Ecological studies and conservation of medicinal plants

P.G.DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY UNIVERSITY OF JAMMU Baba Saheb Amedkar Road, Jammu -180 006 (J&K) - India No.: JU/ Botany/ Dated:…………………….. CERTIFICATE It is certified that: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The thesis entitled Ecological studies and conservation of medicinal plants of Neeru watershed (J&K) embodies the work of Mr. Harish Chander, himself. The candidate has worked under my supervision for the period required under statutes. The candidate has put in attendance in the department during the period required under rules. The thesis being submitted for the degree of Ph.D. by Mr. Harish Chander is worth consideration for the award of Ph.D. degree of the University of Jammu, Jammu. The thesis incorporates research work of the candidate and has not been earlier submitted in this or any other University in the present or any other form. The conduct of research scholar remained satisfactory during the period of research. Prof. V.K. Anand H.O.D. Department of Botany University of Jammu Prof. Shashi Kant Supervisor ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Itt giives me iimmense plleasure tto express my deep sense off grattiittude and I g ves me mmense p easure o express my deep sense o gra ude and iindebttedness tto my revered tteacher and guiide Proff.. Shashii Kantt.. Despiitte hiis busy ndeb edness o my revered eacher and gu de Pro Shash Kan Desp e h s busy schedulle he allways iinspiired me wiitth iinvalluablle suggesttiions,, iinexhausttiiblle and schedu e he a ways nsp red me w h nva uab e sugges ons nexhaus b e and unttiiriing guiidance and consttructtiive criittiiciism and proviided iimpettus iin one fform or un r ng gu dance and cons ruc ve cr c sm and prov ded mpe us n one orm or tthe otther att every sttep off presentt sttudy,, wiitthoutt whiich my sttudy woulld have never he o her a every s ep o presen s udy w hou wh ch my s udy wou d have never been complletted.. been comp e ed I gratteffulllly acknowlledge tthe ffiinanciiall supportt proviided tto me iin tthe fform off JPF I gra e u y acknow edge he nanc a suppor prov ded o me n he orm o JPF and SRF by G..B..Pantt Insttiittutte off Hiimallayan Ecollogy and Devellopmentt,, Allmora and SRF by G B Pan Ins u e o H ma ayan Eco ogy and Deve opmen A mora ((Uttttranchall)) iin tthe Projjectt “Conservattiion and Propagattiion off ttradiittiionall herbs off U rancha n he Pro ec “Conserva on and Propaga on o rad ona herbs o Jammu” assiigned tto Proff.. Shashii Kantt ((Apriill 2003--March 2006)),, wiitthoutt whiich iitt Jammu” ass gned o Pro Shash Kan Apr 2003 March 2006 w hou wh ch woulld nott have been possiiblle ffor me tto compllette such a sttupendous ttask.. wou d no have been poss b e or me o comp e e such a s upendous ask I am tthankffull tto tthe Proff.. Viijjay K.. Anand,, HOD Bottany,, Uniiversiitty off Jammu,, ffor I am hank u o he Pro V ay K Anand HOD Bo any Un vers y o Jammu or exttendiing me llaborattory and otther ffaciilliittiies.. Proff.. R..N.. Gohiill,, Proff A..K.. Wakhllu,, ex end ng me abora ory and o her ac es Pro R N Goh Pro A K Wakh u Proff.. Aniima Langer,, Proff.. I..A.. Hamall,, Proff Geetta Sumballii,, Proff.. Ranii Mangottra,, Pro An ma Langer Pro I A Hama Pro Gee a Sumba Pro Ran Mango ra Dr.. Namratta Sharma,, and Dr.. Veenu Koull off Departtmentt off Bottany,, Uniiversiitty off Dr Namra a Sharma and Dr Veenu Kou o Depar men o Bo any Un vers y o Jammu deserve tthanks ffor iinspiiriing me tto compllette tthiis work.. Dr.. Yash Pall Jammu deserve hanks or nsp r ng me o comp e e h s work Dr Yash Pa Sharma,, alltthough has been my tteacher,, yett hiis brottherlly ttreattmentt att every sttep Sharma a hough has been my eacher ye h s bro her y rea men a every s ep hellped me a llott iin compllettiing tthe sttudy.. My speciiall tthanks are due tto Dr.. ((Mrs..)) he ped me a o n comp e ng he s udy My spec a hanks are due o Dr Mrs Kriishna Anand and Sh.. Harii Prasad ffor ttakiing care off allll my herbariium sheetts Kr shna Anand and Sh Har Prasad or ak ng care o a my herbar um shee s and accessiions.. Thanks are allso due tto allll non-- tteachiing sttaffff members ffor ttheiir and access ons Thanks are a so due o a non each ng s a members or he r hellp iin tthe course off my research periiod.. he p n he course o my research per od Every work needs encouragementt,, cariing and affffecttiionatte attmosphere whiich was Every work needs encouragemen car ng and a ec ona e a mosphere wh ch was proviided by Mrs.. Veena Kantt.. Her ffeelliings shallll allways be cheriished by me prov ded by Mrs Veena Kan Her ee ngs sha a ways be cher shed by me tthroughoutt my lliiffe.. hroughou my e I exttend my tthanks tto Proff.. H..S.. Kiirn ffor hiis kiind hellp iin iidenttiiffiicattiion off pllantt I ex end my hanks o Pro H S K rn or h s k nd he p n den ca on o p an speciimens.. I exttend a deep sense off grattiittude tto my seniiors Dr.. Jagbiir Siingh,, Dr.. spec mens I ex end a deep sense o gra ude o my sen ors Dr Jagb r S ngh Dr Rajjiinder Sharma,, Dr.. Sanjjay Arora,, Dr.. Neerajj Sharma,, Dr.. Susheell Verma,, Dr.. Ra nder Sharma Dr San ay Arora Dr Neera Sharma Dr Sushee Verma Dr Yash Pall Siingh,, Dr.. Majjad Jhangiir,, Dr.. Tanviir,, Mr.. Pankajj Sharma,, Mr.. Jagdeep Yash Pa S ngh Dr Ma ad Jhang r Dr Tanv r Mr Panka Sharma Mr Jagdeep Guptta,, and Mr.. Sanjjay Sharma ffor encouragiing me ffrom ttiime tto ttiime tto work Gup a and Mr San ay Sharma or encourag ng me rom me o me o work hard ffor compiilliing tthiis datta.. hard or comp ng h s da a My colllleagues,, a partt off my success,, have proved as boostters iin my work.. I am My co eagues a par o my success have proved as boos ers n my work I am tthankffull tto Mr.. Ravii Sharma,, Miiss Joyttii Sudan,, Mr.. Aniirudh Raii,, Mr.. Viikram hank u o Mr Rav Sharma M ss Joy Sudan Mr An rudh Ra Mr V kram Sharma,, Miiss.. Sukriittii Sharma,, Mr.. Mohd.. Ariiff,, Miiss Bhuvii,, Mr.. Arun Verma,, Sharma M ss Sukr Sharma Mr Mohd Ar M ss Bhuv Mr Arun Verma Mr.. N..D.. Miishra,, Mr.. Zubaiir,, Miiss Roopsii Kapoor,, Mr.. Dheerajj Sharma,, Miiss Mr N D M shra Mr Zuba r M ss Roops Kapoor Mr Dheera Sharma M ss Seema,, and Mr.. Sanjjeev Koull ffor ttheiir llovablle behaviior and kiind hellp duriing my Seema and Mr San eev Kou or he r ovab e behav or and k nd he p dur ng my research work.. research work Friiends are tthose who wastte ttiime unnecessariilly butt I am bllessed by such ffriiends Fr ends are hose who was e me unnecessar y bu I am b essed by such r ends who allways ttook care off my preciious ttiime and hellped me.. I cannott fforgett tthe who a ways ook care o my prec ous me and he ped me I canno orge he morall supportt,, affffecttiion,, kiind hellp proviided by Mr.. Mahrooff Khan,, Dr.. ((Mrs..)) mora suppor a ec on k nd he p prov ded by Mr Mahroo Khan Dr Mrs Seema Sharma,, Mr.. Amiitt Vermanii,, and Miiss Soniia Sharma.. Seema Sharma Mr Am Verman and M ss Son a Sharma I express my tthanks tto Mrs.. Amiitta Fottedar ffor hellpiing me iin soiill anallysiis.. Her I express my hanks o Mrs Am a Fo edar or he p ng me n so ana ys s Her company and morall supportt iin wholle off my research periiod has iincorporatted a company and mora suppor n who e o my research per od has ncorpora ed a deep sense off entthusiiasm and dettermiinattiion iin pursuance off my sciienttiiffiic deep sense o en hus asm and de erm na on n pursuance o my sc en c endeavours.. endeavours I am allso iindebtted tto Proff.. Kallsottara and Dr.. Hak Niiwaz off Departtmentt off I am a so ndeb ed o Pro Ka so ara and Dr Hak N waz o Depar men o Chemiisttry,, Uniiversiitty off Jammu ffor proviidiing me Attomiic Absorpttiion Chem s ry Un vers y o Jammu or prov d ng me A om c Absorp on Specttrophottometter ffaciilliittiies ffor miicro--ellementtall anallysiis off soiills.. Spec ropho ome er ac es or m cro e emen a ana ys s o so s I am allso tthankffull tto Rajjesh Kumar and Rajjesh Siingh who hellped me iin tthe pllantt I am a so hank u o Ra esh Kumar and Ra esh S ngh who he ped me n he p an collllecttiion and iin makiing herbariium sheetts.. co ec on and n mak ng herbar um shee s I ffeell priiviillege tto express my grattiittude tto my parentts and dear Naveen Chander I ee pr v ege o express my gra ude o my paren s and dear Naveen Chander Dutttt ffor ttheiir greatt cooperattiion and morall supportt duriing tthe periiod off my sttudy.. Du or he r grea coopera on and mora suppor dur ng he per od o my s udy The meriitts presentt iin tthiis tthesiis are due tto allll above acknowlledged persons butt tthe The mer s presen n h s hes s are due o a above acknow edged persons bu he errors and deffiiciienciies are my own copyriightt and no otther person shoulld be errors and de c enc es are my own copyr gh and no o her person shou d be crediitted ffor tthem.. cred ed or hem Hariish Chander Har sh Chander Introduction T DEMAND FOR HE TREE IS A PECULIAR KINDNESS ORGANISM OF AND UNLIMITED MAKES NO THE ALL AND BENEVOLENCE ITS SUSTENANCE AND EXTENDS GENEROUSLY PRODUCTS OF ITS LIFE ACTIVITY. IT AFFORDS PROTECTION TO BEINGS OFFERING SHADE EVEN TO THE AXE-MEN WHO DESTROY IT. Gautam Buddha 487 B.C. Plants occur over the surface of the Earth in well-defined patterns that are closely correlated with both climate and history of the planet. Forests are the most important of all the natural communities from the stand point of area, carbon content, annual carbon fixation, the cycling of nutrient elements, and influence on energy and water budgets. They are also responsible for the rich and varied biotic diversity on land. The most extensive forests are the boreal coniferous forests of North America, Scandinavia, Northern Europe and Northern Asia. The moist forests of the tropics are the most diverse, often containing as many as 100 species of trees per hectare and occasionally many more. The mountain lands, in this context, provide a scattered but diverse array of habitats in which a large range of plants and animals can be found. The harsh environmental conditions generally prevail at higher altitudes and the alpine vegetation, upon which the present account is focused, is supported therein. Mountain forests commonly cover lower slopes. At even lower levels mountain lands grade into other types of landforms and vegetation. Himalayan region is considered as a rich emporium of medicinal and aromatic plants. India, rich in traditions, is only one such land on the Earth. India has been rich in traditional pharmaceutical formulations used to cure different ailments since historical past. Ayurveda is one such tradition which was practiced in earlier times and is still being practiced in India and has been well documented from the times of Rigvedic Period. Rigveda, the oldest literature describes some medicinally important plants. Vedic literature followed by the writings of Charaka, Sushruta, Dhanwantri, Nagarjuna, Prashara, Balmiki and others bear testimony to the Himalayan medicinal wealth. Plants still constitute one of the major raw materials for drugs in the treatment of various ailments of human beings, although there has been a significant development in the field of synthetic drug chemistry and antibiotics. The isolation of active principles from medicinal plants and characterization can be traced back to the beginning of 19th century. From crude Ma-Huang (Ephedra sp.) of China, Ephedrine was isolated in 1887 and later introduced as drug in 1925. Likewise, from Opium (Papaver somniferum), Morphine was isolated in 1804 and introduced as drug in 1818. At present it is estimated that the plant sources of nearly 80 percent of Ayurvedic, 46 percent of Unani and 33 percent of Allopathic medicines exist in the Western Himalayan region. 1.1. Himalayas and its vegetation: Himalayas, constitutes the youngest mountain ranges of the world (Wadia, 1953). Its central ridge which forms the southern limit of Tibet for 2,500 miles from Assam in the east to the Jammu and Kashmir in the west, especially, possess series of more or less parallel or converging ranges intercepted by numerous valleys and extensive plateaus. Due to variation in topography, it enjoys a variety of climate, and thus has been divided into three ecological zones i.e., sub-mountainous or outer zone, temperate zone and alpine zone. These climatic variations make it very interesting and rich repository of biodiversity. The average total annual rainfall of the area varies from 1000-2000 mm. The inner dry valleys and Trans-Himalayan tracts, that lie north of the main Himalayan mountain wall, receive very low monsoon rainfall but relatively heavy snowfall. Based on altitude, the vegetation of this botanical region can be sub-divided into following sub regions as per Saraswat and Thakur (1998): 1.1.1. Tropical vegetation: It is found in the extreme southern tract of the Western Himalaya i.e. parts of Jammu, Himachal Pradesh and Terai tracts of Kumoan. The main tree species found growing here are Acacia catechu, Bombax ceiba, Butea monosperma, Ficus glomerata, Shorea robusta, Terminalia arjuna, Toona ciliata and Zizyphus mauritiana. 1.1.2. Subtropical vegetation: This type of vegetation extends up to an elevation of about 1,500 msl. The main tree species of the zone are Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus benghalensis, Grewia optiva, Hardwickia pinnata, Kydia calycina, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Pinus roxburghii, Shorea robusta, Terminalia arjuna, Toona ciliata and Zizyphus mauritiana. 1.1.3. Temperate vegetation: This zone extends from an elevation of 1,500msl to 3,500msl. The main tree species found here are Abies pindrow, Aesculus indica, Alnus nepalensis, Betula alnoides, Cedrus deodara, Juglans regia, Picea smithiana, Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Quercus himalayana, Quercus leucotrichophora and Rhododendron arboreum. 1.1.4. Sub-alpine vegetation: This vegetation extends from 3,500 msl till the tree line. The main tree species of the region are Abies pindrow, Acer acuminatum, Acer caesium, Alnus nitida, Betula utilis, Juniperus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Pinus wallichiana and Rhododendron sp. 1.1.5. Alpine vegetation: Alpine vegetation lies just below the snowline, usually above an altitude of 4,200 m. The tree growth is slow and stunted and most of the vegetation is alpine scrub. 1.2. Himalayas and its vicinity: Owing to enormous size and elevation, the Himalayas are grouped into four belts on the basis of geomorphology, hydrography and vegetation. These belts are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Trans- Himalaya or Tibet Himalaya. Great or Inner or higher Himalaya or Himadri. Lower Himalaya or lesser Himalaya or Himachal. Sub-Himalaya or outer Himalaya or Shivalik. From west to east, the great chain is recognizable into western, central and eastern Himalayas. The north-western Himalayas embrace the states of Jammu and Kashmir (Kashmir Himalaya), Himachal Pradesh (Bashar Himalaya) and Uttranchal (Kumaon Himalaya). Jammu and Kashmir state covering an area of 2,22,235 square km. with a population of 10,069,917 (as per 2001 census) is stretched between latitude 32017/- 37003/ North and longitude 72003/-80020/ East. The average annual rainfall in the state is between 600-800 mm and annual average temperature lies between 150C - 170C. On the basis of geographic features and location the state of Jammu and Kashmir is divided into five divisions. These divisions are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Southwest alluvial plains of Chenab and Ravi. Pir-Panjal Range and Shiwalik Range. Valley of Kashmir. Great Himalayas. Trans Himalayas. 1.3. Neeru watershed – A profile: Neeru watershed in Bhadarwah tehsil of district Doda, lies at latitude 32008/24//-32052/26//North and longitude 75048/38//-75032/41//East (Calculated from topo-sheet No. 43-P and 43-O on 1:250,000 scale). Bhadarwah is a bowl shaped valley having Neeru drainage from south to north-west (Plate1). Neeru nallah is doubly fed by Kaplash Kund (4341msl) and Ashapatti Glacier at an altitude of 3300 msl. It comprises a vast catchment area spread in 64,024 hectares. The area is richly endowed with thick vegetation of coniferous forests. 1.3.1. Topography of the area: The study area i.e. Neeru watershed (Bhadarwah) is flanked by lofty mountains on all the sides. The alpine meadows of the area add to the beauty of the area (Plate-2 Figs.-1-3). Neeru catchment is surrounded by Kishtwar and Doda tehsils of district Doda in north-west, by Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh in the east and Kathua and Udhampur districts of J&K in the south and south-west respectively. The land of Bhadarwah town is suitable for cultivation of Paddy. The paddy fields are in the form of terraces due to mountainous terrain (Plate-3, Fig.-2). The area primarily lies in the Pir Panjal range very near to where Dhauladhar range bifurcates into smaller ranges. In its south-west of the area there is a famous Kaplash range (Kaplash Kund: 4341 msl) and in south-east a famous Ashapatti Glacier (3300 msl) along the area bordering Kathua. The Neeru nallah which originates from Kaplash Kund and Ashapatti Glacier is a tributary of river Chenab in district Doda of Jammu and Kashmir. The Neeru valley is located in high mountain ranges, more than 1000 msl in altitude, on both the banks over most of its stretch. Hence Neeru nallah, a perennial torrential snow fed nallah has a dual origin; one tributary originating from Kaplash Kund, a holy lake shrine and the other originating from Ashapatti glacier. The lake which is almost circular in outline and about 2.4 km in circumference is surrounded on all sides by barren mountains (Plate-3, Fig.-1). On its way Neeru nallah receives a large number of snow and spring fed tributaries from Chattergali, Sharthal, and passes to Basti area, where it is named as Basti nallah. At Monda village it receives tributaries originating from Ashapatti Glacier, Thanala and Sartingal villages and at this point the main stream is named as Neeru nallah. After this, it traverse through the Bhadarwah town, Gatha, Dradoo, Dranga, Bhalla, Parnoo, and ultimately flows into river Chenab at Pul-Doda (821 msl). All the tributaries of the catchment join the main stream at different positions. 1.3.2. Geology of the area: The area is represented by high mountains, deep valleys and steep slopes. The rock formations exposed to the area are garnetiferous mica schists, gneisses, garnetiferous phyllites, slates, limestones, granite, volcanic rocks, terrace, scree and glacial deposits (Fig.-1). These rocks range from Precambrian to recent. The lithology of the area is as comprise of: 1.3.2.1. Salkhala formation: The rocks of the Salkhala formation are composed of low to high grade metamorphosed highly puckered and granulated garnetiferous mica schists with quartzite bands at places. These are easily susceptible to weathering and are well exposed in Thathri and Gandoh area. Salkhalas are divided into three members, which in ascending order are (i) central gneisses and schists (ii) garnetiferous quartz mica schists and (iii) mica schists with bands of calciferous rock. 1.3.2.2. Bhadarwah formation: Bhadarwah formation has been divided into three members which are (i) garnet phyllite (ii) Bhadarwah slates and (iii) quartzite. The garnet phyllites have been thrown in deep puckers, corrugations and crenulations which show shearing and slipping along the axial planes. These are well exposed along the Jai area in south and extend towards Dranga in the west and towards Ludenal, (south of Kansaroo) in the east. The Bhadarwah slates are well exposed in and around Bhadarwah town and extend through Kalotran – Tipri and Siru to Bhja Topi beyond which they merge into Chamba slates of Tissa area. These are dark grey to grey and carbonaceous. The Sunbain quartizite is a coarse grained greyish white to greenish hard quartzite. At some places slate bands which are gritty and pebbly are also noticed. These rocks form the Sunbain (Ashapatti) ridge in the south east of Bhadarwah. 1.3.2.3. Kaplash granite: An extensive body of granite forms the most prominent physiographic feature of the area. It occurs in the form of an elongate dome, which rises to an elevation of 4500 msl in central part. It is massive, highly jointed course grained porphyritic granite. It shows spheroid weathering. It intends in a north-east to south-east direction and is situated on the south of Bhadarwah town. 1.3.2.4. Langera conglomerate: It is composed of ortho- quartzite and lithic greywacke. The rock is hard, massive and can withstand weathering effect. It can be traced from south-east of Bhadarwah to LangerSangned area through Padri pass. 1.3.2.5. Katarigali formation: It is composed of dark ash grey and bleached carbonaceous, ferruginous and calcareous slates, quartzite and lenticular bands, and bodies of limestone. These are very well exposed in Pasrigali, Katarigali, Sceppa–chola and Bandhar area and also along Bisrana nallah of the Chaund ridge. 1.3.2.6. Panjal formation: These rocks are also divided into two members i.e. agglomerated slates and Punjab trap. Agglomerated slates are composed of shale, slates, sandstone, limestone and conglomerates with interstratified and infolded bands of massive trap. These are followed by Panjal trap, which is fairly wide in distribution in the area. The main trap band occupies the highest topographic ridges i.e. the Batile pattern ridge and extends upto Chalipurgali in the south-east on a strike length of 15 kms. It is a very hard compact rock and is generally of greenish grey colour. 1.3.2.7. Tramwala formation: It is composed of Talai pebbly sandstone bed. Talai pebbly band varies in thickness from 1m to 8m. It is well exposed in Chimlo-di-Gali Talai section and is composed of olive green to rusty brown dirty white sandstone and sandy shales. 1.3.2.8. Gamgul formation: It is composed of carbonaceous shales, yellowish calcareous sandstone, shale and impure limestone. These rocks are well exposed along Ban - Ka- Got, Gulu - Ki - Maddi and Gamgul - Talai foot path. 1.3.2.9. Dalmon formation: It is composed of shale-slate interstratified with thinly bedded fine grained grey limestone. Its typical development is seen around the Dalmon peak, and also the Dalmon-Bishot and Kiara-maund Tibba area. 1.3.2.10. Metamorphism: The lithological descriptions of the rocks of Thathri- Gandoh and Bhadarwah area reveal that these rocks show progressive increase in the grade of metamorphism from shale-slate stage in the youngest rocks of Gamgul and Dalmon formation to high grade Kyanite, sillimanite stage in the oldest rocks of the Salkhala group. 1.3.3. Climate of the area: Neeru watershed passes great distinction interns of relief and physiography. Climate varies from hot and dry at lower elevations (821-1000 msl), to moderate between 1000-2000 msl and intensely cold above 2000 msl. Annual rainfall, snowfall, temperature, relative humidity and winds are the important factors which influence the commencement, development and maturity of the vegetation. 1.3.3.1. Temperature: The monthly mean maximum temperature (34.3oC) for the year 2002 was recorded in the month of July and the monthly minimum temperature (0.5oC) for the year 2002 was recorded in the month of January. Likewise the monthly mean maximum temperature (32.6oC) for the year 2003 was recorded in the month of June, whereas the monthly mean minimum temperature (0.6oC) was recorded in the month of February (Plate 4, Figs. 1-2). 1.3.3.2. Relative humidity at 0830 hrs: Maximum relative humidity for the year 2002 was recorded as 83% in the month of September while the minimum relative humidity was recorded as 57% in the month of November. Likewise, the maximum relative humidity for the year 2003 was recorded as 84% in the month of August whereas the minimum relative humidity for the year 2003 was recorded as 57% in the month of May (Plate-4, Figs. 1-2). 1.3.3.3. Relative humidity at 1730hrs: Maximum relative humidity for the year 2002 was recorded as 66% in the months of February and August, while the minimum relative humidity was recorded as 39% in the month of May. Likewise the maximum relative humidity for the year 2003 was recorded as 73% in the month of August, while the minimum relative humidity was recorded as 41% in the month of January (Plate-4, Figs. 1-2). 1.3.3.4. Total rainfall and number of rainy days: The heaviest rainfall for the year 2002 was recorded as 175.6 mm in the month of February with 9 rainy days, and the least rainfall was recorded as 1.0 mm in the month of November with only 1 rainy day. Likewise the heaviest rain fall for the year 2003 was recorded as 249.6 mm in the month of February with 12 rainy days and, the least rainfall was recorded as 8.7 mm in the month of October with only 2 rainy days (Plate-4, Figs. 1-2). 1.3.3.5. Rainiest day with rain fall amount: The rainiest day for the year 2002 was observed as 14th September with 84.8 mm rainfall. Likewise the rainiest day for the year 2003 was observed as 19th February with 118.2 mm rainfall (Plate-4, Figs. 1-2). Table 1.1: Meteorological data of the study area for the year 2002-2003 YEAR 2002 Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. YEAR 2003 Jan. Feb. Mar. April Temperature (0C) Relative Humidity (%) Rainfall No. of Rainiest day (mm) rainy days with rain fall Mean Mean 0830hrs 1730hrs amount (mm) maximum minimum th 13.9 00.5 77 55 65.0 09 18 / 17.0 th 12.4 00.9 79 66 175.6 09 8 /51.0 th 20.0 05.2 71 47 118.4 11 10 /39.4 23.9 09.1 71 51 133.9 09 25th /47.5 30.9 12.5 59 39 6.4 04 7th /2.2 th 33.1 15.4 67 52 83.0 10 17 /37.4 nd 34.3 17.1 71 51 91.4 07 22 /23.0 th 30.6 18.3 81 66 153.6 11 12 /65.4 th 26.3 11.8 83 62 133.2 08 14 /84.8 th 24.3 07.7 73 53 17.2 03 11 /13.4 th 22.5 04.6 57 41 1.0 01 8 /1.0 16.5 01.8 63 46 13.4 04 25th /5.6 Temperature ( C) Relative Humidity (%) Rainfall Rainiest day No. of (mm) rainy days with rain fall Mean Mean 0830hrs 1730hrs amount (mm) maximum minimum 16.0 12.0 16.9 24.5 0.7 0.6 3.7 9.3 58 81 73 70 41 70 58 47 37.2 249.6 176.0 78.1 03 12 13 10 28 /22.6 19th /118.2 rd 3 /59.6 th 20 /20.6 th o May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 26.4 32.6 31.3 28.5 27.9 25.2 19.5 14.0 9.9 16.0 18.7 18.1 14.8 7.6 3.5 1.9 57 63 79 84 81 67 68 77 45 48 62 73 65 53 52 66 96.6 43.2 112.4 151.3 77.2 8.7 51.5 78.0 07 09 13 15 07 02 03 08 3 /39.8 28th /8.2 11th /18.0 th 4 /44.1 26th /31.0 th 10 /7.7 th 18 /23.5 16th /35.2 rd Source: Govt. of India, India Meteorological Department, Meteorological Centre Rajbagh, Srinagar 1.4. Biodiversity and study area: India harbours 17,500 species of angiosperms which represent about 7% of the worlds’ known plants. Some 6200 of these species are endemic to Indian sub-continent (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000). Neeru catchment has an area of 64,024 hectares. The plant species flourish very well in the study area due to a very favourable climate and topography. About 488 plants have been collected from the Bhadarwah forests (Raina and Kant, 1993). Among macro fungi about 80 species have been reported from Bhadarwah forest (Rampal, 1988), while Kumar (1987) recorded 129 economically important plant species from the area. 164 medicinal plants have been classified in five classes on the basis of altitudinal distribution in Neeru catchment (Kant and Dutt, 2003).The study area falls under subtropical, temperate, sub-alpine, alpine and high alpine zone and is dominated by annual and perennial flora. 1.4.1. Threats to biodiversity: It has been estimated that we are loosing around 86,400 hectares of forests per day throughout the globe, on account of extension in farming and increased urbanization. As a result, 10% of world’s vascular plant species are driven to extinction every day. At this rate 25% of all the species existing today will become extinct during the next 30 years, unless preventive measures are taken now. In the loss of so many species we loose edible, medicinal, aromatic and other useful plants. India, with 12 floristic regions is considered as a store-house of plant species Rao (1994) reported 1,566 taxa of flowering plants as rare and endangered in India. The biggest threat, by far, to biodiversity is habitat destruction. Loss of habitat or fragmentation of original habitat into pieces eventually leads to the irreversible loss of species. At present ten of the Indian medicinal plants are included in the appendices of CITES. Saussurea lappa (=S. costus) is the only plant included in Appendix I while Appendix II includes nine Indian medicinal plants. These plants are Aquilaria malaccenis, Dioscorea deltoidea, Rauvolfia serpentina, Cibotium barometz, Podophyllum hexandrum, Pterocarpus santalinus, Nardostachys grandiflora, Picrorhiza kurroo and Taxus wallichiana. Wanton exploitation of plants for medicinal purposes, for perfume extractions and for timber, constitutes one of the major factors for the loss of the biodiversity. To save the biodiversity from the habitat destruction, exploitation and climatic changes, it is necessary to explore more plants with new habitats and to explore pure lines for better establishments of species. The recent developmental activities, the pressure of human population, unscientific and over exploitation of resources, over grazing, fuel extraction and changing ecology are now threatening this most important Himalayan ecosystem in the world. As per the reports of given by International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) about 20,000-30,000 species of vascular plants are rare or under threat in the world. The preparation of Red Data Books, lists of threatened and endemic taxa and symposia organized by various countries in Europe, Africa, North and South America etc. on rarity, endemism and threatened plants have recently stimulated the Asian countries including India, to look into the fate of their depleting resources. A brief review of work done so far in India on the threatened plants and habitats has been published by Jain and Sastry (1982). The projects like Man and Biosphere (MAB) and Projects on Study, Survey and Conservation of Endangered species of Flora (POSSCEF) have been recently started in India to achieve the goal. It is true that there are many factors, both natural and man-made which are responsible for extinction of species but anthropogenic factors have accelerated rarity and extinction of plant species to a level where the very existence of ecosystems is threatened. The consumption of medicinal plants in unscientific manner is yet another major factor for extinction of species. In remote area of Ladakh, some wild plants like Polygonum, Chenopodium, Taraxacum, Rheum, Astragalus, Cardamine, Plantago, Pedicularis etc., growing in the oastic conditions or at the snowline are consumed in juvenile stages, which leads to their depletion and extinction (Kachroo et al 1977). 1.4.2. Medicinal flora: The medicinal plants play very important role in the day to day social and spiritual life of human beings and Ayurvedic system of medicine. Some of the widely used medicinal plants are Aconitum species, Podophyllum hexandrum, Picrorhiza kurroa, Viola species, Jurinea macrocephala, Saussurea costus, Colchicum luteum, Berberis lycium etc. Kaul (1997) has tabulated 23 medicinal herbs of Western Himalaya as core group of medicinal herbs (Table 1.2). 50% of the medicinal herbs of this group are endangered and other 50% fall under vulnerable category. Table 1.2: Status of core group of medicinal herbs of the western Himalayas. Botanical name Trade name Part (s) used Present status V E V E E V V V E V V E E E Aconitum heterophyllum Atis Arnebia benthamii Artemisia absinthium A. maritima Atropa acuminata Berberis lycium Bergenia ligulata Datura stramonium Dioscorea deltoidea Ephedra gerardiana Equisetum arvense Fritillaria roylei Heracleum candicans Inula racemosa Gaozaban Tethwan Seski Brand Daruharidra Pashan Bed Datur Shingli Mingli Ephedra Sehat Band Sheethkar Krendel Pushkar Roots Herb Herb Herb Herb/Root Root Root Herb Root Herb Herb Bulb Root Root Lavatera cashmeriana Physochlaina praelata Picrorhiza kurroa Podophyllum emodi Rheum emodi Saussurea lappa Taxus baccata Tribulus terrestris Valeriana wallichii E = Endangered V = Vulnerable Sazmul Lang Tang Kutki Bankakri Rhubarb Kuth Himalayan Yew Meticher Kund Mushkibala Root Herb Root Root Root Root Bark/Shoots Fruit Root E V V/E E E E E V V Source : M.K. Kaul (1997) Medicinal Plants of Kashmir & Ladakh. Out of these twenty three plant species 90% plants have been collected from the study area i.e. Neeru watershed. These are considered as botanical gems in wild habitat. However, collection of these gems in wild is unscientific. Scientists all over the world are encouraging cultivation of medicinal plants. In the state of J&K, RRL Jammu is a pioneer institution to start cultivation of important indigenous medicinal plants. Medicinal plants and their conservation have attained a greater importance in the present day scenario. The Western Himalayas is known for its unique flora with a bulk of endemic medicinal and aromatic germplasm. The herbs mostly consist of rhizomes and roots, which remain dormant for more than six months through out the year under heavy snow. An urgent need thus arise to cultivate them on mass scale in temperate regions of north-west Himalayas. *********** Review of Litrature Ethno-medicines have gained considerable importance, during the past few decades, because of their being safe and with no side effects, since they are all derived from the plant materials. Even the so called ‘Wonder Drugs’ of the recent past like reserpine, colchicines, podophyllotoxin, vincoblastine, strophanthine, steroids, and cortisones etc. owe their origin to the plants, which are a part of our ancient cultural heritage. Despite remarkable progress in laboratory drug development at present, the plants of the planet earth are still the most important source for potential drugs. India is a very rich repository of floral elements with more than 53,000 plant species, of which 17,500 species belong to angiosperm plants (Sharma et al, 1997). The traditional system of medicine like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani etc. have a long history. About 2000 plant species find use in Ayurvedic System of Medicines. A well documented record of the flora and vegetation of western Himalaya have been presented by the workers like Royle (1833-40); Duthie (1893-94); Bamber (1916); Stewart (1916-17, 1972); Collett (1921); Coventry (1923-30); Blatter (1927-29); Singh and Wafai (1973); Dhar and Kachroo (1983); Sharma and Kachroo (1983); Polunin and Stainton (1984); Kaul (1986); Singh and Kachroo (1987 & 1994); Kapur and Sarin (1989); Sharma and Kant (1992); Swami and Gupta (1998). Hamal (1982), Hamal and Karihaloo (1982), Hamal and Koul (1983), Kirn (1983), Kirn and Kapahi (1998), Kirn and Kapahi (2001a), Kant and Chander (2003), Dutt and Kant (in press), to name a few, have made new additions to the flora and vegetation of western Himalaya. Similarly, there are notable contributions on peridophytic flora of western Himalaya (Clarke, 1880; Hope, 1899-1904; Stewart, 1945, 51, 57, and 72; Bir, 1964; Javeid, 1965; Bir and Trikha, 1976; Bir et al, 1979-80; Kapoor, 1985; Khullar, 1984, 88 & 1994; Khullar et al, 1988; Kirn, 2000). All living organisms and their environment are mutually reactive, affecting each other in various ways. Animal population, flora and vegetation are interdependent through the environment and are mutually reactive. Phytosociology is the study of the characteristics, classification, relationships, and distribution of plant communities. It is useful to collect such data to describe the population dynamics of each species studied and how they relate to the other species in the same community. Detailed studies on phyto-sociology and ecology have been brought forward in recent years. Mahabale and Kharadi (1946) studied “Some ecological features of the vegetation at Mt. Abu” and presented, on a small scale, an account of the principal plant formations found at various levels and of the factors controlling them. According to the study, the vegetation of the region is of the monsoon deciduous type but abounds in many xerophytic species governed largely by the edaphic and climatic factors. The vegetation at the foot of the mountain has a woodland savannah on the eastern side and a scrub on the western side. The vegetation in the valleys conforms to the usual monsoon deciduous type found in the valleys in Peninsular India, and Western Himalaya. In particular, it shows a greater resemblance with the vegetation found in the forests on the borders of Western Himalaya up to about 1,500 feet elevation. Curtis and McIntosh (1950) worked on “The Inter-relations of certain analytic and synthetic phyto-sociological characters” and presented the mathematical interrelations of frequency, density, mean area, abundance, constancy and presence on the log-normal basis. It was concluded that a practicable size for the quadrat study is one which will give frequencies of less than 86% for all random or contagious species. Ordinarily, this will be a quadrate which is twice as large as the mean area of the most numerous species. Such a quadrat will give maximum information about all the important species of the community. Kaul and Zutshi (1966) described the “Vegetation of Kashmir University campus, Srinagar” along with the phytosociology of various species, with in an area of 125 acres. They also studied the vegetation in relation to local ecological factors and a number of physiographic habitats, viz. level grounds, slopes, mounds and low-lying areas and concluded that biotic interference seems to be the most important factor in controlling the course of vegetation, while soil characters do not seem to play any important role in controlling the vegetation. Yadav and Shah (1982) while working on “Phytosociological studies on the vegetation of Dangs forest in South Gujarat” concluded that the maturity index of the vegetation indicated the moderate nature of the vegetation. Community coefficients were categorized into five classes. On the basis of index of similarity, the ordination methods supported the observations that most of the stands have similar vegetation pattern accompanied by similar environment. Saputara has been described as quite distinct in vegetation from rest of the stands. Sharma et al (1983) standardized the quadrat size for the classification and mapping of the forest communities during their studies on the “Forest vegetation survey and classification with special reference to South India”. The data was collected from South Indian dry deciduous, moist deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen type of forests. The minimal quadrate size of 400 m2 to 900 m2 was taken for trees and 9 m2 for shrubs. Curtis and Bignal (1985) while working on “Quantitative description of the vegetation physiognomy using vertical quadrates” described a simple, rapid, vertical quadrate method for the quantitative description of vegetation physiognomy. Examples have been given of its use with data analysis by principal components ordination, TWINSPAN classification, and the trend surface analysis, as well as relationship to microclimate. The method provides quantitative data, suitable for numerical analysis, examples of which have been considered in terms of ordination and classification. Deva and Rajwar (1985) while working on “Forest types of Rispana valley, Jharipani, Mussorie” recorded three types of forest cover in the area. The first type of the forest, Olea-Machilus community on right bank of Rispana river was followed by Bauhinia retusa dominating forest on left bank, while third type dominated by Ilex odorata was restricted to a narrow strip along the river where water-logged perpendicular cliffs contain many herbs. The rocks and boulders possess Bergenia ciliata, other herbs and shrubs, and the river contains aquatic species. It has been concluded that the right bank receives the sunlight for a short period whereas the left bank slopes get the light throughout the day. Consequently, the plants such as Berberis species and Wendlandia puberula on these slopes are adapted to drier conditions as compared to the plants on the right bank. Rigveda is considered as the oldest record about the use of some medicinal plants. This was followed by Charaka-Samhita by Charak. Van Rheed’s (1678-1703) monumental work in 12 volumes on the study of Indian plants resulted in the form of a book, Hortus Malabaricus. Drury (1873) published Useful Plants of India, while Dymock (1891) published Pharmacographica India – A History of the Principal Drugs of Vegetable Origin in British India. An outstanding work containing wealth of information on economic plants in six volumes was produced by Watt (1889-93) in the form of Dictionary of Economic Plants of India. Kirtikar and Basu (1935) published a voluminous work on Indian Medicinal Plants. Chopra (1933) produced a treatise on Indigenous Drugs of India. This was followed by Indian Materia Medica by Nadkarni (1955). Chopra et al (1956) wrote Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. Later CSIR came out with a consolidated account and updated information on economic plants in Wealth of India series. Many regional flora and accounts on medicinal plants appeared in India during the last few decades. A good deal of work has been done on the ethno-botany and medicinal plants in India and abroad. Several reports on the Amchi system of medicine in Ladakh enumerating the herbs used by the local medicine practitioners (Amchis) have appeared in the recent past (Ragunathan, 1976; Satyavati et al, 1976; Kurup, 1977; Dhar, 1980; Srivastava and Gupta, 1982; Visvanath and Mankad, 1984; Nawchoo and Buth, 1989; Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1991; Kaul et al, 1995). An in-depth ethno-botanical survey of Western Himalaya has been carried out by Kaul (1996). However, the Neeruwatershed of the Western Himalaya has remained neglected from this point of view except for some stray records. The loss of biological diversity and the degradation of habitats and ecosystems will profoundly effect the present and future generations as the species lost today may have food, medicinal and industrial value. Now it is well understood and realized that, as a result of various natural and unnatural (mainly man-made) causes, the earth’s biological resources are under severe pressure and are dwindling very fast. This loss of biodiversity also has serious impact on the world’s economy and environment. During last 2-3 decades there has been significant consciousness with regard to the loss of biodiversity and its conservation. An outstanding work on cultivation and utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants was produced by Atal and Kapur (1977). Borthakur (1976) presented an account of the “Less known medicinal uses of plants among the tribes of Karbi-Anglong (Mikir Hills), Assam”. He also described 43 species of plants and their uses which were gathered from among the tribes inhabiting Karbi-Anglong district of Assam State in eastern India, which hitherto were not recorded earlier from that area. Singh and Singh (1981) while working with “Edible wild plants of eastern Rajasthan” reported 97 species of wild plants belonging to 75 genera and 49 families, which provide edible fruits, seeds, grains, tubers, tender stem and leaves from eastern Rajasthan. Attempts have also been made to cite the main chemical contents of edible parts based on available literature. About 14 species have been recommended for cultivation. Kaul and Atal (1983) in their short communication “Studies on Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. - Botany, medico-ethno-botany and distribution” discussed the traditional medicinal properties and ethno-botanical uses of the species in traditional medicines and its distribution in India. Sarin and Kapur (1984) studied the “Plant resources exploitation and their utilization in Trikuta hills of Jammu province (J&K state)” and concluded that 123 plant species having economic utility are growing in the Trikuta hills. Of these, about 64 are of medicinal value, 11 of aromatic value, 9 yield resins or gums, 19 are the source of vegetable tannins, 7 produce fatty oil rich seeds and 5 produce laticifers. About 16 plant species, constituting the raw materials for the industry, can be collected in large quantities. The rest of the plants are used as crude drugs in the indigenous system of medicine and have a good scope for exploitation. Kaul et al (1985) worked on “Ethno-botanic studies in northwest and trans Himalaya – contribution to the wild food plants of Ladakh” and evaluated eleven species for nutritional use and concluded that these species are good as a part of food by the people living in the remote areas of Ladakh due to the presence of crude proteins, crude fiber, crude fat, soluble sugars, carbohydrates and minerals like sodium, calcium, iron and phosphorus. Singh’s (1985) article on the “Threatened taxa and scope for conservation in Rajasthan” deals with endemic, endangered, threatened and rare taxa of three main physiographgic regions, Mt. Abu., Thar Desert and Aravalli with Eastern Plateau in Rajasthan. The probable factors for threat and rarity, and the scope for conservation of such taxa in Rajasthan have also been discussed. Kaul et al (1986), in their paper on “Ethno-botanic Studies in north-west and trans-Himalaya IV. Some traditionally used tea substitutes from Jammu and Kashmir”, collected seven plants which have been traditionally used as tea substitutes by the ethnic groups of Jammu and Kashmir State. The tea is prepared from the decoction of roots of Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engl., Fragaria vesca L., Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sw. and Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don. Leaves of Potentilla fruticosa L., bark of Taxus baccata L., and aerial portions of Thymus serpyllum L. are also used for the preparation of tea. Gaur et al (1987) published “Notes on the distribution of rare and little known Carex rostrata stocks from north- west Himalaya”. This species has been collected for the first time in India from Khatling Glacier (Bhumka, 3200 m, Tehri district, Garhwal) in the north- west Himalaya. The plant has fodder, religious and local medicinal value. Sharma and Gaur (1987) during their studies on “Palynotaxonomy of Himalayan Blue Poppy (Meconopsis aculeata Royle.)” commented that the two common wild poppies, Meconopsis aculeata Royle. (Blue poppy) and Meconopsis robusta Hook. (Yellow poppy) are distributed from 3700 m to 4600 m in Western Alpine Himalaya, of which Meconopsis aculeata (varn. Kalyari) is widely used by the tribes and natives for medicinal purposes. The plant paste is applied externally in rheumatic pains as anodyne by the inhabitants. Gurung (1988) while studying “Useful pteridophytes of Nepal Himalaya” concluded that the area is represented by about 500 species of pteridophytes, of which about 125 species have been found economically useful. Out of these 125 species about 30 species have been considered as medicinally important, 8 species are used as edible, 82 species as ornamental, one species as poisonous and 4 species as soil conserving species in the study area. Kapur (1989) worked on the “Economically useful fodder plants of Ram Nagar - Dudu valley (Jammu Province)” and enumerated 87 fodder species with their local names, altitudinal range, lopping period and present content of dry matter. Out of 87 species listed 43 are tree species. Kaul et al (1989) presented a paper on “Ethno-botanical studies in north-west and trans-Hmalaya VI. Contribution to the ethno-botany of Basohli –Bani region, J&K” and reported 38 economically important plant species from the region. The medicinal use of Rosulaire alpestris and Viburnum grandiflorum has been reported for the first time. Sharma and Singh (1989) worked on “Ethno-botanical studies in north - west and trans- Himalaya -V. Ethno-veterinary medicinal plants used in Jammu and Kashmir, India.” In this study, explorations carried out during the three years have brought to light 18 plant species which have been used to alleviate the common sufferings of livestock of this region. Sharma et al (1989) gave an account of the “Ethno-medicinal plant lore from Mukundara Ranges, Jhalawar district, Rajasthan” and enumerated twenty species with common name, family, specific location, distribution and habitat. The plant part collected, storage, preparation of drugs and therapy of each plant has also been discussed in the communication. According to the study the major causes of deaths in tribals are due to diseases caused by unhygienic conditions, poor sanitation, and due to some epidemic diseases. The religious heads and Ojhas possess medical background and treat the tribals. Brahmam and Sexena (1990) while studying the “Ethno-botany of Gandhamardan Hills - Some noteworthy folk medicinal uses” concluded that there are about 200 species which find use in the folk- medicine. They enumerated 77 species in alphabetical order with notes on their local names, uses, methods of administration, dosage, etc. Caceres et al (1990) gave an account of the “Plants used in Guatemala for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders 1. Screening of 84 plants against Enterobacteria” and stated that 385 plants from 95 families are used in Guatemala for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. The activity of 84 most commonly used plants was screened in vitro against five enterobacteria pathogenic to man. The results indicate that 34 (40.48%) plants inhibit one or more of the enterobacteria tested. On the basis of their studies they concluded that Salmonella typhi was the most inhibited bacterium (33.73%) and E. coli the most resistant bacterium (7.35%). The plants of American origin which exhibited the best antibacterial activity have been enumerated`as: Byrsonima erassifolia, Diphysa robinioides, Gnaphalium stramineum, Guazuma ulmifolia, Psidium guajava, Sambucus mexicana, Simarouba glauca, Smilax lundelii, Spondias purpurea and Tagetes lucida. Joshi et al (1990) made “A preliminary synecological approach for the study of herbal wealth of high altitude Garhwal Himalaya and their conservation”. The authors reported that the frequency, density and abundance values of medicinal herbs are lowest among all species occurring in the area because of over-exploitation. The authors emphasized the standardization and evolution of agro-techniques for their cultivation and consequent conservation. Kaul et al (1990) presented their findings on the “Ethno-botanical studies in north-west and trans-Himalaya VII. Home remedies for arthritis in Kashmir Himalaya” and reported five herbs used in the treatment of arthritis in Kashmir Himalayas. In this paper the ethno-medical properties of three species namely Delphinium roylei, Polygonum alpinum and Senecio chenopodifolius, the root parts of which are only being used against arthritis, have been reported for the first time. The other two species used for the purpose have been reported as Rheum australe and Saussurea costus. Mukherjee and Namhata (1990) while studying “Medicinal plant lore of the tribals of Sundergarh district, Orrisa” concluded medicoethno-botanical information concerning 22 plants. The information of these 22 plants has been collected from tribals, namely; Oraon, Munda, Bhuiyan, Gond, Dhanuar and Routia. The study also includes mode of drug preparation, plant names etc. Negi and Pant (1990) worked on “Ethno-botany of the Gangwal - A tribe of Garhwal Himalaya” and highlighted the Ethno-botany of the Gangwal tribe of Garhwal Hills in northern India. Panwar (1990) provided “Some suggestions for conservation of biodiversity in India” and stressed that India is richly endowed with a unique biodiversity. This bio-resource has rich economic potential, but needs to be protected from degradation. The study focuses on the main priority areas in this field which are effective conservation of biodiversity, both natural and domestic and rapid enhancement of information base and know-how towards harnessing the potential by ourselves. Caceres et al (1991) while continuing their work on “Plants used in Guatemala” presented the list of plants for the treatment of respiratory diseases and screened 68 plants against Gram- Positive Bacteria. They conducted ethno-botanical surveys and after reviewing the extent literature during 1986-88 listed 234 plants from 75 families, most of them of American origin. Three Gram-positive bacteria causing respiratory infections (Staphyllococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes) were used to screen 68 of the most commonly used plants for the activity. 28 of these (41.2%) species inhibited the growth of one or more of the bacteria tested. Staphylococcus aureus was inhibited by 18 of the plant extracts, while 7 extracts were effective against Streptococcus pyogenes. The plants of American origin which exhibited antibacterial activity were: Gnaphalium viscosum, Lippia dulcis, Physalis philadelphica, Satureja brownie, Solanum nigrescens and Tagetes lucida. Gauniyal et al (1991) worked on “Major medicinal plants as foreign exchange earner” and suggested coordinated efforts of concerned agencies for promoting cultivation of identified medicinal plants to ensure their regular supply and stabilization of raw material prices. Gogoi and Borthakur (1991) presented a case study on “Plants in religio - cultural beliefs of the Tai Khamtis of Assam (India)”.They grouped the plants related to the religious and cultural traditions into four main categories: fruit plants cultivated in the Buddhist temple-yards, cultivated ornamental plants, plants used as offerings and adornments and plants used in Buddhistic and traditional faiths and rituals. In addition, plants used in religio-cultural activities have also been dealt with. Hembrom (1991) attempted to record “Tribal medicine in Chotanagpur and Santhal Parganas of Bihar, India”. A brief account of some general aspects of tribal medicine, like the kind of medicine-men and diagnosis of diseases has been presented along with few prescriptions for polio, asthma, tuberculosis, epilepsy, cancer and leprosy as example of the vast ethno-medicinal heritage of the region. Loewenthal and Peer (1991) conducted a survey of the “Traditional methods used in the treatment of ophthalmic diseases among the Turkana tribe in north-west Kenya”. They collected the data from people who suffered from chronic eye diseases. It has been concluded that local practice of treatment includes about nine plant species of nine families. Meena et al (1991) studied “Status of tribal medicinal plants of Hazaribagh” and discussed the ethno-botanical field studies in different parts of the Hazaribagh district, where a large number of people have been using wild plants for food, medicine and insecticides. The data has been collected from tribal medicine men and very experienced old tribals. The study has been restricted to medicinal uses of 22 plants. Pandey et al (1991) studied the “Conservation inventory of high altitude medicinal plants of western Himalayas” used in Indian system of medicine. The authors identified 36 such herbs in the region and described their economic importance and utility. Gupta et al (1992) while studying “Conservation and cultivation of medicinal plants of Hyderabad forest division, A.P.” concluded that the wealth of medicinal plants in Andhra Pradesh is depleting on account of deforestation and biotic interference because of which many species are in danger of becoming extinct. The authors stressed upon a measure of conservation in which most of the medicinal plants are being transplanted in the mini-herbal gardens of Central Research Institute for Unani Medicines at Hyderabad. Pandit (1992) concentrated on one region and worked on “Conservation of over-exploited medicinal plants of Gujarat”. He concluded that there has been a depletion of natural resources of medicinal plants like Asparagus racemosus, Withania somnifera and Glycyrrhiza glabra in the region. Raina and Jamwal (1992) worked on “Environmental stress and conservation strategies for Bunium persicum (Kala Zira)”and concluded that the species is under various biotic and abiotic pressures. In the communication some points have been highlighted to divert the pressure and relieve the plant from environmental stresses. Srivastava and Kapahi (1992) during their studies on the “Medicinal and aromatic plant resources of Sikkim Himalaya” explored 280 plant species belonging to 207 genera and 92 families growing wild/ cultivated. Local names, families/ abundance and active constituents of each species have also been given by them. Goel (1993) while working on “Conservation of medicinal plant resources in Himalayas” enumerated important medicinal plants of the Himalayas, with particular reference to the North-western and Central Himalayas. The list also included certain threatened species. The author emphasized development of a strategy for conservation of medicinal plants. Gupta et al (1993) worked on the “Medicinal plant inventory of Kuna Indians” and reported 90 plants used by the Kuna Indians of San Blas Island. This study also includes medicinal uses, known constituents and pharmacological effects. Of the 90 species reported in this study 49 (54.4%) have been used topically, 24 (26.7%) internally and 17(18.9%) externally and internally. Generally the plants are being used for the common diseases of the area like muscle and joint aches, fever, wound healing, snakebite, childbirth, acne, colds, tonics etc. Three plants belonging to the genera Hyptis and Ocimum are used as aromatic. Five plants, Anthurium sp., Cyclanthus hipartitus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Genipa americana and Spathiphyllum friedrichsthalii are used by pregnant women to prevent the enlargement of the uterus. Aswal’s (1994) work on “Conservation of ethno-medicinal plant diversity of Garhwal Himalayas and ethno-biology in human welfare” is both interesting and valuable. He laid stress on the fact that important ethnomedicinal plants of Garhwal Himalayan region (an important source of variety of medicinal plants since Vedic periods) face threats to their survival and therefore need proper utilization and conservation. Hutchings and Staden (1994) gave an account of the “Plants used for stress - related ailments in traditional Zullu, Xhose and Sotho medicine: Plants used for headaches”. They reviewed the usage and indications of possible therapeutic and harmful effects of 96 plants reported to be used for headaches in traditional Zulu, Xhosa and Sotho medicine and observed that 89% of plants used for headaches may possess one or more useful therapeutic properties, while 58% of the plants may contain potentially toxic compounds. 62 species (67%) had possible analgesic effects. 25 species are also used to treat pain in other ailments. 45 species (48%) were with possible decongestant effects. Possible antispasmodic effects were indicated in 27 species (30%). Two of these species, Datura stramonium and Datura metel have been used pharmaceutically for asthma. Possible anti-inflammatory effects were indicated in 20 species (22%) while 20 species (22%) were with possible sedative effects. Possible hypertensive effects were noted in three species, while possible antidepressant effects in two species. Potential toxicity was observed in 56 species (58%). Seventeen of these species are reported to have been suspected for causing human or animal deaths. Further more, ten other species are reported to have caused some form of morbid poisoning. Plants suspected of causing fatal human poisoning include Acokanthera oppositifolia, Asclepias fruticosa, Bersma lucens, Boophane disticha, Capparis tomentosa, Bowiea volubilis, Clutia pulchella, Spirostachys Africana, Synadenium cupulare, Datura metel, D. stramonium, Erythrophleum lasianthum, Senecio retrorsus and Plumbago auriculata. Rai (1994) discussed the “Role of emerging technologies for conservation of biodiversity” and emphasized that a prime reason for erosion of global biodiversity is unwise and unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, both animate and inanimate. Another reason is ecological changes on a significant scale due to indiscriminate industrialization using technologies hazardous to environment. He suggested that frontier areas of technology, viz. IT, GIS, Remote Sensing, Biotechnology etc. are some of the disciplines that have important roles to play for conservation of biodiversity. Biotechnology even has the potential to reverse the trend of erosion of biodiversity. Raveendranathan (1994) discussed the “Prospects of herbal drugs”. He argued that in respect of the wide use of plant drugs in different indigenous systems of medicine in India the need to conserve and multiply these natural resources is essential. He further emphasized that the clinical efficiency of Ayurvedic treatment of certain diseases as compared to that of Allopathy is much more and attempts regarding the quality control and standardization of plant drugs, that had been a major lacuna, are succeeding. Sivadas (1994) while working on the “Monitoring and assessment of the environment for harmonizing its preservation and development” laid stress on understanding the environment systematically as the essential step towards sustainable use of the natural resources. He also pointed out that investigation methodologies depend on the instruments made available from time to time and electronic instruments have to play better roles in this area. Manandhar (1995) conducted “A survey of medicinal plants of Jajar Kot District, Nepal” and reported 60 plant species for 25 types of diseases which have been identified in this area through the field data. Saha (1995) worked on the “Conservation, regeneration and a species selection in (India) Sunderbans” and concluded that Sunderbans is floristically poorer, due to higher salinity and human interference. It is imperative to conserve the ecosystem for maintaining ecological balance, for protecting inland areas and for commercial exploitation. He further proposed that artificial regeneration in foreshore lands has been done by hand and aerial seeding. Species are selected on the basis of greater utilizable biomass but should actually be done with respect to conditions prevailing at the particular area. Siddique et al (1995) determined the “Status of important medicinal plants of Kashmir Himalayas”. During their three-year survey, the well known medicinal and aromatic plants used in the area have been listed along with the plant part(s) used and the mode of administration. The authors also formulated a list of rare and endangered plants of the area. Smit et al (1995) published their work on “Ayurvedic herbal drugs with possible cytostatic activity” and presented an ayurvedic model for the pathogenesis of cancer. Based on this model, selection criteria were formed, that were used to select plants from a list of ayurvedic herbal drugs. The dried material of 14 plant species were submitted to ethanol (70% v/v) extraction and the extracts were tested for cytotoxicity on COLO 320 tumor cells, using the micro-culture tetrazolium (MTT) assay. The Lc50 value, the concentration causing 50% growth inhibition of the tumour cells, was used as a parameter for cyto-toxicity. The extracts of the flowers of Calotropis procera and nuts of Semecarpus anacardium displayed the strongest cyto-toxic effect with Lc50 values of 1.4 µg/ml and 1.6 µg/ml, respectively. Amatya (1996) gave an account of the “Ethno-medicinal use of plants of Bara district, Nepal”. The inhabitants of this sub-tropical region including Tharu, Ahir, Muslim, Mushar, Majhi, Chamar, Brahman and Tamang utilize same plants for medicinal, as well as tanning purpose. The important tanin bearing medicinal plants are Acacia catechu, Acacia concina, Albizia procera, Aegle marmelos, Cassia fistula, Dillenia pentagyna, Emblica officinalis, Mallotus philippensis, Schleichera bleesa, Shorea robusta, Terminalia bellerica and T. chebula. The vernacular name, local name, tanin source, tanin percentage and ethno-medicinal uses have also been given. Bhadula et al (1996) while studying the “Genetic resources of Podophyllum hexandrum Royle. - an endangered medicinal species from Garhwal Himalayas, India” pointed out that the frequency of this species in nature has declined considerably because of over-exploitation to meet the ever increasing demand of pharmaceutical companies. The characteristics of various populations of P. hexandrum and future conservation strategies of the species have also been described. Brahma and Boissya (1996) presented “Ethno-botanical notes on certain medicinal plants used by the Bodos of Assam with particular reference to Kokrajhar District”. They made an inventory of 109 medicinal plants used by the Bodo tribal of Assam either singly or in combination, spreading over four families. The families, Bodo names and the local names have also been given in the communication. The detailed uses of the plants, as suggested by the local Bodo people, have also been mentioned. Darshan (1996) while working with “Conserving the medicinal plants of India: the need for a bicultural perspective” discussed the importance of conservation of medicinal plants and recognized two streams of traditional medicines in India (i) Folk medicine existing in all rural communities throughout the country and (ii) codified traditional medicine (Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Tibetan Systems of medicine) which is documented in a number of medical manuscripts. Mahato et al (1996) while working on the “Ethno-botanical wealth of Chhota Nagpur plateau India: Some medicinal plants used against diarrhoea by the people of Singhbhum district, Bihar” concluded that the people of Chhota Nagpur depend upon plants for their daily needs including medicine. During the survey of medicinal plants, 27 plant species which are being used to cure diarrhoea by the people of Singhbhum district of Chhota Nagpur, Bihar have been recorded. Among them 12 plant species are known to control dysentery also. Pandit et al (1996) collected “Ethno-medicinal plant lores from Gir Forest, Gujarat” and published some interesting information on 45 plant species (belonging to 32 families) used by Maldharis tribe of Gir forest to relieve various ailments. The plant species so collected have been enumerated along with their botanical name, vernacular name and ethno-botanical uses. Joshi and Rawat (1997) stressed on “Need for conservation and propagation of alpine and sub-alpine medicinal plants of north-west Himalayas” and suggested some conservation measures and recommendations including systematic rotational collection in different areas, the development of a Germplasm Centre and ex-situ and in-situ conservation. Kumar et al (1997) carried out “Studies on weeds used as ethnomedicinal plants by some tribal people” and observed that weeds play a key role in maintenance of successive vegetation for environment. The ethnomedicinal value of some weeds used as plant medicine, among different tribal communities like Santhal, Patharia, Oraon, Nunda, Kol and Kharwar, etc., has been given along with the botanical name, family, tribal name, parts used and the ailments for which they are used. Mondal et al (1997) while undertaking “Ethno-botanical studies on some aquatic plants of the Lateritic belt of West Bengal” observed that in India, the work on ethno-botany has paved a new way for folk-medicine. This study is focused on a preliminary contribution to the use of aquatic medicinal plants by the local inhabitants of the lateritic belt of West Bengal. Raina (1997) studied the “Botany, conservation strategies and cultivation of Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch” and concluded that the species in nature is under constant threat of biotic and abiotic factors viz. trampling, grazing, browsing and indiscriminate collection by humans. The species can be exploited as cash crop when conserved and cultivated. During the study some standardized agro-technological and tissue culture techniques for the large scale regeneration and conservation of species have been suggested. Chaudhary and Rao (1998) while working on the “Notes on the genus Aconitum L. (Ranunculaceae) in north-west Himalayas (India)” indicated the current status of the species as being critically endangered in its type localities owing to its high medicinal value. The authors suggested in-situ and ex-situ methods for the conservation of genetic diversity in these species. Kumar and Pande (1998) studied “The tribals and the utility of the medicinal plants in their day-to-day lives in Santal Pargava, Bihar, India” and came to the conclusion that most of the tribals are well acquainted with the know-how of the age-old treatment by medicinal plants. They developed the tribal medicines from different local medicinal plants which have become a part of their culture. The medico-ethno-botanical data obtained from the survey of five districts of Santal Pargava, revealed the medicinal usage of different parts of plant species. Khasim and Mohana Rao (1999) studied “Medicinal importance of orchids” and observed that many medicinal orchids have useful alkaloids. They also concluded that some of the orchids fall in endangered category due to over-exploitation and habitat destruction. Paper suggests different strategies for conservation of orchids. Kirn et al (1999) reported “Ethno-botanical observations on the gymnosperms of Poonch district (J&K state), India” and enumerated nine species of gymnosperms such as Abies pindrow, A. spectabilis, Cedrus deodara, Juniperus communis, J. recurva, Picea smithiana, Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana and Taxus wallichiana, which are being used by the Gujjars and Bakkarwals of the area, during their trans-humane migration in the upper hill regions for meeting their all kinds of daily needs including the medicinal uses. The paper deals with their botanical description, distribution and uses. All the nine species are found wild in the district. Mamgain et al (1998) studied the “Conservation assessment of some important threatened medicinal plants of India”. In the study the emphasis has been laid on 10 threatened medicinal plants for their distribution, medicinal properties, uses and conservation. Over exploitation was cited as the main cause of depletion of natural populations of these taxa. Rana et al (1998) worked on “Diversity and conservation strategies of medicinal plants in the north-western Himalayas” and enumerated the major medicinal herbs present in the north – west Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon which have been lost due to continuous loss of forest land, uncontrolled grazing and unscientific collection. On the basis of this observation they emphasized upon the importance of conservation of medicinal plant diversity and demanded a national concern for it. Karuppusamy et al (2000) while studying the “Needs for diversity conservation of traditional medicinal plant resources of Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu” stressed upon the role of ethnic and rural communities for in-situ conservation. Authors expressed concern for the lack of documentation of indigenous knowledge on the rich native diversity of useful medicinal plants of this region and to promote and implement the conservation strategies for sustainability of the natural ecosystem. Srivastava et al (2000) while working on the “Threatened plants of medicinal and aromatic value of north-west Himalayas” reported twenty taxa of medicinal and aromatic value in the north - west Himalayan region under the category of threatened plants due to large scale and indiscriminate collection in the past. At least one of these, i.e., Ferula narthex has already been wiped out from geographical boundaries of the country while the survival of three others, i.e., Aconitum chasmanthum, A. deinorrhizum and Dactylorhiza hatagirea is unlikely if present casual factors continue to operate. There are dozen or so taxa which are highly vulnerable. These include some which have been over-exploited for commercial purposes, while others have been exposed to the danger of deforestation, habitat destruction etc. The paper also suggests cultivation of some of the threatened plants on lines with Saussurea lappa, Inula racemosa and Bunium persicum. Successful cultivation has brought these medicinal plants out of the endangered list. Kant and Sharma (2001) presented their studies on the “Medicinal plants of Patnitop and adjoining hills (J&K) and their conservation”. They reported 56 medicinally important plant species, parts of the plants used and their utility, from the study area. According to the study the area is under the stress of a lot many biotic activities like tourism, development, nomadism, encroachments and over exploitation of resources. Thus there is as urgent need of application of sound conservation strategies and proper management practice to save this useful bio-resource of the area. Kirn and Kapahi (2001b) while presenting “Ethno-botanical notes on some ferns and fern-allies of Jammu and Kashmir state, India” enumerated 19 taxa belonging to 12 genera and 11 families of pteridophytes of Jammu & Kashmir. Local names, family and ethno-botanical details of all the taxa have been discussed. The data presented has been obtained through interviews conducted with ethnic groups of the region. Kumar et al (2001) studied “In-vitro conservation of germplasm of medicinal plants” and suggested long term conservation by cryopreservation technology for some medicinal plants to harness potential benefits of the technique. Cell cultures of Atropa, Datura, Dioscorea, Catharanthus, etc. have been successfully cryopreserved. Badola and Pal (2002) in their communication “Endangered medicinal plant species in Himachal Pradesh” enumerated 14 medicinal plant species as endangered and recommended these species for ex-situ cultivation in Himachal Pradesh. Four agro-climatic zones have been identified for cultivation of these 14 plant species. Roy and Agrawal (2002) carried out a survey of the “Phytoconstituents and worldwide uses of ethno-medicinal plants for hypoglycemic activity” and concluded that some plants are common to many regions, where as some uses are unique to a particular country. In this study the authors reported a worldwide account of 36 plants, which possess hypoglycemic activity. Adhikari et al (2003) presented their paper on “Medicinal trees of Uttaranchal state: distribution, use pattern and prospects for conservation”. They reported 170 medicinal trees from sub-tropical, 64 from warm temperate, 22 from cool-temperate, 10 from sub-alpine and 4 from alpine region. The prospects of in-situ and ex-situ conservation of medicinal trees in Uttaranchal state have been elaborately discussed. Igoli et al (2003) made an ethno-botanical survey of the Igedespeaking areas of Nigeria. In an article “Traditional medicinal practices among the Igede people of Nigeria” authors enumerated 39 plant species belonging to 23 families used in the traditional medicinal system of the Igede. From these plants, 31 prescriptions or recommendations were recorded for treatment of approximately 21 ailments or therapeutic indications, including hypertension, lack of energy, and fish and arrow poisons. The family Rubiaceae had the largest number of plants used, and, the largest numbers of prescriptions were for fever. Rajendran et al (2003) studied “Lesser known ethno-medicinal plants of the Ayyakarkoil Forest of Southwestern Ghats, Tamil - Nadu” and concluded that in the forested area, only the Palian Tribes made settlements, usually camping near foothills or on pavements of lower hill range during nomadic times. With the help of local people and tribal practitioners, 43 medicinally important plant species belonging to 42 genera and 24 families have been recorded from the Ayyakarkoil forest. Sarin (2003) presented an appraisal of resources of the “Medicinal plant raw materials for Indian drug and pharmaceutical industry” and concluded that about 340 plant species are used as raw material for Indian drug and pharmaceutical Industry. Among these 145 occur wild in forests, 54 grow as weed, 70 grow as cash crop, 30 cultivated as medicinal crop and around 40 species are imported from other countries. Due to tremendous increase in the demand of the plant species in the market of drug industry, the natural population of many medicinal plants has declined to a great extent, while a few are at the verge of extinction. Augustine and Sivadasan (2004) while presenting “Ethnobotanical plants of Periyar tiger reserve, Kerala, India” enumerated 180 species of plants as ethno-botanically important. Among these species 66 are used as ethno-medicinal species by the tribal groups, namely Mannan, Paliyan, Urali, Malayarayan and Malapandaram. Beigh et al (2004) while working on “Ethno-botany of Kashmir – studies on traditional veterinary medicine in Kashmir Himalayas, J&K State” documented 25 plants and their use as veterinary medicines. Each plant species is discussed with family, local name and part used for the treatments. The information on the utilization of plants for curing common ailments of animals was obtained from knowledgeable persons and ethnic persons by filling a questionnaire. Bondya and Sharma (2004) while working on “Ethnobotanical studies on plants used in diabetes (Madhumeha) under the Baharagora block of Jharkhand”, enumerated 11 ethno-medicinal plant species used in Baharagora block of Jharkhand State for the treatment of diabetes. Borthakur et al (2004) while exploring “Folklore hepatoprotective herbal recipes from Assam in north-east India” reported 39 hepato-protective herbal prescriptions prevalent among different ethnic groups of Assam. These 39 empirically accepted prescriptions include some 46 plant species Brussell (2004a) while enumerating “Medicinal plants of Mt. Pelion, Greece” reported a total of 225 taxa representing 77 families along with habitat data and ethno-botanical information. He (2004b) also presented “A medicinal plant collection from Montscrrat, West Indies” and reported 272 taxa representing 78 families along with habitat information and ethno-botanical notes. De Feo (2004) reported “The ritual use of Brugmansia species in traditional Andean medicine in Northern Peru”. The curranderos on Northern Peru use Brugmansia species for therapeutic-divinatory, phyto-therapeutics, illness and black magic. Gupta et al (2004) while working on “Anticancer activities of Oldenlandia diffusa” tested in-vitro anti-proliferating activities of water extract of the raw herb Oldenlandia diffusa, against eight cancer cell lines and one normal cell line. The extract exhibited a strong anti-proliferating activity against all cancer cell lines and induces significant increase of apoptosis. The extract exhibited minimum toxic effect on normal pancreatic cells. Hence the herb extract could be a potential anticancer agent. Haui and Pei (2004) while working on “Plants used medicinally by folk healers of the Lahu people from the autonomous county of Jinping Niao, Yoa, and Dai in Southern China” reported 118 species of medicinal plants belonging to 57 families and 98 genera used by Lahu healers. According to field investigations skin disease and broken bones are the main medicinal problems for the Lahu people. Among the 118 species of medicinal plants used by Lahu healers, 54 species are used to treat skin disease and fractured bones, accounting for 45.76% of the total species. Hermans et al (2004) while working on “Medicinal plants used to treat malaria in Southern Benin” reported 85 species and 30 mixtures for curing malaria in a restricted area. A mixture consisting of 4-28 species are in use in Southern Benin. Modern plant based anti-malaria medicines assure much faster healing, provided the parasites have not developed resistance against them. Jadhav and Yadav (2004) while working on “Phyto-sociological studies on the vegetation of Trimbakeshwar, Vani and Saptashringi forests of Nasik district, Maharashtra- Maturity Index” recorded very small maturity index at Saptashringi forest. The highest maturity index was observed at Vani forest followed by Trimbakeshwar forest. Janni and Bastien (2004) worked out “Exotic botanicals in the Kallawaya Pharmacopoeia”. The Kallawaya are the most renowned herbalists of South America and travel extensively throughout the Andes to collect medicinal plants. Approximately 30% of the Kallawaya pharmacopoeia is composed of exotic plant species. Ji et al (2004) while working on “Ethno-botanical study of medicinal plants used by the Lisu people in Nujiang, north-west Yunnan, China” enumerated 52 medicinal plants, belonging to 32 families, used locally for the treatment of human ailments. Among the 52 species, 11 species (21.2%) were reported as rare and 16 were widely commercialized in the region. Over exploitation and deforestation in the region are the main causes for the depletion of medicinal plants in this region. Kant and Dutt (2004) while enumerating “Plant species causing dermatitis from Bhadarwah, J&K”, discussed eleven dermatitis producing plant species with local names, families and taxonomic characters. Species like Aconitum heterophyllum¸ Arisaema jacquemontii, Euphorbia helioscopia and Rhus succedanea are reported as fetal species. But professionals like herbs-men and Vaidyas use the plant parts in Ayurvedic preparations after destroying the poisonous nature of the plant species. Maliya (2004) while discussing “Some new or less known folk medicines of District Bahraich (U.P)” reported 16 medicinal plants traditionally used by the Thoru tribals and other rural inhabitants. The plant species are used either singly or in combination with others as poly herbal medicines by them for the treatment of various ailments. Nawchoo et al (2004) while discussing “Studies on the conservation biology of Jurinea dolomiacea and Gentiana kurroa, two important medicinal plants of North West Himalaya” proposed a protocol for conservation of Himalayan species. Study also concluded that 60 days chilling, 30 days chilling, 90 days chilling and GA3 treatment to the seeds of J. dolomiacea help in early germination and survival in vivo conditions. Further, G. kurroa show best results after treatments of 120 days chilling, 90 days chilling, GA3 and 60 days chilling in-vivo. In-vitro cultivation may not be as successful. Punjani (2004) conducted field survey in north Gujarat and described “Ethno-medicinal uses of vitaceae among the tribals of north Gujarat”. A total of 3 genera and 6 species of vitaceae have been reported. It is also concluded that the traditional and locally available plant species are valuable and important contributors to the treatment of fractured bones and other disorders. Sarangi and Sahu (2004) while discussing “Ethno-medicinal plants used in venereal and gynecological disorders in Kalahandi, Orissa” stated that tribal and scheduled castes of Kalahandi district use 32 plant species in gynecological and venereal disorders. It has been observed that medicinal uses and mode of applications vary from those in other neighboring districts. Siddiqui (2004) while documenting “Anti-cancer drugs from traditional plants of Sitapur district (Uttar Pradesh)” reported 10 such plant species which are used by the locals for anti-cancer activities. Sikarwar et al (2004) while working on “Uses of some important medicinal plants of Chitrakoot region of Satna M.P.” reported 28 plants utilized by tribal communities to alleviate their local ailments and diseases. Srinivasan et al (2004) contributed to “The antimicrobial spectrum of Hop constituents”. During the study it was observed that there is a remarkable activity of hop compounds against protozoa especially ciliates and flagellates. The activity of hop against protozoa is enhanced by CO2. There was no co-action between hop acids and CO2 with E. coli or fungi. Fungi have low sensitivity to hops. Srivastava and Sekar (2004) while studying the “Ethno-medicine of the Pin valley national park, Himachal Pradesh: Plants used in treating dysentery” enumerated 10 plant species used by the tribals for treating dysentery. Strong (2004) while working on “African Plum and benign prostatic hypertrophy” reported that the bark of Pygeum africanum (African Plum) has been used in Europe since the mid 1960’s and is currently the most popular medicine in France for benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH). In 1998 the demand for Pygeum africanum extract was so high that it caused the African plum tree to become a threatened species. Tirkey (2004) while documenting “Some ethno-medicinal plants of Chattisgarh State” enumerated 50 plant species used as ethno-medicine by the tribal group Vaidayas. Upadhye and Kulkarni (2004) discussed “Traditional phytotherapy for insect bites among the tribals in western Maharashtra” and enumerated 12 plant species as remedies used by the local tribal communities to cure the insect bites. Chandra et al (2005) while working on “Medicinal plants conservation with reference to Ho and Munda tribals of Bihar and Orissa” enumerated 217 plant species which are in use by these tribals. Tribals use all these species in a judicial way because they have a deep-rooted feeling for the native vegetation and assume the herbs as one of the prime component of the nature which provide and maintain the basic elements for livelihood. Sharma (2005) while working on “Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plant diversity in western Himalayas” discussed the causes of loss of biodiversity and stressed on peoples participation and role of R&D institutes for restoration and conservation of biodiversity. *********** Material and Methods Plants growing together have mutual relationships among themselves and with the environment. Community is a part of an ecological system in which transformation, accumulation, and flow of energy are involved. The functioning of this system is intimately related with the components of community. The components vary in quality as well as in quantity and impart a structure to the community. Number of characters grouped under two heads viz. analytical and synthetic form the structure of a community. Analytical characters like frequency, density, abundance and dominance can be expressed as quantitative characters while sociability, periodicity and stratification as qualitative characters. Synthetic characters include presence, constancy and fidelity components. The analytical characters of a community are determined by means of three sampling units – area, line and point, as employed in quadrate, transect and point methods, respectively. In the present study quadrate method has been employed in the study area. The analytic (Quantitative) characters viz. frequency, density, and basal area were calculated by laying quadrates in each stand of each site. The quadrates were randomly laid to include maximum diversity, with regard to topography, geology, soil and vegetation. Since the coniferous forests are spread in most of the area and alpine region as well as high altitudinal oak forest were not approachable for detailed study, the coniferous forest area was chosen for phytosociological study. The sites were selected in the field by visual inspection of each stand for internal uniformity with respect to species composition and structure. Twelve different sites were selected for phytosociological data collection, which were later on clubbed to six sites for secondary data analysis. 3.1. Climatological data: Data regarding climate of the two years i.e. January 2002 to December 2003 was procured from the meteorological department. 3.2. Collection of Plant species: Plant species were collected in flowering stage for three consecutive years i.e. April 2002- April 2005 by visiting the study area monthly. All species collected were dried using herbarium preservation techniques and mounted on herbarium sheets. All herbarium sheets have been deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Botany, University of Jammu. The identification of the species was done by using different floras and taking help of the experts in taxonomy. Herbaria of RRL, Jammu and University of Jammu were also consulted. Sampling for phyto-sociological analysis was carried by visiting the selected sites monthly. Soil samples were also collected from all the twelve sites for physico-chemical analysis. 3.3. Photography: Photography of the plant species has been done in the natural habitat. More emphasis was given to the flowering stage of plants. Pentax camera with micro, normal and tele-lenses was used for the purpose. 3.4. Phytosociological studies: 3.4.1. Quantitative characters: The quantitative characters recorded in the field were: 3.4.1.1. Frequency: Frequency represents the number of sampling units in which a given species occurs. It expresses the distribution or dispersion of various species in a community. Therefore, percentage frequency was calculated as under: Total number of quadrates in which the species occurred X Total number of quadrates studied % Frequency = 100 The density and frequency taken together are of prime importance in determining community structure and have a variety of uses far beyond those of other quantitative values. Abundance, if considered along with frequency, gives an idea of the distribution pattern of the species while density represents the number of individuals per unit area. 3.4.1.2. Density: Density represents the number of individuals of a species per sampling unit. Total number of individuals of the species Density = Total number of quadrates studied 3.4.1.3. Basal cover: Basal area refers to the ground actually penetrated by the stem. The basal cover for herbs was calculated by using formula: (cgh)2 Basal cover = 4π [where cgh is circumference at ground height] These parameters were taken in the field. This field data was analysed for computation of Importance Value Index (IVI), which is the sum of relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance. IVI provides total picture of the sociological structure of species in a community (Mishra, 1969). It thus incorporates three important parameters: Frequency of a species 3.4.1.4. Relative frequency = X 100 Sum of frequencies of all the species Density of a species 3.4.1.5. Relative density = X 100 Sum of densities of all the species Total basal cover of a species 3.4.1.6. Relative dominance = Total basal cover of all the species 3.4.2. Species richness (Diversity indices): X 100 Species richness can be described as the number of the species in a sample or habitat per unit area. Various indices have been formulated, based on the total number of species and total number of individuals in the sample. Higher the value of the index, greater is the species richness. The indices used for calculation of Species Richness in the present study include: 1) Shannon - Wiener’s Index (1949): This species index is the simplest and represents average degree of uncertainty in predicting to which particular species, an individual chosen at random from a sample, will belong. ni H/ = ni log n N ∑ N {Where H = index value / ni = number of individuals of ith species N = total number of individuals of all species} 2) Menhinick’s index (1964): s Db = √n {Where s= number of species n= number of individuals} 3) Margalef’s index (1968): s-1 Da = Log n (n) {Where s = number of species n = number of individuals} 3.5. Life forms and Biological Spectrum: The determination of life forms was preceded by detailed floristic studies. Raunkiaer’s (1918) system as modified by Braun-Blanquet (1932) and Cain (1950) has been used in the present study for the classification of the vegetation on physiognomic basis. The percentage of various life form classes put together constitutes the biological spectrum. The biological spectrum of the present study has been prepared and compared with Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum as well as biological spectrum of the adjoining areas. 3.6. Biomass: Methods for biomass determination depend on the type of vegetation to be studied. Complete harvesting was done for estimating the biomass of the medicinal herbs. For the estimation of below ground biomass, the under ground parts of the plants were separated and taken from the soil after washing them continuously under the tap. The plant material was separated into above ground and under ground parts. All plant parts were oven dried for 24 hours at 800C or till whole moisture was removed. The final dry weight for each herb was recorded using digital balance for the determination of biomass. 3.7. Soil analysis: Soil samples were collected from twelve different sites at random, to cover almost whole of the area, in which the vegetational studies were made. All the soil samples were taken 9-12 inches below the surface of the soil. Soil analysis was done for all twelve sites. Out of these twelve sites six study sites i.e. A,B,E,F,G and L were selected on the left bank of Neeru nallah, while study sites C,D,H,I,J and K were distributed on the right bank of Neeru nallah. Sites A (1740 msl-1850 msl), E (1280 msl-1380 msl) and L (2060-2200 msl) were located in the moist coniferous forests, while sites B (1180 msl-1300 msl), F (1500 msl-1600 msl) and G (1700 msl–1860 msl) were located in the open land in between coniferous forests. On the right bank of Neeru nallah sites C (1200 msl- 1300 msl) and D (1600 msl –1720 msl) were located in the sub-tropical Dry Evergreen forests, while sites H (2400 msl – 2480 msl) and J (2020-2240 msl) were located near the agricultural land in between coniferous forests and sites I (2260 msl – 2380 msl) and K (1680 msl – 1780 msl) were located in pure deodar forests. 3.7.1. Physical parameters: Physical parameters like moisture, temperature and pH were studied in the field, while the soil samples stored in polythene bags were brought to the laboratory for the analysis of organic carbon, bicarbonates, carbonates, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, sulphates, and nitrates. 3.7.1.1. Moisture: Soil moisture was determined directly by using moisture meter “Model DM – 33”. 3.7.1.2. Texture: Soil texture was determined by textural triangle method of “U.S. Department of Agriculture” after asserting the percentage of various soil components viz. coarse, sand, silt and clay by sieving the samples through an electrically operated sieve set. 3.7.1.3. pH: Portable pH meter “Hanna” make was used for recording the pH of the soil solution (10 g. of soil + 50 ml. of distilled water). 3.7.1.4. Temperature: The temperature was recorded in the field by placing soil Thermometer horizontally about 15 cm below the soil surface. 3.7.1.5. Electric conductivity: Electric conductivity of the soil samples was determined after making a solution of soil by dissolving 20 g. of soil sample in 40 ml of distilled water (1:2). Digital Direct Reading conductivity meter (Systronics 304) was used to determine the electric conductivity of the solution. 3.7.2. Chemical parameters: For chemical analysis of soil, the samples were separated in three different groups: 1) 2) Soil water extract (1:2) for CO//3, HCO/3, Cl/, Ca, Mg, Na and K. Ground dry soil samples for available phosphorus, available sulphur, available organic carbon and available nitrate. 3) Ground dry soil samples, 10 gm each, for microelements. 3.7.2.1. Macroelements: 3.7.2.1.1. Determination of Carbonates and Bicarbonates: Carbonates and Bicarbonates from the soil extract were determined by titrimetric method by titrating the solution (extract) against standard acid using phenolpthalein and methyl orange, respectively, as indicators (Gupta, 1999). 3.7.2.1.2. Determination of Chloride: Chloride in the soil water extract was estimated by titrating the extract against standard AgNO3 solution using K2CrO4 as indicator (Gupta, 1999). 3.7.2.1.3. Determination of Calcium: Calcium was determined by Versenate (EDTA) titration method. This method developed by Schwarzentach and Biederman, is very useful on account of its accuracy, simplicity and speed (Gupta 1999). 3.7.2.1.4. Determination of Magnesium: Magnesium was determined by Versenate (EDTA) titration method (Gupta 1999). 3.7.2.1.5. Determination of Sodium: Sodium was determined from soil water extract using flame photometer (EEL model) (Gupta 1999). 3.7.2.1.6. Determination of Potassium: Potassium was determined from soil water extract using flame photometer with Potassium filter (EEL model) (Gupta, 1999). 3.7.2.1.7. Determination of Phosphorus: The soil of the area being acidic in nature Bray and Kurtz no.1 method as suggested by Bray and Kurtz (1945) was followed for the estimation of available phosphorus. Intensity of blue colour was recorded using 730 nm wavelength on spectrophotometer, (Systronics 106) (Gupta 1999). 3.7.2.1.8. Determination of Sulphur: Available sulphur was determined as suggested by Cottenie et al (1979) by using spectrophotmeter (Systronics 106) (Gupta, 1999). 3.7.2.1.9. Determination of Organic Carbon: Colorimetric method as suggested by Datta et al (1962) was followed for the determination of organic carbon. 3.7.2.1.10. Determination of Nitrate: Available nitrate was determined by colorimetric determination method (Jackson, 1973). 3.7.2.2. Microelements: Microelements were determined from the soil samples by using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The sample solutions were introduced into an air – acetylene flame instead of nitrous oxideacetylene flame because of its toxicity and laughing gas nature. The soil samples were digested using EDTA (ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid) extracting solution. EDTA extracting solution = 0.05 M disodium EDTA + 0.01 M CaCl2 + 0.1TEA [Where EDTA= ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid; CaCl2 = Calcium Chloride; TEA = Tri-ethanolamine] Procedure given by Lindsay & Norwell (1969) was followed for the determination of microelements. **************** Observations 4.1 Forest cover of the study area: For most of the recorded history, forests have been recognized not only as a source of personal succour, even wealth, but also as a communal resource, a source of water, game, land, fuel, timber, food, fodder, medicine and much more for all. India is one of the richest countries in the world in both inorganic and organic natural resources. Indian landmass is connected with the Chinese and the Asiatic regions of the world which exercise a powerful influence on the natural characteristics of the physical landscape, climate, plants, animals and human populations. Both geologically and geographically these influences have contributed a great deal in determining what may be called the Indian and the non-Indian or the exotic elements in Indian floristic. The study area i.e. Neeru watershed, bound on all sides by Himalayan ranges, is dominated by coniferous trees viz. Abies pindrow Royle, Cedrus deodara Roxb., Picea smithiana (Wall) Boiss. , Pinus roxburghii Sargent and Pinus wallichiana Jackson. In some areas below 1200 msl, tree species like Olea ferruginea Royle, Trema politoria Planch., Zizyphus mauritiana Lam., Quercus species, Punica granatum Linn., Ficus palmata Forssk. dominate the flora. These species are very common on hillocks on the right bank of Neeru drainage, while Pinus roxburghii is found in addition to the above species on the slopes of the left bank. Between 1200 msl to 2000 msl, Alnus nitida Endl., a broad leaved tree, dominate the vegetation along both the banks of the Neeru nallah. Pinus wallichiana and Cedrus deodara extend between elevations of 1,500 msl to 3,000 msl in the forest area. At higher elevations (above 2,500 msl) the stands of Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana are found on the mountain peaks, while Taxus wallichiana Zucc. occurs well above 2,000 msl elevation and is very poorly represented in the area. Quercus incana Roxb., Q. dilatata Lindl., Q. semecarpifolia Smith, Alnus nitida Endl., Prunus cornuta Wall., Fraxinus excelsior Linn., Aesculus indica Coleb., Rhus succedanea Linn., Juglans regia Linn., Ficus palmata, Populus ciliata Wall. and Acer species are important broad leaved species of the area. In shrub vegetation, Berberis lycium Royle., Daphne oleoides Schreib., Elaeagnus umbellata Thund., Cotoneaster bacillaris Wall., Prinsepia utilis Royle., Ficus palmata, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana Dcne., Rabdosia rugosa Wall., Rubus ellipticus Smith., Spiraea canescens D. Don., Rosa macrophylla Lindl., Indigofera gerardiana Wall., and Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw. are dominating species in the area. At low elevation (below 1200msl) Punica granatum is one more addition to the flora. The forests of Neeru watershed have been divided into six types and further in seven sub-types of five groups as per the classification of Champion and Seth (1964). These types and sub-types are: 4.1.1. Group 10: Subtropical dry evergreen forests 4.1.1.1. Type 10/C1: Subtropical dry evergreen forest 4.1.1.1.1. Sub-type 10/C1a: Olea cuspidata scrub forest: This type of forest extends from Pul Doda (821 msl) to Paranoo (1180 msl) on the slopes of right bank of Neeru Nallah. The scrub forest is characterized by Olea ferruginea (syn. Olea cuspidata) followed by few stands of Quercus baloot Griff. on the right bank of Neeru Nallah, while towards higher slopes, Trema politoria is well represented. The slopes of left bank of Neeru Nallah between Pul Doda and Paranoo are represented by Olea ferruginea followed by Q. baloot, Zizyphus mauritiana and Punica granatum. Besides these species, patches of Pinus roxburghii and Trema politoria are found on these slopes. It is also observed that Olea ferruginea scrub forest, on left bank doesn’t extend above Nali Dangri, Bigotha, Grondi, Bhubba, Bata and Masiri villages. On the slopes, towards the mouth of Neeru Nallah, patches of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb., Nerium indicum Mill., Calotropis procera Br. and Opuntia vulgaris are commonly seen, while Zizyphus mauritiana and Punica granatum Linn. are distributed towards Paranoo. Alnus nitida a broad leaved tree species shows a transition towards temperate region. The area covering sub-type 10/C1a is directly exposed to sun. Thus, low moisture content in soil is characteristic of the slopes of this zone. The soils of these slopes are loose, grey in color with neutral to alkaline pH (Plate-5, Fig.1). 4.1.2. Group 12: Himalayan moist temperate forests: 4.1.2.1. Type 12/C1: Lower Western Himalayan temperate forests 4.1.2.1.1. Sub-type 12/C1a: Ban Oak forest: Sub-type 12/C1a i.e. Ban Oak forest is restricted to pockets at high altitudes in Neeru valley. The dominant tree species of this zone are Quercus dilatata, and Quercus leucotrichophora Camus. (syn. Q. incana) while Rhododendron arboreum Smith, Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don., Juniperus recurva Ham. are represented as associated species. This forest sub-type extends from Gul-Danda Dhar (2770 msl) to Ramtund (3500 msl) including some parts of Chatter-Dhar (3236 msl) and Chuncholu slope (3430 msl). Seoj-Dhar slope (3570 msl- 3690 msl) facing Ramtund peak doesn’t possess this sub-type but stands of Q. leucotrichophora are distributed towards the top of this slope. Generally moist soil is the characteristic feature of this zone while some places are devoid of shrub vegetation due to rocky surface of the area. Towards Sundrikot and Kirmiri Gali, sub-type 12/C1a forest is stretched on the lower belt of Sunderikot (3870 msl) and Kirmiri Gali (3570 msl). It is observed that Ban Oak Forest i.e. sub-type 12/C1a with Quercus species in lower stratification and Rhododendron species in upper stratification are represented in the area ( Plate-6, Figs.1-3). 4.1.2.1.2. Sub-type 12/C1b: Moru Oak forest: Moru Oak forest i.e. 12/C1b is represented by the stands of Quercus dilatata, Abies pindrow and Pinus wallichiana in some grooved pockets in between the hills of left bank of Neeru nallah. However, this sub-type is totally absent on the right bank of Neeru nallah. Between Dhar Lachran (2700 msl) to Mushdeo-roNal (2800 msl) the stands of Quercus dilatata, Abies pindrow, Pinus wallichiana represent sub-type 12/C1b in deep grooved valleys, while Abies pindrow flourish well towards the periphery of those grooves where sunlight reach easily. Due to heavy precipitation in the form of snowfall in winters and rainfall in summers the soil remains moist throughout the year. Moderate acidic pH range from 5.0-6.5 is the characteristic feature of the soil of this forest type (Plate-7, Figs. 1-2). 4.1.2.1.3. Sub-type 12/C1c: Moist deodar forest: Sub-type 12/C1c of the area is represented by pure Cedrus deodara stands with few countable trees of Aesculus indica. On hills and peaks of right bank of Neeru nallah, sub-type 12/C1c stretches between Subar Dhar and Thanala. This area includes Lanchan Dhar in east and south facing slope of Thubba in west, with width getting narrowed between Kansaroo and Duggi slopes. This forest sub-type extends up to Thanala and forms a pure continuous belt of Cedrus deodara. Beside some grooves, 12/C1c forest sub-type is also distributed in mountains and sub-valleys of left bank of Neeru nallah. Forest sub-type 12/C1c extends from slopes of Nalthi to Dhar Lachran as continuous stand while subtype 12/C1b is suspended in the grooved pockets in this (12/C1c) forest sub-type. It has also been observed that sub-type 12/C1c also extends in the form of narrow stretch between Dhar-Lachran and Bigotha in Kellar range. This narrow stretch includes Dranga, Gutasa, Darodoo, Galian, Niota, Panj Gram, Chanti, upper Bhalla, Traown and Bigotha. Although the area of this forest sub-type remain moist throughout the year due to frequent rains but evidences of forest fires are common in this forest sub-type due to the availability of abundant resin. Acidic soils are a characteristic feature of this region (Plate-8, Figs.1-3). 4.1.2.1.4. Sub-type 12/C1d: Western mixed coniferous forest: The sub-type 12/C1d in the area is represented by Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Picea smithiana and Pinus wallichiana. Just above Sub-type 12/C1c, at higher elevations of left bank of Neeru nallah, sub-type 12/C1d stretches from upper portion of Dharaphar to Ramtund (2600 msl) in the form of narrow continuous stand. On right bank of Neeru nallah, this forest type is restricted to the upper peaks of Nagni Mandir and peaks above Duggi-Nal. Some patches have been located in between Padari Gali (2800 msl) and Kataridi-Gali. Mixed forest stands of Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, and Picea smithiana are also present between Ashapatti tributary and Kaplash tributary of Neeru watershed. Few plants of Betula utilis, on rocky surface, and Taxus wallichiana, in the grooves are also located in between these two tributaries. Zamana-ri-Dhar is known for Himalayan Yew i.e. Taxus wallichiana. The soils of the forest type remain wet due to frequent rainfall in summer while winters are characterized by heavy snowfall (Plate-9, Figs. 1-5). 4.1.2.1.5. Sub-type 12/C1f: Low level blue pine forest: 12/C1f forest sub-type is represented by pure Pinus wallichiana stand in Bhadarwah and its close vicinity. These stands are present in the lower belt of sub- type 12/C1c on the peaks along left bank of Neeru nallah. The soils of the area remain acidic and rich in humus (Plate-10, Figs. 1-2). 4.1.2.2. Type 12/C2: Upper West Himalayan temperate forest 4.1.2.2.1. Sub-type 12/C2a: Kharsu Oak forest: Sub-type 12/C2a i.e. Kharsu Oak forest is represented by pure stands of Quercus semecarpifolia and few stands of Trema politoria on the hill slopes of right and left banks near Paranoo. The soil of the area remains dry and grey in colour (Plate-5, Fig.2). 4.1.3. Group 13: Himalayan dry temperate forests 4.1.3.1. Type 13/C1: Dry broadleaved and coniferous forest: Climatically intermediate between sub-tropical and temperate zone, type 13/C1 is represented from Paranoo to Bhalla, while upper peaks of Kellar forest range do not fall in this type. On the slopes of right bank, between Paranoo to Bhalla, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus dilatata, Fraxinus species are distributed. Zizyphus mauritiana, Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana represent the 13/C1 type above Bhalla and in the vicinity of Gurakha (slopes on right bank). The populations of Alnus nitida and Ficus palmata, two broad leaved species, are distributed along both the banks of Neeru nallah and its tributaries from Bhalla to Bheja (2200 msl). Slopes of left bank between Paranoo and Bhalla are characterized by Pinus wallichiana, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus dilatata at low elevations, while Cedrus deodara dominates the vegetation at higher elevations. Snowfall is the prime requisite for this forest type. Berberis lycium, Rosa macrophylla, Rubus ellipticus, Daphne oleoides, Viburnum grandiflorum dominate the shrub vegetation. Ficus palmata grow as individual pockets near the nallahs (Plate-11, Figs. 1-3). 4.1.4. Group 15: Moist alpine scrub This type of vegetation is found at very high elevations, along the snow line. 4.1.4.1. Type 15/C1: Birch/Rhododendron scrub forest: This forest type is mainly represented by dwarf, stunted trees interspersed in pastures and are restricted to the slopes of Ashapatti (3300 msl) and below Sankh-ro-Padhar (3860 msl). The flora of this zone includes Betula utilis, Rhododendron arboreum, R. campanulatum, Corydalis species and Lonicera parviflora etc. The trunks are short and extremely branched attaining a girth of about 50 cms. The area is characterized by very heavy snowfall (Plate-12, Figs. 1-2). 4.1.5. Group 16: Dry alpine scrub 4.1.5.1. Type 16/E1: Dwarf Juniper scrub: Dwarf Juniper scrub forest type is restricted in distribution to the upper portion of the Neeru valley particularly in Ramtund area towards Kaplash lake. Adjacent to the open meadows, the species like Juniperus communis, Juniperus recurva, Caragana are distributed in patches. The species grow well in the rocky area, which remains dry with intense sun-shine. Although frequent rainfall in summer is characteristic feature of the area, yet the area remain dry due to rocky surface. Winters bring heavy snowfall in the area (Plate-13, Figs. 1-2). 4.2 Floristic studies: 4.2.1. Floristic details of medicinal plants: The area of Neeru watershed from Pul Doda to Kaplash represents sub-tropical to temperate climatic conditions. The area thus has all the floristic elements ranging from sub-tropical to temperate. 194 medicinal plant species belonging to 72 families have been collected from the area. The entire specimens collected from the area have been deposited in the herbarium of the department of Botany, University of Jammu and enlisted in Annexure-A along with their respective families. Each plant species with its medicinal importance has been given in Annexure-B. Asteraceae is the most dominant family among the medicinal flora with 18 genera and 20 species (Table 4.1). Table 4.1: Names of families, number of genera and number of species. S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Families Acanthaceae Acoraceae Aizoaceae Amaranthaceae No. of Genera 1 1 1 1 No. of Species 1 1 1 1 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. Anacardiaceae Apiaceae Apocynaceae Araceae Araliaceae Asclepiadaceae Asteraceae Balsaminaceae Berberidaceae Betulaceae Boraginaceae Brassicaceae Campanulaceae Cannabaceae Caprifoliaceae Caryophyllaceae Commelinaceae Convolvulaceae Crassulaceae Cucurbitaceae Cyperaceae Dioscoreaceae Ericaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Fumariaceae Gentianaceae Geraniaceae Hypericaceae Iridaceae Juglandaceae Juncaceae Lamiaceae Liliaceae 2 9 1 2 1 1 18 1 1 1 3 7 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 12 5 2 10 1 2 1 1 20 1 1 1 3 8 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 5 4 2 3 1 1 1 1 12 5 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. Loranthaceae Meliaceae Moraceae Morinaceae Oleaceae Oxalidaceae Papaveraceae Papilionaceae Phytolaccaceae Plantaginaceae Poaceae Podophyllaceae Polemoniaceae Polygalaceae Polygonaceae Primulaceae Punicaceae Ranunculaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae Salicaceae Sapindaceae Saxifragaceae Scrophulariaceae Solanaceae Symplocaceae Taxaceae Thymealaeaceae Ulmaceae Urticaceae Valerianaceae Verbenaceae Violaceae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 5 2 1 8 7 3 1 1 1 1 4 5 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 8 2 1 12 11 5 1 1 1 1 5 7 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 4 Total 161 194 4.2.2. Life forms and Biological spectrum: The life form of the plant is the physiognomic form produced as a result of all the life processes in unison with the environment. The life form classification and construction of the biological spectrum for medicinal plants of the Neeru watershed was undertaken after a complete enumeration of the floristic composition of medicinal plants. A total of 194 medicinal plant species have been listed and grouped into various life forms (Annexure-A). The units of classification used are as per Raunkiaer (1918) as modified by Braun-Blanquet (1932). The various classes used in the present study for the life forms are as under. Therophytes (TH): All annuals; perennating buds are the embryo in the seeds. Hydrophytes and Helophytes (HH): Water, marshy and swampy plants with perennating organs submerged in water in unfavorable Geophytes (G): Perennating buds below ground. Hemi-crytophtes (H): Renewal buds situated at ground level, including biennials. Chamaephytes (CH): Woody or semi-woody perennials with renewal buds situated at 25cm height or less above ground level. Nanophanerophytes (N): Shrubs with vegetative organs less than 2m above soil. Phanerophytes (PH): Trees with vegetative organs more than 2m above soil. Lianas (L): Climbing plants. Epiphytes (E): Those plants, which settle down on the trunks and branches of trees. Out of 194 medicinal plants collected from the study area, 52 species belong to Therophytes, 18 to Macrophanerophytes, 1 to conditions. Hemicryptophytes, 15 to Nanophanerophytes, 4 to Epiphytes, 15 to Geophytes, 6 to Hydrophytes / Helophytes, 1 to Lianas, and 32 to Chamaephytes respectively (Annexure- A). Each life form of the study area has been calculated as percentage and compared with Raunkiaer’s normal biological spectrum (Table-4.2, Plate25). Table 4.2:-Total percentage of medicinal plants of different life form classes. Life Forms Raunkiaer’s spectrum (%age life form in normal TH HH G H H N M L E 13.0 2.0 4.0 26.0 9.0 15.0 28.0 - 3.0 spectrum) Study area (%age life 26.80 3.09 form in study area) Deviation From +13.8 +1.09 +3.73 +0.28 +7.49 -7.27 -18.73 +0.51 -0.94 7.73 26.28 16.49 7.73 9.27 0.51 2.06 Raunkiaer’s spectrum 4.2.3. Phytosociological studies: Phytosociological studies were conducted in all the selected sites of the study area. The primary data (frequency, density and basal area) was evaluated using field observations and its results were incorporated for secondary data analysis. The secondary data includes relative frequency, relative density, relative dominance, importance value index, Margalef’s index, Menhinick’s index and Shannon Wiener’s index. 4.2.3.1. Frequency, density and Importance Value Index (IVI): 4.2.3.1.1. Frequency (Winter): The vegetation of the area varies from season to season and from site to site. During the data collection and sampling in winter months of the year, it was observed that Taraxacum officinale was represented with highest frequency i.e. 80% at site A; Duchesnea indica was represented with 65% frequency among medicinal plants at site B; Gentiana argentea and Viola pilosa were represented with 55% frequency among medicinal plants on site C; Cannabis sativa was represented with frequency of 60% among medicinal plants at site D; Colchicum luteum was represented with frequency of 55% among medicinal plants at site E; while at site F, Tulipa stellata with 65% frequency is followed by Verbascum thapsus with 55% frequency among medicinal plants. The less frequent species among medicinal plants during winter season were Viola pilosa with a frequency of 10% at site A; Fumaria parviflora with a frequency of 15% at site C; Bistorta amplexicaulis with a frequency of 15% at site C; Viola pilosa with a frequency of 10% at site D; Urtica dioica with a frequency of 10% at site E; and Viola patrinii, Ajuga parviflora and Galium aparine with a frequency of 10% each at site F (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.1.2. Density (Winter): The most densely distributed medicinal plant species recorded during winters include, Fumaria parviflora with a value of 1.90 at site A; Duchesnea indica with a value of 1.4 at site B; Viola pilosa with a value of 1.25 each at site C; Thymus serpyllum with a value of 1.3 at site E and Taraxacum officinale with a value of 1.25 at site F. The least densely distributed medicinal plant species during winter months were Indigofera heterantha with a value of 0.20 at site A; Fumaria parviflora and Hedera nepalensis with a value of 0.4 at site B; Carpesium abrotanoides with a value of 0.25 at site C; Viola pilosa with a value of 0.20 at site D; Urtica dioica each with a value of 0.1 at site E; Datura stramonium with a value of 0.1 at site F (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.1.3. Importance Value Index (IVI) (Winter): The maximum Importance Value Index among medicinal plants during winter months was calculated for Phytolacca acinosa with IVI value of 23.540 at site A; Verbascum thapsus with IVI value of 22.518 at site B; Taraxacum officinale with IVI value of 20.392 at site C; Verbascum thapsus with IVI value of 21.554 on site D; Arisaema jacquemontii with IVI value of 28.228 at site E and Hedera nepalensis with IVI value of 28.011 at site F. Likewise the minimum Importance Value Index among medicinal plants during winter season was calculated in Viola pilosa with IVI value of 2.953 at site A; Fumaria parviflora with IVI value of 4.365 at site B; Galium tenuissimum with IVI value of 4.133 at site C; Viola pilosa with IVI value of 4.225 at site D; Urtica dioica with IVI value of 4.308 at site E and Galium aparine with IVI value of 2.533 at site F (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.2.1. Frequency (Spring): The most frequent medicinal plant species during the months of spring were Tulipa stellata, Mentha longifolia, Micromeria biflora with 90% frequency at site A; Thymus serpyllum with 85% frequency at site B; Geranium wallichianum and Capsella bursapastoris with 80% frequency each at site C; Saussurea heteromalla, Micromeria biflora, Viola pilosa, Thymus serpyllum with 90% frequency at site D; Fragaria vesca with 85% frequency at site E; and Saussurea heteromalla, Dioscorea deltoidea, Duchesnea indica, Ranunculus arvense, Fumaria parviflora, Micromeria biflora with 80% frequency each at site F. Beside the frequent species few species were less frequent in the months of Spring. These species were Justicia adhatoda seedlings, Achillea millefolium and Geranium wallichianum with only 5% frequency each at site A; Polygala abyssinica with 20% frequency at site B; Hedera nepalensis with 5% frequency at site C; Datura stramonium seedling with 10% frequency at site D; Valeriana wallichii with 15% frequency at site E, and Primula denticulata with 10% frequency at site F (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.2.2. Density (Spring): The most densely distributed medicinal plant species during spring months were Ranunculus arvensis and Micromeria biflora with a value of 1.2 at site B; Viola pilosa with a value of 1.8 at site B; Fragaria vesca and Fumaria parviflora with a value of 1.15 at site C; Fumaria parviflora with a value of 1.35 at site D; Ajuga parviflora with a value of 3.6 at site E; Dioscorea deltoidea with a value of 1.45 at site F. Likewise least densely distributed medicinal plant species were also recorded from each site during the months of spring. These species were Justicia adhatoda with a value of 0.1 at site A; Verbascum thapsus with a value of 0.4 at site B; Rabdosia rugosa and Potentilla argyrophylla with a value of 0.4 at the site C; Potentilla nepalensis with a value of 0.3 at the site D; Rumex hastatus with a value of 0.5 at the site E and Primula denticulata with a value of 0.2 at site F (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.2.3. Importance Value Index (Spring): The maximum Importance Value Index among medicinal plants during spring months was calculated for Justicia adhatoda with IVI of 13.00 followed by Saussurea heteromalla, Tulipa stellata, Mentha longifolia and Plantago major with IVI values of 11.682, 11.590, 11.408 and 11.218 respectively at site A; Salvia lanata with IVI of 15.415 followed by Verbascum thapsus and Duchesnea indica with IVI values of 14.923 and 12.014 respectively at site B; Hypericum perforatum with IVI of 13.162 followed by Phytolacca acinosa with IVI of 12.746 at site C; Gnaphalium leuto-album with IVI of 20.226 followed by Saussurea heteromalla, Plantago major and Solanum nigrum with IVI values of 19.476, 16.658 and 14.429 respectively at site D; Rabdosia rugosa with IVI of 15.181 followed by Verbascum thapsus, Tagetus minuta and Hypericum perforatum with IVI values of 13.972, 13.707 and 13.238 respectively at site E; Saussurea heteromalla with IVI of 26.273b followed by Arisaema jacquemontii, Tagetus minuta and Bergenia ciliata with IVI values of 18.875, 17.247 and 13.739 respectively at site F. Likewise the minimum Importance Value Index is also calculated for medicinal plants of the area in spring months. The calculated data reveals that Geranium wallichianum with IVI of 0.771 at site A; Fumaria parviflora with IVI of 3.54 at site B; Galium aparine with IVI of 2.643 at site C; Achyranthes bidentata with IVI of 2.659 at site D; Fumaria parviflora with IVI of 3.009 at site E and Primula denticulata with IVI of 1.616 at site F exhibit the minimum IVI in the study area (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.3.1. Frequency (Summer): The most frequent medicinal plant species during the months of summer were Plantago ovata and Galium elegans with 90% frequency each followed by Geranium wallichianum with a frequency of 85% at site A; Fumaria parviflora with a frequency of 85% each at site B; Thymus serpyllum with a frequency of 80% at site C; Plantago ovata with a frequency of 80% at site D; Micromeria biflora with a frequency of 80% at site E and Arisaema jacquemontii with a frequency of 75% at site F followed. Besides the frequent species few species were represented as less frequent in the months of summer. These include Desmodium podocarpum and Gentiana argentea each with only 10% frequency at site A; Taraxacum officinale with 10% frequency at site B; Phytolacca acinosa with 10% frequency at site C; Commelina benghalensis with 10% frequency at site D; Corydalis rutifolia with 5% frequency at site E, and Capsella bursa-pastoris and Oxalis parviflora with 15% frequency each at site F (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.3.2. Density (Summer): The most densely distributed medicinal plant species during summer months were Achillea millefolium with a density value of 1.35 at site A; Fumaria parviflora, Plantago ovata and Duchesnea indica each with a density value of 1.2 at site B; Thymus serpyllum with a density value of 1.45 at site C; Plantago ovata with a density value of 1.2 at site D; Micromeria biflora with a density value of 1.2 at site E and Rabdosia rugosa with a density value of 1.2 at site F. Likewise least densely distributed medicinal plant species were Gentiana argentea with a density value of 0.15 at site A; Taraxacum officinale with a density value of 0.3 at site B; Phytolacca acinosa and Cannabis sativa each with a density value of 0.35 at the site C; Commelina benghalensis with a density value of 0.1 at the site D; Corydalis rutifolia with a density value of 0.15 on the site E and Plantago ovata with a density value of 0.125 at site F (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.3.3. Importance Value Index (Summer): The maximum Importance Value Index among medicinal plants during summer months was in Arisaema jacquemontii with IVI value of 14.689 followed by Verbascum thapsus and Saussurea heteromalla with IVI value of 12.3 and 11.695 respectively at site A; Indigofera heterantha with IVI value of 10.013 at site B; Rabdosia rugosa with IVI value of 14.269 at site C; Xanthium strumarium with IVI value of 13.71 at site D; Phytolacca acinosa with IVI value of 19.252 followed by Potentilla species with IVI value of 15.47 at site E; and Verbascum thapsus with IVI value of 19.552 followed by Taraxacum officinale with IVI value of 10.96 at site F. Gentiana argentea with IVI value of 0.998 at site A, Taraxacum officinale with IVI value of 2.141 at site B; Viola patrinii with IVI value of 4.471 at site C; Anagallis arvensis with IVI value of 3.684 at site D; Corydalis rutifolia with IVI value of 1.128 at site E; and Capsella bursa pastoris with IVI value of 2.335 at site F represented the minimum IVI values in the area for this season (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.4.1. Frequency (Autumn): The most frequent medicinal plant species during the months of autumn were Dioscorea deltoidea with a frequency of 60% at site A; Verbascum thapsus with a frequency of 55% each at site B; Galium aparine with a frequency of 70% at site C; Plantago ovata and Achillea millefolium each with frequency of 60% each at site D; Artemisia vestita with a frequency of 60% at site E; and Artemisia vestita with a frequency of 80% at site F. Beside the frequent species, the less frequent species such as Ranunculus arvensis with a frequency of 10% at site A; Micromeria biflora, Oxalis corniculata and Euphorbia helioscopia with a frequency of 10% each at site B; Bistorta amplexicaulis with a frequency of 10% at site C; Desmodium podocarpum with a frequency of 10% at site D; Phytolacca acinosa with a frequency of 10% at site E; and Oxalis corniculata with a frequency of 10% each at site F were also recorded (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.4.2. Density (Autumn): The most densely distributed medicinal plant species during autumn months were Cannabis sativa with a density value of 1.40 at site A; Capsella bursa-pastoris with a density value of 3.75 at site B; Galium aparine with a density value of 1.15 at site C; Xanthium strumarium with a density value of 0.45 at site D; Mentha longifolia with a density value of 1.05 at site E; and Artemisia vestita, Plantago major with a density value of 0.45 each at site F. Likewise least densely distributed medicinal plant species were Arisaema jacquemontii with a density value of 0.20 at site A; Euphorbia helioscopia and Micromeria biflora with a density value of 0.25 each at site B; Xanthium strumarium with a density value of 0.3 at the site C; Datura stramonium with a density value of 0.2 at site D; Phytolacca acinosa with a density value of 0.35 at site E and Capsella bursa-pastoris with a density value of 0.1 at site F (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.4.3. Importance Value Index (Autumn): The maximum Importance Value Index among medicinal plants during autumn months was recorded in Commelina benghalensis with IVI value of 19.695 at site A; Verbascum thapsus with IVI value of 25.468 at site B; Phytolacca acinosa with IVI value of 15.591 at site C; Xanthium strumarium with IVI value of 19.334 at site D; Digitalis purpurea with IVI value of 19.252 at site E; and Verbascum thapsus with IVI value of 30.147 at site F. The minimum Importance Value Index for medicinal plants of the area in autumn months was represented by Micromeria biflora with IVI value of 3.075 at site A, Micromeria biflora with IVI value of 2.464 at site B, Bistorta amplexicaulis with IVI value of 4.647 at site C; Desmodium podocarpum with IVI value of 3.215 at site D; Ainsliaea latifolia with IVI value of 3.773 at site E; and Capsella bursa-pastoris with IVI value of 3.155 at site F (Annexure-C). 4.2.3.2. Diversity Indices: 4.2.3.2.1. Margalef’s index: In the secondary data analysis, during winter, the maximum value of Margalef’s index was calculated as 6.306 at site A and minimum value of Margalef’s index was calculated as 4.850 at site E. During spring, the maximum value of Margalef’s index was calculated as 7.471 at site C and minimum value of Margalef’s index was calculated as 5.535 at site B. During summer, the maximum value of Margalef’s index was calculated as 7.527 at site E and minimum value of Margalef’s index was calculated as 5.975 at site D, while during autumn the maximum value of Margalef’s index was calculated as 6.093 at site A and minimum value of Margalef’s index was calculated as 4.695 at site F (Table-4.3; Plate-26, Fig.1). 4.2.3.2.2. Menhinick’s index: Similarly, during winter, the maximum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 2.315 at site F and minimum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 2.030 at site B. During spring, the maximum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 2.292 at site A and minimum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 1.726 at site B. During summer the maximum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 2.315 at site E and minimum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 1.924 at site D, while during autumn the maximum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 2.266 at site A and minimum value of Menhinick’s index was calculated as 1.792 at site C (Table-4.3; Plate-26, Fig.1). 4.2.3.2.3. Shannon-Wiener’s index: During winter the maximum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.416 at site B and minimum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.083 at site E. During spring the maximum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.749 at site A and minimum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.457 at site B During summer the maximum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 4.400 at site F and minimum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.394 at site C. During autumn the maximum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.481 at site A and minimum value of Shannon-Wiener’s index has been calculated as 3.078 at site F (Table-4.3; Plate-26, Fig.1). Table-4.3:- Showing the diversity indices for different sites of the study area for all the four seasons of the year 2003. Sites/Season A/Winter B/Winter C/Winter D/Winter E/Winter F/Winter A/Spring B/Spring C/Spring D/Spring E/Spring F/Spring A/Summer B/Summer Margalef’s index 6.306 5.023 5.290 5.288 4.850 5.902 6.934 5.535 7.471 5.891 6.884 6.991 7.210 7.119 Menhinick’s index 2.241 2.030 2.055 2.179 2.106 2.315 2.292 1.726 2.263 1.953 2.137 2.031 2.128 2.198 Shannon-Wiener’s index 3.302 3.416 3.256 3.215 3.083 3.213 3.749 3.457 3.689 3.714 3.608 3.660 3.455 3.529 C/Summer D/Summer E/Summer F/Summer A/Autumn B/Autumn C/Autumn D/Autumn E/Autumn F/Autumn 6.281 5.975 7.527 7.523 6.093 5.183 5.001 5.847 5.443 4.695 2.219 1.924 2.315 2.261 2.266 1.879 1.792 2.139 2.090 1.940 3.394 3.418 3.806 4.400 3.481 3.112 3.127 3.204 3.183 3.078 4.2.4. Biomass studies: Eleven species were taken for biomass studies from all the twelve sites of study area (Table-4.4). These species were selected for biomass because of the variation in size of these plants observed at different study sites. Maximum above ground biomass in case of Ajuga parviflora was recorded as 0.990g at site J between 2020-2240 msl and the minimum biomass of the same species was recorded as 0.710g at site F between 1500-1600 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.533g at site C between 1200-1300 msl and the minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.307g at site E between 12801380 msl. In case of Bistorta amplexicaulis the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.720g at site K between 1600-1700 msl and minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.280g at site G between 1700-1860 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 4.100g at site F between 1500-1600 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 2.194g at site A between 1740-1850 msl. In case of Fragaria vesca the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 1.926g at site L between 2060-2200 msl, while the minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.128g at site H between 2400-2480 msl; maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.588g at site H between 2400-2480 msl while minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.06g at site A between 1740-1850 msl. In case of Galium aparine the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.812g at site E between 1280-1380 msl and the minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.420g at site G between 1799-1860 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.121g at site E between 12801380 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.020g at site G between 1799-1860 msl. In case of Genetiana argentea maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.320g at site F between 1500-1600 msl and minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.115g at site H between 2400-2480 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.141g at site F between 1500-1760 msl and the minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.014msl at site D between 1600-1720 msl. In case of Gnaphalium leuto-album the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 2.850g at site L between 2060-2200 msl and minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.780 at site K between 1600-1700 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.721g at I between 2260-2360 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.012g at site D between 1600-1720 msl. In case of Micromeria biflora the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 1.621g at site B between 1180-1300 msl and minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.132g at site C between 1200-1300 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 1.498 at site B between 1180-1300 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.102 at site C between 12001300 msl. In case of Plantago lanceolata the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 1.923g at site K between 1600-1700 msl and minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.334g at site C between 1180-1300 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.768g at site K between 1600-1700 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.338 at site B between 1180-1300 msl. In case of Sauromatum guttatum the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 3.210g at site E between 1280-1380 msl and minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 1.552g at site H between 2400-2480 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 10.87g at site E between 2060-2200 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 8.191g at site H between 1280-1380 msl. In case of Taraxacum officinale the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 1.326g at site G between 1700-1860 msl and the minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.210g at site C between 12001300 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 1.225g at site H between 2400-2480 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.200g at site C between 1200-1300 msl. In case of Valeriana wallichii the maximum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.812g at site L between 20602200 msl and the minimum above ground biomass was recorded as 0.500g at site H between 2400-2480 msl; the maximum below ground biomass was recorded as 1.821g at site L between 2060-2200 msl and minimum below ground biomass was recorded as 0.298g at site H between 2400-2480 msl (Table-4.4). Table 4.4 :- Biomass studies of eleven herbs at different study sites. (All values in grams.) Plant Species Biomass A Ajuga parviflora Above ground Below ground Bistorta amplexicaulis Above ground Below ground Fragaria vesca Above ground Below ground Galium aparine Above ground Below ground 0.100 0.070 0.050 0.121 0.04 0.020 0.050 0.040 0.090 0.080 0.060 0.750 0.652 0.610 0.812 0.570 0.420 0.520 0.670 0.720 0.790 0.521 0.06 0.587 0.075 0.261 0.120 0.588 0.213 0.238 0.236 0.184 0.197 0.370 0.145 0.163 1.296 0.128 0.512 0.146 0.260 1.926 2.194 2.791 3.920 2.970 2.821 4.100 3.220 2.280 2.711 3.691 3.820 3.940 0.291 0.312 0.520 0.320 0.412 0.500 0.280 0.570 0.621 0.488 0.720 0.451 0.421 0.451 0.533 0.307 0.410 0.510 0.450 0.510 0.320 0.892 0.912 0.740 0.879 0.710 0.820 0.990 0.870 0.720 B C D E F Sites G H I J K L Gentiana argentea Above ground Below ground 0.021 0.014 0.031 0.141 0.132 0.051 0.102 0.112 0.102 0.015 0.153 0.155 0.118 0.320 0.251 0.115 0.224 0.215 0.230 0.173 Gnephalium leutoalbum Above ground Below ground 0.023 0.032 0.012 0.022 0.223 0.231 0.721 0.049 0.032 0.318 0.798 0.822 0.825 1.108 2.285 2.013 1.820 0.839 0.780 2.850 Micromeria biflora Above ground Below ground 0.167 1.498 0.102 0.142 0.170 0.198 0.188 0.131 0.129 0.188 1.621 0.132 0.165 0.493 0.211 0.282 0.150 0.160 Plantago lanceolata Above ground Below ground 0.352 0.338 0.339 0.412 0.375 0.388 0.422 0.381 0.340 0.521 0.768 0.341 1.212 0.364 0.334 0.382 0.346 1.334 0.684 1.632 1.251 1.732 1.923 1.811 Sauromatum guttatum Above ground Below ground 9.721 9.212 11.72 10.11 8.191 9.230 10.87 2.101 1.750 3.210 2.030 1.552 1.991 2.50 Taraxacum officinalis Above ground Below ground 0.710 0.502 0.200 0.231 0.220 0.322 0.821 1.225 0.812 0.922 0.981 0.892 0.721 0.210 0.285 0.270 0.521 1.326 1.211 0.721 1.201 1.100 Valeriana wallichii Above ground Below ground 0.298 1.092 0.922 1.821 0.500 0.794 0.501 0.812 4.2.5. Altitudinal distribution of medicinal plants: During explorations the medicinal plants of the area have been categorized in five different groups (below 1500 msl, 1500-2000 msl, 2000-2500 msl, 2500-3000 msl, 3000-3500 msl and above 3500 msl) on the basis of their altitudinal distribution (Table 4.5). 44 medicinal plants species have been collected below 1500 msl, 100 medicinal plant species between 1500-2000 msl, 96 plant species between 2000-2500 msl, 66 medicinal plant species between 2500-3000 msl, 44 medicinal plants between 3000-3500 msl and 14 medicinal plants above 3500 msl. It has also been observed that few plant species are distributed in a wide range of altitudinal stretch. The maximum medicinal plants grow between the range of 1500-2000 msl and 2000-2500 msl. The range above 3500 msl represents few exclusive medicinal species having rhizomes and bulbs in their below-ground parts. This is because the area remains under snow for most time of the year. The flora of this region get only four months (JulyOctober) to come out of ground to complete their life cycle. (Table-4.5; Plate-26, Fig. 2) S. No. Below 1500 msl 1. Acalypha brachystachya 2. Ajuga parviflora 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Anagallis arvensis Berberis lycium Cannabis sativa Capsella bursapastoris Colchicum luteum Commelina benghalensis Daphne oleoides Table 4.5:- Altitudinal distribution of medicinal plants. 1500-2000 msl 2000-2500 msl 2500-3000 msl 3000-3500 msl Acalypha Acalypha Achillea Achillea brachystachya brachystachya millefolium millefolium Achillea millefolium Achillea Aconitum Aconitum ferox millefolium heterophyllum Achyranthes Achyranthes Anemone Aconitum bidentata bidentata obtusiloba heterophyllum Acorus calamus Acorus calamus Arisaema Aconitum hookeri jacquemontii Aesculus indica Agropyron repens Arundo donax Adonis aestivalis Agropyron repens Ajuga parviflora Atropa acuminate Bergenia ciliata Ajuga parviflora Anagallis arvensis Arisaema jacquemontii Artemisia brevifolia Anagallis arvensis Arisaema jacquemontii Artemisia scoparia Berberis lycium Bupleurum falcatum Cannabis sativa Capsella bursapastoris Cardamine impatiens Colchicum luteum Berberis lycium Bergenia ciliata Bidens pilosa Bromus patulus Bupleurum falcatum Caltha palustris Cannabis sativa Capsella bursapastoris Cardamine Bidens pilosa Bromus patulus Caltha palustris Codonopsis ovata Corydalis govaniana Corydalis thyrsiflora Cynoglossum micranthum Delphinium inacana Erysimum Above 3500 msl Aconitum heterophyllum Aconitum hookeri Adonis aestivalis Bromus patulus Draba gracillima Jurinea macrocephala Nepeta elliptica Oxyria digyna Pleurospermum brunonis Potentilla argyrophylla Rhododendron campanulatum Saussurea costus Tanacetum longifolium Thymus serpyllum - Datura stramonium Duchesnea Berberis lycium indica Euphorbia pilosa Bistorta amplexicaulis Ficus palmata Bunium persicum Fumaria parviflora Galinsoga Bupleurum falcatum Cannabis sativa 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. parviflora Galium aparine Geranium nepalense Girardinia heterophylla Hedera nepalensis Hydrocotyle javanica Hypericum perforatum Ipomoea nil Justicia adhatoda Lithospermum arvense Mentha longifolia Micromeria biflora Origanum normale Oxalis corniculata Pistacia integerrima Plantago Capsella bursapastoris Cardamine impatiens Carpesium abrotanoides Cichorium intybus Colchicum luteum Commelina benghalensis Daphne oleoides Datura stramonium Dioscorea deltoidea Duchesnea indica Erodium cicutarium Euphorbia helioscopia Euphorbia pilosa Fagopyrum cymosum Ficus palmata Commelina benghalensis Datura stramonium Delphinium vestitum Desmodium podocarpum Desmodium tiliaefolium Digitalis lanata Digitalis purpurea Dioscorea deltoidea Duchesnea indica Erigeron canadensis Erodium circutarium Euphorbia pilosa Fagopyrum cymosum Fagopyrum esculentum Fragaria vesca impatiens Commelina benghalensis Corydalis rutifolia Cynoglossum micranthum Desmodium polycarpon Desmodium tiliaefolium Digitalis purpurea Dioscorea deltoidea Erigeron canadensis Erysimum repandum Euphrasia officinalis Fagopyrum esculentum Fragaria vesca Fritillaria roylei Geranium wallichianum Geum roylei repandum Euphrasia officinalis Fagopyrum esculentum Fritillaria roylei Hedera nepalensis Hyoscyamus niger Juncus bufonius Leontopodium himalayanum Meconopsis aculeata Morina longifolia Nepeta elliptica Origanum normale Oxyria digyna Pedicularis pectinata Pleurospermum brunonis Podophyllum - 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. lanceolata Plantago major Fragaria vesca Fritillaria roylei Polygala Fumaria parviflora Fumaria parviflora abyssinica Punica granatum Galinsoga parviflora Gallium aparine Ranunculus aquatilis Ranunculus arvensis Rubia cordifolia Rubus niveus Rumex hastatus Sauromatum guttatum Solanum surrattense Stachys sericea Taraxacum officinale Viscum album Zanthoxylum alatum Galium aparine Gentiana kurroo Gentiana argentea Geranium wallichianum Geranium nepalense Girardinia heterophylla Gnaphalium album Hedera nepalensis Heracleum candicans Hydrocotyle javanica Hypericum perforatum Ipomoea nil Gentiana argentea Gentiana kurroo Geranium wallichianum Geum roylei Gnaphalium luteoalbum Hedera nepalensis Heracleum candicans Hyoscyamus niger Juncus bufonius Mentha longifolia hexandrum Polemonium caeruleum Polygala abyssinica Rhododendron campanulatum Rosa brunonii Rumex nepalensis Salvia lanata - Micromeria biflora Sedum ewersii Origanum normale Selinum vaginatum Pedicularis pectinata Phytolacca acinosa Plantago major Podophyllum hexandrum Polemonium coeruleum Polygala abyssinica Polygonum Solidago virgaurea Tanacetum longifolium Taxus wallichiana Thymus serpyllum Trillium govanianum Valeriana wallichii - Girardinia heterophylla Gnaphalium luteoalbum luteo- Hedera nepalensis Heracleum candicans Hyoscyamus niger Ipomoea pilosa Juglans regia Juncus bufonius - - 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. - Juglans regia Juncus bufonius Lonicera alpigena Mariscus sieberianus Mentha longifolia Lonicera alpigena Melothria heterophylla Mentha longifolia Micromeria biflora nepalense Potentilla nepalensis Rhododendron anthopogon Rorippa islandica Rosa brunonii Rumex nepalensis Salvia lanata Sedum ewersii Selinum veginatum Silene conoidea Solanum nigrum Solidago virgaaurea Spiraea canescens Symplocos crataegoides Taraxacum officinale Taxus wallichiana Thymus serpyllum Trifolium repens Urtica dioica - - Nasturtium officinale Micromeria biflora Origanum normale Mollugo pentaphylla Oxalis corniculata Nasturtium officinale Pergularia daemia Origanum normale Phytolacca acinosa Oxalis corniculata Plantago lanceolata Pergularia daemia Plantago major Phytolacca acinosa Pistacia integerrima Plantago lanceolata Plantago major Polygala abyssinica Polygonum glabrum Populus ciliata Polemonium caeruleum Polygala abyssinica Polygonum nepalense Populus ciliata Potentilla nepalensis Primula denticulata Prinsepia utilis 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. - Potentilla nepalensis Punica granatum Primula denticulata Rabdosia rugosa Ranunculus aquatilis Punica granatum Rhododendron anthopogon Rabdosia rugosa Rhus succedenea Ranunculus aquatilis Robinia pseudacacia Ranunculus arvensis Rorippa indica Rhus succedanea Rorippa islandica Robinia pseudacacia Rosa brunonii Rorippa indica Rubia cardifolia Rorippa islandica Rumex nepalensis Rosa macrophylla Sauromatum guttatum Rubia cordifolia Saussurea heteromalla Rubus niveus Selinum vaginatium Rumex hastatus Siegesbeckia orientalis Rumex nepalensis Silene conoidea Saussurea Sium latijugum heteromalla Siegesbeckia Solanum nigrum orientalis Silene conoidea Spiraea cancescens Sisymbrium irio Tagetus minuta Prinsepia utilis Valeriana wallichii Verbascum thapsus Viola odorata - - - 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. - Solanum nigrum Spiraea cancescens Spiraea sorbifolia Stellaria aquatica Tagetus minuta Taraxacum officinale Thymus serpyllum Trachyspermum ammi Trifolium repens Urtica dioica Valeriana wallichii Verbascum thapsus Viola odorata Viscum album Viscum japonicum Withania somnifera Xanthium strumarium Taraxacum officinale Thymus serpyllum Trifolium repens Tulipa stellata Urtica dioica Valeriana pyrifolia Valeriana wallichii Verbascum thapsus Viola canescens Viola odorata Viola patrinii Viscum japonicum Xanthium strumarium - - - - 4.3. Soil Chemistry: Soil from twelve different sites within the study area was analysed for the physico-chemical parameters. 20 soil samples were collected (9-12 inches below the soil surface) at random from each of the sites and mixed to form a single sample for a single site. Thus 12 samples in general were taken for the analysis. 4.3.1. Physical Parameters: 4.3.1.1. Texture: At majority of the sites within the study area soil was observed as sandy-loam followed by silt loam and sandy-clay loam, while loam type of soil was found at only one site. Sandy-loam soils were observed between 1180- 1300 msl at site B; between 1200-1300 msl at site C; 1600- 1720 msl at site D; between 2400-2480 msl at site H; between 2020- 2240 msl at site J and between 2060-2200 msl at site L. Silt-loam soils were observed between 1740-1850 msl at site A; between 1280-1380 msl at site E; between 1500-1600 msl at site F. Sandy-clay-loam soils were observed between 22602360 msl at site I; between 1680-1700 msl at site K and loam soils were observed between 1700-1860 msl at site G (Table-4.6). 4.3.1.2. Moisture: The moisture content of the soil in the study area was dependent upon the aspect, altitude and position of the study site because the study area is mountainous with altitudinal slope gradient due to which the water holding capacity of the soils is low. The moisture content of the soils at different sites varies between maximum of 30% at site D & I between 1600-1720 msl & 2260- 2360 msl to minimum of 15% at site C between 12001300 msl. Majority of the soils had a moisture content of 20 ± % (Table-4.6; Plate-27, Fig 1). 4.3.1.3. Temperature: The soil temperature of the area ranged from maximum of 22oC at site D between 1600-1720 msl to minimum 8oC at site K between 1680-1780 msl. It has been observed that the site more exposed to the sun rays was hotter than the site less exposed to the sun rays. Moreover the moisture and texture of the soil also affect the soil temperature (Table-4.6; Plate-27, Fig.1). 4.3.1.4. pH: The pH of the soils, in the study area, has been recorded as more or less acidic and ranged from 4.2 at site B between 11801300 msl to 6.7 at site G between 1700-1860 msl. The acidic condition of the soil gets support from the analysis of carbonates as nil and very less bicarbonates. In most of the cases the soil pH ranged from 4.5 – 6.5 at sites A, C, D, E, F, H, I, J, K & L while pH below 4.5 (4.2) was observed at only one site i.e. site B between 1740-1850 msl. Similarly pH above 6.5 (6.7) has also been observed at only one site i.e. site G between 1700-1860 msl (Table-4.6; Plate-27, Fig. 2). 4.3.1.5. Electric Conductivity: The electric conductivity of the soils at maximum sites ranged from 102µ Mhos/cm at site L between 2060-2200 msl to 178 µ Mhos/cm at site I between 2260-2360 msl. The lowest electric conductivity was determined as18µ Mhos/cm at site F. In deodar forest area the EC has been determined as 178 and 136µ Mhos/cm at site I and K between 2260-2360 msl and 1680-1780 msl, respectively, while in open land the EC has been determined as 18, 19.4 and 123 µ Mhos/cm at sites F, G and A between 1500-1600 msl, 1700-1800 msl and 1740-1850 msl, respectively. Site A is nearer to the deodar forest as compared to the sites F and G. Rest of the sites B, C, D, E, H & J showed maximum EC ranging from 102 to 178 µ Mhos/cm as these sites have been either in the dense forest area or in the agricultural area (Table-4.6; Plate-27, Fig. 2). 4.3.2. Macroelements: 4.3.2.1. Organic Carbon: For chemical analysis the humus and litter was first separated from the soil samples. The analysed soil of the study area exhibited low organic carbon ranging from 0.1% at site A between 1740-1850 msl to 0.6% at site H between 2400-2480 msl. This reveals that the decomposition under these soils has been very much low and the availability of nutrients due to decomposition of organic matter has also been low (Table-4.6; Plate-29, Fig. 2). 4.3.2.2. Carbonates: The carbonates and bicarbonates play a very important role in the alkalinity of the soil. Due to the acidic nature of soils on all the sites, the carbonate has been found absent. (Table-4.6; Plate-30, Fig. 1). 4.3.2.3. Bicarbonates: Bicarbonates has been found low in all soils of all the sites ranging from 0.0122% at site E between 1280-1380 msl to 0.0244% at site C between 1200-1300 msl in the study area (Table-4.6; Plate30, Fig.1). 4.3.2.4. Calcium: In all soils, calcium has been determined low as all the soils were acidic in nature. Thus in consonance with the acidic nature of the soils. The calcium content of all the soils, on all sites, in the study area, has also been low. Calcium has been determined with low value ranging from 0.12% at site J between 2020-2240 msl to 0.36% at sites B & D between 1180-1300 msl & 1600-1720 msl, respectively, in the study area (Table-4.6; Plate-28, Fig. 2). 4.3.2.5. Magnesium: Like calcium, magnesium has also been determined low in consonance with the acidic nature of the soil. Magnesium registered a minimum value of 0.19% at sites C & K between 1200-1300 msl & 1680-1780 msl, respectively and a maximum value of 0.41% at site D between 1600 msl-1720 msl. It is interesting to know that calcium and magnesium are also responsible for the acidic nature of the soil on all sites of the study area (Table 4.6; Plate 28, Fig. 2). 4.3.2.6. Chlorides: Chlorides have also been determined as low in all the soils of the study area. The values of the chloride percentage ranged between a minimum of 0.0053% at site A between 1740-1850 msl to a maximum of 0.0177% at site C between 1200-1300 msl. Thus, it is evident from the analysis that chlorides were also not available in appreciable quantity in the study area (Table-4.6; Plate-29, Fig.1). 4.3.2.7. Sodium: Sodium has been determined in all soil samples ranging from a minimum of 2.1% at site B between 1180-1300 msl to maximum of 2.28% at site E between 1280-1380 msl (Table-4.6; Plate-28, Fig. 1). 4.3.2.8. Potassium: The amount of potassium has been determined between a minimum of 2.81% at site J between 2020 – 2240 msl to a maximum of 4.02% at site C between 1200-1300 msl in the study area. Besides these two sites, values of potassium range from 3.245 to 3.98% at other ten sites i.e. A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I, K & L (Table-4.6; Plate-28, Fig. 1). 4.3.2.9. Phosphorus: The percentage of total phosphorus has been found to be in fractions at all the sites and ranged between a minimum of 0.01% to maximum of 0.04%. The minimum value (0.01%) has been determined at two sites D & H between 1600-1720 msl & 2400-2480 msl and the maximum value (0.04%) has also been determined at two sites A & G between 1740-1850 msl & 1700-1860 msl; the other sites exhibited value of 0.02% on sites B, E, J, K and 0.03% on C, F, I, L (Table-4.6; Plate-29, Fig.1). 4.3.2.10. Sulphate: The percentage of sulphate has also been determined in all the soil samples at all the sites and it ranged between a minimum of 0.032% at site G between 1700-1860 msl to a maximum of 0.084% at site B between 1180-1300 msl (Table-4.6; Plate-29, Fig.1). 4.3.2.11. Nitrate: The percentage of nitrate has also been determined at all the sites and it ranged between a minimum of 1.1% at site A between 1740-1850msl to a maximum of 5.01% at site K between 1680-1780 msl (Table-4.6; Plate-28, Fig. 1). 4.3.2.12. Iron: The percentage of iron ranged from 0.72% to 6.52%. The minimum percentage (0.72%) has been recorded at site G between 1700-1860 msl, and the highest percentage (6.52%) was recorded at site K between 1680-1780 msl. Majority of the sites registered a range from 1.08%6.04% (Table- 4.6; Plate-29, Fig. 2). 4.3.3. Microelements: 4.3.3.1. Copper: The amount of Copper showed a great fluctuation. The range varied between 0.85ppm to 12.722ppm. The minimum value of 0.85 ppm was recorded at only one site i.e. site J between 2020-2240 msl followed by 0.934 ppm on site K between 1680-1780 msl. The maximum value of 12.722 ppm followed by 12.224 ppm has been determined for site A and site E between 1740-1850 msl & 1280-1380 msl, respectively. At majority of the sites the value of copper has been registered between 2.614 ppm- 6.988 ppm (Table-4.7; Plate-31, Fig 2). 4.3.3.2. Cadmium: The amount has been determined as low and the range varied between a minimum of 0.009 ppm to 0.089 ppm in the study area. The minimum value of 0.009 ppm has been recorded at site J between 2020-2240 msl while the maximum value of 0.089 ppm followed by 0.071 have been recorded at site A and L between 1740-1850 msl and between 2060-2200 msl respectively. At majority of sites the values of copper ranged between 0.021 ppm to 0.045 ppm (Table-4.7; Plate-31, Fig 2). 4.3.3.3. Zinc: The amount of Zinc exhibited very little fluctuation. The range varied between a minimum of 0.448 ppm at site C between 1200-1300 msl to 1.1ppm at site E between 1280-1380 msl. At majority of the sites the value ranges between 0.457 ppm to 0.833 ppm (Table-4.7; Plate31, Fig. 2). 4.3.3.4. Nickel: A great fluctuation has been observed in the amount of Nickel. The value ranged from a minimum of 3.83 ppm to 9.27 ppm. The minimum value of 3.83 ppm has been observed at three sites B, H & K between 1180-1300 msl, 2400-2480 msl & 1680-1780 msl, respectively, while the maximum value of 9.27 ppm has been recorded for only one site A between 1740-1850 msl. At majority of sites, the values ranged between 4.15 ppm to 5.11 ppm (Table-4.7; Plate- 31, Fig. 1). 4.3.3.5. Cobalt: The amount of cobalt exhibited a very small fluctuation and values ranged from minimum of 0.86 ppm at site H between 2400-2480 msl to maximum of 2.28 ppm at sites E & L between 12801380 msl & 2060-2200 msl, respectively. At majority of the sites the values ranged between 1.19ppm to 1.95ppm (Table-4.7; Plate-31, Fig. 1). 4.3.3.6. Lead: The amount of lead exhibited a very small fluctuation and value ranged from the minimum of 6.32 ppm at site E and J between 1280-1380 msl and 2020-2240 msl to maximum of 9.03 ppm at site L between 2060-2200 msl (Table-4.7; Plate-31, Fig. 1). Table-4.6: Physico - chemical parameters of soil (macro-elements). SITES TAROWN PARAN00 BALERU BRAM- SANII PANJ- DHARA KANSRU MANT- BHEJA DUGGI MOTHLU PUR GRAM HLU A ALTITUDE TEXTURE 17401850m Silt Loam B 11801300m Sandy Loam 20 15 4.2 123 0.3 Absent 0.01355 0.36 0.35 0.0071 2.1 3.24 0.02 0.084 1.5 2.52 C 12001300m Sandy Loam 15 13 6.1 117 0.3 Absent 0.0244 0.2 0.19 0.0177 2.24 4.02 0.03 0.068 3.03 3.96 D 16001720m Sandy Loam 30 22 4.5 112 0.2 Absent 0.0183 0.36 0.41 0.0142 2.2 3.94 0.01 0.044 2.03 1.08 E F G 17001860m Loam H 24002480m Sandy Loam 25 18 6.2 168 0.6 Absent 0.01526 0.16 0.38 0.0106 2.16 3.84 0.01 0.076 4.02 4.72 I 22602360m Sandy Clay Loam 30 17 6.5 178 0.5 Absent 0.0183 0.3 0.25 0.0126 2.2 3.88 0.03 0.072 2.02 3.6 J 20202240m Sandy Loam 20 10 5.5 18.7 0.3 Absent 0.0188 0.12 0.38 0.0124 2.14 2.81 0.02 0.052 1.5 2.52 K 16801780m Sandy Clay Loam 20 8 5.3 136 0.4 Absent 0.0171 0.24 0.19 0.0117 2.1 3.52 0.02 0.056 5.01 6.52 L 20602200m Sandy Loam 25 9 6.5 102 0.4 Absent 0.0143 0.32 0.25 0.0123 2.19 3.89 0.03 0.06 3.01 1.44 1280- 15001380m 1600m Silt Silt Loam Loam 25 13 5.5 19.5 0.5 20 15 4.5 18 0.4 MOISTURE (%) TEMPRATURE (oC) pH CONDUCTANCE (µMho/c) ORGANIC CARBON (%) CARBONATES (%) 25 10 6.5 18.9 0.1 Absent 20 20 6.7 19.4 0.3 Absent 0.0244 0.24 0.25 0.0088 2.14 3.68 0.04 0.032 3.03 0.72 Absent Absent 0.0122 0.0164 0.18 0.32 0.25 0.29 0.0124 0.0122 2.28 2.12 3.52 3.71 0.02 0.03 0.0482 2.52 6.04 0.044 2.01 4.36 BICARBONATES(%) 0.02135 CALCIUM (%) 0.22 MAGANESIUM (%) 0.32 CHLORIDES (%) SODIUM (%) POTASSIUM (%) PHOSPHORUS (%) SULPHATE (%) NITRATE (%) IRON ppm 0.0053 2.22 3.98 0.04 0.076 1.1 5.44 Table-4.7 : Physico – chemical parameters of soil (microelements). SITES TAROWN PARANU BALERU BRAMPUR A B C D 17401850m 12.722 0.089 0.725 9.27 1.2 7.45 11801300m 6.988 0.044 0.833 3.83 0.97 7.22 12001300m 5.016 0.03 0.448 4.47 1.19 6.77 16001720m 3.297 0.032 0.626 5.11 1.95 7.82 SANII E 12801380m 12.224 0.021 1.1 4.71 2.28 6.32 PANJ GRAM F 15001600m 4.032 0.028 0.812 4.71 2.17 7.9 DHARA G 17001860m 3.777 0.03 0.457 5.11 1.41 7.15 KANSRU MANTHLU H I 24002480m 1.989 0.045 0.52 3.83 0.86 8.73 22602360m 2.614 0.037 0.722 4.15 1.73 7.3 BHEJA DUGGI MOTHLU J K L 20202240m 0.85 0.009 0.607 4.47 1.19 6.32 16801780m 0.934 0.021 0.616 3.83 1.52 7.67 20602200m 5.771 0.072 0.812 5.11 2.28 9.03 ALTITUDE Copper ppm Cadmium ppm Zinc ppm Nickel ppm Cobalt ppm Lead ppm 4.4. Conservation of Medicinal Plants of the Study Area: A threatened species is one which is at significant risk of extinction in the foreseeable future, due to various causes like environmental factors, ecological substitutions, biological factors, pathological cause and anthropogenic interferences in the form of habitat destruction, human overexploitation etc. The Species Survival Commission of IUCN first attempted to categorise the threatened taxa according to different degrees of threat perceptions as: Extinct; Endangered; Vulnerable and Rare. Soon after the publication of IUCN’s Red Data Book in 1978 on global basis, several countries including India brought out their own red data books on Plants and Animals. During the last 2 decades, Botanical Survey of India with continued explorations, inventorisation and assessment of various parameters of floral diversity has identified about 1500 species of plants which are rare and threatened. It has also been observed that the species are becoming rare or threatened mainly due to anthropogenic factors like habitat destruction and overexploitation. In the study area the same anthropogenic factors have also been observed for the heavy loss of floral elements. The overexploitation of medicinal plants is the major factor among anthropogenic activities in the study area. Some of the threats observed in the study area are:1. The collection of immature floral elements for medicinal uses viz. Gentiana species. 2. The collection of all the flowers in the wild habitat viz. Viola species, Pleurospermum species, Corydalis species. 3. The collection of below ground parts for medicinal uses (Bergenia species, Jurinea macrocephala, Saussurea costus, Picrorhiza kurroo) etc. 4. 5. 6. 7. Collection of immature fruits for food and medicinal uses. Grazing by goat and sheep flocks. Cleaning of forests for agricultural purposes. Cutting and cleaning of forests for timber. 8. Illegal collection of herbs for medicinal uses and traditional rituals. 9. Construction of circular roads and link roads in the study area. 10. Collection of herbs by pilgrims on their way towards pilgrimage destinations at high altitudes. 11. Forest fires. In the collected medicinal flora of the area there are only few threatened floral elements according to Red Data Book of BSI. These are:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Dioscorea deltoidea Gentiana kurroo Podophyllum hexandrum Saussurea costus Taxus wallichiana Of the five threatened medicinal plants, Dioscorea deltoidea and Podophyllum hexandrum were taken for developing conservation strategies. The two plant species have been studied for both seed germination and transplantation in the study area as well as University Botanical Garden. After the regular trials it has been observed that conservation and propagation of plants through seed germination is useful only in the study area, while under proper care and proper artificial conditions the below ground parts of both the plant species germinate in University Botanical Garden (320 msl). In the second year of study the Podophyllum hexandrum was not able to germinate from the one year old transplanted below ground parts, but the plants of Dioscorea deltoidea germinated from the last year’s transplanted germplasm (Plate-32; Figs. 1-12). In the second year of study some rhizomes of the Dioscorea deltoidea were cut in suitable one and half inches pieces (taking care that germinating bud shouldn’t damage) and planted again in pots in the glass house (Plate-33; Figs. 1-12). By the year 2005, the plants were again germinated in the glass house from these pieces of rhizomes. Data showing the stages of germination and conservation practices has been tabulated below (Table- 4.8). Table-4.8: Conservation practices of Dioscorea deltoidea. Date Jan.15, 2005 Pot no. Plant no. 1 I Jan.15, 2005 1 II Jan.16, Jan.16, 2005 2 I 2005 2 II BG (Rhizome) Length Girth NOSB NNSB 3in. 2 ½ in. 1 2 3 in. 2 in. 1 1 3 ½ in. 3 in. 1 4 3 in. 2 in. 1 1 BG (Root) Length (max.) (min.) NOR 8cm 1cm 27 12 cm 1 ½ cm 14 5 ½ in 1 in. 15 3 in. 1 in. 11 AG (shoot) Number Length NOL SOL (max.) 2 ½ X 2 in. 2 X 2 in 1 22in 17 1 23 in. 22 1 62 in. Nil N.A. 1 24 in. Nil. N.A. 2 X 1½ in. 2 X 1½ in. 2 X 2in. 3 X 1 ½ in. & 3 X 1 ½ in. (min.) 0.5X0.2 in. 0.2X0.1cm 0.1X0.1 cm 1.2 X 1cm 1 X 1in. 1 X 1 ½ in. & nil. CNY 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 1 18 in. 13 1 23 in. 14 1 16 in. 8 2 22 8&3 5 in. 1 in. 10 9 in. 1 cm. 16 13 in. 1 12 12 in. 1½ 18 2 in. 2 in. 1 1 2 in. 1 ½ in. 1 2 2 in. 2 in. 1 1 4 in. 2 ½ in. 2 3 Jan.16, 2005 2 III Jan.17, 2005 3 I Jan.17, 2005 3 II Jan.17, 2005 4 I BG: Below ground part; NOSB: Number of old shoot bud; NNSB: Number of new shoot bud; NOR: Number of Roots; AG: Above ground part; NOL: Number of leaves; SOL: Size of Leaves; CNY: Cutting for New Year. For the next year, 19 vegetative buds from rhizomes were separated from the last year’s planted species. These 19 buds have been planted again in the separate pots. Bhat and Bindroo (1982) were followed for the induction of early bud sprouting in Dioscorea deltoidea. Soil used in pots was maintained to acidic pH to provide the maximum availability of the micronutrient to the crop. All the buds have germinated into plantlets within two months. Within four months of plantation of the species few plants have reached maturity by producing flowers. Data showing the stages of germination for the season have been tabulated below (Table-4.9). Table 4. 9: Data recorded for Conservation practices of Dioscorea deltoidea on July 9, 2005 PN NOC NOS NOFS NOFr 1 1 4 1 Nil 2 1 1 Nil Nil 3 1 4 2 Nil 4 1 1 Nil Nil 5 1 5 2 Nil 6 1 2 1 Nil 7 1 1 Nil Nil 8 1 2 Nil Nil 9 1 3 1 Nil 10 1 2 Nil Nil 11 1 3 Nil Nil 12 1 4 Nil Nil 13 1 2 Nil Nil 14 1 3 1 Nil 15 1 1 Nil Nil 16 1 1 Nil Nil 17 1 2 Nil Nil 18 1 2 Nil Nil 19 1 4 1 Nil PN: Pot number; NOC: Number of cuttings; NOS: Number of Shoots; NOFS: Number of Flowering shoots; NOFr: Number of Fruiting shoots. 5 pots of last year were not disturbed and have been placed in glasshouse as such to observe the growth, development and propagation of propagules. Seeds of Podophyllum hexandrum have not germinated in the university botanical garden but in the research station at an altitude of 1600 msl within the study area seeds sown in August 2003 have germinated after 21 months (Table-4.10; Plate-34; Figs.1-5). Table-4.10: Cultivation trial for Podophyllum hexandrum at research station Bhadarwah (1600msl). Date/Year August 2003 April 2004 August 2004 April 2005 Number of seeds sown 50 Nil Nil Nil Number of seeds germinated Nil Nil Nil 48 In the same year of study germplasm of one more plant (Digitalis purpurea) was collected from the study area and tried in the University Botanical Garden. Firstly three plants of the species were transplanted to the botanical garden in open field. The plant species was transplanted in the month of September 2003. The species survived for eight months (September 2003 - April 2004) without any distortion in the greenery of the leaves. But during month of May 2004, the symptoms of the death of the plant were observed and then the plants were shifted to greenhouse. Likewise in August 2004, 35 plants were also taken to the University Botanical Garden for experimental purpose. Out of these five are planted in pots of the Glasshouse and 30 are planted in the open field of University Botanical Garden. Out of these 30 plants only two plants attained maturity phase by flowering in the botanical garden and only one plant in the glasshouse was observed in flowering. (Plate-35; Figs. 1-9). *********** Discussion 5.1. Forest cover: During exploration of the medicinal plants of the study area, the vegetation types and forest types of the Neeru watershed were also recorded. After a detailed survey for three years, a forest map has been compiled in which the forests of the study area have been grouped in five groups which are further classified in types and sub-types (Plate-14 & Fig.2). From these observations it has been concluded that the area is dominated by Cedrus deodara trees and the dominating forest sub-type is 12/C1c i.e. moist deodar forest. This observation is in consonance with the observations of Kumar (1987) who reported Cedrus deodara as the dominating tree species in the Bhadarwah area. Abundance of Cedrus deodara in the present study area indicate that in addition to the rainfall the distribution of the precipitation during the year plays an important role in the general make up of the forest vegetation. This has also been emphasized by Champion (1936). The thick canopy of Cedrus deodara forest in the study area does not allow the ground flora to grow but the areas devoid of thick forests have the maximum ground flora. This may be due to the minimum availability of sunlight to the ground vegetation because of the thick canopy of giant Cedrus deodara and other broad-leaved shrubs. This observation is supported by the findings of Mayers (1980). 5.2. Floristic details: Ethno-botany is the study of how people of a particular culture and region make use of indigenous plants. Ethno-historic research in India reveals that Indians are conservationists. The floristic study of the medicinal plants has shown that the area is endowed with large number of medicinal herbs than other plants on each study site (Annexure-C). In the present study, 161 genera with 194 species of medicinal plants have been recorded (Table-4.1). Dominant family among medicinal plants in the study area is Asteraceae with 18 genera and 20 species followed by Lamiaceae with 10 genera and 11 species ( Table-4.1), while the total number of 323 genera with 488 species represent the flora of Bhadarwah forests and the dominating family in the study area is Asteraceae with 61 species (Kumar, 1987). Although in the present study only the medicinal plants have been considered but it becomes very evident from the observation of Kumar (1987) that the climate of the area favours the Asteraceae family to establish well in the Neeru-valley. The climatic zonation of the study area resembles the climatic features of Mussoori (now in Uttaranchal), but the flora of study area is somewhat different from the flora of Uttaranchal. In Mussoori, there is a coniferous climate (Gupta, 1967) while in Neeru watershed at most of the hills the Rhododendron sp. and Quercus sp. are also seen along with the Juniperus sp. On comparison of the flora of the study area with the flora of Mussoori, it becomes apparent that Graminaeae (Poaceae) falls at number one with 123 species in Mussoori while as it is Asteraceae in the study area. Similarly the flora of Simla is again dominated by Graminaeae (Poaceae) with 133 species (Collett, 1921). 5.2.1. Life forms: The life form classification of the medicinal plant species favour the therophytic flora to flourish well in the area because of the topography, climate and soil chemistry. This observation is in consonance with the observations of Kumar (1987), but doesn’t conform to the Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum. In the study area therophytic and chamaephytic medicinal plants show a great positive divergence from the Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum, reflecting a therochamaephytic climate of the region (Table-4.2). As per the Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum the phytoclimate of the study area should be phanero-hemicryptophytic while the studies of the Kumar (1987) reveal that the phytoclimate of the Bhadarwah forest is thero-hemicryptophytic, because of so many factors, at macro, meso and micro-climatic level. It is interesting to observe that the study for medicinal plants only, in the same area, reflects that the area favours therochamaephtic phyto-climate. Kaul and Sarin (1976), while working in another belt and aspect of the Bhadarwah forest, reported chamaephytes and hemicryptophytes as the largest life form classes. But present study of medicinal plants registers therophytic and chamaephytic life forms as the largest life form classes in the study area. Moreover the geophytes register double the value than the Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum. This may be because of the temperate climate of the area which favours such plants which can preserve their vegetative (propagative) buds under the soil during the chilling winters. When the life forms of the present study were compared with the life forms of adjoining areas the results showed that the therophytes register a high percentage at all the places except Trikuta Hills (Table-5.1). According to Bharucha and Dave (1944) the high value of therophytes is an indicator of the amount of influence of man and animal. Table 5.1: Comparison of Life forms of medicinal flora of study area with adjoining areas. Life forms Study area Author, 2005 Bhadarwah Forest Trikuta Hills Patnitop Kumar, 1987 Kour, 2001 Kumar, 1997 Kathua Jhangir, 2004 32.89 1.27 2.55 15.77 12.36 12.79 16.63 5.11 0.63 29.8 3.2 3.5 26.4 15.2 8.5 10.4 2.6 0.2 27.31 3.09 7.73 26.00 16.49 15.0 28.0 1.03 3.0 29.3 3.30 4.5 37.1 11.5 6.14 6.35 1.43 0.40 TH 26.80 HH 3.09 G 7.73 H 26.28 CH 16.49 N 7.73 M 9.27 L 0.51 E 2.06 Jammu Sharma, 2003 35.45 1.78 2.02 9.11 13.93 11.64 16.70 8.87 0.50 Raunkiaer’s Spectrum normal 13.0 2.0 4.0 26.0 9.0 15.0 28.0 - 3.0 5.2.2. Phytosociology: In the present study, the medicinal flora of the area has been classified in two classes (i) known medicinal plants, and (ii) unknown medicinal plants. During the phytosociological studies it has been observed that the maximum plants in each quadrate are from the first class i.e. known medicinal plants. This observation also reveals that the study area is very much suitable for the cultivation of medicinal plants. During the phytosociological analysis of the flora of Neeru watershed in winters, the medicinal species like Taraxacum officinale, Verbascum thapsus, Oxalis corniculata, Duchesnea indica, Phytolacca acinosa, Tagetus minuta, Hedera nepalensis, Colchicum luteum, Girardinia heterophylla, Arisaema jacquemontii and Bergenia ciliata register a high IVI and this is in consonance with the studies of Kumar (1987) in Bhadarwah and Kumar (1997) in the Patnitop (temperate regions) of the province. The phytosociological analysis of the herbaceous flora of other three seasons is in consonance with the earlier studies of Kumar (1987), Kumar (1997), and Kesar (2002). The medicinal plants are though dominant in the study area, yet most of them are not taken by the grazing animals. This observation is similar to the observations of Kumar (1987), Kumar (1997), Behera (2000), Kesar 2002, Sharma (2003), and Jhangir (2004). Comparison of the diversity indices of the present study with the diversity indices calculated by Sharma (2003) for Himalayan Sub-tropical vegetation of Jammu shows that there is a great variation among the Margalef’s index. The Margalef’s index as calculated by Sharma (2003) for three types of vegetation i.e. sub-tropical deciduous forest, Himalayan sub-tropical scrub and Himalayan subtropical Pine forest ranges between 17.68-34.89 while the Margalef’s index in the study area ranges between 4.695-7.527 in all the study sites in all the four seasons (Table 4.3). The calculated Menhinick’s index from the study area is almost similar to that of Sharma (2003) in the Jammu forests. Similarly the Shannon-Wiener’s index calculated from the study area is similar to that of Sharma (2003). 5.2.3. Biomass studies: The differences in the nutrient content and their distribution in the ecosystem are governed by several inter-related factors. Kumar (1987), while working on the phytosociological and productive studies of Bhadarwah forests, reported that the root-shoot ratio increase from moist to mesic and xeric conditions. These observations have been supported by Bray (1963), Struik (1965) and Monk (1966). After consulting the work of Kumar (1987) and visual observations only few species were taken for the biomass study. The criteria for the selection of these species were the variation in size of these plants at different study sites. In the present study similar findings have been recorded as given by Bray (1963). The sites falling in xeric conditions (A, B, C and D) possess maximum root-shoot ratio, as compared to the other sites (Table-4.4). This may be due to the high demand for water contents by the plants. 5.3. Soil Chemistry: Edaphic factors more or less control the occurrence, composition and succession of forests within a climatic zone. The soil temperature was found to be related to air temperature, though exposure and plant cover tend to modify this relationship. The surface soil temperature was lower than the air temperature. Temperature and mountain aspect relationship was in consonance with the studies of Kumar (1987) and Wazir (1984). The results of the present study are in consonance with the results of the Shanks (1956), who have observed that soil and air temperature differences tend to be greater in higher temperature range than at lower temperature. Soil moisture had a direct relationship with soil temperature. Wetter soils were colder than the dry ones. These results find the support from the observations of Kumar (1987). Krishnaswamy et al (1957) studied the microclimate of a plantation in Dehradun and concluded that soil temperature remained higher throughout the year in open habitat while it was observed to be lower under plantation. Similar results have also been observed during the soil studies in the study area. The soils of the study area have been observed as acidic and are in consonance with the observations of Wazir (1984) and Kumar (1987) (Table 4.6). Our observations also find support from the works of Puri and Gupta (1951) who observed values of pH ranging between 5.8 to 6.1 for soils under Abies pindrow and 6.2 to 6.6 for Pinus wallichiana for forest soils of Kulu Himalayas. As the soils of the area are acidic in nature, there is maximum availability of mineral nutrients to the plants. This can be concluded by comparing the results with the work of Lucas and Davis (1961). According to the findings of Lucas and Davis (1961), nutrients viz. Mo, Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Mg, Ca, S, K, P and N are available in the pH range of 5.5 to 6.5. Townsend (1974) has categorized the various nutritional elements in four different classes viz. 1. 2. 3. 4. Macro-nutrient elements Micro-nutrient elements Harmful elements Incidental elements In the present study about 18 macro and micro-elements from the soil were analysed and classified in four classes as per the classification of Townsend (1974). These are C, P, K, Mg, Ca Fe and Na as macronutrient elements; Co, Cu, Zn as micro-nutrient elements; Ni and Pb as the harmful elements and Cd as the incidental element. But in the present study, few other elements like carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates were also analysed from the soils because these elements are important for setting the pH gradient in the soil. The absence of carbonate and low range of bicarbonate (from 0.012% to 0.024%) reveals that the soils are acidic in nature (Table-4.6). Gypsum pieces present on the soil surface of the study area are slightly soluble, but release sufficient sulphates to support plant growth. It has been observed that there is low percentage of sulphates as compared to the percentage of calcium (Table-4.6). This observation is in consonance with the observations of Taiz and Zeiger (2002). According to Taiz and Zeiger (2002) root growth is generally favoured in slightly acidic soils at pH value between 5.5 and 6.5. Our observations conform to the above hypothesis. In the study area, the predominating medicinal flora possesses the underground parts which are used for medicinal purposes in local treatments. Moreover, the dominating tree species of the area Cedrus deodara and many other floral elements bear a mycorrhizal association and all the soils of the study area are acidic in nature. Acidity promotes the weathering of rocks that release K, Mg, Ca and Mn and increase the solubility which facilitates absorption by the roots. The amount of rainfall and decomposition of organic matter in soils are major factors in lowering the soil pH. 5.4. Conservation of threatened medicinal plant species: A classification of the medicinal vegetation on physiognomic basis revealed that the study area is represented by therophytic type of flora. Thus seeds were preferred for the conservation practice. Initially only two plant species were taken to develop the conservation strategy. Seeds were tried for both the species at research station Bhadarwah (1600 msl), but it was observed that the seeds germination in both the species was very poor. The underground parts viz. rhizomes for both Dioscorea deltoidea and Podophyllum hexandrum were tried for further studies. It has been observed that the rhizomes of D. deltoidea are woody in nature but decay off due to the attack of tuber rotting fungi. To prevent the decay during field growth of the species, the rhizomes were pre-treated with 3000 ppm of Benamyl fungicide (Bhattacharjee, 2000). The protocol proposed by Bhattacharjee (2000) for D. floribunda was followed to cultivate D. deltoidea. The rhizomes of the species were divided into crown, median and tip parts. In case of D. floribunda, it has been observed that tips grow slowly while rhizome pieces from crown and median parts grow quickly (Bhattacharjee, 2000). Our observations are slightly different for D. deltoidea. The crown of D. deltoidea grows faster than the median and tip parts. It has also been observed that 3-4 plantlets grow simultaneously from the crown part, but later on only one attain maturity. This is clear indication of resource allocation. Therefore, it may be beneficial to separate the germinating buds in early stages and plant them individually. The germinating buds in the rhizome are distinguishable from rest of rhizome by few characters as follows: 1. The germinating buds are bright yellow in colour than the rest of rhizome (dark brown). 2. The germinating buds are swollen outgrowths. 3. More often young shoots are observed on the germinating buds. 4. Germinating buds are soft than the rest of the rhizome. In the present study, the methods as proposed by Bhat and Bindroo (1982) were followed for the induction of early buds sprouting in D. deltoidea. D. deltoidea produce viable seeds, but seed production is rare and germination is slow. In the present study seeds were also studied for their germination after the treatment with different concentrations of GA3 (Yousuf, 2002). In the present study maximum germination was observed in the seeds treated with 50ppm GA3 (Plate 36). According to Bhattacharjee (2000) Podophyllum sp. is propagated from seeds or by division of rhizomes. Seed germination is poor. Seeds are sown in spring season, seedlings are transplanted in a well pulverized and fertilized soil at a distance of 30cm x 20cm. Organic rich moist soil, partially shaded borders, marshes or bog gardens are suitable for its cultivation. In the present study the rhizomes were collected from the altitude of 2800 msl to 1600 msl and were transplanted at research station Bhadarwah. After one year of transplantation each rhizome germinated into one plantlet only. Simultaneously, the seeds were also sown at 1600 msl in spring season. These seeds sown in August 2003 germinated after 21 months. This proves that the seeds of Podophyllum hexandrum possess a long period of dormancy. *********** Summary The Himalayas are the youngest mountain ranges of the world, especially the central ridge of that mountain system, which forms the southern limit of Tibet for 2,500 miles from Assam in the east to Jammu and Kashmir in the west. Himalayas are series of more or less parallel or converging ranges intercepted by numerous valleys and extensive plateaus. Due to the variation in topography, it enjoys a variety of climate, and has been divided into three ecological zones i.e., sub-mountainous, temperate zone and alpine zone. These climatic variations make it quite a bit interesting and rich zone of biodiversity. The inner dry valleys and Trans-Himalayan tracts that lie north of the main Himalayan mountain wall receive very low monsoon rainfall but relatively heavy snowfall. Same is the condition in the area of study i.e. Neeru watershed. Neeru watershed (J&K) situated in the Northwest Himalayas was selected for ecological studies and conservation of medicinal plants. Climatically and ecologically the area represents almost the whole state, as the climatic conditions of the area range from sub-tropical to alpine. Neeru stream originating from Kaplash Lake (4341 msl) and Ashapatti Glacier (3300 msl) is the main stream of the area. Neeru stream is dual in origin and the two tributaries join each other in main town of Bhadarwah (1600 msl) and then flow for about 30 km to meet Chenab River at Pul Doda (821 msl). The forests of Neeru- watershed have been divided into six types and further in seven sub-types of five groups as per the classification of Champion and Seth (1964). The vegetation of each type and sub-type has been described in detail. The dominant forest type of the area includes moist Cedrus deodara forest. Among medicinal flora, Asteraceae is the most dominant family in the area with 18 genera and 20 species. The other dominant families, with regard to the medicinal plants, in the area include Lamiaceae (12 genera, 12 species), Apiaceae (9 genera, 10 species), Ranunculaceae (8 genera, 12 species), Rosaceae (7 genera, 11 species) and Brassicaceae (7 genera, 8 species). A total of 194 medicinal plant species belonging to 161 genera of tracheophytes grouped in 72 families have been recorded from the study area, during three years (April, 2003 to April, 2005) of field study. A complete list of 194 medicinal plants, from the study area, with their medicinal values has been presented. Most of the specimens have been collected, preserved and mounted on herbarium sheets and deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Botany, University of Jammu. A large number of plants have been photographed in their natural habitat. Phytosociological studies have been conducted during all the four seasons by laying quadrates of suitable size. The study includes the collection of primary data, and based on the primary data the secondary data has been calculated. The values have been presented in a tabular form and also discussed in detail. During the phytosociological analysis of the flora of Neeru watershed in winters, the medicinal flora like Phytolacca acinosa, Taraxacum officinale, Verbascum thapsus, Arisaema jacquemontii and Hedra nepalensis registered a high IVI. During spring, Justicia adhatoda, Salvia lanata, Hypericum perforatum, Phytolacca acinosa, Gnaphalium leuto-album, Rabdosia rugosa registered a high value of IVI. During summer, Arisaema jacquemontii, Rabdosia rugosa, Phytolacca acinosa, Verbascum thapsus and Taraxacum officinale registered a high value of IVI, while during autumn, Verbascum thapsus, Phytolacca acinosa, Digitalis purpurea registered a high value of IVI. Diversity indices like Margalef’s index, Menhinick’s index, and Shannon-Wiener’s index have been calculated for the medicinal plants of the area. Biomass studies for eleven medicinal plants have been conducted because of the variation in size of the species at different sites. The relationship of soil chemistry, meteorological data and altitudinal distribution of medicinal plants in the area has also been discussed in relation to the vegetation. Life forms and biological spectrum of the medicinal plants of the study area have also been investigated. Out of 194 medicinal plants collected from the study area, 52 species belong to therophytes, 18 to macro-phanerophytes, 51 to hemi-cryptophytes, 15 to nano-phanerophytes, 4 to epiphytes, 15 to geophytes, 6 to hydrophytes/helophytes, 1 to lianas, and 32 to chamaephytes respectively. These life forms have been compared with Raunkiaer’s normal biological spectrum and the biological spectrum of the adjoining areas. Based on these observations the phytoclimate of the area has been discussed thoroughly. In the present study the medicinal flora of the region has been grouped in five groups on the basis of altitudinal gradient and the altitudinal range between 1500-2000 msl has been recognized as the zone with maximum diversity of medicinal flora. Hence this zone has been chosen as an experimental station for the conservation of some of the medicinal plants of the area. In physico-chemical analysis of soil the parameters taken for the analysis were, texture, moisture, temperature, pH, electric conductivity, carbonates, bicarbonates, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, Sodium, Potassium, Total Phosphorus, Sulphates, Nitrates, Iron, Copper, Cadmium, Zinc, Nickel, Cobalt and Lead. Conservation of medicinal plants of the study area also has been discussed and conservation practices for Dioscorea deltoidea and Podophyllum hexandrum have also been carried out in situ and ex situ. The thesis also contains a chapter on materials and methodology, which has been described in detail. 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Phil. dissertation, University of Kashmir, (J&K). ---------------*********--------------- Annexure A : List of medicinal plants from the study area ( Neeru Watershed ) with their families and Life forms. S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Name of species Justicia adhatoda L. Acorus calamus L. Mollugo pentaphylla L. Achyranthes bidentata Bl. Pistacia integerrima Stew. Family Acanthaceae Acoraceae Aizoaceae Amaranthaceae Anacardiaceae Plate No./Fig.No. 22-5 24-9 Life form N HH TH Acc. No. 23-3 17-9 H MPH PH SKHC - NEERU-101/8249 SKHC-NEERU-102/8250 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Rhus succedanea L. Anethum sowa Roxb. Bunium persicum (Boiss) B. Fedtsch. Heracleum candicans Wall. Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. Pleurospermum brunonis Benth. Selinum vaginatum Clarke. Anacardiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae 19-4 19-2 19-1 19-3 CH CH H H H H HH SKHC-NEERU-105/8253 SKHC-NEERU-109/8257 SKHC-NEERU-103/8251 13. Sium latijugum Clark. Apiaceae 14. Bupleurum longicaule Wall. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Bupleurum falcatum L. Trachyspermum ammi Nerium indicum Mill. Arisaema jacquemontii Engl. Sauromatum guttatum Schott. Hedera nepalensis K . Koch. Pergularia daemia (Forskal) Chiov. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. Leontopodium himalayanum DC. 30. Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Artemisia vestita Wall. Cichorium intybus L. Inula royleana DC. Achillea millefolium L. Gnaphalium luteo-album L. Jurinea macrocephala Benth. Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apocynaceae Araceae Araceae Araliaceae Asclepiadaceae 21-3 24-10 24-11 19-5 TH TH TH N G G E (CLIMBER) SKHC-NEERU-110/8258 CH SKHC-NEERU-107/8255 Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae 20-3 20-6 20-2 20-4 20-5 CH CH CH CH H H H H H SKHC-NEERU-119/8267 SKHC-NEERU-131/ 8279 SKHC-NEERU-113/8261 31. Saussurea heteromalla (D. Don) Hand. – Mazz. Asteraceae 20-7 H SKHC-NEERU-132/8280 32. 33. 34. Solidago virga-aurea L. Tagetus minuta L. Tanacetum longifolium Wall. ex DC. Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae 20-8 H H H SKHC-NEERU-126/8274 SKHC-NEERU-125/8273 35. Ainsliaea latifolia (D. Don) Sch.Bip. Asteraceae 20-10 TH 36. 37. 38. 39. Bidens pilosa L. Carpesium abrotanoides L. Erigeron canadensis L. Siegesbeckia orientalis L. Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae TH TH TH TH 20-9 TH TH 17-5 16-1 TH N MPH 21-6 CH SKHC-NEERU-137/8284 SKHC-NEERU-135/8283 40. 41. Taraxacum officinale Wigg. Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae Asteraceae Balsaminaceae 42. Impatiens roylei Klotz. 43. 44. 45. Berberis lycium Royle. Betula utilis D. Don. Berberidaceae Betulaceae Cynoglossum micranthum Dalz. & Boraginaceae Gibs. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. Macrotomia benthamii DC. Lithospermum arvense L. Capsella bursa-pastoris Moench. Cardamine impatiens L. Draba gracillima Hk. F.& T. Erysimum repandum L. Nasturtium officinale W.T. Ait. Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern. Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbas. Sisymbrium irio L. Codonopsis ovata Benth. Cannabis sativa L. Lonicera alpigena L. Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. Stellaria aquatica (L.) Scop. Silene conoidea L. Commelina benghalensis L. Ipomoea nil (Linn) Roth. Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Campanulaceae Cannabaceae Caprifoliaceae Caprifoliaceae Caryophyllaceae Caryophyllaceae Commelinaceae Convolvulaceae 24-8 19-6 16-12 24-2 16-8 MPH TH TH TH TH TH TH TH TH TH H CH N N H TH TH CH SKHC-NEERU-146/8294 SKHC-NEERU-152/8300 SKHC-NEERU-145/8293 SKHC-NEERU-141/8289 64. 65. 66. Ipomoea pilosa Cav. Sedum ewersii Ledeb. Melothria Cogn. heterophylla Convolvulaceae Crassulaceae (Lour.) Cucurbitaceae 21-7 CH N TH SKHC-NEERU-154/8302 67. 68. 69. 70. Mariscus sieberianus Nees. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. Cassiope fastigiata D.Don. Rhododendron campanulatum D.Don. Cyperaceae Dioscoreaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae 24-4 20-12 20-11 H G CH N SKHC-NEERU- 156/8304 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. Acalypha brachystachya Hornew. Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbia pilosa L. Desmodium podocarpum DC. Desmodium polycarpum DC. Desmodium tiliaefolium D. Don Trifolium repens L. Robinia pseudo-acacia L. Corydalis govaniana Wall. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fumariaceae 16-5 17-10 23-10 23-11 TH TH TH CH CH CH H MPH CH SKHC-NEERU-163/8311 SKHC-NEERU-206/8354 SKHC-NEERU-161/8308 SKHC-NEERU-159/8307 80. 81. Corydalis rutifolia Sibth. Corydalis thyrsiflora Prain. Fumariaceae Fumariaceae 16-6 16-4 16-7 21-4 21-5 17-3 17-2 CH CH TH H H CH CH TH SKHC-NEERU-164/8312 SKHC-NEERU-165/8313 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. Fumaria parviflora Lamk. Gentiana argentea Royle. Gentiana kurroo Royle. Geranium wallichianum Sw. Geranium nepalense Sw. Erodium cicutarium Leman. Hypericum perforatum L. Iris kemaonensis D.Don. Juglans regia L. Juncus bufonius L. Prunella vulgaris L. Saliva moorcroftiana Wall. Clinopodium vulgare L. Nepeta elliptica Royle. Rabdosia Hara. rugosa Fumariaceae Gentianaceae Gentianaceae Geraniaceae Geraniaceae Geraniaceae Hypericaceae Iridaceae Juglandaceae Juncaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae SKHC-NEERU-169/8317 SKHC-NEERU-171/8319 SKHC-NEERU-170/8318 17-1 15-12 CH G MPH HH 22-8 22-10 CH CH H H SKHC-NEERU-187/8335 （Wall.） Lamiaceae 22-9 H SKHC-NEERU-181/8329 97. Salvia lanata Roxb. Lamiaceae H 98. 99. 100. 101. Thymus serpyllum Auct. Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson. Ajuga parviflora Benth. Micromeria biflora (Buch-Ham.) Benth. Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae 22-11 22-12 H HH TH SKHC-NEERU-184/8323 SKHC-NEERU-172/8320 SKHC-NEERU-189/8337 SKHC-NEERU-173/8321 22-7 TH 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. Origanum normale Don. Stachys sericea Wall. Ex Benth. Allium sp. Colchicum luteum Baker. Fritillaria roylei Hook. Trillium govanianum Wall. Ex. D. Don. Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae 24-5 24-7 TH TH G G G G SKHC-NEERU-192/8340 SKHC-NEERU-190/8338 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. Tulipa stellata Hook. Viscum album L. Viscum japonicum Thumb. Melia azadirachta L. Ficus palmata Forssk. Morina longifolia Wall. Olea ferruginea Royle. Oxalis corniculata L. Liliaceae Loranthaceae Loranthaceae Meliaceae Moraceae Morinaceae Oleaceae Oxalidaceae 24-6 23-9 G E E SKHC-NEERU-193/8341 SKHC-NEERU-194/8342 17-6 24-3 20-1 21-2 17-4 PH MPH TH MPH CH SKHC-NEERU-195/8343 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. Meconopsis aculeata Royle. Indigofera heterantha Wall. Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Plantago lanceolata L. Plantago major L. Arundo donax L. Agropyron repens Beauv. Bromus patulus Duthie. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle. Polemonium caeruleum L. Polygala abyssinica R.Br. ex Fresen. Papaveraceae Papilionaceae Phytolaccaceae Plantaginaceae Plantaginaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Podophyllaceae Polemoniaceae Polygalaceae 16-3 H PH SKHC-NEERU-202/8350 23-4 23-2 23-1 CH H H CH TH TH SKHC-NEERU-210/8358 SKHC-NEERU-209/8357 16-2 H H H SKHC-NEERU-211/8359 SKHC-NEERU-212/8360 127. 128. Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill. Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene. Polygonaceae Polygonaceae 23-5 H TH SKHC-NEERU-214/8362 SKHC-NEERU-213/8361 129. 130. Fagopyrum cymosum Meissn. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae TH TH TH TH SKHC-NEERU-216/8364 SKHC-NEERU-215/8363 131. 132. Polygonum glabrum Willd. Polygonum nepalense Meissn. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. Rumex hastatus D. Don. Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Primula denticulata Smith. Anagallis arvensis L. Punica granatum L. Aconitum ferox Wall. Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Primulaceae Primulaceae Punicaceae Ranunculaceae 23-6 23-7 TH TH H SKHC-NEERU-217/8365 21-1 18-10 15-3 15-1 15-2 15-5 15-9 15-8 TH MPH G G G G G G H SKHC-NEERU-219/8367 SKHC-NEERU-220/8368 SKHC-NEERU-221/8369 SKHC-NEERU-227/8375 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. Aconitum hookeri Stapf. Anemone tetrasepala Royle. Delphinium roylei Munz. Delphinium vestitum Wall. Adonis aestivalis L. Anemone obtusiloba D. Don. Clematis montana D.Don Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae 15-4 15-7 15-11 15-6 H H H HH SKHC-NEERU-225/8373 147. 148. Ranunculus arvensis L. Caltha palustris L. Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae SKHC-NEERU-230/8378 149. 150. Ranunculus aquatilis L. Duchesnea indica (Andrews) Focke. Ranunculaceae Rosaceae 15-10 18-1 HH CH SKHC-NEERU-234/8382 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. Fragaria vesca L. Rosa macrophylla Lindl. Rosa brunonii Lindl. Geum roylei Wall. Potentilla argyrophylla Wall ex Lehm. Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae 18-2 18-7 18-6 18-3 18-4 CH E (CLIMBER) E (LIANA) H H SKHC-NEERU-233/8381 SKHC-NEERU-236/8384 SKHC-NEERU-235/8383 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. Potentilla nepalensis Hook. Prinsepia utilis Royle. Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle. Spiraea canescens D. Don. Spiraea sorbifolia Hoof. Rubia cordifolia L. Rubus niveus Thunb. Galium rotundifolium L. Galium tenuissimum Bieb. Gallium aparine L. Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae 19-7 19-8 17-7 19-10 19-9 18-8 18-5 H N N N N N N TH TH TH PH SKHC-NEERU-238/8386 SKHC-NEERU-237/8385 SKHC-NEERU-246/8394 SKHC-NEERU-240/8388 SKHC-NEERU-244/8392 SKHC-NEERU-245/8393 SKHC-NEERU-248/8394 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. Populus ciliata Wall. Ex Royle. Aesculus indica Hiern. Bergenia ciliata (Hew.) Sternb. Digitalis lanata Ehrh. Digitalis purpurea L. Euphrasia officinalis L. Salicaceae Sapindaceae Saxifragaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae 17-8 18-9 22-2 22-1 MPH PH H CH CH CH 22-4 H SKHC-NEERU-255/8403 SKHC-NEERU-252/8400 SKHC-NEERU-253/8401 SKHC-NEERU-254/8402 173. Pedicularis pectinata Wall ex. Beth. Scrophulariaceae 174. 175. Verbascum thapsus L. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Scrophulariaceae Solanaceae 22-3 21-11 H CH N SKHC-NEERU-261/8409 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. Atropa acuminate L. Datura stramonium L. Hyoscyamus niger L. Solanum nigrum L. Solanum pseudo-capsicum L. Solanum surrattense Burm.F. Symplocos crataegoides BuchHam. Ex. D.Don Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Symplocaceae 21-9 21-10 21-8 21-12 TH TH TH TH TH MPH SKHC-NEERU-269/8417 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194. Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Daphne oleoides Schreib. Celtis australis L. Girardinia heterophylla Dcne. Urtica dioica Linn Valeriana pyrolifolia Decne. Valeriana wallichii DC. Vitex negundo L. Viola canescens Wall. ex. Roxb. Viola odorata L. Viola patrinii DC. Viola serpens Wall. Taxaceae Thymealaeaceae Ulmaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Valerianaceae Valerianaceae Verbenaceae Violaceae Violaceae Violaceae Violaceae 16-9 16-10 16-11 23-12 24-1 19-11 19-12 22-6 23-8 PH PH MPH H H H H N H H H H SKHC-NEERU-268/8416 SKHC-NEERU-264/8412 SKHC-NEERU-263/8411 SKHC-NEERU-271/8419 SKHC-NEERU-265/8413 SKHC-NEERU-266/8414 SKHC-NEERU-267/8415 Annexure B : Medicinally important plant species with families, medicinal importance and ethnobotanical uses: S. No. Name of species 1. Acalypha brachystachya Family Euphorbiaceae Medicinal importance/ Ethno botany Decoction of the leaves and flower heads is employed as a carminative, tonic and aromatic stimulant. Locals of the area use leaves and flowers of the plant to cure cold. 2. Achillea millefolium Asteraceae Infusion of the species is diuretic, stimulant and haemostatic. Decoction of the leaves and flowers are carminative, tonic and aromatic stimulant. Locals of the area use leaves and flowers for vapour bath in cold and fever. The tea from the leaves of the plant is given in cold. 3. 4. Achyranthes bidentata Aconitum ferox Amaranthaceae Ranunculaceae The plant is diuretic and astringent. The locals in case of kidney complaints use it. It is given to infants in the cold, cough and stomachache by mixing root powder with milk. The roots are also useful in piles. 5. Aconitum heterophyllum Ranunculaceae The tubers and flowers are valuable febrifuge, a bitter tonic especially in combating debility after malarial and other fevers. Powder of rhizome (in small quantity) is used in diarrhoea and dysentery. The plant is poisonous in nature and is used cautiously. 6. Aconitum hookeri Ranunculaceae Powdered tubers are mixed with mustard oil and applied on head to cure hair fall due to fungal infection. 7. Acorus calamus Acoraceae Rhizomes of the plant are carminative, stimulant and tonic. Rhizome is considered as the digestive remedy for fatty food. Locals eat under ground parts for curing stomachache. Rhizomes are tied around the neck of children to control the infection caused by intestinal worms. 8. 9. Adonis aestivalis Aesculus indica Ranunculaceae Sapindaceae Whole plant is cardiac stimulant. Ethno medicinally the leaf extract is used against boils. Oil from the seeds is used externally in rheumatic complaints. Fruits of the tree are given to sheep and goats in dry and cold season. Flowers are astringent and tonic 10. Agropyron repens Poaceae The rhizome is demulcent and diuretic. Decoction of under ground parts is used as a remedy for kidney problems. 11. 12. Ainsliaea latifolia Ajuga parviflora Asteraceae Lamiaceae The roots of the plant are used as anthelmintic. Leaves and flowers are considered as astringent febrifuge, stimulant, diuretic and aperient. The leaves and flowers are used as the tea material and are given in case of internal heat. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Allium sp. Anagallis arvensis Anemone obtusiloba Anemone tetrasepala Anethum sowa Arisaema jacquemontii Liliaceae Primulaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Apiaceae Araceae The species is used as the condiment in the food as it is a good carminative. It is used in cases of lung abscess and expectorant. The roots are mixed with milk and given internally for convulsions and externally on wounds. A paste of the crushed roots is used on wounds. The seeds of the plant are used as carminative. The dried tubers mixed with the rhizome of turmeric in sesame oil are rubbed on the skin for the treatment of muscular pains. Leaf paste is antiseptic, but locals of the area use decoction of the leaves as antidote for scorpion bite and snakebite. 19. Artemisia scoparia Asteraceae Leaves are anthelmintic and used in other stomach complaints like indigestion and liver infections. Powder of leaves mixed with oil or ghee is massaged on joints to get relief from joint pains. 20. 21. 22. Artemisia vestita Arundo donax Atropa acuminate Asteraceae Poaceae Solanaceae An aromatic herb used as A. scoparia. The plant is used in hypertension. Root preparation of this plant is used for the external treatment of gout and rheumatism. The plant is extremely narcotic. Extract of the plant is employed in ophthalmology, psychiatry, whooping cough, asthma, and gastric ulcers. 23. Berberis lycium Berberidaceae Resount, a preparation from this plant is used in household remedy during acute conjunctivitis, and in chronic opthalmia. Rasount is also given in fevers by the locals of the area. A simple decoction of plant roots is given in jaundice. 24. Bergenia ciliata Saxifragaceae Roots are used in fevers, diarrhoea and cough as astringent, diuretic and tonic. Roots are antiseptic and used to treat wounds and injuries. The under ground parts of the species are used to dissolve the kidney and bladder stone. 25. Betula utilis Betulaceae Oil is extracted from bark or twigs which has medicinal properties. An infusion of twigs and bark is used to treat gout and rheumatism, and it is said to purify blood and stimulate urine flow. Dusting powder prepared from dried leaves and twigs soothe chafed skin. 26. Bidens pilosa Asteraceae Dried leaves and flowers are used in cough. Locals use the decoction of the leaves and flowers for treating cold and cough. 27. Bistorta amplexicaulis Polygonaceae Due to high tannin content, it is effective in checking bleeding and diarrhoea. Rhizomes are used in the preparation of herbal tea which is supposed to be beneficial in checking heavy menstrual bleeding. 28. Bromus patulus Poaceae Dried leaves and flowers are used in cough. Locals use the decoction of the leaves and flowers for treating cold and cough. 29. Bunium persicum Apiaceae The fruits are regarded as stimulant, carminative and are useful in curing diarrhoea, dyspepsia, fever, flatulence, stomachache, hemorrhoids and obstinate hiccups. 30. Bupleurum falcatum Apiaceae The roots of the species are reported to be used for liver troubles and stomach complaints. Powdered roots are prescribed in liver infections. 31. Bupleurum longicaule 32. Caltha palustris 33. 34. Cannabis sativa Capsella bursa- pastoris Apiaceae Ranunculaceae Cannabaceae Brassicaceae Decoction of the plant is used for renal, colic and gastro-intestinal disturbances. The leaves of plant are vesicant and very bitter. It is used as febrifuge. Entire plant is analgesic and sedative. Locals smoke the Cannabis leaves as narcotic. Plant is rich in vitamin C and shows properties against ulcers, tumors and uterine cancer. Locals of the area use decoction of the entire plant to treat bloody urine and diarrhoea. 35. Cardamine impatiens Brassicaceae Whole plant is used as a stimulant, diaphoretic, stomachic, carminative and diuretic. The leaves are chewed for digestive process. 36. Carpesium abrotanoides Asteraceae The roots, leaves and seeds possess laxative, diuretic and anthelmintic properties. The seeds are boiled and administrated to get rid from worms. 37. 38. 39. 40. Cassiope fastigiata Celtis australis Cichorium intybus Clematis montana Ericaceae Ulmaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae The leafy twigs are ground into a paste and applied in the fire burns. The fruits of the plant are used to treat amenorrhea and colic. Roots extract are used in fevers, vomiting, and diarrhoea and spleen enlargement. Locals of the area mix one black pepper with a pinch of leave’s powder of the plant species and use as a remedy for the indigestion of infants. 41. Clinopodium vulgare 42. 43. Codonopsis ovata Colchicum luteum Lamiaceae Campanulaceae Liliaceae Whole plant is used as astringent, carminative and cardiac tonic. The roots and leaves are crushed to poultice and applied to ulcers and wounds. Seeds and corms contain alkaloid called as colchicine. The dried corms are carminative, laxative, aphrodisiac and aperient. Locals of the area eat the fresh corms. 44. Commelina benghalensis Commelinaceae Herb is a demulcent, emollient, laxative and refrigerant. The rhizomes of the plant are cooked as vegetable and given to constipation patients. 45. Corydalis govaniana Fumariaceae Roots are administered against muscular and gastric pains. These are used in syphilitic, scrofulous, and cutaneous affections. 46. 47. Corydalis rutifolia Corydalis thyrsiflora Fumariaceae Fumariaceae Whole herb is collected and dried in shade and mixed with C. govaniana having similar use. Used as C. govaniana. The roots mixed with milk are used as a tonic. The crushed leaves with wheat flour are used for poulticing boils. The plant is known as antispasmodic in asthma and Parkinson’s disease. The dried leaves are smoked in a pipe or home made cigarette to treat asthma. A poultice made from the flowers is applied to wounds to reduce pain. The leaves are also applied to boils and ulcers. A decoction of flowers and roots has been used as a sedative to calm patients during setting of fractures. 48. 49. 50. Cynoglossum micranthum Daphne oleoides Datura stramonium Boraginaceae Thymealaeaceae Solanaceae 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. Delphinium roylei Delphinium vestitum Desmodium podocarpum Desmodium polycarpon Desmodium tiliaefolium Digitalis lanata Digitalis purpurea Dioscorea deltoidea Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Root extract is used for rheumatic pains. Used as a cardiac and respiratory depressant. Decoction of plant used in cough. Leaves of the plant are used as stomachic. Whole plant is a emmenagogue, stomachic and mildly purgative. Scrophulariaceae Used as cardiac stimulant. Scrophulariaceae Medicinally used for its effect on cardio-vascular system. Dioscoreaceae Steroid sapogenin and valuable drug cortisone is prepared from the species. Locally the rhizomes are applied to kill lice. Rhizomes are also used for general gastric problems. 59. 60. 61. Draba gracillima Duchesnea indica Erigeron canadensis Brassicaceae Rosaceae Asteraceae The plant is considered as antiscorbutic. The leaves are crushed and applied on skin diseases and also on wounds and cuts. Leaves of the plant are used in diarrhoea, dysentery, uterine hemorrhages, and dropsy, gravel and kidney infections. 62. Erodium cicutarium Geraniaceae The plant is used against dropsy. Extract is a good source of vitamin K and is also used in dysentery. 63. 64. Erysimum repandum Euphorbia helioscopia Brassicaceae Euphorbiaceae Plant is very useful in fever. Poultice of the plant is used for general gastric complaints. The milky exude of the plant is used by locals for destruction of fungal infection of skin, like ringworm infection. 65. 66. Euphorbia pilosa Euphrasia officinalis Euphorbiaceae The roots are purgative and vermifuge. It is also used to treat fistula sores. Scrophulariaceae The plant is believed to be effective for ophthalmic ailments. Locals use the plant extract for conjunctivitis and it is taken internally for jaundice. Polygonaceae The seeds are used in colic, choleretic, and diarrhoea and in all abdominal obstructions. Decoction of root is used in rheumatic pains, lung disease and typhoid, while the juice is useful in urinary disease. 67. Fagopyrum cymosum 68. Fagopyrum esculentum 69. Ficus palmata Polygonaceae Moraceae Leaves are used for the treatment of hypertension. The fruits are demulcent and laxative. They are used in diseases of the lungs and the bladder. Dried fruits are given to constipation by the locals. 70. Fragaria vesca Rosaceae The infusion of leaves of this plant is diuretic and diaphoretic. The fruits are refrigerant and diuretic and sometimes laxative. It is recommended for gout also. The root is known as astringent and useful in genito-urinary diseases. 71. Fritillaria roylei Liliaceae Bulbs are used as antipyretic and expectorant. Bulbs are dried, powdered and taken as the remedy for lung problems (pain). 72. Fumaria parviflora Fumariaceae Dried plant is anthelmintic, diuretic, and diaphoretic in low fever and is used to purify blood in skin diseases. Locals use the juice of the whole plant for liver infection and digestion. 73. 74. Galium aparine Galium rotundifolium Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Infusion of the plant is aperient, diuretic, refrigerant, alternative and antiscorbutic. The plant is used against colic, sore throat and chest complaints. Pounded leaves are applied to check bleeding from fresh cuts. 75. 76. Galium tenuissimum Gentiana argentea Rubiaceae Gentianaceae Infusion of leaves is used to treat the skin eruptions. Roots and rhizomes of these plants have medicinal properties. It is used to treat indigestion, rheumatism and also as tonic for nervous distress. 77. Gentiana kurroo Gentianaceae It is used as a bitter tonic to stimulate gastric secretion, improve appetite and cure debility. The herb is good anthelmintic, blood purifier, carminative and diaphoretic. 78. Geranium wallichianum Geraniaceae The roots stock is important in medical science and used by the locals in eye troubles. The root is chewed to stop gum bleeding. 79. 80. 81. Geranium nepalense Geum roylei Girardinia heterophylla Geraniaceae Rosaceae Urticaceae The entire plant is good diuretic and astringent. It is used to treat renal diseases. Roots and leaves are astringent, stomachic, febrifuge and are toxic in higher doses. The forced contact of the stinging shoots is made with swollen joints to activate blood circulation. The blisters produced as a result thereof, give out watery juice and ultimately result in subsiding of the swelling. The paste is applied to boils to enhance suppuration. 82. 83. 84. Gnaphalium luteo-album Hedera nepalensis Heracleum candicans Asteraceae Araliaceae Apiaceae Plant species is medicinal and used as astringent to control bleeding from wounds. Leaves are stimulant, diaphoretic and cathartic. Locals chew leaves as stimulant. Roots are extracted to prepare lotions for the skin to cure leukoderma. Locals use the roots to cure skin diseases. 85. Hydrocotyle javanica Apiaceae Leaves are blood purifier, digestive, and used to treat dysentery. Leaves stalk is used for relief from toothache. 86. Hyoscyamus niger Solanaceae The species is considered as the sedative in nervous diseases and irritable conditions such as asthma and whooping cough. 87. Hypericum perforatum Hypericaceae The species is used as astringent, expectorant, diuretic and anthelmintic. Whole plant is used in urinary troubles, diarrhoea and in the therapy of depression state. The decoction of the leaves is used for the good flow of urine by locals. 88. Impatiens roylei 89. 90. 91. Indigofera heterantha Inula royleana Ipomoea nil Balsaminaceae Papilionaceae Asteraceae Convolvulaceae The roots of the plant species are used for cooling effect. Flower infusion of the plant species is used for healing wounds. The roots are poisonous and used as the substitute of Saussurea costus The seeds are purgative, vermifuge, anti- inflammatory and carminative. Locals use the seeds for constipation, rheumatic pains, scabies and other skin problems. 92. Ipomoea pilosa Convolvulaceae Dried leaves are used as an ointment for burns. The seeds are considered as purgative when mixed with the seeds of china rose. 93. Iris kemaonensis Iridaceae The rhizome of these plants has medicinal properties. It is used to treat indigestion, rheumatism and also as tonic for nervous distress. 94. Juglans regia Juglandaceae Leaves astringent, tonic and anthelmintic. Kernels are recommended in dysentery. Locals apply the leaves paste on the old wounds by fungal infections. 95. Juncus bufonius Juncaceae Pith of the plant is considered as pectoral and diuretic. The pith portion boiled in water is given in lung pains. 96. Jurinea macrocephala Asteraceae The decoction of the roots is given in colic, fevers after childbirth. The plant is considered as a good antiseptic. Oil from roots is useful in gout and rheumatism. 97. Justicia adhatoda Acanthaceae The plant parts are boiled in water and used for both in the treatment of body inflammation and body ache. The leaf decoction is administered in cough and chronic bronchitis. Locals use the leaves in the preparations of cough and fever medicines. The twigs are used to cure pyorrhea. 98. Leontopodium himalayanum 99. Lithospermum arvense Asteraceae Boraginaceae The plant infusion is given in general weakness and headache. Leaves are sedative. The decoction of roots and twig is given in the form of syrup in eruption diseases. Seeds are diuretic. They are also used in gout pains. The twigs and seeds are boiled by the locals to obtain syrup for skin infections. 100. Lonicera alpigena Caprifoliaceae Plant is considered as antipyretic in case of stomach problems. Locally decoction of leaves and flowers is used against stomach complaints. 101. 102. 103. 104. Macrotomia benthamii Mariscus sieberianus Meconopsis aculeata Melia azadirachta Cyperaceae Papaveraceae Meliaceae Whole plant is used as expectorant and in cardiac disorder. Locally the leaves of the plant are chewed to remove the worms from stomach and intestines. Water extract of the herb is used to wash wounds. The leaves and the seeds are bitter, expectorant used in enlargement of the spleen and in heart complaints, emetic, styptic, and stop epitasis, strengthen the teeth, allay inflammation, cure scabies and dry skin eruptions. The flowers and leaves are used to relieve nervous headache and cold swellings. 105. Melothria heterophylla Cucurbitaceae Roots are stimulant, invigorating and purgative. Roots are used for gonorrhea. Seeds are purgative. Locals mix root extract with cold milk and sugar and use for cure of gonorrhea. 106. Mentha longifolia Lamiaceae Herb is carminative, antiseptic and stimulant. A decoction of the plant is used in fever. Locals use the leaves as digestive medicine by mixing the leaves in chutneys and other food preparations. 107. Micromeria biflora Lamiaceae Herb is used against worms of the wounds. Locals use the leaves of the plant as an ingredient of tea for treating cold. The leaves are chewed to digest oily food by the locals. 108. Mollugo pentaphylla Aizoaceae Plant is a good aperient and antiseptic. Decoction of leaves is taken to cure stomach complaints. 109. 110. Morina longifolia Nasturtium officinale Morinaceae Brassicaceae Roots are powdered and administered on wounds to check the growth of insects. Plant is considered as antiscorbutic, stimulant, antibacterial, blood purifier, vermifuge and diuretic. The seeds are antidysenteric. Boiled seeds are taken as antidysenteric and leaves are eaten to improve appetite by the locals. 111. 112. Nepeta elliptica Nerium indicum Lamiaceae Apocynaceae The infusion of seeds is used as carminative and uterine disorders. It is regarded poisonous and reported as anthelmintic, cardiac, carminative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, ophthalmic, powerful heart poison and a good repellant. The plant is used for swelling, leprosy, skin diseases and ulcers. 113. Olea ferruginea Oleaceae The root is a good application for scorpion-sting; its ashes are useful in rheumatism and diseases of the brain. The fruit is tonic, emmenogogue, appetizer, useful in biliousness, liver complaints, scabies, thirst, burning of the eyes, caries of the teeth, toothache. The oil has a bad taste, purgative, tonic, useful in griping, liver troubles, pain in the joints, rheumatism, lumbago, old wounds; the oil from green fruits is astringent and a good tonic for old people. Oil extracted from the fruit and is used medicinally as a rubefacient. The leaves and bark are bitter and astringent, and used as an antiperiodic in fever and debility. 114. Origanum normale Lamiaceae The leaves and flowers are carminative, diuretic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue. The oil of the flowers of the species is used as stimulant and tonic in diarrhoea, colic and is applied on body ache. The paste of the leaves of the plant species is used in fire burns, skin eruptions and boils. 115. Oxalis corniculata Oxalidaceae Plant is used to cure scurvy and is a good appetizer. Leaves and roots are used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea. Locals prepare chutneys of the leaves to stabilize saliva. 116. 117. 118. Oxyria digyna Pedicularis pectinata Pergularia daemia Polygonaceae Leaves are considered as antiscorbutic and refrigerant. Scrophulariaceae Leaves are diuretic, astringent and homeostatic. Asclepiadaceae Leaves are considered as antibacterial, leaf decoction is generally used against diarrhoea and menstrual troubles. Locals consider the plant a life saving plant for females. 119. Phytolacca acinosa Phytolaccaceae Locals use the plant species as a substitute for Atropa belladonna. Ethno medicinally the root extract of the species is used in stomach cramps and dysentery. 120. Pistacia integerrima 121. Plantago lanceolata Anacardiaceae Plantaginaceae Galls are used in asthma, phthisis and other diseases of the respiratory tract and in dysentery. Seeds are considered as good diuretic, purgative, haemostatic, astringent. Seeds and husk are used to cure inflammation of the mucous membrane of gastro-intestinal and genito-urinary tracts. The leaves of the plant are used as antiseptic by the locals. 122. Plantago major Plantaginaceae The husk of the seeds yields a colloidal mucilage which primarily consists of xylose, arbinose and galacturonic acid. The seeds are used to cure gastric complaints, burning sensation in stomach and dysentery. 123. Pleurospermum brunonis Apiaceae The powdered shoots are mixed with butter and massaged over the entire body to alley fever. The same paste is used locally on head to get rid of headache. 124. Podophyllum hexandrum Podophyllaceae The root paste is applied on ulcers, cuts and wounds. It is also used as a purgative, for curing skin diseases and arresting tumorous growth. 125. 126. 127. Polemonium caeruleum Polygala abyssinica Polygonum glabrum Polemoniaceae Polygalaceae Polygonaceae An astringent, infusion used on the wounds and boils. The plant is considered as a good expectorant. Colic, jaundice and piles are three diseases cured by the plant extract. Locals boil the uprooted plant and generally use against liver infections. 128. 129. 130. 131. Polygonum nepalense Populus ciliata Potentilla argyrophylla Potentilla nepalensis Polygonaceae Salicaceae Rosaceae Rosaceae A decoction of the species is used to control swelling due to internal injuries. The bark of the plant is used as a tonic, stimulant and blood purifier. The plant is used against angina pectoris (spasm due to heart disease). Infusion of the roots is applied on the boils and burns. Locally the infusion of the roots is considered as an indigenous ointment for burns. 132. Primula denticulata Primulaceae Infusion of the whole plant is used to remove leaches from the nostrils of cattle. Locals use the same species for removing leaches from skin. 133. Prinsepia utilis Rosaceae Oil obtained from the seeds possesses rubifacient properties. Locals apply the oil externally in rheumatism and pains resulting from over fatigue. 134. Prunella vulgaris Lamiaceae An infusion of leaves and flowers are used as a gargle for sore throat irritations. It is also used to treat diarrhoea, hemorrhages, for relieving gas and colic. 135. Punica granatum Punicaceae Seeds contain steroid estrogen. Bark is anthelmintic and used in dysentery and diarrhoea. Fruits are said to be stomachic, and cardiac. Leprosy patients use the juice of fruits. Locals apply the paste of leaves on head to get relief from headache and blood pressure. 136. Rabdosia rugosa Lamiaceae Locals use the leaves extract for curing stomach pains. 137. 138. Ranunculus aquatilis Ranunculus arvensis Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Plant is used in asthma. Plant is antibiotic, used in intermittent fevers, gout and asthma. The paste made from the roots is used in rheumatic pains of gout. 139. Rhododendron campanulatum Ericaceae Leaves medicinal in chronic rheumatism. Leaves are mixed with tobacco and smoked for cold and hemicrania. 140. 141. Rhus succedanea Robinia pseudo-acacia Anacardiaceae Fabaceae Used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery and fruit is used in ointment preparations. Leaves are antispasmodic and laxative; an infusion is prescribed in digestive disorders. Flowers are boiled and used as powerful diuretic. 142. Rorippa indica Brassicaceae Plant is diuretic, stimulant and antiscorbutic. Decoction is also given in diarrhoea, dysentery and fever. Seed extract is given to treat asthma. 143. Rorippa islandica Brassicaceae Plant is antiscorbutic, stimulant, and diuretic. The decoction is used in hepatic and stomach problems. 144. Rosa brunonii Rosaceae The plant is said to be used in bilious affections and the root is said to be beneficial in eye diseases. 145. 146. Rosa macrophylla Rosa webbiana Rosaceae Rosaceae The locals intake the fruits against scurvy disease. Petals of the species are used to cures nasal bleeding, nose swelling, hepatitis, jaundice and liver diseases. 147. 148. Rubia cardifolia Rubus niveus Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Leaves are used to check bleeding from cuts. Roots are considered as astringent, antidysenteric, and antiseptic. The leaves are also used by the locals as antidysenteric. 149. 150. Rumex hastatus Rumex nepalensis Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Leaves are rubbed by the locals against stings of Urtica dioica. The sap of leaves and stem is applied on cuts for its astringent properties. 151. Salvia moorcroftiana Lamiaceae Roots are used in colds and cough. Leaves are used for guinea worm and are applied as poultice for boils. Wounds and chronic affections of the skin. Seeds are emetic and are used in hemorrhoids, colic and dysentery. Locally the root is used in stomach pains. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. Salvia lanata Sauromatum guttatum Saussurea costus Saussurea heteromalla Sedum ewersii Lamiaceae Araceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Crassulaceae The crushed leaves are applied in laceration of toes during rainy season. The tubers are used as the stimulating poultice. The plant is used as anti-rheumatic. Crushed leaves are locally applied to wounds. The paste of roots and leaves is applied on moles. Leaves are emollient, refrigerant and are prescribed as a remedy for sores, burns and piles. 157. Selinum vaginatum 158. Sigesbeckia orientalis 159. 160. Silene conoidea Sisymbrium irio Apiaceae Asteraceae The root possesses a sweet odour and is considered as a nervine sedative. Parasitic infections and ringworm infections are cured by the infusion from the plant. Locally the plant is used to heel gangrenous ulcers. Caryophyllaceae Brassicaceae The plant is emollient and is also used as fumigant. Its juice is prescribed in opthalmia. Leaves and seeds are rich source of protein and vitamin C. Seeds are boiled and the extract is used locally for reducing fever. 161. Sium latijugum Apiaceae Leaves and seeds are reported to be diuretic diaphoretic, expectorant, stimulant, antiscorbutic and vermifuge. It is also used in gangrenous infections. 162. Solanum nigrum Solanaceae A rich source of riboflavin, nicotinic acid and vitamin C. The green immature fruits contain four steroidal glycol - alkaloids. Herb is antiseptic and antidysenteric. Fruits are considered to posses tonic, diuretic and cathartic properties. Fruits are domestic remedies for fevers, diarrhoea, ulcers and eye trouble. Locals use leaves as a diuretic in gout. 163. Solanum pseudo-capsicum Solanaceae Alcoholic extract of roots and stem of the plant possess antibacterial activity. Systematic use Solanocapsine - a compound from the species is used as for cardiac troubles but high doses are fetal. 164. Solanum surrattense Solanaceae The juice of the plant is useful in dysentery and fever. The drug made from this is administered against asthma. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. Solidago virga-aurea Spiraea canescens Spiraea sorbifolia Stachys sericea Stellaria aquatica Symplocos crataegoides Tagetus minuta Asteraceae Rosaceae Rosaceae Lamiaceae Caryophyllaceae Symplocaceae Asteraceae Plant possesses diuretic and carminative properties. Aerial parts are used in nervous system disorder. Aerial parts are used in nervous system disorder and cardiovascular disorders. Whole of the plant is used in epilepsy. The decoction of the leaves is used as a galactagogue. Leaves and bark are used in the treatment of opthalmia and also as tonic to prevent abortion. The flowers are stomachic, aperient, diuretic and diaphoretic. Locals of the area use the flower decoction to cure griping of the stomach 172. Tanacetum longifolium Asteraceae The roots are considered as medicinal. Root powder is given with milk or tea in extreme stomach pain. 173. Taraxacum officinale Asteraceae Roots are diuretic, tonic laxative, cholagogue, anti-rheumatic and aperient. The leaves are cooked and the preparation is a household remedy for chronic disorders of kidney and liver. 174. Taxus wallichiana Taxaceae Leaves and bark are emmenagogue and antispasmodic. Aril is used in asthma and bronchitis. Stem bark is used as substitute for tea. 175. Thymus serpyllum Lamiaceae The herb is anti-spasmodic, antiseptic, expectorant, carminative, anthelmintic and stimulating properties. An infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of skin eruptions. The seeds are considered as anti-febrile and anthelmintic. It is a popular remedy for locals to cure stomach complaints, cough and cold. 176. Trachyspermum ammi Apiaceae Seeds are antispasmodic, stimulant, tonic and carminative. The seeds are eaten by the locals in case of stomach pains. 177. 178. 179. 180. Trifolium repens Trillium govanianum Tulipa stellata Urtica dioica Fabaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Urticaceae Tincture of the flowers is used in the rheumatic pains due to gout. Roots are used for medicinal purpose against dysentery The bulbs of the plant are eaten during sinking of heart. A powerful diuretic, lukewarm infusion control excessive menstrual flow. Leaves extract is locally used for cleaning hair dandruff. Leaves are cooked and eaten to decrease the weight of body. 181. Valeriana pyrolifolia Valerianaceae Dried rhizomes are considered as aphrodisiac, diuretic, emmenagogue, sedative, and tonic. Locals use the powdered rhizome for liver and kidney disorders. 182. Valeriana wallichii Valerianaceae The root is bitter with a flavor; heating, cures epileptic fits, head troubles, diseases of the eye and the blood, used in suppression of urine, poisoning, swooning. 183. Verbascum thapsus Scrophulariaceae Leaves and flowers are used for treatment of diarrhoea and pulmonary diseases. Leaves are used as adulterant for Digitalis. Dried leaves and flowers are smoked in case of asthma and act as stimulant. 184. 185. 186. Viburnum grandiflorum Viola canescens Viola odorata Caprifoliaceae Violaceae Violaceae The seeds of the plant show cooling effect. The decoction of plant is used to loosen phlegm in the chest and for pulmonary problems. Herb is considered as aperient, antipyretic, cooling, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic and expectorant. Locals use the leaves and stem of the herb as one of ingredient of local tea. Decoction of the leaves is used in cold, fever and throat infection in winters. 187. Viola patrinii Violaceae Locals boil the herb and use the extract in fever and cold. 188. 189. 190. 191. Viola serpens Viscum album Viscum japonicum Vitex negundo Violaceae Loranthaceae Loranthaceae Verbenaceae The plant is used in the treatment of lung trouble and blood disorder. Plant is used for the treatment of hypertension, arteriosclerosis and tumors. The plant is diuretic. The herb is alternative, anodyne, antiparasitic, appetizer, and aromatic, astringent, cardiac demulcent, and emmenogogue, expectorant, febrifuge and nervine tonic. It has been credited with curative effects in asthma, lung diseases, spleen enlargements, urinary troubles, tonsillitis, sciatica, rheumatism etc. 192. Withania somnifera Solanaceae The roots of the plant are considered as alternative aphrodisiac, tonic, diuretic, narcotic, hypnotic, sedative and abortifacient. Locals use the root decoction in rheumatism, cough, dropsy and general weakness. 193. Xanthium strumarium Asteraceae The root is bitter tonic, useful in cancer and scrofula. Decoction of roots is used locally over ulcers, boils and abscesses. The fruits are used as tonic, diuretic, diaphoretic, sedative, cooling and demulcent and are also given in small-pox. 194. Zanthoxylum alatum Rutaceae Bark is used as an aromatic tonic in fever, dyspepsia and cholera. Fruits, branches and thorns are used as a remedy for toothache and are considered carminative, stomachic and anthelmintic. The stem has exhibited hypoglycemic activity in preliminary trials. An extract of the fruits is reported to be useful in expelling roundworms. The seeds are utilised for making hair lotions. Annexure C : Phytosociological parameters during winter at site A for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) SPECIES Phytolacca acinosa Verbascum thapsus Stipa brandisii Duchesnea indica Oxalis corniculata Fumaria parviflora Taraxacum officinale Micromeria biflora Galium elegans Cynodon dactylon Ajuga parviflora Valeriana wallichii Saussurea heteromalla Ricinus communis Geranium nepalense Carex sp. Anaphalis busua Veronica polita Carpesium cernuum Hedera nepalensis Androsace rotundifolia Plantago lanceolata Arthraxon prionodes Fragaria vesca Brunella vulgaris Bistorta amplexicaulis 15 50 80 70 75 65 80 75 75 55 65 15 20 20 50 25 50 30 15 35 30 30 30 20 20 25 0.45 1.00 1.95 1.65 1.85 1.90 1.50 1.50 1.40 1.85 1.20 0.30 0.55 0.35 1.10 0.50 1.00 0.60 0.35 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.55 BASAL COVER 8.045 3.142 0.502 1.131 0.282 0.282 0.282 0.125 0.125 0.031 0.502 3.142 2.545 2.545 0.502 2.011 0.502 1.540 2.011 1.131 1.131 0.785 0.502 0.785 0.502 0.502 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 1.162 1.581 20.796 3.875 3.514 08.123 6.201 6.854 01.299 5.426 5.799 02.924 5.813 6.502 00.731 5.038 6.678 00.731 6.201 5.272 00.731 5.813 5.813 4.263 5.038 1.162 1.550 1.550 3.875 1.937 3.875 2.325 1.162 2.713 2.325 2.325 2.325 1.550 1.550 1.937 5.272 4.920 6.502 4.217 1.054 1.933 1.230 3.866 1.757 3.514 2.108 1.230 1.757 1.933 2.108 2.460 2.108 2.108 1.054 00.324 00.324 00.081 01.299 08.123 06.580 06.580 01.299 05.199 01.299 03.980 05.199 02.924 02.924 02.030 01.299 02.030 01.299 01.299 IVI 23.540 15.514 14.355 14.150 13.047 12.448 12.205 11.411 11.059 10.847 10.556 10.340 10.063 09.360 09.042 08.894 08.690 08.415 07.592 07.395 07.183 06.465 06.085 05.690 04.959 04.292 Bupleurum marginatum Indigofera heterantha Lespedeza cuneata Urtica dioica Mentha longifolia Rumex hastatus Galium asperifolium Goodyera repens Viola pilosa Medicago lupulina 20 15 25 15 20 20 25 10 10 10 0.50 0.20 0.40 0.30 0.55 0.55 0.35 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.282 0.785 0.125 0.502 0.282 0.282 0.031 0.785 0.502 0.502 1.550 1.162 1.937 1.162 1.550 1.550 1.937 0.775 0.775 0.775 1.757 0.702 1.405 1.054 1.054 1.054 1.230 0.351 0.878 0.527 00.731 02.030 00.324 01.299 00.731 00.731 00.081 02.030 01.299 01.299 04.038 03.896 03.668 03.517 03.335 03.335 03.249 03.157 02.953 02.602 Phytosociological parameters during winter at site B for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 35 Sonchus arvensis Verbascum thapsus Tagetus minuta Indigofera sp. Duchesnea indica Stipa brandisii Plantago ovata Thymus serpyllum Viola pilosa Cynodon dactylon Rumex hastatus 35 20 15 65 50 55 50 60 60 50 0.75 0.60 0.55 0.40 1.40 0.95 1.30 1.00 1.10 0.95 0.85 BASAL AREA 12.571 12.571 12.573 12.571 01.131 03.142 00.502 02.011 00.785 00.502 01.540 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 3.535 3.640 16.070 3.535 2.020 1.515 6.565 5.050 5.555 5.050 6.060 6.060 5.050 2.912 3.000 1.941 6.796 4.611 6.310 4.854 5.339 4.611 4.126 16.070 16.070 16.070 01.446 04.017 00.642 02.571 01.004 00.642 01.968 IVI 23.246 22.518 20.760 19.527 14.808 13.679 12.509 12.476 12.404 11.315 11.145 Taraxacum officinale Malva parviflora Carex sp. Bistorta amplexicaulis Colchicum luteum Arenaria serpyllifolia Ajuga parviflora Oxalis corniculata Hedera nepalensis Euphorbia helioscopia Androsace rotundifolia Tulipa stellata Geranium wallichianum Cannabis sativa Micromeria biflora Fumaria parviflora 50 25 50 30 40 25 35 35 20 25 35 25 30 25 25 20 1.10 0.50 0.95 0.90 0.80 1.00 0.95 0.80 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.45 0.50 0.45 0.55 0.45 00.282 04.525 00.031 01.540 00.785 01.131 00.502 00.502 03.142 02.011 00.785 01.539 00.502 00.785 00.125 00.125 5.050 2.525 5.050 3.030 4.044 2.525 3.535 3.535 2.020 2.525 3.535 2.525 3.030 2.525 2.525 2.020 5.339 2.427 4.611 4.368 3.883 4.854 4.611 3.883 1.941 2.184 2.427 2.184 2.427 2.184 3.000 2.184 00.361 05.785 00.040 01.968 01.004 01.446 00.642 00.642 04.017 02.571 01.004 01.789 00.642 01.004 00.160 00.160 10.751 10.737 09.702 09.367 08.928 08.825 08.789 08.061 07.979 07.281 06.966 06.499 06.100 05.714 05.355 04.365 Phytosociological parameters during winter at site C for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 50 Taraxacum officinale Hedera nepalensis Verbascum thapsus Rumex nepalensis Colchicum luteum Ajuga parviflora 40 45 30 25 40 1.20 1.20 0.80 0.50 0.45 1.15 BASAL AREA 7.071 7.071 7.071 7.071 7.071 4.525 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 5.235 6.106 7.213 4.188 4.712 3.141 2.617 4.188 6.106 4.071 2.544 2.290 5.852 7.213 7.213 7.213 7.213 4.616 IVI 20.392 20.392 18.356 16.829 16.575 14.994 Bupleurum marginatum Valeriana wallichii Galium elegans Calanthe tricarinata Bistorta amplexicaulis Salvia nubicola Plantago ovata Gentiana argentea Geranium nepalense Potentilla sp. Arisaema jacquemontii Viola pilosa Stipa brandisii Fragaria vesca Micromeria biflora Cynodon dactylon Carpesium abrotanoides Lespedeza cuneata Oxalis corniculata Carex sp. Rabdosia rugosa Plantago lanceolata Galium tenuissimum 30 30 20 15 15 15 40 55 25 30 25 55 35 55 50 55 10 15 25 35 20 40 30 0.50 0.65 0.30 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.65 1.05 0.55 0.50 0.35 1.25 1.10 1.20 0.90 1.25 0.25 0.20 0.50 0.65 0.30 0.60 0.70 5.311 4.525 5.311 4.525 4.525 4.525 3.142 2.011 3.142 3.142 3.457 0.785 0.879 0.502 1.131 0.031 2.545 2.545 1.539 1.131 2.011 1.131 0.282 3.141 3.141 2.094 1.570 1.570 1.570 4.188 5.759 2.617 3.141 2.617 5.759 3.664 5.759 5.235 5.759 1.047 1.570 2.617 3.664 2.094 4.188 3.141 2.544 3.307 1.526 2.035 1.526 1.017 3.307 5.343 2.798 2.544 1.781 6.361 5.597 6.106 4.580 6.361 1.272 1.017 2.544 3.307 1.526 3.053 3.562 5.418 4.616 5.414 4.616 4.616 4.616 3.206 2.051 3.206 3.206 3.526 0.801 0.897 0.512 1.154 0.032 2.596 2.596 1.571 1.154 2.051 1.154 0.288 13.274 12.450 12.256 11.178 10.669 10.160 09.656 09.406 09.147 08.893 08.765 07.948 07.375 07.122 06.865 06.424 06.414 06.160 05.655 05.593 05.590 05.339 04.133 Phytosociological parameters during winter at site D for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Verbascum thapsus Sonchus arvensis Girardinia heterophylla Salvia sp. Rumex hastatus Cannabis sativa Datura stramonium Mentha longifolia Duchesnea indica Cynodon dactylon Veronica polita Stipa brandisii Euphorbia hirta Taraxacum officinale Plantago major Colchicum luteum Plantago lanceolata Thymus serpyllum Micromeria biflora Fumaria parviflora Ajuga parviflora Polygonum hydropiper Oxalis corniculata Galium aparine Xanthium strumarium FREQUENCY DENSITY BASAL (%age) (m-2) COVER 40 25 30 15 30 60 30 45 35 45 20 45 50 30 35 30 25 25 35 25 20 20 20 20 20 0.80 0.75 0.55 0.30 1.00 1.10 0.70 1.50 0.80 1.30 0.55 1.00 1.00 1.35 0.75 0.90 0.45 1.00 0.70 0.80 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.40 3.142 3.142 3.142 3.142 1.540 0.502 1.540 0.125 1.131 0.031 1.540 0.282 0.125 0.282 0.785 0.282 0.785 0.125 0.125 0.282 0.502 0.502 0.031 0.031 0.282 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 4.848 3.786 12.919 3.030 3.636 1.818 3.636 7.272 3.636 5.454 4.242 5.454 2.424 5.454 6.060 3.636 4.242 3.636 3.030 3.030 4.242 3.030 2.424 2.424 2.424 2.424 2.424 3.549 2.602 1.419 4.732 5.205 3.312 7.098 3.786 6.152 2.602 4.732 4.732 6.389 3.549 4.259 2.129 4.732 3.312 3.786 3.028 3.028 3.076 3.076 1.893 12.919 12.919 12.919 06.330 02.067 06.330 00.516 04.651 00.129 06.330 01.162 00.516 01.162 03.229 01.162 03.229 00.516 00.516 01.162 02.067 02.067 00.129 00.129 01.162 IVI 21.554 19.499 19.159 16.157 14.699 14.545 13.279 13.070 12.679 11.736 11.357 11.349 11.309 11.188 11.021 09.058 08.389 08.279 08.072 07.979 07.520 07.520 05.629 05.629 05.480 Anaphalis busua Cirsium arvense Viola pilosa 20 20 10 0.30 0.35 0.20 0.282 0.125 0.502 2.424 2.424 1.212 1.419 1.656 0.946 01.162 00.516 02.067 05.006 04.597 04.225 Phytosociological parameters during winter at site E for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 30 Arisaema jacquemontii Salvia nubicola Digitalis purpurea Cynodon dactylon Bergenia ciliata Thymus serpyllum Stipa brandisii Senecio arvense Verbascum thapsus Calanthe tricarinata Colchicum luteum Galium aparine Taraxacum officinale Euphorbia hirta Carex sp. Fragaria vesca Impatiens brachycentra Rumex nepalensis Bupleurum marginatum 10 35 60 15 50 55 20 25 20 55 40 35 35 40 25 20 20 20 0.60 0.10 0.75 1.45 0.30 1.30 1.30 0.50 0.35 0.40 0.90 0.95 0.80 0.85 0.70 0.60 0.40 0.35 0.40 BASAL AREA 28.285 28.285 12.571 00.125 19.642 02.011 00.125 12.571 12.571 12.571 00.125 00.282 00.785 00.078 00.282 01.131 01.697 01.539 00.785 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 4.255 4.081 19.891 1.418 4.964 8.510 2.127 7.091 7.801 2.836 3.546 2.836 7.801 5.673 4.964 4.964 5.673 3.546 2.836 2.836 2.836 0.680 5.102 9.863 2.040 8.843 8.843 3.401 2.380 2.721 6.122 6.462 5.442 5.782 4.761 4.081 2.721 2.380 2.721 19.891 08.840 00.088 13.813 01.414 00.088 08.840 08.840 08.840 00.088 00.198 00.552 00.055 00.198 00.795 01.193 01.082 00.552 IVI 28.228 21.990 18.907 18.462 17.982 17.349 16.733 15.078 14.767 14.398 14.012 12.335 10.959 10.802 10.634 08.423 06.751 06.300 06.110 Viola pilosa Mentha longifolia Plantago ovata Micromeria biflora Gentiana argentea Urtica dioica 25 15 15 15 15 10 0.35 0.20 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.10 00.125 02.545 00.502 00.282 00.125 03.142 3.546 2.127 2.127 2.127 2.127 1.418 2.380 1.360 2.380 2.380 2.380 0.680 00.088 01.790 00.353 00.198 00.088 02.210 06.015 05.278 04.862 04.707 04.597 04.308 Phytosociological parameters during winter at site F for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Hedera nepalensis Verbascum thapsus Bergenia ciliata Indigofera sp. Euphorbia helioscopia Urtica dioica Taraxacum officinale Carex sp. Colchicum luteum Datura stramonium Tulipa stellata Cynodon dactylon Stipa brandisii Rumex hastatus Mentha longifolia Cannabis sativa Fragaria vesca Thymus serpyllum FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 35 55 15 25 15 40 45 60 45 10 65 50 55 35 40 45 20 25 0.70 1.00 0.40 0.45 0.75 1.00 1.25 0.95 1.15 0.10 0.70 0.90 0.80 1.00 0.65 0.65 0.55 0.65 BASAL AREA 28.285 12.571 19.642 15.211 12.571 07.071 00.282 00.031 00.282 12.571 00.125 00.502 00.125 01.540 02.011 00.785 04.525 02.011 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 3.664 3.580 20.766 5.759 5.115 09.229 1.570 2.046 14.420 2.617 2.301 11.167 1.570 3.836 09.229 4.188 5.115 05.191 4.712 6.393 00.207 6.282 4.859 00.023 4.712 5.882 00.207 1.047 0.511 09.229 6.806 3.580 00.092 5.235 4.603 00.349 5.759 4.092 00.092 3.664 5.115 01.130 4.188 3.324 01.476 4.712 3.324 00.576 2.094 2.813 03.322 2.617 3.324 01.476 IVI 28.011 20.103 18.037 16.087 14.636 14.495 11.313 11.165 10.802 10.787 10.479 10.188 09.943 09.910 08.989 08.613 08.230 07.419 Plantago ovata Tagetus minuta Viola pilosa Duchesnea indica Bupleurum marginatum Bistorta amplexicaulis Micromeria biflora Fumaria parviflora Medicago lupulina Bunium persicum Arthraxon prionodes Viola patrinii Ajuga parviflora Galium aparine 30 25 25 25 20 20 25 20 25 15 15 10 10 10 0.60 0.45 0.60 0.55 0.45 0.30 0.50 0.60 0.45 0.35 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.25 00.502 02.011 00.785 01.131 01.540 02.514 00.125 00.125 00.502 02.011 02.011 02.011 00.502 00.282 3.141 2.617 2.617 2.617 2.094 2.094 2.617 2.094 2.617 1.570 1.570 1.047 1.047 1.047 3.069 2.301 3.069 2.813 2.301 1.534 2.557 3.069 2.301 1.790 1.534 1.023 1.534 1.278 00.349 01.476 00.576 00.830 01.130 01.845 00.092 00.092 00.207 01.476 01.476 01.476 00.207 00.207 06.559 06.396 06.263 06.261 05.526 05.474 05.267 05.255 05.127 04.837 04.581 03.546 02.789 02.533 Phytosociological parameters during spring at site A for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Bupleurum marginatum Adhatoda vesca Saussurea heteromalla Tulipa stellata Mentha longifolia Plantago major Ranunculus arvensis Micromeria biflora Rabdosia rugosa Plantago lanceolata FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 40 05 20 90 90 60 80 90 75 50 1.25 0.10 0.30 1.20 1.15 0.95 1.20 1.20 1.10 1.00 BASAL AREA 0.101 0.166 0.125 0.020 0.020 0.053 0.011 0.001 0.015 0.037 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 2.539 4.570 07.544 0.317 0.365 12.317 1.269 1.096 09.315 5.714 4.387 01.489 5.714 4.204 01.489 3.809 3.473 03.935 5.079 4.387 00.837 5.714 4.387 00.088 4.761 4.021 01.133 3.174 3.656 02.794 IVI 14.654 13.000 11.682 11.590 11.408 11.218 10.304 10.190 09.917 09.624 Gentiana argentea Androsace rotundifolia Medicago lupulina Lespedeza cuneata Commelina benghalensis Duchesnea indica Clinopodium vulgare Carex sp. Arisaema flavum Hedera nepalensis Cannabis sativa Fragaria vesca Taraxacum officinale Cynodon dactylon Valeriana wallichii Euphorbia pilosa Bistorta amplexicaulis Youngia japonica Urtica dioica Rumex hastatus Verbascum thapsus Datura stramonium Viola pilosa Phytolacca acinosa Cardamine impatiens Anagallis arvense Galium elegans Goodyera repens Achillea millefolium Oxalis corniculata Geranium wallichianum 45 70 60 60 10 60 40 60 15 50 15 50 50 50 10 40 10 10 30 40 40 10 30 15 30 15 25 10 05 15 05 1.20 1.10 0.90 0.90 0.15 1.10 1.10 1.10 0.25 0.75 0.60 1.05 0.90 0.90 0.15 0.55 0.40 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.60 0.15 0.70 0.20 0.40 0.50 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.25 0.10 0.031 0.011 0.025 0.025 0.101 0.011 0.025 0.005 0.080 0.025 0.061 0.005 0.002 0.0003 0.070 0.020 0.053 0.061 0.031 0.007 0.007 0.045 0.0003 0.031 0.007 0.005 0.0003 0.020 0.020 0.0003 0.001 2.857 4.444 3.809 3.809 0.634 3.809 2.539 3.809 0.952 3.174 0.952 3.174 3.174 3.174 0.634 2.539 0.634 0.634 1.904 2.539 2.539 0.634 1.904 0.952 1.904 0.952 1.587 0.634 0.317 0.952 0.317 4.387 4.021 3.290 3.290 0.548 4.021 4.021 4.021 0.914 2.742 2.193 3.839 3.290 3.290 0.548 2.010 1.462 0.731 1.462 2.193 2.193 0.548 2.559 0.731 1.462 1.828 1.462 0.731 0.365 0.914 0.365 02.327 00.837 01.882 01.882 07.544 00.837 01.882 00.370 05.958 01.882 04.557 00.392 00.207 00.022 05.239 01.489 03.935 04.557 02.327 00.578 00.578 03.349 00.022 02.327 00.578 00.370 00.022 01.489 01.489 00.022 00.088 09.571 09.303 08.982 08.982 08.727 08.668 08.444 08.201 07.825 07.799 07.704 07.406 06.672 06.487 06.423 06.039 06.032 05.924 05.694 05.311 05.311 04.533 04.485 04.010 03.945 03.150 03.071 02.855 02.172 01.888 00.771 Phytosociological parameters during spring at site B for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Stipa brandisii Salvia species Verbascum thapsus Duchesnea indica Sonchus arvense Cichorium intybus Sonchus arvense Androsace rotundifolia Plantago ovata Carex species Rabdosia rugosa Bistorta amplexicaulis Micromeria biflora Plantago lanceolata Viola pilosa Oxalis corniculata Clinopodium vulgare Thymus serpyllum Cynodon dactylon Gentiana argentea Anagallis arvense Mentha longifolia Taraxacum officinale Poa sp. Rumex hastatus Fragaria vesca FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 90 60 30 60 45 65 45 30 35 90 50 55 80 80 60 70 55 85 90 85 60 60 60 70 40 55 1.60 1.05 0.40 1.05 1.10 1.15 0.85 0.50 0.90 1.50 1.15 1.00 1.35 1.10 1.80 1.60 1.15 1.10 1.00 1.35 1.20 1.40 1.40 1.10 1.05 1.15 BASAL AREA 5.311 3.142 4.085 2.011 2.011 1.539 2.011 2.545 2.011 0.502 1.130 1.131 0.282 0.502 0.125 0.125 0.785 0.282 0.282 0.031 0.502 0.282 0.031 0.125 0.502 0.125 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 4.639 4.383 15.968 3.092 2.876 09.447 1.546 1.095 12.282 3.092 2.876 06.046 2.319 3.013 06.046 3.350 3.150 04.627 2.319 2.328 06.046 1.546 1.369 07.652 1.804 2.465 06.046 4.639 4.109 01.509 2.577 3.150 03.397 2.835 2.739 03.400 4.123 3.698 00.847 4.123 3.013 01.509 3.092 4.931 00.375 3.608 4.383 00.375 2.835 3.150 02.360 4.381 3.013 00.847 4.639 2.739 00.847 4.381 3.698 00.093 3.092 3.287 01.509 3.092 3.835 00.847 3.092 3.835 00.093 3.608 3.013 00.375 2.061 2.876 01.509 2.835 3.150 00.375 IVI 24.990 15.415 14.923 12.014 11.378 11.127 10.693 10.567 10.315 10.257 09.124 08.974 08.668 08.645 08.398 08.366 08.345 08.241 08.225 08.172 07.888 07.774 07.020 06.996 06.446 06.360 Ajuga parviflora Galium asperifolium Ranunculus species Capsella bursa-pastoris Youngia japonica Cannabis sativa Polygala abyssinica Fumaria parviflora 40 60 45 60 30 45 20 35 0.95 1.05 1.15 0.90 0.60 0.60 0.65 0.60 0.502 0.031 0.125 0.031 0.502 0.125 0.502 0.031 2.061 3.092 2.319 3.092 1.546 2.319 1.030 1.804 2.602 2.876 3.150 2.465 1.643 1.643 1.780 1.643 01.509 00.093 00.375 00.093 01.509 00.375 01.509 00.093 60.172 06.061 05.844 05.650 04.698 04.337 04.319 03.540 Phytosociological parameters during spring at site C for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Hypericum perforatum Phytolacca arvensis Calanthe tricarinata Dioscorea deltoidea Ajuga parviflora Taraxacum officinale Agrostis pilosula Carex species Hedera nepalensis Gentiana argentea Cichorium intybus Gnaphalium hypoleucum Geranium wallichianum Rabdosia rugosa Bupleurum marginatum Aquilegia pubiflora Capsella bursa - pastoris FREQUENCY (%age) 45 60 40 35 45 70 40 90 05 50 70 40 80 60 60 15 80 DENSITY (m-2) 0.90 0.45 0.70 0.95 0.90 1.05 1.05 1.20 1.00 0.75 0.90 0.90 1.10 0.40 0.90 0.40 1.10 BASAL AREA 7.071 7.071 7.071 4.525 3.457 2.011 3.142 0.785 4.525 3.142 2.011 3.142 1.131 3.142 2.011 4.525 0.502 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 2.179 2.284 8.699 2.905 1.142 8.699 1.937 1.776 8.699 1.694 2.411 5.567 2.179 2.284 4.253 3.389 2.664 2.474 1.937 2.664 3.865 4.358 3.045 0.965 0.242 2.538 5.567 2.421 1.903 3.865 3.389 2.284 2.474 1.937 2.284 3.865 3.874 2.791 1.391 2.905 1.015 3.865 2.905 2.284 2.474 0.726 1.015 5.567 3.874 2.791 0.617 IVI 13.162 12.746 12.412 09.672 08.716 08.527 08.466 08.368 08.347 08.189 08.147 08.086 08.056 07.785 07.663 07.308 07.282 Fragaria vesca Torilis japonica Fumaria parviflora Viola pilosa Indigofera heterantha Androsace rotundifolia Cardamine impatiens Plantago ovata Brunella vulgaris Duchesnea indica Oxalis corniculata Cynodon dactylon Youngia japonica Phleum himalaicum Verbascum thapsus Micromeria biflora Arisaema jacquemontii Veronica polita Bistorta amplexicaulis Clinopodium vulgare Thymus serpyllum Valeriana wallichii Galium asperifolium Poa annua Colchicum luteum Potentilla species Ainsliaea latifolia Galium aparine Lespedeza cuneata 60 40 65 50 25 05 25 50 60 60 40 60 60 40 70 60 55 45 45 35 30 35 20 10 35 20 30 20 30 1.15 1.00 1.15 1.10 0.60 1.40 0.45 1.05 0.95 0.90 0.70 1.00 0.45 1.10 0.75 0.90 0.90 1.05 0.80 1.10 1.10 0.90 1.00 1.05 0.25 0.40 0.55 0.60 0.40 1.131 2.011 0.502 1.131 3.142 2.011 3.142 0.785 0.502 0.502 1.539 0.031 1.131 0.502 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.502 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.282 0.502 1.131 1.131 0.031 0.125 0.031 2.905 1.937 3.147 2.421 1.210 0.242 1.210 2.421 2.905 2.907 1.937 2.905 2.905 1.937 3.389 2.905 2.663 2.179 2.179 1.694 1.452 1.694 0.968 0.484 1.694 0.968 1.452 0.968 1.452 2.918 2.538 2.918 2.791 1.522 3.553 1.142 2.664 2.411 2.284 1.776 2.538 1.142 2.791 1.903 2.284 2.284 2.664 2.030 2.791 2.791 2.284 2.538 2.664 0.634 1.015 1.395 1.522 1.015 1.391 2.474 0.617 1.391 3.865 2.474 3.865 0.965 0.617 0.617 1.893 0.038 1.391 0.617 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.617 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.346 0.617 1.391 1.391 0.038 0.153 0.038 07.214 06.949 06.682 06.603 06.597 06.269 06.217 06.050 05.933 05.808 05.606 05.481 05.438 05.345 05.330 05.227 04.985 04.881 04.826 04.523 04.281 04.016 03.852 03.765 03.719 03.374 02.885 02.643 02.505 Phytosociological parameters during spring at site D for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Gnaphalium leuto-album Saussurea heteromalla Plantago ovata Solanum nigrum Micromeria biflora Indigofera heterantha Viola pilosa Fumaria parviflora Thymus serpyllum Euphorbia helioscopia Cynodon dactylon Ranunculus arvensis Girardinia heterophylla Anagallis arvensis Galium asperifolium Bistorta amplexicaulis Oxalis corniculata Xanthium stramonium Cichorium intybus Datura stramonium Arisaema flavum Urtica dioica Taraxacum officinale Hedera nepalensis Mentha longifolia Salvia species Galium elegans Duchesnea indica Cannabis sativa Euphorbia pilosa FREQUENCY (%age) 70 90 80 20 90 30 90 80 90 20 90 60 45 40 65 45 70 35 40 10 40 20 60 55 20 35 35 35 25 25 DENSITY (m-2) 0.90 1.10 1.15 0.90 1.15 0.70 1.15 1.35 1.15 0.50 1.05 1.15 0.65 0.70 1.25 0.95 1.00 0.65 1.10 0.40 0.65 0.55 0.90 0.80 1.00 0.60 0.90 0.90 0.60 0.90 BASAL AREA 10.182 08.045 06.159 08.045 02.011 04.525 00.282 00.125 00.125 05.311 00.125 01.131 03.142 03.142 00.282 02.011 00.502 03.142 01.539 04.525 02.011 03.142 00.125 00.502 01.131 01.131 00.282 00.282 01.131 00.125 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 4.361 3.087 12.778 5.607 3.773 10.096 4.984 3.945 07.729 1.246 3.087 10.096 5.607 3.945 02.523 1.869 2.401 05.679 5.607 3.945 00.353 4.984 4.631 00.156 5.607 3.945 00.156 1.246 1.715 06.665 5.607 3.602 00.156 3.738 3.945 01.419 2.803 2.229 03.943 2.492 2.401 03.943 4.049 4.288 00.353 2.803 3.259 02.523 4.361 3.430 00.630 2.180 2.229 03.943 2.492 3.773 01.931 0.623 1.372 05.679 2.492 2.229 02.523 1.246 1.886 03.943 3.738 3.087 00.156 3.426 2.744 00.630 1.246 3.430 01.419 2.180 2.058 01.419 2.180 3.087 00.353 2.180 3.087 00.353 1.557 2.058 01.419 1.557 3.087 00.156 IVI 20.226 19.476 16.658 14.429 12.075 09.949 09.905 09.771 09.708 09.626 09.365 09.102 08.975 08.836 08.690 08.585 08.421 08.352 08.196 07.674 07.244 07.075 06.981 06.800 06.095 05.657 05.620 05.620 05.034 04.800 Rumex hastatus Cirsium arvense Verbascum thapsus Potentilla nepalensis Achyranthes bidentata 15 30 20 15 15 0.70 0.60 0.40 0.30 0.40 01.131 00.502 01.539 02.011 00.282 0.934 1.869 1.246 0.934 0.934 2.401 2.058 1.372 1.029 1.372 01.419 00.630 01.931 02.523 00.353 04.754 04.557 04.549 04.486 02.659 Phytosociological parameters during spring at site E for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Rabdosia rugosa Verbascum thapsus Tagetus minuta Hypericum perforatum Cichorium intybus Bergenia ciliata Ajuga parviflora Calanthe tricarinata Taraxacum officinale Carex species Fragaria vesca Urtica dioica Plantago lanceolata Plantago major Indigofera species Ranunculus arvense Impatiens sulcata Oxalis corniculata Galium asperifolium FREQUENCY (%age) 65 25 30 35 60 20 35 10 75 90 85 25 60 75 45 80 55 70 70 DENSITY (m-2) 1.05 0.90 0.70 0.90 0.80 0.70 3.60 0.35 1.05 1.40 1.15 0.55 1.40 1.00 0.50 1.15 1.20 1.10 1.10 BASAL AREA 7.071 8.045 8.045 7.071 5.311 7.071 0.282 7.071 2.011 0.282 0.942 4.525 0.785 0.942 3.142 0.031 0.785 0.031 0.028 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 3.367 2.720 09.094 1.295 2.331 10.346 1.554 1.813 10.340 1.813 2.331 09.094 3.108 2.072 06.830 1.036 1.813 09.094 1.813 9.326 00.362 0.518 0.906 09.094 3.886 2.720 02.586 4.663 3.626 00.362 4.404 2.979 01.211 1.295 1.424 05.819 3.108 3.626 01.009 3.886 2.590 01.211 2.331 1.295 04.041 4.145 2.979 00.039 2.849 3.108 01.009 3.626 2.849 00.039 3.626 2.849 00.036 IVI 15.181 13.972 13.707 13.238 12.010 11.943 11.501 10.518 09.192 08.651 08.594 08.538 07.743 07.687 07.667 07.163 06.966 06.514 06.511 Ipomea purpurea Cynodon dactylon Cannabis sativa Micromeria biflora Artemisia species Youngia japonica Potentilla species Arisaema jacquemontii viola pilosa Gentiana argentea Euphorbia helioscopia Galium elegans Arthraxon prionodes Senecio species Geranium wallichianum Valeriana wallichii Mentha longifolia Bupleurum marginatum Rumex hastatus Capsella bursa-pastoris Thymus serpyllum Fumaria parviflora Aquilegia pubiflora 70 60 50 65 45 45 50 40 60 50 40 40 55 30 25 15 25 35 20 35 30 25 10 1.00 1.20 0.90 1.10 0.90 0.90 1.10 0.60 0.90 1.10 0.60 1.05 0.70 0.40 0.70 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.35 0.125 0.125 1.131 0.031 1.131 1.131 0.502 1.539 0.125 0.031 1.131 0.125 0.031 1.539 1.131 1.539 0.502 0.502 1.131 0.125 0.028 0.125 0.502 3.626 3.108 2.590 3.367 2.331 2.331 2.590 2.072 3.108 2.590 2.072 2.072 2.849 1.554 1.295 0.777 1.295 1.813 1.036 1.813 1.554 1.295 0.518 2.590 3.108 2.331 2.849 2.331 2.331 2.849 1.554 2.331 2.849 1.554 2.720 1.813 1.036 1.813 1.554 2.331 1.554 1.295 1.554 1.813 1.554 0.906 00.160 00.160 01.454 00.039 01.454 01.454 00.645 01.979 00.160 00.039 01.454 00.160 00.039 01.979 01.454 01.979 00.645 00.645 01.454 00.160 00.036 00.160 00.645 06.376 06.376 06.375 06.255 06.116 06.116 06.084 05.605 05.599 05.478 05.080 04.952 04.701 04.569 04.562 04.310 04.271 04.012 03.785 03.527 03.403 03.009 02.069 Phytosociological parameters during spring at site F for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES FREQUENCY (%age) DENSITY (m-2) BASAL AREA RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) IVI Saussurea heteromalla Arisaema Jacquemontii Tagetus minuta Bergenia ciliata Dioscorea deltoidea Sonchus arvense Stipa brandisii Verbascum thapsus Bupleurum marginatum Rabdosia rugosa Tulipa stellata Carex species Duchesnea indica Arathraxn prionodes Valeriana wallichii Ranunculus arvense Plantago ovata Fumaria parviflora Taraxacum officinale Oxalis corniculata Viola pilosa Micromeria biflora Fragaria vesca Cannabis sativa Ajuga parviflora Thymus serpyllum Cynodon dactylon Artemisia species Gentiana argentea Polygala abyssinica Ipomea purpurea Astragalus grahamianus Capsella bursa-pastoris 80 70 70 20 80 70 90 60 10 50 65 80 80 50 60 80 70 80 65 70 70 80 75 40 60 60 60 45 60 25 55 60 55 1.15 1.15 1.10 0.50 1.45 0.90 1.70 0.70 0.35 1.10 1.90 1.55 1.10 0.90 0.90 1.15 0.90 1.35 1.40 1.40 1.35 1.10 1.25 1.05 1.15 1.25 1.10 0.70 1.10 0.90 0.90 0.80 0.95 13.859 09.082 08.045 08.045 01.539 02.545 00.502 02.545 04.525 02.011 00.282 00.282 00.942 02.011 01.539 00.502 01.131 00.031 00.282 00.031 00.028 00.125 00.031 01.131 00.282 00.031 00.125 01.131 00.031 01.131 00.125 00.125 00.031 3.411 2.985 2.985 0.852 3.411 2.985 3.837 2.558 0.426 2.132 2.771 3.411 3.411 2.132 2.558 3.411 2.985 3.411 2.771 2.985 2.985 3.411 3.198 1.705 2.558 2.558 2.558 1.918 2.558 1.066 2.345 2.558 2.345 2.634 2.634 2.520 1.145 3.321 2.061 3.894 1.603 0.801 2.520 4.352 3.550 2.520 2.061 2.061 2.634 2.061 3.092 3.207 3.207 3.092 2.52 2.863 2.405 2.634 2.863 2.52 1.603 2.520 2.061 2.061 1.832 2.176 20.228 13.256 11.742 11.742 02.246 03.714 00.732 04.152 06.604 02.935 00.411 00.411 01.374 02.935 02.246 00.732 01.650 00.045 00.411 00.045 00.040 00.182 00.045 01.650 00.411 00.045 00.182 01.650 00.045 01.650 00.182 00.182 00.045 26.273 18.875 17.247 13.739 08.978 08.760 08.463 08.313 07.831 07.587 07.534 07.372 07.305 07.128 06.865 06.777 06.696 06.548 06.389 06.237 06.117 06.113 06.106 05.760 05.603 05.466 05.260 05.171 05.123 04.777 04.588 04.572 04.566 Mentha longifolia Plantago lanceolata Euphorbia pilosa Medicago lupulina Bistorta amplexicaulis Bunium persicum Galium elegans Impatiens sulcata Potentilla species Primula denticulata Aquilegia pubiflora 40 40 35 40 30 30 20 20 20 10 15 1.05 1.05 0.95 0.8 1.00 0.70 0.80 0.35 0.30 0.20 0.20 00.282 00.785 00.282 00.282 00.125 00.502 00.125 00.785 00.502 00.502 00.282 1.705 1.705 1.492 1.705 1.279 1.279 0.852 0.852 0.852 0.426 0.639 2.405 2.405 2.176 1.832 2.290 1.603 1.832 0.801 0.687 0.458 0.458 00.411 00.114 00.411 00.411 00.182 00.732 00.182 01.145 00.732 00.732 00.411 04.521 04.224 04.079 03.948 03.751 03.614 02.866 02.798 02.271 01.616 01.508 Phytosociological parameters during summer at site A for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Arisaema jacquemontii Verbascum thapsus Saussurea heteromalla Datura stramonium Urtica dioica Carex sp. Desmodium podocarpum Lespedeza cuneata Girardinia heterophylla Cannabis sativa Myriactis wallichii Plantago ovata Ranunculus arvensis Achillea millefolium FREQUENCY (%age) 20 40 70 35 60 100 10 65 20 70 50 90 65 60 DENSITY (m-2) 0.30 0.80 0.80 0.60 1.00 1.20 0.25 1.15 0.60 1.15 1.05 1.15 1.25 1.35 BASAL AREA 3.142 2.011 1.539 2.011 1.131 0.502 2.011 0.785 1.539 0.502 0.785 0.282 0.384 0.282 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 0.894 0.829 12.966 1.789 2.213 08.298 3.131 2.213 06.351 1.565 1.659 08.298 2.684 2.766 04.667 4.474 3.319 02.071 0.447 0.691 08.298 2.908 3.181 03.239 0.894 1.659 06.351 3.131 3.181 02.071 2.237 2.904 03.239 4.026 3.181 01.163 2.908 3.457 01.584 2.684 3.734 01.163 IVI 14.689 12.300 11.695 11.522 10.117 09.864 09.436 09.328 08.904 08.383 08.380 08.370 07.949 07.581 Indigofera heterantha Youngia japonica Geranium wallichianum Galium elegans Dioscorea deltoidea Fragaria vesca Cynodon dactylon Medicago lupulina Duchesnea indica Cardamine vesca Androsace rotundifolia Colismenus compositus Hedera nepalensis Bupleurum marginatum Clinopodium vulgare Plantago lanceolata Oxalis corniculata Torilis japonica Veronica polita Rumex hastatus Commelina benghalensis Valeriana wallichii Micromeria biflora Rabdosia rugosa Anagallis arvensis Taraxacum officinale Mentha longifolia Ainsliaea latifolia Bistorta amplexicaulis Goodyera repens Gentiana argentea 40 55 85 90 80 65 85 40 70 55 40 25 60 55 55 60 60 45 55 55 50 25 55 25 25 40 20 25 20 10 10 0.60 1.00 1.05 1.00 1.15 1.00 1.05 0.95 1.00 1.10 0.60 0.60 0.75 0.75 0.90 0.85 0.90 1.00 0.90 0.75 0.55 0.60 0.80 0.50 1.00 0.50 0.50 0.35 0.50 0.15 0.15 0.950 0.502 0.125 0.070 0.070 0.282 0.031 0.502 0.125 0.196 0.636 0.785 0.282 0.282 0.125 0.070 0.031 0.125 0.031 0.125 0.282 0.502 0.031 0.502 0.031 0.125 0.196 0.125 0.031 0.125 0.031 1.789 2.460 3.803 4.026 3.579 2.908 3.803 1.789 3.131 2.460 1.789 1.118 2.684 2.460 2.460 2.684 2.684 2.013 2.460 2.460 2.237 1.118 2.460 1.118 1.118 1.789 0.894 1.118 0.894 0.447 0.447 1.659 2.766 2.904 2.766 3.181 2.766 2.904 2.627 2.766 3.042 1.659 1.659 2.074 2.074 2.489 2.351 2.489 2.766 2.489 2.074 1.521 1.659 2.213 1.383 2.766 1.383 1.383 0.968 1.383 0.414 0.414 03.920 02.071 00.515 00.288 00.288 01.163 00.127 02.071 00.515 00.808 02.624 03.239 01.163 01.163 00.515 00.288 00.127 00.515 00.127 00.515 01.163 02.071 00.127 02.071 00.127 00.515 00.808 00.515 00.127 00.515 00.127 07.368 07.297 07.222 07.080 07.048 06.837 06.834 06.487 06.412 06.310 06.072 06.016 05.921 05.697 05.464 05.323 05.300 05.294 05.076 05.049 04.921 04.848 04.800 04.572 04.011 03.687 03.085 02.601 02.404 01.376 00.988 Phytosociological parameters during summer at site B for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Sonchus arvense Torilis japonica Piptatherum munorei Indigofera heterantha Arisalina sp. Fumaria parviflora Youngia japonica Duchesnea indica Plantago ovata Galium asperifolium Cynoglossum wallichii Gentiana argentea Androsace rotundifolia Polygonium hydropiper Stipa brandisii Ranunculus arvensis Cannabis sativa Cynodon dactylon Fragaria vesca Oxalis corniculata Veronica polita Plantago lanceolata Micromeria biflora Thymus serpyllum Brachypodium sp. Bupleurum marginatum Bistorta amplexicaulis Galium elegans FREQUENCY (%age) 30 75 40 35 40 85 40 55 65 85 10 30 45 40 80 60 40 70 60 65 20 50 60 50 40 30 60 60 DENSITY (m-2) 0.40 1.00 0.65 0.55 0.70 1.20 0.80 1.20 1.20 1.15 0.40 0.70 0.75 0.80 1.00 0.90 1.05 0.90 1.10 0.90 0.35 1.05 0.70 1.10 0.60 0.40 0.70 0.90 BASAL AREA 3.142 1.539 2.011 2.011 1.539 0.125 1.327 0.636 0.384 0.031 2.011 1.327 0.985 0.985 0.070 0.502 0.636 0.196 0.125 0.196 1.539 0.196 0.384 0.125 0.785 1.131 0.282 0.070 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 1.643 1.309 9.837 4.109 3.273 4.818 2.191 2.127 6.296 1.917 1.800 6.296 2.191 2.291 4.818 4.657 3.927 0.391 2.191 2.618 4.154 3.013 3.927 1.991 3.561 3.927 1.202 4.657 3.764 0.097 0.547 1.309 6.296 1.643 2.291 4.154 2.465 2.454 3.084 2.191 2.618 3.084 4.383 3.273 0.219 3.287 2.945 1.571 2.191 3.436 1.991 3.835 2.945 0.613 3.287 3.600 0.391 3.561 2.945 0.613 1.095 1.145 4.818 2.739 3.436 0.613 3.287 2.291 1.202 2.739 3.600 0.391 2.191 1.963 2.457 1.643 1.309 3.541 3.287 2.291 0.882 3.287 2.945 0.219 IVI 12.789 12.200 10.614 10.013 9.300 08.975 08.963 08.931 08.690 08.518 08.152 08.088 08.003 07.893 07.875 07.803 07.618 07.393 07.278 07.119 07.058 06.788 06.780 06.730 06.611 06.493 06.460 06.451 Lysimachia chenopodioides Erigeron canadensis Mentha longifolia Ajuga parviflora Cichorium intybus Carpesium cernuum Verbascum thapsus Poa annua Rumex hastatus Salvia sp. Viola pilosa Capsella bursa-pastoris Erigeron multicaulis Euphorbia sp. Taraxacum officinale 10 40 20 45 25 35 40 50 30 20 30 20 15 15 10 0.25 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.75 0.50 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.45 0.50 0.40 0.15 0.35 0.30 1.539 0.636 0.950 0.502 0.636 0.636 0.318 0.125 0.384 0.636 0.196 0.196 0.502 0.196 0.196 0.547 2.191 1.095 2.465 1.369 1.917 2.191 2.739 1.643 1.095 1.643 1.095 0.821 0.821 0.547 0.818 1.963 1.963 1.800 2.454 1.636 2.291 2.291 1.963 1.472 1.636 1.309 0.490 1.145 0.981 4.818 1.991 2.974 1.571 1.991 1.991 0.995 0.391 1.202 1.991 0.613 0.613 1.571 0.613 0.613 06.183 06.145 06.032 05.836 05.814 05.544 05.477 05.421 04.808 04.558 03.892 03.017 02.882 02.579 02.141 Phytosociological parameters during summer at site C for herbs: NAME OF PLANT SPECIES Rabdosia rugosa Phytolacca acinosa Arisaema jacquemontii Calanthe tricarinata Valeriana wallichii Cynodon dactylon Carex species Thymus serpyllum Cichorium intybus FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 60 10 35 15 35 80 90 70 15 1.15 0.35 0.65 1.05 0.95 1.45 1.15 1.45 1.00 BASAL AREA 1.539 3.142 2.011 2.011 1.539 0.031 0.031 0.125 1.539 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 4.562 4.007 05.700 0.760 1.230 11.637 2.661 2.284 07.448 1.140 3.690 07.448 2.661 3.339 05.700 6.083 6.844 5.323 1.140 5.096 4.042 5.096 3.514 00.114 00.114 00.462 05.700 IVI 14.269 13.627 12.393 12.278 11.700 11.293 11.000 10.881 10.354 Verbascum thapsus Cannabis sativa Plantago ovata Ranunculus arvensis Hedera nepalensis Achyranthes bidentata Galium elegans Dioscorea deltoidea Xanthium strumarium Fragaria vesca Euphorbia helioscopia Torilis japonica Oxalis corniculata Urtica dioica Gentiana argentea Myriactis wallichii Capsella bursa-pastoris Lespedeza cuneata Geranium wallichianum Cardamine impatiens Bistorta amplexicaulis Aquilegia pubiflora Androsace rotundifolia Viola patrinii Veronica polita Malvastrum sp. Agrostis pilosula 45 15 65 40 60 30 60 55 40 40 20 20 50 20 40 20 35 35 35 35 20 15 25 25 25 15 20 0.85 0.35 1.05 1.00 0.80 0.75 1.25 1.00 0.60 0.90 1.00 0.35 1.05 0.50 1.10 0.65 0.80 0.60 0.90 0.40 0.80 0.20 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 0.35 0.950 2.011 0.282 0.785 0.502 1.131 0.031 0.282 0.785 0.502 0.785 1.327 0.031 1.131 0.070 0.785 0.318 0.502 0.070 0.502 0.384 0.785 0.196 0.125 0.282 0.282 0.196 3.420 1.140 4.942 3.041 4.562 2.281 4.562 4.182 3.041 3.031 1.520 1.520 3.802 1.520 3.031 1.520 2.661 2.661 2.661 2.661 1.520 1.140 1.901 1.901 1.901 1.140 1.520 2.991 1.230 3.690 3.514 2.811 2.636 4.393 3.514 2.108 3.163 3.514 1.230 3.690 1.757 3.866 2.284 2.811 2.108 3.163 1.000 2.811 0.702 2.108 2.108 1.405 1.405 1.230 03.518 07.448 01.044 02.907 01.859 04.188 00.114 01.044 02.907 01.859 02.907 04.914 00.011 04.188 00.259 02.907 01.177 01.859 00.259 01.859 01.422 02.907 00.725 00.462 01.044 01.044 00.725 09.929 09.818 09.676 09.462 09.232 09.105 09.069 08.740 08.056 08.053 07.941 07.664 07.503 07.465 07.156 06.711 06.649 06.628 06.083 05.925 05.753 04.749 04.734 04.471 04.350 03.589 03.475 Phytosociological parameters during summer at site D for herbs: NAME OF PLANT FREQUENCY DENSITY BASAL RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE IVI SPECIES Sonchus arvense Salvia nubicola Xanthium strumarium Datura stramonium Verbascum thapsus Arisaema jacquemontii Rabdosia rugosa Lespedeza cuneata Plantago ovata Carex sp. Saussurea heteromalla Cynodon dactylon Euphorbia helioscopia Oxalis corniculata Galium aparine Urtica dioica Cardamine impatiens Girardinia heterophylla Achillea millefolium Thymus serpyllum Duchesnea indica Malvastrum Impatiens sp. Achyranthes bidentata Taraxacum officinale Androsace rotundifolia Cichorium intybus Oplismenus compositus Hedera nepalensis Cannabis sativa Bistorta amplexicaulis (%age) 85 40 35 50 60 35 40 60 80 90 65 80 60 80 70 35 60 30 65 60 40 40 35 50 60 55 35 55 25 40 40 (m-2) 1.30 0.50 0.50 0.60 1.10 0.70 0.85 1.00 1.20 1.05 0.40 1.10 0.90 0.70 1.10 0.60 1.15 0.30 0.80 1.05 0.85 0.60 0.90 0.80 0.75 0.65 0.35 0.70 0.35 0.50 0.60 AREA 3.142 4.525 3.802 3.142 1.539 2.545 2.011 1.131 0.384 0.282 1.539 0.125 0.785 0.502 0.125 1.539 0.125 2.011 0.502 0.070 0.785 1.131 0.785 0.282 0.125 0.282 1.131 0.125 1.131 0.502 0.282 FREQUENCY (%age) 4.857 2.285 2.000 2.857 3.428 2.000 2.285 3.428 4.571 5.142 3.714 4.571 3.428 4.571 4.000 2.000 3.428 1.714 3.714 3.428 2.285 2.285 2.000 2.857 3.428 3.142 2.000 3.142 1.428 2.285 2.285 DENSITY (%age) 4.924 1.893 1.893 2.272 4.166 2.651 3.219 3.787 4.545 3.977 1.515 4.166 3.409 2.651 4.166 2.272 4.356 1.136 3.030 3.977 3.219 2.272 3.409 3.030 2.840 2.462 1.325 2.651 1.325 1.893 2.272 DOMINANCE (%age) 08.113 11.684 09.817 08.113 03.974 06.571 05.192 02.920 00.991 00.728 03.974 00.322 02.027 01.296 00.317 03.974 00.322 05.192 01.296 00.180 02.027 02.920 02.027 00.728 00.322 00.728 02.920 00.322 02.920 01.296 00.728 17.894 15.862 13.710 13.242 11.568 11.222 10.696 10.135 10.107 09.847 09.203 09.059 08.864 08.518 08.483 08.246 08.106 08.042 08.040 07.585 07.531 07.477 07.436 06.615 06.590 06.332 06.245 06.115 05.673 05.474 05.285 Rumex hastatus Myriactis wallichii Ranunculus arvense Commelina benghalensis Anagallis arvensis 35 10 20 10 20 0.60 0.50 0.60 0.10 0.65 0.196 0.785 0.196 1.131 0.031 2.000 0.571 1.142 0.571 1.142 2.272 1.893 2.272 0.378 2.462 00.506 02.027 00.506 02.920 00.080 04.778 04.491 03.920 03.869 03.684 Phytosociological parameters during summer at site E for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Phytolacca acinosa Potentilla species Calanthe tricarinata Desmodium podocarpum Verbascum thapsus Digitalis purpurea Commelina benghalensis Arisaema jacquemontii Stipa brandisii Cannabis sativa Micromeria biflora Plantago major Artemisia vestita Thymus serpyllum Carex sp. Cynodon dactylon Ajuga parviflora Achyranthes bidentata Plantago lanceolata Mentha longifolia FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 40 35 40 70 40 35 50 60 90 20 80 55 40 60 80 70 60 50 60 70 0.50 0.85 0.60 1.00 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.75 1.00 1.00 1.20 1.40 0.70 1.20 1.05 1.20 1.05 0.90 1.00 0.90 BASAL AREA 7.071 5.028 4.525 2.011 3.142 2.545 2.545 2.011 0.502 1.767 0.070 0.282 1.539 0.384 0.125 0.031 0.384 0.785 0.384 0.196 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 2.025 1.464 15.763 1.772 2.489 11.209 2.025 1.756 10.087 3.544 2.928 04.483 2.025 1.756 07.004 1.772 2.635 05.673 2.531 1.756 05.673 3.037 2.196 04.483 4.556 2.928 01.119 1.012 2.928 03.939 4.050 3.513 00.156 2.784 4.099 00.628 2.025 2.049 03.430 3.037 3.513 00.856 4.050 3.074 00.278 3.544 3.513 00.069 3.037 3.074 00.856 2.531 2.635 01.750 3.037 2.928 00.856 3.544 2.635 00.436 IVI 19.252 15.470 13.868 10.955 10.785 10.080 09.960 09.716 08.603 07.879 07.719 07.511 07.504 07.406 07.402 07.126 06.967 06.916 06.821 06.615 Cichorium intybus Urtica dioica Oxalis corniculata Poa annua Galium asperifolium Rumex nepalensis Ipomea purpurea Silene conoidea Hedera nepalensis Hypericum perforatum Gentiana argentea Myriactis wallichii Youngia japonica Euphorbia hirta Bupleurum marginatum Geranium nepalense Arthraxon prionodes Wulfenia amherstiana Ainsliaea latifolia Senecio arvense Valeriana wallichii Parnassia nubicola Aquilegia pubiflora Viola canescens Spiranthes australis Corydalis rutifolia 40 20 65 60 65 60 55 40 35 40 45 35 35 20 40 40 35 15 20 20 20 10 20 20 10 05 1.05 0.30 0.90 1.05 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.65 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.90 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.75 0.35 0.35 0.45 0.60 0.35 0.35 0.15 0.15 0.636 2.011 0.196 0.031 0.031 0.125 0.125 0.502 0.785 0.502 0.282 0.282 0.070 0.785 0.196 0.125 0.196 0.282 0.502 0.502 0.282 0.282 0.282 0.196 0.125 0.196 2.025 1.012 3.291 3.037 3.291 3.037 2.784 2.025 1.772 2.025 2.278 1.772 1.772 1.012 2.025 2.025 1.772 0.759 1.012 1.012 1.012 0.506 1.012 1.012 0.506 0.253 3.074 0.878 2.635 3.074 2.635 2.633 2.636 1.903 1.464 1.756 1.756 2.049 2.635 1.464 1.756 1.756 1.756 2.196 1.024 1.024 1.317 1.756 1.024 1.024 0.439 0.439 01.417 04.483 00.436 00.069 00.069 00.278 00.278 01.119 01.750 01.119 00.628 00.628 00.031 01.750 00.436 00.278 00.436 00.628 01.119 01.119 00.628 00.628 00.628 00.436 00.278 00.436 06.516 06.373 06.362 06.180 05.995 05.948 05.698 05.047 04.986 04.900 04.662 04.449 04.438 04.226 04.217 04.059 03.964 03.583 03.155 03.155 02.957 02.890 02.664 02.472 01.223 01.128 Phytosociological parameters during spring at site F for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) BASAL AREA RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE IVI Verbascum thapsus Carex species Taraxacum officinale Urtica dioica Tegetus minuta Ajuga parviflora Bergenia ciliata Myriactis wallichii Valeriana wallichii Cardamine impatiens Saussurea heteromalla Rabdosia rugosa Bistorta amplexicaulis Cynoglossum microanthum Arisaema jacquemontii Sonchus arvense Cannabis sativa Artemisia sp. Thymus serpyllum Torilis japonica Astragalus grahamianus Bupleurum marginatum Galium elegans Impatiens sulcata Gentiana argentea Ranunculus arvensis Polygala abyssinica Fragaria vesca Veronica polita Ipomea purpurea Bunium persicum Poa annua 60 90 20 20 40 55 20 50 40 55 60 60 60 30 75 35 60 50 60 10 25 45 60 35 60 25 50 35 40 35 35 40 0.70 1.35 1.00 0.65 1.00 1.00 0.50 1.05 0.85 1.70 0.65 1.20 1.00 0.55 0.90 0.90 1.05 1.10 1.10 0.35 0.40 0.65 1.00 0.90 0.90 0.85 1.05 0.60 0.70 0.65 1.00 0.90 7.071 1.131 3.142 3.142 2.011 1.539 3.142 1.539 2.011 0.282 1.539 0.502 0.636 2.011 0.318 1.327 0.318 0.502 0.196 2.545 2.011 1.131 0.196 0.950 0.196 1.131 0.125 1.131 0.636 0.785 0.196 0.196 (%age) 3.234 4.851 1.078 1.078 2.156 2.964 1.078 2.695 2.156 2.964 3.234 3.234 3.234 1.617 4.043 1.886 3.234 2.695 3.234 0.539 1.347 2.425 3.234 1.886 3.234 1.347 2.695 1.886 2.156 1.886 1.886 2.156 (%age) 1.978 3.816 2.826 1.837 2.826 2.826 1.413 2.968 2.402 4.805 1.837 3.392 2.826 1.554 2.544 2.544 2.968 3.109 3.109 0.909 1.130 1.837 2.826 2.544 2.544 2.402 2.968 1.696 1.978 1.837 2.826 2.544 (%age) 14.340 02.293 06.372 06.372 04.078 03.121 06.372 03.121 04.078 00.571 03.121 01.018 01.289 04.078 00.644 02.691 00.644 01.018 00.397 05.161 04.078 02.293 00.397 01.926 00.397 02.293 00.253 02.293 01.289 01.592 00.397 00.397 19.552 10.960 10.276 09.287 09.060 08.911 08.863 08.784 08.636 08.340 08.192 07.644 07.349 07.249 07.231 07.121 06.846 06.822 06.740 06.609 06.555 06.555 06.457 06.356 06.175 06.042 05.916 05.875 05.423 05.315 05.109 05.097 Brachypodium species Galium asperifolium Dioscorea deltoidea Euphorbia helioscopia Potentilla species Hedera nepalensis Plantago ovata Medicago lupulina Artemisia species Phleum himalaicum Primula species Oxalis parviflora Capsella bursa-pastoris Arabidopsis wallichii 20 35 45 40 20 45 70 35 35 15 20 15 15 10 0.30 0.95 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.40 0.12 0.65 0.45 0.40 0.60 0.70 0.40 0.15 1.539 0.196 0.282 0.282 0.785 0.502 0.125 0.196 0.229 0.785 0.282 0.196 0.196 0.125 1.078 1.886 2.425 2.156 1.078 2.425 3.773 1.886 1.886 0.808 1.078 0.808 0.808 0.539 0.848 2.685 1.837 1.978 1.978 1.130 0.353 1.837 1.272 1.130 1.696 1.978 1.130 0.424 03.121 00.397 00.571 00.571 01.592 01.018 00.253 00.397 00.464 01.592 00.571 00.397 00.397 00.253 05.047 04.968 04.833 04.705 04.648 04.573 04.379 04.120 03.622 03.530 03.345 03.183 02.335 01.216 Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site A for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Commelina benghalensis Ricinus communis Girardinia heterophylla Cynodon dactylon Cannabis sativa Dioscorea deltoidea Carex sp. Brachypodium species Urtica dioica Ajuga parviflora Saussurea heteromalla Myriactis wallichii FREQUENCY DENSITY (m-2) (%age) 20 20 25 75 55 60 70 50 30 55 40 40 0.65 0.20 0.25 1.50 1.40 0.70 1.00 0.90 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.85 BASAL AREA 7.071 7.071 5.311 0.282 1.131 1.539 0.282 1.131 2.545 0.502 1.131 0.785 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 1.777 3.117 14.801 1.777 0.959 14.801 2.222 1.199 11.117 6.666 7.194 00.590 4.888 6.714 02.367 5.333 3.357 03.221 6.222 4.796 00.590 4.444 4.316 02.367 2.666 3.117 05.327 4.888 3.357 01.050 3.555 3.357 02.367 3.555 4.076 01.643 IVI 19.695 17.537 14.538 14.450 13.969 11.911 11.608 11.127 11.110 09.295 09.279 09.274 Veronica polita Achillea millefolium Desmodium podocarpum Rumex hastatus Datura stramonium Medicago lupulina Carpesium cernuum Arisaema jacquemontii Verbascum thapsus Valeriana wallichii Bistorta amplexicaulis Rabdosia rugosa Duchesnea indica Epipactis royleana Hedera nepalensis Erigeron multicaulis Mentha longifolia Plantago ovata Oplismenus compositus Galium elegans Ranunculus arvensis Micromeria biflora 45 50 35 25 35 45 35 15 15 35 20 20 40 20 30 20 15 20 15 25 10 15 0.60 0.85 0.35 1.20 0.40 0.50 0.80 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.45 0.20 0.40 0.70 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.40 0.50 0.35 1.131 0.282 2.011 0.282 1.539 0.785 0.502 2.545 2.011 0.502 0.950 1.131 0.282 1.697 0.785 0.502 1.131 0.196 0.282 0.031 0.384 0.031 4.000 4.444 3.111 2.222 3.111 4.000 3.111 1.333 1.333 3.111 1.777 1.777 3.555 1.777 2.666 1.777 1.333 1.777 1.333 2.222 0.888 1.333 2.877 4.076 1.678 5.755 1.918 2.398 3.836 0.959 1.918 2.877 2.877 2.398 2.158 0.959 1.918 3.357 1.918 2.158 2.398 1.918 2.398 1.678 02.367 00.590 04.209 00.590 03.221 01.643 01.050 05.327 04.209 01.050 01.988 02.367 00.590 03.552 01.643 01.050 02.367 00.410 00.590 00.064 00.803 00.064 09.244 09.110 08.998 08.567 08.250 08.041 07.997 07.619 07.460 07.038 06.642 06.542 06.303 06.288 06.227 06.184 05.618 04.345 04.321 04.204 04.089 03.075 Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site B for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Verbascum thapsus Capsella bursa –pastoris Stipa brandisii FREQUENCY DENSITY (m-2) (%age) 55 35 65 0.70 3.75 1.00 BASAL AREA 4.525 0.125 2.011 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 4.867 03.070 17.531 3.097 16.440 00.484 5.752 04.385 07.791 IVI 25.468 20.021 17.928 Duchesnea indica Sonchus arvensis Carex sp. Cichorium intybus Cynoglossum wallichii Arthraxon prionodes Veronica polita Youngia japonica Salvia sp. Ranunculus arvensis Lysimachia chenopodioides Torilis japonica Bupleurum marginatum Erigeron multicaulis Cannabis sativa Polygonium hydropiper Galium asperifolium Thlaspi arvense Bistorta amplexicaulis Plantago ovata Poa annua Androsace rotundifolia Euphorbia helioscopia Ajuga parviflora Oxalis corniculata Micromeria biflora 35 40 75 20 55 50 65 50 20 20 55 30 50 45 25 40 50 40 35 40 45 40 10 20 10 10 0.60 0.85 1.15 0.45 0.90 0.90 1.05 0.70 0.45 1.05 0.80 0.40 0.55 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.60 0.95 0.70 0.60 0.45 0.25 0.45 0.35 0.25 2.545 2.011 0.785 2.545 1.131 1.131 0.070 0.785 1.539 0.785 0.125 1.131 0.502 0.502 0.785 0.282 0.031 0.384 0.125 0.129 0.125 0.384 0.785 0.125 0.282 0.125 3.097 3.539 6.637 1.769 4.867 4.424 5.752 4.424 1.769 1.769 4.867 2.654 4.424 3.982 2.212 3.539 4.424 3.539 2.857 3.539 3.982 3.539 0.884 1.769 0.884 0.884 02.631 03.728 05.043 01.973 03.947 03.947 04.605 03.070 01.973 04.605 03.508 01.754 02.412 02.631 03.070 03.508 03.508 02.631 04.166 03.070 02.631 01.973 01.096 01.973 01.535 01.096 09.860 07.791 03.041 09.860 04.382 04.382 00.271 03.041 05.962 03.041 00.484 04.382 01.944 01.944 03.041 01.092 00.120 01.487 00.484 00.499 00.484 01.487 03.041 00.484 01.092 00.484 15.588 15.058 14.721 13.602 13.196 12.753 10.628 10.535 09.704 09.415 08.859 08.790 08.780 08.557 08.323 08.139 08.052 07.657 07.507 07.108 07.097 06.999 05.021 04.226 03.511 02.464 Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site C for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) BASAL AREA RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE IVI Carex sp. Veronica polita Stipa brandisii Phytolacca acinosa Cannabis sativa Dioscorea deltoidea Galium aparine Lespedeza cuneata Cichorium intybus Erigeron multicaulis Carpesium cernuum Piptatherum munro Hedera nepalensis Valeriana wallichii Desmodium podocarpum Epipactis royleana Torilis japonica Galium asperifolium Achyranthes bidentata Rabdosia rugosa Agrostis pilosula Xanthium strumarium Capsella bursa pastoris Euphorbia helioscopia Calanthe tricarinata Medicago lupulina Bistorta amplexicaulis 80 55 75 20 60 60 70 35 55 55 55 35 60 35 20 20 45 45 35 25 40 20 30 35 15 10 10 1.25 0.80 1.05 0.35 1.00 0.75 1.15 0.80 0.75 0.60 0.70 0.35 0.65 0.50 0.50 0.30 0.60 0.85 0.90 0.85 0.50 0.30 0.80 0.45 0.55 0.25 0.35 1.131 1.539 0.636 2.545 0.502 0.785 0.031 1.131 0.785 0.950 0.785 1.539 0.502 1.131 1.327 1.539 0.502 0.125 0.196 0.384 0.502 1.131 0.125 0.282 0.409 0.636 0.384 (%age) 7.272 5.000 6.818 1.818 5.454 5.454 6.363 3.181 5.000 5.000 5.000 3.181 5.454 3.181 1.818 1.818 4.090 4.090 3.181 2.272 3.636 1.818 2.727 3.181 1.363 0.909 0.909 (%age) 6.983 4.469 5.865 1.955 5.586 4.189 6.424 4.469 4.189 3.351 3.910 1.955 3.631 2.793 2.793 1.675 3.351 4.748 5.027 4.748 2.793 1.675 4.469 2.513 3.072 1.396 1.955 (%age) 05.252 07.146 02.953 11.818 02.331 03.645 00.143 05.252 03.645 04.411 03.645 07.146 02.331 05.252 06.163 07.146 02.331 00.580 00.910 01.783 02.331 05.252 00.580 01.309 01.899 02.953 01.783 19.507 16.615 15.636 15.591 13.371 13.288 12.930 12.902 12.834 12.762 12.555 12.282 11.416 11.226 10.774 10.639 09.772 09.418 09.118 08.803 08.760 08.745 07.776 07.003 06.334 05.258 04.647 Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site D for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Xanthium stramonium Stipa brandisii Myristica wallichii Urtica dioica Carex species Achillea millefolium Verbascum thapsus Cynodon dactylon Plantago ovata Arthraxon serpyllifolia Sonchus arvense Datura stramonium Cannabis sativa Rabdosia rugosa Oplismenus compositus Ajuga parviflora Lespedeza cuneata Arisaema jacquemontii Oplismenus compositus Clematis buchananiana Brachypodium species Ranunculus arvense Brunella vulgaris Achyranthes bidentata Plantago lanceolata Ranunculus species Valeriana wallichii Cichorium intybus Arenaria serpyllifolia FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 40 90 35 50 60 60 40 60 60 40 40 15 35 35 40 50 40 20 35 50 35 40 15 20 35 20 25 20 20 0.45 1.15 0.60 0.75 1.00 0.80 0.50 1.25 0.90 0.60 0.45 0.20 1.00 0.65 0.40 0.60 0.70 0.30 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.70 0.35 0.60 0.65 0.40 0.65 0.50 BASAL AREA 4.525 1.539 3.142 2.011 1.131 1.131 2.011 0.125 0.384 1.327 1.539 2.545 0.502 0.950 1.131 0.502 0.502 1.539 0.785 0.125 0.502 0.282 0.785 1.131 0.282 0.384 0.502 0.196 0.282 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 3.361 2.284 13.689 7.563 5.837 4.656 2.941 3.045 9.505 4.201 3.807 6.083 5.042 5.076 3.421 5.042 4.060 3.421 3.361 2.530 6.083 5.042 6.345 0.378 5.042 4.568 1.161 3.361 3.045 4.014 3.361 2.284 4.656 1.260 1.015 7.699 2.941 5.076 1.518 2.941 3.299 2.874 3.361 2.030 3.421 4.201 3.045 1.518 3.361 3.553 1.518 1.680 1.522 4.656 2.941 2.530 2.374 4.201 3.045 0.378 2.941 3.045 1.518 3.361 3.045 0.853 1.260 3.553 2.374 1.680 1.776 3.421 2.941 3.045 0.853 1.680 3.299 1.161 2.100 2.030 1.518 1.680 3.299 0.592 1.680 2.538 0.853 IVI 19.334 18.056 15.491 14.091 13.539 12.523 11.974 11.765 10.771 10.420 10.301 9.974 9.535 9.114 8.812 8.764 8.432 7.858 7.845 7.624 7.504 7.259 7.187 6.877 6.839 6.140 5.648 5.571 5.071 Hedera nepalensis Bistorta amplexicaulis Dioscorea deltoidea Desmodium podocarpum 15 20 20 10 0.25 0.35 0.35 0.30 0.785 0.125 0.070 0.282 1.260 1.680 1.680 0.840 1.269 1.776 1.776 1.522 2.374 0.378 0.211 0.853 4.903 3.834 3.667 3.215 Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site E for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Digitalis purpurea Phytolacca acinosa Stipa brandisii Salvia nubicola Artemisia vestita Arthraxon perionodes Cichorium intybus Mentha longifolia Carex species Verbascum thapsus Cannabis sativa Senecio arvense Plantago lanceolata Duchesnea indica Achyranthes bidentata Myriactis wallichii Ajuga parviflora Plantago major Bupleurum marginatum FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 20 10 65 35 60 60 45 40 70 35 35 20 55 35 20 40 35 40 35 0.80 0.35 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.90 0.60 1.05 0.90 0.70 0.55 0.55 0.90 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.70 0.60 0.55 BASAL AREA 4.525 5.311 1.327 2.545 1.539 1.131 2.011 1.131 0.384 1.539 1.767 2.270 0.282 1.131 1.539 0.950 0.636 0.636 0.785 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 1.941 4.494 12.719 0.970 1.966 14.929 6.310 4.213 03.730 3.398 3.651 07.153 5.825 3.932 04.326 5.825 5.056 03.179 4.368 3.370 05.652 3.883 5.898 03.179 6.796 5.056 01.079 3.398 3.932 04.326 3.398 3.089 04.966 1.941 3.089 06.380 5.339 5.056 00.792 3.398 3.370 03.179 1.941 3.370 04.326 3.883 2.808 02.670 3.398 3.932 01.787 3.883 3.37 01.787 3.398 3.089 02.206 IVI 19.154 17.865 14.253 14.202 14.083 14.060 13.390 12.960 12.931 11.656 11.453 11.410 11.187 09.947 09.637 09.361 09.117 09.040 08.693 Desmodium podocarpum Valeriana wallichii Bistorta amplexicaulis Youngia japonica Hedera nepalensis Silene conoidea Wulfenia amherstiana Brunella vulgaris Clinopodium vulgare Ainsliaea latifolia Lespedeza cuneata 25 30 40 35 35 20 25 20 20 15 10 0.65 0.55 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.35 0.60 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.15 0.785 0.780 0.196 0.125 0.282 0.785 0.070 0.636 0.282 0.125 0.070 2.427 2.912 3.883 3.398 3.398 1.941 2.427 1.941 1.941 1.456 0.970 3.651 3.089 3.370 2.808 2.247 1.966 3.370 1.966 1.966 1.966 0.842 02.206 02.196 00.550 00.351 00.792 02.206 00.196 01.787 00.792 00.351 00.196 08.284 08.197 07.803 06.557 06.437 06.113 05.993 05.694 04.699 03.773 02.008 Phytosociological parameters during autumn at site F for herbs: NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES Verbascum thapsus Artemisia vestita Carex species Saussurea heteromalla Plantago major Bupleurum marginatum Bergenia ciliata Arisaema jacquemontii Hedera nepalensis Urtica dioica Galium elegans Dioscorea deltoidea Rabdosia rugosa Astragalus grahamianus Poa annua FREQUENCY DENSITY (%age) (m-2) 35 60 80 40 50 40 20 50 45 15 50 35 40 20 35 0.25 0.45 0.45 0.35 0.45 0.40 0.10 0.35 0.35 0.10 0.40 0.25 0.30 0.15 0.35 BASAL AREA 7.071 2.820 1.131 3.142 1.539 1.131 3.142 0.636 0.785 3.142 0.196 1.327 0.502 2.011 0.125 RELATIVE RELATIVE RELATIVE FREQUENCY DENSITY DOMINANCE (%age) (%age) (%age) 4.216 3.906 22.025 7.228 7.031 08.784 9.638 7.031 03.523 4.819 5.468 09.787 6.024 7.031 04.793 4.819 6.250 03.523 2.409 1.562 09.787 6.024 5.468 01.981 5.421 5.468 02.445 1.807 1.562 09.787 6.024 6.250 00.610 4.216 3.906 04.133 4.819 4.687 01.563 2.409 2.343 06.264 4.216 5.468 00.389 IVI 30.147 23.043 20.192 20.074 17.848 14.592 13.758 13.473 13.334 13.156 12.884 12.255 11.069 11.016 10.073 Euphorbia helioscopia Veronica politra Fragaria vesca Cannabis sativa Galium asperifolium Ipomea purpurea Torilis japonica Oxalis corniculata Capsella bursa-pastoris Arabidopsis wallichii 30 35 30 35 25 20 10 10 10 10 0.25 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.25 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.785 0.282 0.785 0.502 0.196 0.125 0.282 0.196 0.125 0.125 3.614 4.216 3.614 4.216 3.012 2.409 1.204 1.204 1.204 1.204 3.906 4.687 3.125 2.343 3.906 3.125 1.562 1.562 1.562 0.781 02.445 00.878 02.445 01.563 00.610 00.389 00.878 00.610 00.389 00.389 09.965 09.781 09.184 08.122 07.528 05.923 03.644 03.376 03.155 02.374