EDUCATION Unit I: 1.1 Meaning of education and educational process: (a) General concept of education.CONCEPT OF EDUCATION: Introduction: The term ‘education’ in the broad sense is not only a pedagogical one punctuating down to the basic meaning of the term; it means to plunge a man’s body, mind and soul of ignorance. It enhances an individual’s personality and provides him confidence to reach out to the world. What is not education? 1) Becoming only literate is not education. 2) Getting a degree is not education. 3) Gaining knowledge. 4) Learning new skills. Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts. In its narrow, technical sense, education is the formal process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, customs and values from one generation to another, e.g., instruction in schools. Meaning/Definition of Education: 1) The act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life. 2) The act or process of imparting or acquiring particular knowledge or skills, as for a profession. 3) A degree, level, or kind of schooling: a university education. 4) The result produced by instruction, training, or study: to show one's education. 5) The science or art of teaching; pedagogics 6) The process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, esp. at a school or university: "a new system of public education". 7) The theory and practice of teaching. Features of education: 1) Life long process: - Process of development from infancy to maturity. 2) Bipolar process: - Interplay of educator and educand. 3) Tripolar process: - Interplay of educator, educand and social process. 4) A deliberate process: - The educator is aware of his aim. 5) Preserver and Transmitter of heritage: - The cultural heritage is transmitted from generation to generation. 6) It is progressive: - Changes according to the needs and demands of the society. Conclusion: Thus, education is a dynamic process, which involves the interplay of the educator, educand and the social forces to make an individual socially adjustable and responsible. (b) Process of Education-Bipolar-Tripolar. and language. Hence. True education comes through the stimulation of the educand’s endowments by the demands of the social situation in which he/she finds them. How does critical philosophy help with educational decisions? We live in a society where wisdoms and ideologies compete. The one is the educator and the other is the educand. self-improvement and self-control become the key words and bipolarity ceases to exist. In this sense. nature and need. mind. develop his own will and purpose. Educators must be able to fairly select among them in a way which they understand to enhance their practice. The educator is requires to stimulate the educand’s power in the total social setting.A philosophy is a way of living. values. Nature . Meaning . It so happens when the educand feels a drive to educate himself.Adams in his book ‘Evolution of Education Theory’ said that education is a bipolar process in which one personality acts upon another to modify the development of other personality. Also a philosophy is a way to study and better understand the world around you. The educational process not only has a psychological side involving the educator and the educand. 1. such as those connected with existence. Practitioners need tools which are neutral to these disputes in order to deal with day-to-day problems in schools. The educand has to live in and for the society he belongs to. The function of the educator becomes then the modification of the personality of the educand in the light of the needs of the society. Self-expression.[1][2] Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical. though without going into religious topics (usually). acquires knowledge and skills by his own efforts. educational process is tri-polar in nature as it involves the interaction between the two of the three namely the social factors. reason. education is a tripolar process and not bipolar one. and unlike religions which denote a belief in god(s). Such a selection among competing wisdoms should be as reasonable and as unbiased as possible.2 Relation of education and philosophy: (a) What is philosophy? Its meaning. generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. For example Confucianism is a philosophy it teaches people about literature and life but without going into religious topics. education becomes unipolar. the educator and the educand. the social aspect of the educational process becomes more important than the psychological aspect. In that case. it has the sociological aspect too. which literally means "love of wisdom".[3] The word "philosophy" comes from the Greek φιλοσοφία (philosophia). It proposes that the teacher seeks the modification of the development not only through imparting knowledge and skills. It is then when educational process achieves the main ideal. self-motivation. when he tries to modify his own nature. but also through her direct influence on the child’s personality.Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems. The bipolarity of the educational process ceases to exist when the educator and the educand both become one and the same person. John Dewey holds. Thus. Educational disputes in our society tend to be particularly ideological. a philosophy dictates how to live life without a god. Critical philosophy has at its disposal a wide variety of tools for analyzing and appraising educational debates. knowledge. build his own character. It considers that the in the process of education two persons are involved. . for example. Another ideology might hold that the needs of the child come first in any educational organization. and forms of criteria for decision-making. The many wisdoms and ideologies of our pluralistic society offer competing. if not all. for example: 4. What criteria can we use to identify educational goals? What are the criteria for ranking them? Why 1. Most. General Questions Recast as Questions of Criteria 1. Philosophy as critical inquiry enables a reasoned choice. Consider these. decide upon. recognize or know something. for example.Here. There are many other questions of similar importance that raise other philosophical issues. therefore. But because of its educational utility. when sexual preference or practice is a curriculum issue. Should students be taught to tolerate those things their parents believe are immoral? This question comes up. And for educators. the teacher should always follow policy. Educational criteriology preserves the commitments of the critical tradition in that its inquiry is not restrained by any of the absolutes recognized by traditions of wisdom or ideology. there will be occasions when policies have to be ignored. justifications. Should grading be based purely on achievement or should effort be factored in? These first three questions bring up the issue as to how the needs of individuals should be balanced against the needs of managing a group. What is the primary . therefore. Should a teacher always follow administrative policy? This may be an issue of how to handle a conflict between personal morality and school rules. even contradictory answers to such questions. for example. whether thoughtfully or not 1. Consider the following chart which recasts vague philosophical questions into questions about criteria. For question 5. we will focus on a major emphasis of critical philosophy: philosophy as criteriology. Who is to say which of these two ideologies is better and why? Critical inquiry gives us the tools to answer this question. determine. one ideology might state that a teacher's primary duty is to the school and the policies that govern it. but there are competing ideologies. the study of the sources. Should student infractions of the rules ever be overlooked? 3. and. in effect. of the big educational questions can be recast as questions about the choice of criteria for decision-making. educational criteriology provides a powerful tool for decision-making amidst a plurality of competing wisdoms and ideologies. 5. is a list of the kinds of questions educators confront on a day-to-day basis. Philosophy as ideology provides answers here. Should a talkative student be silenced for the sake of the class? 2. FOCUSSING OUR PHILOSOPHY: QUESTIONS OF CRITERIA Critical philosophy is multi-faceted and always evolving. Questions about what something is are replaced with questions as to how we identify. . "What are some conditions necessary for being an academic achievement?" e. "What are the standards that define academic achievement?" or d. it avoids some of the common pitfalls of a broader conception: vagueness and consequent inapplicability. a "What makes something an academic achievement?" or b. But simple beginnings are." we can use such common variations as. "What is academic achievement?" we can easily form "What are the criteria by which we identify academic achievement?" But rather than always using the formulation.. but to enable us to ask "Why these criteria rather than some others?" Our concern is not only with criteria themselves. What are the criteria of need? What are the criteria of precedence? Why those and not others? 3. Should individual needs take precedence? those and not others? 2. for example: from the question. "What are the criteria by which we identify . "On what basis do we decide that something is an academic achievement?" Remember: an important reason for reformulating the questions is to help us identify not only criteria. "How can you tell when something is an academic achievement." or c. What should be taught school subjects? On what basis would we select some in the schools? over others? Chart 1 Note that there can be several ways of formulating questions of criteria. best. When the need arises to broaden our conception. However. perhaps. but with their sources and justifications. . we will. What criteria should we use to identify possible 3. Limiting the possibly broader scope of critical philosophy to educational criteriology is a cautious way to start.goal of education? 2. He sets out the most important rule of education: 'Do not save time. Later. 'About twelve or thirteen the child's strength increases far more rapidly than his needs' (Everyman edn. Here he sets out what he sees as the essential differences that flow from sex. but only such things as suitable' (Everyman edn. The purpose of education at this stage is to develop physical qualities and particularly senses.. (Book I). (Émile. They should learn many things. Prepare in good time form the reign of freedom and the exercise of his powers. The only habit the child should be allowed to acquire is to contract none. Infancy finishes with the weaning of the child. In the latter part of Book II. The mind should be left undisturbed till its faculties have developed' (Everyman edn. Book 1 .Unit II: (a) Rousseau’s thoughts on education: • Stages of child development. He sets a number of maxims. During this time. to let them do more for themselves and demand less of others. she puts these weapons in their hands to make up for their lack of strength and to enable them to direct the strength of men. Stage 1: Infancy (birth to two years). but lose it.. The first stage is infancy. to love to cultivate their minds as well as their persons. the woman should be weak and passive' (Everyman edn: 322). 'The man should be strong and active. the child receives only a 'negative education': no moral instruction. Émile in Stage 3 is like the 'noble savage' Rousseau describes in The Social Contract. from two to ten or twelve. In Émile. Rousseau describes the cultivation of each of Émile's five senses in turn.. so that by teaching them from the first to confine their wishes within the limits of their powers they will scarcely feel the want of whatever is not in their power' (Everyman edn: 35). is 'the age of Nature'. As we have seen he thought that momentum for learning was provided by growth of the person (nature). From this difference comes a contrasting education. Rousseau examines the education of Sophie (whom Émile is to marry). by allowing his body its natural habits and accustoming him always to be his own master and follow the dictates of his will as soon as he has a will of his own. the spirit of which is to give children 'more real liberty and less power. to will. but not minds. Everyman edn: 30) Stage 2: 'The age of Nature' (two to 12). no verbal learning.: 327). They are not to be brought up in ignorance and kept to housework: Nature means them to think. The second stage.. in Book 5.: 128). Stage 3: Pre-adolescence (12-15). Rousseau believed it was possible to preserve the original nature of the child by careful control of his education and environment based on an analysis of the different physical and psychological stages through which he passed from birth to maturity (Stewart and McCann 1967). Rousseau divides development into five stages (a book is devoted to each). Boyd: 41).: 57.translation by Boyd 1956: 23. from birth to about two years. Education in the first two stages seeks to the senses: only when Émile is about 12 does the tutor begin to work to develop his mind. The urge for activity now takes a . The stages below are those associated with males. The final task of the tutor is to 'instruct the the young couple in their marital rights and duties' (Boyd 1956: 130). and man will never learn what befits a man except under its own conditions. Stage 4: Puberty (15-20). Rousseau's ideas about education are mainly expounded in Emile. against its corrupting influences. born into existence. written as 'The creed of a Savoyard priest'. he advances the idea of “negative education”. Up to adolescence at least. The first stage of the program starts in infancy. The child is not told what to do or think but is led to draw its own conclusions as a result of its own explorations. There is to be a gradual entry into community life (Boyd 1956: 95). the adult Émile is introduced to his ideal partner. This is in contrast to a model of education where the teacher is a figure of authority who conveys knowledge and skills according to a pre-determined curriculum. after such a lengthy preparation. A child knows he must become a man. which is a form of “child-centered” education. but he should remain in complete ignorance of those ideas which are beyond his grasp. Most of Book IV deals with Émile's moral development.mental form. so far as possible. Our real teachers are experience and emotion. all the ideas he may have as to man's estate are so many opportunities for his instruction. • Negative education. Stage 5: Adulthood (20-25). Rousseau depends here on his thesis of natural goodness. My whole book is one continued argument in support of this fundamental principle of education. twice over. in harmony with the development of the child's natural capacities by a process of apparently autonomous discovery. (It also contains the the statement of Rousseau's' his own religious principles. his reason will be well developed. In that work. Sophie. The educator has to respond accordingly. which he asserts at the beginning of the book. proof. the context for which has been carefully arranged. and his educational scheme involves the protection and development of the child's natural goodness through various stages. there is greater capacity for sustained attention (Boyd 1956: 69). He learns about love. and he will then be able to deal with he sees as the dangerous emotions of adolescence. where Rousseau's crucial concern is to avoid conveying the idea that human relations are essentially ones of domination and subordination.an expression of the solitary. In Book V. His essential idea is that education should be carried out. and born into life. selfsufficient man that Rousseau seeks to form (Boyd 1956: 69). and with moral issues and religion. and born a man' (Everyman edn: 172). along with the isolation of the child from the domineering wills of others. an idea that can too easily by fostered in the infant by the conjunction of its . As before. which caused him so much trouble with the religious authorities of the day). (Everyman edn: 141. born a human being. The second paragraph of the book contains the famous lines: 'We are born. and is ready to return to society. he is still wanting to hold back societal pressures and influences so that the 'natural inclinations' of the person may emerge without undue corruption. Rousseau believes that by the time Émile is fifteen. so to speak. the educational program comprises a sequence of manipulations of the environment by the tutor. Rousseau hopes. Boyd: 81) The only book Émile is allowed is Robinson Crusoe . the program moves on to the acquisition of abstract skills and concepts. let’s say chemistry. Some argue that facts would only slow them down. • Curriculum. E. disregarding their worth. that the "tools" of learning can be acquired in a content neutral environment without referring to specific information or facts. First. and demanding subordination. We need to give our students the "tools" of learning. experience driven curriculum is always superior to a direct instruction. content oriented approach. It is argued that knowledge is increasing so rapidly that spending time to stockpile it or to study it in books results in information that is soon outdated. something called the "tool" model carries on this tradition. To stress "critical thinking" prior to the acquisition of knowledge actually reduces a child’s capacity to think critically. This final phase also involves instruction into the nature of the social world. The task of the tutor is to ensure that the pupil's relations with others are first mediated through the passion of pitié (compassion) so that through the idea of the suffering others. but rather through practical experience. Hirsch contends that learning new ideas is built upon previously acquired knowledge. Rousseau is keen that it gets used to the exercise of its bodily powers and he therefore advises that the child be left as free as possible rather than being confined or constrained. than are the facts about chemistry itself. Citing numerous studies. The final period of education involves the tutor changing from a manipulator of the child's environment into the adult's trusted advisor. and in how he or she is regarded. The third phase of education coincides with puberty and early adulthood. including the doctrines of Rousseau's political philosophy. of care. the pupil finds a secure place for the recognition of his own moral worth where his amour propre is established on a non-competitive basis. And secondly. as they become necessary to their experience. Today.centered. they spend a large amount of time and energy doing simple calculations. a knowledge framework is necessary to incorporate new knowledge. that an extremely child. and of gratitude. From the age of about twelve or so. Though the young child must be protected from physical harm.{18} Students who lack intellectual capital must go through a strenuous process just to catch up with what well-educated children already know. The young and autonomous adult finds a spouse who can be another source of secure and non-competitive recognition. At this stage the great danger is that excessive amour propre will extend to exacting recognition from others. and then they can find the requisite facts. .D. The "tool" model argues that "love of learning" and "critical thinking skills" are more important to understanding. The same could be said for history students who never learn names and dates. This distracts and frustrates children and makes learning higher math much more difficult. This is not done with the use of books or formal lessons. Two important assumptions are foundational to this argument. The period of isolation comes to an end and the child starts to take an interest in others (particularly the opposite sex). He calls this database of information "intellectual capital" and just as it takes money to make money. research in the real world does not support this view of learning. Rousseau argued against too much bookish knowledge and for natural experiences to inform young minds. Unfortunately.own dependence on parental care and its power to get attention by crying. If children attempt to do algebra without knowing their multiplication tables. The teaching of morality and democratic behavior involves teaching principles that cannot be experienced immediately. far removed from merely formal religion.The second idea is that students should learn via natural experience within a distinctly passive curriculum. he considered excessively subservient to a political regime that reserved basic rights for the inhabitants of the city. following in the footsteps of Francke whose orphan school in Halle had been widely acclaimed. Rousseau’s observations about the student-teacher relationship fall short first because of his overly optimistic view of human nature and because we believe that there is truth to convey to the next generation that cannot be experienced within nature alone. although reputed to be among the best in Europe. He was specially influenced by the achievements of the Anabaptists and the Moravian Brethren who here and there were conducting experiments that combined instruction with agricultural and industrial work. certain kinds of learning often contradict one’s experience. in which the emphasis was on practical Christianity. But it was from his compatriot Rousseau that the decisive stimulus came. For Pestalozzi. the idea being that what they produced would in the long run pay for their training. seeking to make the latter realize that their very condition . the young Pestalozzi preferred to frequent student clubs where the city’s real problems were freely discussed. and a year before his death he was still praising its author as the educational kingpin of the old world and the new. While there is wisdom in letting nature set as many of the limits as possible for a child--experience is probably the most powerful teaching method--Rousseau and progressive educational theory go too far in asserting that a teacher should never preach or sermonize to a child. He had very close contacts with pietist circles in Zurich. However. He began by sharing the questionings and activities of young militants agitating for a new social order. For those days. The bottom line seems to be that if higher math. while leaving the rural population with none at all. setting them to work spinning and weaving cotton. Pestalozzi was to make himself a poor man among the poor. At an early age. especially if it occurs along with significant learning experiences. far from the civilization of the city. children can learn from verbal instruction. Pestalozzi acquired some land in the Aargau. In fact. it was a highly original educational enterprise. based on the children managing their own work. Rejecting the educational system of his native city which. made the child its own creature again and restored education to children and to human nature. it was the ultimate fulfillment of a great dream of his youth. the man who had freed the mind from its chains. known as the Neuhof. (b) Pestalozzi : • His educational experiments The seminal experiment: the Neuhof Everything hinged from the outset on an experiment that ended in disaster. He even came to blows with certain corrupt notables and as a result spent the last days of January 1767 in prison. Rousseau’s system would be more appealing. the constraints of dogma and concessions to political expediency. his version of the naturalistic fallacy--assuming that everything that is natural is right-would not serve our students well. and in the early 1770s took in poor children from the neighborhood. The impetus for the Neuhof project thus came from the great dream of re-creating an independent humanity. and civilized behavior could be learned from simply interacting with nature. morality. and virtually everything that parents or teachers tell children about sexual behavior has religious foundations based on assumptions about human nature. Émile was to remain his bedside book throughout his life. were ultimately perceived as intolerable blackmail to increase productivity. and his philanthropic homilies. he was unable to prevent parents from turning up at any moment to take away their child. ‘to join together again what Rousseau had rent asunder’: freedom and constraint. can be interpreted as an effort to overcome the inconsistencies that had led to the collapse of the Neuhof experiment. As for the idea that work comes naturally to man. he was constantly compelled to subject these same children to the dictates of profitability. The Neuhof thus set out to achieve a dual objective: to introduce children to economic realities and at the same time to help each of them to develop his own independent personality within a free and responsible society. they still had to learn how to make good use of this new source of well-being and. For instance.contained the key to their liberation: in this instance the industrial wage. touching on every chord of morality and religion. Indeed. those connected with industrial work. Pestalozzi’s basic objective was. who had committed his whole fortune to the experiment. He was banking on his boarders’ interest in an experiment based on the welfare of the individual and of the group. But this same Rousseau had said that this ideal union was bound to break down at the first attempt to put it into practice. now that the link with nature had been broken. of seeking above all to serve his own self-interest. Pestalozzi soon realized that this philanthropic view of work had also to take into account a socio-economic environment which places such an onus of profitability on a small enterprise that its educational objectives are ultimately submerged. the most generous of men. as he wrote in his 1774 diary on the education of his son Jacob. however. since the spread of cotton spinning and weaving in rural areas offered peasant families a stable means of subsistence such as had never been guaranteed by nature. now reinvigorated. Pestalozzi’s failure bore out the paradox described in Book One of Émile. above all. The blame is usually laid on external factors but that is to ignore the fact that Pestalozzi himself constantly assumed the blame for his first failure. but he rapidly had to concede that interest is always relative and firmly rooted in selfish desires. and to lose sight of an important key to his subsequent development which. how to face up to the human implications of their emancipation. natural desire and the rule of law wanted by all and for all. found himself accused. the preparation of his Theoretical and Practical Methods and the crowning achievement of Yverdon. most of the problems that were subsequently to bedevil the ‘new education’ were already found in that experiment. published in 1797. in the period that included the Inquiries. Pestalozzi began to have second thoughts about this also when he overheard the children regretting the days when they were free to roam around the countryside. The whole undertaking was based on social work. by those whom it was supposed to benefit. well-clad and. Pestalozzi thus found himself with his institution in an untenable position: although genuinely concerned to provide each child with the means of attaining independence. In practice. Pestalozzi’s experiment in teaching through work soon encountered insurmountable obstacles and had to be adjudged bankrupt in 1780. namely that the . capable of providing the family with an income that was in no danger of being diverted into another’s pocket. the children would be under no obligation to anyone. As a result. especially some of its most remarkable components. seen as the decisive means of preventing alienation in the educational process: by financing their training with their own earnings. However. • His contribution to methodology and “Teacher Education” and curriculum. People came from all sides to observe this new educational wonder and trainee teachers arrived in waves (Prussian. Pestalozzi was thus obliged to look on helplessly as his experiment foundered in a sea of selfishness. he at least had the merit of trying to put Émile into practice in all its paradoxical vigour. Of all Rousseau’s more or less devoted disciples. As far as teaching techniques are concerned. launched in 1799 and swept away by the war after only a few months. not even the slate. However. The Method is certainly the educational project that takes in all Pestalozzi’s work in these three institutes. published in 1801. Pestalozzi himself admitted that he had been completely . English) to be instructed in the ‘Pestalozzi Method’. a procedure that was to prompt him to take stock still more lucidly of the scope of the act of educating. Moreover. Pestalozzi was finally called to Yverdon where.11 The question of the originality of the Pestalozzi Method (Herbart’s expression) is often posed. it might well be said that Pestalozzi invented nothing. he opened an educational establishment in the château that rapidly expanded and became famous throughout Europe. How Gertrude teaches her Children. and that he borrowed what was useful from all and sundry. which did not survive the fall of the Helvetian Republic in 1803. and its various elements were constantly being further developed during the experiments at Burgdorf and Yverdon. its basic principles were to be set out in the work. It should be noted that far from being developed in an educational desert his experiment formed part of a widespread movement to fashion a new education that involved even the humblest village clergyman. French. far from giving up his basic project and docilely submitting to conventional wisdom. he made a remarkable effort. Started in practice at Stans. of the value of education as an activity within a society which did not know where it wanted to go. putting himself in a position when the time came to move beyond the fruitful contradictions of Rousseau’s work. in the teeth of all opposition. If the term is taken to refer to teaching materials and methods. The Inquiries of 1797 were a call to action and the political upheavals in Switzerland in 1798 meant that the ‘people’s educator’ once again had the benefit of a fair wind. a disappointment is in store: visitors to the Yverdon Institute looked in vain for the kind of ‘teacher’s gimmicks’ that might be adopted in their own teaching practice.education of the individual (who must be free) and that of the citizen (who must be of use) can no longer be merged in a single project. First came the Stans experiment. to anchor this resolute desire for independence in that very social reality that had at first rejected him. It was followed by the establishment of a new institute of Burgdorf. on 1 January 1805. especially for learning languages. to take expressly into account the social dimension of the educational relationship and to make a child’s capacity for action effective: all these things were to be further developed and technically improved by Makarenko. it is necessary to devise a specific plan of action that will bring to bear the Method’s techniques in such a way that they really do generate freedom in autonomy. it was not in its material aspect that the originality of the Method lay. To ensure that it liberates. and he had no hesitation in introducing radical changes in a teaching method at any moment. with all its useful knowledge of children. The Method is certainly a necessary instrument. a technique or an a priori conception of man. That is where educational work really begins and where the spirit rather than the letter of the Method comes into play. Pestalozzi himself knew that the Method and 6 its components should never be more than mere instruments in the hands of the educator. to create an environment conducive to that development. Its merit consists in the fact that.mistaken in some of his techniques. to imagine that knowledge is liberating in itself: it is a necessary but not a sufficient means. whereas virtually all his avowed or unavowed disciples have regularly allowed their intentions to be submerged in a body of knowledge. The originality of the Pestalozzi Method may be said to lie basically in its spirit. to deduce the laws governing their development. Freinet and Piaget. It is a mistake. It is important to observe the nature of children. And yet originality there was. no power could be exercised over it. In short. The basic aim was to submit to unremitting scrutiny the way in which human nature functions in its various manifestations: without knowledge of that nature. can serve as an instrument of subjection as well as of liberation. Montessori. however. That ‘something’ was freedom with autonomy. The Method. and have as regularly protested that what they had wanted to achieve should not be confused with what they actually had achieved. as demonstrated by the way in which almost all practical educationists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were to hark back to it as to a source and refer to it constantly in spite of all their difficulties and failures. helping him to produce something that was not present in the Method but proved quite different in nature from the Method’s nuts and bolts. a spirit in which techniques are used . in a self-assured and independent manner. man remains situated or even completely immersed in a world that through the experience he undergoes makes constant demands on his sensitivity and brings him closer to his fellow men in the struggle to control nature through work: this is the domain of the heart. It is not a question here of three ‘parts’ of man or even of three ‘faculties’ but rather of three different ways of looking at this same human species in its quest for autonomy. There is a limit. Acted upon. to provide practical educationists with some idea of how the spirit of the Method was put into practice in Pestalozzi’s institutes. man has no alternative but to use this continuous conflict . by what exists and challenged by what ought to be. keep what is good and if something better has come to fruition in your own minds. it is impossible to reduce that attitude to theoretical terms without running the risk of killing the very thing that the method and the process of applying it are supposed to bring into existence and nurture.13 If it were necessary. therefore. However. add it in truth and love to what I am trying to give you in truth and love in these pages. my whole enterprise would have failed. a good beginning would be to study the way in which the three elements—heart. as an individual. adolescent. ‘Examine everything. however. my institute would collapse. beyond which the process must be turned on its head in order to leave the initiative to freedom and autonomy: Anyone who adopts the Method—child. continues Pestalozzi. Were it otherwise. head and hand—form the core of the process.only to produce the contrary of a technical result. and he will make himself ready to follow up and complete the remaining portion of his education. man or woman—will always. in practice. come to a point where very special demands will be made on his individuality: by seizing that opportunity and exploiting it. As Pestalozzi said in 1826. he will most certainly bring into play powers and resources that will enable him largely to dispense with the assistance and support in his education that will still be indispensable to others.’12 Obviously practice is essential and refers to an attitude. Pestalozzi uses the word ‘head’ to designate man’s ability to detach himself through reflection from the world and his confused impressions thereof by developing concepts and ideas. heart or hand. provided they play the role of educators. Pestalozzi never tires of stressing that this balance is never definitively established and may be disturbed at any moment to give undue advantage to one of the three ‘animalities’: head. artistic and technical activities. either to further the development of the power of autonomy or to cripple it. the father and mother. before him. They have the power. it is not sufficient in an educational establishment to divide up the subjects harmoniously between intellectual. These three elements thus act together to bring out the drive for autonomous existence in each of the persons concerned: the part played by reason stands security for the universality of human nature. during this decisive period. Such is the awesome moral responsibility of the educator. In other words. etc. that the whole of this process evolves within the framework of society. the part played by sensitivity bears witness to everyone’s deep-seated individuality. perhaps for a lifetime. regardless of place and time or of the subject being taught. in addition. while the conflict between the two releases a specifically human capacity for developing a line of conduct that will produce an autonomous personality. is able to keep these three components of the Method in equilibrium. occupy a special position with respect to the encounter between the child’s instinctual desires and the demands society makes on him. A decisive factor in the exercise of this responsibility is the extent to which the educator. the mathematics teacher will take care not to lose sight of his subject’s relevance to the children’s everyday experience but to provide an opportunity for them to apply mathematics on their own account at some stage in the educational process.which he faces faire and square in order to fashion his own being: that is the work of the hand. It should be noted. in so far as it is society that shapes human reasoning and is also the source of the basic dissatisfaction of the individuals concerned. 7 The schoolteacher and. . Each teacher should also strive to bring into play in every educational activity all three elements involved in developing the child’s capacity to act for himself: the physical-education instructor will pay attention to the child’s intellectual grasp of the exercises he performs and to their impact on his senses. to work responsibly and autonomously in an atmosphere of freedom. in view of the task that he is called upon to fulfil. carefully considered and practical way. which is responsible for establishing self-determining freedom in a living. took pains to make room for those even poorer. but also and above all to the functioning of the institutions. Instead of cradling children in the illusion of immediate democracy. savoir-faire and receptivity.14 The various structures of the educational system must therefore be organized in such a way as to enable the educator. such as knowledge. while ceaselessly striving to surpass itself in action: the children at Stans.This analysis applies not only to what is required from education. lying between the warmth of the family circle and the impersonal state. although extremely poor themselves. a project intended basically for a human society coming into being against a background of autonomy within the teacher-student relationship . Each part of the institutional machinery should serve the project that sets educational action apart from other human activities. as he had done in the Neuhof. from Stans onwards. Pestalozzi set about establishing a human social order which came as close as possible to fulfilling the desires of the individual and catering to the interests of the group. What terms. enhance life. 2. What is the specific problem that the group is concerned about? (In the case of your group this will be your policy question). Based on Herbert Spencer’s curriculum writing. policies) currently exist for dealing with the problem? 5. However. Students help choose their own projects and create learning opportunities based upon their individual interests and strengths. (d) John Dewey: John Dewey and his activity approach to education with reference to project method and problem solving method. Step One: Define the Problem 1. this reflective thinking process which is a structured organized series of questions is best described by the questions listed below. visual. but should also be an integral part of life itself. intrapersonal. Dewey Sequence Problem-Solving One of the most effective methods of problem solving is the Dewey Sequence. John Dewey theorized that learning should not only prepare one for life. laws. Every member of the group must come prepared to answer each of the questions in steps one through four as it pertains to your topic. What is the history of the problem? 2. Simulating real problems and real problem-solving is one function of project based learning. not just a preparation for it.(c) Herbert Spencer: • Principles of curriculum. What are the causes of the problem? 3. or ideas need to be defined? Step Two: Analyze the Problem 1. What methods. (approaches. tasks and feelings • Maxims of teaching. because they allow learners to apply multiple intelligences in completing a project they can be proud of. Assisting learners in developing all of their intelligences will make learning a part of living. Project based learning allows the teacher to incorporate numerous teaching and learning strategies into project planning and implementation. What are the symptoms of the problem? 4. musical. What are the limitations of these methods? Step Three: Determine Criteria for optimal Solution . Developed by educator John Dewey. such as kinesthetic. Projects assist students in succeeding within the classroom and beyond. his emphases were activities that sustain life. or naturalist. concepts. This can create frustration for people who are comfortable with less traditional learning modalities. traditional teaching strategies tend to focus on verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligences alone. and in rearing children. interpersonal. maintain the individual’s social and political relations and enhance leisure. e. Step Five: Evaluate Proposed Solution After the group has compiled a list of possible solutions.. Step Six: Select a Solution 1. Weigh merits and deficiencies. enforced. How can the group get public support and approval for its proposed solution? 2. (Brainstorming). What specific steps are necessary to implement the solution? 3. What would be the long-term and short-term effects of this solution if it were adopted? Step Seven: Suggest Strategies to Implement the Solution Group members should be confident that the solution will indeed solve the problem. Are there any disadvantages to the solution? Do the disadvantages outweigh the advantages? 2.1. What are the guidelines for a workable solution? (Sample criteria may include cost. Does the solution conform to the criteria formulated by the group? (The group may decide to modify the criteria). Many suggest a variety of possible solutions without evaluating them. it should be ready to select the best possible solution in light of the criteria that the group developed in step three. 2. eye catching. hypothetical terms. it should begin to suggest possible solutions in tentative. After the group selects the solution they must determine how to put the solution into effect. 1. band uniforms-comfortable. i. 1. weather resistant). Step Four: Propose Solutions After the group has analyzed the problem and suggested criteria for a solution. ability to be implemented.solving efforts? . How can the group evaluate the success of its problem.