Effects of Father Involvement

The Effects of Father Involvement: An Updated Research Summary of the Evidence Sarah Allen, PhD and Kerry Daly, PhD University of Guelph May 2007 The Effects of Father Involvement: An Updated Research Summary of the Evidence Inventory © Centre for Families, Work & Well-Being, University of Guelph 2007 Although The Effects of Father Involvement: An Updated Research Summary of the Evidence Inventory is copyright protected, the authors and sponsors encourage readers to download the document from www.fira.uoguelph.ca or www.worklifecanada.ca and to photocopy or distribute with appropriate acknowledgement of the source, and would like to be informed about uses of this material in publications, conference, policy development or classroom. This project was funded by the Public Health Agency of Canada and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council CURA program. To obtain additional copies of this report, please contact: FIRA-CURA Centre for Families, Work & Well-Being University of Guelph 17 University Avenue East Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Tel: (519) 824-4120 ext 53829 Fax: (519) 823-1388 ISBN 0-88955-563-X 978-0-88955-563-1 Table of Contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……… Cognitive Development…………………………………………………..……………………………………………………….. Emotional Development and Well Being….…………………………………………………………………………………….. Social Development……………………………………………………………………………...…………….………………..... Physical Health……..…………………….……………………………………………………………………………………….. Decrease in Negative Child Development Outcomes……………………………………………………..………………….. Effects of Father Absence on Child Development Outcomes………………………………………………………………... Benefits of Father Involvement for Fathers……………………………………………………………..……………………… Co-Parental Relationship …………………………………………………………………………………………………….….. The Importance of Spousal relations for Father Involvement………………………………………………….……. Mother’s Role in Father Involvement…………………………………………………………………………...……... The Co-Parental Relationship has indirect Effects on Child Development Outcomes…………………………… Non Residential Fathers………………………………………………………………………………………….………………. Payment of Child Support…………………………...……………………….…………………………………………. Relationship with Mother and Child…………………………………………….……………………………………… Fathers & Work: Importance of Provider Roles ……………………………………….………………………………..……. Effects of Family Income on Child Development Outcomes………………………………………………………………….. Impact of Father Involvement on Work…………………………………………………………………………….…………… Balancing Work and Family: Barriers and Pathways………………………………………………….…………………….… Pathways………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….. Barriers……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Measure of Father Involvement………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Father Involvement Measured as Time Spent Together…………………………………………………………….. Father Involvement as the Quality of the Father-Child Relationship……………………………………………….. Father Involvement Measured as Investment in Paternal Role……………………………………………...……... Multidimensional versus unidimensional conceptualizations……………………………………………………….. Measuring Father Involvement and its Impact: Challenges and Qualifications…………………………………………….. Father involvement in the context of other influences……………………………………………………………….. Measurement issues…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Sampling issues and representatives………………………………………………………………………………….. Social class issues………………………………………………………………………………………………………. The importance of the parenting relationship for understanding father involvement…………………………….. Direct and indirect effects……………………………………………………………………………………………..... Assessing the impact of father presence and father absence………………………………………………………. Employment conditions and father involvement……………………………………………………………………… 1 1 3 4 5 7 8 11 13 13 14 15 16 16 17 19 19 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 25 26 26 26 2 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27 28 3 INTRODUCTION In the year 2002, we compiled the first summary of the research that examined the impact of father involvement on children’s developmental outcomes, the co-parenting relationship, and development of fathers themselves. In 2007, we updated this review by examining approximately150 new research studies in these areas. Although this does not include all of the research on fathering conducted during this period, it does provide an update of key published works on father involvement. In general, the research results reported in 2002 have been strengthened by additional research that we have examined in this period. One of the challenges of looking at the effects of father involvement is to disentangle father involvement from the effects of social class and family structure. We also include here new and emerging findings that provide deepening insight into the complex phenomenon of fathering. This document presents an updated overview of the key trends in the father involvement literature. While we are unable to provide methodological detail in such a succinct summary, we endeavoured to compile as accurately as possible, reliable research results that support these trends. It is clear from the research that father involvement has enormous implications for men on their own path of adult development, for their wives and partners in the coparenting relationship and, most importantly, for their children in terms of social, emotional, physical, and cognitive development. In presenting the research evidence, we have used author citations in the text. If the bibliography is not included here, it can be accessed at www.cfii.ca or www.fira.uoguelph.ca. Furthermore, given the developments in the measurement of the father involvement construct itself, we have included a section at the end of this document on the different ways that father involvement has been measured in the research literature. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Infants of highly involved fathers, as measured by amount of interaction, including higher levels of play and caregiving activities, are more cognitively competent at 6 months and score higher on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (Pedersen, Rubinstein, & Yarrow, 1979; Pedersen, Anderson, & Kain, 1980). By one year they continue to have higher cognitive functioning (Nugent, 1991), are better problem solvers as toddlers (Easterbrooks & Goldberg, 1984), and have higher IQ’s by age three (Yogman, Kindlan, & Earls, 1995). When compared with mothers, fathers’ talk with toddlers is characterized by more wh- (e.g. “what”, where” etc.) questions, which requires children to assume more communicative responsibility in the interaction. This encouraged toddlers to talk more, use more diverse vocabulary, and produce longer utterances when interacting with their fathers (Rowe, Cocker, & Pan, 2004). School aged children of involved fathers are also better academic achievers. They are more likely to get A’s (National Center for Education Statistics, 1997; Nord & West, 2001), have better quantitative and verbal skills (Bing, 1963; 1 or have behaviour problems at school. Snarey. 1991. National Center for Education Statistics. higher educational expectations. 1997). Radin 1994) and have higher IQ’s (Gottfried et al. Furstenberg & Harris. 2006. & Bathurst. 1998. 1974. higher educational attainment. Zimmerman. 1993. 1967. 1978). Nord & West. Honzik. perform a year above their expected age level on academic tests. 1997. Lefever. 1988. participate in extracurricular activities.. occupational competency. Howard. 1988. 1997). 1993). 1997). & 2005. better educational outcomes. Children of involved fathers are also more likely to live in cognitively stimulating homes (William. 2 . Harris. 1982. 2005). 1991. and to place a high value on education (Alfaro. Children of involved fathers are more likely to enjoy school (National Center for Education Statistics. 1986. Borkowski. McBride et al. Goldstein. Lozoff. & Bamaca. Shinn. 2006). Wentzel & Feldman. National Center for Education Statistics. Marshall. Barnett. feel their grades were important. Blanchard & Biller. National Center for Education Statistics. 1997. Brown & Rife. Shinn. 1978. Father contact was also associated with better socioemotional and academic functioning in school related areas for children with single or married adolescent mothers (Howard et al. More recently. Umana-Taylor. 1969. A father’s academic support was positively related to adolescent boys’ academic motivation to try hard in school.Goldstein. be suspended or expelled. 1990. and Notaro (2000) found that positive paternal engagement in 10th grade predicted fewer problem behaviors in 11th grade. Furstenberg. receive superior grades. Children of involved fathers are more likely to have higher levels of economic and educational achievement. Mosley & Thompson. Buchanan. and psychological well being (Amato. McBride. or learn more and perform better in school (Astone & McLanahan. Cooksey & Fondell.. 2005. 1997. Gottfried. 1971. Flouri. 1993). get better achievement test scores. 2001.. and graduate. 1991. career success. Gadsen & Ray. & Bream. William. 2006). Bell. & Pleck. Children of involved fathers are more likely to demonstrate more cognitive competence on standardized intellectual assessments (Lamb 1987. Slaem. 1992a. In addition. (Astone & McLanahan. Radin 1972. 1996. Barber & Thomas. Radin. Flouri and Buchanan (2004) found that father and mother involvement at age 7 independently predicted educational attainment by age 20 for both sons and daughters indicating that early father involvement can be another protective factor in counteracting risk conditions that might lead to later low attainment levels. & Marmer. Feldman & Wentzel. Gottfried. Flouri. Snarey 1993. They are also less likely to fail a grade. 1982. Schoppe-Sullivan. have higher grade point averages. 1982). have positive attitudes toward school (Flouri. & Whitman. 2003. have poor attendance. 1994. obtain higher scores on reading achievement. 2005. 1995. 2002. be more curious and eager to explore the environment. internalizing and externalizing behaviours. Furstenberg & Harris. 2007). 2000). Father involvement contributes significantly and independently to adolescent happiness (Flouri & Buchanan. 1992). 1994. Dear. 2006). 1988). 2006). less conduct problems (Formoso et al. Lang.. 1975). 1975. and are 3 . 2001). 2003a). & Dumka. 2007. use self direction and control (Amato. less expressions of negative emotionality such as fear and guilt (Easterbrooks & Goldberg. 2005).. Father involvement is positively correlated with children’s overall life satisfaction and their experience of less depression (Dubowitz et al. 1990). and attentive when presented with a problem (Mischel et al. In adoptive families. 1995). Owen. & Peake. 2001. Children of involved fathers are more likely to demonstrate a greater internal locus of control (Biller. Gonzales. Salem. have superior problem solving and adaptive skills (Biller. Zimmerman. Daughters of involved fathers are more willing to try new things. 2000. less emotional distress (Harris et al. Parke & Swain. 2005). and are better able to manage their emotions and impulses in an appropriate manner.. resourceful. 1993). Children of involved fathers are more likely to demonstrate a greater tolerance for stress and frustration (Mischel. 1995. 1988). relate more maturely to strangers. be more playful. Shoda. Williams & Radin. non-conflictual stepfather-stepchild relationship improves adolescent well-being (Yuan & Hamilton. 1987. 1989. 1999). keep busier. 1961). Rogers. Likewise. skilful. 1997). 1998). & Christensen. 1995. 1971. Parke & Swain. paternal acceptance is significantly and positively related to youths’ self-reported psychological adjustment (Veneziano. (Cox.. 1993. higher levels of self-reported happiness (Flouri. Pruett. fewer anxiety symptoms. & Margand. be better able to handle strange situations. Barrera. 1976. Field. young adults' ratings of paternal nurturance and involvement were strongly and positively correlated with their reports of current psychosocial functioning (Schwartz & Finley. & Maton. & Bendell. Radin. Mosley & Thompson. be more resilient in the face of stressful situations (Kotelchuck. and display less impulsivity (Mischel. Harper and Fine (2006) found a positive relationship between paternal warmth and child well-being for non-residential father families. react more competently to complex and novel stimuli. 1987). Yando. Henderson. and lower neuroticism (Jorm. Formoso. A close. Hoffman. and acting out in school (King. have a greater ability to take initiative.EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND WELL-BEING Infants whose fathers are involved in their care are more likely to be securely attached to them. 1993. Ross & Broh. 1993. Pruett. less psychological distress (Flouri. 2006) and close relationships with both stepfathers and non-resident fathers is associated with better adolescent outcomes in regards to grades. Lamb. and be more trusting in branching out in their explorations (Biller. selfefficacy. 2003).. greater sense of social competence (Dubowitz et al. 2002). and more positive friendship qualities (Hooven. Consequently. Conversely. supportive. Clawson. & Harold. Makino. social initiative. and warm (Biller. Kupanoff. Lamb. more generosity. McHale. & Olsen. Lamb. Doyle. & Katz. & Markiewicz. 1981). sensitive. 2001). Lieberman. Moffett. Forehand & Nousiainen. & Culp. Their peer relations are typified by less negativity. Servis. father love appears to be as heavily implicated as mother love in offspring’s’ psychological well-being and health. 2001. Lindsey. more reciprocity. reciprocal. Children of involved fathers are more likely to have positive peer relations and be popular and well liked. 1994. fathers’ levels of direct involvement are positively related to adolescents’ friendship and peer experiences (Updegraff. Ishii-Kuntz. 1993. close. The variable that is most consistently associated with positive life outcomes for children is the quality of the father child relationship (Amato. Gottfried et al. Gottman.happier (Mosely & Thompson. 1995. 1987. Krampe & Fairweather. 1991). This impact begins early in child development. 1993... & Payne. 1988. 2000). children of involved fathers had higher self-esteem (Deutsch. see themselves as dependable. 2001) SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Father involvement is positively correlated with children’s overall social competence. Kato. Young adults who had nurturing and available fathers while growing up are more likely to score high on measures of self acceptance and personal and social adjustment (Fish & Biller. Conger. 1984. 1993. and friendly (Biller. and be mentally healthy (Heath & Heath. 2002). which in turn predicted decreased peer acceptance (Paley. 1992). Furthermore. 2000). “Overall. For example. Doyle. 1988. Schadle. Radin. and Tsuchiya (2002) found a direct influence of men’s participation in childcare for children’s pro social development among three year olds (Kato et al.” (Rohner & Veneziano. 1993). 1986. 1993. 1973). 4 . 1996. 1993. Crouter. 1997). Parke. Robinson. and capacity for relatedness with others (Amato. 1999. Children are better off when their relationship with their father is secure. & Mize. nurturing. Snarey. Barber. Easterbrooks & Goldberg. as well as in an array of psychological and behavioural problems. Mischel et al. 1997. High father involvement was also associated with increased children’s feelings of paternal acceptance. Rutherford & Mussen. 1984. less aggression. less conflict.. 1998. Adolescents who are securely attached to their fathers report less conflict in their interactions with peers (Ducharme. 2005). negative paternal affect such as high levels of hostility. 1995). 2000). practical. Macdonald & Parke. 1968. had significant direct and indirect effects on adolescent negative social behaviour. be more likely to succeed in their work. a factor that plays a role in the development of self-concept and esteem (Culp. Furstenberg & Harris. Ross & Broh. trusting. Stolz. social maturity. Youngblade and Belsky. & Markiewicz. Children of involved fathers are more likely to have prosocial sibling interactions (Volling & Belsky. have more successful intimate relationships (Flouri & Buchanan. The strongest predictor of empathic concern in children and adults is high levels of paternal involvement while a child (Bernadette-Shapiro. children who felt close to their involved fathers are also more likely to have long term. & Sroufe. 1994. successful marriages (Franz et al. show fewer negative emotional reactions during play with peers. and be less likely to divorce (Risch. delivery process. and nursing experience (Biller. (McClelland. Regalado. and solve conflicts by themselves rather than seeking the teacher’s assistance (Suess. be well socialized and successful adults (Block & van der Lippe. PHYSICAL HEALTH Fathers can indirectly influence the physical health and well-being of their children through facilitating optimal health outcomes for mothers. have supportive social networks consisting of long-term close friendships (Franz. 1973). 5 . 1992). wives are more likely to enjoy a greater sense of well being. Jodl. 2002b). Grossmann. Maccoby. Lozoff. Offord. Ehrensaft. 2001). 1993). Froberg. Lamb. good post partum mental health (Gjerdingen. and adjust well to college both personally and socially (Reuter & Biller. experience less tension in their interactions with other children. McClelland & Weinberger. 1978). Sears. Father warmth and nurturance significantly predicts children’s moral maturity. 1991). & Eccles. 1974). 1982). Winter. 1957). and maintain or adopt healthy pregnancy behaviours (Teitler. 2001). young adults whose fathers were more sensitive in their early play interactions had more secure. be satisfied with their romantic partners in midlife (Moller & Stattin. 1996. Grossman. Radin. 1991). Koestner. & Stone. When fathers are emotionally supportive of their spouses. 1992). Single mothers are twice as likely as married mothers to experience a bout of depression and experience higher levels of stress (Cairney. Likewise. & Racine. 1973). have a relatively problem free pregnancy. 1991. Constantian. Franz. & Weinberber.. Speicher-Dublin. 2004). & Levin. Boyle. Children who have involved fathers are more likely to grow up to be tolerant and understanding. moral values. & Zimmerman. 1987. 1990. 2002). and is positively correlated with higher scores on measures of internal moral judgment. healthy partnership representations of their current romantic relationship (Grossmann. & Shapiro. 2003) suggesting that fathers have a positive impact on mother’s health and children’s well-being. and conformity to rules (Hoffman 1971. is associated with more pro-social and positive moral behaviour in boys and girls (Mosely & Thompson. In addition. 1995). & Fontaine. 2000) as well as the father’s diet and enjoyment of physical activity. Overall.61 times respectively more likely to have their child diagnosed with asthma. Johannsen & Specker. 2001). 2001). & Saatela. Curtin. Obese children are more likely to live in father absent homes than are nonobese children (Struass & Knight.Infant mortality rates are 1. Fathers can help increase the physical health of their children in various indirect ways. 2001. so did his daughters (Davison & Birch. children who live without their fathers are more likely to experience health related problems (Horn & Sylvester. Beilin. 2001). 2004). 2005). 2001. MacDorman. toddlers living in stepfamilies and single-parent families are more likely to suffer a burn.76 and 2. 6 . This finding echoes other research that found that fathers’ inactivity was a strong predictor of children’s inactivity (Trost. Kerr. 1999). & Dunbar. 75% of women whose partners attended a breastfeeding promotion class initiated breastfeeding (Wolfberg et al. The fathers. cohabiting parents and unmarried parents living apart are 1.. Nuutinen. smoking. 1995). 2000) in part because unmarried mothers are less likely to obtain prenatal care. Pasanen. Unmarried. and more likely to report cigarette use during their pregnancy (McLanahan. & Golding. Fogelholm. When compared to children living with both biological parents. &Weinsier. In addition. Arani. More active toddlers were more likely to have a father with a lower BMI than less active children (Finn. child’s age. Dunn. more likely to have a low birth weight baby (Padilla & Recihman. The obesity of the father is associated with a four-fold increase in the risk of obesity of sons and daughters at age 18 (Burke. (not the mothers) total and percentage body fat was the best predictor of changes in daughter’s total and percentage body fat (Figueroa-Colon. Beilin. Auslander. or be scarred from an accident (O’Connor. In addition. For example. In addition. & White. and family socioeconomic status (Thompson. 1999). 2002). children who live apart from their fathers are more likely to be diagnosed with asthma and experience an asthma-related emergency even after taking into account demographic and socioeconomic conditions. 2003). Myohanen. 2001).8 times higher for infants of unmarried mothers than for married mothers (Matthews. 2001). & Dunbar. & Pate. 2000). 2002). US Department of Health and Human Services. and father’s education (Burke. physical fitness. fathers who provide monetary support to non-married mothers during the pregnancy decrease the likelihood of a low birth weight baby (Padilla & Reichman. Ward. have a bad fall. a father’s BMI (Body Mass Index) predicts sons’ and daughters’ BMI independent of offspring’s alcohol intake. Davies. Diabetic youth from single-mother headed households had poorer health even when statistically controlling for race. As his BMI rose. Marital disruption after birth is associated with a 6 fold increase in the likelihood a child will require an emergency room visit and 5 fold increase of an asthma related emergency (Harknett. Goran. Flouri. father involvement when the youth was in 10th grade was associated with less problem behavior (drug use. Likewise. and less drinking (Harris et al.DECREASE IN NEGATIVE CHILD DEVELOPMENT OUTCOMES Father involvement protects children from engaging in delinquent behaviour (Harris et al. Hoffmann. Father involvement (as measured by frequency of contact and relationship quality) is also associated with a lower frequency of externalizing and internalizing symptoms such as acting out. A father’s positive involvement (as measured by the amount and type of contact) is related to children having fewer behavioural problems (Amato & Rivera. For example. and is associated with less substance abuse among adolescents (Coombs & Landsverk. and hyperactivity (Flouri. 1984). 1986). depression. first time risky behaviours. Father involvement is also negatively associated with children’s behavior problems. Flouri and Buchanan (2003b) found that father involvement (as measured by spending time together and relationship quality) at age 7 protected against psychological maladjustments in adolescents from non-intact families. The relationship between peer drug use and adolescent marijuana use is attenuated by both closeness to father and the perception that parents would catch them for major rule violations (Dorius. disruptive behaviour. More recently. (2005) found that father involvement was not only negatively associated with bullying behavior. children who feel close to. the negative effect of having a father with an authoritarian or permissive parenting style on increased risk of engaging in delinquent activity and substance use is reduced (Bronte-Tinkew. and do things frequently with their fathers display less antisocial behavior and are less depressed and withdrawn (Peterson & Zill. conduct disorder.. & Harmon. antisocial behaviour. 2005). 1998). when fathers have a positive relationship with their children. In addition. In addition. positive father child relationship predicts a reduced risk of engagement in multiple. For example. and father involvement at age 16 protected against adult psychological distress among adult daughters in women. Moore. 2001). 2000). Howard et al. less drug use. 1995). 1999. Good relationships with both step and non custodial father are also associated with better child outcomes (White & Gilbreth 2001). children’s good relationships with their stepfathers are associated with significantly lower risk of internalizing or externalizing problems (White & Gilbreth. especially if the father provided school support (Zimmerman et al. Bahr.. Aldous and Mulligan (2002) found that a father’s greater involvement in his “difficult to raise preschooler’s life” was related to the child having fewer reported behaviour problems as a grade schooler. 1995). and stealing (Barnes. 2006).. but that it provided a buffering effect for children in that it protected them from extreme victimization.. 2004). Their research further indicates that this benefit from early paternal 7 . 1988). 1998). delinquency. Mosley & Thompson.. less delinquency (Zimmerman et al. 2006. Having a close. violent behavior) the next year. King & Sobolewski. sadness and lying (Flouri & Buchanan. 2002a. truancy. & Carrano. 2006). In addition. 1994. 2000).. are. 2002) such as having difficulty paying attention. mothers. more likely to complete fewer years of schooling. 8 . Horn & Sylvester. 1971). 2000). 1997. 1993). Snarey. 2001). 1994. Luster & McAdoo. Brooks-Gunn. In addition. Some research extends the benefits of father involvement for children in relationship to problem behaviours to fathers and mothers. children were less likely to have experienced homelessness. disobedience. less likely to graduate from highschool. McLanahan & Sandefeur. have lower grade point averages. 2000). on average. Several risk factors to children’s mental health problems in middle school that were associated with lower father involvement included having high stress reactivity (Boyce et al. Painter & Levine. 1996). Painter & Levine. (Mott. father involvement at age 7 was negatively related to socio-economic disadvantage at age 33. Kosterman. 1994). US Department of Health and Human Services. but not daughters. Adolescents who strongly identified with their fathers were 80% less likely to have been in jail and 75% less likely to become unwed parents (Furstenberg & Harris. 1994). 1995). 1993. are. have trouble solving complex mathematical and puzzle tasks. They are more likely to drop out of school (McLanahan & Sandefur. have lower academic performance (Kelly. Living in any type of married household also reduces the risk of early sexual activity and pregnancy (Moore & Chase-Lansdale. Kelly. twice as likely to repeat a grade (Nord & West. 2006). more likely to have problems in school performance (Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan. on average. 1988. 1994. being expelled. Kowaleski-Jones. and more likely to be out of school and work or have poor labour attachments in their mid 20's (McLanahan & Sandefeur. 2005). EFFECTS OF FATHER ABSENCE ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT OUTCOMES Children who live without their fathers. 1997). or have poor school attendance. Spoth. 1991).attention was also evidenced for nonproblematic young sons. 1997. Painter & Levine. 2000. they are more likely to have lower scores on achievement tests (McLanahan & Sandefeur. or spend an average of 3. Pong & Ju. and children. (McLanahan & Sandefeur. more likely to experience behavior problems at school (Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan.5 hours less per week studying (Zick & Allen. 2001). Haggerty. & Mehaghan. and Rathouz (2001) found that families with residential fathers reported fewer antisocial symptoms for fathers. McBurnett. 2002. be academic underachievers working below grade level (Blanchard & Biller. In addition. 1994. For example. lower scores on intellectual ability and intelligence tests (Duncan. 2000). 1994). (Biller. received state benefits. Pfiffner. 1981). & Klebanov. Children who live without their fathers. 2000. or live in subsidised housing (Flouri. Horn & Sylvester. less likely to enroll in college (Krein & Beller. and Redmond (2004) found that prosocial experiences with fathers may play a key role in dissuading daughters from antisocial behaviour. suspended (Dawson. For example. boys. Pevalin. For example. 2006). In addition. on average. & Liotus. 2002.. However.. Both boys and girls are less likely to be able to delay gratification. 2003).. Family structure affects conduct disorders and childhood aggression directly but the magnitude of the effect declines when tested with family processes and individual characteristics (Brannigan. & Garrison. 1997. and have a weaker sense of right and wrong (Hetherington & Martin. Girls who grow up in father absent homes are. Painter & Levine. 2003). Horn & Sylvester. or commit suicide (Brent. 2000). have conduct problems (Kandel et al. those born outside marriage and their mother remained unmarried had the greatest behavioural problems when compared with their counterparts with married biological parents (Carlson. 9 . 2005). suffer from psychological disorders. Addy. Gemmell. However. & Chen. & Wade. sad. 2000. Not living with both biological parents quadruples the risk of having an affective disorder (Cuffe. 1979). 1997). Both boys and girls are more likely to develop disruptive or anxiety disorders (Kasen. moral values and rule conformity (Hoffman. on average. have poor impulse control over anger and sexual gratification. 1971). Adolescents whose mothers divorced and remained single. guilt following transgressions. Children in father absent homes are more likely to have problems in emotional and psychosocial adjustment and exhibit a variety of internalizing and externalizing behaviours (Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan. Kelly. dependent.such as measures of internal moral judgement. 1996. 1994). 1994). Cohen. a combination of low father contact and high levels of either anger or trust in the daughter-father relationship was related to particularly deleterious psychosocial outcomes for adolescent girls (Coley. and not feel sorry after misbehaving (Parke. 1996).Boys who live without their fathers consistently score lower on a variety of moral indexes . Rosenbaum. African American daughters perceptions of anger and alienation from fathers was related to greater emotional and behavioural problems for adolescents (Coley. acceptance of blame. depressed. and hyperactive. & Hartmark. 2001). McBurnett. In father absent homes. are more likely to be more unhappy. are more likely to become overly dependent (Mott et al. lie. McKeown. Perper. the heightened antisocial behavior in children associated with absent biological fathers was not mitigated by presence of stepfathers and was not accounted for by lower SES (Pfiffner. 1995). 1997) and have internalizing problems such as anxiety and depression (Kandel. Girls who live without their fathers are more likely to cheat. & Rathouz. 2002). Moritz. Brook. Mott et al. father involvement partially mediates the effects of family structure on adolescent behavioural outcomes in that it reduced both the size and the significance of nearly all the statistically significant family structure effects on adolescent behaviour suggesting that father involvement is a critical factor in predicting adolescent behavioural outcomes (Carlson. 2006). children who live without their fathers are more likely to engage in criminal behavior (Horn & Sylvester. Moore. 2004). Haffmann. cigarettes. & Gerstein. drink. Botvin. or tobacco compared to children who live with both biological or adoptive parents (Bronte-Tinkew. 2000. on average. are at higher risk of status. and be more aggressive (Horn & Sylvester. Bush. or commit a school crime . or of suffering from emotional neglect (Sedlak & Broadhurst.. alcohol. are at greater risk of being physically abused. & Mullis. 2000). 2002. and personal delinquencies (Anderson. 2004). Diaz. Jaervelin. Johnson. married parents. monitoring. 1997). more likely to choose deviant peers. Bptvin. Diaz. 2004). Isohanni. administrator. 2002). Adolescents in single-mother or single-father families are significantly more delinquent than their counterparts residing with two biological. 2002). Children who live with a single parent or in stepfamilies are more likely to use and abuse illegal drugs. 1995). Mullis. although these differences are reduced once various family processes such as supervision. and hard drugs and was connected to family structure with intact families ranking higher on father closeness than single-parent families (National Fatherhood Initiative. & Miller. or distributing alcohol or drugs. & Zaff. In addition. 2000) and report higher rates of drinking and smoking (Griffin.Children who live without their fathers are. Father closeness was also correlated with a child’s use of alcohol. 2000). 1996). Nonetheless. & Miller. 1996. and smoke marijuana. Children who live without their fathers are. Capps. be at higher risk for peer problems (Mott et al. have trouble getting along with other children. Scheier. possessing a weapon. involvement and closeness are accounted for (Demuth & Brown. Father closeness was negatively correlated with the number of a child’s friends who smoke. or another student (Jenkins. of being harmed by physical neglect. or assaulting a teacher. or score higher on delinquency and aggression tests (Griffin. Jokelainen. Mackey and Immerman (2004) found that father absence. Adolescents in father absent homes face elevated incarceration risks (Harper & McLanahan. on average. 2000). Scheier. 2006. Painter & Levine.possessing. property. rather than poverty. using. Absence of paternal influence was a particularly important risk factor for daughters’ criminality although mothers and fathers appeared to play a similar role in controlling their sons’ antisocial behavior (Kemppainen. & Raesaenen 2002). was the stronger predictor of young men’s violent behavior. Mandara and Murray (2006) found that father absent boys were much more likely than father present boys or either group of girls to use drugs. 10 . Kelly. Croan. or personal disadvantages associated with father absence and there was stronger and more consistent evidence of the effects of father absence on early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy than on other behavioural or mental health problems or academic achievement (Ellis et al. 1991. and cognitive outcomes (Wertheimer. Coltrane. Involved fathers are more likely to see their interactions with their children positively (DeLuccie. BENEFITS OF FATHER INVOLVEMENT FOR FATHERS Men who are involved fathers feel more self confident and effective as parents. are more likely to become pregnant as a teenager (Ellis et al. Russell. 1994. Other research indicates similar trends. Russell. Likewise. 1987) and feel encouraged to be even more involved (DeLuccie. ecological. better understand. 1982).. 1990. & Hair.. 1996. This elevated risk was not explained by familial. 1996). 1994. women whose parents separated between birth and six years old experienced twice the risk of early menstruation. 2001). McLanahan & Sandefur. more likely to be poor (Horn & Sylvester. 1982). find parenthood more satisfying (Owen. 1997). be more attentive to their children’s development (Lamb. 2004). feel more intrinsically important to their child (Lamb. Overall. Lamb. 1987). 2003).Adolescents who live without their father are more likely to engage in greater and earlier sexual activity. More specifically. marrying with less than a high school degree. Teens without fathers were twice as likely to be involved in early sexual activity and seven times more likely to get pregnant as an adolescent (Ellis et al. early fatherhood. 1996. 2003. both during the teen years and early twenties. is much more likely to occur if young men did not grow up living with their own fathers. & Ary. 2000). or have a child outside of marriage (Painter & Levine. Moore. 1996). Spending time taking care of children provides fathers with opportunities to display affection and to nurture their children (Almeida & Galambos. Overall. 1988). US Department of Health and Human Services. 2003). Chase-Lansdale & Lamb. social and emotional. 2003). Children who live without their fathers are. 1982). and two and a half times higher risk of early pregnancy when compared to women in intact families (Quinlan. 2002) with the US Bureau of the Census (2003) reporting that children in father absent homes are five times more likely to be poor. (DeLuccie. Biglan. father absence has deleterious effects on a wide range of child development outcomes including health. Noell. and be more accepting of their children (Almeida & Galambos. 2003). Miller & Moore. Young fathers were also less likely to be living with their children if their own fathers had not lived in residence with them throughout childhood (Furstenberg & Weiss. and forming a marriage where both partners have less than a high school degree (Teachman. Metzler. 1991. more than four times the risk of early sexual intercourse. on average.. and 11 . research indicates that being raised by a single mother raises the risk of teen pregnancy. 1993). career success and the father’s societal generativity (Hawkins. Involved fathers are more likely to participate in the community (Heath. and integrate their feelings in an ongoing way (Heath. Some evidence suggests that involved fathering is correlated with marital stability (Cowan & Cowan. 1993. Pleck & Masciadrelli. 2001. Long term. Barnett. 1991.. 2004). 2006). empathically understand others. 1975. and decreased self esteem. and a greater sense of well being overall (Pleck. Snarey. high involvement has a modest. serve in civic or community leaderships positions (Snarey. Wethington. Involved fathers are more likely to feel happily married ten or twenty years after the birth of their first child (Snarey. 1995). less substance abuse. 1994). 2001. Pleck. Christiansen. and be more able to understand themselves. & McDonald. men who are involved fathers during early adulthood usually turn out to be good spouses. 2004. Owen et al. 2002). feel less psychological distress (Barnett. & Pleck. 1992b. Overall. Snarey 1993). Townsend. Marshall. Eggebean & Knoester. Despite some of the documented short term costs of father involvement for men such as stress. and attend church more often (Chaves. 12 . 1993). & Waite. fewer hospital admissions. Involved fathers report fewer accidental and premature deaths. less than average contact with the law. 1998). Fathers who are involved in their children’s lives are more likely to exhibit greater psychosocial maturity (Pleck. 1998. and be more connected to their family (Eggebean & Knoester. When fathers spend more time with their children they are more likely to engage in supportive interactions. Wilcox. 1997. 1987. richer father-child relationships. Lerman and Sorensen (2000) found a positive relationship between increased involvement of fathers and additional hours of work and increased earnings. Ozer. do more socializing (Eggebean & Knoester. 2001). 1994. 2001). (Gronseth. 1991. 1993). In addition. 1983.family conflict. 1982. Ploch & Hastings. Townsend 2002. increased work. regardless of negative mood (Almeida. 1993. positive impact on occupational mobility. 1993). workers. & Levine. Fatherhood encourages men to increase intergenerational and extended family interactions and participate in service-oriented activities and hours in paid labour (Knoester & Eggebean. & Sperling. be more satisfied with their lives (Eggebean & Knoester. Gove & Mongione. 1992) and is associated with marital satisfaction in midlife (Heath & Heath. 1991. Snarey. 2001). Snarey. Heath & Heath. & Hill. theses costs do not appear to reduce overall satisfaction with parenthood (Pleck & Masciadrelli. Brennan. Blair-Loy. 1987. Eggebean & Knoester. 1993). Lamb. 1978.enjoy closer. 1997). and citizens at midlife (Snarey. work success. Stolzenberg. 2001). Lamb. 2002). Sargent. This next section explores three dimensions of the co-parental relationship: 1) the importance of marriage for father involvement.. 1998). Thus. the father’s satisfaction in his own paternal role. & Aschenbrenner. Levy-Schiff & Israelaschivili. men’s emotional involvement with their children has been found to act as a buffer against work related stresses (Barnett et al. 1983. and 3) how the quality of the co-parental relationship indirectly affects child development outcomes. 2007). Nash. 2004). Feldman. strengthening the interparental relationship can support quality fathering (Formoso et al. 1993). 2000. a strong parenting alliance was positively related to quality fathering. if marital conflict is high. 2) the mother’s role in father involvement. 1991. As a result. 1988). marital or otherwise (Cabrera et al. These correlations indicate that the marital relationship is an important context for the quality of men’s experiences as a father (Bouchard & Lee.one contingent upon the other (Townsend. which weakens the father-child relationship (Coiro & Emery. 1998.In fact. For example. (Father involvement accounted for 25% of the variance in the father’s midlife marital success. Doherty. fathers have a much more difficult time being involved with their children. non-resident boyfriends.. & Henderson. CO-PARENTAL RELATIONSHIP The quality of the co-parental relationship has both direct implications for how involved fathers are. Harris & Morgan. Cox. McBride & Mills. The importance of the marital context considered. or non-resident friend). Some research indicates that increased father involvement can have positive consequences for the marriage. For example. Men are more likely to understand their role of being a father and a husband as a “package deal” . 2000). recent research indicates that for biological fathers regardless of their fathering status (residential. 2007). and indirect implications for child development outcomes. Snarey (1993) found that fathers who were involved in their children’s lives were significantly more likely to enjoy a stable marriage at midlife.) Other researchers have found a similar relationship between competent fathering behaviours and 13 . marriage becomes an important context within which to promote and sustain father involvement. Therefore. Kouneski. and his competence as a parent (Bouchard & Lee. Owen. 2002). & Erickson. 1989. interparental conflict was negatively related to quality fathering for single earner Mexican American families (Formoso et al. 1998. 2000). The Importance of Spousal Relations for Father Involvement There is a positive correlation between marital quality and the following: levels of father involvement in child care responsibilities (Bouchard & Lee. nonresidential... the quality of the father-child relationship (Belsky & Volling. residential boyfriend. 1992b). Lewis.. the fathers who had at least a romantic relationship with the mother were more involved with their children across types of involvement than those in no relationship. Doherty et al. Conversely. 1987. and an unwillingness to change their standards for housework and childcare. Futris & Skinner. pleasure. Fagan and Barnett (2003) found that maternal gatekeeping was significantly. 2005). 1987. More recently research indicates that a mother’s positive relationship with both the father and his family was found to predict a greater likelihood of initiated and sustained high father involvement. 1996. and comfort in their paternal role (Biller. 1999. Whitbek. 1998. 1987. 2000). Feldman. Conger. McBride & Rane. 1995. and negatively associated with the amount of father involvement. expect and believe parenting is a joint venture). fathers’ perceived investments in their parental roles and actual levels of paternal involvement are moderated by mothers’ beliefs about the role of the father (McBride et al. associated with higher levels of involvement (Pasely et al. Thus. Cowan & Cowan. 1999) to the father-child relationship. 2002). Coverman. in turn. Coley. 1992. a decreasing pattern of father involvement was significantly associated with increased maternal parenting stress over time (Kalil. competence. 1993. Heath & Heath.increased marital satisfaction and marital stability in later life (Belsky.. place a greater importance on their father role identity (Pasley et al. Many women are ambivalent about greater father involvement for a variety of reasons including concerns about their husband’s competence as a caregiver.. Simons.. Doherty et al. Levitt. Coffman. provide encouragement. feel recognized as a parental figure (Jordan. DeLuccie. 1983. et al. The father’s level of involvement in the child’s life is therefore. Mothers can serve as gatekeepers (Allen & Hawkins.. For example. 1995. Research indicates that fathers who perceive their wives as evaluating them positively as fathers were more likely to report higher levels of involvement in child-related activities and place greater importance on the father role identity which was. DeLuccie. DeLuccie. there is more evidence that paternal involvement has positive consequences for marriage than negative consequences (Pleck & Masciadrelli. Conversely. 1985. Pasley. and feel more satisfaction. feared loss of control over a domain in which they exercised significant power. overall. 1993. 1998. Thus. Dickie & Carnahan. 1996). 14 . 2002). Seery & Crowley. Cowan & Cowan. Mother’s Role in Father Involvement When mothers are supportive of their spouse’s parenting (view them as competent parents. 1980. Ziol-Guest. & Brown 1994. 2000. partly determined by the extent to which mothers permit participation (Allen & Hawkins. 1990). father competence was indirectly and directly linked to the amounts of maternal gatekeeping and father involvement with children with gatekeeping mediating the relationship between father competence and involvement. 1990). 2002. 2005). Cowan & Cowan. men are more likely to be involved with. Bouchard & Lee. and responsible for their children (Biller. & Melby. 1984. 1991). 2004). In addition.. 1978. The effect of a supportive co-parental relationship seems to work for fathers as well.. and positive relationships with peers and intimate partners (Amato. 2005). This increases the likelihood that they will employ noneffective parenting strategies (such as harsher and less consistent discipline) when interacting with their children and respond to them in an impatient.The Co-Parental Relationship has Indirect Effects on Child Development Outcomes The co-parental relationship indirectly affects the parent-child relationship. Recent research found that co-operative coparenting predicts more frequent father-child contact. & Frosch. For example. 1998. Harper and Fine (2006) found similar results when they found a negative relationship between inter-parent conflict and child well being (Harper & Fine. mothers are more competent parents. 2001). Snarey. which in turn predicts higher relationship quality and more responsive fathering (Sobolewski & King. 2006). and distracted. which in turn has positive child development outcomes. frequent conversations between husbands and wives were found to be a significant indirect factor affecting children’s sociability (Kato et al. 1981. Less happy marriages and marital arguments when children were young were associated with children’s behavior problems when they were older (Aldous & Mulligan. increased self-control and academic competence (Brody et al. Parke & Anderson. 1995). Therefore. Cowan & Cowan. sensitive. This tends to enhance the quality of the mother-child relationship and thus facilitates positive developmental outcomes for their children (Lamb 1997). In addition. Mothers in families in which father involvement is high may have a more positive outlook regarding their child’s behavior than do mothers in families in which father involvement is low (Culp et al. mothers are more patient. 1998). 1994). 2000). irritable. when fathers are supportive and encouraging. husbands who show little warmth or are abusive towards their wives. High levels of supportive co-parenting were also associated with fewer externalizing behavior problems in preschoolers (Schoppe. 2002).1998). For example. Conger & Elder. flexible. have wives who are more likely to feel emotionally drained. And Lundy (2002) reported that marital dissatisfaction adversely affected paternal synchrony which negatively impacted the security of the infant-father attachment. When fathers are supportive and encouraging. 1987.. When the co-parental relationship is not supportive. such as being popular with peers (Boyum & Parke. Manglesdorf. 1994). and available to their infants and young children (Belsky. 1993). 15 . children suffer. emotionally responsive. nonnurturing manner (Amato. Feiring & Lewis. support from wives can improve the quality of the father’s parenting (Amato. 1987.. 2002). 1997). health. Graham. Kandel. Grych & Fincham. Day. 1994). better ratings on the personal maturity scale. child support payments improve children’s access to educational resources. 2000. verbal. such as improved cognitive test scores. behavioural conduct. King. Menning. resolving conflict effectively. Davies & Cummings. Beaman. 1988. and social competence (Amato. emotional adjustment. fewer behavioural problems. 1996). A positive co-parental relationship models many important relationship skills that children can use in their own relationships such as: providing emotional support. & Smith. Knox & Bane. 1990). preschooler’s school readiness. Hanson. Marsiglio. 1993). 1998. 1994). increase the amount of stimulation in the home and improve children’s health and nutrition (Graham et al. Conger. The amount of child support paid impacts a wide variety of child development outcomes. self esteem. 1998) NON. 1997. and positive. higher reading. Graham. 1994. Happily married parents interact more positively with their infant (Levy-Schiff.Research consistently documents a negative association between marital discord and children development outcomes such as academic success. 1994). 16 . 1998. and increased probability that youths will graduate from highschool and go onto college (Green & Moore. Cummings & O’Reilly. and math ability (Argys et al. Peters. Overall. and competence . Beller & Chung. 1988. 1994. For example.Payment of Child Support RESIDENTIAL FATHERS The amount of child support paid by non-resident fathers is positively and significantly associated with children’s well being.. better educational achievement. 1994.. Knox. In fact. Emery. 2002). Clements. and Hernandez (1994) found that child support helps children overcome about two thirds of the disadvantage in years of school completed and reduces highschool drop out rates as well as the percentage of students who fall behind their age cohorts in high school. Seltzer. In addition. 1990. strong evidence exists for the positive role of non-resident fathers’ payment of child support for children’s outcomes (Graham & Beller.including higher grades and attained education level (Amato & Gilbreth. Knox & Bane. Beller. Brooks-Gunn. the amount of child support received increased the educational attainment and cognitive test scores of children and adolescents more than income from any other source (Argys. 1998. showing respect. 1999. higher levels of social and emotional adjustment. 1994). & Chao. Amato. preschool child (Lindahl. and school age child (Simons. & Thompson. & Markman. open communication patterns (Amato. McLanahan. 2002) as these economic contributions improve children’s standards of living. Beller. King. 1994. 2000. & Lamb. 2001). & Hernandez. 1994. success. leading scholars to argue that a dollar of child support has a larger benefit to children than does a dollar of family income (Aughinbaugh. 1998). 2004). 2002)... 1998. in turn. Marsiglio et al. 2000). Kelly. 1994). 1999). Marsiglio et al. especially contributions provided informally.educational attainment. It is. Payment of child support is negatively and significantly related to reports of children’s behavioural problems (Furstenberg. positive impacts on the receipt and amount of child support. & Allison. overall. Interestingly. O’Connor. 2) the quality of the motherchild relationship. 2004. Greene & Moore. 2004). and general well-being (Seltzer. and frequency of contact (Amato. & Bridges. some research has been able to document a circular effect of child support in that measures of child achievement in reading and math can have. Other research indicates that greater contact with the father in the form of child visitation tends to be associated with more child support being paid (Seltzer. 2001). Thus. such as the father’s frequency of contact with their child and their child’s feelings about their fathers have proven to be inconsistent predictors of child development outcomes or adjustment (Amato. positive child-non-resident father relationships are correlated with 1) contact between child and father (amount and regularity).. suggesting that noncustodial parents appear to consider how well their former partners care for their children when they make child support decisions (Aughinbaugh. monetary and material contributions from the father. positively associated with positive behavioural adjustment and adaptation after divorce (King. Dunn. 1987. Morgan. 1998. Divorced fathers who visit their children often were more likely to have a supportive relationship with their former spouses (Whiteside & Becker. research has found that the frequency of contact. 2004. however. 2000. 1991). & Thompson. 2000). interparental conflict. 1994. In some cases. Other variables. 1997). Lamb. and 3) the frequency of contact between the mother and her former partner (Dunn et al. Cheng. Relationship with Mother and Child Research consistently indicates that the most crucial mediating variable for child development outcomes for children with non-residential fathers is the quality (not quantity) of the father’s relationship with the mother and the child (Amato.. Thus.. are positively associated with more positive child well-being outcomes (Dunn. The quality of the child father relationship is related to the quality of the mother-non-resident father relations and the mother child relationship (Dunn et al. 2000). 2000). McLanahan et al. 17 . 1994) and children’s externalizing problems (Amato & Gilbreth. Sternberg. The positive correlation between payment of child support and desirable child development outcomes continues to exist after controlling for influences of maternal income. or time spent doing activities with non-residential fathers has no significant effects on child development outcomes unless it is also combined with financial support (Menning. fathers’ perceptions of parenting support received from the former spouse contribute to fathers’ levels of coparental interaction after divorce (Madden-Derdich & Leonard. Whitbek. Wallerstein & Kelly. Heath & MacKinnon. Hetherington. supervising. fewer externalizing and internalizing problems for adolescents. 2007). less emotional distress (Stewart. Likewise. Lamb. 2005). 1997. more responsive fathering. 1979.In addition. These positive results and higher levels of child well-being are often qualified by not only the condition of non resident father involvement. 2000). and stronger ties between non-resident fathers and their children (Sobolewski & King. Hess & Camara. 1986. Likewise. and responsive fathering (Dunn et al. 2006) which is negatively related to child well being (Harper & Fine. children consistently do better in many domains of child development when they are able to maintain meaningful relationships with both parents unless the levels of interparental conflict remain unusually high (Amato. 2006). non-residential fathers who engage in authoritative parenting (setting and enforcing rules. 2000). 1982. 1994. 1982. 1985. 2004. Beaman. other research has found that non resident father involvement and frequency of contact did not improve the regression models predicting children’s total difficulties or pro-social behavior although frequency 18 .. and overall better academic outcomes (Kelly. Non-resident father involvement is related positively to mother’s involvement and negatively to interparental conflict (Flouri. authoritative parenting. frequent visitation. & Cox. higher non-resident father involvement predicts decreases in adolescent delinquency. Cooperative co-parenting between parents who live apart predicts more frequent father-child contact. Emery. Simons. 2006). 1991. Whiteside & Becker. 1985. Menning. 2003). Cox. However. Harper & Fine. & Conger. 1993. 2006). less acting out at school among adolescents (King & Sobolewski. praising children’s accomplishments) are less likely to have adolescents who experience symptoms of depression or various externalizing problems (Barber. 2006) Following divorce. For example. mother’s attitudes have been found to strongly determine the effectiveness of post-divorce father involvement (Kelly. monitoring. feelings of closeness. 1980). lower probabilities of school failure among adolescents (Menning. provide advice and emotional support. 2000). presence of paternal warmth. providing consistent discipline. 1994). lower probabilities of school failure among adolescents (Menning. high relationship quality. but increases in that involvement over time. which in turn predicts higher relationship quality. particularly for youth with initial engagement in delinquent activities (Coley & Medieros. Furstenberg & Cherlin. 2006. Guildubaldi & Perry. helping with homework. Positive child developmental outcomes for children are associated with the quality of the non-residential father’s parenting and how they interact with the child. 2006. 1988. 2000). Kurdek. two parent families father contribute on average about two thirds of the family income (Amato & Booth. Other research indicates a similar trend. 1999. Britto. dropping out of school (Levin. FATHERS & Economic support of the family is an indirect. or limited in cognitive and social skills. Fatherhood encourages men to be more serious about their work productivity but not to “over commit” to their jobs and careers (Coltrane. Specifically. fathers can WORK: contribute to their child’s development. Miller. but important way. fathers ROLE who do not provide economically for their families are more likely to disengage from involvement in many other aspects of their children’s lives than fathers who do provide economically (Christensen & Palkovitz. 1994). In married. 1991).of contact was negatively associated with child’s emotional symptoms (Flouri. conduct disorders. Eggebean & Knoester. 2001). 2006). emotional and behavioural problems such as depression. 2003). low self-esteem. 1997. and conflict with peers (Brooks-Gunn. Duncan & Brooks-Gunn. scared. Research consistently documents that poverty has many detrimental effects on child development outcomes. 19 . provide mixed evidence about the degree to which children benefit from nonresident father involvement (Stewart. Stewart (2003) found that participating in leisure activities with non-resident fathers did not influence children’s well being. therefore. and 3) investing in an authoritative parental role. Gutmann. Christiansen & Palkovitz (2001) argue that economic provision for child and family needs is the foundation on which IMPORTANCE OF many fathers build their involvement in family life and that it is integrated and THE PROVIDER connected with many other forms of father involvement. and discipline style make the difference between a welladjusted child post-divorce and one who is angry. low school grades. and seeing movies together) and frequency of contact do not consistently contribute in a positive way to child development (Marsiglio et al. good adjustment. sensitivity. EFFECTS OF FAMILY INCOME ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT OUTCOMES Note: The effects of income on child development outcomes are mostly due to the father’s income since fathers continue to contribute. Norton. 1995) because they do not facilitate authoritative parenting. 1986). 1997). Snarey (1993) found that when compared with men who are not fathers. Likewise. buying things. Overall.. & Brady. fathers exhibit a greater attachment to the labour force and career out of a sense of responsibility to provide for their children. 1995. Extrinsic support (going out to dinner. These results. 2001. 2000. This leads Whiteside and Becker (2000) to state that the quality of the parental alliance and the parents’ warmth. non-residential fathers have the potential to contribute to their child’s development by 1) paying child support. & Hill. Young. 2) developing a collaborative and cooperative relationship with the child’s mother. on average more than 50% of the family income. putting them at greater risk of poor nutrition and health problems (Klerman. Klerman. Davis. & Mueser 1983. Lancaster. Steelman & Dolby. and occupational status and earnings (Amato. and fathers reported higher well-being and lower distress (Barnett. 1998. 1993). 1982) cognitive and achievement test scores (Alwin & Thornton. Hawkins. 1983) school attendance (Brown & Rife.1991. psychological well being. Crouse. In Mexican-American families. Sargent. McLoyd. fathers’ income was negatively associated with depressive symptoms in mothers and adolescent children in highly acculturated families (Crouter. Mercy & Steelman. increased work-family conflict. Cambell & Trott.. Hauser. In contrast. 1998). Delgado. and earned income (Behrman & Taubman. 1982. Yeung. 1987. 2000. & Anderson. 1992b) and Lerman and Soreneson (2000) found a positive relationship between increased involvement of fathers and their subsequent hours of work and earning. Kerkhoff. and citizens at midlife (Snarey.. & Fortner. 1998) 20 . Westermeyer’s research (1998) found that career success did not come at the expense of marriages or community service. work success. Men’s emotional involvement with their children was found to act as a buffer against work related stresses (Barnett et al. Overall. men who are involved fathers during early adulthood usually turn out to be good spouses. workers. 2000). 1981. Jencks. Paternal education is positively associated with children’s grade point averages (Alwin & Thornton. & Wolf. high involvement has a modest. positive impact on occupational mobility. and decreased self esteem. 1984. 1991). Mayer. 1997. Parcel & Menaghan. employees. 1994. long term. 1984. Duncan & Hill. Kaplan. 1985) of young adult sons and daughters even when mother’s earnings are controlled. IMPACT OF FATHER INVOLVEMENT ON WORK Despite some of the documented short term costs of father involvement for men such as stress. 1997). Updegraff. Marsiglio et al. Christiansen. Blau & Grossberg. and societal generativity (Snarey. Kiker & Condon. 1989. 1987. 2006). 1992. 1982. fathers earnings are positively associated with the educational attainment (Hill & Duncan. Research indicates that men who occupy many roles such as husbands. 1998. (Amato. 1980). 1993). Amato. & Hill. DiMaggio. 1993. Sewell. and are more mentally healthy (Westermeyer. 1991). In addition. McLoyd & Wilson. correlational studies that demonstrate the salience of father presence by studying families without fathers. Yankelovich. 1999. supportive supervisors and co-workers. and variations of Lamb. MEASURES OF FATHER INVOLVEMENT BALANCING Pathways WORK AND FAMILY: Several forms of work organizational supports have been identified as The most dominant measures of father involvement include the use of time diaries. the mismatch between employed parents’ work schedules and their children’s school schedules creates parental after school stress. (Barnett & Gareis. Milkie & Peltola. Men are more likely to work more hours. more depressive symptoms. 1997). 2006). Fathers who work long hours are more likely to feel overloaded. The combination of long working hours and role overload predicted this relationship quality (Crouter. Broom. 21 . parents working non-standard schedules reported worse family functioning. Although innovative discussions exist on the limitations of past father involvement definitions. 1974). Christensen. and be less effective in perspective taking. work-place flexibility (Lee & Duxbury. 1998). & McHale. and flexible implementation of corporate policies at the local level (Palkovitz. constructs. with an emphasis on the ways father involvement has been measured in the majority of the research cited in this document. Charnov. which is related to the psychological well being of the parent. Pleck. 1997). Their children were also more likely to have social and emotional difficulties and these relationships were partially mediated through family relationships and parent well-being (Strazdins. and responsibility. Clements. Bumpas. Barriers Workplace barriers such as longer work hours are ranked by fathers as the most important reason for low levels of paternal involvement and source of stress in balancing work and family life (Haas. and measures. Korda. 1998). this discussion will highlight briefly some of the main ways father involvement has been measured. 2001). & D’Souza. They BARRIERS AND include: family responsibility leave. 1992. be less accepting of their adolescent children.necessary to facilitate an optimal work/family balance for fathers. and less likely to take advantage of flexible work arrangements or parental leave (Robinson & Godbey. Likewise. 2006). & Levine’s (1985) constructs of engagement. & Dunn. Flex-time and pro-family corporate practices are associated with more father involvement (Pleck. and less effective parenting. In addition. accessibility. Head. PATHWAYS work time flexibility. of the following three ways. Father Involvement Measured as Time Spent Together This includes frequency of contact. shared leisure time. Teaching (role modeling. nurturing. as articulated by Lamb et al. and clothing in addition to the amount of time father’s spend playing with their child. encouraging activities and interests). and the amount of support he provides his children with school related activities. Implicit in this approach is that “father involvement” is a unidimensional construct. praying). Considerable work has been carried out to elaborate the complicated nature of father involvement leading to arguments about the importance of considering father involvement as a “multidimensional” construct (Schoppe-Sullivan. including the father’s ability to be an authoritative parent (exercises appropriate control and limits while allowing autonomy. Monitoring (friends. mutual and reciprocal the play is. preparing meals. close. McBride & Ringo Ho. In addition. 67) than “father involvement” per se. Father Involvement Measured as Investment in Paternal Role Measures assess the level of investment in child rearing. we have made reference to the relationship between father involvement and various outcomes. showing love). intimate. and the perceived accessibility and availability of the father. In this regard. fathers are classified as being involved if their child has developed a strong. amount of time spent together (doing things such as shared meals. affectionate.A content analysis of the research cited in this document reveals that father involvement was typically measured in one. and how effective. This can also include the amount of time fathers spend performing routine physical child care such as bathing. warm. or time spent reading together). Palkovitz (1997) broadened the conceptualization with reference to 15 categories of paternal involvement that included: Communication (listening. homework). monitors child’s activities). supportive. planning. Pleck (1997) has argued that it is more appropriate to refer to the benefits of “positive father involvement” (p. Cognitive processes (worrying. (1987) has tended to dominate assessments of father involvement. the degree to which he is facilitative and attentive to his child’s needs. or a combination. and accepting. friendly. Multidimensional Versus Unidimensional Conceptualizations Throughout this document. 2004). comforting. 22 . encouraging. secure attachment to them. takes responsibility for limit setting and discipline. Father Involvement Measured as the Quality of the Father-Child Relationship A father is defined as an involved father if his relationship with his child can be described as being sensitive. talking. Direct engagement. Matta & Knudson-Martin. moral and ethical aspects of involvement (Hawkins. Efforts to construct a pragmatic yet valid and reliable measure of father involvement have had to face the challenge of balancing the need to capture the complex dimensions of father involvement with the practical issue of having a format that is not so long and cumbersome as to be prohibitive for participants (Schoppe-Sullivan et al. Christiansen. Palkovitz. 2004). as well as behavioral. Whereas the focus has often been on how fathers make the transition to fathering. Palkovitz and Palm (2005) argue that there are many transitions over the life course within the fathering experience that have an impact on child and family outcomes. 2000) and a host of other factors including sexual orientation. QUALIFICATIONS Bradford. wars. Planning (activities. clothing). Nevertheless. and Supporting emotionality (encouraging the child). Availability. and narrative approaches (Dollahite. This measurement challenge continues to be a work in progress with noteworthy efforts including: a nine CHALLENGES factor model that assesses direct and indirect effects. Father involvement in the context of other influences A father’s activities. talking with the child. 2000). Furthermore. 2002. From a broader perspective. extended family. playing together). and other cultural and economic conditions can play powerful roles in shaping children’s well-being (Hewlett. child activities and cognitive monitoring (SchoppeSullivan et al. 2004). Protection. given the diversity of the fathering experience in relation to ethnicity (Parke. 2004). Accordingly. affective.. culture (Hewlett. 2000. siblings and other parents can all shape the developmental outcomes of the child. Pleck & Stueve. (feeding. neighbours. Day & Call. birthdays). it is important to look at variability both within and between these groups. bathing).. and a six factor model that includes responsibility. 2006). 2004). Shared interests (reading together). it is important that when looking at the “evidence” provided in this document that we be mindful of the 23 . household activities. AND cognitive. Furthermore. 2002). the nature of father involvement changes over time as a function of children being at various stages of development and fathers themselves undergoing various developmental challenges over time. thoughts and engagements with a child occur within a complex environment of other influences. love/physical affection. Providing (food. indepth interviewing (Marsiglio & Cohan. Caregiving. 2004. MEASURING FATHER INVOLVEMENT AND ITS IMPACT: In light of some of these complexities. Marsiglio. family access to resources. significant measurement challenges lie ahead in the effort to capture the multidimensional nature of father involvement (Day & Lamb. 2004). peers. Affection. Shared activities (shopping. qualitative approaches that examine the construction of the fathering experience have used grounded theory methodology approaches (Daly. 2000). as Parke (2000) has argued.Errands. The quality and nature of the interactions that children have with teachers. family structure and social class. there would be no differences between children from single and two parent homes on measures of social skills and conflict management. In focusing on child outcomes we often ignore the fact that patterns of father involvement are only one factor in a large and diverse array of possible contributors to developmental outcomes. disenfranchised. Sampling issues and representativeness Another limitation of the father involvement literature is that most of the research is based on US population samples. low parent education. Social class issues Other scholars have also challenged the impact of father involvement after controlling for SES. The adverse child developmental outcomes reportedly due to father absence may. This makes inferring the direction of causality problematic.wide range of influences on child development. One significant limitation is that most researchers rely on a single data source which raises the problem of the same informant who provided the data about paternal involvement also providing information about child outcomes. it is somewhat hazardous to get too specific regarding relationships between patterns of paternal involvement and child development outcomes. 2001). in part reflect the disadvantaged. Another measurement limitation in the fathering literature is that most studies are correlational and often cross sectional. 2004). Harper and McLanahan (2004) found that a sizeable portion of the risk that appeared to be due to father absence could actually be attributed to other factors such as teen motherhood. Kesner and McKenry (2001) argue that after controlling for SES. For example. Likewise. racial inequalities. family 24 .” Measurement issues From a methodological point of view. The existing database does not allow us to conclusively partial out the effects of of father involvement on child outcome variables. Palkovitz (2002) provides the following caution: “Because development is multiply determined. which would suggest that single parent family structure is not by itself a risk factor for children’s social development (Kesner & McKenry. and de-privileged experience of systemic and institutionalized racism rather than the impact of father absence. Battle (2002) found that in the presence of socioeconomic status. there are other limitations in how measurements are made when assessing the relationship between father involvement and child outcomes. and poverty. of which African American samples represent a significant proportion of the father absence literature. and impossible to account for selection effects or pre-existing conditions inherent in the child that may be impacting child development outcomes (Pleck & Masciadrelli. at the same time. Amato (1994) observed that the extent of mothers’ child care and the quality of the marriage may have accounted for the supposed positive effect of father’s child care. and that mother and father involvement have different outcomes related to sons and daughters. The conclusion for Rohner & Veneziano (2001) is that we may be better off studying father involvement from a triadic (mother –father –child) or systemic perspective rather than focusing on the dyadic relationship (father –child).configuration was not statistically significant in predicting educational achievement. research indicates that a father’s child rearing practices have a smaller effect on children than poverty or race (Mosely & Thompson. Three of these categories of literature indicate that father love and involvement makes a unique and significant contribution to child development outcomes after statistically controlling for the mothers’ influence. The importance of the parenting relationship for understanding father involvement When assessing the impact of father involvement on child outcomes. and finally. depending on the nature of the parenting relationship. there are a number of different outcomes for sons and daughters that warrant further research and analysis. In a similar vein. 25 . 1997). there are interactive effects that involve contributions from both mothers and fathers. Rohner & Veneziano (2001) identify six different categories of empirical studies that illustrate the complex systemic dynamics of father involvement. other scholars found that father presence had no effect on post secondary educational attainment after controlling for high school curriculum placement and high school grades (List & Wolfle. In addition. that father involvement moderates the influence of mother involvement. mother involvement and child development outcomes. 2000). In a review of the empirical research that examines the relationship between father love (acceptance-rejection) and child outcomes. while the other categories of study come to the conclusion that father love operates independently of mother love and involvement. In the case of educational achievement. Averett. and Peters (1997) found that levels of father care were less influential on cognitive development than the child care centers their children were placed in. Pleck. Several conclusions can be drawn from this: there is strong evidence to support the conclusion that certain types of father involvement independently contribute to children’s developmental outcomes (there is also evidence that certain kinds of mother involvement contributes to unique outcomes). researchers often neglect to control for the quality of the mother child relationship which could account for a portion of the observable effects. For example. Gennetian. 1995. 2) economic loss / disadvantage. then the fathers are more likely to 26 . access to privilege. 2001). In addition. Recent research suggests that the impact of father absence flows through the following paths: 1) no co-parent. & Taylor. 2000). 3) social isolation and disapproval 4) perceived / actual abandonment relating to psychological distress. but would rather be able to lower his levels of father involvement in order to better provide for his child financially. 2003). the more conduct problems their children had. Bradley. In addition. In addition. they enhance the quality of the mother-child relationship thereby facilitating healthy developmental outcomes for children (Lamb. Tamis-LeMonda. 2000). Jaffee et al. and social networks. income. (2003) found that when fathers engaged in high levels of antisocial behavior. & Lamb. 2000). the more time they lived with their children. and the quality of various relationships tend to have more explanatory power (Davis & Friel. Caspi. Hofferth. All things considered. Assessing the impact of father presence and father absence The salutary effects of being raised by two married biological parents depends on the quality of care parents can provide (Jaffee. Moffitt. Previous research maintains that a child’s needs can be met with or without father involvement (Walker & McGraw. For example. fathers are more involved with their children when compared with families with non-employed mothers. Specifically. 5) conflict between parents (Cabrera. indicating that more father involvement is not always optimal in all cases. further research is needed to more clearly understand the mechanisms by which father involvement influences child development outcomes. Lamb (2000) reports that in two parent families where mothers are employed. When mothers earn more money than fathers. Employment conditions and father involvement There are a number of employment factors that influence the degree to which fathers are involved with their children. patterns of interaction.Direct and indirect effect Although much of the focus in this document and in the literature is on the direct effects of father involvement on child development outcomes. no agreement that psychological and social well-being are needs obtained by a parent of a specific gender. it is apparent that fathers are an important source of indirect effects on children’s developmental outcomes. fathers indirectly influence their children through their own accumulation of social capital. For example. It is also important to understand the reasons for low or high levels of paternal involvement. when fathers function as a source of practical and emotional support for mothers. family process. a father may be highly involved in his child’s life because he is unemployed. it is important to move discussions beyond explorations of family structure or father absence. as recent research suggests that family context. These may be the mechanisms (not the presence or absence of a father) that create deleterious effects on children. SUMMARY Overall. Clearly it is important to consider measurement. 1995). to be attentive to direct and indirect effects. When fathers are required to take on fathering responsibilities due to unemployment. 2000). fathers who have higher incomes are more likely to spend less time with their children than low income fathers but the time that they do spend is more positive (Levy-Schiff & Israelaschivili.spend more time in the care of their children (Casper & O’Connell. 27 . there is a tendency that they parent more harshly and children may suffer as a result (Russell. to consider the multidimensionality of father involvement within the context of other influences and relationships. sampling.father absence. and to find better ways of understanding father presence than by exploring is opposite . 1983 cited in Cabrera et al. When parents work non-standard work schedules. Further research and theory can continue to build the father involvement literature by being attentive to these limitations. Conversely.. to explore the impact of structural parameters on involvement such as employment conditions. 1988). several limitations exist with how the construct of father involvement is conceptualized and measured and the ways its impact has been understood and assessed that present a variety of challenges and qualifications to the research findings. fathers are also more likely to be involved in the provision of care to children (Presser. 1998). and social class issues. (2002). R. 784-802. (1993). Journal of Marriage and the Family. 417-429. Maternal gatekeeping: Mothers’ beliefs and behaviors that inhibit greater father involvement in family work. R. R.. 155-172. 39-53. Alwin. Journal of Research on Adolescence. 49. (1984). 61. American Sociological Review.. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Booth & A. Allen. P. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Umana-Taylor. 55. P. Cambridge. Nonresident fathers and children’s well being: A meta-analysis. 624 . 23-38. 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