CMFRI Special Publication No.104 Socio-economic dimensions of Seaweed Farming in India M. Krishnan Principal Scientist (Agricultural Economics) Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Chennai R. Narayana Kumar Senior Scientist (Agricultural Economics) Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Kochi Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) Post Box. 1603, Marine Drive North Extension, Kochi – 682 018, Kerala, India www.cmfri.org.in i Socio economic dimensions of Seaweed Farming in India M. Krishnan R. Narayana Kumar Published by Dr. G. Syda Rao Director Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Kochi-682 018, India Telephone : 0091-484-2394867 Fax Email Website : 0091-484-2394909 :
[email protected] : http://www.cmfri.org.in Front Cover Photo : Courtesy, National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development, (NABARD) Chennai Back Cover Photo : Seaweed Culture, Olaikuda, Rameswaram © 2010 Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi ISSN 0972 - 2351 ii FOREWORD Stanza 1033 of the Tamil Epic Tirukkural when translated reads: “Those who cultivate their food live in self-sufficiency — All others follow them and subsist in self-made dependence.” Nearly 60 per cent of the Indian population is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture and related activities. Agriculture is India’s largest private sector activity; yet, far from being a business, agriculture is a livelihood issue. Less than 4 per cent of the population is engaged in agricultural activities in the US and the EU where it is “agri-business”. Financial literacy and empowerment In India, financial literacy is seen as a means to achieve financial inclusion. The thrust is on rural areas. 5.7 lakh out of the six-lakh villages do not have a bank branch. There is, however, a strong case for extending the efforts of financial inclusion to urban areas as well. The Economic Survey 2009-10, quoting the NSS 61st Round, says that poverty ratio in urban areas is 25.7 per cent which is only somewhat lower than the 28.3 per cent poverty ratio in rural areas. What will help financial inclusion is not financial literacy per se but linking people’s livelihood needs with banking services. The Aryavrat Gramin Bank in Uttar Pradesh achieved 100 per cent financial inclusion in some hamlets in UP through its tie-up with a corporate to sell solar powered lamps. The Kisan Mitra Scheme of Punjab National Bank achieved 100 per cent financial inclusion in 40 villages by linking bank finance to farming needs. There is also the example of a pilot project in Warangal district of Andhra Pradesh, where pension payments and payments under NREGS were made through direct credit to bank accounts. If people need banks for saving or receiving income or for remittances or loans they will avail of such banking services. In such cases, financial literacy becomes only the catalyst and not the main driving force behind financial inclusion. Role of NABARD Financial literacy can achieve a larger goal: that of empowering the consumer to take financial decisions confidently. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), in a bid to step up its focus on the farm sector, plans to bring together about 10 lakh small and marginal farmers across the country in 2010-11 along the lines of the self-help group (SHG) model. This will help farmers harness their collective bargaining power to access credit at competitive rates, improve productivity using quality inputs, and realise better price for their produce in the market. Ever iii The total amount spent on rural development schemes in 2009 was around ` 75. Further. enhance rural incomes and sustain food security. the Reserve Bank of India has asked banks to establish linkages with NGOs for facilitating and channelling credit to low income households. Priorities of the Reserve Bank of India With the deadline to draw up a roadmap for providing banking services in every village with a population of over 2. the basic idea was convergence.000. Currently. the RBI believes that banks should make concerted efforts to use well-run PACs as BCs. This marked a paradigm shift in the way the Centre was looking at creating rural infrastructure. Agriculture occupies centre-stage in the Government’s plan to promote inclusive growth. once the partners were identified they would come up with proposals on the areas they would like to work.000 by March 2011. Priority was. done with private sector efficiency and the maintenance entrusted to them for 10 years. street-lighting and drainage and sewerage systems with private sector efficiencies pooled in. despite being permitted. PACs. in a month at an outlay of ` 1.09 lakh villages have a population of over 2. PURA The PURA (Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas) scheme. It has also asked banks to use well-run primary agricultural credit societies (PACS) as business correspondents (BCs). all amenities would come up near simultaneously in a specified time span so that the impact was “wholesome”. Based on the report of the high-level committee on lead bank scheme. have been able to access the formal banking sector in a sustainable and cost-effective manner. On the locations to be taken up on a pilot basis. Of the nearly six lakh inhabited villages in the country. predominantly comprising poor women. what was planned was built properly. Developers would be required to maintain the facility they build for 10 years before handing it over to the panchayats which can again put it up for bidding. are not being used as BCs. PURA is being taken up on a pilot basis in six to eight clusters where the population is between 30. The exercise of Budget hinges on 4 per cent growth in the agriculture sector Huge investments are necessary at both pre-harvest and postharvest stages and the Budget provides ` 400 crore for the initiative for 2010-11. 1.000 crore. maintained and serviced properly.since the SHG-Bank linkage programme was conceptualised and launched by NABARD in 1992. the Reserve Bank of India said establishing linkages with local non-government organisations (NGOs)/ corporate houses can lead to credit flow to low income households. The PURA scheme launched in 2006 this time round. on public-private-partnership mode. Despite substantial spends on rural infrastructure development at the panchayat level. In its action points to help banks draw up a roadmap for financial inclusion by the end of this month.000 and 40. We have had a iv .000. roads. it has been seen that the “impact on the ground was absent”.000 crore on civic amenities such as drinking water supply. about 47 lakh self-help groups (as of March-end 2009). If only agricultural graduates who find employment in banks could become agricultural officers with the same rank and status as the District Collector or the District Superintendent of Police. These investments may have led to new industries in rural areas. The normal channels of primary and secondary education should care about agricultural education. The development in seaweed sector A livelihood becomes a business enterprise with the right mix of financial and institutional and policy support. Ayyappan. nor will a salaried extension worker care for what happens to the farmers and to the fields after his visit. An extension system based on qualified agricultural scientists undertaking work on payment of a minimal proportion of the incremental income in the first year of consultation could change this scenario. The extension work does not keep the farmer informed about the latest developments in agricultural technology. Have they also led to diversification of agricultural output as new market opportunities may have emerged? Have they spurred new investments on the farm as additional income may have flowed to farm households from non-farm activities? The returns on new investments are not evident in the overall growth rates of the farm sector in recent years. New Delhi-110 114 May 2010 Dr. maybe more important than creation of the infrastructure itself. in other words. underline the fact that consistently servicing the infrastructure created or. S. 2010). the right mix of financial and institutional support in tandem with private investments have made the prospects of the development of the seaweed sector bright. Extension work A salaried scientist can never be the best of his kind. DARE & Director General. The seaweed sector has emerged as the trial blazer for other sectors.significant stepping-up of investments in rural infrastructure in the past five years. a significant stride can be made towards improving the quality of agriculture operations. A typical example of demand driven development. ICAR v . be too early to assess the impact. Supply of infrastructure services is more important than the infrastructure itself (Shashank Bhide. making agriculture more attractive not only to the children of the farmers but also to outsiders and lend agriculture some sort of prestige and status which it does not enjoy at present. Secretary. Roads have been built and investments made in rural electrification — two key infrastructure services. 2010). of course. Commitment of the government departments and private sector involved in this work is commendable and I wish the scope of such typical development models are explored in other areas also. The developments documented in this work. An agricultural nation like India does not have an “all India” or a ‘Central’ Civil Service (Class I) for agriculture (Sharad Joshi. consistent quality extension education. It may. It is also possible that the development has not been quite effective. creating jobs and adding to incomes. 5.000 t in Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Pudukottai and Thanjavur. The seaweed mariculture is a potential employment generating and income earning activity.000 t in Tamilnadu. National Fisheries Development Board and NGO’s led by Aquaculture Foundation of India. 194 species of brown seaweeds and 216 species of green seaweeds. The seaweed potential in India is estimated at 1. The study also has established the profitability. the need for farming of seaweeds arose from the unsustainable harvesting of the seaweeds and the increasing demand for high quality and adequate quantity of seaweed raw material from the seaweed processing industries.000 t in Gujarat. the marketing channels and exports. India possesses 434 species of red seaweeds. through Self Help Groups (SHG) model (mostly women). Today seaweed cultivation techniques have been standardized. starting in a small scale in Ramanathapuram district of Tamilnadu in 2000.PREFACE Seaweed mariculture is an important and profitable livelihood option for the coastal fishing community especially for fisherwomen. The socio-economic conditions of the seaweed farming/ collecting households have been brought out clearly to give background information about the stakeholders. which is very vital in the process of technology development and adoption. financial institutions like NABARD (through scheduled commercial banks). improved and made economically viable. In India.000 t in Kerala. economic viability and financial feasibility of the vi . which now gradually has spread to neighbouring coastal districts like Tuticorin.000 t in Maharasthra and 300. 2004) comprising 250. which is practiced by more than thousand members of SHG’s in Ramanathapuram district alone and marching ahead in the other coastal districts of the country with the support of private investments.000 t in Andhra Pradesh. The authors have traced the historical development of seaweed collection/technology development for farming. who with little effort can earn a substantial income for the household. Accordingly the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI). traditionally. substantiated with analytical results. industries. 100. This publication has given a comprehensive picture of the status of seaweed collection as well as farming in India with a case study on the socio-economic transformations in Ramanathapuram district of Tamilnadu.000 tonnes (t) in six states of India (Modayil. However. the Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI) and related organizations began the experimental cultivation of agar-yielding seaweeds Gelidiella and Gracilaria in 1964 for developing suitable technologies for the commercial-scale cultivation of raw material to the agar industries. seaweeds have been collected from natural stocks.005. Corporate backed by institutional and financial support led to the expansion of seaweed (Kappaphycus alvarezii) farming. 100. 250. Principal Scientist and Scientist-in-Charge. New Delhi. FICCI. the structure of organized SHG contract seaweed farming. Calicut Research Centre of CMFRI in scrutinizing the manuscript and also the help rendered by Dr. Syda Rao Director vii . Dr. the systemic strengths and weakness of the organized seaweed farming in India and the marketing channels for seaweed farmers in Tamilnadu have also been brought out clearly. Chief Executive Officer. I am sure that this publication will be of immense use to the academicians. Gopakumar. researchers. Aquagri Processing (P) Ltd. Besides.enterprise by working out appropriate economic indicators. Cochin for their concerted and committed effort in bringing out this publication undertaken on Personal Services Consultancy mode of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).Abhiram Seth. the Government can also encourage this sector by streamlining the tax. Principal Scientist. Chennai and Shri. Besides.M. G. Kaladharan. President.. Principal Scientist. Chennai and Dr.Krishnan.682 018 May 2010 G. Scientists and staff members of Mandapam Regional Centre of CMFRI. M. Central Institute of Brackish Water Aquaculture. I also appreciate the support given by Dr. Dr. I compliment the authors. Rome. R. Senior Scientist.Sakthivel. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute. which will help the lending institutions to come forward to provide the much required financial support. The study has suggested knowledge dissemination on the technology through organizations like ASSOCHAM. Cochin . P. Aquaculture Foundation of India. M/s. policy makers and entrepreneurs to bestow more attention in this sector and strive for its development in the days to come. customs and excise duties and collection issues. and ICCI to motivate entrepreneurs and bring in more investment into this seaweed sector.Narayanakumar. Mandapam. Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture (CIBA). CIBA for assistance.. Thanks are also due to Messrs. GoMBRT. S. Tuticorin and Pudukottai.Sathiadhas. S.Gopakumar. MPEDA. Director.G. Kochi for providing the facilities and access to institute resources and duty leave for carrying out field surveys. Pillai.P. Elankovan. Dr. Principal Scientist & Chairperson. K.Palanisamy and Mr.D.Uma Basu Sarkar. S. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). Assistant Director. New Delhi for his constant encouragement and support during the course of this work.Rajasekaran. ICAR. Director General. IFS. Kannabiram. President. Madan Mohan. Deputy Director. Mandapam.S. Ayyappan. Aquaculture Foundation of India. Dr. K.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors express their sincere thanks to Dr. G. Technical Cell. Tamil Nadu. Ramanathapuram. TNDoF. Mr. S. Grace Mathew. Mr. We also acknowledge with thanks the cooperation and inputs of Mr. Vinod Nehimiah. A.Kaliaperumal. CIBA. Director.Rajeev.Elankovan. N. V. Equally enthusiastic and supportive were Dr. The first author expresses his thanks to Dr. Tamil Nadu.M. Technical Officers. G. Manamadurai. CMFRI for facilitating the work during the period of this consultancy. Assistant Director General (Marine Fisheries). NABARD. Principal Scientist & Head Mariculture Division and Scientist-in-Charge Mandapam Research Station (MRC) of CMFRI. Special thanks are due to Dr. Principal Scientists. Nagarajan. Socio-economic Evaluation and Transfer of Technology Division for his constant support. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI). This work would not have been possible but for the close and personal cooperation of Shri Abhiram Seth. The authors express their thanks to Dr. Director. CEO. We acknowledge with thanks the support of Dr. Aquagri Processing (P) Ltd. Aquaclinic.Dinakaran. Dr. New Delhi and his colleagues at Mandapam. Ponniah. Ranipet. Mrs. for their inputs and ideas. Principal Scientists (Retired) CMFRI. viii . Chandrasekaran and Dr. Head.Rajukumar and R. Syda Rao. R. CIBA and Dr. Principal Scientist & OIC. The second author expresses his thanks to Dr. Chennai. R. Consultancy Processing Cell. R. Assistant General Managers.M. Mr. Jithendran.Sakthivel. Chennai and Dr. CEO and his colleagues at SNAP Natural and Alginate Products. M/s.G. Kochi. com M. V.Edwin Joseph. INDIA Email: mkrishnan57@gmail. Technical Officers. Fishery Planning Analyst (Aquaculture). in no way reflect the official position of CIBA and CMFRI of the ICAR.K.Tamilmani. Mr. The contents of this publication. Calicut Research Station of CMFRI. MRC of CMFRI. Technical Officer -CMFRI (Retired). Abilash. N. V. P. Dr. Kochi and Mr. Messrs. Technical Officer. MRC of CMFRI.com ix . Mandapam. Videographer. Library and Documentation Section. R. Kaladharan.K. SRF. FAO for the consultancy. M. Kochi. Scientist. Harshan. Antony Joseph. P. Mr.Dr. Madurai The authors express their thanks to Dr. G. Sankaran. CMFRI.Mohan. Mr. Narayana Kumar Senior Scientist (Ag. Principal Scientist. K. Library-in-Charge. J. Mr. Krishnan Principal Scientist (Ag. All views expressed here are ours including errors. Officer-in-Charge and Dr. CMFRI. Diego Valderrama. Economics) Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture. Economics) Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Kochi. Chennai. INDIA Email:
[email protected]. Thonithurai. inconsistent performance of species for commercial exploitation. the Ramanathapuram district has long been recognized as the center of the seaweed farming in India. seaweed farming offered 161 and 144 days of employment per annum in the Rameshwaram and Mandapam areas. respectively. The entry of PepsiCo turned out to be decisive.000 rafts. which soon became the hub of seaweed farming in the country. Although 434 species of red seaweeds. acting as a catalyst to rejevunate the industry-institutional linkages. Self Help Groups in the fishing villages of Vedalai. absence of a complete package of farming practices. industry interactions. The concept of Self Help Groups (SHG) spearheaded by the National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development (NABARD) also led to rapid development in the Mandapam area of Ramanathapuram.Socio-economic dimensions of Seaweed Farming in India Summary The Ramanathapuram district in Tamil Nadu was identified as the target location for studying the structure. The tardy progress was caused by a number of factors including locational disadvantages. socio-economic institutional framework and opportunities for expansion and growth. With current development projections targeting 5. locational advantages. It has been estimated that India can produce one million tonnes of x . conduct and performance of seaweed farming in India in view of its historical background. it was only until the beginning of the twenty-first century that the country made any concrete progress towards organized seaweed farming. Vadakadu currently operate more than 1. Based on findings from this study. For these reasons. Many of the SHGs have been able to obtain a yield of more than 50 kg per raft per day (dry weight). Although the commercial potential of Kappaphycus alvarezii had been previously recognized and its culture technology had been perfected by the Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI). the seaweed sector could generate around 765 thousand man-days of employment in the Ramanathapuram district. and industry and policy support. 194 species of brown seaweeds and 216 species of green seaweeds naturally occur in India.000 families in the near future. Ariyankkundu and R. culture at a commercial scale only began when PepsiCo India Holdings Ltd (PepsiCo) made its entry into the venture with a pilot-scale investment in the early 2000s. the clear institutional and financial support of the Government of India through development agencies and research establishments has been fundamental for the development of the sector.dried seaweed and provide employment to 200 thousand families with annual earnings of around ` 0. xi .1 million per family. Spearheaded by private investments.0 billion. Seaweed farming has all the potential to rise from a low-income livelihood activity into a reasonably profitable commercial enterprise in coastal India. The annual turnover of Kappaphycus seaweed farming alone can be safely estimated to be ` 2. The distinct possibility of expansion of operations based on successful commercial trials in sites in Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat will give a significant boost to the sector. xii . Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Summary List of Tables List of Boxes List of Figures List of Plates List of Annexures 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Introduction Unorganised seaweed collection sector Seaweed processing industry in India Resource management issues Historical account of seaweed mariculture in India Historical production statistics Seaweed exports Socio-eonomic dimensions of seaweed farming in India Economic analysis of seaweed farming Marketing channels of seaweed farmers Policy notes. insights and development strategies References Annexures Content Page Number iii vi ix x xiv xvi xvi xvii xvii 01 01 06 10 10 28 32 33 57 61 63 65 68 75 xiii . No. advisories and notifications Conclusions.TABLE OF CONTENTS Sl. India (2001-2009) Trends in raft productivity. India Prices for seaweed paid by processors to agents A time line of the development of seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu. by State Seaweed resources along the coast of India Area. Tamil Nadu. 2001-2009 Exports of seaweeds from India Economics of seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu. India Per cent increase in crop yields resulting from the use of bio-fertilizers of seaweed origin Estimated harvestable potential of wild seaweeds in India. structure and performance of SHGs engaged in seaweed farming in the Mandapam and Rameshwaram regions of Ramanathapuram district. production and exports of Kappaphycus in Tamil Nadu.LIST OF TABLES Table Number 1 Title of the Table Primary characteristics of commercial seaweeds collected in coastal Panchayats of Ramanathapuram District. India: cost of materials for the construction of one raft (3 m x 3 m) Economics of seaweed farming (raft culture) in Tamil Nadu. India Gender composition and average family size of respondents Caste and religion structure of the sample respondents Page Number 03 05 22 26 28 29 31 32 33 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 36 11 37 39 12 13 41 44 45 xiv 14 15 . India: analysis of costs and returns for the first year of operation Economics of mono line culture of seaweeds per block of 60 ropes Composition. Tamil Nadu. advisories and selected notifications and communications relevant to seaweed culture in India 45 46 46 47 47 48 48 49 49 50 51 51 52 53 54 58 59 60 60 64 xv . Tamil Nadu Estimation of employment generation in seaweed farming in Ramanathapuram district. Tamil Nadu. important recommendations. India Social impact of seaweed farming.raft culture (900 rafts) Gross revenue of a one-ha seaweed farm (900 rafts) Annual cashflow stream for a one-ha seaweed farm (900 rafts) Economic viability and financial feasibility indicators for a one-ha seaweed farm (project cycle of three years) Policy notes. Ramanathapuram district. India Consumption expenditure patterns. Ramanathapuram district. India Annual costs and returns of a one-ha seaweed farm . Ramanathapuram district. India Level of indebtedness. Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu.16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Family type Fishing experience Experience in seaweed farming Age classification of respondents Literacy level of respondents Occupational profile of respondents Income levels in the Mandapam area Income levels in the Rameshwaram area Housing ownership and type Livestock ownership Occupational patterns in Mandapam and Rameshwaram areas. Ramanathapuram district. LIST OF BOXES Box Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Title Self Help Groups .PepsiCo interaction Beneficial environmental impact of sea plant cultivation Carrageenan extraction from dry weed Products from Kappaphycus alvarezii Seaweed as an animal feed supplement The Socio-economic premise for Kappaphycus culture in India Page Number 17 19 23 23 25 27 35 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Number 1 1.History. Guidelines and Performance CSMCRI . (a) 2 3 4 Map of the Study Area Map of Ramanathapuram district Products from Kappaphycus alvarezii Top view of 3m x 3 m size bamboo raft with 4' diagonals General Structure of Organised SHG Contract Seaweed Farming Production and Buy-back System in India Casual loop diagram for systemic strengths and weaknesses in organised seaweed farming in India Components of initial investment of one hectare seaweed farming (percent) Marketing channels of seaweed farmers in Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu Title Page Number 1 2 25 38 55 5 56 6 59 7 62 xvi . structure and performance of SHG seaweed farming in Pudukottai and Tanjavur districts Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Palk Bay Page Number 75 76 77 2 3 xvii . Title Kappaphycus cultivation in Mandapam-First portion Kappaphycus cultivation in Mandapam -Second Portion Page Number 12 13 LIST OF ANNEXURES Annexure Number 1 Title Composition.LIST OF PLATES Plate Number 1 2. O ICAR ICCI Average daily growth rate Aquaculture Foundation of India Agriculture Produce Export Development Authority Associated Chambers of Commerce Bureau of Indian Standards Coastal Aquaculture Authority (of India) Indian Standards Institute Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Coastal Regulation Zone Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute Department of Bio Technology District Rural Development Agency Exclusive Economic Zone Environmental Impact Assessment Food and Agriculture Organization Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry Fisheries Institute of Technology Gulf of Mannar Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Government Order Indian Council of Agricultural Research Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry xviii .ABBREVIATIONS ADGR AFI APEDA ASSOCHAM BIS CAA ISI CIBA CMFRI CRZ CSIR CSMCRI DBT DRDA EEZ EIA FAO FICCI FIT GoM GOMBRT GoMMNP G. Government of Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Maritime Board Value added tax xix .JECFA JLG KIA KMC MARS MRC MPEDA MYRADA NAAS NABARD NACA NBA NCST NGO NIO NPOP PB QoL SBI SCZMA SGSY SHG SNAP TNCDW TNDoF TNMB VAT Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives Joint Liability Group Krishnamurthy Institute of Algology Kudumbam Model of Cultivation Marine Algal Research Station (of CSMCRI) Mandapam Regional Centre of CMFRI Marine Products Exports Development Authority Mysore Resettlement and Development Agency National Academy of Agricultural Sciences National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific National Biodiversity Agency National Committee on Science and Technology (NCST) Non Governmental Organization National Institute of Oceanography National Programme for Organic Produce Palk Bay Quality of Life Index State Bank of India State Coastal Zone Management Authorities Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana Self Help Groups SNAP Natural and Alginate Products The Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women Tamil Nadu Department of Fisheries. xx . Tamil Nadu. Ranipet.1 Location Commercial harvesting of seaweed from natural sources takes place in the southern portion of the Tamil Nadu coastline. Seeniappa Darga. Chinnapalam and Rameshwaram. these resources have been depleted by overharvesting and hence the need for their cultivation arose overtime. 1 This section is largely based on Coppen and Nambiar (1991) and inputs from SNAP Natural and Alginate Products Ltd.1 Seaweed collection in the Gulf of Mannar 1 2.1. Nevertheless. 2 Unorganized seaweed collection sector Although the major focus of this study is on the development of seaweed farming in India. the industry has developed a preference for greater stability through sustained supply of quantity and quality of farmed raw materials. seaweeds have been collected from natural stocks. As of today. However. Kalimangundu. The "seaweed belt" runs along the coast of Ramanathapuram District and includes the villages of Mundel. Valinokkam.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 1 Introduction India possesses 434 species of red seaweeds.a). 2. from Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) in the south. Chinna Ervadi. In addition. Traditionally. official time series of seaweed production simply do not exist.a total distance of almost 300 km. Pudumadam. Pamban. these industries are dependent on the raw materials collected from natural sources. 194 species of brown seaweeds and 216 species of green seaweeds. Periapattnam. Kilakarãi. extending northwards to the peninsula that forms the GoM . Therefore. collection of seaweed production statistics is not systematic in India. Today seaweed cultivation techniques have been standardized. the progress that the country has made in this field is deeply connected with the constraints currently faced by the agar-agar and alginate industries. Seaweeds in these locations are collected from the waters off the mainland coast and the chain of offshore islands. All these villages lie on the GoM side towards the fag end of the peninsula (Fig 1 & 1. improved and made economically viable. a brief review of the seaweed collection process in India is in order. Vedalai. 1 . S. Gelidium/Gelidiella is usually available throughout the year but may become scarce at times. Turbinaria conoides and T..Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 2. Other important seaweeds are Sargassum wightii. food products. but supplies can be more plentiful in some months than in others. In other cases. Gracilaria collection peaks during January-April. The peak period for Sargassum collection is July-August. Gracilaria is used for those applications in which the strength of the gel is not critical. Gelidium or Gelidiella. is utilized for the manufacturing of bacteriological-grade agar (the terms Gelidium and Gelidiella are often used interchangeably within the industry although they are recognized as being separate genera). Gracilaria edulis. where it is collected by a few producers. G. corticata and G. 2. The distribution of the different genera along the Indian coast is varied. Seaweed collection is minimum during times of rough seas (June) and heavy rains (November). which in turn depend on local environmental conditions and the extent to which seaweed collection is a primary or secondary activity within the fishing community. Seasonality is a function of seaweed growth rates. Gelidiella acerosa is the predominant species in its genus. Table 1 presents the major characteristics of seaweeds collected in Tamil Nadu.g. found along the entire length of the Tamil Nadu coastline. Gracilaria verrucosa occurs in estuarine/brackishwater areas such as those found near Tuticorin. which are used for alginate production. multipartita are also found in Indian waters. Gracilaria crassa.1.1. it tends to be found in slightly more rocky areas than other seaweeds. is the most abundant and commonly used Gracilaria species. when high winds have detached the weeds from their growth points. 2 . e. separately or mixed with Gracilaria.2 Species of seaweed utilized The genera Gracilaria.3 Seasonality of collection Most seaweeds are generally available from middlemen (“agents”) throughout the year. myriocystum. ornate. Gelidium and Gelidiella are agarophytes used for commercial purposes. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 1. festival and marriage seasons. Tamil Nadu. Weather conditions. and personal judgments as to which of the two activities is more remunerative at a particular time also determine the intensity of either activity. b) Large quantities of sediments settle over the plants. dry weed is 7:1. India. Ervadi Seasons of harvest Throughout the year Remarks a) Ratio of fresh to dry weed is 7:1. 3 . acerosa a) Hand picked since and G. edulis are weeds are attached not available to pebbles or in shallow areas. Sargassum spp* 1966 From GoM Islands. August-January shore collection only at Pudumadam and Kanyakumari area Rameshwaram Pamban Vedalai Seeniappa darga Periapattnam Kilakarai April-July. Species Year of first collection for commercial purposes 1966 Collection centres Rameswaram. c) Collected seaweed is 50 percent pure. 2. Primary characteristics of commercial seaweeds collected in coastal Panchayats of Ramanathapuram District. (1987). Seaweed collection may be the only income-generating activity for women as they are not actively engaged in fishing.1. with seaweed collection as an important secondary source. Turbinaria spp. Vedalai Seeniappa darga Kilakarai. Pamban. a) Ratio of fresh to dry weed is 7:1 b) Found mixed with other species Gelidiella acerosa Gracilaria edulis 1966 Rameswaram Pamban. 1975 * Natural seaweed collection from the islands of GoM is presently allowed only beyond the core area of the GoM Marine Biosphere Reserve (Personal communication from CMFRI. Mandapam). b) Harvested resources are often mixed with Ulva reticulate. a) Ratio of fresh to August-December. Vedalai.4 Methods of collection Fishing is the major income source for the coastal village inhabitants. January-March. Seeniappa darga Kilakarai Pamban Vedalai Kilakarai Throughout the year in GoM Gracilaria crassa 1983 When G. Source: Silas et al. who designate an organizer to assist the seaweed collectors.2 Environmental committees have recently been formed in each costal village engaged in seaweed collection. Debts are adjusted against the value of the weeds the collectors bring in. 1991). transfer and sale of the seaweed was handled by the traders involved in seaweed trade who generally hired some 20 boats belonging to different boat owners during the season. which are more likely to be associated with unwanted seaweeds. Their working day starts at 6 AM. harvesting of the alginophytes poses fewer complications as compared with the agarophytes collected by women. they also buy goods on credit from shops owned by the agents. For a fee. the organizer leads the collectors to the seaweed areas. Nevertheless. agents play a key role in the seaweed industry. In recent years.2 The role of the seaweed agent Two distinct phases are evident in the seaweed collection and trade in Ramanathapuram district. The collection. extends well beyond buying and selling seaweed. Tamil Nadu. In addition. 4 . marketing and processing is an unorganised activity in India. Harvesting is directed by the major agents. Men typically collect the alginophytes (Sargassum. quantity and price of seaweed released to the processor while also determining the price offered to the collector. he is entitled to a share of the harvest while the reminder is divided among the collectors.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Female seaweed collectors usually work in groups of 6-10 people and jointly hire a vathai (boat) for ` 300 per day. acting as a middleman between the collector and the processor. Turbinaria) as this involves hoarding larger quantities of weed. return to the mainland is made by 12 PM. These 2 Personal communication from SNAP. Seaweed collection. 2. depending on the tidal conditions. The role of an agent within a village community. Collectors normally borrow from agents to cover their daily living expenses. instances of the lowly collector becoming an agent and then assuming the role of a trader in due course of time is a normal transition. According to Coopens and Nambiar (1991). an agent or a trader. however. removal of the rootstock prevents regeneration with the consequent threat to future supplies (Coppen and Nambiar. the use of metal scrapers has made it possible to harvest larger quantities of seaweed with less effort. Meetings are held monthly and are used to discuss issues such as misuse of scrapers and impacts on the environment. Committees are usually formed by seven to eight people and include middlemen or agents. the scraped seaweed tends to contain a higher proportion of rock and coral fragments. The agent controls the quality. If the agent owns the boat. The scrapers are also used as tools for warding off eels which may physically injure the collectors’ hands. The women wear their traditional sarees but also wear a diver’s mask with a gunny bag (50-kg capacity) tied to their waist. Since no government approval is necessary for a local individual to become a collector. however. collection is done by hand in waters up to 3-4 m depth. Quantities are measured per basket of wet weed for agarophytes and per boatload for alginophytes . The company has engaged its own supervisors who oversee the landings. Companies or outsiders cannot own and operate boats since the local communities have exclusive rights of seaweed collection there is complete transparency in the actual billed reportedly amount paid to the agent-trader by the company.000 Price (`/tonne) (2009) ** 10.000 (Fresh) 7. 2. **SNAP. Prices paid to collectors are also normally discounted based on the agents' belief that the collectors deliberately adulterate the wet seaweed 5 . Payments received by the collectors are discounted against the loan amounts and value of goods owed to the agents.000 to his agent. the presence of SNAP has become more pronounced as this company is the main procurer of the landed seaweeds.8. preventing landing prices on the beach from rising. it is not unusual for a collector to owe up to ` 20.500 750 . In recent times.500 (Semi dry) These prices are indicative rather than representative as the assessment regarding the weight of one basket or boat-load of seaweed does not appear to be consistent across the different villages. A few agents have registered for tax purposes and tax records serves to assess the scale of their transactions.000 2.the latter being more abundant.500 . Payments are made on boat load basis by the local traders on behalf of the company directly. collectors easily fall into a never-ending cycle of indebtedness. Price (`/tonne) (1991)* 5. one or two thatched sheds are normally constructed for seaweed storage. easier to harvest and consumed in greater quantities.3. TABLE 2 Prices for seaweed paid by processors to agents Seaweed Gelidium/Gelidiella Gracilaria Sargassum/Turbinaria Sources: * Coppen and Nambiar (1991). 000 (Fresh) 6. At the end of a season. however. As a measure of good will SNAP is reportedly undertaking repairing the boats of the collectors through their agents-traders.3 Pricing the landings After the seaweed is landed. the agent inspects the harvest and pays a non-negotiable price to the collectors. Agents in turn claim that the prices they receive from processors are falling.1.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute agreements ensure a regular supply of seaweed to the agents.000 . The payments are made in full knowledge of all the collectors and boat owners. Prices quoted by processors for the different types of seaweed were fairly consistent (Table 2). Land for storage and drying is generally leased. industrial uses for agar-agar emerged during the Second World War (Khan. the seaweed is spread on the beach for drying. These processors often maintain a purchase office in the locality and even provide "in-house" labour for preliminary sorting and cleaning of seaweed. Rao and Mantri (2006) have reported that there are 13 seaweed landing centres on the southeastern coast. Hired labour is used for sorting. alginic 6 . The processor negotiates the price of the weed according to his evaluation of purity and dryness. either. five thousand women in southeastern India depend on seaweed related activities for their livelihood. sale and transportation has remained more or less unchanged over the last two decades. During periods of excess demand. Dried weed is transferred to thatched sheds for storage in heaps or in gunny bags. cleaning. Small processors inspect the raw material personally and negotiate the deal. Some processors may acquire the bulk of material when it is in plentiful supply and then "top it up" with smaller lots as required. How much seaweed is purchased at any given time by the processors depends more on the distance between the landing point and the processing factory than on the scale of the operation.1 The agar industry in India In India. Larger firms have employees who procure the material. storage. drying and packing. Marketing channels have apparently not undergone any modernization during the same period. Following its purchase. 2003). The process of collection. 3 Seaweed processing industry in India 3.000 fishers in harvesting and an equal number of jobs in post-harvesting activities. Costs of transportation and packing are borne by the processors. drying. The seaweed industry then developed as commercial uses and technologies for agar-agar. provided stocks are managed rationally. The seaweed resources along the southern end of the Tamil Nadu coast provide a ready-made livelihood for both men and women in poor fishing communities. 2. Frequency of purchase could be as high as once a month or as low as once a year. assembly. According to Immanuel and Sathiadhas (2004). agents procure additional partly-dried stock from subordinate agents for complete drying and the subsequent final sale. Agents claim that properly dried material can be stored safely for many months. seaweed sales typically comprise of a large proportion of Sargassum and Turbinaria and a smaller proportion of the higher value agarophytes.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute with sand and other materials. In any given year. As much as five tonnes a day could be handled during the peak season.4 Employment in the seaweed sector It has been estimated that seaweed resources in India can provide employment to more than 20. The turnover time from collection to sale could be only 15 days. 500 (women).. Kappana and Rao (1963) developed a process for the industrial manufacturing of agar. Other producers in Tamil Nadu are located in towns nearer the southern coast.5-1 tonnes per year). 3.1. a number of firms also turned to G. The scope of expansion is very limited as the industry is strictly dependent on the natural stocks of red and brown seaweeds. edulis as raw material.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute acid. Agar is widely used in India in vegetarian foods and dishes such as faluda and blancmange. family-run enterprises employing as few as three or four people and producing 2-4 kg of agar per day (0.1. Madurai district which is adjacent to Ramanathapuram district is the natural center for agar production in India.. acerosa and G. Using Gelidium micropterum as raw material. As the nearest commercial and industrial hub to the seaweed belt. edulis and algin-yielding brown seaweeds species such as Sargasum sp. The outlook for the agar industry has remained more or less unchanged during the last two decades. and canned meats.750 (men) and ` 1. There are also a number of factories in Kerala. It is estimated that the Indian industry currently requires around 400 tonnes of agar annually. The seaweed industry emerged primarily as a cottage industry (Kaladharan and Kaliaperumal 1999) based on the natural stocks of agar-yielding red seaweeds such as G. The 7 . this is the only known use of algae as food in India. estimate that there are 25 agar factories in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. northern Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. the potential for growth in Kerala has been reduced by the energy and water crisis affecting the state during the last decade.1 Scales of operation The Indian agar industry is mostly composed of small. confectioneries (jelly/ marshmallow type). 3. acerosa as raw material. Subsequently. India produces between 110-132 tonnes of dry agar annually based on the harvest of 880-1. carrageenan and liquid seaweed fertilizers were being developed. Thivy (1960) developed a viable cottage-industry method for the manufacture of agar from Gracilaria lichenoides. bakery products (including pie fillings and icings).2 Uses of agar The coastal population of Tamil Nadu uses G. 2007). Gracilaria edulis is also used in Tamil Nadu as manure for coconut plantations (Silas et al. However. each of which employs around 8-10 workers earning monthly salaries of ` 1. dairy products (yoghurt). Subsequently. edulis for preparing gruel (porridge). Agar production in India started in 1940 using G. The R&D conducted by CSMCRI was crucial in this respect. and Turbinaria sp. 1987).100 tonnes (dry weight) of agarophytes (Mohanta et al. but only 30 percent of this total is being produced domestically. Mediumsized units can produce 10-40 kg of agar per day (2-10 tonnes per year). The Muslim community traditionally consumes large quantities of agar during the Ramadan season. Immanuel and Sathiadhas (2004). Agar is used in the preparation of jellies. They repeatedly state that there is little to gain by attempting to enforce quality standards.g. 3. However. fungal infestations and presence of foreign matters in the seaweeds (e. 8 . small seashells and seagrasses) result in low agar output and poor gel strength and viscosity. Because gel strength is a less important attribute. this state of affairs generate a sense of resignation among processors as the prevailing view is that someone else would buy what is being offered to them. no Indian standard specifications have been placed with regard to gel strength. For food uses. often under his own brand name. Output is low (or nil) during the monsoon season (because the 3 The IF grade is the agar used for bacteriological or pharmaceutical applications. The common mat form is packed in polythene bags and dispatched in sacks to the dealer. However. Currently. it nevertheless meets the requirements of the domestic food and pharmaceutical industries. with opportunities emerging for the sale of food-grade agar to West Asia.1. The term "IF" is used to denote the fact that the agar meets Indian Pharmacopoeia standards. vegetables. meaning that producers have little incentive to improve the quality of the product (Coppen and Nambiar.4 Marketing Food-grade agar (called China Grass) is sold by small and medium-scale producers to wholesalers or dealers from large cities such as Chennai and Mumbai. 1991). Inconsistent supplies. Gracilaria is mainly used for the production of food grade agar. The agar industry routinely complains about both the quantity and quality of the raw material.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute growing interest in tissue culture as a standard method for the propagation of orchids and other ornamental plants. thus. Agar is also used in the preparation of dental casts in prosthetic dentistry. users of Gelidiella typically consider it to be 30 percent pure.3 Sourcing raw materials .Quality criteria Dried seaweeds are available at collection centres in Tamil Nadu at a price of ` 22-25/kg. paleness of colour ("whiteness") is deemed essential. Most agar producers grade the purity of their raw materials at around 50-60 per cent at best. Larger producers sell to both wholesalers and end-users. Although the gel strength of Indian agar is lower than that from other sources. Indian producers consider the colour and gel strength of agar as the most important criteria of its quality. bleaching of the agar gel during the final stages of processing is universal. IF grade agar3 is generally sold directly to end-users. foreign buyers are not in general attracted to the quantity and quality of the seaweed produced in India.1. who then repackages the product for retail sale. Occasional consignments of agar are exported by the larger producers. 3. poor quality owing to improper drying. Poorer quality (off-white) mat agar is powdered and sold as "instant" China Grass. regardless of the quality of the material. fruits and other agricultural products has increased the demand for agar-agar as a culture media. IF grade agar appears to be particularly attractive to new or prospective producers as well as to some of the existing producers of food-grade agar. most Indian production targets the domestic market. 000 tonnes per year of alginate. SNAP contributes half of the domestic production (Rao and Mantri.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute agar cannot be sundried) while both demand and supply increase during the Ramadan season. 3. and Ahmedabad (near the major markets) have emerged as the major centres of alginate production in India. 1964). the industry is looking forward to the potential of culture agarophytes. 9 . 3. Kerala. This company has also established a strong reputation in the export markets. Many grades of alginates are produced in India. potassium and ammonium alginates are some of the products manufactured. Prices for good quality food-grade agar produced in powdered form are higher than those of the corresponding mat form. A few producers of agar also manufacture alginates. contributes 50 percent of the total domestic production (Rao and Mantri. When operational constraints become overbearing. Alginates are widely used in textile printing and in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Alginic acid and sodium. applications in other industries are constantly emerging. 2006).1. Cochin. Although the industry is not constrained by the availability of raw materials (Sargassum and Turbinaria).5 Constraints faced by the industry Operational constraints such as power and water supply shortages are common.Kochi in the state of Kerala and Pamban and Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Madurai and surrounding areas. with a combined production capacity of 60 tonnes per year. processing can nevertheless operate at less than installed capacity owing to other operational constraints. Prices for food-grade agar are dependent upon colour and gel strength. Growth of the industry has also been limited by the unavailability of capital. Producers have repeatedly expressed their willingness to pay a higher price for cultured seaweeds free of epiphytes and other foreign matter. meaning that domestic production is only capable of supplying 50 percent of internal demand. regardless of the occurrence of Ramadan. It is estimated that the Indian industry currently requires around 1. 2006). with sales to countries in the five continents. Small-scale producers are also affected by low capacity utilization caused by enforced stoppages and seasonal factors. assuming a yield of 7 to 30 percent (on dry weight basis) for algin-yielding seaweeds (Thivy. The company produces a range of products based on both bacteriological and food-grade agar. In general. bankruptcy is often the end result. even though the equipment and chemical requirements for the two operations are different. calcium. Marine Chemicals Private Limited. with their proximity to the sources of raw material.2 Alginate production in India The production potential of refined alginates in India is around 500 tonnes. Its production units are located in 3 different centres . 4 Resource management issues With the establishment of the GoMBRT and the GoMMNP (Appendix 2). Timetables for commercial harvest of economically important seaweeds from the Tamil Nadu and Gujarat coasts have been drawn up based on the maturity of the crops. Continuation of these practices might exhaust the resource completely. Restrictions have not been placed on the Palk Bay side. are priced around ` 275-300/kg. which has become a beehive of activity for seaweed farming. mudflats. not even sparing the basic nuclei needed for propagation in the succeeding season. The rocky beaches. 1991). 2005). Management of seaweed resources has received little attention in India.2 per cent duty but no value-added tax (VAT) is levied. Spain and Zanzibar have enacted legislation to regulate the harvest of seaweed resources. is also supplied by alginate producers in Tamil Nadu. estuaries and lagoons on the Indian coasts offer ideal habitats for seaweed farming.001 percent of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (Krishnamurthy. the hosiery hub. meaning that they have to work harder to collect the same quantities harvested in previous years. 10 . collectors have complained about the increasing scarcity of red seaweeds over the years. Food-grade alginates are mainly supplied to the ice cream industry. Government actions have been restricted to controlling trade through licensing. Sargassum and Turbinaria peaked in 1979 while landings of Gracilaria peaked in 1978. Pharmaceutical and food-grade alginate. Landings of Gelidiella. are the major purchasers of textile-grade alginate. with little effort being made to prohibit harmful harvesting practices. Similar legislations could be enacted in India to achieve a more sustainable utilization of the resource. The livelihoods of many of these fishers are entirely dependent on seaweed collection. Sustainable utilization involves both conservation efforts and proper husbandry practices as unplanned harvesting of seaweeds from their natural habitats have led to depletion of standing crops. Countries such as France. The need for conservation is recognized by present efforts to develop seaweed farming as an alternative source of good quality. the livelihood opportunities of seaweed-collecting fishermen have been restricted to collection outside core areas of the Reserve Trust. 5 Historical account of seaweed mariculture in India It has been estimated that seaweed can be farmed in around 200 thousand ha or 0. Erode. 1997).Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Mumbai and Ahmedabad. Since then. Price rather than quality seems to be the determining factor for buyers in the textile industry. which are manufactured according to Indian and international standards. the textile hubs of India. which might aid to improve sustainability of the sector (Kaliaperumal and Kalimuthu. These products are subject to an 8. easily accessible raw material for the industry (Coppen and Nambiar. 5 tied at the mesh intersections of nylon rope nets using nylon twine. edulis. Hypnea musciformis. Kaliaperumal and Ramalingam. Krishnamurthy et al. 1978.1 Experimental culture trials With a view towards developing suitable technologies for the commercial-scale cultivation of raw material to the agar industries. Patel et al. In addition. With this method. Attempts were made to culture the agarophytes G.. 1975. frames. CMFRI evolved a viable technology for commercial-scale farming using coir rope nets by 1983 (Chennubhotla and Kaliaperumal. one kg of seed material could potentially yield an average of 3 kg/m2 of net after 60 days. The fragments of the plants were directly inserted on the twists of coir ropes and nets tied at mesh intersections of nylon rope nets with nylon twine. acerosa using the dead coral stone method. From the experiments conducted in a 0. Gracilaria corticata and Gracilaria foliifera in the Kerala coast by reproductive and vegetative propagation methods. acerosa was cultured successfully on coir/nylon ropes. 2000). seeded twines were wound on the nails fixed to the dead coral stones. Chennubhotla et al. Based on the results obtained with the field trials for G. 1996). Kaliaperumal et al. 2004). nets and dead coral stones in the inshore waters of the (GoM) and Palk Bay near Mandapam (Plate 1&2). Acanthophora spicifera and Enteromorpha flexuosa on long line ropes and nets. Hormophysa. Ropes made from fibre extracted from coconut husks. 1986). various carageenophytes and edible seaweeds such as Hypnea. the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI). Enteromorpha and Acanthophora have been cultured in different field environments using various techniques (Kaliaperumal.. Sargassum. the Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI)4 and related organizations began the experimental cultivation of agar-yielding seaweeds Gelidiella and Gracilaria in 1964. 2004). edulis was carried out in the lagoon of the GoM islands and in the shallow waters of the GoM and Palk Bay at Mandapam using coir rope and nets. The CSMCRI has developed a technology for commercial scale cultivation of G. These experiments also showed that G. nylon rope nets and nylon mono-lines (Kaliaperumal. edulis could be successfully cultivated on a commercial scale throughout the year in the GoM coast and during June-September in the Palk Bay coast of the Mandapam area (Raju and Thomas. 4 5 CSMCRI is a constituent laboratory of the Indian Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).. 11 . Cystoseira. it is estimated that a total quantity of 120 tonnes (fresh weight) could be harvested from a 1-ha of nets in a year. Ulva. A two-fold increase over the quantity of seed material after 60 days of culture period was obtained from coir rope frames and nylon nets while a 33-fold increase was achieved on coral stones (Subbaramiah et al. Turbinaria. 1974. Umamaheswara Rao. edulis cultivation. 1971. The agar-yielding G. Caulerpa. 1975. These experiments revealed that Gelidiella acerosa can be successfully cultivated on dead coral and Gracilaria edulis. Small fragments obtained from mother plants were inserted in the twist of the coir ropes. These experiments obtained an average yield of a three-fold increase after 60 days.1-ha area. 1977.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 5. 1983.. Cultivation of G.. Kappaplycus Cultivation in Mandapam first portion Courtesy: Aquagri Processing Private Limited. New Delhi 12 .Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Plate 1. Plate 2. New Delhi 13 . Kappaplycus Cultivation in Mandapam Second portion Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Courtesy: Aquagri processing Private Limited. Kaliaperumal et al. Chennubhotla et al. The technology has been perfected at CMFRI for commercial scale cultivation (Reeta Jayasankar and Kaliaperumal. edulis was also shown feasible using fiberglass tanks in outdoor environments with continuous running water and aeration. edulis could be successfully cultivated on a commercial scale in the lagoons of these islands during the pre-monsoon (March to June) and post-monsoon (October to February) seasons (Chennubotla et al. Gracilaria edulis has also been cultivated successfully by reproductive methods using tetraspores and carpospores. these pilot-scale attempts failed primarily because of grazing by juvenile siganids (rabbit fish) and issues with the management of the program. CMFRI achieved a four-fold increase in biomass in 25 days during experimental trials (Rama Rao et al. 1992. with yields reaching a maximum of a 30-fold increase in a 60-day growth period. Kappaphycus alvarezii was cultured successfully by vegetative propagation at the Suarashtra in the west coast of India and Mandapam regions (Mairh et al. Results were encouraging.. Rama Rao and Subbaramaiah. In 1987. They are thereafter transferred to the sea. With this technology. G. Despite the encouraging results from some of the initial experimental trials. Commercial cultivation of G. 1992). (1986) has documented the pattern of release of spores for several Gracilaria species found in Mandapam. edulis was transported from Krusudai Islands (Mandapam) and Kavaratti Island to Minicoy Islands (Lakshadweep) to be cultivated in lagoons on long line ropes and nets by the vegetative propagation method. 2002).6-fold increase after 45 days through vegetative propagation (Kaliaperumal et al. edulis after assessing the technical.. 1986). The germlings take between 5 to 6 months to reach a harvestable size. 1995. Eswaran et al. spores from mature plants are liberated and settled on cement blocks and other substrates and cultured to germlings in the laboratory. 1991). These trials proved that G. The TNDoF has also conducted trials on the seaward side of Kurusadai Island using vegetative propagation techniques (Kalkman et al.75-fold increase in biomass (Kaliaperumal. CMFRI achieved a 3. The program had the objective of introducing commercially oriented practices suitable to the local environmental and socioeconomic conditions. to increase the level of training in seaweed culture and to conduct marketing trials.. 1986).. Although a small amount of seaweed was harvested.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute In 1990. 1991). spicifera. following a great deal of preparatory work and the active involvement of communities from the fishing villages of Vedalai and Chinnapalam. A growout period of 70 days resulted in a maximum of a 4. economic and social viability of seaweed culture in Ramanathapuram district (Kalkman et al.. 2004). In the case of the carrageenan-yielding red algae H.. With A. the FAO-supported Bay of Bengal Programme set up culture trials of G. which revealed a 14 . musciformis. 1991). It was also successfully cultured in the nearshore areas of Narakkal (Kochi) and Calicut in the state of Kerala... 1985. Palanisamy and Mr. out of which 60 kg would be used as planting material for the next cycle. equivalent to an area of about 350 ha. alvarezii.5 to 3.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute clear potential for successful commercial cultivation. Mono-line cultivation gave way to raft culture with net bottoms to prevent grazing by fish. 1991). K. After having demonstrated the economic feasibility of the proposed venture. 7 6 . because the selected area fell within the GoMNNP. Even though contract farming offered a greater potential for increased income. The model assumed that each individual within the group would be able to conveniently plant and harvest one raft per day. Gujarat. foods and pet foods manufacturer MARS requested PepsiCo to explore seaweed farming as a business opportunity in India. The company had a preference for the GoM because of its calmer seas. However. Given its experience with contract farming.1 Role of the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)7 NABARD is a refinancing development bank with a mandate for facilitating credit flow for promotion and development of agriculture and small-scale industries in rural areas of India. Initially PepsiCo evaluated two types of red seaweeds. industrial development did not follow up immediately (Coppen and Nambiar. Managing Director. 5. NABARD in Chennai and Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu). the proposed contractual arrangement did not gain immediate acceptance among fishing villagers. 5. cultivation was restricted to the Palk Bay side. which had developed the commercial cultivation method for K. around 100 kg of planting material received from CSMCRI were seeded. A farmer should be able to harvest around 260 kg per raft.2. evaluation trials revealed that efforts had to be focused on the former given its greater ease of cultivation and market acceptability. PepsiCo encouraged workers to engage in contract farming by making available the culture infrastructure on a staggered payment basis. PepsiCo had initially requested permission to operate along a 35-km stretch along the GoM and Palk Bay. alvarezii and H. respectively. The search for technology and the planting material eventually led to CSMCRI in Bhavnagar. The contract farming model proposed an allocation of 45 rafts for each individual member of a SHG (Box 1) and a harvest cycle of 45 days.5 %). Kannabiram. musciformis. leaving 200 kg of fresh weed or 22 kg of dry weed available for sale. Early challenges included heavy grazing by fish and the need for modifications in the culture technology to enable adoption by local growers. Aquagri Processing P7 15 This section is based on personal communications from Dr K. Instead of hiring daily wageworkers. the company decided to modify its business model in 2003. conducive to faster growth rates (average daily growth rate [ADGR] of 6-8 %).2 Organized development of seaweed farming6 The first organized attempt to culture seaweed at an industrial scale in India was initiated by PepsiCo Holdings India Ltd (PepsiCo) in 2000. Assistant General Managers. The This section is based on personal communications and inputs from Mr Abhiram Seth. where growth rates are lower (ADGR of only 2. Activities began in 2002 with the leasing of an area of 10 ha on the Palk Bay side towards Mandapam. the international chocolate. From the onset. enabling the bank to provide credit support to the SHGs interested in seaweed cultivation while PepsiCo agreed to procure the harvested seaweed. 8 Exchange rate as of April 2010: USD 1. farming contracts were arranged between the State Bank of India (SBI) and PepsiCo. 2003). Seaweed culture has been identified by the Indian Government as one of the rural technologies to be promoted in India (NIRD. To ensure smooth implementation. which covered 50 percent of the project cost. an Indian NGO that implements training programs on various livelihood opportunities in fisheries (including seaweed culture). provided the subsidy did not exceed ` 10. the District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) began providing subsidies to selected SHGs under the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) programme. capacity building. Because many SHGs in the Mandapam area already had savings accounts with their local banks.422. the channeling of collateral-free microcredit was facilitated. 16 . Under this scheme. SBI approved the release of ` 11. Tuticorin and Kanyakumari districts of Tamil Nadu by the Indian Overseas Bank and SBI. for agricultural sector lending are normally routed through NABARD. whichever was less. Ms No. 229 (dated 20 December 2005). in association with the TNDoF. financing of SHGs is collateral free.125 million per SHG. An “Aquaclinic Centre” (Meenvalamaiyyam) operating in Mandapam. Marketing arrangements were assured through contract-farming mechanisms wherein PepsiCo agreed to procure the harvested seaweed at a predetermined minimum price and remit the cash through the bank accounts.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute funds available to commercial banks. Sporadic financing has also been provided in Thanjavur. By means of Government Order G. including State Bank of India.542 million8 to finance around 60 SHGs (covering 285 members) in the Ramanathapuram-Mandapam area during 2008-2009. the Government of Tamil Nadu authorized SHGs to begin seaweed cultivation in the sea waters north of Palk Bay and on the South of Tuticorin coast. The involvement of the banks has also assisted the SHGs with mobilization. the Bank of Baroda financed 40 SHGs (covering 200 members) during 2008-2009. has been promoted by NABARD and the M.000 per person or ` 0. Under this arrangement.00 = ` 44. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF).S. training and extension of technology.O. Under this scheme. with no subsidies being involved Encouraged by the success of these SHGs. 4770. Members agree to use this common fund and such other funds they may receive as a group through a common-management arrangement. The southern states are home to 11 per cent of the rural BPL population but account for more than 33 per cent of the SHGs. guidelines and performance Self-help groups (SHGs) first emerged in projects led by the Mysore Resettlement and Development Agency (MYRADA) in 1985. which translates to almost 33 million households. in 1990. when NABARD initiated the SHG-bank linkage programme. of which 46.2 million SHGs have been reached. By 1987 some 300 SHGs had been established in MYRADA projects. These states account for as much as 63 per cent of the country’s rural BPL population. a group should adhere to the following norms: 1) all members should belong to families below the poverty line (BPL). Members agree to save regularly and pool their savings into a common fund known as the group corpus. The Tamil Nadu Women’s Empowerment Project. To be recognized as a SHG. Training in leadership 17 . In most states. The pace of formation of SHGs in the southern Indian states is remarkable. State Government initiatives . NABARD (1992) issued guidelines that would allow banks to lend directly to SHGs. very few SHGs have been federated at various levels. and 6) 50 per cent of members should be women. The SHG may consist of 5-20 persons. A SHG is an association of rural poor who have volunteered to organize themselves into a working group. was the first project in the country to incorporate the SHG concept into a state-sponsored program. Since 1992. 3) a member can belong to only one SHG. over 2.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute BOX 1 Self help groups – history. Federations of rural SHGs from village up to the district level are necessary to strengthen their voice and bargaining power and reduce their dependency on external agencies.612 SHGs have been credit-linked in Tamil Nadu. Today there are more than 3 million SHGs with active banking accounts in India. As of 31 March 2008. The SHG movement in India has reached an exceptional number of poor households since its inception and thus has been recognized as the largest microfinance program in the world.Mahalir Thittam programme The TNCDW has been spearheading the SHG movement in Tamil Nadu in partnership with NGOs and community-based organizations. On the other hand. 5) above-poverty-line members will not be eligible for state subsidies and positions as office bearers in the SHG. however. 283 are formed exclusively by women. activity in the northern and eastern states is not very encouraging. 2) only one member from a single family is permitted as a member in a SHG. 4) members belonging to families marginally above the poverty line (living with BPL families) can be admitted into a SHG as long as they do not represent over 20 percent and in exceptional cases over 30 per cent of the entire membership. but claim only 40 percent of the total SHGs. under the Mahalir Thitttam programme. an IFAD-supported project implemented through the Tamil Nadu Corporation Development of Women (TNCDW). Marketing was conducted through PepsiCo.org/fileupload/DataBank/FocusPapers/SPF%20Executive%20Summary%200910_170209. 18 . 5. the bank had granted a total of about ` 22. The State Government has now started the “Vazhndhu Kaatuvom Project” to financially assist SHGs with the formation of micro enterprises.000 to groups in rural areas under the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) programme.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute quality.000 a month after repaying the monthly loan installment to SBI. 370 thousand SHGs had been formed under this programme. This model represented a new approach for funding livelihood restoration projects following the destruction caused by the December 2004 tsunami. SBI was planning to release over ` 1. with banks providing cash credit (up to ` 30. Nearly 80 per cent of those involved in these SHGs were women. 64 662 of which were located in Tamil Nadu.2. The bank had plans to extend the project to other states and other coastal districts in Tamil Nadu. As of 31 March 2008.734 million. The Association organizes an annual symposium on algae related topics and publishes a journal. By 2006. For more details. team building. In 2008-09. It is estimated that each member of participating SHGs earned over ` 5.630 million to over 540 thousand groups.in/dtp/shg. Seaweed Research and Utilization. who was at the time an Assistant Director at CSMCRI directly in charge of the field station in Mandapam (subsequently named the Marine Algal Research Station). visit: http://www. the State Government has decided to provide a revolving fund subsidy to all eligible 150 thousand SHGs. This approach was also implemented in the livelihood restoration project in Mandapam and extended to Tuticorin and Kanyakumari.3 Role of the Seaweed Research and Utilization Association (Mandapam) The Seaweed Research and Utilization Association was established in 1970 at the initiative of Prof. of which 310 thousand had been credit linked with bank loans amounting to ` 26. To upscale the program.htm http://www. The State Government is also providing seed money to panchayat-level federations of SHGs functioning in the State (Panchayat is the basic unit of district administration in Tamil Nadu). This is the only journal in India devoted exclusively to the publication of research on marine algae. with Prof. V. Krishnamurthy as its Chief Editor.tn. accounting systems are currently being undertaken. the Government of Tamil Nadu has started providing revolving funds of ` 10. The experience with SHGs has proved to be a major success in entrepreneurship development and loan recovery.gov. Krishnamurthy.0 billion in credit to support the livelihoods of over 10 thousand families.nabard.000 per group).2. By March 2007.2 Role of the State Bank of India (SBI) The SBI began to promote seaweed cultivation projects in collaboration with the Chennaibased NGO Aquaculture Foundation of India (AFI) in 2006.pdf 5. life history and basic algae chemistry. the United Kingdom and the United States of America. in addition to collections from South Africa.5 Aquagri Processing Private Limited (Aquagri) PepsiCo sold its eight-year-old seaweed cultivation business – which also resulted in a global patent for a chemical-free derivative product – to a group of entrepreneurs led by former PepsiCo executive Abhiram Seth in August 2008. harvesting and manufacture of semi refined carrageenan. 5. CSMCRI successfully transferred the technological package for cultivation of Kappaphycus on a commercial scale to PepsiCo in March 2000. The library has an extensive collection of books and journals on phycology. the institute was mostly interested on macroalgal culture and practical applications. Source: CSIR News. PepsiCo has provided funds to the CSMCRI (Bhavnagar. PepsiCo is engaging in massive scale cultivation of K. who had convened the meeting for discussing the creation of such an institution in July 1991. 13.2. Krishnamurthy. The group unanimously resolved to establish the Institute in Chennai and to name it the Krishnamurthy Institute of Algology after Prof. The herbarium contains about 500 sheets of Indian marine algae. alvarezii in a 15-20 ha area in the Palk Bay site near the famous temple at Rameshwaram. 53. the current focus has expanded to cover microalgae culture. No. development and utilization. During its beginnings. The laboratory is currently equipped for studies on morphology. The facilities of the institute are open to research to any visitor with a special interest on the field.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute BOX 2 CSMCRI – PepsiCo interaction During the last few years. and studies on the environmental impact assessment of Kappaphycus cultivation on the marine ecosystem. 5. At present. For its contribution to the development of seaweed farming in India. Vol. PepsiCo transferred the assets of the seaweed venture at 19 . Gujarat) to carry out a number of projects on the development of viable technologies for Hypnea Kappaphycus cultivation.4 Role of the Krishnamurthy Institute of Algology The Krishnamurthy Institute of Algology (KIA) was established by a group of Indian phycologists who felt there was a need for an institution devoted to research and development on algal studies.2. the CSMCRI was granted the prestigious CSIR Technology Award in Biological Sciences in 2001. The institute conducts periodical seminars and symposia on algal-related subjects and has been publishing a journal (Indian Hydrobiology) for the last 12 years. 15 July 2003. The company continues to benefit from the advice of CSMCRI scientists. taxonomy. The total permitted area extends to 100 ha. Aquagri also extends monetary assistance to growers to help them meet their out-of pocket expenses in times of social emergencies.000 a month. Through Aquagri. 20 Personal communication: Mr R. Aquagri has placed its focus on the agricultural by-produce. Tamil Nadu.6 The Tamil Nadu State Department of Fisheries (TNDoF)10 The support of the TNDoF to seaweed farming as an alternative livelihood strategy for smallscale fishermen has provided a major impetus to the activity. PepsiCo hived off the seaweed division owing to problems associated with managing an increasing workforce on a noncore business activity. Aquagri introduced the Growers Investment Program (GIP) in April 2009. the deduction is matched by the company and the total contribution is deposited in a bank. Aquagri has also provided buyback guarantee for the new cultivation projects launched by CSMCRI in the states of Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. in addition Aquagri has indicated its intent to set up manufacturing facilities at these centres once activities scale up. Given the length of the Indian coastal line and the number of people looking for alternative livelihood opportunities. Mandapam.000 – 5. Tamil Nadu (26 October 2009). Aquagri plans to increase that number to 50. Dinakaran. While seaweed cultivation currently engages about 1.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute book value to a newly formed company.2. Ramanathapuram district. ensuring marketing through strategic associations with agro-based businesses. the company deducts 5 per cent of the income of the SHG/farmer. SNAP Natural and Alginate Products Limited (SNAP). As an additional example of corporate social responsibility. an Indian alginate conglomerate based in Ranipet. According to press reports. The overall goal is to initiate a SHG-owned microcredit lending program. 9 Panchayat is the basic unit of district administration in Tamil Nadu. A seaweed farmer typically earns ` 3.300 fishers (13 batches of 100 members each) in the farming of Kappaphycus.000 people (predominantly women) in Mandapam area of Tamil Nadu.000. 5. The company is planning to extend operations in the Gujarat coast and set up the first seaweed processing plant in Tamil Nadu. Aquagri. 10 . TNDoF. Assistant Director of Fisheries. SNAP has also made financial contributions to cover the salaries of teachers in Panchayat9 schools. From 2007 to 2009. In order to provide prospects for long-term livelihood sustainability. the TNDoF trained 1. PepsiCo continues to honor its buyback commitment made to the SHGs. is also engaged in organizing village committees to help seaweed collectors understand the issues of responsible collection and conservation of Sargassum resources in the region. This included 200 members of 40 SHGs who received a government subsidy under the Joint Liability Group (JLG) scheme of the TNDoF. Under this program.000 a month but his/her earnings could go up to ` 10. The company is reportedly in the process of taking over the debt burden of the seaweed collectors to release them from their obligations with seaweed agents and traders. India has the potential to evolve into a major world seaweed producer. The NFDB also awards grants to other government agencies. for the development of training and demonstration sites for seaweed farming. farmers/entrepreneurs (preferably fisher women) are selected based on (i) past experience of the farmer in undertaking seaweed cultivation. and (iii) willingness to upgrade current farming practices.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 5. For the training programs. etc. Tirunelveli. Tamil Nadu.7 Role of the Aquaculture Foundation of India (AFI) The Aquaculture Foundation of India (AFI)11 plays a very active role in the promotion of seaweed farming in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. AFI identifies the most suitable SHGs for further involvement with the DRDA. TNDoF and the banks. NGOs. AFI also imparts training and provides support to to SHG participants for obtaining government subsidies and financing from the banks. The NFDB is currently considering to provide financial assistance for the construction of seaweed processing plants. University.8 Role of the National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB) The NFDB is a government agency specifically constituted in 2006 for development of the fisheries sector in India. the NFDB has developed supporting schemes for the promotion of these activities.2. 21 .S.2. This support includes (a) training and demonstration programs and (b) establishment of seaweed processing units. 11 AFI is an NGO based in Chennai. 5. Tamil Nadu) to increase the scale of seaweed farming. Considering the vast potential of seaweed cultivation and processing in India. With support from Aquagri and the government departments. 5. (ii) willingness of the farmer to assimilate scientific advice.3 A time line of the development of seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu Table 3 provides a timeline of the major events marking the development of seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu since the year 2000. AFI also works in collaboration with colleges and universities (such as the M. 22 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 . Another 5. Mono-line method was restarted again in Mandapam as it is found to provide better returns. Trial cultivation was also carried out in the Prakasam District of Andhra Pradesh (AP). Due to severe grazing. The net-bag technique was the method formulated by CSMCRI. both infrastructure and cultivators were placed under insurance coverage. it is moved to Mandapam. Trial cultivation is carried out in Krishna district (AP). Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) officials visited the PepsiCo site to monitor the 10-ha farming area and certified the project. the entire seeded area (10 ha) was lost in May. PepsiCo expanded farming to the Tuticorin District.000 rafts were seeded for further expansion. salinity drop in back waters and rough waves in open seas lead to poor plant growth. The DBT activates a project in Tanjore but due to poor growth/whitening. the bamboo raft technique emerged as the most suitable commercially viable method. The company entered into an agreement with SBI for establishing a buyback guarantee. however. three SHGs received subsidies from DRDA to engage in seaweed cultivation. Farming began in Munaikkadu (Mandapam area) by adapting the mono-line method. ` 0. Construction of a Semi-Refined Carrageenan (SRC) unit at SIPCOT is initiated. About 3. Mono-line cultivation was in place until April 2002. trials were conducted to establish a commercially viable method. India 2000 2001 Agreement with CSMCRI on Kappaphycus cultivation and genesis of the undertaking. For the first time. Aquagri takes over the PepsiCo project.2 million were paid to the Tamil Nadu Maritime Board (TNMB) for the leasing of the 1-km water front area. Expansion of farming to Pudukkottai. The TN Government granted PepsiCo access to one km of water front (10 ha) for pilot-scale cultivation at Palk Bay. The sap extracted from Kappaphycus was found to be an excellent biofertilizer. A full-fledged quality control lab to check the quality dry weeds was also established. Based on the results of more than 120 trials. Thereafter.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 3 A time line of the development of seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu.100 rafts were harvested. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) sanctioned ` 9 million to rehabilitate tsunami-affected areas.500 rafts were harvested. which led to the floating of 5. Commercialization of AquaSAP has been started.500 rafts. The project seaweed cultivation was commenced in February 2001. Expansion of farming to the Tanjore District. delivering 126 tonnes. delivering 244 tonnes of dry weed. but was not found suitable for commercial scale. The daily-wages model was withdrawn and the contract faming method was successfully implemented in March 2003. A total of 8. 000/tonne in the world market. Given concerns of water availability in coastal areas. stabilizing and improving viscosity of various foods and non-food products. particularly in its ability to form an almost infinite variety of gels at room temperature. currently estimated around 400 thousand tonnes.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 5. Sixty-five per cent of this total is traded in dried form. cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. BOX 4 Carrageenan extraction from dry weed Carrageenans are a family of linear sulphated polysaccharides extracted from seaweeds. the total size of which was valued at over USD 300 million in 2005. The process of manufacture and extraction of carrageenan from dry weed is both water and energy intensive. Twenty-six percent of the dry mass of Kappaphycus consists of carbon. Algal cultivation creates habitats/shelters for the breeding of fish and other marine organisms. have limited sodium content and are rich in potassium. Co-cultivation of algae with marine finfish is recommended as a best aquaculture practice as it reduces the polluting potential of farming sites. 23 . food and pet food industries. cosmetic. Carrageenan has the ability to form a variety of different gels which are stable at room temperature. Carrageenan fetches prices of up to USD 5. This leads to a wide range of applications as thickening and stabilizing agents in various industries such as food processing. Seaweed farming offers a clear opportunity for growers to earn carbon credits. Kappaphycus sequesters carbon.4 Development of alternative production methods and value-added processes and products The main product derived from K. pet foods. thereby ameliorating the impact of greenhouse gases. which opens up the potential for extracting fresh potable water and low-sodium salt. a gel-forming agent widely used in the pharmaceutical. dairy. Most algae have a 90 percent moisture content and. BOX 3 Beneficial environmental impacts of sea plant cultivation As any other alga. Carrageenan is much superior to agar both in terms of cost and versatility. alvarezii is carrageenan. The Philippines and Indonesia today account for over 90 per cent of the world production of K. alvarezii. despite growing in sea water. PepsiCo partnered with CSMCRI in developing fresh-weed processing technology. It is for this reason that carrageenan compounds are used for thickening. 12 an organic fertilizer rich in micronutrients. A seaweed farmer in Rameswaram A good haul of seaweed. sugar cane) and has consistently increased yields by 12 to 40 per cent (Table 4). aminoacids and growth hormones. 24 . black gram. Aquagri has sourced the technology for extracting SAP from wet seaweeds and acquired exclusive marketing rights for three years from CSMCRI. SAP is not a generic term. This technological innovation – for which CSMCRI obtained a global patent – was licensed to PepsiCo. paddy. Olaikuda. Since then SAP has been applied to a range of crops (brinjal. It rather indicates the liquid biofertilizer developed by Aquagri and branded as AQUASAP. onion.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute The partnership established between PepsiCo and CSMCRI to explore more water and energy efficient processing technologies led to the development of a fresh-weed processing system which yielded SAP. The development was singled out as an important technology breakthrough by former President Dr Abdul Kalam in his National Technology Day broadcast to the nation in 2006. corn. Rameswaram 12 In this context. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute AQUASAP Seaplant nutrient BOX 5 AQUAFEED Animal nutrition CARRAGEENAN Polysaccharide gelling/stabilizing agent Fig 2 Products from Kappaphycus alvarezii 25 . Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 4 Per cent increase in crop yields resulting from the use of bio-fertilizers of seaweed origin Crop Broad Acre Crops Gracilaria Paddy Barley Wheat Increase in yield (%) 16.1 2,500 - 3 500 18 11; 22 20.2 (2005-6); 13.5 (2006-7) 40.1; 45 7.2 Trials location Pepsi farm. 6,000 (Fresh) Madras University. 4 farmer fields; Rajasthan government farm. Pepsi farm; 5 farmer fields. Renuka Sugar; farmer fields in Karnataka. Rajasthan government farm. Sugarcane Mustard Vegetables Brinjal Tomato Potato 22.1 20 26, 25 Pepsi farm. Clean Foods. Techno Tubers; Agricultural University, Kalyani, West Bengal. Pepsi farm. Clean Foods. Capsicum Chilli Legumes Soya Bean 19.1 18 13.6 (2005); 15.3 (2006) 12.5; 16 14.5 Soya Producers Association. 5 farmers; Rajasthan government farm. Madras University. Gram Peanut Source: Aquagri Processing Private Limited, New Delhi. According to CSMCRI, Kappaphycus sap also contains considerable quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, organic matter, sodium calcium, magnesium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, molybdenum, sulphate and chloride. Incidentally, applying SAP at the germination stage of seaweed cultivation has also shown impressive results in terms of increase in growth of roots and shoots. 26 Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute BOX 6 Seaweeds as an animal feed supplement Research and trials have proved beyond doubt that animals can obtain natural nutrients from seaweeds. The nutritional value of seaweeds may even exceed that of land plants. Seaweeds contains macro and micronutrients, trace minerals, alginic acid, vitamins, aminoacids, naturally occurring plant growth hormones and antibiotics. All these compounds are chelated, making them 100 percent absorbable. Seaweeds are also a natural source of iodine which acts as an antibiotic to kill germs; it also increases growth rates and helps regulate metabolic functions in organisms. The complex constituent profile of seaweeds also contributes to strengthen the immune system and increase resistance against disease. Advantages of seaweeds for cattle International literature and trials suggest that seaweeds build resistance to disease by ensuring a complete balance of micronutrients. They also help reduce the incidence of mastitis and cow fever; increase the availability of nutrients; improve milk yield, fertility and health; improve fat level and iodine content in milk. Seaweeds as a poultry feed supplement Seaweeds as a supplement for poultry feed have been used since the 1960s. Their benefits are as follows: Carotenoids (30-60 mg/kg) and trace elements in seaweeds improve egg shell strength. Fucoxanthin A, which produces a xanthophyll in the gut, improves egg yolk colour. By adding five-percent-content granules to the feed, trials showed a decrease in mortality rate of five percent and an increase in weight of 10 percent in treatment individuals as compared to control individuals. Source: Aquagri Processing Private Limited, New Delhi Aquagri has recently completed the construction of two facilities for processing of seaweeds in Tamil Nadu, located at Mandapam and Manamadurai. These facilities are capable of handling 150 tonnes/day of fresh seaweed; most of the input material is being converted to SAP; the residual content after extraction of SAP is used for the extraction of carrageenan. These are state-of-theart facilities using solar power and biofuels as energy sources. Other firms such as SNAP (Ranipet, Tamil Nadu) are also developing value-added products using Sargassum as raw material. The list of products includes organic manure, foliar sprays, and 27 Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute liquid and gel fertilizers. SNAP reported that their products were certified by the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) under the National Program for Organic Produce certification. 5.5 Farming problems Seaweed farming can be affected by a host of problems. Grazing fish such as siganids (rabbitfish) and puffers can damage the crops. Siganids are the most destructive, especially if the plants have not grown much. Entire crops can be devoured and even dense beds can be severely damaged. There is no simple solution except to move the farming location to another site where predators are less prevalent. Turtles pose a special problem: besides grazing, they also crawl through the farms, causing devastating physical damage. Long spined sea urchins are also a pest and can cause injury to the farmer as he tries to remove them. The most common symptom of poor health is ice-ice, disease so named because of the white segments that appear on the plants, causing them to break at that point. There is disagreement about its causes: some people argue that the segments are indicative of a bacterial or viral infection while others attribute the disease to physical stress caused by changes in the farming environment. Storms lead to strong water movements that can cause plants to break apart and even cause physical damage to the rafts and lines. Locations that are subject to cyclical cyclones should be avoided; if this is not possible, precautions should be taken during the period of storms (FAO, 2003). The period from October to December in Tamil Nadu are months of seasonal rains and cyclones. 6 Historical production statistics13 6.1 Production potential Modayil (2004) estimated a total potential of 1 005 000 tonnes of seaweed in six states of India. The greatest potential exists in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the lowest in the state of Maharashtra. (Table 5). Table 5 Estimated harvestable potential of wild seaweeds in India, by State State Gujarat Maharashtra Kerala Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh Andaman and Nicobar Islands Source: Modayil (2004). 13 The section is strictly a compilation of available information from various sources and the authors have no specific comments to offer on the estimates and the methodology. Potential (tonnes) 2,50,000 5,000 100,000 2,50 000 100, 000 300, 000 28 535 22.. (1977) Subbaramaiah et al.000 650 60 282-608 315 20....000 19. Table 6 Seaweed resources along the coast of India Area Annual yield (tonnes fresh weight Gulf of Kutch Hanumandandi to Vumani (Okha) Adatra reef Saurashtra coast 100.000 900 20. (1979) Gopinathan and Panigrahy (1983) 29 ..645 to 7.044 Data not available 5 3.(1964) Chauhan and Mirh (1978) Chauhan (1977) Untawale et al. (1979) Dhargalkar (1981) Maharashtra Konkan coast Entire coast Goa Karnataka Kerala Tamil Nadu Koshy and John (1948) Chacko and Malu Pillai (1958) Varma and Rao (1964) Umamaheshwara Rao (1968) Subbaramaiah et al.000 Negligible Nair et al. Subbaramaiah et al. (1977) Andhra Pradesh Orissa Chilka lake Lakshadweep Islands Andaman and Nicobar Islands Little Andaman Source: Dhargalkar and Pereira (2005).000 2. (1982) 5 66.000 1. The estimates of seaweed resources in earlier studies by other workers in various states are given in Table 6.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Dhargalkar and Pereira (2005) estimated the total seaweed harvest from the Indian coastline at about 100 thousand tonnes (fresh weight). Their survey covered eight States and two Union Territories of India.598 120 Mitra (1946) Negligible Cape Comorin to Colachel Calimere to Cape Comorin Pamban Palk Bay South East coast Entire coast Source Gujarat Chauhan and Krishnamurthy (1968) Bhandari and Trivedi (1975) Sreenivasa Rao et al. 30 . The output per raft increased from 21 kg in 2002 to almost 50 kg in 2008. commercialoriented production of this specific type of seaweed. 6. Phaeophyceae and Cyanophyceae. lack of technology to improve processed product quality. poor quality of harvested material. Krishnamurthy (2005) reported that Indian waters contain 271 genera and 1. i. Price incentives were also offered to growers who produced more than the targeted quantity so as to prevent breaching of contracts.2 Production statistics of Kappaphycus seaweed PepsiCo’s entry into Kappaphycus culture marks the beginning of organized. However.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Although structured feasibility studies on seaweed farming did not appear until the last decade of the twentieth century in India. These seaweed resources have supported a collection industry that currently faces many obstacles such as overexploitation of a number of species. and lack of information on new and alternative sources of raw materials.153 species of marine algae belonging to four groups of algae: Cholorophyceae. Despite the great number of sheltered bays and lagoons suitable for mariculture. temperate and subtropical species have all been reported. The entire production resulted from the output of the SHGs working in coordination with PepsiCo (Table 7).50 per kg. enabling growers to devote a greater portion of their time on farming rather than on drying. Competitive pricing arrangements were extended to farmers by PepsiCo.e. ‘The Survey of Economic Seaweed Resources’ was initiated by the CSMCRI during 1961-91. This effort was funded by the National Committee on Science and Technology (NCST). The Indian seaweed flora is highly diversified: boreal. Aquagri will increase its purchases of wet Kappaphycus. productivity more than doubled in just seven years. Production increased from 21 tonnes in 2001 to 714(+) tonnes (dry weight) in 2009. Thivy (1958) was perhaps the first to map the distribution of economic seaweeds along the Indian coast. Rhodophyceae. Table 7 provides information on raft productivity in Kappaphycus farming. With the opening of the new SAP plant. labour shortages during the paddy harvesting and transplanting seasons. large-scale attempts to grow seaweed were never attempted. surveys were sporadic after 1980 owing to lack of funding. Wet seaweed is currently being purchased from the SHG members at the rate of ` 1. 0 8.25 7.3.5 . 372 113 31 . ML: mono-line culture.00 farming and private cultivators Company owned Company owned 12.6 BR: 3 469 126 6 2005 BR 3.0 Contract 10.0 2.5 .2 .50 & 7.2.50 farming Contract farming Company owned Company owned 4.00 BR: 8 100 244 12 2007 BR: 95% ML: 5% 2. 2.50 & 8.50 & 10.5 .00 & 14. (`)/kg (dry ML/BR dry weight (FCL of dry (tonnes) seaweed) weight)** 2001 ML 1.6.0 BR: 16 000+ 588 28 2009 2.50 147 7 2004 BR 2.0 14.5 . * Data incomplete for 2009.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 7 Area.50 BR: 3 450 135 6 2006 BR 2.5 Company Daily wage owned and system contract & 4. India (2001-2009) Year Cultivation method Growth rate (%) Business model Procurement Number of Production Exports cost.0 Company owned Company owned Daily wage system Daily wage system Test plots 21 1 2002 ML 2.75/kg (fresh) 714* 34* TOTAL Note: BR: bamboo rafts.4 ML: 5 275 ML: 3 567 BR: 1 962 82 4 2003 BR: 75% ML: 25% 2.00 & 12.00 BR: 10 464 315 15 2008 BR: 90% ML: 10% BR: 90% ML: 10% 2. ** The column includes two prices to indicate that prices offered to SHG members were revised in the same year. FCL: Full Container Load (1 container = 21 tonnes).3.5 3.00/kg BR: (dry) 18 000+ 1.3. production and exports of Kappaphycus in Tamil Nadu. Table 8 Trends in raft productivity.10 36. The yields have risen from 21 kg to 49 kg at full utilization rate in less than a decade.12 30. Seaweed exports data are available from MPEDA and are shown in Table 9. the world market offers little scope for most categories of Indianproduced agar and alginates. New Delhi 7 Seaweed exports By international standards.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Of the 250 -260 kg of seaweed that is obtained as wet weed from a raft.14 49. Although Indian products are competitive on a cost basis and are not subject to export restrictions. Indian agar and alginates do not compare favourably in terms of gel strength and viscosity. Table 8 indicates loss in dry weed yield and income resulting from retaining a portion of the total harvest as seed material. about 25 percent of the harvest is kept aside as seed material (cuttings) for planting the next raft.32 39.75 ** **Ongoing (*No of BR and ML) Source: Aquagri Processing Private Limited. PepsiCo has exported 32 . since the yield of dry weed is a proportion of total output harvested. some large producers (e. Therefore.16 40. daily.13 30. The figures given here are indicative (as obtained from Aquagiri Procesing Private Limited) since the data is a mix of output from rafts and monoline culture. However. It may also be noted that yields have been increasing over time indicating that SHG farmers have been seeding and harvesting more rafts and monolines than estimated. there is an urgent need to develop an off shore seed jetty to help the SHG farmers to outsource their seed (instead of keeping a part of their total harvest towards seeding the next raft).55 26. 2001-2009 (kg) Year Number of ML/BR Dry weed yield per raft at 100% utilization (kg/raft) Number of ML/BR Dry weed yield per raft at75% utilization (kg/raft) 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009* Test plots 5 275 5 529 3 469 3 450 8 100 10 464 16 000+ 18 000+ Test plots 20.45 48.00 Test plots 3956 4147 2602 2588 6075 7848 12000 13500 Test plots 15.17 40.59 36.43 52.73 35. Marine Chemicals.g. Kochi) have achieved important export levels. 00 Negligible Negligible Negligible 0.37 Negligible Negligible Negligible 21 74. Aquagri (column 5). It should be noted that PepsiCo exports are not reflected in MPEDA statistics.05 0. the group prepares the rafts.538 1. 2008). depth around 1.923 million).82 Negligible Negligible 0. salinity in the range of 28 to 33 ppt. But Kappaphycus seaweed grows more than eight times in the open sea where wave action is fairly high (AFI. temperature around 30o ± 3o C. provides maintainance and harvests on the due date. Cultivation is organized by members of a SHG who normally belong to the same family but may include other members from the same community.438 Negligible Negligible 0.149 Negligible Negligible Negligible 0. The Kudumbam (family) model of cultivation (KMC) is a farming system initially introduced by PepsiCo and then widely adopted for Kappaphycus culture in Tamil Nadu. Collectively. Basic infrastructure is facilitated by the company. The major advantage is 33 . All seaweed farming in Ramanathapuram district is under the KMC. *Incomplete data for 2008-09 8 Socio-economic dimensions of seaweed farming in India Kappaphycus seaweed grow profusely in areas with sandy or rocky bottoms.01 0. A seed plant of 150 g grows to more than 600 g in 45 days in calm waters such as those found in the Palk Bay area. Table 9 Exports of seaweeds from India (1) Year (2) Quantity (Tonnes) (3) Value ( ` million) (4) Value (USD Million) (5) Exports of PepsiCo (FCL Dry) 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 Negligible Negligible 0. Seaweeds only require sunlight and transparent seawater with mild wave action for replenishing bottom nutrients. moderate light intensity and wave action. the harvest is purchased on a buyback basis and payments are effected by the company through the bank accounts of the SHG (Box 7).991 38.86 1 4 7 6 6 12 15 28 34* Sources: MPEDA (columns 3 and 4).25 855. FCL: Full Container Load (1 FCL: 21 tonnes). seeds the lines. The advantages of the SHG/KMC model are manifold and obvious.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 113 containers of dried seaweed between 2000 and 2008 (valued at USD 0.5 meters. The economics of the raft-culture/SHG production model for the farming of Kappaphycus as supported by the TNDoF (2009) is presented in Tables 10 and 11. Tanjore and Cuddalore. the area suitable for culture in Ramanathapuram district --– one of the most under-developed regions in Tamil Nadu – could exceed 50 thousand hectares. 8. CSMCRI. Convenient hours and stress-free work of 4-6 hours a day enhanced their quality of life. the TNDoF. The seaweed farming initiative in Ramanathapuram started with a strong positive gender bias. According to experts. Tuticorin. During 2002-2003. Women took up the gauntlet with ardor as the activity empowered them with a highly productive. In addition to PepsiCo (2002-2008) and Aquagri. DRDA. Each group presently comprises five persons. non-hazardous work environment. It has been argued that seaweed farming development has also led to alleviate pressure on fish stocks and reduce dependence on agriculture. the seaweed farming movement in India has been promoted by a network of institutions. Experimental trials are being conducted in Thondi and Karangadu areas of Ramanthapuram district. AFI.2 The SHG model of seaweed farming There are currently more than 110 SHGs involved in seaweed farming in the Ramanathapuram district.050) is borne by the TNDoF. although these facts are not well documented. Rameswaram. Parangipettai in Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu. Fifty per cent of the total production cost of 45 rafts per SHG trainee (` 31. CMFRI and numerous NGOs. seaweed farming is practiced in Tamil Nadu at various scales of operation in Mandapam.1 Locations PepsiCo started operations in 2002 by leasing an area of 10 hectares (one km of sea front) on Palk Bay. 34 . the daily-wage corporate model was the prevailing production arrangement in the region. the other 50 per cent is financed with a commercial bank loan. which came to be replaced by the more successful contract farming/SHG model. commercial banks. namely NABARD.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute that fishers are given an opportunity to become entrepreneurs in an activity with growth potential. Pudukottai. near Mandapam (Ramanathapuram district) in Tamil Nadu. It has been estimated that substantial employment and income opportunities can be provided to more than 50 thousand families for every 10 thousand hectares brought under cultivation. The overall economic and social quality of life has improved by leaps and bounds as discussed in the following sections. Currently. 8. Ongole district of Andhra Pradesh on the east coast. DBT. Edavanakad in Kerala and state of Diu on the west coast of India. 107 which works out to ` 6.50 million per SHG). development institutions.200 to `18. Research. Raw weeds with around 30 percent moisture get a price of USD 250-600/tonne. Refined carrageenan extracted from Kappaphycus fetches a price ranging from USD 7. pesticides. harvesting and processing generates new cottage industries and direct and indirect employment for the coastal poor.000 a month) The technological and economic viability has been established in Tamil Nadu.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute BOX 7 The socio-economic premise for Kappaphycus culture in India The advantages of Kappaphycus cultivation in coastal waters of Tamil Nadu are: Kappaphycus grows by absorbing nutrients (N. Because of its plant-growth-promoting properties. no input of external nutrients is needed).000 a month (The average net income per annum per farmer is ` 73. Kappaphycus culture could revolutionize organic agriculture in India. Commercial banks provide loans to SHGs without collateral (up to ` 0. Kappaphycus is a major source of Kappa carrageenan. Kappaphycus is a high-value seaweed with expanding demand and innumerable applications in various industries. the final product is 100-percent organic. It propagates vegetatively by cuttings (no need to undergo sexual phases) and thus it is easy to reproduce. or herbicides. insecticides. groundnut and wheat.092 per month per farmer.000 to 10 000 per tonne depending upon grade and quality. Kappaphycus is a versatile plant capable of growing almost anywhere in tropical marine environments.000 to 15. which is near to the approximation of ` 12. growth hormones. In a family if two to three members are involved in seaweed farming. Buyback of the produce is guaranteed. TNDoF. sugarcane. P and other minerals) present in the seawater (i. 35 . Grows fast and regenerates fast after harvesting. Can be consumed raw or used in salads.000 to ` 15. Culture does not involve applications of fertilizers. Source: Modified from AFI (2008). commercial banks and corporate investors have developed a network to promote Kappaphycus cultivation in the coastal waters of Tamil Nadu. Preliminary experiments have revealed substantial growth enhancement (18-40 percent) in rice.000. Farming. Kappaphycus culture does not release any harmful chemicals or solid wastes into the surrounding environment. they can earn about ` 12. Cultivation technology is simple and environmentally friendly. Two to three persons in a family can handle the operations and earn from ` 12.e. 00 25.13 kg 0.00 75.09 kg 0.5-m nets for reducing grazing by fish 28 m of 2-mm thickness ropes for tying the nets to raft bottoms 1 kg nylon rope of 5.00 0.165 kg 0.00 65 kg ` 0.5 m length / 20 lengths) 20 ropes for seeding 400 cuttings 36 m of 6-mm thickness nylon rope (for the manufacturing of the raft) 3.4 m length pieces for tying together a batch of 10 rafts. 1 length for a batch of 10 rafts 65 kg of seed materials (including 5 kg-loss in handling) Transportation charges for seed materials Mats/ladders/baskets/ knives.85/kg 55.00 40.00 10.25 25.45 kg ` 3. Anchor ropes 17 M of 10mm thickness.65 kg ` 120/kg ` 110/kg 20.00 690.25 mm thickness / 4.00 50.00 0. Floats TOTAL 64 ft 15 kg 0. etc.00 1.10/ft ` 40/kg ` 10/kg 198.10 kg ` 75/kg ` 110/kg ` 110/kg 85.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 10 Economics of seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu. India: cost of materials for the construction of one raft (3 m x 3 m) Items Quantity/ Raft `/ Unit Total value (`) Bamboo rafts Five cornered anchors 3-mm nylon rope (1.00 11.00 36 .09 kg ` 110/kg 10.5 x 3.50 60. ` Net returns for the first year (9 . The seedlings are tied to the ropes and the raft is anchored to the bottom.[2 + 7 + 8]) .` Returns (24 kg @ ` 14. A floating frame made of bamboo (normally of dimensions 3’x3’) is used to suspend the seaweed about 50 cm below the surface.00 x 270 days) . Table 11 Economics of seaweed farming (raft culture) in Tamil Nadu.` Bank loan (50%) .Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute It maybe noted that the interest rate is charged annually.per kg of dry weed based on quantity and quality of output.g.107 Source: Seaweed Culture. Three-mm polypropylene ropes are stretched in parallel between the two sides of the raft.` 31. e. at 10-15 cm intervals.525 15 .` Subsidy from TNDoF (50%) . Government of Tamil Nadu (2008-09).` Production from 45 rafts in 45 days (kg fresh weight) Seed material allocated to the next stocking cycle (kg) Production of dried weed Interest on bank loan (11%) . Many farmers are able to handle as many as 3 rafts a day by way of seeding and harvesting therby enhancing their economic returns handsomely. The raft method is suitable in areas where water currents are weak. Anchor ropes may be need to hold the raft below the surface at the beginning but 37 .720 73. the farmers now (December 2009) are receiving upto ` 18/.525 300 60 24 kg 1. However. It may also be noted that the figures cited here by the government of Tamil Nadu forms the basis on which the commercial banks work out their lending strategies to the SHGs. The yield is calculated for 270 days as the culture operations are confined to this period in a year. India: analysis of costs and returns for the first year of operation Item number Item Quantity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cost of 45 rafts per farmer . Golden Jubilee Village Self Employment Opportunities.3 Seaweed farming practices Two different culture techniques are practiced in Mandapam: raft culture and mono-line culture.708 380 90. One raft a day is expected to be seeded and harvested by the SHG farmer. Palk Bay.050 15.` Insurance . Therefore the yield of dry weed (24 kg) indicated is for a cycle of 45 days. even though culture is restricted to 270 days and since the Tamil Nadu coast is subjected to the north east monsoon seaweed culture is not practiced during the balance of 95 days (Table 10). 8. A cluster of 4-6 rafts during the monsoon season or a cluster of 10 rafts during the normal season can be anchored with a five-toothed iron anchor of 15 kg. and removed from the water during bad weather. 150 seaweed cuttings are inserted in the ropes. The initial weight of the seedling is 200 g and thus a total of 60 kg of seed material is required for each production cycle.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute as the plants grow and add weight to the raft. which are tied in two plots of 30 m x 45 m each. The major advantage of floating rafts is that they can be easily moved to another location if necessary. Each fishermen or stakeholder is given 45 ropes. Specific details of this technique are provided in Figure 3. holed stones can be linked with chains and then tied to the cluster. extra support (such as polystyrene foam boxes tied to the corners of the rafts) may be required to prevent it from sinking too low in the water. Normally the seaweed plants are simply tied up to the nylon ropes. 2008 In the mono-line culture method. In each plot. Source : AFI. However. ropes of 60 m each are tied in two sections to avoid sags in the line caused by the weight. leaving a spacing of 20 cm. 38 . Figure 3 Top view of a 3 m x 3 m bamboo raft with 4-ft diagonals. Alternatively. Rafts can also be used as drying racks by providing appropriate support when placed onshore. A spacing of one metre is allowed between the two plots. because growth rates are higher.716 175 105 400 100 30 28 448 50 398 Harvest is normally conducted after 45 days in the Ramanathapuram district.` Net returns per farmer per block of 60 ropes.000 kg.` Cost of Harvesting. The average 39 . and maintenance of the plots is labor intensive. (Table 12) The cost of the nylon ropes accounted for of 33 per cent of total investment but the labour charges for the installation accounted for the highest share of 38.716. which is higher than that of the raft. The estimated annual harvest of seaweeds (per 900 ropes) is 27. the plants are covered with net bags to avoid grazing by fishes. which increases production costs. the production cycle is shortened to only 30 days in the southern districts of Tuticorin and Kanyakumari. The average initial investment for 60-m length of long line culture amounts to ` 1. The major advantage of mono-line culture is that it provides superior yields to those achieved with rafts. there is a higher threat of grazing by fish.` Average operating cost for 60 ropes Cost of seedlings Production from 60 ropes in 45 days (kg fresh weight) Seed material allocated to the next stocking cycle (kg) Production of dried weed at 10:1 ratio of fresh to dry seaweed Average harvest of dried seaweed per rope (after deducing 2 kg for impurities and other wastes)-kg Average gross revenue . Hence 25 to 30 kg of dry weed are obtained from a harvest of 250300 kg of fresh weed after 45 days (10:1 ratio).Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute during the summer months of May-June (fish breeding season).` 1. ropes could break (leading to crop loss).5 per cent of the total investment (` 660). The seeds are always covered with net bags in Tuticorin and Kanyakumari. The expected yield from the two plots ranges from 350 to 400 kg of fresh seaweed. which is higher than what is obtained under raft culture. 100 kg are separated as planting material for the subsequent cycle. The disadvantages are that investment per rope is higher. Table 12 Economics of mono line culture of seaweeds per block of 60 ropes Item Number Item Quantity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Average initial investment for 60m rope. which was ` 690. From this harvest. 000. 40 . Ramanathapuram Rural Development Agency (RDDA) and TNDoF. the average net income per rope worked out to ` 398 (Table 11). this study will concentrate on the socio-economics of the raft culture system. indebtedness.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute operating cost per rope worked out to ` 175 per 60 m ropes. especially when the workforce is mostly composed by women. These SHGs have been exposed to Kappaphycus culture longer than other groups.000 rafts each. Parvatham. The selected locations represent the mainland and island ecosystems. The non-monetary advantages of raft culture make it a preferred system choice in the Ramanathapuram district. experience in fishing and seaweed farming. respectively. Details on socio-economic parameters such as family size. Each SHG consists of five members.Vadakadu. because of this experience. respondents were grouped into two major areas: Mandapam and Rameshwaram. As such. Mangadu and Olaikuda. even though a few of the SHG consisted exclusively of men and some other SHGs were mixed. Nagar. were collected from the sample respondents (n = 437). farmers report that they have been able to obtain good returns from the activity. Umilyalpuram. they are able to obtain yields exceeding 50 kg per raft (dry weight). Ariyankkundu and R. For comparison purposes. The SHGs are predominantly formed by women. Akkalmadam. age composition. Deducting the harvesting charge of ` 50. Although mono-line culture appears to be more profitable than raft culture. Munaikadu. Farmers in the Mandapam region included in the sample were specifically located in Vedalai. which fetched gross revenue of ` 448. The earliest groups in the selected locations seem to have been formed in 2006 (Table 13). the agencies most actively engaged are DBT. The population of organised SHG seaweed farmers at the time the survey was administered was estimated at 1. Seaweed farming is now expanding to other districts within Tamil Nadu such as Pudukottai and Thanjavur also(Annexure I). Meenavar colony and Thonithurai. Sambai. The sample was drawn based on purposive sampling proportionate to size. the operational difficulties may be overbearing. Overall. The names of the supporting institutions are also indicated in Table 13. and socio-economic status improvement associated with seaweed farming. which worked out to ` 105 for 60 kg seed material. A number of SHGs in Vedalai. if family labour wage is not included. The locations covered in Rameshwaram were Pamban. A. T. Ariyankudu. This comprised the cost of seedlings. The performance of the most recent SHGs is expected to improve over time. The Aquaculture Foundation of India (AFI) has provided seedlings and other materials to farmers in the region. Nallupanai. asset ownership.Vadakadu are currently handling more than 1. Thonithurai. income and occupational status. The average harvest per rope was 28 kg of dried seaweed. The socio-economic status of seaweed farmers was assessed through personal interviews using a pre-tested schedule. Tamil Nadu. India Name of location Name of SHG Number Number Annual Supporting Starting Number of female of male Number yeild per institution Year of SHGs members members of rafts raft (kg) Sri Lingeshwar Andavar SHG Vedalai Sri Karumaliyan Andavar SHG Sakthi Mariyamman Mahalir Umiyal Puram MNS Mahalir SHG Valarpirai Andavar SHG Vidivelli Andavar SHG Munaikadu Team Andavar SHG Kadal Pavalam Andavar SHG Kadal Alli Mahalir SHG T. Composition.Nagar Kadal Thamarai Mahalir SHG Kadal Pasu Mixed SHG Meeenavar Karuppanasamy colony Andavar SHG Sri Thillai Adavar SHG Uthayam Mixed SHG Krishna Andavar SHG Thonithurai Nila Andavar SHG DBT DBT RDDA 2006 2006 2007 3 12 10 1040 52 RDDA DBT DBT TNDoF DBT DBT DBT DBT DBT DBT DBT DBT DBT 2007 2006 1 4 12 0 0 20 540 900 53 58 2006 2006 2006 2007 2007 2006 2006 2006 3 12 3 750 54 2 0 10 400 55 5 12 19 1050 43 41 . structure and performance of SHGs engaged in seaweed farming in the Mandapam and Rameshwaram regions of Ramanathapuram district.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 13 . Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Kadal Nila Mahalir SHG Kadal Muthu Pamban Jesus Andavar – DBT Vasantham Andavar SHG Akkal madam Kadal Thendral Andavar Kadal Osai Mahalir Nallupanai Vetri Andavar SHG Ariyan kundu Red Algae Andavar SHG Thendral Andavar SHG St. Sebasthiyar Mahalir SHG A.Vadakadu Nalvalvu Josw a Andavar SHG R. Vadakadu Private Cultivators Parvatham Sri Sastha Mahalir SHG Sambai Kadal Rani Mahalir SHG Subam Andavar SHG Dharma Muneshwarar Mahalir SHG Mangadu Kadal Pura Andavar SHG Nalvalvu Antoniyar Andavar SHG RDDA DBT DBT DBT DBT DBT 2007 DBT DBT TNDoF DBT DBT DBT RDDA DBT 2006 2007 2008 2006 2006 2006 2007 2006 2008 2007 2007 2006 1 0 1 1 3 0 0 12 5 5 5 0 0 0 10 250 1080 540 200 700 46 47 48 51 49 1 3 0 12 5 10 250 1040 46 1 3 0 5 5 10 200 675 43 48 2007 2007 DBT DBT 2006 2007 DBT 2006 2 12 5 790 51 42 . Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Name of location Name of SHG Number Number Annual Supporting Starting Number Number of female of male yeild per institution Year of SHGs of rafts members members raft (kg) Iyarkai Mahalir SHG Paralogamatha Mahalir SHG Punitha Antoniyar Andavar SHG Olaikuda Annai Therasa Andavar SHG Sengol Matha Andavar SHG Punitha Annal Andavar SHG Kadal Pura Andavar SHG Kadal Pookkal Mahalir SHG Sri Vinayagar Mahalir SHG Kaliamman Mahalir SHG Sambai Ramanathasamy Mahalir SHG Pathrakaliamman Mahalir SHG Kanthari Amman Mahalir SHG Prathingara Devi Mahalir SHG Kadal Ulagam Andavar SHG RDDA TNDoF 2007 2009 5 5 0 225 — TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF TNDoF 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 225 — — — — — — — — — — — — — Source: Aquagri Processing Private Limited. New Delhi 43 . Table 14 Gender composition and average family size of respondents Category Mandapam Number % Rameshwaram Number % Male Female Total Average family size 8. Rameswaram). 14 Ration cards are family food cards allotted to households in India which entitles the holder to periodic subsidized rations of food.Family size Normally in Tamilnadu as in most other states of India.1 Head of the family . It also must be noted that a number of individuals with capital resources but without any other liaison to the coastal area have entered seaweed farming. age and caste structure. occupation and income patterns. The analysis of the head of the family of the respondents revealed that about 64 percent of the respondents in Mandapam and 66 percent in Rameswaram are males and the rest are female seaweed farmers (Table 14).1 Socio-economic indicators in seaweed farming The socio-economics of the farming villages were studied by examining parameters such as average family size.2 Caste / Religion structure 145 81 226 4. 2005). To avoid potential conflicts. men in fishing households followed their women.5 in Mandapam to 5. consumption expenditure and indebtedness.4.1. Of late. 8. The analysis of the head of the family is given in Table 14. These cards also function as identification documents enabling the holder to establish his place of residence at a particular place and 44 .5 for fishermen families reported by the Marine Fishery Census (CMFRI. It must be noted that these castes form the major coastal belt community engaged in fishing and related enterprises.1. The average family size of respondents ranged from 4. Head of the family is the senior most male in the family. The initial success of women in seaweed farming motivated men to enter the activity as well. This is consistent with the national average of 4. widows who are the bread winners are also represented as family head.5 64 36 100 139 72 211 5.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 8.5 66 34 100 The analysis of caste structure reveals that only a few castes like valaiyan and kadayar are getting involved in seaweed farming (Table 15). In the case of seaweed farming. authorities have adopted the method of allocating the oceanic inshore area among stakeholders based on the "ration cards" 14 allocated by the Government of Tamil Nadu (Olaikuda village.5 in Rameshwaram. rather than assuming a leadership role.4. The concept of SHG was founded on the basic premise that women are more responsible and have a better disposition to work towards achieving social and economic independence.4. 47 0 100. who share living quarters.3 Type of family 0 124 5 0 63 0 23 5 0 0 0 6 226 0 54.64 0.95 15.47 0.47 9. A Hindu Joint Family or Hindu Undivided Family (HUF) or a Joint Family is an extended family arrangement prevalent among Hindus and consisting of many generations living under the same roof.64 0. All the male members are blood relatives and all the women are either mothers.93 2. However.4.11 56. .42 0. This phenomenon is also taking place in coastal villages. wives.99 100.95 1.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 15.00 15 119 14 1 21 33 1 2 3 1 1 0 211 7. unmarried daughters. with joint families giving way to nuclear families.07 0 9. Family type Type of family Mandapam Number % Rameshwaram Number % Nuclear Joint Total 15 16 219 7 226 97 3 100 162 49 211 77 23 100 45 A nuclear family is a family group consisting of only a father and mother and their children.01 0 0 0 3.47 0.40 6. or widowed relatives.00 Most of the sample respondents' families belong to the nuclear family type15 (Table 16). Rameshwaram has a relatively greater number of joint families16 involved in seaweed farming. Table 16. These programmes have also altered the structure of families. The social development programmes promoted by the Government of Tamil Nadu have led to a general improvement of the socio-economic conditions of the overall population. Caste and religion structure of the sample respondents Caste structure Mandapam Number % Rameshwaram Number % Backward communities Valaiyan Ambalakarar Sheeper Kadayar MBC Servai Muslim Christian Paman Paller Nadars Total 8.99 2.1.01 0 28. Because these individuals belong to the middle-aged group.1. have between 11 and 25 years of experience in fishing.4.1. respectively. Table 18. About 85 percent of respondents in both areas have about five years of experience in seaweed farming. thus the maximum experience a farmer can be expected to have is nine years (Table 18).25 years More than 25 years Total 11 208 7 226 6 92 2 100 49 151 11 211 23 72 5 100 The concept of seaweed farming was introduced only after 2001.4.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 8. Table 17. they can be expected to successfully adapt to innovations in farming techniques.5 Age classification of respondents 196 20 10 226 87 9 4 100 176 28 7 211 84 13 3 100 Table 19 indicates that the proportion of middle-aged individuals (31. even if doing so involves some risk.7 years More than 7 years Total 8.50 years old) in both groups was around 60 percent.4 Experience in fishing and seaweed farming Table 17 indicates that 92 and 72 percent of the respondents in Mandapam and Rameshwaram. Fishing experience Years of experience Mandapam Number % Rameshwaram Number % Less than 10 years 11. This age bracket corresponds to a productive group of individuals. Experience in seaweed farming Years of experience Mandapam Number % Rameshwaram Number % Less than 5 years 6 . with 9-13 percent of respondents already having between 6-7 years of experience. This indicates the level of commitment of stakeholders as fishers perceive seaweed farming as a less risky and more sustainable activity relative to traditional fishing practices. 46 . which is usually receptive to new ideas and is capable of implementing them. with an average cumulative QoL index below normal tending towards unsatisfactory (CSMCRI.1. which has contributed to reduce pressure on the fish stocks of the area. The infrastructure of educational facilities in the area is poor.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 19 Age classification of respondents Age group Mandapam Number % Rameshwaram Number % Below 30 years old 31. Table 20.6 Literacy level of respondents 70 138 18 226 31 61 8 100 53 124 34 211 25 59 16 100 The literacy rate was estimated to be approximately equal to the district average of 52. The literacy level of respondents in the two areas is comparatively higher than the national average of about 65 percent.4.485 in Vedalai.50 years old Above 50 years old Total 8.7 Occupational profile 2 97 48 49 25 5 226 1 43 21 22 11 2 100 14 17 38 91 38 13 211 7 8 18 43 18 6 100 Fishing and seaweed farming are th0e two most important occupations in these two areas. Seaweed farming has become the primary livelihood activity of fishers in Rameshwaram. 2003).285 at Puliamadam to 0. The emergence of seaweed farming has also 47 .4.8 percent. In Mandapam. Table 20 reveals that about 43 percent of respondents in Mandapam have undergone elementary schooling while 43 percent of respondents in Rameshwaram have reached middle-school level. 48 percent of the respondents practiced fishing as a primary activity while only 13 percent chose fishing as the primary occupation in Rameshwaram (Table 21). Literacy level of respondents Literacy level Mandapam Number % Rameshwaram Number % Illiterate Elementary Lower primary Upper primary Secondary Higher Secondary Total 8. The cumulative quality of life (QoL) index was estimated to range from 0. About 10-20 per cent of respondents have achieved secondary level of schooling.1. 1.000 (57 per cent) while the maximum proportion of income earned in seaweed farming was equally split between the ranges of ` 10.30 000 30 001.50 000 50 001.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute contributed to reduce the political tension with neighbouring Sri Lanka over access to common fishing grounds.001 to ` 20.100 000 More than 100 000 Total 62 157 7 0 0 0 0 0 226 28 69 3 0 0 0 0 0 100 20 76 128 2 0 0 0 0 226 9 33 57 1 0 0 0 0 100 In Rameshwaram. Table 21 occupational profile of the respondents Occupation Mandapam Number % Rameshwaram Number % Fishing Seaweed farming Total 8. up to ` 100. Tables 22 and 23 highlight the clear potential of seaweed farming for lifting the socio-economic status of the communities in both regions. Income levels in the Mandapam area Income levels (` per year) Fishing Number % Seaweed farming Number % Less than 10 000 10 001. 48 .80 000 80 001. most individuals earn income between ` 20.001 to ` 20. the maximum proportion of income earned from fishing was also in the range of ` 10.000 bracket).4. Table 22.001 to ` 30.001 to ` 20. with two individuals reporting even higher earnings (` 30.000 (25 percent) and ` 20.000 (69 percent). In the case of seaweed farming.001 and ` 30.000 (57 per cent). followed by the less than ` 10.001 to ` 40.000 bracket. A considerable number of seaweed farming practitioners reported relatively high income levels.40 000 40 001 .8 Income status 108 118 226 48 52 100 24 187 211 13 87 100 Table 22 indicates that the maximum proportion of income earned in fishing in the Mandapam area was within the range of ` 10.20 000 20 001.000 (24 percent).000. In addition. Only four respondents (in Rameshwaram) were found to reside in Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) houses. asbestos cement sheets. the 49 walls and/or roof are made of materials other than those mentioned above. the roof is made of either tiles. RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete).4. ekra. bamboos. timber.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 23. cement concrete.100 000 More than 100 000 Total 8. The proportion of kutcha and pucca houses was approximately the same (49 percent) in Rameshwaram (Table 24). such as un-burnt bricks. With regard to the housing type. timber. reeds.16 Table 24 Housing ownership and type Details Number Fishing % Seaweed farming Number % Ownership of house Owned Rented Type of House Kutcha Pucca RCC Total 171 55 0 226 75 25 0 100 103 104 4 211 49 49 2 100 226 100 211 100 16 A pucca house is one which has walls made of any of the following materials: burnt bricks.50 000 50 001.30 000 30 001. etc. Income levels in the Rameswaram area Income levels (` per annum) Fishing Number % Seaweed farming Number % Less than 10 000 10 001. stones (packed with lime or cement). thatch. All respondents in both areas were living in their own houses. particularly in small villages. In a kutcha house.80 000 80 001. the proportion of kutcha houses was high in Mandapam (75 percent). etc . mud.40 000 40 001 . loosely packed stones.9 Housing and livestock ownership 5 53 51 36 46 16 1 3 211 2 25 24 17 22 8 1 1 100 27 121 41 16 4 2 0 0 211 13 57 19 8 2 1 0 0 100 Housing is an important indicator of the socio-economic status of an individual. etc. RBC (Reinforced Brick Concrete).20 000 20 001.1. GCI (Galvanized Corrugated Iron) sheets. grass. processing.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Livestock husbandry is an important source of supplementary income for the fishermen households.4. A similar trend was also observed for seaweed farming (161 days in Rameshwaram as opposed to 144 days in Mandapam).10 Changes in patterns of consumer expenditure During the last five years. One member per family is involved in postharvest fisheries like peeling. DVD players and mobile phones in addition to household appliances such as mixers and grinders. respectively. over the last five years. value addition and related activities in the Mandapam area. 50 . 8. the surveyed households were able to acquire electronic appliances such as TVs. On average. Maintaining livestock is also often seen as a symbol of prestige among rural households. one member from each family is involved in active fishing in both areas.1. Table 25 Livestock ownership Livestock Details Mandapam Number % Rameshwaram Number % Cattle Buffalos Poultry Non owners Total 43 15 67 101 226 18 7 30 45 100 8 0 116 87 211 4 0 55 41 100 8. For seaweed farming. freezing.11 Occupational patterns Table 26 present the occupational patterns of respondents. drying. About 55 percent of respondents in Mandapam and 60 percent in Rameshwaram maintain livestock to supplement their income and domestic needs (Table 25).1. while two members are involved in the Rameshwaram area. The most common livestock type is poultry. The average annual employment in fishing and post-harvest activities is marginally higher in Rameshwaram (181 and 100 days) than in Mandapam (179 and 96 days). on average two members per family are involved in the activity in both Mandapam and Rameswaram.4. A total of 135 respondents (60 %) and 141 persons (67 %) had purchased cell phones in Mandapam and Rameshwaran. 526 man-days of employment per year in the two areas (this calculation assumes a total of 1. the sector would be providing 148. 2008).7 48. with annual earnings of about ` 0. Assuming that two members in each household are engaged in seaweed farming during 144 and 161 days of the year in Mandapam and Rameswaram.896 and 155.1.10 million per family (AFI. which would translate into 765 thousand days of employment in the district (assuming 153 days of employment per person per year).000 families engaged in seaweed farming in the Ramanathapuram district). respectively. Table 27 Estimation of employment generation in seaweed farming in Ramanathapuram district. India (1) (2) (4) (3) Number of Average Days of Days of sample number of employment employment in households family members in seaweed seaweed farming per year for engaged in farming sample house seaweed per person holds farming per year (1) x (2) x (3) (4) (6) (8) Days of Total Man-days employ -ment inseaweed number of per year in families seaweed farming per (N = 1000) farming year for (2)x(3)x(6 sample house holds (1) x (2) x (3) Area Mandapam Rameshwaram 226 211 02 02 144 161 65.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 26 Occupational patterns in Mandapam and Rameshwaram areas.12 Estimated labour force in the seaweed farming sector Table 27 provides an estimate of total employment (man-days per year) in seaweed culture in the Mandapam and Rameswaram regions. it has been argued that seaweed farming could provide employment to 200 thousand families in the country. Tamil Nadu Mandapam Name of the occupation Average number of members per family Number of days employed per year Normal Lean Peak Rameshwaram Average number of members per family Number of days employed per year Normal Lean Peak Active fishing Post-harvest fisheries Seaweed culture/harvest 01 01 02 179 96 144 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 02 02 181 100 161 66 0 95 98 0 106 8.896 155.942 51.088 67.3 517 483 148.4. 526 51 . More generally. Tamil Nadu. The various development programs in the region are currently planning for total of 5 thousand families to become involved with seaweed farming. Ramanathapuram district. 26 15.819 (62.00 Table 29 presents the average amounts of loans availed.79 percent) in Mandapam and Rameswaram. oils.4.284 836 1.668 851 807 583 701 0 31 625 17.20 0.26 7.00 100.1.26 and 30 percent. with members of SHG families actively participating in the activity and contributing handsomely to total family income. thus enabling comfortable family consumption expenditure.27 8.30 9. India Mandapam Items of expenditure Expenditure (`/year) Percentage of total expenses Rameswaram Expenditure (`/year) Percentage of total expenses Food Oils Meat Fish Clothing expenses Children education Medical expenses Electricity Fuel charges Recreation Social function Others Total 8.625 in Rameswaram (Table 28). respectively.1.69 2.00 1.030 2. meat and fish) amounted to ` 18. fish.55 6. Total food expenditures (including food.94 4.448 3.568 8.60 2. Ramanathapuram district.08 2.04 28. medical and children education expenses. meat.4.20 0.13 4.027 1.525 (65.97 30. These large expenditure shares are characteristic of households with relatively low incomes. The average annual expenditure per household amounted to ` 28.77 5.60 8.13 Consumption expenditure patterns The household consumption basket includes expenses on items such as food.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 8.193 0 342 0 28 417 19. repaid and outstanding for Mandapam 52 . Consumption expenditure patterns. oils.55 1.358 2. respectively).22 0.704 2.417 in Mandapam and ` 31.462 2.14 Indebtedness 5. Table 28.85 2. clothing.407 1.569 2.00 10. Seaweed farming has enabled the families to raise their economic status significantly.205 9.210 4.53 11.749 3.00 5. Tamil Nadu.00 100.19 percent) and ` 19. The maximum expenditure share in both areas corresponded to the purchase of fish (28. 15 Social impacts of seaweed farming The socio-economic impact of seaweed farming was examined by means of a series of questions asked to participants in the study. They now realize that though institutional loan procedures maybe slightly more cumbersome. The responses from the participants reveal that seaweed farming has indeed emerged as a new.071 5. Dramatic structural changes in the socio-economic status of many fishermen have taken place over the last 10 years: a number of 53 .300 213 8. The absolute amounts availed as loans clearly indicate the preferences of the respondents in Ramanathapuram district for institutional sources of credit. The evaluation revealed that 68 and 48 per cent of respondents in Mandapam and Rameshwaram were able to purchase or renovate their existing house using the income earned from seaweed. Seaweed culture has also allowed respondents to engage more frequently in social and religious traveling.763 464 324 4. The households avail loans for different purposes including domestic activities and social obligations.089 7 . technical and institutional support can also serve to divert pressure on overexploited fish stocks. the post loan experiences are decent and transparent and hence worth the trouble of going through the paper work. Tamil Nadu.505 3. In Rameswaram. The comparative absolute levels of outstandings also indicate the easy terms of repayment in respect of the institutional loans.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute and Rameshwaram. sustainable livelihood option for the fishing communities in the district. Seaweed farming has also had a large positive impact on the ability of the respondents to purchase livestock.607 4. financial. Respondents in Rameshwaram also reported a large positive impact of seaweed farming on their ability to celebrate marriages in the family.4.350 1. Encouragement of seaweed aquaculture with appropriate policy.1. Table 29 Level of indebtedness. quality clothing and consumer durables.292 1. Respondents prefer institutional loans mainly due to awareness that has been created since the advent of seaweed farming in the region. Ramanathapuram district.050 1. about four percent of the respondents were able to purchase agricultural land with their earned income (Table 30). India Source of loans Average loan availed Average loan repaid Outstanding loan per per household (`) household (`) per household (`) Mandapam a) Institutional b) Money lenders Rameshwaram a) Institutional b) Money lenders 8. Ramanathapuram district. Table 30 Social impact of seaweed farming. The 54 . The seaweed farmers tend to break the contract if they are offered a higher price by competing by fly by night operators in the sector leading to a possible chain reaction among neighbouring farmers. were you able to. however. Though Tamil Nadu is the second most literate state in India next only to the state of Kerala. India Using the income earned from seaweed farming. NGO's and related government agencies. keeping away from negative societal influences such as drinking and gambling etc. the expected social transformation resulting from higher levels of education such as adherence to commitments.. Figure 5 summarizes the major strengths and weaknesses associated with organized seaweed farming. many of them used this initial experience to become members of a SHG. is yet to get reinforced. Tamil Nadu. After a few production cycles. Mandapam Yes % No % Yes Rameshwaram % No % Purchase or renovate the existing house Purchase agricultural land Purchase cattle/poultry Purchase quality clothing Purchase consumer durables and modern electronic appliances Celebrate a marriage in the family Engage in social and religious traveling outside the district/State Transfer to a better educational institution Increase expenses on entertainment Engage in any other activity 154 0 168 223 68 0 74 99 72 226 58 03 32 100 26 1 103 08 177 188 48 4 84 89 108 203 34 23 52 96 16 11 156 9 69 4 70 217 31 96 139 97 66 46 72 114 34 54 75 0 0 0 37 0 0 0 151 226 226 226 67 100 100 100 53 20 0 0 25 9 0 0 158 191 211 211 75 91 100 100 The organised seaweed farming sector as given in Fig 4 is driven by committed corporate interests.. a SHG member can aspire to operate his own set of rafts and transform himself into a farmer capable of hiring labour to look after his own plots.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute seaweed farmers actually started as hired labor for other farmers. Rameswaram 55 . Figure 4 General structure of organized SHG contract seaweed farming production and buyback system in India Drying of seaweed at Pamban.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute organised value chain management has taken steps to keep the flock together by announcing incentives prices for producers who attain high levels of production and ensure proper management of stock during the season. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Figure 5 Loop diagram illustrating systemic strengths and weaknesses in organized seaweed farming in India 56 . who estimated an IRR of 56 per cent for Gracilaria cultivation. a new set of investments needs to be made. The following assumptions were made: i) each cultivation cycle has a duration of 45 days. this section evaluates the economic performance of seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu. The annual total cost of production was estimated at ` 694 100. based on the guidelines provided by the commercial banks.1 Annual costs and returns of seaweed farming Table 31 presents the annual costs and returns for a one-ha seaweed farm using the raft culture technique. who reported an IRR of 123 per cent in Bali. who calculated an IRR of 78 per cent for seaweed farming in the Philippines. Subsidies were excluded from these analyses. a 10:1 ratio of fresh to dry weight. The complete set of assumptions is presented in Table 32. 9.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 9 Economic analysis of seaweed farming The farming of seaweed is preferred to its natural collection because of the comparatively lesser effort involved and the suitability of the marine ecosystem for seaweed cultivation. The different types of nylon ropes required for planting.2 Economic and financial viability Indicators of economic and financial feasibility for a one-ha seaweed farm were estimated.30 million (implying an IRR higher than 100%) while the Benefit-Cost Ratio was 1.300) is higher than the initial investment (` 597. The estimated Net Present Value (20-percent discount rate) was ` 1. and a market price of ` 16/ kg of dry weed. by 1) estimating annual costs and returns for the raft culture technique. The average annual net income for the three-year farming project (` 676. ii) four cycles are carried out in the first year. The estimation of gross revenues assumed a yield of 280 kg of fresh seaweed per raft after a growout period of 45 days. and v) interest on investment is charged at 7 percent per annum. tying. In this regard. seaweed farming holds the potential of larger economic returns. iv) after three years of operation. suggesting a payback period shorter than a year (Tables 31. 33 and 34).70. Seedlings are sourced from the harvest of an earlier crop. India. 9. The estimated high rate of return on investment is consistent with the findings of Padilla and Lampe (1989). The annual gross revenue was estimated at ` 1. interest on capital and insurance premium while operating costs included labour expenses. The average initial investment amounted to ` 600. and raft maintenance. mooring and anchoring the rafts accounted for the maximum share of investment (41%) followed by the bamboo poles (32%) and seedlings (15%) (Figure 6). iii) six cycles are carried out in the second and third years. Seaweed farming has thus emerged as one of the most profitable 57 . comprising a fixed cost of 197.300 (28 percent) and an annual operating cost of ` 496 800 (72 percent). and 2) by developing indicators of economic viability and financial feasibility.000. The annual fixed ` cost included depreciation on capital investment.100).15 million. 32. transportation. Shang (1976).000. and Tisdell (1991). All these indicators provide strong evidence of the economic and financial feasibility of seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu. leading to an annual net income of ` 460. In addition. 50 115.00 115.30 42.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute livelihood options for coastal fishing communities in various locations of the Asian continent.80 7. Operating costs Braider twining charges ` ` ` ` ` ` 108.Braided ropes Raft framing ropes HDPE fishing nets HDPE net tying rope Anchoring rope Raft lining rope Labour charges for installation Total Initial Investment B.50 15.75 3.70 18.10 197.40 9.70 67. Initial investment Seedlings Bamboo poles Anchorage weight Nylon ropes.50 597.70 46.2% of investment Total fixed costs C.30 75 21 4 100 kg feet kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg raft ` 54 000 57 600 1 350 405 148. Table 31 Annual costs and returns of a one-ha seaweed farm – raft culture (900 rafts) Unit Quantity Price per unit (`) Total value (` thousand) Share (%) Economic life (in years A.50 78.50 190.50 126.60 80.40 41.80 115.40 13. Fixed costs Depreciation Interest on investment (7%) Insurance at 1.00 22 58 148.10 9.50 115. 3-mm PP twisted Nylon .10 16 32 9 8 3 11 13 2 2 2 2 100 3 10 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 .5 585 1 017 81 81 90 900 1.40 10.10 56.00 115.00 94. 40 10.10 19 57 2 100 ` ` (E-D) 1 152. Tamil Nadu.60 284.00 457.90 Note: Based on data from the 2008-2009 production year.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Transportation Raft maintenance Miscellaneous Total operating costs D. India Table 32 Gross revenue of a one-ha seaweed farm (900 rafts) Details of harvest Unit Value Average harvest of fresh seaweed per raft after 45 days of culture (Less) allocation of seedling for the subsequent crop Balance of fresh seaweed kept for drying Quantity of dry seaweed produced from 220 kg of fresh seaweed at 10:1 ratio of fresh to dry weight Dry seaweed available for sale per raft after allowing for impurities kg kg kg kg kg 280 60 220 22 20 59 .80 496. Figure 6. Net income ` ` ` ` ` (B+C) 93. Total cost of production E.80 694. Gross revenue (four production cycles in first year) F. Initial investment in a one-ha seaweed farm. 728.00 1. however. Tisdell.10 859.10 694.280 1.50 597.20 1. 1989.100) because of the initial investment.20 1 093. These high values are indicative of the overall profitability of seaweed farming and corroborates findings from earlier studies (Padilla and Lampe.20 745. Table 33.20 745. Annual cashflow stream for a one-ha seaweed farm (900 rafts) (` thousands) Year Cash outflow Annual cash Investment outflow Total cash outflow Annual cash inflow Annual cash flow 1 2 3 597. net cash flow increases to ` 983. 1991).Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Market Price Average revenue per raft per preduction cycle (45 days) Average revenue per raft in the first production year (four cycles) Average revenue per ha (900 rafts) in the first production year Average revenue per hectare (900 rafts) in the second production year (six cycles) Average revenue per hectare (900 rafts) in the third production year (six cycles) `/kg ` ` ` (thousand) ` (thousand) ` (thousand) 16 320 1.8 Table 34 Economic viability and financial feasibility indicators for a one-ha seaweed farm (project cycle of three years) Indicators Unit Year I Year II Year III Average Gross investment Total cost of production ` (thousands) ` (thousands) 597.80 745.10 0 0 496.10 982.00 1.70 60 .152 1.152.8 982.50 N/A 942.728 1.728.10 N/A 942.728 The annual cash flow stream for the first three years of the farm is presented in Table 33. The net cash flow is much lower in Year 1 (` 58.000 in Years 2 and 3.90 745.00 58. The marketing channels for seaweed are illustrated in Figure 7. In addition.300.50 1. the plant is to be commissioned in 2010. foods and pet foods manufacturer. most drying is still conducted by farmers on the sandy beaches.728.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Gross returns Net income Net Present Value (20% discount rate) Benefit Cost Ratio (20% discount rate) Return on investment Payback period IRR ` (thousands) ` (thousands) ` (thousands) Ratio Percent Years Percent 1.152. the international chocolate. which have disrupted the development of seaweed farming in other locations in the world.00 1.26 0. SAP is the major product extracted from the dried weed. International price fluctuations. competing companies with an interest on Kappaphycus have routinely induced the farmers to break the contracts by offering a marginally higher price. Basic prices are arranged to the satisfaction of the farmers taking into account the effort invested.536. non-price measures such as providing assistance to farmers with their economic and social obligations have contributed to build bondages of mutual trust and loyalty.00 785. in Indonesia. Although the institutions and companies involved in the development of seaweed farming have constructed drying platforms. Although it has been argued that Aquagri currently holds a monopsony advantage. have had relatively little impact in India due to the large demand from the domestic market. Apparently. Aquagri was offering ` 16/kg of dried weed. In 2009.00 785.70 113. Efforts are currently underway for building a plant in Manamadurai for the extraction of carrageenan.50 1.00 457.90 1. Aquagri has developed its own price incentive schemes for loyal farmers and high-volume producers. However. this problem has not yet been corrected due to Aquagri's willingness to source the dried weed irrespective of its impurities.00 676. 61 .9 >100 10 Markets. marketing channels and prices Harvested seaweeds are sun dried on the beach and then bundled into bales.30 1.728. Dried seaweed is exported by PepsiCo to the carrageenan conversion plants of MARS. 62 . India.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Figure 7. Marketing channels of seaweed farmers in the Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu. In view of the potential impact that the cultivation of Kappaphycus has had on the livelihoods of coastal communities in the Ramanathpuram distric.g. G. The salient findings and recommendations from these high-level meetings are presented in Table 35. CMFRI and CSMCRI) are fully conscious and enthusiastic about the prospects for seaweed culture in India. Experts have given recognition to the potential of seaweed aquaculture in India and have advised the Government of India to provide full-fledged institutional support to the activity. simply because seaweeds do not have the ability to grow on live corals. 2009 has clarified that stoppage of Kappaphycus culture is not applicable to the regions other than GoM (i. Principal Scientist and Head. Roundtables and expert committee meetings on seaweed cultivation and utilization have been organized by the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS). Marine scientists from the CMFRI Mandapam Research Station have clearly stated that seaweed farming is relatively benign to the environment when compared to the bottom trawling activities currently taking place on the region. This seems to be in response to a report in the Hindu dated May 25. No. The Government should also lead a transparent process for the designation of areas where the cultivation of Kappaphycus would be allowed. Mariculture Division and Scientist-in-Charge. Gopakumar is categorical in his assertion that the damage caused by roller muddies trawling in the Mandapam/Rameshwaram waters is the major environmental threat faced by the marine ecosystems of the region. declaring it as an economic alternative with the potential to raise the socio-economic status of coastal inhabitants. the banking and insurance sectors. 229 of the Department of Environment and Forests. no objections are made to cultivation of Kappaphycus by SHGs in the above mentioned locations. ICAR. These advisories are mostly related to the establishment of the GoMMNP (1986) and the GoMBRT (1989). CMFRI Mandapam Research Station. in this regard. 2009 has requested for a clarification from the Government of Tamil Nadu on the correct interpretation of the order of 20 December. advisories and notifications The Government of India. Gopakumar. in his communication of September 4. the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Warden informed that from the point of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. the State Government is well advised to take decisive actions in favour of this activity.O.17 17 Personal communication from Dr. The Wildlife warden GoM Marine National Park. Dr. development agencies (e. 2009 on stoppage of Kappaphycus culture in Mandapam area (Not seen).e. Ms.g. the State Departments of Fisheries.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 11 Policy notes. 63 . The G. Coastal Waters of Tamil Nadu excluding GoM). 2005 regarding the “jurisdiction” where Kappaphycus can be cultivated. The Conservator of Forests and GoMBRT Director in his communication GoMBRT/Misc-08/ dated 1 June. claims made on the negative impact of Kappaphycus culture on the GoM corals are easily proven unfounded. Government of Tamil Nadu. CMFRI and CSMCRI. Table 35 (column 4) also provides a list of periodic advisories with relevance to the development of seaweed farming in the Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu. Chennai (dated 12 December 2005) issued a directive allowing seaweed cultivation by SHGs in the North of Palk Bay and South of Tuticorin coast. DRDA and DBT) and research institutions (e. In addition. practices are ecopractices are ecofriendly. Good prospects for no adverse effects to the co-cultivation of Good prospects ecosystem. 962 Forests and Fisheries.O. Lr. District and State Other recommendations: Formation of level committees Seaweed farming is ideal in District and State for monitoring of Chilika. culture through for the collection SHG model. Ms. (1) NAAS (2003) (2) CMFRI (2005) (3) (4) CSMCRI (2003) advisories Notifications/ commissioned by PepsiCo Communications 1. 3264/2009/ M. Lakshadweep. important recommendations.O. considered ecologically safe. 64 . Large-scale Kappaphycus with for co-cultivation cultivation of Kappaphycus other species. 3. of Kappaphycus alvarezii in Andaman islands is with other Formation of ideal. seaweeds from natural habitats. marine macroalgae. pollution revealed that cultivation yieds control. SHG model. Rc. 229 Department of Environment and Forests of GOTN. 4. (2): Minutes of expert committee on seaweed cultivation. ecosystem. No. Sustainable cultivation is of seaweeds from possible. advisories and selected notifications and communications relevant to seaweed culture in India. Ms. Kappaphycus alvarezii – macroalgae. of seaweed culture through alginophytes and farming. dated 10 September 1986. for monitoring Promotion of Cultivations of agarophytes. A new nodal cell for promotion friendly. No adverse introduced to Indian coastal No adverse impact impact on the waters over a decade ago and on the marine marine domesticated since then – ecosystem. protocols for the Environmental friendly disposal collection of of wastage. dated 20 December 2005. Sources: (1): NAAS (2003). TN Forest Department.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Table 35. 1/S/80 Mannar/ K3/ 49181/88 Government of India. Develop natural habitats. Ecological studies have pollution control. Policy notes. No. Salient Salient Natural incidence of recommendations: recommendations: Kappaphycus alvarezii is Seaweed farming Seaweed farming reported in the Andaman as a strategy for as a strategy for islands. G. No. No. 2 February 2005. dated 4 April 1989. CMFRI. Andamans and level committees seaweed farming. Kochi. dated September 2009. 2. carrageenophytes must be Promotion of Develop protocols given high priority. dated 8 June 2009. of commercial cultivation. 37076/ Q3/2006 TN DoF. No. species. Observations: Commercial cultivation and Observations: processing of marine Most Indian Most Indian macroalgae identified as a seaweed culture seaweed culture national priority. G. Ministry of Environment and Forests. (3) CSMCRI (2003). Kappaphycus is a Kappaphycus is a non-invasive processing and marketing of non-invasive marine macroalgae to be established. 3. Philippines and Korea. The issues in research and development. Demand driven and corporate led initiative has enabled the development of the sector on a fast track. Participatory approach in culture and management via contract farming has enabled rapid expansion of this activity that began as a livelihood option and is now developing into an organised and institutionalized socio-economic transformation of these farming villages. Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA. record keeping and transparency. IOB. . Strengths are in strong organization. Bank of Baroda and Indian Bank besides others has strengthened the movement The clear policy back up and financial support of the Government of India. The social responsibility is well and truly getting translated to tangible benefits to the farming community. The issues seem to be typical of problems that small farmers in developing countries face the world over. The adoption of the SHG model in seaweed culture in India by PepsiCo from 2003 has proved to be a big success. The insights gained from the development of seaweed farming in India so far are listed below 1. training and extension. regulation and sector management. the gross revenue over cost per tonne exported works out to only ` 8. 5. 2003). The consistent backing of the sector by the banking sector led by NABARD and other commercial banks such as SBI. Corporate commitment is very evident.000 which is a reasonable margin for a corporate considering its overheads. through 65 2. insights and development strategies Commercial farming of seaweeds including Eucheuma in coastal waters is a well proven practice by many countries including Japan. The SHG model accepted by the network of institutions involved in the process of development of seaweed farming is at the foundation of this development. it is clear that Eucheuma cultivation will be beneficial for the environment as well as local inhabitants (CSMCRI. Based on rough calculations. It is heartening to state that India has been able to circumvent most of the problems that seem to be haunting the development of seaweed sector in other developing countries. credit needs are also typical. China. It also maybe the first to get designated as an agricultural activity among other mariculture initiatives in India. 2009) in a recent trainers’ training programme in August 2009 has prioritized the needs of red seaweeds farming communities in the Philippines under policy support. Considering the above said facts. information development and dissemination.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 12 Conclusions. This is a time tested practice and such activities are increasing in these countries and other countries. Kappaphycus culture is perhaps the first of its kind initiated by a corporate in Indian agriculture. 4. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute development agencies and research establishments have given a substantial fillip to the sector 6. 7. The corporate initiative taken by PepsiCo and equally well followed by Aquagri needs to be appreciated and is a clear case of how responsible community inclusive corporate interventions in agriculture can bring about a sea change in the lives of local communities. The distinct possibility of expansion of operations based on commercial trials in sites in Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat will give a further presence to the seaweed farming sector Seaweed sector has all the potential to rise from a low level equilibrium trap that is normally associated with livelihood interventions to higher levels of employment-incomeconsumption relationships in coastal India At the farm level. 11. Periodic presentations 66 . 10. 13. Improper garbage disposal in the region needs to be stopped. Entry into the Kappaphycus culture in India is restricted by knowledge. 12. a. TNDoF and Department of Environment and Forests (GoMBRT and GoMNP) will enable the direct stakeholders in seaweed farming in the region work with greater degree of confidence and trust 14. Industrial and civic discharges reportedly take place and have an adverse impact on water quality. Better understanding and joint exercises and efforts of concerned monitoring institutions. Corporates need to be educated on the immense scope in terms of returns to investment considering the low levels of investment requirement and the fast turnover that could be forthcoming given efficient human resource management. 9. prevalent during the summer months need to be studied and suitable preventive / ameliorative measures suggested. 15. the establishment of a off shore seed jetty will enable the farmers to go in for full scale cultivation at the beginning of the season itself instead of having to divert part of their output as cuttings for the next crop Poaching is a problem but is limited by the strong organizational structure of the enterprise 8. Seaweed sector offers one of the best avenues for institutional financial agencies to promote venture capital Immediate suggested policy initiatives The nodal cell for quick clearance of new projects and for handling all issues related to seaweed culture as envisaged in NAAS (2003) needs to be set up on a priority basis. Occurrences of seaweed diseases like ice-ice and epiphytism. New Zealand aquaculture. Based on track record of multi-national aquaculture companies. Development strategies A sector develops either by deficiency of Social Overhead Capital (SOC) or availability of Directly Productive Activities (DPA) or vice-a-versa. contract farming of seaweed based on the current model in place in Tamil Nadu may also be examined. telecommunications. The immediate pay offs would be towards achievement of the much elusive 4 % growth rate envisaged for the agricultural sector in India during the XI and XII Five Year Plan periods The seaweed sector in India even at this point of development can serve as role model to other developing countries of the world. This could keep weak firms from entering the market. has had a disease free track record. 67 . Modified version of such measures which promotes inclusive growth of stakeholders in all levels of the society needs to be charted out in India for the development of the seaweed sector. it is most crucial that support infrastructure and policy are available to the entrepreneurs for furthering the growth of the sector. Lessons need to be learnt from policies in place for New Zealand aquaculture development. roads. The Government of New Zealand has a 10 point policy plan which has helped the country’s aquaculture to reach new heights. This would make the field more competitive and spur movement towards a perfectly competitive market structure. Warehouses to store dried weed. port facilities for enabling exports. in the tax structure in terms of excise and customs duties need to be ironed out c. The nodal cell could be the final authority in deciding the various aspects of culture practices. if any. though restricted to mussels.000 (Townsend and Young. interpretations of G. Either of these development strategies or business models in a macro sense is suitable depending upon current stage of development of a sector. potable water. power. A hectare of water area is leased at NZ$200.O’s and inter-departmental conflicts. public transport are some of the linkages that need to be established in coastal towns that will help industry to take the opportunity in seaweed sector. 2005). oysters and salmon. FICCI and ICCI will help induce new investment in the seaweed sector b.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute by experts on Kappaphycus culture at chambers of commerce such as ASSOCHAM. In the case of seaweed sector in India we are fortunate that the DPA is more or less in place at least in Tamil Nadu and in a typical model that warrants the development of forward linkages. Anomalies. & Chinadit. P. New Delhi. 48. Bhavnagar. Bradford. Børgesan. Børgesan. 12: 64. Børgesan. Aquaculture Foundation of India. October 2003–June 2004. Journal of Indian Botanical Society. Biol. Anon. Bhavnagar. V. 41. Some Indian Rhodophycaea. Some marine algae from the northern part of the Arabian Sea with remarks on their geographical distribution. 16: 311-357. 1933a. 4: 97–99. Madras. Dan. Sci. 1972-1982.Econ. Anon. 1938b. 1985. Final report of the DBT project: Seaweed Farming to Rehabilitate Tsunami Affected Coastal Communities in Tamil Nadu. Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute. CSMCRI. Kew.A. Børgesan F. 9. especially from the presidency of Bombay – III. Dan.. 68 . Bot. 1979–1982. 1938a. pp. (eds). Distribution of marine algae in the littoral zone of Karnataka coast. Progress report of the DBT project . Royal Botanical Gardens. & Malu Pillai.. Enteromorpha (Ao Nori). 30. 1958. I. Royal Botanical Gardens. 113-142. Anon (undated). A report on the survey of marine algal resources of Andhra Pradesh. F.F. p. Journal of Indian Botanical Society. Selsk. Mar. p. 1935. Income generation activities for the fisher folk living around Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay coastal regions through eco-friendly seaweed farming in India in AFI 2008. Anon. Mar. S. especially from the presidency of Bombay – IV. CSMCRI.. V. Some Indian green and brown algae. Stn. 17: 205-242. 1938b. pp. Vidensk. V. 1978. Eucheuma (Tosaka Nori) and their use in processed foods. F. Med. Nat.Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 13 References Agadi. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information. 2004. especially from the shores of presidency of Bombay – III. Biol. 2008. 1977–1979. 137. 1975. U. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information. GoM. & Trivedi Y. Contribution to a south Indian marine algal flora – II. p. Journal of Indian Botanical Society. Contribution to a south Indian marine algal flora – III. Chandrkrachang. 4: 22—25. Anon. Marine Plants. Department of Bio-technology.Studies on field cultivation and harvesting of seaweeds Porphyra (Nori). Government of India. 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Name of the location Name of the SHG Year of start Number of female members Number of male members Number of rafts Average yield per raft (kg/year) Muthukuda Kadal Muthu (men) Five Star (men) Panimalar (men) Pasumai Bishmilla (mixed) 2008 0 5 200 18 Arasanagri Pattinam 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 0 0 0 2 2 15 5 5 3 3 600 200 23 23 200 200 23 23 Gopalapattinam Kadal Pasu (mixed) Jegathapattinam Valampuri (women) Thamarai (men) Jevan (men) Kottaipattinam Mallikai (mixed) Senthuram (mixed) Roja ( mixed) Sethupava Chatram Tanjore Manora Tanjavur Kadal pasu 2007 (mixed) Kadal Nila Kalpana Chawla (women) 2007 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2 2007 5 0 0 2 3 3 3 3 0 5 5 3 2 2 200 2 225 200 200 200 200 200 21 200 26 23 23 23 23 23 21 2007 4 0 200 21 Source: Aquagri Processing Private Limited, New Delhi 75 Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Annexure - 2 Gulf of Mannar The Gulf of Mannar (GoM) in the southeast coast of India extends from Rameshwaram Island in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. It encloses a chain of 21 islands stretching from Mandapam to Tuticorin to a distance of 140 km along the coast. Each of the islands is located anywhere between 2 and 10 km from the mainland. The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve (GoMBR) was established on 18 February 1989 by the Government of Tamil Nadu with the purpose of protecting the marine environment and its wildlife. The reserve has an area of 10 500 km2 (including the 21 islands in the gulf) and it runs along the mainland coast for about 170 nautical miles. The GoM is endowed with a rich variety of marine organisms as it houses ecosystems of coral reefs, rocky shores, sandy beaches, mud flats, estuaries, mangrove forests, seaweed stretches and seagrass beds. These ecosystems support a wide variety of fauna and flora including rare cowries, cones, volutes, murices, whelks, strombids, chanks, tonnids, prawns, lobsters, pearl oysters, seahorses, sea cucumbers, etc. Among other reasons, the GoMBR is particularly important because it provides a safe habitat to the declining populations of the endangered dugong, an herbivorous aquatic mammal of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. The GoM supports finfish and shellfish fisheries as well a number of aquaculture activities (seaweed farming, primarily). The finfish fishery includes perches, carangids, barracudas, mackerels, milkfish, mullets, tunas, sardines, scrombroides, silver bellies, pomfrets, lethrinids, groupers, sharks and rays. The shellfish fishery includes oysters, mussels, clams, prawns, lobsters and crabs. In addition to seaweed, aquaculture trials have been conducted for pearl oysters, edible oysters, crabs, sea cucumbers, prawns, and milkfish. Source: Kumaraguru et al., (2006) 76 Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Anneuxre . The saline water and the muddy substratum coupled with seasonal rain and discharge form Vaigai and Cauvery rivers has created good breeding grounds for pelagic and demersal fishes.3 Palk Bay Palk Bay. The fringing coral reefs contain Gelidium micropterum and various species of Gracilaria. The reefs also harbour large standing crops of Sargassum and Turbinaria.2 km wide). Palk Bay is also rich in seaweed resources of economic importance. mangroves. Governor of Madras from 1755 to 1763. Source: Kumaraguru et al. Palk Bay and the GoM to its south are connected by a narrow passing called Pamban Strait (about 1. The lagoons between the reefs and the shore exhibit rich growth of Gracilaria lichenoides (locally known as kanji ppasi). lagoons and seagrass ecosystems. The coastline of Palk Bay harbors coral reefs. (2008) 77 . which separates the Island of Rameswaram from the mainland. is situated in the southeast coast of India encompassing the sea between Point Calimer (Kodikkarai) near Vedaranyam in the north and the northern shores of Mandapam to Dhanushkodi in the south (about 110 km long). named after Sir Robert Palk (1717-1798). Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute 78 .