what intercultural or cultural aspects to include in the language practice so as to enhance the students’ linguistic competence in the second language without endorsing or promoting values and behaviors which fundamentally contradict those held by the learners’ community. The world-wide debate regarding the breadth and the depth of cultural content in language teaching materials remains inconclusive. However, the Kuwaiti Ministry of Education, and in particular the English Language Division, seem to have found an answer satisfactory to all stakeholders, including the government, various pressure groups, as well as parents, teachers, and students. As will become apparent in the analysis below, by eliminating all undesirable references, or limiting the range of acceptable topics, the MoE has successfully achieved their primary strategic objective, which is to allow students to “interact with the current age and entails free thinking in response to the dynamic change without any kind of conflict with their own individual identity or the cultural identity of the society” (ELT National Curriculum, 2011:13). Given the objectives for the English curriculum related to enhancing the national, religious, and global identities of the students, one would predict a prominent presence of cultural content related to the national and religious themes, together with a range of other cultural contexts featuring non-offensive, globally-relevant topics. 3. The present study 3.1. Analytical framework
Broadly speaking, culture may be viewed either as a product or as a process. The culture as a product view is a static take on culture which tends to portray culture or cultural phenomena as an object of study. Within this view, characters are often representatives of a particular group and may reflect cultural stereotypes. An implicit assumption is the homogeneity of culture (Kramsch,1993). Viewing culture as dynamic and in a continuous state of flux is characteristic of the culture as a process perspective. In this view, culture cannot be exhaustively and adequately described, as its elements are constantly being redefined, refined, questioned, and altered. The texts in this category invite readers to
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interact with ideas and themes of the text not against a cultural backdrop, but using their individual experiences and beliefs. Static and dynamic approaches to culture in the language classroom can be further operationalized in reference to specific types of cultural content and cultural learning practices. The following diagram (adapted from Liddicoat, 2005) presents one such framework. Figure 1. Approaches to teaching culture in a language classroom
Artifacts and
Institutions Static approach to cultural learning and content
Static approach to content Dynamic approach to learning
Facts
Processes Static approach to learning Dynamic approach to content
Dynamic approach to learning and content: active engagement with a cultural group
Practices One dimension is the axis of culture as facts or as processes: that is, whether culture is seen as a static body of information about characteristics of a society or as a dynamic system through which a society constructs, represents, enacts and understands itself. The second axis represents the way in which culture is conceived in terms of educational content. It makes a distinction between artifacts and institutions and practices: that is, whether culture is seen in terms of the things produced by a society or as the things said and done by members of a society. The most static way to approach the teaching of a culture typically emphasizes artefacts, institutions and factual knowledge. Both the approach to culture learning and the content itself are static. The lower left quadrant adopts a static approach to the nature of learning, but a more dynamic approach to the content, whereas the top right quadrant is static in terms of its content, but dynamic in terms of its approach to learning (eg as in activities in which learners engaged with cultural artefacts in a hands on way). The most dynamic approach to culture is represented by the lower right hand quadrant, which sees learners actively engage with the practices of a cultural group. Stemming from the above theoretical perspectives, a three-way classification of cultural content in textbooks can be derived (adapted from Tornberg 2000): Culture as an accomplished fact, culture as a competence, and culture as a meeting in third space. 1.
Culture as an accomplished fact A. History or geography: Texts contain facts about countries, cities, and historical events (e.g. the moon landing, The Grand Canyon).
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B: Artifacts: Cultural products that reflect the esthetical perspective on culture are highlighted (theater, art, national dishes, memorials, statues, etc.) C: Collective descriptions: Generalized descriptions (i.e. national or cultural stereotypes) deal with everyday life and lifestyles ascribed to a group, such as Italians, Americans, or the French. 2.
A cultural competence A. Cultural preparation: Functional language and pragmatic norms of language use are explicitly taught. Language practice for future communication with people who speak the target language is included. B. Inter-cultural comparisons: The tasks encourage students to draw parallels between traditions and customs in two different cultures. Texts often contain general descriptions that lead to a general, often stereotypical, view of a certain culture.
3.
A meeting in third place1 A. Individual identity: The characters in the texts are presented as individuals, rather than representatives of a particular nationality, ethnicity, gender, or class. Cultural content is complex and can be interpreted in many different ways. B. Youth culture: Such themes as youth sub-cultures (music, media, social media, teenage books, fashion etc.) are explored, reflecting global trends related to young people worldwide.
It is within the above framework that cultural content of ESL textbooks in public secondary schools in Kuwait is evaluated. 3.2. The results
In order to examine the characteristics of cultural content in ESL textbooks in public secondary schools in Kuwait, the following general breakdown of cultural references was carried out across the three secondary school grades (10, 11, & 12). Table 1. Types of cultural references in ESL textbooks in Kuwait CULTURAL REFERENCES
Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 TOTAL
Kuwaitcentered 17 (19%) 25 (29%) 21 (42%) 63 (28%)
Countryspecific 36 (40%) 33 (37%) 14 (28%) 83 (36%)
Global themes 19 (24%) 25 (28%) 9 (18%) 53 (24%)
Individual stories 16 (18%) 7 (8%) 5 (10%) 28 (12%)
TOTAL 88 90 49 227
Kramsch (1995) argued that language study creates ‘a third place’, a privileged and questioning location, where learners gain special insights into their own and others cultures. 1
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It should be noted that the above numbers represent the amount of references within each context without specifying the length of the text or the depth of the topic coverage. The raw numbers mask the unequal distribution of the various content types, with a strong tendency to present Kuwait-centered (including religious) topics in an exhaustive, thorough, and detailed way, while country-specific topics or global themes are typically mentioned in passing, or glossed over, in a superficial, encyclopedic manner. In other words, the content worthy of being thoroughly discussed in order to reveal its complexities is of local, regional or national provenance. While occasionally a non-Arab culture oriented topic may be presented as a half-page article (e.g. a baby shower in Britain, a visit to Kerala), most references to the Western world are brief statements of fact presenting the products (i.e. artifacts) of a particular culture (e.g. the opera house in Sydney, Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco). Thus, there is a visible lack of balance in terms of the length and the amount of allocated space in the textbook with respect to the Arab, other non-Western, and Western cultural references. In terms of individual stories, the textbooks present famous contemporary or historic characters, such as Kuwaiti nationals (e.g. a footballer, a businesswoman), as well as other Arab or non-Western personalities (e.g. famous historians like Ibn Battuta and Ibn Khaldun, a child prodigy from India). Western individuals are mentioned only occasionally, featuring renowned, accomplished persons (e.g. Amelia Eckhart, Warren Buffet). Arab and other non-Western characters are presented as ordinary people, with contemporary problems and life stories situated within a particular cultural context. At the same time, Western individuals are de-contextualized and portrayed as outstanding high achievers with a set of universally admired traits and accomplishments. Western individuals are delinked from their cultural context, so that their achievements are seen as a result of their personal interests and struggles, rather than a manifestation of specific values and beliefs inspiring their epic quests. With respect to prominent authors, literary quotations throughout the textbooks are all derived from the Western writers (Cervantes, Saint-Exupery, Twain, Shaw). None of these writers is actually featured, and their literature is absent save for the snippets of wisdom in the form of well-known sayings, which are left for interpretation. Occasionally, the students are encouraged to ponder the deeper meanings of a quotation, but there are no models or guidelines to follow. The two Western writers who are actually featured (Allan Villiers and Wilfred Thesiger) have one trait in common: their books relate to the Arab world. Global themes are by default devoid of country-specific contexts. Topics such as recycling, global warming, or international cooperation, are de-contextualized and presented as neutral in terms of cultural references. The content is of general human interest, and the featured articles are designed to raise awareness about important world-wide issues as well as creating a sense of responsibility. Thus, from a very cursory analysis of the cultural content there emerges a picture of the relative attention the various types of cultural references receive in the Kuwaiti curriculum. While references to various countries are prevalent (36%), Kuwait-oriented content occupies a little over a quarter (28%), and global themes constitute about a quarter (24%). As the percentage of references based on individual stories is the lowest (12%), the role of individuals as contributors and co-creators of a culture seems to be the least prominent aspect of the cultural content in the Kuwaiti textbooks. In order to further examine the cultural content, a quantitative analysis was carried out involving the model of culture outlined in the previous section. The table below presents the summary of findings using the analytical framework within the three cultural dimensions and their respective subcategories: Culture as an accomplished fact, culture as a competence, and culture as a meeting in third space.
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Table 2. Cultural dimensions in the ESL textbooks in Kuwait Cultural Dimensions Accomplished Fact Competence Meeting in Third Space
Subcategories Historical or geographical facts Artifacts Collective descriptions Cultural preparation Cultural comparisons Individuals Youth culture (subcultures)
Cultural references N=227 (%) 148 (65%) 27 (12%) 18 (7%) 4 (2%) 1 (5%) 28 (12%) 1 (5%)
As Table 2 reveals, the majority of the cultural references fall into the historical-or-geographical fact subcategory (65%), followed by the artifacts (12%), which are both representative of the static approach to culture. In fact, presenting cultural content as encyclopedic knowledge is the most static approach, as it focuses on the culture-as-a-product dimension without presenting the broader contexts or the underlying values. The next most popular subcategory of cultural content is individual stories (12%), followed by collective descriptions (7%). While individuals are not viewed as representatives of any particular culture, collective descriptions try to evoke national traits and characteristics, with the underlying assumption that the inhabitants of a particular geographic space share a specific set of values, beliefs, traditions, customs, and behaviors. In order to better illustrate the distribution of the three cultural dimensions, the following chart collapses the subcategories for each dimension. Figure 2. Cultural dimensions as represented in the ESL textbooks in Kuwait Culture as a meeting in third space Culture as a 13% competence 2%
Cultural Dimensions
Culture as an accomplished fact 85%
Figure 2 shows the preponderance of the static approach to culture, where both cultural content and cultural learning rely on the mere presentation of facts (geographic or historic) and artifacts. Such an approach considers culture as a ready-made product, or an object of study, which discourages questioning or evaluating the underlying values or beliefs. This runs counter to the view that culture is a participatory activity, where individuals co-create cultural contexts. The diagram above also confirms the previously observed tendency of downplaying the role of individuals in co-creating culture. In seems that by doing so, the curriculum designers almost completely eliminated opportunities for language learners to examine and gain a deeper understanding of their own ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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as well as other cultures. Referring back to the learning objectives in the ELT curriculum for secondary schools, the students were promised cultural content that would familiarize them with various lifestyles and encourage them “to compare and contrast these with their own country and to learn to appreciate differences.” (The ELT National Curriculum 2011:27). It seems that the realization of this learning objective could be strengthened by utilizing the idea of ‘culture as a third place,’ where individual stories, including the students’ own, and references to youth subcultures which tend to transgress cultural boundaries, could contribute to the students’ understanding of the relevant cultural concepts. The most significant observation from the data in Figure 2 is the near absence from the ELT curriculum of the culture– as – a competence dimension (only 2% of the cultural references). This dimension encompasses cultural preparation and cultural comparisons, which together provide the intercultural perspective. The virtual lack of such a perspective in the English language textbooks is surprising given the two of the most important learning outcomes in the curriculum related to the professional skills and personal development. With regards to the former, the curriculum promises to meet the requirements of the labor market in Kuwait which increasingly requires English proficiency and intercultural communication skills, especially in the private sector where the majority of expatriate workforce is employed. Regarding the latter, the students are promised knowledge and skills which ensure their success at a local, national, and global level, allowing them to become the citizens of the world. However, by eliminating the culture-as-a competence dimension, the authors of the textbooks completely neglected the intercultural aspect of the students’ development. In fact, the curriculum and the language learning materials should emphasize intercultural skills in order to create opportunities in the classroom for the realization of the broadly defined curriculum goals. At the same time, the striking paucity of the intercultural content is in opposition not only to the desired learning outcomes as specified by the Ministry of Education, but also to the perceived status of English as a lingua franca in Kuwait. 4. Conclusions The detailed results of the study reveal an imbalance between the various cultural dimensions applied in the process of English teaching in Kuwait. The static presentation of facts, artifacts, and collective descriptions, which tend to perpetuate cultural stereotypes, constitutes the core of the cultural content in the textbooks, allowing little space for the dynamic cultural perspective involving cultural preparation, inter-cultural comparisons, and individual stories. At the same time, the static view of ‘culture as a product’ encourages the passive reception of cultural knowledge without evaluation, questioning, or critical thinking, thus diminishing the participatory role individuals play in the co-creation of any culture. Such gaps in the textbook do a disservice to the educational objectives set forth by the Ministry of Education. One of the strategic goals is to equip graduates with skills necessary for the labor market, which is multicultural and multilingual by nature. In order to address this goal, the language teaching materials should include intercultural content and practice of intercultural communication skills in order to create opportunities in for the learners to gain intercultural competencies in a language classroom. Equipped with such skills, the students would be able to effectively and appropriately communicate with people from various ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds. At a personal level, such training would help create interculturally competent graduates, ready to grapple with multicultural concepts, ways of thinking, styles of communication, as well as modes of behavior. About the author Marta Tryzna has a PhD in linguistics from the University of Iowa. She is an assistant professor at Gulf University for Science and Technology in Kuwait where she teaches descriptive grammar, syntax, history of the English language, sociolinguistics, and applied linguistics. She's also the coordinator of the university-wide Writing Program. Her research interests are in second language acquisition and bilingual education. Email:
[email protected]
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References Ainsworth, J. 2013. Business languages for intercultural and international business bommunication: A Canadian case study. Business Comminication Quarterly 76(1) 28-50. DOI: 10.1177/1080569912471186 Annual Statistical Abstracts. (2012). Kuwait Central Statistical Bureau: Section 2: Population and housing. Retrieved from http://www.csb.gov.kw/Socan_Statistic_EN.aspx?ID=18 Byram, M., and Feng, A. (2004) Culture and language learning: Teaching, research and scholarship. Language Teaching, 37(3), 149-168. Elyas, T., and Picard, M.Y. (2012). Teaching and moral tradition in Saudi Arabia: A paradigm of struggle or pathway towards globalization? Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 1083-1086 Golam Faruk, S.M. (2014). Saudis’ attitude towards English: Trend and rationale. Professional Communication and Translation Studies, 7 (1-2), 173-180. Haines, S. (2009). Over to you: Student’s book: Grade 10. Pearson-Longman. Haines, S. (2009). Over to You: Student’s Book: Grade 11. Pearson-Longman. Haines, S. (2009). Over to You: Student’s Book: Grade 12. Pearson-Longman. Haines, S. (2009). Over to You: Workbook: Grade 10. Pearson-Longman. Haines, S. (2009). Over to You: Workbook: Grade 11. Pearson-Longman. Haines, S. (2009). Over to You: Workbook: Grade 12. Pearson-Longman. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kramsch, C. (1995). Rhetorical models of understanding. In T. Miller (Ed.), Functional approaches to written texts: Classroom applications (pp. 61-78). Paris: USIS. Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lange, D. L., & Paige, R. M. (Eds.). (2003). Culture as the core: Perspectives in second language education. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Liddicoat, A.J. (2005). Culture for language learning in Australian language-in-education policy. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 28(2), 1-28. Mahboob, A. (2009). English as an Islamic language: A case study of Pakistani English. World Englishes. Journal of English as an International and Intranational Language, 28(2), 175-189. Mohd-Asraf, R. (2005). English and Islam: A clash of civilizations? Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 4(2), 103-118. Risager, K. (2006). Language and culture: Global flows and local complexity. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Shohamy, E. (2007). Reinterpreting globalization in the multilingual contexts. International Multilingual Research Journal, 1(2), 127-133. Svalberg, A. M-L. (2007). Language awareness and language learning. Language Teaching, 40(4), 287-308. The ELT national curriculum statement in the state of Kuwait (2011). Ministry of Education, The Educational Research and Curricula Sector: Curricula Development Department. Tornberg, U. (2000). Om språkundervisning i mellanrummet – och talet om ”kommunikation” och ”kultur” i kursplaner och läromedel från 1962 till 2000 [On language teaching and learning in a discursive space – and conceptions of “communication” and “culture” in curricular texts and teaching materials from 1962 to 2000]. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala Studies in Education. Warkentin, E. (2011). Defending literature takes its toll on librarian in Kuwait. The Star. Retrieved from http://www.thestar.com/life/2011/09/26/defending_literature_takes_its_toll_on_librarian_in_ku wait.html
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ELF AND LANGUAGE EDUCATION Elif Kemaloglu-Er & Yasemin Bayyurt describe an ELF-aware model as applied in pre-service teacher education, and report on some preliminary results of an ongoing study that analyzes the ELF-related perspectives and practices as well as the program evaluations of the teachers exposed to this teacher education program. Michele Salles El Kadri, Luciana Cabrini Simões Calvo & Telma Gimenez analyze to what extent an ELF perspective has informed the curriculum of English language teacher education programs in the state of Paraná, Brazil. Luciana Cabrini Simões Calvo, Michele Salles El Kadri & Atef El Kadri, based on papers presented in the ELF5 and ELF6 abstract booklets, map the initiatives of incorporating ELF in Teacher Education programs around the world. Alexia Giannakopoulou examines how the English for Young Learners programme in Greece exposes children to L2 multiliteracies. Jacqueline Aiello’s study unveils the complexity of Italian youths’ attitudes towards varieties of English, finding evidence that EF has yet to become widely accepted. Sami Basheer Al-Hasnawi argues that language teachers need to be aware of the reality of the English language and be open to its international varieties in their classroom practice. Esma Biricik Deniz and Yonca Özkan aim to shed light on the need to teach English as lingua franca through World Englishes norms. Domingos Savio Pimentel Siqueira & Juliana Souza da Silva aim to investigate in which way the knowledge of the ELF paradigm affects teachers’ view of the language itself and their classroom practices. Vassilia Kazamia & Edgar Joycey discuss the need for ELF-awareness training amongst Greek teachers. Anny Georgountzou & Natasha Tsantila investigate the attitudes and preferences of native and non-native Greek users of English towards native speaker norms in British English and General American. Paul L. McBride examines whether ELF is of benefit in a Japanese educational context by exploring teacher and student understandings and beliefs.
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Kemaloglu-Er, E., & Bayyurt, Y. (2016). ELF-aware teacher education with pre-service teachers: A transformative and technology enhanced case from Turkey. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 261-267). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
ELF-aware teacher education with pre-service teachers: A transformative and technology enhanced case from Turkey Elif Kemaloglu-Er Yasemin Bayyurt Abstract ELF researchers agree with the importance of teachers’ and teacher trainers’ language and cultural awareness in all three circles and the need of a pluricentric rather than a monocentric approach to the teaching and use of English. It is the teachers who can act as the agents of change in the classrooms as both ELF users and conveyors. In order that can happen, their awareness should be raised through postnormative education and training programs which are not only critical but also transformative. Aiming to raise the language teachers’ awareness on the concept of ELF and make them tangibly and critically aware of key ELF-related concerns, this model, namely ELF-aware pre-service teacher education, focuses on transforming pre-service English teachers into ELF-aware practitioners through theory, practice, reflection and interaction. It is an extension of the teacher education model pioneered by Bayyurt & Sifakis (2015a, b) and applied with inservice English teachers. This model has been modified with especially technological enhancement and enriched with several forms of discussion, reflection and practice patterns. This paper describes the concerning teacher education model and reports on some preliminary results of an ongoing study analyzing the ELF-related perspectives and practices as well as the program evaluations of the teachers exposed to this teacher education program. According to the findings, a majority of prospective teachers displayed a high level of satisfaction with the program, conceptualized ELF in a clear and multifaceted way, acquired a stance marked with critical thinking and self-confidence as non-native teachers and adopted an ELF-informed pedagogy in their own teaching practices.
Keywords: ELF in Teacher Education, ELF Aware Teacher Education, Pre-Service Teacher Education, ELF Pedagogy, Transformative Learning, Perceptions about ELF, ELF in Micro-teaching, ELF in Practicum.
1. Introduction ELF and its implications on teaching and teacher education are acknowledged as highly significant issues since it is teacher education that plays a vital role in making teachers aware of their non-native assets and preparing them explicitly to exploit these assets in the development of an appropriate pedagogy (Jenkins, 2012; Seidlhofer, 2011). However, there are few studies on ELF in teacher education practice (Bayyurt & Sifakis, 2015a, b; Blair, 2015; Dewey, 2015, 2014, 2012; Sifakis, 2014, 2009, 2007; Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2015). Thus, this field of research still remains largely underexplored, which makes the development and investigation of novel language teacher education models necessary. On the other hand, such models are rare and they have not been comprehensively applied in both pre-service and in-service teacher education yet. As an initiator model in the field, ELF-aware teacher education model aims not only to inform teachers but also to make them tangibly and critically aware of key ELF-related concerns (Bayyurt & Sifakis, 2015a, b; Sifakis, 2014; Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2015). Such awareness challenges many teachers’ deepseated convictions about language, communication and teaching, but once achieved, it opens new possibilities for teaching and learning. The aforementioned model was applied in 2012-2013 at Bogazici University, as a project with in-service teachers from Turkey and Greece led by Bayyurt and Sifakis. In this in-service teacher education project which focused on ELF in theory and practice, the participants were reported to come in terms with ELF concerns and then use their newly acquired knowledge when designing their ELF-aware lessons. The application of this model to pre-service teacher education is non-existent in literature. Thus, whether pre-service English language teachers gain awareness on ELF-related issues in their teacher
Boğaziçi University.
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education programs and how they put their ELF knowledge and insights into practice still remain unexplored. Our study as an initial attempt to fulfill these gaps in the field aims to build an educational framework for pre-service teachers to transform them into ELF-aware practitioners and analyze the ELFrelated perspectives and teaching practices as well as the program evaluations of the teachers exposed to this teacher education program. In this paper, as a part of this ongoing study, we aim to describe this novel teacher education model to give insights to the teacher educators that aim to incorporate ELF-related components into their curriculum. We will also present the preliminary findings of our study about the ELF-related perspectives and practices of the prospective teachers who participated in this program and their program evaluations. 2. ELF-aware pre-service teacher education model Aiming to raise the language teachers’ awareness on the concept of ELF and make them tangibly and critically aware of key ELF-related concerns, the ELF-aware pre-service teacher education model focuses on transforming pre-service English teachers into ELF-aware practitioners through theory, practice, reflection and interaction. Hence, the framework set in this model is transformative and it draws from the transformative learning theory pioneered by Mezirow (1991) and developed by Mezirow and Associates (2000). The transformative learning theory applied in this model aims at making the participants confront and change their own established viewpoints. It reveals a critical viewpoint about the status of English today as well as current English teaching and learning practices. Yet, it must be acknowledged that the transformative framework goes beyond the critical perspective, which mainly focuses on practices that lie outside the teacher’s mind. It rather focuses on changing the individuals and their mindset, that is, the worldviews of the teachers. In our pre-service model, the pre-service teachers received ELF-aware teacher education in two phases extending to two academic terms: Phase 1 was built on theory building and reflection on ELF related matters and it had four main components: an e-learning platform called “portal” in our study, online discussions, mobile learning, and in-class discussions. Phase 2 included intense ELF-focused practice and evaluation and it was centered around the design, implementation and evaluation of ELF- aware lesson plans in the form of both micro teaching and real in-class teaching (i.e. practicum in our case). Let us now describe the phases of this ELF aware language teacher education program in more detail: 2.1. Phases Phase 1: Theory building and reflection
Firstly, an e-learning platform, developed by Bayyurt and Sifakis, comprising readings and reflection questions on several ELF-specific issues was put into implementation. In our team we call it “portal”. The questions on the portal are intended to derive the teachers to think critically and write their own reflections on the issues. The teachers’ reflection on the readings was also fostered with online discussions which formed the second main step of the process. In the online discussion process, Google Group was employed as a technological device and the teachers were asked to relate the readings to their own knowledge and experience through the given discussion questions in a collaborative atmosphere. Also mobile learning was used to strengthen the reading and reflection process of the teachers. Through our mobile interaction group, the teachers received reminders about the weekly assignments and meetings and most importantly, they were sent several important quotes from the weekly readings
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to highlight the key points regularly. We called this new mobile application “Quote Reminder and Thought Provoker”. The further description of this application is given below. Finally, the teachers also conducted in-class discussions each week about the related readings. Phase 2: Experience & evaluation
Based on the belief that transformation can occur if only theory is put into practice, Phase 2 aims at integrating ELF-specific issues into classroom experience in the form of design, implementation and evaluation. In this phase, first, the teachers designed ELF aware lesson plans at the end of the reading and reflection process as their final assignment. Then, in the second term, they implemented these lesson plans in the form of micro-teaching in their pre-service course and evaluated them with us and their own colleagues in the following class discussions. Furthermore, they tried to integrate ELF-related elements into their own practicum. In addition, they assessed not only themselves but also their mentor teachers and schools in terms of ELF integration into the classes. 2.2. Aspects of technological enhancement
In this technologically-enhanced teacher education project, we made use of an e-learning platform, online discussions and mobile learning since we believe in today’s multifaceted learning environment, traditional in-class instruction remains limited when compared to various chances of learner activation that today’s technology provides. As novel components, we incorporated online weekly discussions via Google groups and mobile learning into the original portal-based model. Online weekly discussions were added with the purpose of keeping the participants alert and interactive about the current readings on the agenda. It also aimed at supporting the participants’ answers to the questions that they were supposed to complete at the end of each reading on the portal via exchange of ideas, likely to enrich the participants’ views on ELF-related issues and broaden their horizons. Besides, mobile learning was intended as a means of content guidance and interaction in order that the prospective teachers could deal with this theory building process loaded heavily with readings, reflection and discussion in a more convenient way since mobility brings about convenience, expediency and immediacy to teacher training (Baran, 2014). Therefore, parallel to the readings, each week, the teachers received quotes / excerpts selected from the given readings through a mobile communication platform, which is WhatsApp in our case. It was chosen because it is a free, convenient, user-friendly mobile facility that our participants reported they always used for instant messaging and it offers groups opportunities for content delivery and instant communication. Before making our design, we knew that even with this seemingly simple application, the design was very important. As Erçetin (2011) suggests, the design of mobile materials should be carefully made paying attention to especially the cognitive load imposed on working memory sources, yet she adds little empirical research exists to guide the design of mobile learning materials. For our application, we surveyed the mobile language learning literature which is governed by mostly vocabulary studies and they gave us some ideas and inspiration about the design. This mobile learning application was named “Quote Reminders and Thought Provokers” and each quote / excerpt was numbered and sent with the surname of the author and the year of publication. The quotes were selected paying utmost attention to the fact that they would make the pre-service teachers reflect on some essential points of the articles, attract attention and provoke their thoughts so that they could contribute to the discussions and write their reflections more willingly and at least through some form of guidance. The quotes were sent at weekends as it was expected that the teachers would then work on their readings, reflective answers and online discussions extensively. Each week three to six messages were sent as quote reminders with a prompt asking the teachers’ opinions on the quotes. The ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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quotes were sent leaving space between the posts so as to help the participants think about the given issue deeply and internalize the content step by step. “Quote Reminder & Thought Provoker”, a mobile application we devised by choosing quotes / excerpts from the weekly readings and sending them to the teachers, was deemed to have the potential to keep the learners informed about the course content and requirements and motivate them not only to extend their theoretical knowledge but also to reflect on and discuss the key issues of the subject matter no matter where they are and these estimations have come out to be true as will be revealed in the program evaluations. 3. Methodology This qualitative study aims to explore the pre-service teachers’ ELF-related perceptions and teaching practices as well as their program evaluations as a part of a broader PhD study. The research was conducted with pre-service teachers studying as seniors at Bogazici University, Foreign Language Education Department. 10 teachers participated in the study. The data about the perceptions of the teachers about ELF and ELF-related issues and their evaluations about this teacher education program were collected through open ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Moreover, the data concerning their ELF-related teaching practices were gathered through classroom observations, journals, practicum portfolios and classroom discussions. The data were analyzed through thematic and content analysis. Herein, due to space limitations and ongoing data analysis, only some preliminary findings regarding teachers’ ELF-related perspectives and practices and their evaluations about the program will be presented. 4. Preliminary findings 4.1 Perspectives about ELF
According to the data from the open ended questionnaires asking the teachers to define ELF in their own terms in the beginning and at the end of theoretical ELF-aware teacher instruction, there have been changes in the teachers’ ELF views. The descriptions before the ELF-aware teacher education program tended to focus primarily on the global aspect of English and ELF was reflected more like a global means of communication between people from different countries or cultures. According to some participants, ELF acts as a bridge, a unifying power, a communication medium for all people from different parts of the world. Thus, it is seen to have been defined in a relatively vague way as a global entity. However, after this program, it was clearly specified as a means of communication characterized with certain aspects and “owned” by the teachers as non-native speakers of English. It was seen that in their ELF definitions following the program, the teachers referred to one or more of the following aspects: non-standard uses and flexibility in language use, intelligibility in mutual communication, pluricentrism, multiculturalism and multiple identities with a certain level of proficiency. 4.2 Perspectives about native speaker norms
Before this project, the pre-service teachers stated they had been overwhelmed with the pressure of native speaker norms especially in pronunciation. They stated that before getting introduced to the concept of ELF, they believed in order that they could maintain a career, they should be like native speakers in any aspect so that the possibility of being employed would increase. This also derived from the attitudes of some of their professors, especially those who are native speakers. As stated by the teachers below, the previous speaking experiences in their courses where they were severely restricted by native norms had negative impacts on their psychology:
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“The more the native teachers urged us to speak with a correct pronunciation emphasizing “th” sounds and alike, the more we lost our courage to speak.” “It seemed as if we didn’t know anything about the language just because we couldn’t pronounce some sounds correctly.” However, as most of the teachers said, following the program, they were much more confident about their use of English as non-native teachers and were able to question “for whom it is correct pronunciation” and “who decides about correctness”. 4.3 Perspectives and practices about ELF pedagogy
According to the teachers, ELF has not only changed their views about the possibility of speaking that language, but also impacted the way they are going to teach it: “Unlike the times we didn’t know ELF, we are now freer to speak and ELF has given us a more flexible and broader way of teaching English.” According to the thematic analyses and as observed by the micro-teaching and practicum practices of the teachers, this broader way of teaching includes: Transmitting ELF awareness to the students by means of videos, texts and discussions and emphasizing global ownership, Linking the themes in the English lessons to different non-native cultures in the world and most importantly, students’ own culture, Letting students speak freely and in their own way as long as their errors do not hamper intelligibility, Allowing for the use of L1 when need be, Raising confidence among ELF students by encouraging them to produce intelligible language and discourse in spoken and written form. By doing these, the teachers believed their students could become more engaged in learning and using English. Furthermore, the teachers also reported they started to apply a more critical approach to teaching, which they said had derived from the ELF pedagogy they had been exposed to. For instance, they analyzed the curriculum, the textbooks, their mentor teachers and their schools with regard to their approach to ELF. They also realized that in most of their practicum schools, especially private ones, it is not so easy to integrate ELF into the class since they strictly adhere to native speaker norms. 4.4 Evaluations of the program
The teachers in general, had positive feelings about the ELF-aware teacher education program and displayed a high level of satisfaction. It was often mentioned that it had been the first time they had realized themselves as “real” English teachers since the project asked them to read and reflect on the ELF issues and apply them into “real” in-class teaching practice. The theory and reflection part of the program was found to be “loaded and demanding” by some teachers, yet a great majority of the teachers found this phase as a useful means to internalize ELF and ELF-related concepts and adopt their own stance as non-native teachers. The practice phase was especially deemed to be effective as it made the teachers realize the external conditions that favor or are against ELF-related teaching practices and it gave them a chance to use their own power and creativity and act as role models for the students as ELF aware teachers. As for the assessments of technological means, a great majority of the teachers were content with them. Online discussions were considered to be beneficial in helping the teachers to follow the set ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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schedule and to reflect on the significant points of the readings via lively interactions. However, some thought the platforms were ‘messy’ and it was hard to follow the discussions. Also the reported benefits of “Quote Reminders and Thought Provokers” include continuity in access and interaction and rapid and long shares of information and ideas. It was also thought to lead to rapports in the class and increase motivation. Yet, some participants complained that it is hard for them to follow the long threads and some emphasized that the information sent through this mobile application should be limited. 5. Conclusion In our study, the overall results have revealed the teachers receiving this form of ELF-aware pre-service teacher education displayed transformation in their ELF conceptualization and their self-perceptions as non-native teachers. Their first ELF definitions which reflected global depictions of English defined with general terms turned out to be more and more specific as the education progressed. These specifications of ELF demonstrated acknowledgment of the diversification of English use by non-native speakers and the importance of intelligibility in ELF communication. The teachers were also observed to acquire their own stance as non-native teachers leading them to question strict adherence to native norms and discover their own realities, which caused a boost in their self-confidence. Moreover, in pedagogical terms, they were seen to have adopted an ELF aware approach in their teaching practices with their efforts underlain by the integration of multiple uses of English, different cultures and students’ own L1 and culture into the class as well as correction strategies where intelligibility is the primary norm. All in all, these findings along with the overall satisfaction of the prospective teachers with the model indicate that some components that are likely to make the education of pre-service teachers on ELF and ELF pedagogy effective are intensive reading, reflection, dialogues and discussions in the form of in-class and technology mediated communication, mobile learning and most importantly, transforming the theory and the accumulated knowledge about ELF into real teaching experience via micro-teaching and practicum. It is hoped that ELF aware courses as the one in this design will be integrated into more and more pre-service teacher education programs since it is primarily the teachers who can raise the consciousness of their students about their identities as well as ELF-related issues and make the ELF approach widespread all over the world. Acknowledgements This study is supported by Bogazici University Research Fund, Project Number 8000. We would like to thank all the teacher trainees who participated in this study in 2013-2014 academic year. About the authors Elif Kemaloglu-Er received her BA in Translation Studies from Bogazici University and MA in Teaching English as a Foreign Language from Bilkent University and is currently a PhD candidate in the Department of Foreign Language Education at Bogazici University. She has extensive work experience as an instructor of English and is currently teaching at Bogazici University. Her research interests include English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), ELF pedagogy, teacher education, ELF in teacher education and technology enhanced learning. Email:
[email protected] Yasemin Bayyurt (Ph.D.) is a full professor in the Department of Foreign Language Education at Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey. Her publications include articles in various refereed and indexed journals, and book chapters and books in the field. Her research interests include cross-/inter-cultural communication, English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), teacher education, and curriculum design. Her publications include articles in various refereed and indexed journals, and book chapters and books in the field. She recently co-edited a book on “Current Perspectives on Pedagogy for ELF” published by De Gruyter Mouton, in “Developments in English as a Lingua Franca” Series. Email:
[email protected]
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References Baran, E. (2014). A review of research on mobile learning in teacher education. Educational Technology & Society, 17(4), 17–32. Bayyurt, Y., & Sifakis, N. C. (2015a). ‘ELF-aware in-service teacher education: a transformative perspective.’ In H. Bowles & A. Cogo (Eds.), International perspectives on English as a lingua franca: pedagogical insights (pp. 117-135). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Bayyurt, Y., & Sifakis, N. C. (2015b). Developing an ELF-aware pedagogy: Insights from a self-education programme. In P. Vettorel (Ed.), New frontiers in teaching and learning English (pp. 55-76). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Blair, A. (2015). Evolving a post-native, multilingual model for ELF-aware teacher education. In Y. Bayyurt & S. Akcan (Eds.), Current perspectives on pedagogy for ELF (pp.89-101). Berlin: De Gruyter. Dewey, M. (2012). Towards a post-normative approach: Learning the pedagogy of ELF. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 1(1), 141-170. Dewey, M. (2014). Pedagogic criticality and English as a Lingua Franca. Atlantis: Journal of the Spanish Association of Anglo-American Studies, 36(2), 11-30. Dewey, M. (2015). Time to wake up some dogs! Shifting the culture of language in ELT. In Y. Bayyurt & S. Akcan (Eds.), Current perspectives on pedagogy for ELF (pp.121-135). Berlin: De Gruyter. Erçetin, G. (2011). Pedagogical issues in developing mobile assisted language learning materials. Boğaziçi University Journal of Education, 28(1), 22-31. Jenkins, J. (2012). English as a lingua franca from the classroom to the classroom. ELT Journal, 66, 486494. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. et al. (Eds.). (2000). Learning as transformation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Seidlhofer, B. (2012). Corpora and English as a lingua franca. In K. Hyland, C.M. Huat & M. Handford (Eds.), Corpus applications in applied linguistics (pp. 135-149). London: Continuum. Sifakis, N. C. (2007). The education of the teachers of English as a lingua franca: A transformative perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17, 355-375. Sifakis, N. C. (2009). Challenges in teaching ELF in the periphery: The Greek context. ELT Journal, 63, 230-237. Sifakis, N. C. (2014). ELF awareness as an opportunity for change: a transformative perspective for ESOL teacher education. JELF, 3(2), 315 – 333. Sifakis, N. C., & Bayyurt, Y. (2015). Insights from ELF and WE in teacher training in Greece and Turkey. World Englishes.34 (3), 471-484.
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Calvo, L. C. S., El Kadri, M. S., & El Kadri, A. (2016). ELF in teacher education programs: Mapping the proposals presented in ELF5 and ELF6. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives. (pp. 268-277). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
ELF in teacher education programs: Mapping the proposals presented in ELF5 and ELF6 Luciana Cabrini Simões Calvo Michele Salles El Kadri Atef El Kadri Abstract The aim of this paper is to map the initiatives of incorporating ELF in Teacher Education programs around the world, based on the papers presented in the last two abstract booklets of the International Conference of English as a lingua franca ELF5 (2012) and ELF6 (2013). Using the keywords “teacher education” or “teacher” in the abstract as criteria search, a total amount of 58 abstracts were found. Results show the developments and the areas for further exploration in the university context, especially in teacher education courses.
Keywords: teacher education programs, ELF5 and ELF6 abstract booklets, mapping.
1. Introduction Considering the position of English as a global lingua franca (ELF), discussions and investigation focusing on the teaching/learning of this language and the implications for teacher education are paramount (El Kadri & Gimenez, 2013; Seidlhofer, 2004; Sifakis, 2014). In this scenario, if we believe that the teaching of English nowadays needs to be reconceptualized according to its status in the world, teacher educators are, thus, central to promote these changes in their classrooms and in initial teacher education programs (El Kadri, 2011). However, besides the recognition that ELF is an important perspective to be introduced into teacher education programs in Brazil (El Kadri, Calvo & Gimenez, 2014), results of previous research carried out in our context indicated that, in general, teacher educators are faced with the challenge of incorporating ELF perspective in teacher education (El Kadri, 2010, 2011; Gimenez, Calvo & El Kadri, 2011; Siqueira, 2008). Thus, our recent studies on ELF in Brazil have shown that although ELF is already an established area of research and researchers have pointed that the biggest challenge for teacher education is, therefore, how to deal with the re-conceptualization of the assumptions that the perspective brings for the teaching of English (Seidhofer, 2004), in Brazil only recently it has been introduced as an important topic of discussion (El Kadri, 2010; Siqueira, 2008, 2011; Souza da Silva et al., 2011). As we already highlighted, there are few publications reporting how an ELF perspective is being included in pre-service English language teacher education ( El Kadri, Calvo & Gimenez , 2014) and even fewer have provided practical examples of how to implement a curriculum that is sensitive to those points of view (El Kadri, 2010). Thus, we have noticed the initiatives to include ELF in teacher education programs in the state of Paraná, Brazil, so far, have been limited to a few teacher educators and the inclusions are mainly in the pedagogical component of the program concerning ELF awareness. Such study also suggested that in general, traditional language assumptions are not challenged by language-related courses (El Kadri, Calvo & Gimenez, 2014). Considering this context, this paper aims at mapping the initiatives of incorporating ELF in Teacher Education programs around the world, based on the papers presented in the last two abstract booklets of the International Conference of English as a Lingua Franca ELF 5 (2012) and ELF 6 (2013).The State
University of Maringa.
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purpose of mapping the studies is to present a resource for teacher educators aiming at i) raising their ELF awareness and ii) providing practical examples of how the ELF perspective has been dealt in teacher education programs worldwide. The data was gathered from the last two abstract booklets of the International Conference of English as a Lingua Franca ELF 5 (2012) and ELF 6 (2013). Using the words “teacher education” or “teacher” in the abstracts as criteria search, we found the total amount of 58 abstracts: 31 abstracts in ELF5 abstracts booklet and 27 abstracts in ELF6 abstracts booklet. The next section presents the results of the analysis. 2. Results The selected abstracts had as their main focus: 1) Attitudes/beliefs/views/ perceptions/awareness of ELF; 2) Impacts of ELF courses or projects; 3) Proposals; 4) Other focuses. Each focus will be discussed separately in the subsections below. 2.1 Attitudes/beliefs/views/perceptions/awareness of ELF
Regarding the first category, thirty-two (32) abstracts focused on attitudes, views, opinions, beliefs, perceptions on ELF were found. These abstracts vary from a range of topics, such as: the ELF perspective; pronunciation; English language use; standard and non-standard varieties of English; the English language itself; native vs. nonnative English teachers, among others, and they come from different countries, mainly: Greece, Germany, Turkey, Taiwan, China, Croatia, Hungary, Finland, Portugal and Brazil. The findings vary depending on the context, but generally, when it comes to the beliefs or attitudes towards ELF, the awareness of ELF and the dichotomy between the native and non-native speaker are mentioned. Suggestions on how incorporating ELF content in teacher education programs are provided in few studies. Considering the first aspect, we could observe that the studies show that, in general, their informants are aware of or familiar with the status of ELF. Nevertheless, even being aware of ELF, a conflicting perception about it was evidenced. These conflicting perceptions were related to: the need to model British or American varieties of English in their practice to be considered a “successful English language teacher” (Ersin & Bayurt, 2013); not feeling ready to plan lessons according to this perspective (preservice teachers) or not being sure about how the course as a whole was treating it in individual disciplines (teacher educators) (El Kadri, 2013); not internalizing what ELF is about, taking on an unsure stance (Duran, 2013); a “need to have a native speaker model to teach English and its culture” (British and American varieties) (Bayyurt, 2012, p. 97), among other concerns. Along with some of these studies mentioned before, the dichotomy between native and non-native speaker is much emphasized when considering ELF and these considerations involve questions of authority, ownership and model of language. When discussing the findings of their studies, some suggestions are provided for raising awareness of ELF in teacher education contexts. Such suggestions involve the need to develop courses (Chern & Curran, 2013), lectures (Tomak & Kocabas, 2012) and reflections (Akcan & Özkaya, 2013) exploring issues related to ELF. Also, there is a call for the need to make changes in ELT courses “so as to improve training courses and pre-service teachers’ awareness and understanding of the transformations English is going through as a lingua franca” (Cavalheiro & Azuaga, 2012) and for a reform of teaching models (Fang, 2012).
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2.2 Impacts of ELF courses or projects
In this category, eight (08) studies had as their focus the impacts ELF courses/projects have had on teachers (Derince, Çakmak & Kural, 2013; Dewey, 2012; Eslami & Ates, 2012; Inal & Ozdemir, 2013; Kaçar, 2013; Lopriore, 2013; Pitzl & Ehrenreich, 2012; Sarici & Derince, 2013). The impacts are summarized in the table below. Table 1. Studies showing the impacts of ELF courses or projects Studies
Impacts
Derince, Çakmak & Kural -The study reports that students and teachers become more (2013) confident in terms of developing an understanding of ELF awareness. Dewey (2012, p. 26)
-The impact itself was not presented, but the abstract mentions that a discussion, based on the data from his project of teacher development, will be made on how these teachers “can be shown both the limitations of English when conceived as a fixed set of language forms, and by contrast, the rich communicative potential of the language when it is untethered from these constraints and is approached from an ELF perspective”.
Eslami & Ates (2012, p. 166) -This study focuses on the impact of a course aimed at creating awareness on World Englishes (WEs) among future teachers and “have them explore ways to communicate effectively with WE speakers”. The impact of the course was not mentioned in the abstract – there is only the information that “a pre and post survey were given to preservice teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of the activities used and to determine if preservice teachers’ awareness towards World Englishes has increased”. Thus, we can deduce a positive impact since the paper, based on the results of the study, will present ideas and practices to help “the future teachers [to] understand WE in their journey to become global citizens”. Inal & Ozdemir (2013)
Not mentioned in the abstract
Kaçar (2013)
-The results of this study indicated that the programs analysed contributed to the participants level of intercultural competence to some extent in different ways, leading to different academic and social gains on their part.
Lopriore (2013)
Teachers’ implicit and explicit knowledge about English inevitably challenged by the exposure to and reflection upon ELF, led to a shift in positioning themselves in terms of their role and function in an institutional context that demands for standards in language achievement.
Pitzl & Ehrenreich (2012)
-Raise awareness and change attitudes on ELF
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-According to the authors, the teachers become ELF-aware English language teachers who experiment with the idea of implementing an ELF-aware pedagogy in their classrooms even though an ELF aware pedagogy is difficult to implement in a primary school context.
As the table shows, in general, these courses and projects have had great importance in raising awareness on ELF. Some of them also demonstrate that being aware of the ELF concept made the informants have different attitudes or understandings about it. For instance, Pitzl and Ehrenreich (2012, p. 16) consider that “the course seems to succeed in developing an informed awareness of and changed attitudes towards ELF on the part of our students, an observation which will hopefully encourage other educators to include similar elements into their local teacher education environments”. However, they also demonstrate that there is a gap between being aware and changing practices in the classroom. Specifically, one (01) study focused on the impact of government prescription (Zarifa, Quiroz & Khoury, 2013). This paper “addresses the extent to which English language learners and teachers in Korea have been exposed to and/or understand ELF’s theoretical principles, which imply a break from top-down, western standardized proficiency assessment” (Zarifa, Quiroz & Khoury, 2013). The results show that although the informants are aware of the fundamental principles of ELF, their behaviour as language teachers and learners is extensively influenced by government mandated curricula. 2.3 Proposals
In ten (10) abstracts, proposals were presented. Some of these proposals include: 1. A model of teacher education that reflects the multilingual and multicultural realities of English today (DogançayAktuna & Hardman, 2012). In the model, they consider teacher education as an interaction between “place (where the teaching and learning are occurring and the attendant variation in form and use of English), proficiency (the level that is appropriate for both teachers and learners to gain), and how teaching is always a transformative process (transforming the lives of both learners and teachers) and action in praxis” (p. 8). 2. A replacement of the current assistant program in European Union by an exchange of pre- or in-service teachers of English from different lingua-cultural backgrounds (Weber, 2012). This suggestion considers that “the ELF perspective of such an exchange program would be favorable to a more realistic and relevant approach to the teaching of the language and enhance the motivation of learners” (p. 24) and would also encourage the idea of plurilingualism as a characteristic of “common European citizenship”. 3. A reconceptualization of language teacher education (Karaman, 2012). The author mentions Tochon’s (2011 apud Karaman, 2012) deep approach to language education as having a relevant role in that. It is also mentioned that “reflecting on the reframing of the theoretical frames for language learning, teaching, and teacher roles could facilitate local teacher educators’ awareness and efforts towards diverse glocal pedagogies”. No further information about the proposed approach is given. 4. An academic course (Schekulin & Dorn, 2013) – the aim of this project was to develop an academic course serving the needs of prospective English language teachers, and in return to provide the research community with valuable data on the awareness of students, and their attitudes towards ELF and its relation to ELT. The authors argue that while such a course should form an essential part of English language teacher training in this day and age, social factors and personal biographies can be expected to have an even greater impact on dispositions towards ELF and ELT. However, students frequently identified the same institutional barriers that academics have been discussing: viz. curricula and language testing regimens which continue to be based on native-speaker-centric conceptions of the English language. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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5. An adoption of a local critical intercultural pedagogy (Siqueira & Scheyerl, 2013). No further information is provided in the abstract. 6. A model for ELF-aware teacher education based on Mezirow’ s transformative theory (Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2013). According to the authors, the main premise of their proposal argues that for EFL teachers to integrate ELF in their teaching practice it is not enough to be informed about ELF issues, rather it is necessary to become actively aware of, challenge and transform some of their deeper convictions and beliefs about the teaching and learning of English. In this proposal, the authors suggest teachers to: a) read extensive articles from the ELF literature, b) view videos and c) answer a series of questions that prompted them to reflect both on ELF and on their own beliefs, experiences and practices. They were then asked to design lesson plans for their teaching context, justify their choices, teach and record their lessons and reflect on their impact. 7. An online course for teachers (Hall, 2013): The author presents an online course for teachers which the main objectives are: (a) to raise awareness of the ‘plurilithic’ nature of English; (b) to enable teachers to value the diversity of individually and locally appropriate learning objectives and outcomes; and (c) to encourage them to develop and share new pedagogical strategies to adapt to the realities of ELF usage. According to the author, the course adopts a social constructivist approach to language, learning, and use, combining ELF-oriented work on social interaction with cognitive work on usagebased learning. 8. A teaching proposal focused on four stages (Llurda, 2013) – The author formulates a teaching proposal aiming changing attitudes. There are four stages in this model: a) Exposure to ‘realistic’ situations, with examples of cultural and linguistic diversity: in this stage, according to the author, teachers are presented with data from films, internet videos and written texts, illustrating the diversity of communication situations, including examples of fairly unintelligible NS English as well as the current multilingual and multicultural realities of global cities; b) Analysis of data showing NNS professional performance: in this stage, according to the author, teacher trainees will be exposed to examples of successful use of English by NNS users in different professional fields; c) Analysis of examples of academic uses of ELF – in this stage, data from corpora showing the use of ELF in academic contexts will be discussed and analysed in detail; d) Prospective scenarios for international English: in this stage, teachers are presented with the dichotomy of a future world dominated by a single leading country vs. a world with multiple leaders (BRIC+US+Europe). The author also highlights arguments for the latter option as the most likely to happen, with the probable outcome of English remaining as the international lingua franca in a world that will no longer have its centre in the US but in multiple places. 2.4 Other focuses
Some other studies had different focuses of investigation, such as: 1. Identity of teachers of English through their discourses in ELF contexts (Bayyurt & Ersin, 2012), through thematic analysis related to the research question “How do Turkish teachers of English construct their identities through their ELF discourses?” The study showed that the teachers were not aware of the fact they were ELF users and that they were teaching future ELF users based on a traditional view of language that considers the native speaker as a model of English expression. 2. Form and function in ELF for English teachers (Hall, 2012, p. 95). The author claims that “continuing ambiguities regarding form and function in the concept of ELF weaken its potential to effectively underpin teachers’ efforts to reconcile this contradiction”. Based on data from conversations with teachers in Gaza, he proposes “that an integration of social and cognitive approaches to language might help make the fundamental message of ELF research more meaningful to teachers, while at the
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3.
4.
5. 6.
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same time acknowledging the complex realities of English learning and teaching in global and local contexts”. Analysis of a teacher preparation program that trains pre-service teachers from different backgrounds, discussing the following question “What can teacher preparation programs do to train truly effective teachers of English as a global lingua franca?” (Gordon, 2012, p. 127). The presentation intends to bring an overview of the linguistic component of the program, an analysis of the program’s pedagogical and assessment components; it also points that the strategies to recruit pre-service teachers from diverse communities will be briefly presented. Language awareness (Illes, Feyér & Akcan, 2012). The paper brings the results of a study developed with students in teacher education programmes in Hugary and Turkey; its aim is to analyze the challenge these students face during their teaching practicum. Based on the challenges and difficulties found (especially in the use of the language), it is proposed that language awareness courses should be a mandatory element in teacher education programmes. Checking ways of incorporating ELF in the curriculum of ELT departments in Turkey (Alttinmakas, Çeçen & Serdar, 2012), focusing on the following core courses: Approaches and Methods in English Language Teaching; Material Design and Evaluation; Testing in ELT; Analysis of teaching materials produced by prospective teachers in Brazil (Gimenez, El Kadri & Calvo, 2012) and by university students who “created and adapted music, songs, chants and rhymes to teach ELF to young learners” (Fleta, 2012). The first study discusses to what extent the materials reflect the implications of ELF and also reveals the pre-service teachers’ understandings of ELF. The second one reports the way they created “songs and chants for daily routines and transition times in ELF” (p. 137).
3. Discussion The analysis demonstrates that most of studies focus on beliefs and attitudes towards ELF, which reveals a concern with how the perspective is being seen/understood. It also suggests that analyzing the attitudes and conceptions can be a good starting point to investigate the context for then developing action research or implementing proposals in order to raise awareness on ELF. Although we see the study of attitudes as relevant and as a first process that enables the changing of practices, we suggest that the study of other influences on teachers’ beliefs, such as materials, evaluation and the government curricula would also challenge teacher’s practices in the classroom. Besides, there were studies which focused on the impacts some initiatives of incorporating ELF in teacher education programs had. Such studies reveal that there is a growing recognition of the need to incorporate ELF in teacher education courses. Although there were practical proposals, the restricted access to abstracts implies that further investigation is necessary to be able to understand those initiatives and how successful they have been. 4. Final Remarks This paper aimed at mapping the initiatives of incorporating ELF in Teacher Education programs around the world, based on the papers presented in the last two abstract booklets of the International Conference of English as a lingua franca ELF5 (2012) and ELF6 (2013). Such analysis allows us to notice that there has been improvement in terms of practical proposals of incorporating ELF, but there is still a lack of studies on external institutional constraints to teacher work and ELF, on how an ELF perspective has been dealt in English classes of teacher education courses or even throughout the curriculum. Analysis of didactic materials used in such courses or even the
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assessments or evaluation criteria in their English classes could also be an interesting point for future investigation. About the authors Luciana Cabrini Simões Calvo is a professor in the Foreign Language Department at the State University of Maringa, Brazil, and holds a PhD in Language Studies from the State University of Londrina, Brazil. Her research interests include teacher education, foreign language teaching and learning, communities of practice and English as a lingua franca. E-mail:
[email protected] Michele Salles El Kadri is a Professor in the Foreign languages Department at the State University of Londrina (Brazil) and holds a Doctor and a Master Degree in Language Studies. Her research interests include teacher education, English as a lingua franca, {coteaching|cogenerative dialogue} and identities. E-mail:
[email protected] Atef El Kadri is an English teacher at College Language Center. Currently he is an undergraduate student in the English language teacher education program at the State University of Londrina, Brazil. His research includes teaching and learning of English as a foreign language and as a lingua franca. Email:
[email protected]
References Akcan, S., Sema, M., & Özkaya, S. (2013). Pedagogical and attitudinal perspectives towards native and non-native English speaker teachers in Turkey. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Alttinmakas, D., Çeçen, S., & Serdar, H. (2012). Investigating the incorporation of ELF perspective in the curriculum of ELT departments in Turkey. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 128). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Bayyurt, Y. (2012). Involvement of culture in English language teacher education programmes in Turkey. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 97). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Bayyurt, Y., & Ersin, P. (2012). The social construction of teacher identity in an ELF context. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 8). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Cavalheiro, L., & Azuaga, L. (2012). Bringing new ELT policies and ELF to teacher training courses. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 16). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Chern, C., & Curran, J. (2013). The impact of ELF concepts on pre-service English teachers. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Dogançay-Aktuna, S., & Hardman, J. (2012). Situated meta-praxis as effective pedagogy for EIL teacher education. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 8). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Derince, M., Çakmak, P.T., & Kural, F. (2013). Reflections on the implementation of ELF-aware lessons in secondary and tertiary English language classrooms. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Dewey, M. (2012). It is time to wake up some dogs: Shifting the culture of language in ELT. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 26). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University.
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Duran, D. (2013) Nonnative English teachers’ beliefs on English as an international language: Turkish context. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ El Kadri, M. S. (2010). Atitudes sobre o estatuto do inglês como língua franca em curso de formação inicial de professores. [Attitudes on English as a Lingua Franca in a teacher education program] M.A. Thesis, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Brasil. El Kadri, M.S. (2011). Atitudes de futuros professores em relação ao estatuto do inglês como língua franca. In L.C.S. Calvo, M. S. El Kadri, D.I.B.G. Ortenzi & K.A. Silva (Eds.). Reflexões sobre ensino de inglês e formação de professores no Brasil: Uma homenagem à professora Telma Gimenez (pp.229-264). Campinas, SP: Editora Pontes. El Kadri, M. S. & Gimenez, T. (2013). Formando professores de inglês para o contexto do inglês como língua franca. [Educating English language teachers for the English as a lingua franca context]. Acta Scientarium, Language and Culture, 35(2), 125-133. El Kadri, M.S. (2013). Attitudes towards ELF in a teacher education program in Brazil. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ El Kadri, M. S., Calvo, L. C. S., & Gimenez, T. (2014, September). ELF in Brazilian teacher education programs. Paper presented at the 7th International Conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF7), Athens, Greece. Ersin, P., & Bayurt, Y. (2013). A data-based approach to teacher identity development in an ELF context. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Eslami, Z., & Ates, B. (2012). Teaching World Englishes: A case in a teacher education program in the U.S. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 166). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University Fang, F. (2012). English as a lingua franca: Calling for reform of English teaching models in China. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 115). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Fleta, M.T. (2012). Materials development in ELF for language and content teaching. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 137). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Gimenez, T., Calvo, L.C.S., & El Kadri, M.S. (Eds.). (2011). Inglês como língua franca: ensino-aprendizagem e formação de professores. Campinas, SP: Pontes Editores. Gimenez, T., El Kadri, M. S., & Calvo, L.C.S. (2012). Beyond Madonna: The creation of materials for teaching English as a lingua franca. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 134). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Gordon, T. (2012). Preparing EFL teachers for the global community. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5), (p. 127). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Hall, C. (2012). Reconciling beliefs about form and function in ELF for English teachers. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 95). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Hall, C. (2013). Engaging teachers with ELF as individual and social construction. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Illes, E., Feyér, B., & Akcan, S. (2012). Language awareness of prospective English teachers in Hungary and Turkey. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 146). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University.
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Inal, D., & Ozdemir, E. (2013). Responding to ELF in the classroom- clandestine practices or required methodology? In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Kaçar, I.G. (2013). The impact of study abroad programs in Turkey on intercultural competence development. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Karaman, A.C. (2012). A deeper approach to language teacher education. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 30). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Lopriore, L. (2013). ELF in teacher education: A way and ways. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Llurda, E. (2013). A teacher-training proposal for changing attitudes towards ELF. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Pitzl, M-L., & Ehrenreich, S. (2012). Preparing teachers for an ELF future: What we CAN tell them. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 16). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Sarici, J., & Derince, M. (2013). Perspectives of primary school teachers on implementing ELF-aware English language lessons at primary school level. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 209-239. Schekulin, C., & Dorn, N. (2013). Teachers as multipliers: Raising awareness for ELF in teacher training. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Sifakis, N. (2014). ELF awareness as an opportunity for change: A transformative perspective for ESOL teacher education. JELF, 3(2), 317-335. Sifakis, N., & Bayyurt, Y. (2013). Towards an ELF-aware teacher education: Lessons from a transformative self-education programme. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Siqueira, D. S. P. (2008). Inglês como língua internacional: por uma pedagogia intercultural crítica. Doctoral dissertation, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brasil. Siqueira, D. S. P. (2011). Inglês como língua franca: O desafio de ensinar um idioma desterritorializado. In T. Gimenez, L.C. S. Calvo, & M. S. El Kadri (Eds.), Inglês como língua franca: Ensino-aprendizagem e formação de professores (pp. 87-115). Campinas, SP: Editora Pontes. Siqueira, S., & Scheyerl, D. (2013). English as a Lingua Franca: For a critical intercultural pedagogy. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/ Souza, A.G.F., Barcaro, C., & Grande, G.C. (2011). As representações de alunas-professoras de um curso de Letras sobre o estatuto do inglês como língua franca. In: T. Gimenez, L. C. S. Calvo, & M. S. El Kadri (Eds.), Inglês como língua franca: Ensino-aprendizagem e formação de professores (pp. 193-220). Campinas, SP: Editora Pontes. Tomak, B., & Kocabas, P. (2012). The perspectives of Turkish prospective teachers on ELF and their awareness of it in their ELT programs. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 155). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Weber, E. (2012). English as a lingua franca and appropriate teacher competence. In Abstract booklet of the fifth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 5) (p. 24). Istanbul: Bogaziçi University. Zarifa A., Quiroz S., & Khoury G. (2013). (Mis)perceptions of ELF theory and practice among preservice Korean teachers of English. In Abstract booklet of the sixth international conference of English as a lingua franca (ELF 6). Rome: Roma Tre University. Retrieved from: http://host.uniroma3.it/eventi/elf6/
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El Kadri, M. S., Calvo, L. C. S., & Gimenez, T. (2016). ELF in Brazilian teacher education programs. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives. (pp. 278-282). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
ELF in Brazilian teacher education programs Michele Salles El Kadri Luciana Cabrini Simões Calvo Telma Gimenez Abstract The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a study aimed at analyzing to what extent an ELF perspective has informed the curriculum of English language teacher education programs in the state of Paraná, Brazil. Data was gathered through questionnaires addressed to educators from public universities. Results will be discussed in terms of whether and how ELF perspective has been adopted in their curriculum.
Keywords: teacher education, Brazil, curriculum.
1. Introduction Motivated by pedagogical concerns, ELF researchers have emphasized the importance of considering the implications of the decentering of ‘native speakers’ and notions such as ‘ownership of English ’ and ‘accuracy’ (Cogo & Dewey, 2012; Seidlhofer, 2011). Although this discussion has evolved to analyse specific instances such as teacher education schemes (Dewey, 2012) and textbooks (Takahashi, 2014), or to suggest approaches to teacher education (Sifakis, 2014), in Brazil research on lingua franca is still at early stages (Bordini & Gimenez, 2014; El Kadri & Gimenez, 2013). In accordance with studies elsewhere, research on perceptions and beliefs has shown that although it has become common sense that English is used as a global lingua franca, the pedagogical implications of such recognition have received little attention, despite the acknowledgement that it begs for alternative pedagogies (El Kadri, 2010; Gimenez, 2009; Gimenez, Calvo, & El Kadri, 2011; Jordão, 2011; Siqueira, 2008). In this scenario - with the current status of ELF and with new varieties of English emerging throughout the world - our teacher education programs are faced with the challenge of deconstructing historical understandings that associate English solely with native speakers (Graddol, 2006). Considering that initial teacher education programs play an important role in this kind of questioning, a small-scale study aimed at analyzing to what extent an ELF perspective has informed the curriculum of English language teacher education programs in the state of Paraná, Brazil was carried out. 2. The study This is an initial probe into the issue of whether (and how) an ELF perspective has been adopted in English language teacher education programs, with a quantitative-qualitative focus. The data was gathered through an open ended questionnaire responded by educators of seven1 English language teacher education programs in Paraná, a state in Brazil considered progressive in terms of English language teaching. These four year programs follow the existing framework for the education of English language teachers in Brazil. They are carried out at university level that could either be exclusive to the English language or provide a dual qualification (Portuguese and English). The curriculum is generally comprised
Universidade Estadual de Londrina/CAPES.
[email protected] Estadual de Maringá.
[email protected] Universidade Estadual de Londrina/CAPES.
[email protected] 1 The responses were given by teacher educators of courses offered by the 7 state funded universities in the state of Paraná. Universidade
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of two main strands: language and literature. Pedagogical expertise is developed through courses and practical experiences in schools. The dominant models of language development are based on discursive notions of language, although largely focused on native speakers’ norms. The questionnaire used to gather the data had the following questions: 1) Are you (and other teacher educators in your program) aware of the discussions about ELF and teacher education? How do you stand on this issue? 2) Is an ELF approach adopted in the program you coordinate? If so, in what kind of activities? 3) Do the teacher educators working in your program challenge the status of English as a foreign language in their classes? 4) In your opinion, do novice teachers need to be EFL-aware? If so, how? 5) Some ELF implications for teaching are listed below. Which ones do you consider relevant to the education of Brazilian teachers? Why? the re-conceptualisation of the reasons for learning English, emphasizing the idea that we want to communicate with other non-native speakers of English around the world; the need to include varieties of English other than Standard American or Standard British for the teaching of receptive skills; addressing topics and themes covering a wider range of social and global issues; awareness of the role of languages in our societies, specially of English as a language of international communication that enables us to access information and interact with people around the world; understanding of the spread of English in the world and its connection with globalization; the development of a critical stance in relation to the association of the language only with American or British English and people; possibility to create other interpretative procedures and new meanings for social practices involving reading, writing and speaking. (Gimenez, Calvo, & El Kadri, 2011, pp. 15-16)
3. Results Most of the educators (6 out of 7) responded they were acquainted with the discussions about ELF. They mentioned their contact with these discussions through: a) ELF research publications; b) demand posed by being responsible for courses that had ELF included in the course program (therefore the need to learn more about it); c) ELF related activities (research, preparation of teaching units and courses) carried out in partnership with colleagues from another university; d) ELF discussed in postgraduate courses attended. Thus, the majority believes an ELF perspective is very important in the education of English language teachers, as the following excerpt exemplifies: “I believe issues such as these motivate learners to feel less as foreigners, many times ashamed of their accent, and more like owners of the language, by giving them the possibility to contribute with their values, culture and ideologies to enrich the language”.
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The second question aimed at investigating to what extent an ELF approach was included in the teacher education program. All respondents mentioned that the curricula of their courses incorporate contents related to ELF, although three of them mentioned that the percentage throughout the curriculum is minimal. Regarding what kind of activities such inclusion involved, teacher educators mentioned: (a) disciplines that dealt explicitly with pedagogical issues (7/7 answers) and (b) disciplines that deal with language learning/improvement and culture (4/7 answers). Some other spaces mentioned by them were projects involving public schools and universities (PIBID2); didactic units produced for the Distance Learning course; courses at an academic event and through the research orientation in a graduate course. Regarding the practice of their peers, when asked if the teacher educators working in their program challenge the status of English as a foreign language in their classes, two of them answered “not all of them”, two others responded affirmatively, two negatively and one could not answer for the practice of her peers. Their answers are summarized in the table below: Table 1. Teacher educators’ colleagues’ awareness of ELF Teacher educators’ colleagues’ awareness of ELF A Only the teachers in the following subjects: English Oral Production and Comprehension; English for the Classroom; Applied Linguistics.
Comments: - Some discussions in the literature area concerning the reformulation of the programme of the discipline: “English Literature” for “Literatures of the English Language”.
B
Not all of them
- Not all of them are familiarized with the discussion; others may think it is not important.
C
YES
- They challenge the question not only reading and accepting what has been published in the main journals of the area; but they relate the authors’ comprehension of this theme with the reality of teaching and learning English we face in Brazil.
D She cannot answer for all the educators - She discusses the topic with students from the 8th – from her part: YES
E
YES
F
NO
semester of the course.
- They challenge it in the following ways: i) systematically (discussing theoretical texts about it); ii) spontaneously (when it is necessary to challenge/question students’ beliefs).
G NO
2
PIBID -“Programa Interinstitucional de Bolsa de Iniciação a docência” - Interinstitutional Scholarship Program for Initiation to Teaching.
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Question 4 was related to their opinion regarding the need of novice teachers to be ELF aware. All educators were unanimous in recognizing the importance of raising awareness about ELF in teacher education. They mentioned it is important to do it (a) throughout the curriculum (3/7), (b) in disciplines that deal explicitly with pedagogical issues + in English classes (2/7) and (c) in disciplines that deal explicitly with pedagogical issues (2/7). Regarding the implications of an ELF perspective, the respondents were unanimous in reaffirming that all of them were relevant. Their views about the given implications can be pointed out as follows. Respondents A and B consider that discussing ELF involves rethinking norms, patterns and strategies; it implies re-discussing the aims to learn English in our context. Also, respondent B indicates that it is important to discuss such implications as many professors are aware of the status of English in the world, but many of them are not familiar with the pedagogical implications of it. In turn, respondent D highlights that all implications are relevant. Considering an order of priority, she highlights the implication n. 1 (the re-conceptualisation of the reasons for learning English, emphasizing the idea that we want to communicate with other non-native speakers of English around the world), because many students come in and out of the course without reflecting about this question. The same observation was made by respondent E who considers that there is the need to detach English from native speakers’ standards as the English language is used in multilingual contexts. Other informants made individual comments for each implication or just established that all of them have their level of importance. 4. Discussion The responses suggest that, among those teacher educators, there is the recognition that ELF is an important perspective to be introduced into initial teacher education programs. To our surprise many of them informed familiarity with the subject, although we could not assess what exactly they meant by ELF. Apparently, there is recognition that English can no longer be associated only with native speakers, but this idea is addressed mainly in the pedagogical component of the program, and not widespread among the teaching staff. Such information suggests that, in general, traditional language assumptions are not challenged by language-related courses, thus resulting in isolated attempts and initiatives by those who had contact with the ELF literature. However, we would need more detailed ethnographic data to be able to present conclusions about the degree in which ELF has been discussed in those courses and what kind of activities are designed to challenge traditional assumptions that may be guiding the language component of the programs. 5. Concluding remarks In this paper, we aimed at presenting the results of a small-scale study aimed at analyzing to what extent an ELF perspective has informed the curriculum of English language teacher education programs in the state of Paraná, Brazil in order to understand how the perspective has been dealt in our context. This initial probe suggests that ELF is not ignored by some teacher educators working in the state universities but its introduction is limited. Further qualitative research is needed to access understandings and practices in actual classrooms. Only then will we be able to provide more detailed insights into how Brazilian teacher educators are dealing with a perspective they deem relevant and necessary in the education of English language teachers.
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About the authors
Michele Salles El Kadri is a professor in the ForeignLanguage Department at the state university of Lodrina (Brazil) and holds a Doctor and a Master Degree in language studies. Her research interests include teacher education, English as a lingua franca, {co-teaching|cogenerative dialogue} and identities. E-mail:
[email protected] Luciana Cabrini Simões Calvo is a professor in the Foreign Language Department at the state university of Maringa, Brazil, and holds a PhD in Language Studies from the State University of Londrina, Brazil. Her research interests include teacher education, foreign language teaching and learning, communities of practice and English as a lingua franca. E-mail:
[email protected] Telma Gimenez is an Associate Professor at Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), with a PhD from Lancaster University (UK). Her research interests are in the areas of English language teacher education, globalization and educational policies. Currently she is a Visiting Academic at the Institute of Education, UK, with a scholarship from the Brazilian Ministry of Education (CAPES). Email:
[email protected]
References Bordini, M., & Gimenez, T. (2014). Estudos sobre inglês como lingua franca no Brasil (2005-2012): Uma metassíntese qualitativa [Studies on ELF in Brazil (2005-2012): A qualitative metasynthesis]. Signum: Estudos da linguagem, 17(1), 10-43. Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2012). Analysing English as a lingua franca. A corpus-driven investigation. London: Continuum. Dewey, M. (2012). Towards a post-normative approach: Learning the pedagogy of ELF. Journal of English as a lingua franca, 1(1), 141-170. Gimenez, T. (2009). Antes de babel: Inglês como língua franca. In Proceedings of the 7th Encontro de Letras: Linguagem e ensino – ELLE, Londrina: UNOPAR. Gimenez, T., Calvo, L.C.S., & El Kadri, M.S., (Eds.). (2011). Inglês como língua franca: Ensino-aprendizagem e formação de professores. Series in Novas Perspectivas em Línguistica Aplicada. Campinas, SP: Pontes Editores. Graddol, D. (2006). English next. London: British Council. El Kadri, M. S. (2010). Atitudes sobre o estatuto do inglês como língua franca em curso de formação inicial de professores. M.A. Thesis, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Brasil. El Kadri, M. S., & Gimenez, T. (2013). Formando professores de inglês para o contexto do inglês como língua franca. [Educating English language teachers for the English as a lingua franca context]. Acta Scientarium, Language and Culture, 35(2), 125-133. Jordão, C. M. (2011). A posição do inglês como língua internacional e suas implicações para a sala de aula. In T. Gimenez, L. C. S. Calvo, & M. S. El Kadri (Eds.), Inglês como língua franca: Ensinoaprendizagem e formação de professores (pp. 193-220). Campinas, SP: Editora Pontes. Siqueira, D. S. P. (2008). Inglês como língua internacional: Por uma pedagogia intercultural crítica. 2008. Doctoral dissertation, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brasil. Seidholfer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sifakis, N. (2014). ELF awareness as an opportunity for change: A transformative perspective for ESOL teacher education. JELF, 3(2), 317-335. Takahashi, R. (2014). An analysis of ELF-oriented features in ELT coursebooks. English Today, 30(1), 2834.
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Giannakopoulou, A. (2016). Making sense of new words and worlds: Early routes to L2 multiliteracies in the Greek context. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 283-292). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Making sense of new words and worlds: Early routes to L2 multiliteracies in the Greek context Alexia Giannakopoulou Abstract This paper examines how the English for Young Learners (EYL) programme in Greece exposes children to L2 multiliteracies. More specifically, it examines how literacy in its traditional sense is currently addressed in the early primary school EFL curriculum and instructional materials. To add an ELF perspective, the paper expands the area of focus to literacies (in the plural) and issues of culture and meaning. The reason is that underlying the EYL curriculum is a theory of multiliteracies and a view of language as a social and cultural practice. The first part of the paper presents the literature informing the pedagody of early literacy in Grade 3, with a focus on reading development as well as social and cultural literacies. The second part of the paper draws on findings from 5 small scale research projects investigating the efficacy of a balanced approach to early reading and applications of shared reading, and attempts to throw light on how literacies are conceptualized by EFL professionals as well as how the specific properties of the instructional materials enhance the development of metalinguistic awareness and intercultural awareness in L2 literacy learning.
Keywords: multiliteracies, intercultural awareness, balanced literacy approach, Phonics, Whole Language, early reading skills, cultural literacy
1. Introduction Over the past fifteen years, English Language Teaching (ELT) in the Greek state primary school setting has been informed by the paradigm of a cross thematic programme (DEPPS), with emphasis on an empirical communicative approach to learning and a focus on social interaction, cooperation, task differentiation, metacognition and strategic learning. Based on DEPPS, children from Grade 3 to Grade 6 acquire basic communication and literacy skills in order to function effectively in different linguacultural environments and develop a positive attitude towards multilingualism and multiculturalism. In 2010 the official curriculum in the state primary school moved beyond this paradigm to consider a wider framework of literacy teaching and learning. The theoretical framework informing this shift synthesises perspectives from a Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, New Literacies and New Learning (Cope & Kalantzis, 2009) and a view of language as a social and cultural practice. Cope & Kalantzis argue for the need to move beyond a narrow, traditional view of alphabetical literacy and the monomodal formalities of written language (letter sound correspondences, words, sentences, literary texts) towards a more holistic and transformative pedagogy to consider the “multi” dimensions of literacies (in the plural), the multimodal realities of the media and the broader changes in the social world. In their words (2009, p. 175): Literacy teaching is not about skills and competence; it is aimed at creating a kind of person, an active designer of meaning, with a sensibility open to differences, change and innovation. The logic of multiliteracies is one that recognises that meaning making is an active, transformative process, and a pedagogy based on that recognition is more likely to open up viable life courses for a world of change and diversity.
Numerous researchers speak of the significance of multimodality and the need to develop multiple forms of competences (social, cultural, digital, media competences) next to communicative language skills (Breidbach, Elsner & Young, 2011; Rosenberg, 2010; Wildemann, 2011). The notion of multiliteracies
Hellenic Open University.
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was officially implemented in the EFL programme in 2010 when English was introduced as a compulsory subject from Grade 1 in 20% of the primary schools of the country. PEAP, the acronym for this project, was expanded the following year to 40% of the schools and it is gradually being implemented in all primary schools of the country. This innovation is one of the components of an enriched school curriculum, the Integrated Foreign Languages Curriculum (IFLC). The development of multiliteracies, especially social and cultural literacies, through English is the foundation upon which the PEAP curriculum was based. Significantly, respect towards diversity and the development of an intercultural ethos of communication were considered as important as the development of social skills and everyday communicative practices. Within this broader framework, what this paper aims to contribute is an enhanced understanding of the nature of early literacy practices of the students and of the pedagogical repertoires of teachers in the primary school. More specifically, the paper endeavours to answer the following questions: How do the children, who embark upon becoming literate in a new language, develop L2 literacies in the state primary school? What impact does a balanced approach to literacy have on the reading performance of the children? How do the instructional materials teach literacies to their users? What is the intercultural and intracultural dimension of these materials in relation to ELF? 2. Review of literature This review will be organised thematically considering first issues of early literacy and then issues of language and culture. 2.1 ELT and literacy: A wider theoretical framework
L2 reading is a complicated area and as far as young learners are concerned, there is much that remains unknown. We do know, however, that reading comes easily to some children whereas most “struggle with some part of the complex process that begins with phonemes and continues with comprehension of complex texts” (Willis, 2008, p.1). The crucial question for educators, therefore, is which cognitive processes are essential for successful early reading development to take place. Several studies highlight the role of decoding, vocabulary knowledge, syntactic processing, metacognition in the development of reading ability (Bernhardt, 2011; Koda, 2005). Research has shown that decoding is necessary for reading comprehension and a strong early predictor of reading abilities (Adams, 1990; Beck & Juel, 1995; Demont & Combert, 1996; Gough, 1996; Juel, 1988; Stuart, 2000; Wagner, 2008; Wren 2001). L2 vocabulary knowledge is also a strong correlate ofξ reading comprehension (Daller, Milton & Treffers-Daller, 2007; Gass & Selinker, 2000; Koda, 2005; Schmitt, 2000). L2 grammar (or morphosyntactic) knowledge and L2 orthographic knowledge are also well established predictors of reading ability. It logically follows then that children have to develop multiple cognitive processes in order to become good readers. If reading is viewed as a multicomponent process, the next crucial question that arises is: which is the best approach to teach children to read? The teaching of reading can begin from word, sentence or text level. Each starting point produces different approaches to reading. Decoding-focused approaches assume that the primary task in reading instruction is to help students discover the relationships between sounds and letters and build up from those to syllables and finally words. Meaning-focused approaches stress the relationship between words or strings of words and their meaning. This paper argues for a balanced approach to reading instruction, which blends elements from two approaches, Phonics, a bottomup approach which focuses on grapheme-phoneme relationships (Calfoglou, 2004; Cameron, 2001) and Whole Language, characterised as a top-down approach, which places emphasis on meaning and context (Daniels, Zemelman & Bizar, 1999). A balanced approach to literacy provides a synergic mix of both ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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phonics and whole language and is considered effective because it helps children make connections between the two in the context of authentic reading (Donat, 2006, Milne, 2005; Thogmartin, 1997, Weaver, 1994). 2.2 Literacy pedagogy in the Greek primary school
In Grades 1 and 2, children (aged 7-8) are introduced to the oral mode of the English language through exposure to stories and fairytales, action and music, games, arts and crafts, drama, videos and by and large, any activity that promotes acquisition in the classroom (Cameron, 2001; Moon and Nikolov, 2000; Nikolov, 2009a; Pinter, 2006; Rixon, 1999; Slattery and Willis, 2001). The general aim is to use the dayto-day language to interact socially with others, that is, to acquire social literacies that they have already developed in L1 through English (Dendrinos, 2013). In the first two years, children develop emergent literacy skills through stories, flashcards, logos and other materials. In Grade 3, they move from the emergent stage of reading to conventional reading of text (Honchell & Schulz, 2012). The acquisition of oral/aural vocabulary facilitates this process since learning to read requires making predictions about language and making links between the spoken language and its writing system (Gregory, 2008). There is an expectation, therefore, that children will be able to map their limited knowledge of English onto a phonological system and learn to decode through phonics instruction. Although the opacity of the English language can create some problems to the Greek learners as they have to switch from a more transparent orthography in Greek to a less transparent orthography in English (Goswami, 2008; Gove & Cvelich, 2010; Rixon 2011), children manage to blend or “syncretise” in Kelly, Gregory & Williams’ (2001) term, L1 and L2 literacies. 2.3 Literacy and the teaching materials
Magic Book (MB), the English textbook for Grade 3 (Alexiou & Mattheoudaki, 2013) embraces a balanced approach to literacy. Throughout the book, there is a recognisable phonic element with onsets (the initial consonants of words) and rimes (the remaining vowel and consonants) being highlighted because they develop phonological awareness and provide a pattern for new words, thereby developing word recognition by analogy (Adams, 1994; Barratt-Pugh & Rohl, 2000; Chera & Wood, 2003; Gregory, 2008; Hedgcock & Ferris, 2009; Horner & Ryf, 2007; Lems, Miller & Soro, 2010; Lewis & Ellis, 2006; Murray & Christison, 2011; Smith, 2004; Vaughn & Linan-Thompson, 2004; Wyse & Jones, 2008). Phonics is taught with a wide range of synaesthetic, multisensory techniques and becomes an integral part of text exploration. After the alphabet section, the book introduces four characters who read a different story in each unit. Children engage in story reading along with a variety of fun activities and story sequencing tasks. Terzakou (2014) argues that MB has the characteristics of a basal anthology with well-known stories, which are a simple account of the original versions and follow their own scenario in order to activate content schemata and make meaning more accessible to young children (Blachowicz & Ogle, 2008; McGuinness, 2004). Familiarity of content is important for the activation of background knowledge and inner lexicon (McNamara, Ozuru & Floyd, 2011; Stuart, Stainthorp & Snowling, 2008). The criterion for the selection of the vocabulary is not the frequency of occurrence but the meaning of the stories. Therefore, focal words such as hopscotch and weasel may be less easy to decode but are included because they come from the language of the stories. There is clear emphasis on lexical chunks, which are repeated many times so that children can recall them when the need to communicate arises. Thus, lexical chunks or prefabricated phrases, commonly found together and typically related to functional use of language, are preferred because they are stored as individual wholes, carry more complex meaning than isolated words, familiarise children with grammatical and syntactic structures and thus are more useful for communication (McCarthy, O’ Keeffe & Walsh, 2010).
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3. Globalisation, culture and new literacies Greece, an officially monolingual country, belongs to the countries of the ‘expanding circle’ (Kachru, 1985), where English, the major global language of communication, is the first foreign language that children must learn. In the light of ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) and WE (World Englishes) fields of studies, this paper attempts to throw light on the development of cultural literacy and (inter)cultural awareness in addition to the development of language and communication skills (Vettorel and Lopriore, 2013). Although culture has always been part of language teaching, it has gained popularity over the past few decades because of the significant role it plays in negotiation of meaning and communication (Sifakis, 2004; Thanasoulas, 2001). In line with a global/plurilithic view of English (Sifakis & Sougari, 2003), the Greek EYL curriculum integrates intercultural awareness and appreciation of one’s and others’ language and culture into the goals of language teaching. The aim is to help children act and communicate effectively in various social and cultural contexts, to coexist with people from different linguacultural backgrounds and to thrive as global citizens. 4. Method of the study: A best-evidence synthesis The review method used in this paper is similar to an adapted technique called best -evidence synthesis (Slavin et al, 2009). Based on this method, the paper combines the findings from five smallscale studies carried out in Greek primary schools. The synthesis of the research studies will seek to identify meaningful information, discussing each study in some way with an emphasis on narrative description of each study’s contributions. Two of these studies (Damianou, 2013; Kostantopoulou, 2014) investigate the efficacy of a balanced literacy model via the use of traditional and digital storybooks. Another study examines the efficacy of analytic phonics and the Whole Word (Look and Say) approach. To harvest data, all three studies used similar research methods: a battery of custom made reading-aloud tests comprising of ‘real word’ and ‘pseudo word’ decoding tasks, reading chunks of language and ‘read and match’ tasks, as well as classroom observation, teacher diaries, recordings of classroom reading and student questionnaires. The researchers themselves were teachers who shared the literacy events and experiences of the learners. In the first two studies, the teachers developed a parallel story-based syllabus which was tightly integrated into the 3rd grade syllabus to bridge the gap between decoding and independent reading. Damianou and Kostantopoulou based their studies on the Simple View of Reading (Gough & Hillinger, 1980; Kirby & Savage, 2008), which advocates that reading is the product of both decoding and comprehension. Damianou created her own Big Books as parallel versions of MB with the same characters in an attempt to extend the vocabulary in new but familiar contexts. Kostantopoulou selected a set of e-books with stories coming from the textbook but with richer authentic input. Both researchers designed activities for the manipulation of phonemes (blending, segmentation, substitution) and comprehension activities. Overall, the findings from the tests and classroom observation showed that the students improved not only their decoding but also their comprehension skills. The third study examined the role of phonics with an emphasis on sight vocabulary and rapid word recognition. Mantziari (2013) based her research on the Dual Route theory (Dombey, 2009) which advocates that children can follow two routes to decoding: a lexical and a non lexical one (orthographic). In each of these routes, the child uses different reading strategies: the phonemic strategy whereby the child translates the word into its phonemic representation and then uses this representation to retrieve the meaning of a word and the visual strategy where the child uses the visual information of the word to retrieve the meaning. The supplementary input for this study came from a textbook which ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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used a dual route to decoding. Mantziari used 2 groups, a control group who used MB and an experimental group who used a supplementary textbook next to MB. The lessons in the experimental group followed a traditional routine with the teacher presenting words with flashcards and children moving from choral reading (repeating after the teacher) to echoing (reading one beat behind the teacher) to individual reading. Mantziari did not observe any significant differences between the two groups. In the Greek context the teachers’ perceptions about teaching and learning are critical and as Sifakis & Sougari (2010) point out, these are determined by a wide range of factors, such as their previous learning experiences, their training, their teaching experiences, their identities. Two studies, carried out by Terzakou (2014) and Goudousaki (2014) focused on the teacher’s practices, perceptions and rationales. Both studies were questionnaire-based while Terzakou also included data from teacher interviews. Both researchers concluded that the conceptualisations of Greek teachers concerning literacy practices are highly influenced by the literacy procedures in the Greek society. Finally, Giannakopoulou (forthcoming) investigated the development of cultural literacy in Grade 3. Teaching English with an ELF perspective is complicated and with several parameters attached to it. The analysis was based on studies of EFL textbooks from an ELF perspective (Matsuda, 2002; Vettorel and Lopriore, 2013). In relation to the context in this study, the guiding questions were: How is cultural literacy approached by the teaching materials in Grade 3? Which variety of English is the material based on? Does it provide exposure to other varieties of English? Whose cultures are represented? 5. Main findings and conclusions The studies point to the advantage for children of a balanced literacy approach in L2 reading development. The findings indicate that children, even the struggling ones, developed sensitivity to phonological awareness and were attentive to higher order processes such as story sequencing. The results of the decoding task reveal that the young learners improved their decoding skills to a great extent and that overt phonics instruction supported children with difficulties in reading. Consistent with previous findings (Porpodas, 2006), the studies showed that the pseudo-word task presented the learners with difficulty. This is not surprising as phonological awareness and reading skills are closely related, making it harder for children to read unfamiliar words (Goswami, 2009). In the read-and-match task the vast majority of students performed very well. This finding underscores the role of context in early reading. Overall, the test results showed learner progress on both the lexical and the non-lexical level and stressed the role of context in word and chunk reading. The findings from the studies also provide additional evidence that students were able to make their own phonemic rules applying them to different words. The generation of rules is language related behaviour that can contribute to the linguistic development of young learners (Thogmartin, 1997). Damianou found that good readers rely more on the context for word recognition than poor readers. This contrasts sharply with Stanovich & Stanovich (1995, p.90) whose research has revealed that “the word recognition of better readers is not characterised by more reliance on contextual information”. With regard to screen-based reading and electronic books, Kostantopoulou and Goudousaki concluded that apart from being appealing, e-books provide scaffolding with animations, sound effects, graphics and music, which makes reading multisensory and fosters not only decoding but also comprehension. Terzakou found that teachers adopt more traditional than transformative methods, e.g. songs and rhymes, the use of formulaic language and dictation. The vast majority (about 95 %) presents new words on the board and/or with flashcards to build word recognition skills. 80% ask students to read aloud as a daily classroom activity. Under than half of the teachers (46,7%) pay attention to the onset/rime division. Some interesting findings from Goudousaki’s research results corroborate these findings. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Reading as a whole class activity prevails in the classroom (75%) while independent work (36%) is the least preferred mode. This contrasts sharply with current views that independent silent reading builds fluency, automaticity, confidence and appreciation for reading. In answer to the questions about cultural literacy and ELF representations, it was found that MB gives students the opportunity to immerse into a variety of cultures by incorporating appropriate cultural topics (e.g. animals, homes), pictures and place names. It adheres to Standard English and Standard Received Pronunciation. The texts, CDs, vocabulary choices, spelling and pronunciation point mainly to British English and less to American English. One can find words which are more frequent in BrE than AmE, e.g. tummy, autumn or vice versa, e.g. chips and cookies. The accents are overwhelmingly Inner Circle, Anglophone ones. In fact the materials represent only Native English Speakers (NESs). The four main characters (Lena, Tammy, Alex and Yuri) represent both genders and various ethnic backgrounds in order to combat stereotypes. However, their accent is standard RP. All the other characters appearing in the book are also prevalently British and their accents continue to be NESs. This is not surprising since children of this age are more likely to achieve native-like pronunciation because of a type of neural plasticity (Fathman, 1975; Long, 1990). Considering that people should, first, develop knowledge of their own culture in order to be able to understand other cultures (Kramsch, 2009), MB promotes students’ intercultural awareness by featuring a number of stories adapted from European folktale, fairy tales and literature and intracultural awareness by featuring Aesop’s fables (the Ant and the Cricket), Greek myths (Daedalus and Icarus) and Greek literature, e.g. Lady Decay by Evgenios Trivizas. Greek children are familiar with the Greek collections of the Brothers Grimm, Charles Perrault and Hans Christian Andersen or Walt Disney and their protagonists and this familiarity of cultural content facilitates their literacy experiences. 6. Proposals and concluding remarks If the early literacy experiences of children in class are to be extended, it would seem important that teachers teach decoding and comprehension together at every stage. Story reading is considered to have a supportive role in the hands of the teachers not only because it can help children become fluent readers but also because it infuses world values in the children that would facilitate them in their encounters with others (Thanasoulas, 2001) and help them expand their world and their “cultural vision” (Kramsch,1993, p5). Shared reading helps the teacher and the student co-construct literacy. The teacher asks questions to trigger recall of words, clarifies meaning with the help of illustrations and helps the children develop higher order processes. This kind of teacher-student interaction promotes guided participation as a more active role of the child in these interactions. In this sense, learning to read is not only seen as a mental, intrapersonal, psychological activity. It is also seen as a social, collaborative, interpersonal, cultural activity. In answer to the stated objectives of this best-evidence synthesis, this paper has shown that the early L2 literacy events in Grade 3, based on Magic Book and enriched with story-based input and activities, help children develop metalinguistic awareness as well as an awareness that certain cultural understandings and values are universal, thus moving beyond the understanding of new words to making sense of new worlds (Gregory, 2008). However, there is a limited evidence base, therefore, further research studies reviewed will form a stronger evidence base for the development of L2 multiliteracies and the ability to respond positively to a multicultural and multilingual society in which people have and experience multiple languages, cultures, identities and the negotiation of these identities.
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Giannakopoulou
About the author
Alexia Giannakopoulou holds a B.A. in English Language and Literature from the University of Athens, an M.Ed. in TEFL from the Hellenic Open University and a Ph.D from the University of Koblenz-Landau (Germany). She is co-author of EFL books and teaching materials for primary and junior high school. She has been involved in student mentoring and in-service teacher training programmes. In 2011 she joined the teaching staff of the Hellenic Open University and in 2013 she became a school advisor for EFL teachers. Email:
[email protected]
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Goswami, U. (2008). Reading, complexity and the brain. Literacy, 42, 67-74. Goswami, U. (2009). The role of analogies in the development of word recognition. In J. L. Metsala & L. C. Ehri (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 39-59). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Goudousaki, M. (2014). Using electronic storybooks to develop young learners’ reading strategies and metacognitive awareness (master’s thesis). Retrieved from HOU dissertations. Gough, P. B. (1996). How children learn to read and why they fail. Annals of Dyslexia, 46 (1), 1-20. Gough, P. B., & Hillinger, M. L. (1980). Learning to read: An unnatural act. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 30, 179-96. Gove, A., & Cvelich, P. (2010). Early reading: Igniting education for all. A report by the early grade learning community of Practice. Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute. Gregory, E. (2008). Learning to read in a new language: Making sense of words and worlds. New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd. Hedgcock, J. S., & Ferris, D. R. (2009). Teaching readers of English. New York: Routledge. Honchell, B., & Schulz, M. (2012). Engaging young readers with text through shared reading experiences. Journal of Inquiry and Action in Education, 4(3), 59-67. Horner, C., & Ryf, V. (2007). Creative teaching: English in the early years and primary classroom. New York: Routledge. Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of fifty-four children from first through fourth grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 437-447. Kachru, B. B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H.G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kelly, C., Gregory, E., & Williams, A. (2001). Home to school and school to home: Syncretised literacies in linguistic minority communities. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 14(1), 9-25. Kirby, J. R., & Savage, R. S. (2008). Can the Simple View deal with the complexities of reading? Literacy, 42(2), 75-82. Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading. New York: Cambridge University Press. Konstantopoulou, E. (2014). E-books in early literacy: The effects of a balanced phonics and whole language approach on the development of young learners’ reading skills (master’s thesis). Retrieved from HOU dissertations. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford University Press. Kramsch, C. (2009). Third culture and language education. Retrieved from: http://lrc.cornell.edu/events/past/2008-2009/papers08/third.pdf Lems, K., Miller, L. D., & Soro, T. M. (2010). Teaching reading to English language learners: Insights from linguistics. New York: The Guilford Press. Lewis, M., & Ellis, S. (2006). Phonics: Practice, research and policy. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Long, M. H. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12(3), 251-285. Mantziari, M. (2013). Developing EFL reading skills in early primary years: A combined phonics and whole word approach (master’s thesis). Retrieved from: HOU dissertations. Matsuda, A. (2002). Representation of users and uses of English in beginning Japanese EFL textbooks. JALT Journal, 24(2), 182-201. McCarthy, M., O’Keeffe, A., & Walsh, S. (2010). Vocabulary matrix: Understanding, learning, teaching. Hampshire: Heinle. McGuinness, D. (2004). Early reading instruction: What science really tells us about how to teach reading. Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
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McNamara, S. D., Ozuru, Y., & Floyd, R. G. (2011). Comprehension challenges in the fourth grade: The roles of text cohesion, text genre, and readers’ prior knowledge. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 4(1), 229-257. Milne, D. (2005). Teaching the brain to read. Hungerford: SK Publishing. Moon, J., & Nikolov, M. (2000). Research into teaching English to young learners. Pécs: University Press Pécs. Murray, D. E., & Christison, M. (2011). What English language teachers need to know (Vol.1). New York: Routledge. Nikolov, M. (2009a). Early learning of modern foreign languages: Processes and outcomes. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. PEAP: The English for young learners programme in Greek primary school. Retrieved from: http://rcel.enl.uoa.gr/peap/en/articles/programme Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching young language learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Porpodas, C. (2006). Literacy acquisition in Greek: Research review of the role of phonological and cognitive factors. In R. Malatesha Joshi & P. G. Aaaron (Eds.), Handbook of orthography and literacy. London: LEA. Rixon, S. (1999). Young learners of English. Harlow: Longman. Rixon, S. (2011). Beyond ABC: Investigating current rationales and systems for the teaching of early reading to young learners of English (doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from the University of Warwick. Rosenberg, A. J. (2010). Multiliteracies and teacher empowerment. Critical Literacy: Theories and Practices 4(2), 7-15. Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sifakis, N. C., and Sougari, A. M. (2003). Facing the globalisation challenge in the realm of English language teaching. Language and Education 17(1), 59-71. Sifakis, N. C., & Sougari, A. M. (2010). Between a rock and a hard place: An investigation of EFL teachers’ beliefs on what keeps them from integrating global English in their classrooms. In C. Gagliardi & A. Maley (Eds.), EIL, ELF, Global English: Teaching and learning (pp. 301-320). Bern, Peter Lang, AG. Sifakis, N. C. (2004). Teaching EIL - teaching international or intercultural English: What teachers should know. System 32(2), 237-250. Slattery, M., & Willis, J. (2001). English for primary teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Slavin, R. E., Lake, C., Davis, S. & Madden, N. A. (2009). Effective programmes for struggling readers: A bestevidence synthesis. Best-evidence Encyclopedia. http://www.bestevidence.org/word/strug_read_jun_02_2010.pdf Smith, F. (2004). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to read. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Stanovich, K. E., & Stanovich, P. J. (1995). How research might inform the debate about early reading acquisition. Journal of Research in Reading, 18(2), 87-105. Stuart, M. (2000). Getting ready for reading: Early phoneme awareness and phonetics teaching improves reading and spelling in inner-city second language learners. London: Institute of Education, London University. Stuart, M., Stainthorp, R., & Snowling, M. (2008). Literacy as a complex activity: Deconstructing the Simple View of reading. Literacy, 42, 59-66. Terzakou, S. (2014). Investigating the reading approaches employed for the teaching of early reading in the 3rd grade of primary schools (master’s thesis). Retrieved from: HOU dissertations. Thanasoulas, D. (2001). The importance of teaching culture in the foreign language classroom. Radical Pedagogy. Retrieved from: https://media.startalk.umd.edu/workshops/2009/SeattlePS/sites/default/files/files/The%20Impo rtance%20Of%20Teaching%20Culture%20In%20The%20Foreign%20Language%20Classroom.pdf ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Thogmartin, M. B. (1997). Teach a child to read with children’s books. Bloomington: Eric Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication. Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2004). Research-based methods of reading instruction, Grades K-3. Alexandria: ASCD. Vettorel, P., & Lopriore, L. (2013). Is there ELF in ELT coursebooks? Studies in second language learning and teaching. Retrieved from: https://www.repozytorium.amu.edu.pl/jspui/bitstream/10593/10310/1/SSLLT%203%284%29%2 0483-504%20Vettorel,%20Lopriore.pdf Wagner, R. (2008). Learning to read: The importance of assessing phonological decoding skills and sight word knowledge. New York, NY: Scholastic Inc. Weaver, C. (1994). Phonics in whole language classrooms. Eric Digest. ED372375 94. Wildemann, A. (2011). Multiliteralität als Ausgangspunkt und Zielperspektive auf dem Weg in die Schrift. [Multiliteracies as a starting point and goal towards writing]. In P. Hüttis-Graff & P. and Wieler (Eds.), Übergänge zwischen Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit im Vor-und Grundschulalter. Freiburg: Fillibach. Wieler (Eds.), Übergänge zwischen Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit im Vor-und Grundschulalter. Freiburg: Fillibach. Willis, J. (2008). Teaching the brain to read: Strategies for improving fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Alexandria: ASCD. Wren, S. (2001). The cognitive foundations of learning to read: A framework. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, Austin TX. Wyse, D., & Jones, R. (2008). Teaching English, language and literacy. New York: Routledge.
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Aiello, J. (2016). Accent, attitudes, and ownership of English: Perspectives of Italian college-bound youth. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives. (pp. 293-299). Athens: Deree – The American College of Greece.
Accent, attitudes, and ownership of English: Perspectives of Italian college-bound youth Jacqueline Aiello Abstract As the main vehicle for communication in innumerable domains of global social activity, English has been celebrated for its ability to facilitate international communication. Yet, recent scholarly work has provocatively problematized the assumption that the widespread use of English has rendered the language neutral and accessible to all. This paper contributes to this line of research by drawing on data collected in a sequential explanatory mixed-methods dissertation study of the motivations, attitudes and ownership of Italian youth related to English. The focus of this paper is on L2 attitudes, defined as intrinsically linked to language ideologies, and as a form of invisible policy that determines language use and the prestige associated with a language. In this paper, drawing on questionnaire and interview data, the complexity of Italian youths’ attitudes towards varieties of English and English accents are described through the lens of the English variety to which they aspire, and the factors that reinforce and/or mediate these attitudes. Then, the decisive role of L2 attitudes in language education and English use are highlighted with an illustration of how language attitudes and ideologies shape youths’ efforts to claim ownership of English.
Keywords: Accent, Italy, language attitudes, language varieties, ownership
1. Introduction Increased global interconnectedness and fluidity of boundaries have compelled scholars to question and problematize extant fixed definitions of culture, identity and language, which in turn have also affected the theorization of language learning and use (Holliday, 2009; Piller & Pavlenko, 2007). These changes are most palpable with English, which has become the primary linguistic channel by which global connections and networks are established and maintained (Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey, 2011). One burgeoning strand of research concerns English as a lingua franca (ELF), a “distinct manifestation of English not tied to its native speakers” (Seidlhofer, 2004, p. 229) that is greatly variable, negotiated ad hoc, influenced by different linguacultures, and reliant on context, purpose and user (House, 2014). As House (2014) explains, “it is an open-source phenomenon, a resource available for whoever wants to take advantage of the virtual English language” (p. 364). Yet, recent scholarly work has also provocatively problematized the assumption that the widespread use of English has rendered the language neutral and accessible to all. This paper contributes to this line of research by taking a poststructuralist stance and employing the Bourdieuan theory of the accumulation of capital. According to Bourdieu, linguistic differences serve to position speakers in the social world because languages accrue varied levels of capital for their speakers, depending on the value of that particular language variety (Bourdieu, 1991; Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992). The value of English is augmented by its role as a global language that allows participation in myriad domains (Piller & Pavlenko, 2007). Yet, certain varieties of English are more valued than others. Therefore, the desire to accumulate and secure the greatest profit through linguistic resources impels individuals to engage in language learning of preferred varieties. This paper explores the desire to accumulate social capital and invest in learning of specific varieties of English among Italian college-bound youth through the lens of L2 attitudes, defined as “learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, or what one believes is acceptable” related to language (Wenden, 1991, p. 52). L2 attitudes surface and evolve not solely within the individual, but they also pivot on language ideologies that depend on social processes and are often unconsciously experienced (Dyers &
New York University, New York.
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Abongdia, 2010; Lippi-Green, 1997). Moreover, as Pulcini (1997) affirms, attitudes are a form of invisible policy that “spring from a general, unorganized force, usually in the form of societal pressures such as reactions from ordinary people, peer-groups and opinion-makers in the media” (p. 77). Drawing on a portion of the data collected in a sequential explanatory mixed-methods study of the motivations, attitudes and ownership of Italian youth related to English, this paper aims to address the following research questions: a) What are Italian youths’ attitudes towards (varieties of) English? b) What language varieties do learners aspire to? c) What is the relationship between language attitudes and ownership of English? 2. Methodology 2.1 Data collection and analysis
Data contained herein are a part of a larger sequential explanatory mixed-methods study for which data was collected in 2012-2013. Quantitative data were collected via online questionnaires, which included 3 main attitudinal dimensions: Attitudes towards English, Attitudes towards Native Speaker (NS) Accents, and Attitudes towards the L2 Community. Descriptive statistics and multi-tem scales were computed using SPSS, and correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationship among the main attitudinal dimensions and outcome measures (L2 anxiety, intended effort and willingness to communicate, WTC). Eight case study participants were selected for the qualitative phase by means of purposeful sampling guided by criteria that emerged in the analysis of questionnaire data. The qualitative phase involved three interviews of each participant, six months of weekly observations of their English classrooms, and two interviews with each of their teachers. Qualitative data were analyzed within and across cases. 2.2 Participants
The participants in this study were 18 to 20 year old English learners in four high schools in Naples and Rome, Italy. 205 youth participated in the quantitative phase and eight youth were selected as case study participants. More descriptive information about case study participants, including their city, gender, school type (general science-oriented school: Science; technical institute: Tech), and track (linguistic: L; non-linguistic: NL), can be found in Table 1. Table 1. Case study participants Pseudonym City Gender School Track
Alberto Naples M Tech NL
Sergio Naples M Tech NL
Chiara Naples F Science NL
Giovanni Naples M Science NL
Giorgia Rome F Tech L
Laura Rome F Tech L
Raffaele Rome M Science NL
Vittorio Rome M Science NL
3. Results 3.1 What are Italian youths’ attitudes towards (varieties of) English?
Questionnaire responses of the 205 youth in the sample suggested positive attitudes towards English. Participants were asked questions related to integrativeness, including those concerning encounters with Anglophone foreigners, visits to Anglophone countries and the desire to assimilate aspects of Anglophone culture. Responses to these items reveal more positive attitudes towards visiting ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
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Anglophone countries than encountering Anglophone foreigners and assimilating features of Anglophone culture. These responses suggest that interest in visiting Anglophone countries may be reflective of travel and/or international orientation rather than a desire to access Anglophone culture through English. The vitality of AngloAmerican varieties of English and attitudes towards these varieties were explored via questions concerning accent. Specifically, the Attitudes towards Native Speaker (NS) Accents Scale explored the extent to which respondents deemed it important to speak with a NS accent – operationalized as an American or British accent1 - and the desire to maintain an Italian accent when speaking English. Across the full sample, participant responses averaged at between neutral and agreement with regards to preferring native speaker accents (M = 2.79, SD = .779). An analysis of responses to individual prompts within this scale provides further insights (see Table 2). Table 2. Full sample means of items in the ‘Attitudes towards native speaker accents scale’ Questionnaire Item It is important for you to speak English with a British or American accent. When I speak English, I don’t want others to notice that I’m Italian. I don’t want an Italian accent when I speak English. It is necessary to speak English with a British or an American accent. Scale: 1 = Disagree, 2 = Slightly Disagree, 3 = Slightly Agree, 4 = Agree
Mean 2.95 2.48 3.06 2.67
Participants agreed to a greater extent that it is “important” than it is “necessary” to speak English with an Anglophone accent. Furthermore, participants overall agreed that they do not want an Italian accent when they speak English, but responses averaged at about neutral that they do not want others to realize that they are Italian when they speak English. This is arguably a contradiction: is accent not the most salient marker of Italianness when speaking a foreign language? Correlation analyses were performed among the two attitude scales and the outcome measures, and interpreted following Cohen’s (1988) conventions. An analysis of the relationship between Attitudes towards NS Accents and the outcome measures revealed a moderate positive correlation with Intended Effort (r=.287, p