Eastern European Poets

Critical Survey of Poetry Eastern European Poets Editor Rosemary M. Canfield Reisman Charleston Southern University Salem Press A Division of EBSCO Publishing, Ipswich, Massachusetts Cover photo: Sándor Pet¹fi (© Alfredo Dagli Orti/The Art Archive/Corbis) Copyright © 2012, by Salem Press, A Division of EBSCO Publishing, Inc. All rights in this book are reserved. No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews or in the copying of images deemed to be freely licensed or in the public domain. For information address the publisher, Salem Press, at [email protected]. ISBN: 978-1-58765-919-5 ISBN: 978-1-42983-668-5 CONTENTS Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Hungarian Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Polish Poetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Romanian Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Endre Ady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 János Arany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Mihály Babits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Stanisuaw Bara½czak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Paul Celan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Andrei Codrescu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Zbigniew Herbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Gyula Illyés . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Irving Layton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Osip Mandelstam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Itzik Manger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Adam Mickiewicz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Czesuaw Miuosz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Dan Pagis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Sándor Pet¹fi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Miklós Radnóti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Carl Rakosi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Tadeusz Ró/ewicz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Antoni Suonimski. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Juliusz Suowacki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Lucien Stryk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Anna Swir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Wisuawa Szymborska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Tristan Tzara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Mihály Vörösmarty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Adam Wa/yk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Adam Zagajewski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Checklist for Explicating a Poem . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . Guide to Online Resources . . . . Geographical Index . . . . . . . Category Index . . . . . . . . . . Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 294 297 300 301 303 CONTRIBUTORS Stanisuaw Bara½czak Harvard University Steven E. Colburn Largo, Florida Rebecca Kuzins Pasadena, California Enik¹ Molnár Basa Library of Congress Victor Contoski University of Kansas Magdalena Máczy½ska The Catholic University of America M. D. Birnbaum University of California, Los Angeles Todd F. Davis Goshen College Franz G. Blaha University of NebraskaLincoln András Boros-Kazai Beloit College David Bromige Sonoma State University Alvin G. Burstein University of Tennessee, Knoxville John Carpenter University of Michigan Diana Arlene Chlebek The University of Akron Libraries Desiree Dreeuws Sunland, California David Maisel Wellesley, Massachusetts Christina J. Moose Pasadena, California Robert Faggen Claremont McKenna College Károly Nagy Middlesex County College Thomas R. Feller Nashville, Tennessee John P. Pauls Cincinnati, Ohio Tasha Haas University of Kansas La Verne Pauls Cincinnati, Ohio Sarah Hilbert Pasadena, California Victor Anthony Rudowski Clemson University Jeffry Jensen Pasadena, California Todd Samuelson Cushing Memorial Library & Archives Sheila Golburgh Johnson Santa Barbara, California iv Stephanie Sandler Amherst College HUNGARIAN POETRY Along the well-worn path the Hungarians (Magyars) took westward during the centuries preceding their entry into the Carpathian Basin in 896 c.e., they shaped a peculiar folk culture and folk poetry. Ethnographers, linguists, and researchers of comparative literature have arrived at this conclusion, even though no written trace of ancient Hungarian literature has survived. The runic alphabet of the seminomadic Hungarians was not used for recording literary texts, but the wealth of ancient poetry is attested by later allusions, although after Christianization in about 1000, both the state and the Church made every effort to eradicate even the memory of the pagan period. The chant of the shaman, an improvised incantation for the purposes of sorcery, prophecy, necromancy, or healing, often combined with music, dance, and a primitive form of drama, thus survived primarily in children’s rhymes and other simple ritualistic expressions. The secular counterparts of the shamans, the minstrels (regosok), provided the first examples of epic poetry, recounting the origin of the Hungarians. Two of these epics are known (in their later reconstructed forms) as the Legend of the Miraculous Stag and the Lay of the White Steed. The versification is believed to have been similar to that of other ancient European poetry; it is thought, for example, that the Hungarian minstrels did not use rhyme, relying instead on alliteration. The culture of medieval Hungary was influenced by both Roman and Byzantine Christianity, but it was most effectively shaped by the various monastic orders (Benedictines, Cistercians, Dominicans, and Franciscans, among others) who settled in the land from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries. Learning remained almost entirely theological until the middle of the fourteenth century, and writing continued even longer in Latin, the language of the Church. The Latin hymns and laments of Hungarian monk-writers were mostly dedicated to the praise of Hungarian saints, and their subject matter generally derived from the legends associated with these saints. Because only later copies of these creations survived, little is known of their origins or of their authors. The earliest known poetic text in Hungarian originates from about 1300: The “Ómagyar Mária-siralom” (“Ancient Hungarian Lament of Mary”) is an adaptation from the “Planctus Sanctae Mariae” of Geoffroi de Breteuil (died 1196). The original liturgical hymn was transformed into a pious lay song with strong mystical undercurrents. Written in the ancient Hungarian line, consisting of eight syllables, with stress on the first and the fifth, the poetic technique of the “Ancient Hungarian Lament of Mary” is so accomplished that centuries of literary practice must be assumed to have preceded it. While epic romances and troubadour songs began to flourish in the fourteenth century, the poetry of chivalry left relatively scarce evidence of its existence in Hungary. Its best-known example is the chanson de geste woven around the figure of Miklós Toldi, a 1 Its contradictions continue to intrigue scholars. Renaissance luxury and the contemplative atmosphere of court literature were shattered during the stormy period following Mátyás’s death. including a masterful epic trilogy by János Arany. Of the secular minstrels of the century. which recounts an episode of warfare against the invading Ottoman army. The Renaissance and the Reformation While indifference toward literacy and the written word continued to be the rule of the period. the principal genre being the széphistória (named after the Italian bella 2 . who was more a storyteller than a poet. Outstanding among these was Janus Pannonius (1434-1472). One good example of their work is the narrative song titled Szabács viadala (1476. secular poetry in the vernacular had made its presence strongly felt in Hungary. didactic verses. The untutored minstrels and rhymesters were joined by clerks and scribes (the deák). became weapons that assured the rapid acceptance of Protestantism among the people. the siege of the Szabács). elegies. written in Hungarian. even if most of it is unknown today. His accounts of battles and sieges were accurate. His efforts to establish a strong central authority were well served by the professional men in his employ. and his disenchantment with the policies of his sovereign. The literature of Hungary became a battleground for the various new tenets. there arose in Hungary important centers of Renaissance culture during the reign of the Anjou kings (1308-1382) and especially during that of Mátyás (14581490). it exhibits a strikingly modern vocabulary and flawless technique in its use of decasyllabic rhymed couplets. the creator of finely chiseled epigrams. but his verse was monotonous and repetitive. and rhymed paraphrases of biblical episodes. who supplemented the works of the bards with their own compositions. but the tradition of Humanist poetry domesticated by Pannonius and his circle of followers has remained alive in Hungarian literature to this day. By the fifteenth century. while its language is bleak and it reads like a school exercise. the growing Ottoman peril. Besides these learned foreigners. the best known and most prolific was Sebestyén Tinódi (died 1556). the love he felt for his homeland (while missing the culture of Italy). and panegyrics and the first Hungarian man of letters whose fame transcended the borders of his homeland. including “historical” songs as well as love poems and satirical lays. Elements of this epic passed into folklore and formed the basis of works several centuries later. a Ferrara-educated bishop of Pécs. recruited from a variety of countries. The large number of Hungarian poems surviving from the sixteenth century indicates that a considerable body of verse already existed in the Middle Ages. His topics included affairs of state. made enjoyable only by musical accompaniment.Hungarian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry popular strongman-soldier. Hymns. a new crop of Hungarian intellectuals appeared as a result of schooling in the universities of Western Europe. The major impulse for this cultural growth was the Protestant Reformation. Free adaptations of Western European poetry abounded during the century. and the intensity of his Christian verse. a thoroughly Baroque man of letters. ending with a moving grace and farewell. widely read courtier who stayed away from actual battles. The intensity of a soldier’s life made itself felt through the discipline of his lines. and seven-syllable cycles. the presentation of details and the use of atmosphere make it a profoundly original Hungarian creation. this pattern became a favorite of Hungarian poets. The epic tradition of Zrínyi was carried forward by an inventive. with an aab-ccb-ddb rhyme scheme. and Torquato Tasso is discernible in The Peril of Sziget. foreshadowed the thoroughly personal religious works of later Hungarian poets. especially in his epic carrying the Latin title Obsidio Szigetiana (wr. The cultivation of sentimental rococo poetry became a fashionable pastime during the seventeenth century. in his numerous epithalamia he revealed their love secrets to his\ readers in great detail and with obvious relish. resulting in an enormous output of religious poetry. 1955). often under the shadow of political suspicion. six-.Eastern European Poets Hungarian Poetry istoria) interwoven with elements of Hungarian folklore. 3 . “In Praise of the Marches”). named after him. thus reflecting a strong native character. His cycles of love poems remained unsurpassed for centuries. wealth. a nobleman whose turbulent life was spent in constant pursuit of love. mostly by Roman Catholic writers. in which he disputed with God while seeking solace in him. are particularly graphic and authentic. an eloquent hymn to life on the marches and to the beauty of nature. as well as in his prose writings. with the additional feature of an intimate knowledge of nature. and his descriptions of battle scenes. His works have something of the flavor of the English Cavalier poets. and adventure. Although the influence of Vergil. Bálint Balassi Representing the finest achievements of Hungarian Renaissance is the poetry of Bálint Balassi (1554-1594). In his narrative. Ludovico Ariosto. The outstanding Hungarian poet of the century. The heroes of István Gyöngyösi (1629-1704) were genuine nobles and ladies. bore one significant resemblance to Balassi: He also had a firsthand knowledge of combat. Even highborn ladies tried their skill at it. Proficient in eight languages and familiar with the works of the great Humanists. Balassi wrote poetry with great dexterity. a nine-line stanza consisting of six-. “A végek dicsérete” (1589. His most perfectly composed and most frequently quoted poem is a cantio militaris. something of François Villon. Balassi developed a verse form for himself. Zrínyi displayed the explicit and fervent political commitment which was to become an integral part of much Hungarian poetry. Miklós Zrínyi (1620-1664). most of them producing religious or domestic verse. 1645-1646. The Peril of Sziget. The Counter-Reformation and Baroque Much of the seventeenth century was characterized by the militant spirit of the Counter-Reformation. these writings circulated in handwritten copies. entire songbooks appeared filled with these often ribald verses. an eager public appeared for secular as well as religious poetry. also became interested in secular poetry. laments. A large body of (mostly anonymous) poetry was produced during the successive rebellions and campaigns. Hungarian literature experienced a period of relative decline. many popular songs of this period voiced the complaints of fugitives. German. With the growth of readership. In spite of its rococo affectations and style. and English-language treatises and literature filtered into Hungary. The most famous among them (such as “The Rákóczi Song”) later inspired Franz Liszt and Hector Berlioz to compose stirring Romantic music. One of its centers was Vienna. Faludi became one of the early exponents of truly modern poetry. Gyöngyösi’s honest craftsmanship. and impoverished. a sophisticated cultivator of poésie galante.Hungarian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry He was the typical poet-follower of lords. with a number of rhymed greetings. Reflecting the makeup of the rebelling armies. and dirges also in evidence. The Enlightenment reached Eastern Europe by the 1770’s and—even though the absolutist Habsburg authorities thwarted any political organization—its effect on the cultural life of Hungary was profound. Intellectual renewal was rapid and irresistible. With his earthy realism and his prosodic experimentation. attempting to follow the high standards set by Balassi and Gyöngyösi. Only the continuing flood of imitative. Baron László Amade (17041764). where Hungarian noblemen were educating their sons. The proliferation of love poetry was striking. his verse was firmly grounded in reality and took much from Hungarian folk literature. re4 . when the kuruc armies of Prince Ferenc Rákóczi II were defeated. soldiers’ songs. Political and religious intolerance resulted in the outbreak of the kuruc wars during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The poets of this period showed a remarkable command of form and diction. Eighteenth century From 1711. mannerist rococo verse indicated the survival of poetry. For some time. the traditions of goliardic poetry were revived. to the 1770’s. outlaws. suitable for musical adaptation. Ferenc Faludi (1704-1779). produced poems worthy of mention. but by the 1680’s a number of printed songbooks were in popular demand. and some of them were important in the development of modern poetic techniques. such songs and laments provide gripping descriptions of the miseries and joys of kuruc life. especially in his descriptions of the countryside. vagrant students. presages the works of the great Romantic and realist poets of the nineteenth century. Written in the simplest folk idiom. with sharp expressions of social discontent. His works are nothing more than family or society stories. but their accomplishment is undeniable. a Jesuit abbot. adjusting his politics and principles to those of the “great family” he served. The vulgarized versions of Renaissance poems in the form of verse-chronicles constituted the bulk of the poetry of the age. French. Among students. and development of the language a question of primary importance. Proclaiming these aims in their sharply worded epigrams. Mihály Csokonai Vitéz (1773-1805). Romanticism While the Enlightenment gave rise to philosophical and didactic verse. lyric poetry found another impetus. They made reform. They range from Rousseauesque philosophical ponderings to drinking songs and village genre pieces. Although writing relatively few poems. except that this would overemphasize the populist element of his poetry. the formation of literary societies. epistles. He made use of everything he learned from European literature. he was for nearly forty years the central figure of Hungarian literary life. Mihály Csokonai Vitéz While the early reform generation produced few outstanding poets. encouraged. refinement. The earliest prominent figure of Hungarian Enlightenment. transmitting it into his own sphere of experience and producing from the synthesis something original and integrally his own. György Bessenyei (1747-1811). and educated the writers and poets scattered throughout Hungary by maintaining an extensive correspondence from his rural manor. While they considered style.Eastern European Poets Hungarian Poetry sulting in the founding of great private collections of books and art. they would have been pioneering works. criticized. poets of the period were indebted to him. and critical essays. French (later German) Neoclassicism became the dominant trend in poetry. Kazinczy and his circle soon came to the conclusion that. the Hungarian language was inadequate to communicate the timely ideas of literature and the arts. disposed to abstraction and aridity. he organized. Ferenc Kazinczy Much more influential was Ferenc Kazinczy (1759-1831). Despite the fact that he lived in a state of squalor and acutely felt rejection. Csokonai Vitéz could be compared to the Scottish poet Robert Burns (1759-1796). in its uncultivated state. He was the first Hungarian who attempted (unsuccessfully) to make a living from his literary efforts. many of his poems are marked by a subtle grace and cheerfulness. attaching secondary importance to the thoughts conveyed. of modest merit. and construction to be of supreme value. while known mostly for his essays and his plays. also wrote a number of philosophical poems. and many of the bad. presentation. one of their contemporaries. All the good. they initiated the struggle between “neologists” and “orthologists” which persisted through much of the nineteenth century. His love cycles written during his many periods of courtship happily blend light passages of rococo fancy with more sober thoughts. The reformers and experimenters encouraged originality and aesthetic individuality. and the publication of periodicals. Had they appeared in print during his lifetime. exhibited the fruits of his search for new forms of expression. in sharp contrast to both 5 . Baroque. Dániel Berzsenyi (1776-1836) did not bring innovations in style or in form.Hungarian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry neoclassicism and the earlier Baroque orientation. With its maturation and with the strengthening of political processes.” which went hand in hand with a healthy respect for reason—were made more complex in Hungary by an exaggerated emphasis on folk poetry and a contradictory predilection for new techniques of versification. at first all lines rhyming. men of letters combined their work with editing and journalism. Publishing became a profitable business. came to be one of the favorites of Hungarian poets. Consequently. each having six syllables. and the Romantic influence of Ossianic poetry combined to open the way for unrestrained experimentation. The resulting torrent of poetry during the early decades of the nineteenth century presented a sharp contrast to that of the previous epoch. One of the architects of the transition to Romanticism was Sándor Kisfaludy (17721844). but the emotional intensity with which he proclaimed enduring virtues—moral integrity. love of freedom and justice—accounted for his great popularity during the reform period. Western European patterns were adopted by Hungarian poets as if based on stress alone. the preference for a noble and often affected “sublimity. The flexibility and smoothness resulting from these experiments was unprecedented in Hungarian poetry. when politics and ethics were 6 . The intensive exploration of traditional literature. Since the Hungarian language makes a clear distinction between long and short syllables. In the area of versification. elegies. The form he created to harmonize with his message. the French Alexandrine was assimilated as a twelve-syllable accented line of two beats. a scion of wealthy landholders. Lyric ballads. Some of the poets introduced the purely metrical. Even more significant was the introduction of a metrical principle that could be based on the length of syllables. courage. The patriarchal-feudal mode gave way to a semibourgeois one: Writers and poets were able to earn a living from their writings. this practice is perfectly suited to it. Four of these lines were arranged into a stanza. making noble patronage unnecessary. and rococo influences. Romantic literature in Hungary contributed to the birth or revival of national consciousness and to the forging of a national identity. sorrowful love) combined strong traditional elements with Renaissance. in accordance with the requisite extremes of desolation and melancholy on one hand and exhortation and pride on the other. the “Himfy-stanza. The typical attitudes of Romantic literature—the glorification of history. The campaign for national independence revealed a set of common feelings shared by all Hungarians and resulted in anxious efforts to preserve the native tongue and indigenous customs. nonrhyming forms of Greek and Roman poetry. and they began to be recognized and respected on their own.and seven-syllable accented lines. for example. while others adapted rhyming verse forms from the West. this literature assisted in democratizing the atmosphere for a national culture. whose two-hundred-verse cycle A keserg¹ szerelem (1801.” composed of eight. the growing awareness of literary history. As elsewhere in Eastern Europe. and epic romances prevailed. later following the Western example of rhyming couplets. Populism In Hungarian literary history. his influence on future poets was strong and lasting. he addressed the world on behalf of his nation: “The sufferings of a thousand years call for life or death. His best-known poem is “Himnusz” (1823. There is a nagging doubt and a touch of despair in his mature poems.” Romanticism was very much alive. Ferenc Kölcsey Ferenc Kölcsey (1790-1838) was the most profound thinker among the Hungarian Romantics. A saintly man of uncompromising standards. Mihály Vörösmarty Mihály Vörösmarty (1800-1855). but by this time some of the best poets found even Romanticism too narrow and infused it with plebe7 . which was put to music and is now the national anthem of Hungary. “The Summons”). but later he showed a predilection toward a vigorous. Although Berzsenyi was disappointed because Hungarian poetry did not develop along his guidelines. In “Szózat” (1836. His terse and vigorous images and phrases are charged with classical allusions. almost demoniac imagery. but the poet appears unable to accept such a dark conclusion: “A new spirit finds its way ahead. introduced a new element into the literary life of the nation. but his elevated style and antique pose conceal the wounded soul of a modern person. they expressed well-considered and inspired judgments on the vital questions of the age as dictated by the poet’s genius. a somber invocation to God on behalf of the Hungarian nation. His works were much more than reflections on the events around him. Familiar with the inherent contradictions in the societies and cultures of his age. the greatest Romantic poet of Hungary.” This appeal remains unmatched in its confidence and its effect on the reader’s conscience.Eastern European Poets Hungarian Poetry considered intertwined. behind the wisdom of antiquity lay the resignation of a Christian longing for contentment. while his intensely disciplined art continued to reflect a remarkable self-control. “Hymn”). striking. His disillusionment with his morally deficient contemporaries was great. Vörösmarty also inquired whether humankind “ever advanced through the medium of books” in his “Gondolatok a könyvtárban” (“Thoughts in the Library”). he embodied the national aspirations of the age. the decade preceding the 1848 Revolution is referred to as the “era of the people and of the nation. nationalistic poetry.” he insists in this and in other poems. and the defeat of the nationalist revolt by combined Russian-Austrian forces in the Hungarian War of Independence (1848-1849) released the floodgates of his bitter. The ensuing images suggest a pessimistic answer. which shows him to be a true poet of humankind. The earlier examples of his relatively small poetic output were clearly influenced by the notion of a Weltliteratur. though often grave and pessimistic. 8 . 2004). also indicated this transition. The tale and its trappings are stock Romanticism. and his descriptive poems (mostly about the plains region between the Danube and Tisza rivers) are imbued with folksy. Pet¹fi was endowed with everything a national poet must have: innate talent. involved commitment to critical realism became dominant. As a result of his “democratic style. Pet¹fi found the direct and natural approach his predecessors sought. János Vitéz (1845. His most popular epic. A helység-kalapácsa (1844. a fiery commitment. In a domestication of the universal Romantic philosophy. He moved effortlessly from one type of poetry to another. Pet¹fi produced some of the most powerful love poetry of the century.Hungarian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry ian-democratic ideals expressed in an increasingly realistic manner. he left behind a body of works that. evocative humor. In a letter. (He also shared Lord Byron’s fate in that he died a tragic death which made him both a symbol and a myth. What they could not foresee was that this national character was to undergo radical transformation during the second half of the nineteenth century. After a brief life (he died in his mid-twenties). the right historical situation. The Hammer of the Village. the setting sun was compared to a bloody ruler. and to give voice to their aspirations. Janos the Hero. revised as John the Hero. steadily (although cautiously) increasing stress on the latter.” The indirect aim of the young writers and poets was the modern expression and interpretation of national character. cannot be ignored in any assessment of world literature. While moving away from strict Romanticism. they will be close to ruling in politics as well. 1873). which grew to accommodate the whole spectrum of Hungarian life. this kind of thinking led him away from a Romantic admiration for the past. the concept of the “true man” was adapted to that of the “true Hungarian. to depict the life of the common people. a courageous.” his readers understood him immediately. many of these ideals found their consummation. while the treatment and the picture projected are closer to realism. especially among members of the younger generation. Even in his genre-pieces. and a sense of manifest destiny. 1920. The stylistic trend best suited for the purposes of this period was the populist (népies) approach. Political themes became increasingly interwoven with his poetry during the 1840’s. both in quality and in volume. and this is the task of our century. particularly when presenting the life-style of the Hungarian nobility. It fused Romantic and realistic elements. he signaled his break with the strict Romantic approach in a spirited parody of the heroic epic. and the clink of wineglasses to the clanging of chains enslaving men. he proclaimed his guiding principle: “When the people rule in poetry. Sándor Pet¹fi In the person of Sándor Pet¹fi (1823-1849). During the 1840’s. adopting new techniques at will and solving the most difficult problems of versification with ease and grace. He developed a style and a language quite clearly his own.” Not surprisingly.) After imitating the folk style so successfully that many of his verses are popularly known as folk songs. The immediate aims of literature were to rediscover folk poetry. In Arany’s epic. the themes of which were taken from the sad and trying periods of Hungarian history. the Hungarian nation is presented as it once was (according to the Romantics): a family community. In spite of his considerable lyric output. Pet¹fi’s numerous imitators. among the most difficult in Hungarian literature to render in a foreign language. They agreed on a number of issues and were both committed to making the life of the people the central theme of literature. 1914). but rather a precise literary speech of carefully chosen words and expressions. governed by the rules of justice and nature. quite conscious of his genius. Thus. an effective use of common speech. and soberly reflective. It was not the straightforward. Arany’s followers were somewhat more successful. In poems that were highly subjective. not all of them without talent. The defeat of the Hungarian Revolution and the death of his friend Pet¹fi injured Arany deeply. Arany was an exemplary office-worker who wanted to be “just like everyone else. This vision explains his predilection to treat a variety of historical subjects in his epics. and it should be enriched with values originating in other cultures. at the same time. copied his style and themes with genuine fervor but seldom achieved his level of consistency and brilliance. unselfish but self-respecting and conscious of his own worth. empirically analytical. Legacy and change The success of Pet¹fi and Arany resulted in a veritable cult of populist poetry. bearing the widest variety of meanings and associations. He avoided the pseudohistorical idealization of the peasant by incorporating into his writings a distinctly un-Romantic view. English translation. extant only in the villages and marketplaces. in which a wide variety of subjective topics were treated. Apart from Toldi. even though national character is best preserved by the common people. This outmoded genre. The language of his poetry was something he deliberately created. Arany saw himself primarily as an epic poet. he considered it his task to revive in a contemporary context the common and single-minded national consciousness. was salvaged through Arany’s masterful handling of the Hungarian sentence and especially through his use of numerous psychological associations. unambiguous voice of folk poetry. he tried to bridge the conflict between his ideals and the realities of life in subjugated Hungary. Arany’s poems may be immediately comprehensible to the reader.” He first attracted attention by writing the epic poem Toldi (1847. a thoroughly Romantic historical story with a hero of folk imagination who avenges the outraged feelings of the common people—a natural. but they are.Eastern European Poets Hungarian Poetry János Arany János Arany (1817-1882) was a friend of Pet¹fi. it may also become primitive because of its isolation. Arany is best remembered for his ballads. Their writings are characterized by literary skill. and as such. untainted soul. While Pet¹fi was a fiery radical. simple. the Pet¹fi cult soon degenerated into absurd virtuosity and buffoonery. and a scrupulous concern for details of versifica9 . according to which. Hungarian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry tion. These poets led long and blameless lives and filled many of the leading positions in the nation’s cultural affairs during the late nineteenth century. It was largely as a result of their efforts that the poetic guidelines of Pet¹fi and Arany, imbued with excessive nationalistic and isolationist tendencies and referred to as populist-nationalism, became the official dogma of Hungarian cultural life. Lyric poetry, its position already weakened by the appearance of new, more subjective prose genres, became even more monotonous and irrelevant to the growing urban and semiurban readership. The 1880’s brought about a flurry of revival in Hungarian poetry, when a few solitary writers, almost completely ignored by the academic establishment, attempted to infuse new vigor into the literary life of Hungary. The name of János Vajda (1827-1897) became synonymous with opposition and stubborn refusal to conform to artificial standards. Largely because of his aggressiveness and lack of objectivity, his antitraditional, pantheistic, and symbol-studded poetry was never even acknowledged, let alone respected by the critics. Seeking visions of glory and greatness in an age when such were outmoded, he spent his declining years in angry meditation, writing more good lines than good poems. Among the younger outcasts, Gyula Reviczky (1855-1889) merits mention for his melancholy, reflective poetry, in which impressionistic and Symbolist elements were first expressed in Hungary. József Kiss (1843-1921) was not an outcast; indeed, for a time he was among the most popular poets of Hungary. As the successful editor of the country’s first bourgeois literary weekly, A hét, he strongly influenced contemporary taste, and his lyric poems and ballads introduced the life of Hungary’s Jews into the mainstream of Hungarian literature. Modern poetry The turn of the century witnessed the rise of a wealthy liberal middle class in the cities of Hungary. Their desire to gain recognition for their tastes and values alongside traditional Christian-national ones contributed to a spirit of literary secession. Passive and late-blooming as this “secession” was, it achieved a grudging acceptance of relative (as opposed to absolute) values, and by introducing free association into the practice of poetry, it loosened the structure of Hungarian verse. At the same time, a “great generation” of writers and poets appeared on the scene. Their artistic power was too elemental and their appeal too overwhelming to be stopped. Not all of them wanted to change Hungarian society, but most of them agreed in wanting to open all avenues for describing the realities of Hungary as “a country of contradictions.” Endre Ady Among those contributing to the periodical Nyugat, one may find some of the brightest names in twentieth century Hungarian poetry. In influence, quality, and complexity, none of them approached Endre Ady (1877-1919). When he published his first important volume, Új versek (1906; New Verses, 1969), he embodied the shocking newness of 10 Eastern European Poets Hungarian Poetry modern European literature, and critics promptly declared him incomprehensible, immoral, unpatriotic, and pathological. Unrelenting, Ady poured forth (besides his numerous newspaper articles) a series of poetry volumes, the titles of which reflect the break he made with traditional poetry: Vér és arany (1908; Blood and Gold, 1969), Az Illés szekerén (1909; On Elijah’s Chariot, 1969), Szeretném, ha szeretnének (1910; Longing for Love, 1969), A minden titkok verseib¹l (1910; Of All Mysteries, 1969), Ki látott engem? (1914; Who Sees Me?, 1969), and A halottak élén (1918; Leading the Dead, 1969). Everything about which he wrote was universal yet at the same time very Hungarian: his enthusiasm to struggle against existing wrongs, his desire for an explainable, “whole” world, his ambivalent attitude toward revolutionary change, and his view of the modern man-woman relationship as a ruthless struggle. He was deeply concerned about the loneliness of his nation in the dangerous modern world and the tragedy this position portends. He was never able to break the bonds of Calvinist determinism, but in his religious poems he presented the most tormented disputes with God and the most complete submission to his will ever witnessed in Hungarian poetry. His technique for creating a strange and mysterious world using the simplest language was supreme. Fusing iambic meter with the stressed rhythm of Hungarian poetry, his uncomplicated sentences evoke a variety of colors and shifting hues. Mihály Babits The most intellectual poet of the first Nyugat generation was Mihály Babits (18831941), who was willing to experiment with every form, style, and technique. Disdaining the emotional, enthusiastic approach to literature, he emphasized craftsmanship. In the face of significant social issues, however, he revealed that behind the mask of the aesthete, there was a noble, caring soul, devoted to human dignity. Dezs¹ Kosztolányi Like Babits, Dezs¹ Kosztolányi (1885-1936) is most often referred to as a “bourgeois humanist.” Overcoming the strong Decadent influence of his youth, he continued to display occasional moments of theatricality. The child who lived in him juggled rhyme and rhythm with great dexterity, sometimes in sheer delight, sometimes ironically. The wonder of all things, the desire to discover every secret, compelled him to blend Impressionism and Symbolism almost spontaneously, in a variety of poetic forms. Later, no longer limited to recording the events of everyday life, he wrote poems concerning the eternal image of human action. His titles became unadorned, his structure well ordered, the stanzas often ending with vigorous Sapphic lines. Thus, he moved away from the bourgeois decadence of the fin de siècle and fused the modern immediacy of his poems with traditionally conceived forms. 11 Hungarian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry Other Nyugat poets If Ady represents an energetic and open commitment to social action and Babits represents a bourgeois humanism, passive until forced by desperation into action, then the other Nyugat poets may be described as taking positions between these two extremes. Early twentieth century Hungarian poetry was divided between an emphasis on self-expression and a subservience to the eternal demands of art, between the desire to change and the recognition of supreme permanence. The ambience of Nyugat, however, was such that the writers of its circle never became sharply polarized. Gyula Juhász (1883-1937), probably the most “autobiographical” Hungarian poet of the twentieth century, voiced powerfully the distress of the solitary and oppressed individual. His poems, whether evoking images of the physical world or depicting the misery of the peasants, blend the delicate colors of Impressionism, the lethargy of fin de siècle, and the most realistic, even radical, tendencies with ease. Frequently recalling the past (especially in his love poems), he used a rich variety of adjectives, thus inducing a mood of melodious sweetness. The poetry of Árpád Tóth (1886-1928) was tired, fragmented, melancholy, expressing a vague desire to break out of the drabness of his world. In a number of other ways, too, he showed an affinity with poets of the West such as Paul Verlaine and Oscar Wilde. Rarely using any Symbolist devices, Tóth’s poems were exceptionally rich in word pictures, similies, and metaphors. Lacking in his verse was any sympathy for the masses, as he believed it was in vain to hope to reach other souls in one’s isolation. Milán Füst (1888-1967) used the brightest of colors in his relatively few poems, which evoked figures and images from the past. This was no mere return to Romanticism: Füst spent months polishing a single poem, merging the restlessness of Art Nouveau with classical monumentalism and a desire to achieve tranquillity. Füst’s poems reveal a shrewdly designed private world in which the struggles with everyday problems of life and artistic destiny can be resolved. During the politically and materially ruinous period between the two world wars, Hungary experienced a flowering of literary life. Nyugat continued to be the most resilient and effective forum for the modern poets of Hungary, in spite of repeated attacks from the Right and the Left alike. The growth of authoritarian nationalism evoked a corresponding wave of humanist opposition, although the latter was often tinged with a sense of hopelessness. The interwar poets broke with the idyllic worldview of the prewar decades, and many of them began seriously to doubt the viability of an “inner man.” In order to escape the mannerism of the fin de siècle, they reached back to older forms, trying thereby to create order out of chaos. Few poets adhered to avant-garde principles, but their influence was significant. Lajos Kassák (1887-1967) was the first genuine worker who achieved a name for himself in Hungarian literature, largely through his poems exhibiting a bewildering array of expressionist, Futurist, and Decadent influences. His extravagant hopes for hu12 Eastern European Poets Hungarian Poetry mankind were balanced by the firm structure of his verse, which was achieved without relying on rhyme, stress, or regular rhythm. In spite of the personal voice he employed, he did not speak for himself, instead expressing humankind’s vehement response to the phenomena of modern technology. If Ady’s task was to initiate a literary revolution, that of Attila József (1905-1937) was to carry on and fulfill its promises. During his tragically short life, marred by poverty and neurosis, this gifted poet absorbed a great variety of influences. From Kosztolányi, he learned to respond to the immediacy of the moment; from Juhász, he gained an intimacy with his country and his fellow men; from Babits, the pursuit of classical values. József’s daring use of and dexterity with construction reveal the influence of Kassák, while his interest in the simple forms and rhythm of Hungarian folk songs shows that he was not immune to the sway of modern populism. His poetry, nevertheless, shows a striking originality and uniqueness. True to his time and its influences, József intermingled material phenomena with the subjective stream of his moods, thus presenting an artistic experience which varied and dissolved according to the state of his mind. He demonstrated great facility in his use of traditional forms, achieving particularly striking effects with the sonnet. He may have solved the paramount artistic dilemma of his time, fully experiencing and giving poetic expression to the shattered and shattering twentieth century. He paid a price, however, for this achievement: “My heart is perched on nothing’s branch,” he wrote during the last year of his life, before he killed himself. One of József’s most original contemporaries was L¹rinc Szabó (1900-1957), who, exhibiting many traits of the bourgeois avant-garde, cannot be placed in any single category. He forged his individualistic style from a blend of strident expressionism and the influence of the Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity), tolerating no affectation. Szabó’s poems always have a direct message without recourse to suggestion, invocation, or magic. An early theme of his poetry is the loss of illusions, which he later combined with the ruthlessness of nature and the futility of human struggle. It was only a short step from this to a solipsistic position and a fascination with Eastern philosophy, which may have served the poet well during the years of silence enforced upon him by the cultural policy of post-World War II Hungary. While the claim is frequently made that the “official” literature of interwar Hungary was conservative and nationalistic, the artists of dissenting views, including those of the noncommunist Left, had considerable access to literary forums such as the periodicals or newspapers. Many of the middle-class poets, from socialist idealists to adherents of Catholicism, were characterized by an intellectual hunger, strong humanist convictions, and an “urbanist” attitude, the latter becoming the collective name under which they were known. Their best-known representatives were Zoltán Jékely (1913-1982), a poet of wry, melancholy erudition, and György Rónay (1913-1978), whose modern verse was based on Christian humanism and rational sobriety. 13 Hungarian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry The poetry of Miklós Radnóti (1909-1944) was characterized by the affirmation of order and harmony, respect for reason, and a strong interest in the classics. His early attraction to pastoral themes, emphasizing the joys of life and containing a wholesome eroticism, soon gave way to the realization that fateful social forces were at work in his Hungary. Aware of the terrible inhumanity looming over the horizon, he broke the superficial calm with powerful volumes, such as Járkálj csak, halálraítélt! (1936; Walk On, Condemned!, 1980). His poetry blossomed on the verge of his violent death, when, as a prisoner of the Nazis, he penned some of his best lines during his final days. Sándor Weöres (1913-1989) turned away from the objective reality of his surroundings and used his instinctive skill to produce an unbelievably varied poetic output, which emphasized his interest in the sound of words and in the myths and rites of the eternal human condition. New populists Quite distinct from this group, a large heterogeneous body of writers and poets began to appear during the 1930’s, whose special emphasis on rural themes marked them as the new populists. They believed that it was the peasantry who, after a meaningful land reform, would provide the ideology and the energy for a national revival, and that they would also produce a new, dedicated intellectual leadership. They visualized Hungary as forming a bridge between East and West, although most of them had no sympathy for the Soviet system. The rift developing between the new populists and the urbanists proved to be one of the great misfortunes of modern Hungary. Neither group was able to prepare the nation for the changes that were obviously coming after the end of World War II, and neither group was powerful enough to bring about a thorough “moral revolution” which would implement much-needed social reforms. The outstanding figure of the populists, Gyula Illyés (1902-1983) is generally regarded as one of the foremost Hungarian poets of the twentieth century, as well as a versatile prose writer and playwright. Early in his career, he was strong enough to ignore traditional rules and seemed to delight in a stylized, disciplined “primitiveness.” Persuasiveness and originality characterize his best poems, which are heroic in mood and subject, with a touch of melancholy discernible throughout. During the late 1930’s, he was the spokesperson of the populists, and his radical leftist past made him acceptable to every political group after the end of World War II. His enthusiasm for Soviet-imposed change soon cooled, and in 1956, he wrote Egy mondat a zsarnokságról (1956; One Sentence on Tyranny, 1957), which may be called the Hungarian poem of the twentieth century. He wrote some of his finest poems in his old age, in verse characterized by musicality, gentle resignation, and introspection. The end of World War II hardly signifies a milestone in the history of Hungarian literature, although thorough changes were implemented in the makeup of the country’s intelligentsia. Hundreds of promising talents were destroyed by the war and its sordid 14 Eastern European Poets Hungarian Poetry aftermath, and as many or more were silenced later under various pretexts. After a few years of tenuous coalition, which offered genuine opportunities for free cultural development, the message was brought home that in the same manner that “there is no separate solution to Hungary’s political problems,” there would be no independent Hungarian cultural life, either. The pseudoprinciples of Socialist Realism were enforced in Hungary for only a few years, but their effects proved to be long lasting. Literature was placed completely in the service of daily politics, with bewildering and (in retrospect) amusing results. Few dramatic changes resulted from the aftermath of the 1956 Revolution. After a handful of writers and poets were imprisoned, and a much greater number thoroughly intimidated, the “new” government declared that it was permissible for an artist to ignore politics. The Writers’ Association was disbanded in order to create a “sounder” atmosphere, and the nation’s best writers and poets quietly ceased publishing their creations. An eager coterie of political adherents tried to fill the gap, and authorities permitted many blameless and harmless apolitical poets to have their works printed, after years of muzzling them. The 1960’s brought amnesties, the renewal of cautious debates, and the admission that there may be more than one kind of Socialist Realism. During the 1970’s, with most of the real dissidents safely dead or out of the way, the authorities saw fit to open many avenues for literary experimentation and aesthetic debate, and exceptions to the Marxist hold on the country could be seen to demonstrate the resilience of the people’s creative spirit. Post-Cold War poetry In post-Cold War Hungary, in which literature and poetry of the prior several decades had functioned as a moral opposition to the Communist government, there was great expectation of a flowering of literature once the political obstacles were removed and the writer finally could freely explore his or her imagination. However, critics have found this has not happened, for several reasons. After the fall of the previous system, the dissident writer lost the poetic mission, a point of reference. Many writers also became politicians and had no time to write. Economics played a large role as well, with the cessation of government subsidies, the disintegration of state book-distributing giants, and steep increases in prices of new books. Living under high inflation and suffering from rising unemployment, the public was unable to afford as many books as it once purchased. Also, writers complained that, in the new commercial markets, unless a book promised profit, it would not be published regardless of its merit. The publishers that managed to stay in business tended to be those that published lurid potboilers, criminal and adventure stories, and soft-core pornography. As a reaction to the prohibition of erotic images and thrillers during the Communist rule, the Hungarian public often favored such publications over more serious literature. The literary landscape of the “new” Hungary also found increasing tension between 15 and launders. shattered/ A bird will come/ And carry her away in his beak. widening the narrow conduit between Hungarian and world literatures. Hungary’s greatest honor for achievement in artistic and scientific work. a Black Rose. and scriptwriter. the more recent rise of multiparty politics has encouraged rivalry and resentment to increase. and his poems and other literary works exhibit a never-ending concern over a threatened culture and national identity.” a tender and sensitive evocation of his mother’s daily struggle for existence. fearful. “Unwelcome strangers. and knowledge of languages—a gap that will take a generation or more to close. His cynicism is evident in “My Mother. sweeps. in that the provincial cannot return to the old way of life but also does not fit in with the liberal intellectual world of Budapest.” There are “wonderful new machines” around but no one comes to help her. Ágnes Nemes Nagy.Hungarian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry traditional nationalist and religious ideas and those of the modern era. Sandor Csoori Sandor Csoori (born 1930). has been called “the genius of discontent” and is considered to be one of the most prominent artistic spokespersons for the Hungarian people in the last decades of the twentieth century. The populists— those who claimed themselves as the cultural arms bearers of nationalism—started an offensive against cosmopolitan writers. travel. For Csoori. a leading contemporary Hungarian poet. he also won the prestigious Kossuth Award. broken. albeit a moderate one. While the roots of this conflict stemmed from a decades-old rivalry between the city and the countryside. a rough-hewn harmony beyond the experience of a more complex city. “One night she falls to the ground/ Small. based on a Transylvanian folktale. Radnóti. Fortunately. Urban liberals assume that the rural group is burdened by ideology. A glimpse into the populist mentality can be found in contemporary Hungarian poet Ferenc Juhasz’s long poem “A szarvassá változott fiú kiáltozása a titkok kapujából” (“The Boy Changed to a Stag Cries Out at the Gate of Secrets”). the works of several major contemporary Hungarian poets—Csoori. Illyés.” a code name for communist functionaries.” for the control of ideology and cultural lifestyle in Hungary. A recipient of the Attila József Prize in Poetry. she still milks the cow. known collectively as “urbanites. György Petri—have become readily available in translation. the village represents a simpler society. in the 1990’s and at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The theme “you can’t go home again” is evident here. Gyozo Ferencz. Despite the factionalism and political and cultural hurdles facing modern Hungary. Although not well. she tightens “her black shawl as if it were her loneliness. essayist. He serves as a modern voice for the populist movement. the rudiments of a human community. talk to her “rudely” and. it remains a country with an active literary culture. Populist authors regard the urbanites as arrogant because of their advantages in education.” 16 . : Dufour Editions. 2001. to highlight universal guilt: Take my little sister. 17 . Oxford. but it seemed the more he got rid of./ My favorite toy’s been snatched. Members of Hungarian minorities living in other countries are included. bibliography. brutal communist regime cheapened even the finest feelings. George. George. Useful notes on the poems and biographical notes. The Colonnade of Teeth: Modern Hungarian Poetry. the more there was. even in the wake of communism’s fall in 1989: “The epoch expired like a monstrous predator. who died of cancer at the age of fifty-six in 2000. Gömöri. and index. he then turned on himself. 1945 to 1956. opposing the fragments of a society that seemed indestructible in its evilness. eds. Provides a thorough history. 1966. if only his fearful honesty and his temperament had let him. ed. he used the most ingenious devices to free himself of bile. the poet would have liked to have played. Contains four essays on Hungarian women writers. England: Clarendon Press. New York: Palgrave. His poem “Electra” displays his bitterness and is powerful not only because it serves as a powerful allegory of vengefulness in the wake of the abusive communist regime but also because it in part turns the myth around. A History of Hungarian Poetry. Pa. Celia. Although well known as a love poet. His poetic stance was rejection. When it was still dangerous. What do I care for that gross geyser of spunk who murdered his own daughter! Reality as equated with sorrowful-history-turning-into-detestable-sociology is not a matter to laugh about or something to play with. Hawkesworth. believing I’m unable to get over the issue of our father’s twisted death. Readers appreciated Petri’s combination of ideas and the language used to express these ideas. A History of Central European Women’s Writing. half satiric.Eastern European Poets Hungarian Poetry György Petri One particular poet who received both critical and public acclaim was György Petri. along with others dealing with topics such as women’s self-adjustment and feminist self-awareness.” Bibliography Gömöri. Chester Springs. he berated the “socialist regime” and kept the torch of the 1956 revolution burning. A collection of the works of thirty-five major Hungarian poets. cute sensitive Chrysothemis to me the poor thing attributes a surfeit of moral passion. and he revoked memories. and issued statements on death. 1996. all born between 1900 and 1954. He did not see an easy way to assuage the psychological damage inflicted by the Communists. Map. Bibliographical footnotes. and George Szirtes. Petri sullied what might be tender verses with obscenity and fierce irony to reflect how living under Hungary’s dishonest. half heroic. With the fall of communism in 1989. However. 1996. Contemporary Jewish Writing in Hungary: An Anthology. Introduction by the editors.: E. ed. Suleiman. Adam. Susan Rubin. Schwartz. and bibliography. and trans. Studies in Slavic Language and Literature 8. Also has a guide to Hungarian pronunciation and a bibliography of literature in translation. Generous selections from the works of nineteen poets. Minn. notes on the poems. ed. 2003. Tezla. Features a broad selection of writings by Jewish authors in Hungary. New York: Random House. Illustrated. George. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. St. N. has arranged literary works so as to trace the history of change in Hungary from wartime into the Stalinist period and eventually to postmodernism and to anxiety or despair. an Anthology of Hungarian Poetry in English Translation from the Thirteenth Century to the Present. Lewiston. 2008. Provides a wide selection of Hungarian poetry. 1996. András Boros-Kazai Updated by Sarah Hilbert 18 . the dangers of a return to tradition. Foreword by Árpád Göncz. A volume in the Jewish Writing in the Contemporary World Series. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Contains about a third of the poet’s verse. 1980. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. the other is a bibliography of Hungarian women writers of the period. including selections from all of his major collections. and the effects of urbanization. Ocean at the Window: Hungarian Prose and Poetry Since 1945. eds. 1995. and Éva Forgács. Leopard V: An Island of Sound: Hungarian Poetry and Fiction Before and Beyond the Iron Curtain. Makkai. Turmoil in Hungary: An Anthology of Twentieth Century Hungarian Poetry. One appendix contains authors’ biographies. 2004. Metropolitan Icons: Selected Poems of János Pilinszky in Hungarian and English. Mellen Press. himself an award-winning poet. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Albert. ed. János. Bibliographical references. Published to coincide with the Hungarian Year of Culture (2003-2004). Contains a substantial introduction by the editor. Nicholas. Subjects include the fight for suffrage and independence.: New Rivers Press. Szirtes.Y.Hungarian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry Kolumban. The editor of this important anthology. Pilinszky. Introduction. Edited and translated by Emery Edward George. Shifting Voices: Feminist Thought and Women’s Writing in Fin-deSiècle Austria and Hungary. ed. Paul. In Quest of the “Miracle Stag”: The Poetry of Hungary. Agatha. followed by selections from the works of twenty-four writers and biographical-critical essays. Includes biographies. is distinguished by its individualized point of view and emotional intensity. consists of two stanzas with a highly complex parallel construction and sophisticated verse structure. a few poets emerged who represent the period of transition. an anonymous religious hymn from the thirteenth century preserved in a fifteenth century manuscript. Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. some tradition of oral poetry in Polish must have existed around that time. the most accomplished literary product of the whole medieval period. Its lyric genre breaks down thematically into Lenten and Easter songs. it stands out by virtue of its vivid imagery and macabre humor. while others are didactic or satiric. Judgments concerning the verse forms of this period.POLISH POETRY Poland’s acceptance of Christianity in its Western form in 966 resulted in the longlasting domination of Latin as the language of written communication. and so on. Christmas carols. some of these poems manage to strike an original note. a first-person monologue. hymns to the Virgin Mary. but it was only a hundred years later that the golden age of the Polish Renaissance came into full swing. Polish secular poetry of the Middle Ages is less homogeneous. The increasing participation of laypeople in religious life brought about the growth of popular devotional literature in the vernacular. Aleksym” (legend of Saint Alexis). although nothing except “Bogurodzica” has been preserved in a written form. Polish medieval poetry was apparently based on a system of relative syllabism. Perhaps the most interesting secular poem of the period is the fifteenth century “Rozmowa mistrza ze kmiercia” (conversation of a master with death). with lines equal to clauses and approximative rhymes. one of numerous variations on the medieval theme of memento mori. is a typical verse hagiography. “Bogurodzica” (Mother of God). 19 . What has been preserved is a mosaic of poems written for various purposes and with various results. for the most part. Polish literature was characterized by the prevalence of religious poetry. Some of them are merely mnemonic devices. the first known poem in Polish is. “?ale Matki Boskiej pod Krzy/em” (the lament of the Mother of God at the foot of the Cross). In its versification. Meanwhile. at the same time. The Renaissance Western European Humanism made its way into Poland as early as the second half of the fifteenth century. adaptations from Latin. It was three centuries later that Polish emerged as the language of literature. however. drawing on foreign sources and rather primitive in its form. remain highly conjectural. “Legenda o kw. there are some shy attempts at erotic poetry as well. Paradoxically. While being. Such a masterly piece could not have been created in a cultural vacuum. for example. The epic genre was poorly represented in Polish literature of this period. Jan Kochanowski After all the shortcomings of his predecessors. Written after the death of his young daughter. his strengths are his passion for the particulars of life and his straightforward stylistic manner. songs). this sequence of funeral elegies presents a wide range of changing feel20 . however. 1928). he wrote prolifically all of his life and wrote exclusively in Polish. but he was able to give his writing a national specificity and personal tone.Polish Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry Biernat of Lublin The first Polish poet whose biography is at least partly known is Biernat of Lublin (c. was Mikolaj Rej (1505-1569). the work of Jan Kochanowski (15301584) appears as a shining example of artistic perfection. Psalterz Dawidów (1578). trifles). also a result of the more general phenomenon of the awakening of national consciousness in the beginnings of the Renaissance. and it ranges from enormous versified treatises or dialogues to brief epigrams. several epic poems. perhaps with some exaggeration. paradise of the soul). His poetry is mostly didactic. he was indebted to the classical heritage as well as to contemporary poetry of Italy and France. well-balanced mind that enjoys the aurea mediocritas of everyday life. which demanded from a writer equal fluency in Polish and Latin. He was quite original in his appreciation of specifically Polish traits and ways of life. The first part of this work is a rhymed biography of the legendary Aesop. As a poet. Laments. His Polish output includes the collections Fraszki (1584. but its style. the second part presents a collection of fables supposedly told by him. and Treny (1580. which he himself raised to the rank of a proficient literary language. his Laments has a radically different tone. Piekni (1586. and humor are still of a distinctly medieval kind. was thought until quite recently to be the first Polish book ever printed. a masterly poetic adaptation of the Psalms. The work expresses the philosophy of plebeian Humanism. Rej’s stubborn defense of the vernacular was. although much closer to the Renaissance mentality. If the Anacreontic Fraszki and Horatian Piekni present Kochanowski as a classical. A thoroughly educated Humanist. 1928). his translation of a Latin prayer book. His major poetic work. descriptive. called. He therefore was not typical of the Renaissance epoch. Raj duszny (1513. Mikolaj Rej Another transitional figure. not to be matched by any other poet of the Slavic world for the next two centuries. the father of Polish literature. however. Rej undeniably lacks subtlety and artistic balance. Odprawa poslów greckich (1578. He was a rare genius. versification. 1465-after 1529). the life of Aesop the Frygian). and a classical tragedy in verse. 1522. was Zywot Ezopa Fryga (c. A country squire with almost no formal education. Kochanowski’s work represents the Polish Renaissance in its most mature and refined form. The Dismissal of the Grecian Envoys. The bulk of his work is written in Polish. or satiric. Perhaps his most durable legacy was his contribution to the development of Polish versification. Despite the nineteenth century success of the more melodious syllabotonism. which reveal his spiritual torment and religious crisis by means of tortuous syntax. Szymon Szymonowicz (15581629) is best remembered as the author of the half-bucolic. bear comparison with the best of John Donne and George Herbert. the new Baroque style soon evolved into two different man21 . at the zenith of the Renaissance—new literary phenomena were foreshadowing the arrival of the Baroque. with exact rhyme. Kochanowski’s syllabism remains one of the active verse systems of Polish poetry. The radical change he carried out consisted of replacing the remnants of relative syllabism with a strictly syllabic system. The Baroque After a brief. and paroxytonic cadence. Szarzy½ski was a poet with a small output but endowed with extraordinary creative force. has been rediscovered and appreciated in recent decades. In poetry.Eastern European Poets Polish Poetry ings. The poet’s usually lucid and sedate style acquires an almost baroque complexity and tension. other poets of the Polish Renaissance seem definitely minor figures. entered the prolonged era of the Baroque. some of them are not without significance. Other Renaissance poets Compared with Kochanowski’s perfection and Szarzy½ski’s intensity. Kochanowski’s general influence on the subsequent phases of Polish poetry was enormous. Rytmy abo wiersze polskie (published posthumously in 1601. though brilliant. Oddly enough. stabilized caesura. golden age in the Renaissance. His only collection. prompted by the rapid progress of the Counter-Reformation. Polish rhythms or verses). however. Mikolaj Sep Szarzy½ski (1550-1581) was a full-fledged Baroque poet. and oxymoronic imagery. Sebastian Fabian Klonowicz (1545-1602) wrote lengthy descriptive poems that abound with picturesque details. This rigor allowed him freedom to employ enjambments and thus make intonation and syntax independent of the verse structure. after centuries of oblivion. and only since the beginnings of the twentieth century has it been rivaled seriously by tonism and free-verse systems. He was also able to introduce a bewildering variety of verse formats and stanza patterns. Polish culture. In particular. Sebastian Grabowiecki (1540-1607) was an author of quite refined devotional lyricism. Mikolaj Sep Szarzy«ski A peculiar feature of Polish literary history is that its classical periods never last long. idylls). half-realistic Sielanki (1614. a handful of his metaphysical sonnets. from utter despair and doubt to reconciliation with God. a highly valuable contribution to the pastoral genre. As early as the second half of the sixteenth century—that is. violent enjambments. satire. Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (Mathias Casimirus Sarbievius. While considering writing a kind of entertainment. however. a petty nobleman who. author of erotic poetry as well as devotional “emblems. The lyric branch is best represented by Szymon Zimorowic (1608-1629). he nevertheless focused on the poetic analysis of the paradoxes of worldly happiness. While the court poets excelled in brief lyric or epigrammatic forms. 22 . who has been dubbed the “Polish Horace. 1595-1640). The historical epic was introduced in 1618 with a splendid adaptation of Torquato Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata (1581. in the middle and late phases of Polish Baroque poetry were moralism. collected rhythms) added metaphysical depth to the traditional style of pastoral poetry. his relative Zbigniew Morsztyn (1624-1698). Besides Morsztyn. on the other hand.Polish Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry ners. A courtier and statesman. and contrasts makes many of his brief poems masterpieces of construction. oppositions. Apart from these two trends within the vernacular. in which there is as much frivolity as metaphysical fear. The poet who supremely exemplified all of these trends was Waclaw Potocki (1621-1696).” and Daniel Naborowski (1573-1640). often called the Sarmatian Baroque. Kasper Miaskowski (1550-1622). What dominated. Roksolanki (1654. more cosmopolitan. sociologically distinguished by the cultural horizons of royal or aristocratic court life.” achieved pan-European fame under the name of Casimire as an author of Latin odes as well as of the influential treatise De perfecta poesi (early seventeenth century). his Zbiór rytmów (1612. and his poetry shunned any didactic purpose. Polish Marinism had its most illustrious representative in Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (1613-1693). Jerusalem Delivered. whose only book. was much more local and conservative. While the former. Piotr Kochanowski. and a taste for historical epic. the powerful current of the Sarmatian Baroque was more diversified in this respect. on the other. was published posthumously by his brother. the latter style. The paradoxes of love are illustrated in Morsztyn’s poetry by a wide variety of striking conceits. author of dazzling poems close in style to Italian concettismo. in his opinions he was close to French libertinism. The complex interplay of symmetries. stylistically alluding to folk poetry and sounding the psychological mysteries of love with subtle simplicity. among others. and those of the petty gentry’s manor life. Józef Bartlomiej Zimorowic (1597-1673). didacticism. 1600) by Jan Kochanowski’s nephew. the tradition of classical poetry written in Latin was still cultivated. himself an interesting poet in the same vein. Roksolanki is an ingeniously composed sequence of songs or lyric monologues of country girls and boys. who could also be compared with the English Cavalier poets. the Polish line of wit was represented by. on one hand. was perhaps the most gifted representative of early Baroque poetry of nature. Its choice of genres and styles ranged from pure. songlike lyrics to enormous epic poems. manner strongly resembled the Western European Baroque of Giambattista Marino and Luis de Góngora y Argote. Ruthenian girls). in the seclusion of his country manor. a mock epic in ottava rima ridiculing the obscurantism and indulgence of monks. a Polish psalmody) is an early expression of messianic Polish historiosophy. covering the first sixty years of the eighteenth century. the last decades of the eighteenth century were marked by another brief resurgence of neoclassicism. were revived during this period. marked a general decline in Polish culture. The last great triumph of Baroque imagery and style—although a much belated one—occurred around 1768. when the gentry uprising called the Confederacy of Bar triggered an outburst of anonymous poetic creativity. his collection of lyric poems and epigrams Niepró/ nujace pró/nowanie (1674. the lovely Pasqualina). The purification of language (after the damage done by Baroque writers with their habit of interpolating Latinisms into their already ornate style) went hand in hand with a return to discipline and clarity in writing. full of powerful images and striking metaphors. he achieved some originality in his mythological tale in verse. unleisurely leisure) surpasses the average production of those years in its technical finesse. Krzysztof Opali½ski (1609-1655). including descriptive poems. new tendencies began to dominate the Polish cultural scene.Eastern European Poets Polish Poetry wrote an immense amount of verse. As a satiric poet. An extraordinarily gifted satirist. still dominated by the Sarmatian Baroque. In addition to writing yet another historical epic. the posthumously published Wojna domowa (1681. Classical genres. including the epic Wojna chocimska (1670. The Enlightenment In the mid-1760’s. Finally. 1850. the most outstanding was undoubtedly Bishop Ignacy Krasicki (1735-1801). In poetry. Dafnis drzewem bobkowym (1638. Samuel Twardowski (1600-1661) was another poet of this type. was the most prominent representative of the satiric bent in Baroque poetry. The so-called Saxonian Night. a garden of trifles). coinciding with a renewed interest in Western (especially French) cultural novelties. and in the poetic romance Nadobna Paskwalina (1655. epistles. was becoming monotonous in its shallow bigotry and its reliance on worn-out conceits. Some of the songs written at that time are gems of religious and patriotic lyricism. and epigrams. the war of Khotim) and the collections Moralia (1688) and Ogród fraszek (1907. Under the reign of the last Polish king. he made a stir in 1778 by publishing anonymously his Monachomachia albo wojna mnichów (monomachia. Stanisuaw August Poniatowski (1732-1798). Polish poetry of this period. fables. odes. and his long poem in biblical prose Psalmodia polska (1695. a se23 . Daphne transformed into a laurel tree). satires. mock epics. the ideology of the Enlightenment rapidly gained ground. Bishop Ignacy Krasicki Among the circle of poets close to the royal court and supporting the king’s reformist policies. Wespazjan Kochowski (1633-1700) was the central figure of the late Baroque. or the war of the monks). a civil war). a magnate and statesman. he reached his climax in Satyry (satires published between 1779 and 1784). the old genre of the animal fable acquired a new form. he remained as close to the Baroque as a poet of the Enlightenment could afford to be. however. Trembecki’s highest achievements. Romanticism is not simply another period. on the other hand.Polish Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry ries of penetrating ironic observations of contemporary morals that succeeded in being didactic without an intrusive rhetoric. Another of his masterpieces is the collection Bajki i przypowiekci (1779. One of the most conspicuous features of Polish Romanticism. Romanticism In Polish literary history. his humor is often bitter and disillusioned: He understood humanity too well to be fooled by wishful thinking. erotic poems. which first appeared in a periodical in 1806 and was published in book form in 1822. fables and parables).nin (1750-1807) and Franciszek Karpi½ski (1741-1825). as a rule more extensive and elaborate than the epigrammatic fables of Krasicki. Krasicki’s great virtues as a poet are his ironic wit and stylistic precision. always striving for emotional extremes. StanisUaw Trembecki A poet of almost equal stature was Stanisuaw Trembecki (1735-1812). is the enormous disparity between a few liter24 . later complemented by Bajki nowe (1802. are his Rococo Anacreontics and his descriptive poem Sofjówka (Sophie’s garden). The former is exemplified by the work of Bishop Adam Stanisuaw Naruszewicz (1733-1796). Trembecki also excelled in poetic fables. In contrast to the latter’s clarity and moderation. though. new fables). its belated extension can be seen in the conservative and rigid stance of the so-called Pseudoclassicists. Trembecki’s style is expressive and colorful. A libertine and courtier. surfaced in lyric songs and eclogues by Dionizy Knia. The trend of sentimentalism. the stylistic options of the Polish Enlightenment were contained between a strict classicism and a pre-Romantic sentimentalism. Under Krasicki’s pen. including Kajetan Ko. who at their best were able to produce fine examples of simplicity and emotional directness. during the first decades of the nineteenth century. and particularly Romantic poetry.mian (1771-1856) and Ludwik Osi½ski (1775-1838). he wrote with equal ease political odes to the king and obscene. however. Despite his apparently optimistic didacticism. close to epigram and characterized by conciseness. Other Enlightenment poets Generally. Another link between the Enlightenment and Romanticism can be discerned in the poetic work of the versatile writer Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz (1757-1841): He was the first to popularize the genre of the ballad through both his translations and his original poetry. the most powerful means of shaping the national mentality. Its growth coincided with political events that made literature. another favorite of the enlightened monarch. however. the period of domination of great Romantic poetry is framed by the dates of two abortive insurrections against czarist Russia. for example. Ballady i romanse (1822. Prussia. and Zygmunt Krasi½ski. and the value of individual sacrifice. and exoticisms. were written mostly in Paris. in 1831 and 1863. Adam Mickiewicz Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855) entered Polish literature as a young student at the University of Wilno and soon became the central figure within the rapidly emerging Romantic movement. Two tales in verse. It is significant that the specifically Polish notion of the wieszcz (a “bard. English translation. the poet retains what he achieved in his classical training: conciseness. precision. Mickiewicz’s leading role becomes apparent when contrasted with the emergence of 25 . Thus. is 1822. The starting point of Polish Romanticism in a broader sense. “Oda do mlodokci” (“Ode to Youth”). twentieth century opinion has added Cyprian Kamil Norwid as the last of the great four.” the rationalistic classicists. their works. The stress falls on the Romantic notions of frenetic love. It is also significant that all four poets achieved their prominence in exile. first and foremost. Sonnets from the Crimea. colloquialisms. by the chronology of political events. of unprecedented value to the spiritual life of the oppressed Polish nation. the date of the final partition of Poland—when the Polish nation ceased to exist as an even nominally sovereign state and was divided among Russia. Well read in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.” but also a prophet) has been applied only to Adam Mickiewicz. ballads and romances). His first volume. 1917) all offer an entirely new set of stylistic devices and ideological proposals. His early work was still strongly influenced by the heritage of the Enlightenment. and the brilliant sequence of Sonety krymskie (1826. in which references to native folklore provide ample means to introduce elements of fantasy and the supernatural and to express the “living truths” of emotions and sentiments. 1940) and Konrad Wallenrod (1828. and Austro-Hungary—the rhythm of Polish literary life has been defined. is a peculiar combination of classical rhetoric and the new Storm and Stress ideology. Mickiewicz’s debut was hailed as a literary revolution by his own generation but was despised by the “old ones.Eastern European Poets Polish Poetry ary giants and all other poets of the period. 1883). English translation. While the diction of these works admits anticlassical regionalisms. and Lord Byron. and an infallible exactness in his choice of words and construction of metaphors. 1925). the tragic loneliness of the hero. Gra/yna (1823. was an audacious manifesto of a specifically Polish version of early Romanticism. Friedrich Schiller. parts 2 and 4 of the poetic drama Dziady (1823. as regards both their artistic innovation and their spiritual leadership. Juliusz Suowacki. Since 1795. Mickiewicz developed his own Romantic style. the year that saw publication of the first collection of poems by Mickiewicz. Forefathers’ Eve. The ensuing strife between the Romantics and the classicists was fueled by Mickiewicz’s subsequent publications during the 1820’s. Juliusz Suowacki (1809-1849). the work is a masterpiece of innovative construction. many of whom settled in Paris as political refugees. Forefathers’ Eve. and verse. His plays are an extremely important contribution to Polish Romantic poetry as well as to the theater. his main rival. Mickiewicz became the uncrowned prince of Polish poets. from lyric poems through poetic dramas to tales in verse and visionary epics. another exile. historical. interrupted only by a brief sequence of the so-called Lausanne poems (written in 1839). in Twelve Books in Verse. lapsed into silence as a poet. though a highly valuable one: the Byronic tale in verse Maria (1826). fairy-tale-like or legendary. None of these poets achieved a position comparable to that of Mickiewicz. Pan Tadeusz: Or. though his fame eclipsed Mickiewicz’s for a time only a half century after the death of both men. style. After the shattering of the nation’s hopes in 1831. Juliusz SUowacki Mickiewicz’s authority as the primary poet of the Polish nation was never seriously challenged in his lifetime. Mickiewicz. Antoni Malczewski (1793-1826) left behind only one work. more and more absorbed in mystical soul-searching and political activity. yet another masterpiece. in Konrad Wallenrod and in some of the lyric poems of the late 1820’s. Only two years later. Kaniów Castle). He had already initiated. historiosophical and metaphysical dimensions. while in his poetic art he constantly sought new forms of expression. in which nostalgia and sorrow mix with warm humor and discreet irony. Suowacki’s voluminous output includes various genres. a Tale of Gentlefolk in 1811 and 1812. Part 3 of Dziady (1832. they experiment with both versification and dramatic construction. Written mostly in verse. 1944-1946) offered a new vision of Poland’s national destiny as well as a new step in the development of Romantic drama. In his 26 . 1811 i 1812 we dwunastu ksiegach wierszem (1834. The Last Foray in Lithuania. 1917). After the 1831 defeat of the November Insurrection. Thanks to both the subtlety of its narration (the interplay of the narrator’s identification with and distance from the reality presented) and its stylistic richness. Mickiewicz’s patriotism acquired new. was not appreciated by his contemporaries as he deserved to be. Mickiewicz published a completely different book. his greatest: Pan Tadeusz: Czyli. a Homeric epic on the poet’s homeland. Seweryn Goszczynski (1801-1876) appeared as an extreme example of political radicalism. the PolishLithuanian province at the time of Napoleonic wars. which he professed particularly in the tale in verse Zamek kaniowski (1828. a new thematic current in Romantic poetry: the theme of patriotic struggle and heroic sacrifice. songlike lyrics alluding to the forms of folk poetry. After its publication.Polish Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry other early Romantics. Ostatni Zajazd na litwie historia Szlachecka zr. dreamlike or symbolic. Pan Tadeusz remains to this day the crowning achievement of Polish epic poetry. Józef Bogdan Zaleski (1802-1866) was an author of serene. purely lyric in character and strikingly innovative in their use of indirect symbolic language. their settings are variously realistic. Zygmunt Krasi«ski General critical opinion concerning the other two poets of the nineteenth century “great four” has dramatically changed in the twentieth century. with all of his uniqueness taken into account. With a perspicacious and sophisticated mind. From this point of view. Suowacki’s significance lies not only in his matchless technical virtuosity but also—and more important—in the fact that in his last phase. Suowacki was able to move freely from epic description to lyric digression and from complex stanza patterns to biblical prose. is a prophetic analysis of revolution. 1924). The poems included are semantically 27 . he was certainly most successful in his brief lyric poems. a mythological vision of Polish destiny shown through consecutive reincarnations of the nation’s spirit. today he is considered the spiritual and artistic harbinger of modern Polish poetry. Nie-boska komedia (pr. Norwid tried to analyze the most essential problems of history. dawning) and Psalmy przyszlokci (1845. His long poem in ottava rima Beniowski (1841) is a magnificent example of the genre of “poem of digressions” and of Romantic irony. In particular. 1835. for some time praised for his poetic genius. king-spirit). distinguished by their highly intellectual content. his collection of one hundred such poems. have dated badly. The Undivine Comedy.Eastern European Poets Polish Poetry poems. Significantly. “mystical” period in Suowacki’s short life was an immense (even though unfinished) poem. Zygmunt Krasi½ski (1812-1859). his fame grew rapidly in the 1890’s and 1900’s. and culture. Vade-mecum (written before 1866). written in 1833. Suowacki can be considered the most typically Romantic of all Polish Romantic poets. He replaced the prevalent Romantic attitude of nationalistic messianism with his original version of humanistic universalism: a concept of modern humanity as the heir to the great civilizations of the past. psalms of the future). One generation younger than Mickiewicz. His dazzling imagery and stylistic fireworks are in exact opposition to Mickiewicz’s sparing and concrete manner. Forgotten and isolated in his lifetime and discovered only several decades after his death. Eugene Onegin. close in its style to Byron’s Don Juan (1819-1824) and Alexander Pushkin’s Evgeny Onegin (1825-1832. also in ottava rima. 1833. Kamil Norwid The posthumous career of the work of Cyprian Kamil Norwid (1821-1883) presents a stark contrast with Krasi½ski’s diminishing popularity. the first of which. today is appreciated mostly as an author of fascinating letters and two political plays. titled Król-Duch (1847. Krasi½ski nevertheless lacked both Mickiewicz’s poetic force and Suowacki’s craftsmanship. Norwid developed his art both under the influence of and as a polemic against Polish Romanticism. 1881). he was an early forerunner of Symbolism. though interesting as expressions of his conservative historiosophy. His long poems Przedkwit (1843. Although he employed a wide variety of genres and forms. politics. offers an astonishingly modern model of poetry. in fact. The most impressive product of the last. In the last decade of the nineteenth century. and Symbolist or expressionist subjectivism in poetic drama and lyricism. generated a distrust in Romantic ideology and particularly in Romantic poetry: The ensuing epoch of Positivism was definitely an antipoetic age. Norwid’s poems can be analyzed as a constant dialogue with an implied reader who is forced to assume a much more active part in deciphering the poem’s meanings than is usually required in Romantic poetry. it had been unable to find any cure for Poland’s political enslavement. her poetry of social criticism and defense of the oppressed is characterized by its skillful use of elements of folklore and its introduction of a speaker from the lower classes. The strongest suit of Teofil Lenartowicz (1822-1893) was a lyric poetry imbued with stylistic references to folklore. the so-called “domestic” offshoot of Polish Romantic poetry was of rather inferior quality. the end of the century marked the apogee of an ideological crisis: Literature was polarized between naturalistic objectivism in fiction and prosaic drama. This new trend.Polish Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry dense. or neo-Romanticism. The Positivist program of social reform had evidently failed. was strongly influenced by Western European Symbolism and the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche and Arthur Schopenhauer. The post-Romantic and neo-Romantic periods The 1863 defeat of the January Uprising. Kornel Ujejski (1823-1897) reached a large readership with his poems of patriotic lamentation. Maria Konopnicka (1842-1910) wrote in accordance with Positivism as far as its reformist tendency was concerned. modernism. Other poets of this period 28 . Among the multitude of poets who wrote at that time. but it also gave vent to specifically Polish doubts and perplexities. individualism. Only a few names of relative significance emerged in the field of poetry during this period. and often obscure. the “prosaic” epoch of Positivism gave way to another era of poetry. Adam Asnyk (1838-1897) owed his popularity to the post-Romantic conventions through which he expressed his anti-Romantic convictions. who in his lyric poems published in the 1890’s set up an emotional pattern for the whole generation of Young Poland—a norm of sensitivity consisting of pessimism. another insurrection against the czarist oppressors. variously called Young Poland. only a few names rise above the average. Ryszard Berwi½ski (1819-1879) was a bard of social revolution and an ironic observer of contemporary society. In literature. Perhaps the most typical representative of the decadent mood of the end of the century was Kazimierz Przerwa Tetmajer (1865-1940). they replace an easy melodiousness with irregular verse in which rhythm and intonation adjust to the flow of thoughts. distrust of any dogma. and a despondency that easily turned into a cult of sensual pleasure. Other Romantic poets In contrast to the achievement of the four great émigrés. ambiguous. Thus. there was a general shift toward realistic and naturalistic fiction and drama. and his model of poetry appealed to the tastes of the next generations. amazingly modern in its style and versification. a trend opposing Decadence and favoring classical lucidity. within Young Poland. osiers). The task of poetry is to express this instability: Its rhythm should become the equivalent of the world’s élan vi29 . intensely Nietzschean verse. An enthusiast of Henri Bergson. he saw the world as a field of incessant conflict between inert matter and the creative force of spirit. his only collection. Wiklina (1954. was published in 1902. his late poems are an important contribution to tonism. chronologically he belongs to the literary epoch that succeeded Young Poland. Tadeusz Mici½ski (1873-1918). In other words. Some of the second-rate poets. and the last volume that he published. Indeed. and thus the world is always in the course of becoming. the conflict cannot be resolved. Jan Kasprowicz (1860-1926). however. In contrast to the majority of his poetic generation. and his next two books appeared in 1920 and 1936. for example. and only the striking originality of his language obscures this genetic link. Boueslaw Lekmian (1878-1937) published his first book in 1912. and its lyric style soon degenerated into worn-out conventions. from the technical point of view. mingling mythological or legendary figures with historical or present-day characters. he was aware of changing attitudes. mental illness ended her writing career in 1907. was perhaps the most Romantic of all poets of Young Poland: He revived the genre of poetic drama and enriched it with Symbolist imagery. is undoubtedly his highest achievement. BoUeslaw Lekmian The greatest poet of Young Poland. His visionary plays refer to both Polish history and contemporary events. wrote lyric poetry that anticipated expressionism. started with naturalistic depictions of peasants’ poverty and after intermediary stages of Symbolism and expressionism ended as a serene poet of reconciliation with God and with the world. a system of verse based on an equal number of stresses rather than syllables. Lekmian’s poetic style is utterly consistent with his philosophy. Maria Komornicka (1876-1948) was also able to free herself from the prevailing stereotypes to create her individual. W mroku gwiazd (in the darkness of stars). although she lived for many years after that date. What is most interesting in his work is his progress from a Promethean rebellion to a final Franciscan acceptance of Being. he must be considered a belated Symbolist. best known as a dramatist. Nevertheless. The epoch of Young Poland abounded with poets. he represented the trend of Nietzscheanism. Leopold Staff (1878-1957) lived long enough to participate in three consecutive literary epochs. Antoni Lange (1861-1929) stands out as a Parnassian with exceptional technical abilities.Eastern European Poets Polish Poetry underwent a more complicated development. Stanisuaw Wyspia½ski (1869-1907). his popularity has never diminished. are a cut above the average. emerged—quite paradoxically— when the epoch was already in decline. however. also an innovative (though less popular) playwright. Independent Poland and the war years The twenty years of independent Poland (1918-1939) can be visualized as a gradual turn from light to darkness. from initial optimism and hope to final catastrophe. Lekmian’s poetry is distinguished by his astonishing variety of complex rhythms. As for Wierzy½ski. and the differences among them were to increase as their works progressed. In her metaphorically concise poems. and rhetorical. and its imagery should fix the reflection of reality’s metamorphoses. Many of these initiatives were ephemeral. whose act of perception creates. after his brief fascination with expressionism. Jerzy Liebert (1904-1931) was an original poet of religious experience. In fact. each of the five poets possessed a different personality. Lecho½. periodicals. for example) in order to capture the flux of experience. This change found its reflection in the evolution of poetry. did not win a great 30 . the world perceived. but some of them developed into influential schools and trends. discursive. a pro-Communist poet. perhaps the most talented of them all. mostly avant-garde programs and a multitude of poetic groups. there was only one poetic school that managed to hold sway over public opinion for two decades. and Kazimierz Wierzy½ski (1894-1969)—owed their popularity to the fact that their poetry was original and innovative while also comprehensible. made an interesting use of the Romantic tradition. Jan Lecho½ (1899-1956). Five poets who emerged as a group called Skamander—Julian Tuwim (1894-1953). Suonimski’s poetry was rationalistic. was a master of verbal magic with an explosive lyric force. obsessed with Polish history. Jarosuaw Iwaszkiewicz (1894-1980).Polish Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry tal. chose aestheticism as his principal attitude. Tuwim. the group abandoned all neo-Romantic conventions and turned to contemporary reality and a refreshingly direct style. as it were. and his invention of new words (forming nouns out of verbs and verbs out of nouns. managed to combine his radical ideology with close ties to the Polish Romantic tradition. The first decade of the interwar period was characterized by an explosion of new. and even cabarets. The poet should assume the cognitive stance of the primeval human. Accordingly. his figures of speech that emphasize the mutual transformations of elements of reality. if not longer. his most impressive achievement is his postwar poetry written in exile and much modernized in form. Skamander’s only program consisted of rejecting traditional concepts of poetry’s “duties” and enjoying artistic freedom. Wuadysuaw Broniewski (1897-1962). While Skamander was dominating the poetic scene. Iwaszkiewicz. accordingly. more radical programs of new poetry were propounded by numerous avant-garde groups. Maria Pawlikowska-Jarnorzewska (1894-1945) achieved a modern formulation of and a feminine perspective on the theme of love. Antoni Suonimski (1895-1976). Within the circle of Skamander’s influence. including Bruno Jasie½ski (1901-1939) and Aleksandr Wat (1900-1967). some other poets followed their individual paths. The Polish Futurists. As far as popularity was concerned. his frequent use of myth and folklore. and Wat. who propounded a new. did it by use of the grotesque and mockery. The poetry of the late 1950’s and 1960’s was characterized by the coexistence of a strong current of ironic moral reflection. as found in the works of Zbigniew Herbert (1924-1998). a great deal of émigré literature found its way into the country. Wisuawa Szymborska (born 1923). although as early as the 1930’s it was quite clear that their poetry was unable to cope with the problems of twentieth century history. and Wiktor Woros31 . The atrocities of World War II (1939-1945) confirmed the predictions and premonitions of catastrophist poetry. Their precise and consistent program had a great impact on the evolution of Polish poetry in the next decades. In spite of that. who left behind a brilliant collection of lyric poems. and ideological crisis. After a general decline of literature during the years of Stalinism. although his style changed radically in subsequent decades. from his prewar catastrophism to metaphysical lyricism. Konstanty Ildefons Galczy½ski (1905-1953). and its popularity was remarkable. Józef Czechowicz (1903-1939). and the theme of “apocalypse come true” was central in the work of a new generation of poets. to mention only the examples of Miuosz. ascetic style devoid of metaphors and sparing in imagery. Wierzy½ski. The 1930’s. and poetic programs. Such was the fate of Krzysztof Kamil Baczy½ski (1921-1944). postwar Polish poetry scored many artistic successes. many poets worked in exile. most of whom died young during the Nazi Occupation as underground fighters or soldiers in the Warsaw Uprising. the Kraków Vanguard advocated constructivism and rigor based on metaphor and syntax. Postwar Poland After World War II and the imposition of Communist rule on Poland.Eastern European Poets Polish Poetry following. one of the greatest Polish poets and the winner of the 1980 Nobel Prize in Literature. Adam Wa/yk (1905-1982) is worth mentioning as a representative of Surrealism. but they prepared the ground for the program of the so-called Kraków Vanguard. Czesuaw Miuosz (1911-2004). initially a highly accomplished poet of idyllic provincial landscapes. The immediate postwar years brought about the debut of Tadeusz Ró/ewicz (born 1921). Among other avant-garde poets. one of the first harbingers of the approaching “thaw” in cultural policy was the publication in 1955 of Adam Wa/yk’s “Poemat dla doroslych” (“Poem for Adults”). the most outstanding representatives of which were Tadeusz Peiper (1891-1969) and Julian Przybok (1901-1970). in his later poems expressed his fears using his own avantgarde technique of metaphorical condensation. Those poets who remained in Poland or were repatriated faced a situation of more or less limited freedom of speech. who later was to become one of the most popular Polish poets. brought about the so-called Second Vanguard—a new generation of poets who prophesied the approaching global catastrophe. The year 1956 marked the beginning of a genuine eruption of new names. trends. political. In contrast to the Futurists’ anarchism. marked by intense economic. visionary and Symbolist in style. Despite censorship. underwent a complicated evolution. the self.Polish Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry zylski (1927-1996). Thousands of journalists were suspended or forced to resign. Ryszard Krynicki (born 1943). Marcin Kwietlicki (born 1961). and Tadeusz Nowak (19301991) built their private worlds of imagination and fantasy. The school of neoclassicism and the “poetry of culture” is represented by. combining the “moralistic” and “linguistic” tendencies in order to find a new language for antitotalitarian protest. At the same time. Jacek Podsiadlo (born 1964). Jerzy Sosnowski (born 1962). as exemplified by Miron Biauoszewski (1922-1983). and authors and other intellectuals were arrested. Zbigniew Machej (born 1958). agreed to write only what was acceptable to government censors. Most of the poetry created during these years was not considered truly Polish in character. They were not perceived as leaders in reform. They also. Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev declared that the Soviet Union would no long directly influence Polish politics. The whole world then focused its attention on Polish poetry in 1996 when Szym32 . These newer voices include Marcin Baran (born 1963). Marcin Sendecki (born 1967). and an equally powerful trend of linguistic experimentation. This structure fell apart in the 1980’s. The government relaxed its censorship by the mid1980’s. The decade began with the strong suppression of intellectual and artistic works. Krzysztof Koehler (born 1963). poets such as Stanisuaw Grochowiak (1934-1976). The underground writers were heard only as loudly as any current leadership allowed. the inner world. This statement effectively removed the yoke of censorship in Poland and the target or theme of writers for the past forty-five years. This is in direct opposition to the committed poetry of the previous decades that spoke to and for the people. It was all a reaction to an imposed and generally unpopular political structure. Writers recognized by the state were guaranteed publication and a comfortable lifestyle. Adam Zagajewski (born 1945). publishers and writers’ organizations were closed and disbanded. Jerzy Harasymowicz (1933-1999). Jarosuaw Marek Rymkiewicz (born 1935). it seems to be a focus in the individual. another generation of Polish poets came to the fore. Ewa Lipska (born 1945). Julian Kornhauser (born 1946). among others. however. Tymoteusz Karpowicz (1921-2005). and Robert Tekiel (born 1961). In the early 1970’s. these writers were still reacting to government. and Witold Wirpsza (1918-1985). If there is a common thread. called the Generation of ‘68 or the New Wave. Whether the objects of aggressive government crackdown or the minor concern of a government generally ignoring them. In 1988. End of the twentieth century onward There seems little cohesion or uniformity in approach of the poets born after 1950. and Stanisuaw Bara½czak (born 1946) are strong representatives of this trend. and underground publishing started to flourish. All trends in Polish poetry since World War II followed the vicissitudes of the socialist governments and looming presence of neighboring Soviet Union. Eastern European Poets Polish Poetry borska was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. The choice seemed surprising at first; then more people read her poetry and discovered her wit, wisdom, irony, commitment to human issues, and complete mastery of the Polish poetic language. She well represented to the world a rich, deep, and still very dynamic poetic tradition. Bibliography Bara½czak, Stanisuaw, and Clare Cavanagh, eds. and trans. Polish Poetry of the Last Two Decades of Communist Rule: Spoiling Cannibals’ Fun. Foreword by Helen Vendler. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1991. Despite an oppressive government and a society permeated by despair, the twenty-nine poets represented in this collection created a poetic renaissance, especially in the lyric genre. An important anthology. Carpenter, Bogdana, ed. Monumenta Polonica: The First Four Centuries of Polish Poetry, a Bilingual Anthology. Ann Arbor: Michigan Slavic Publications, 1989. Parallel English and Polish texts. Covers an extensive period of poetry. Bibliographical references. Czerniawski, Adam, ed. The Mature Laurel: Essays on Modern Polish Poetry. Chester Springs, Pa.: Dufour Editions, 1991. Contains essays on poets, analyses of individual poems, and overview articles on history and theory. Appropriate for introductory readers of Polish poetry and scholars alike. Eile, Stanisuaw. Literature and Nationalism in Partitioned Poland, 1795-1918. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000. Published in association with the School of Slavonic and East European Studies at the University of London. Demonstrates how Romantic poetry contributed to the growth of nationalism in Poland and to the determination of the Poles to resist foreign rule. Eile, Stanisuaw, and Ursula Phillips, eds. New Perspectives in Twentieth-Century Polish Literature: Flight from Martyrology. New York: Macmillan, 1992. The essays in this collection deal with fiction and drama as well as poetry. However, some of them discuss individual poets, while others consider more general topics, such as poets and politics or the new poetry emerging in the final decades of the twentieth century. Bibliography and index. Grol, Regina, ed. Ambers Aglow: An Anthology of Contemporary Polish Women’s Poetry. Austin, Tex.: Host, 1996. This important collection features the works of thirty women poets, presented in parallel English and Polish texts. Hawkesworth, Celia, ed. A History of Central European Women’s Writing. New York: Palgrave, 2001. Contains four essays on Polish women writers. Others deal with more general topics. Map, bibliography, and index. Levine, Madeline G. Contemporary Polish Poetry, 1925-1975. Boston: Twayne, 1981. Part of Twayne’s World Authors series. Examines fifty years of Polish poetry. Bibliography and index. 33 Polish Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry Mengham, Rod, et al., trans. Altered State: The New Polish Poetry. Ottawa, Ont.: Arc, 2003. Dual text translations of works by twenty-five Polish poets. Consists almost entirely of poems written after the end of communist rule. Miuosz, Czesuaw. The History of Polish Literature. 2d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. An updated version of the 1969 work, with an epilogue added by the author. _______, ed. Postwar Polish Poetry: An Anthology. 3d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. A collection of Polish poems, selected and edited by the 1980 Nobel laureate. Tighe, Carl. The Politics of Literature: Poland, 1945-1989. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1999. With references to some two hundred writers, this volume demonstrates how postwar Polish literature was dominated by opposition to communism. Useful both as a political history and as a reference work. Zagajewski, Adam, ed. Polish Writers on Writing. San Antonio, Tex.: Trinity University Press, 2007. A volume in the Writer’s World series. Twenty-five prominent writers, including Nobel Prize winners Czesuaw Miuosz and Wisuawa Szymborska, comment on their art. Diary entries, letters, essays, and interviews are included. Stanisuaw Bara½czak 34 ROMANIAN POETRY Romanian literature has had a long and difficult history. Romania itself has been under the control of various empires over the centuries, and therefore exposed to various literary traditions. One of its earliest states was established by tribes from ancient Greece. Romanian culture can also trace its beginnings back to the Roman Empire; with the introduction of the Latin language to the people of the region, a new cultural evolution was set in motion. By the mid-sixteenth century, the province of Transylvania had been conquered by the Ottoman Empire. In 1600, the principalities of Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia were unified for the first time, but this did not last for long. Both Russia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire controlled chunks of Romania during part of the nineteenth century. It was not until the late nineteenth century that Romania was recognized as a country. There have been vital periods in Romanian history when several literary genres have flourished, and periods in which there was merely stagnation. Before the nineteenth century, political turmoil had an adverse effect on the ability of a Romanian literary tradition to flourish. Expressing an Identity During the eighteenth century, the poet Alecu Vacarescu wrote passionate lyric poetry inspired by the ancient Greek poet Anacreon. His son, Iancu Vacarescu, became the most highly regarded poet of his time and is considered to be the father of Romanian poetry. He lived well into the nineteenth century, during which time the Classical Age of poetry flourished in Romania. Vasile Alecsandri is remembered for influencing the development of the dramatic poem, which ultimately had a significant effect on the rise of drama in Romania. It was Mihai Eminescu, however, who had the greatest impact on Romanian poetry during the nineteenth century, influencing both poetic form and language. Whether he wrote about nature, love, or spirituality, he was able to elevate each with his particular form of expression. The poet Alexandru Macedonski first experimented with poetic forms in the late nineteenth century. His bold approach went against the already-established Junimea society, founded by Titu Maiorescu and others during the 1860’s, which put forth a coherent philosophical theory that incorporated the whole of Romanian culture. This conservative society hoped to standardize the Romanian language and diminish Western influence on Romanian culture, especially any French influence. By the end of the nineteenth century, other trends were rejecting both the Junimea approach, which had focused less on the peasants and more on city life, and the Symbolists, who were looked upon as being too strongly influenced by decadent foreigners. Political changes made new literary trends possible. Romanian critics and theorists wrestled with how to shape their growing culture. The influence of other literatures 35 Romanian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry ebbed and flowed depending on conflicting social and political factors. After World War II, several Romanian poets attempted to breathe life into contemporary Romanian poetry, but with the repressive political government, it took courage for the younger poets to speak their minds. Endre Ady was born in a remote village that at the time was located within the borders of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His village was later named in honor of him and is now part of the modern country of Romania. He published his first volume of poetry in 1899. Over the years, he wrote about spiritual and political matters, but he is probably best remembered for his poems that championed the passions of love. He died in Budapest in 1919 and is considered a truly legendary figure in Hungarian literature. The Long Torturous Road Through the Twentieth Century Tristan Tzara, born in Romania as Samuel Rosenstock, moved to Zurich, Switzerland, in 1915, and then to Paris in 1920. Together with Hugo Ball, he helped to found Dadaism, a radical literary and artistic movement that had no respect for traditional literature or society. Another bold and forthright poet was Irving Layton, born Israel Pincu Lazarovitch in a small Romanian village in 1912; his Jewish parents moved the family to Canada in 1913 in order to escape anti-Semitism. By the 1940’s, Layton was determined to establish himself as a true poet. He also received an M.A. from McGill University in political science and economics, and became outspoken on issues relating to both poetry and politics. His first collection, Here and Now, was published in 1945. Layton earned a reputation as a feisty rebel who was willing to fight conservatism in all its guises. He died in 2006 at the age of ninety-three. The poet Itzik Manger also was forced to find a new home away from his native Romania. He was born in 1901 in Czernowitz, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The town would later become part of Romania before eventually being turned over to the Ukraine. Manger was an important Yiddish poet, dramatist, and visionary. He is remembered for his talent for updating biblical stories with a more modern perspective. He lived in Poland for a time, but left for London due to the terrible anti-Semitism that was then prevalent. In 1958, Manger moved to Israel, where he lived for the remaining years of his life. At the time of his death in 1969, he had earned the deep love of his adopted country and was thought of as Israel’s national poet. Some of the Romanian poets who flourished during the years between World War I and World War II are Tudor Arghezi, Ion Barbu, Max Blecher, and Ion Pillat. Another is Paul Celan, born Paul Antschel in 1920 to a family of German Jewish extraction. It was difficult for him to be a Jew in Romania, and anti-Semitism was prevalent in the state school that he attended. The situation became even worse after the Nazis occupied Romania during World War II; Celan’s parents were sent to concentration camps, where they later died. Following these terrible experiences, Celan was riddled with guilt. It was hard for him to justify his survival when so many had died. 36 Eastern European Poets Romanian Poetry Although born in Romania, Celan wrote his poetry in German. Inspired by the French Symbolists and the German expressionists, he developed a very insular poetry that is difficult to understand. As he grew older, his poems became more and more theoretical exercises, concerned primarily with language for its own sake. It takes an attentive reader to parse the vague personal and religious references. After the war, he spent most of his time living in Paris. Sadly, he drowned in the Seine River in 1970, in what was most likely a suicide. Because of Romania’s tumultuous history, many of its most important poets have been forced to live elsewhere. Dan Pagis was born in Romania in 1930 and spent some of his childhood years in a Ukrainian concentration camp during World War II. Miraculously, he escaped, and eventually he ended up in Israel. As a Holocaust survivor, Pagis wrote mesmerizing poetry about his experiences and also about the larger issue of being a Jew, publishing several volumes in Hebrew. He died in 1986 after losing his battle with cancer. Andrei Codrescu left Romania in the 1960’s in order to escape the tyranny of the Communist government. While his first poems were composed in Romanian, he began to write in English after settling in the United States. During the Romanian Revolution of 1989, Codrescu was excited by the thought that the regime was crumbling, and this excitement rekindled his interest in his native language and literature. Many contemporary Romanian poets grew up during the repressive Communist regime. As mature adults, such poets as Daniel Banulescu, Ruxandra Cesereanu, Simona Popescu, Ioana Nicolaie, and Dan Sociu have thrived in a new, democratic Romania. Jeffry Jensen Bibliography Beissinger, Margaret H. The Art of the Lautar: The Epic Tradition of Romania. New York: Garland, 1991. A critical look at the epic, folk, and oral traditions of Romania. Codrescu, Andrei. Introduction to Born in Utopia: An Anthology of Modern and Contemporary Romanian Poetry, edited by Carmen Firan, Paul Doru Mugur, and Edward Foster. Jersey City, N.J.: Talisman House, 2006. An introduction by a major Romanian American poet and critic. Georgescu, Vlad. The Romanians: A History. Edited by Matei Calinescu. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990. Includes an overview of the literary trends found throughout Romanian history. Olson, Kirby. Andrei Codrescu and the Myth of America. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2005. Contains discussion of Codrescu’s early years living in Communist Romania and how his poetry was influenced by the experience. Segel, Harold B. The Columbia Literary History of Eastern Europe Since 1945. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Examines how Romania fits into the Eastern European milieu. 37 Romanian Poetry Critical Survey of Poetry Sorkin, Adam J. “Hard Lines: Romanian Poetry, Truth, and Heroic Irony Under the Ceaulescu Dictatorship.” Literary Review 35, no. 1 (Fall, 1991): 26-33. Discusses the bravery of Romanian poets under the Communist dictatorship. Tappe, E. D. Rumanian Prose and Verse: A Selection with an Introductory Essay. London: University of London, 1956. Provides a solid overview of Romanian literature. 38 Új csapáson (1913. personal confession with a depiction of early twentieth century Hungary. Ady published Vallomások és tanúlmányok (1911. 1906 (New Verses. Levelek Párizsból (1924. Of All Mysteries. 1918 (Leading the Dead. Who Sees Me?. 1969 (includes New Verses. essays. On Elijah’s Chariot. 1923 (The Last Ships. Paris notebook). 39 . Love of Ourselves. A tízmilliós Kleopátra és egyébb történetek (1910. 1903 Új versek. and Ha hív az aczélhegy± ördög (1927. They are Sápadt emberek és történetek (1907. Cleopatra of the ten millions and other stories). 1898-1916 (1977). His collections of short stories combine subjective. on a new track). Blood and Gold. 1909 (On Elijah’s Chariot. Romania). 1969) A halottak élén. ha szeretnének. letters from Paris). it can happen thus also). November 22. 1923 Poems of Endre Ady. and Muskétás tanár úr (1913. and The Last Ships) Other literary forms Endre Ady (O-dee) was a journalist who wrote numerous articles. This Fugitive Life. and short stories for the press. both political and literary. 1969) Ki látott engem?. Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Ady Endre. These were collected after his death under the titles Az új Hellász (1920. January 27. 1919 Principal poetry Versek. reports. new Hellas). 1908 (Blood and Gold. criticisms. 1914 (Who Sees Me?. 1969) Margita élni akar. 1877 Died: Budapest. 1921 Az utolsó hajók. 1969) Az Illés szekerén. if the steel-tipped devil calls). Leading the Dead. pale men and stories).ENDRE ADY Born: Érdmindszent. containing his important prose writings. 1969) Szeretném. 1969) Vér és arany. Így is történhetik (1910. Párizsi noteszkönyve (1924. Hungary. Professor Muskétás). Some of these writings are available in English translation in The Explosive Country: A Selection of Articles and Studies. 1969) A minden titkok verseib¹l. In his lifetime. 1969) Rövid dalok egyr¹l és másról. 1913 (Love of Ourselves. 1969) A menekül¹ élet. 1899 Még egyszer. 1912 (This Fugitive Life. confessions and studies). 1969) A magunk szerelme. 1910 (Of All Mysteries. Longing for Love. 1910 (Longing for Love. reviews. After a brief period in law school in Debrecen and time spent as a legal clerk in Temesvár (Timisoara. he always fondly remembered his teachers there.Ady. were considered revolutionary: physical passion and erotic love. too. he came to know the peasantry intimately. The Partium was thus doubly a frontier area in whose Calvinist and kuruc (anti-Habsburg) traditions Ady saw justification for his own rebellious. Ady first worked in Debrecen. Romania) and Zilah (Zalau). then to the Calvinist gymnasium at Zilah. He followed this career until his death. he realized that his true vocation was in journalism. both earlier Hungarian literature and European naturalistic writers. Ady was sent first to the Piarist school in Nagykároly. individualistic nature. Endre Critical Survey of Poetry His letters have been published in Ady Endre válogatott levelei (1956. and became acquainted with the works of Arthur Schopenhauer. looking back to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries rather than to the example of his immediate predecessors. so he was educated with a view to obtaining a legal degree. He remained. and he continued his readings: Auguste Comte. Romania) is situated in the Partium. “Life” and “truth” became important bywords for him. Several of his classmates were later to become prominent among the more radical thinkers and politicians of the early years of the twentieth century. Henrik Ibsen. Herbert Spencer. which he regarded as his alma mater. and especially the late eigh40 . Fyodor Dostoevski. he revitalized indigenous Hungarian literary traditions. political and social reform. however. selected letters of Endre Ady). After completing five elementary grades in his village. but his critical theses began to crystallize as well. which on his mother’s side also boasted a tradition of Calvinist ministers. At the same time. His father wished him to enter the civil service. The area in which Ady grew up (today Salaj. a region of eastern Hungary that had stormy ties to Transylvania during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. He also read voraciously. In the small village of Érdmindszent. His topics. within the tradition of the great nineteenth century Hungarian poets who expressed the spirit of the nation in their works. with an introduction by Béla György. Achievements Endre Ady is one of Hungary’s greatest lyric poets. when that principality had been a bulwark of Hungarian autonomy and traditions while the rest of the country was under Turkish or Habsburg rule. His ancestry was the relatively poor nobility. He was always proud of his ancestry and considered himself much more Magyar than many of his contemporaries with more mixed ethnic backgrounds. Friedrich Nietzsche. Inspired by Western European models. and in this period not only did his horizons widen. Biography Endre Ady’s heritage and birthplace had a profound influence on his poetry. or gentry. primarily French . for his own family’s life differed little from theirs. he created a new lyrical style that both shocked and inspired his contemporaries. Eastern European Poets Ady, Endre teenth century poet Mihály Csokonai Vitéz, a native of Debrecen. It was in Nagyvárad (today Oradea, Romania) that Ady became familiar with the life of a large city and the more cosmopolitan society it represented. He wrote for liberal papers, and for a while his political views agreed with the pro-government stance of such journals. In time, however, he became disillusioned with their reluctance to press for universal suffrage and other reforms affecting the poor and the national minorities. It was at this time that he became acquainted with Huszadik század, a progressive journal begun in 1900. The years in Nagyvárad were also important in Ady’s personal life and poetic development, for it was during this period that he met Adél Brüll, whom he was to immortalize as the Leda of his poems. This older, married woman (her married name was Diósi)—more experienced, more worldly, more cultured than he—was an important influence on his life. Their passionate and at times tempestuous love affair, which finally ended in 1912, is recorded in poems that were to revolutionize Hungarian love poetry. When Ady went to Paris as the foreign correspondent of his paper, Brüll was there, and his impressions of the French city were acquired under her tutelage. When he returned from the 1904 trip, he burst on the world with a new poetic style. By 1905, Ady was working in Budapest for the liberal Budapesti napló. In numerous articles, he wrote of the need for radical reforms; independence from Austria was also debated. At this time, Ady turned his attention to the social problems that were destroying the country; in both his poetry and his prose writings, he championed the disenfranchised. The important journal Nyugat was started in 1908, and Ady soon became associated with it—all the more so as his increasingly radical views did not agree with the middle-of-the-road liberalism of the Budapesti napló. When war broke out in 1914, Ady opposed Hungarian participation in the conflict, increasing his isolation from official political life. His antiwar poems were inspired by humanism and patriotism. The poor and the politically powerless suffered most heavily, Ady argued, and he believed that the war was being fought against Hungarian interests, purely for Austrian goals. During this time, Ady lived mostly in Érdmindszent and at Csucsa, the estate of Berta Boncza, whom he had met in 1914 and married the following year. Berta, the daughter of a well-to-do nobleman and prominent politician, was considerably younger than Ady; she had been attracted to him some time earlier, when she read his Blood and Gold while still in school in Switzerland. The poems written to her reflect a different mood from that of the Leda poems: The love is deeper and less intensely erotic. They project the hope that Csinszka (as Berta is called in the poems addressed to her) will preserve the thoughts and ideals of the poet. By this time, Ady was gravely ill with the syphilis that had been progressively destroying him since his Nagyvárad days. The revolution that Ady had awaited came to Hungary in October of 1918. Ady went to Budapest, where the revolutionary government celebrated him, even though he had reservations about the Socialist system. He also doubted whether the Karolyi govern41 Ady, Endre Critical Survey of Poetry ment’s courting of the Entente powers would bring any positive results. As it turned out, his instincts were right, and the Entente did little for Hungary. Ady died in January of 1919, spared the knowledge that Hungary’s territory would be drastically reduced and that his own birthplace and home region would be awarded to Romania. Analysis Endre Ady came from the deep center of the nation, and he sought to raise the nation to a new consciousness, just as János Arany and others had done before him. Ady was an innovator because the literary and political establishment had failed to grasp the need for change. Ady’s “Hungarianness” is a central part of his work; he was intensely aware of his struggle “with Europe for Europe.” Ady never abandoned his native traditions. He built instead on folklore, the kuruc poetry of the eighteenthcentury , the folk-song-inspired lyrics of Mihály Csokonai Vitéz, and the revolutionary verse of the great national poet of nineteenth century Hungary, Sándor Pet¹fi. Ady also drew heavily on Hungarian Calvinism and the rich vernacular tradition of Protestant writings to create a highly personal modern style, animated by the tension between Hungarian and Western European influences. His great love poems to Leda and Csinszka, his poems on materialism and on national traditions—all incorporated European philosophies, preoccupations, and styles, reflecting the influence of Friedrich Nietzsche and Henri Bergson as well as of Charles Baudelaire and Paul Verlaine. Today, Ady is recognized as one of the most important of the generation of writers and thinkers who transformed the intellectual life of Hungary in the first decades of the twentieth century. New Verses Ady’s first two volumes of verse, Versek (poems) and Még egyszer (once more), did not attract great interest; they were relatively insignificant collections in the traditional vein. In 1906, however, Ady’s own style emerged in New Verses. Here, he presented new subjects and new themes, new images and a fresh, new style. The emphasis in New Verses—an emphasis continued in Ady’s next three collections—was on brevity and impact: short, concise lines; short poems packed with meaning; condensed language with multiple levels of reference. Many of the early poems develop a single metaphor. A very conscious innovator, Ady prefaced New Verses with a manifesto that identifies the tension that persists throughout his oeuvre: Hungary is a nation caught at the crossroads between East and West. While proudly claiming his descent from the conquering Hungarians of the ninth century, who came through the Eastern gate, he asks if he can break in from the West with “new songs of new times.” Answering in a defiant affirmative, he states that, in spite of opposition by conservatives, these poems are “still victorious, still new and Hungarian.” 42 Eastern European Poets Ady, Endre Transformations After the burst of energy that characterized his style in the period from 1906 to 1909, Ady paused in mid-career to adopt a quieter style and grayer moods. His themes and concerns remained much the same, but there was a deepening of thought, and a more pessimistic note entered his poems. His concern for the fate of the country, particularly its ordinary citizens, grew as he saw policies that could only bring ruin being blindly followed by the political elite. His relationship with Brüll also cooled. After 1914, during the war years, Ady’s style underwent another transformation. His sentences became more complex as his verse became increasingly reflective, and he turned from softer, French-inspired tones to the somber and sublime style of the Bible and of sixteenth century Calvinist poetry. In this late poetry, Ady retained two themes from his earlier collection: patriotism, which broadened into humanitarianism, and love—no longer the unfulfilled and unsatisfying erotic encounters of earlier years but the deeper, more fulfilling passion of the Csinszka poems. Leda poems Ady’s poems can be organized thematically into four large groups (love, death, religion, patriotism), though there is considerable overlapping; also, some important minor themes are eventually subsumed into one or another of the major ones reflecting Ady’s intellectual development. One of Ady’s most enduring themes was romantic love. The Leda cycles, with their portrayal of destructive yet irresistible passion, reveal the influence of Baudelaire. These poems represented a break with Hungarian tradition in their emphasis on the physical aspects of love. Ady’s poems to his wife, on the other hand, are more in the tradition of Pet¹fi, in which the emotional-spiritual content is on a par with the physical. It would be misleading, however, to dismiss the Leda poems as purely physical: Brüll offered Ady much more than physical excitement, and these poems reflect a world of shared ideas. They are more significant and generally more successful than the poems on fleeting alliances with insignificant partners. “Félig csókolt csók” (“Half-Kissed Kiss”), from New Verses, and “Léda a kertben” (“Leda in the Garden”), from Blood and Gold, emphasize the intense desire that cannot be satisfied even in physical union. The “half-kissed kiss” is a metaphor for an erotic relationship that leaves the lovers still restless for fulfillment: “tomorrow, then perhaps tomorrow.” Nature sympathizes with them in their eternal hunger, as an image from “Leda in the Garden” suggests: “even the poppy/ pities us, [itself] satisfied.” Consummation, Ady suggests in “Héja nász az avaron” (“Kite-Wedding on the Loamy Earth”), can come only in death. In “A mi násznagyunk” (“Our Best Man”), Ady returns to this theme. There are also love poems of great tenderness in the Leda cycles, as “Add nekem a szemeidet” (“Give Me Your Eyes”) illustrates. The beloved’s eyes “always see him grand . . . always build, have mercy . . . see him in a better light,” yet “they kill, burn, and desire.” The poem, comprising four stanzas of three lines each, repeats the title line as the first line of each 43 Ady, Endre Critical Survey of Poetry stanza and follows it with two rhymed lines. This abb tercet in anapestic meter echoes the lyrical mood and the melody of the words as well as the expansive ideas. Of All Mysteries The 1910 volume Of All Mysteries chronicles the waning of Ady’s love for Brüll. This collection offers a virtual outline of Ady’s characteristic themes, as is indeed suggested in the poem’s motto: “youthful All vanquished, with the spear of Secrecy, Death in my heart: but my heart lives, and God lives.” Here, Ady seems determined to hope in spite of disappointments. The Decadent pose of earlier poems is shed as the poet develops a real faith in humankind that culminates in the humanism of the war poems. Each of the six cycles in Of All Mysteries is devoted to a “secret”: of God, of love, of sorrow, of glory, of life, and of death. In the “Love” cycle, dedicated to Leda, the poem “A türelem bilincse” (“The Fetters of Patience”) significantly refers to the “fetters” of their love in the past tense. Their whole life was fetters, yet the “kisses, exhaustions, flames, oaths” were all good fetters. The farewell becomes explicit in “Elbocsátó, szép üzenet” (“Dismissing, Beautiful Message”), where pity wins over the regretful remembrance of love. Love poems The poems of 1912 to 1914 show a man in search of love. In the final volumes, this love is found. “A Kalota partján” (“On the Banks of the Kalota”) records the “security, summer, beauty and peace” brought to his life by Berta Boncza. The poem’s two long free-verse stanzas depict a summer Sunday in which the peace and joy of the service and of the feast (Pentecost) mingle to overwhelm the poet, and the eyes of his beloved draw him into a magic circle. Death Ady saw life and death not as opposing forces but as two components of the same force. “Párizsban járt az ¹sz” (“Autumn Passed Through Paris”) is a beautiful evocation, through the breath of autumn on a summer day, of the presence of death. Although death comes for all people, it need not be accepted passively, as Ady suggests in the melodic “A halál lovai” (“Death’s Horsemen”). The riderless horse with the unclaimed saddle is always in the troop of death’s horses, but “He before whom they stop/ Turns pale and sits into the saddle.” The act is presented as voluntary. In “Hulla a búza-földön” (“Corpse on the Wheat-Field”), a corpse, forgotten on the snowy plain, will not have carnations, artemisia, and basil blooming on its grave, but “the victorious wheat-kernel” will win through; life will triumph. Religious poems To some extent, Ady’s God-fearing poems continue the life-death theme. They chronicle the same doubts and seek answers to the same questions. In time, Ady found 44 Eastern European Poets Ady, Endre the answers and the refuge, but as with John Donne, the struggle was a fierce one; indeed, Ady’s love poems, much as in Donne’s case, have a close and direct relationship to his religious verse. Although many of Ady’s religious poems describe his struggle to achieve union with God, others reflect the peace of childlike faith. Ady seeks rest and forgiveness and creates powerful symbols to concretize these feelings. In “A Sion-hegy alatt” (“Under Mount Sion”), he creates an image of God as a man in a huge bell coat inscribed with red letters, ringing for the dawn Mass. The figure is kindly yet sad; he cannot answer the poet’s plea for simple, unquestioning faith. The poem is a poignant expression of the dilemma of modern humankind. In “Hiszek hitetlenül Istenben” (“I Believe, Unbelieving, in God”), Ady longs for belief in the great mystery of God, convinced that such faith will bring peace to his tormented soul. The poems from the cycle “Esaias könyvének margójára” (“To the Margins of the Book of Isaiah”), often prefaced by biblical quotations that emphasize their prophetic intentions, transcend the personal religious quest and become pleas for the nation and for humanity. “Volt egy Jézus” (“There Was a Jesus”) not only testifies to a personal acceptance of Jesus Christ but also proclaims the need for all humankind to heed his teachings on peace and brotherhood. “A szétszóródás elött” (“Before the Diaspora”), another poem with a biblical inspiration, scourges the nation for its sins, concluding with the powerful line: “And we were lost, for we lost ourselves.” Patriotic poems Many of Ady’s poems can be classified as patriotic. This group, however, unites several different themes that were significant at different points in his career. Two important early threads are the “I” poems and the “money” poems. The I poems are more than personal lyrics; they present the speaker (the poet) as a representative of the nation. As such, they evolve into the patriotic poems in a fairly direct line. The money poems startled readers with their “nonpoetic” theme: Ady went beyond complaints against poverty to question the role of money in society at large. The kuruc theme An important thread in Ady’s patriotic-revolutionary poetry is the use of the kuruc theme. Kuruc was the name applied to the supporters of Ferenc Rákóczi II, who had led a popular uprising against the Habsburgs in the eighteenth century. In Ady’s vocabulary, the kuruc is the true but disenfranchised Hungarian, a fighter for national goals betrayed by his self-serving masters to Austrian interests. In the war years, Ady identified the kuruc with the common person everywhere, oppressed by political power plays. “Man in Inhumanity” Ady’s last poem, “Ember az embertelenségben” (“Man in Inhumanity”), was an appeal to humanity addressed to the victors of the war. He appealed, fruitlessly, to the Al45 Ady, Endre Critical Survey of Poetry lies “not to tread too harshly” on Hungarian hearts. The nation sought reform, but suffered instead “War, the Horror.” Defeated in a war fought against Hungarian sentiments and interests, Hungary paid for its all-too-recent union with Austria with the loss of much of its territory and millions of its citizens. Foreseeing this tragedy even before the war, Ady offered a poignant comment on its aftermath. Although Ady was a very subjective poet, one of the first purely personal lyric voices in Hungarian poetry, he did not break with the national tradition of committed literature. Deeply influenced by Western European models, he transformed what he took by the force of his genius, exploiting the rich resources of the Hungarian tradition in the service of a powerfully modern vision. Thus, it is not surprising that Ady continues to inspire poets in Hungary today. Other major works short fiction: Sápadt emberek és történetek, 1907; Így is történhetik, 1910; A tízmilliós Kleopátra és egyébb történetek, 1910; Muskétás tanár úr, 1913; Új csapáson, 1913. nonfiction: Vallomások és tanúlmányok, 1911; Az új Hellász, 1920; Levelek Párizsból, 1924; Párizsi noteszkönyve, 1924; Ha hív az aczélhegy± ördög, 1927; Ady Endre válogatott levelei, 1956; The Explosive Country: A Selection of Articles and Studies, 1898-1916, 1977. Bibliography Bóka, Lazlo. “Endre Ady the Poet.” New Hungarian Quarterly 3, no. 5 (JanuaryMarch, 1962): 83-108. A biographical and critical study of Ady’s life and work. Cushing, G. F. Introduction to The Explosive Country: A Selection of Articles and Studies, 1898-1916, by Endre Ady. Budapest: Corvina Press, 1977. Cushing offers some biographical insight into Ady’s life. Frigyesi, Judit. Béla Bartók and Turn-of-the-Century Budapest. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. A broad perspective on Bartók’s art grounded in the social and cultural life of turn-of-the-century Hungary. Includes a discussion of Ady and his influence on Bartók. Hanák, Péter. The Garden and the Workshop: Essays on the Cultural History of Vienna and Budapest. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998. Ady is one of the central figures in his collection of essays. Deals with Ady’s transition from journalism to poetry. _______. The Start of Endre Ady’s Literary Career (1903-1905). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1980. A brief study of Ady’s early work, with bibliography. Land, Thomas. “Endre Ady: Six Poems.” Contemporary Review 279, no. 1627 (August, 2001): 100-105. Land briefly describes Ady’s life, particularly his political activism, and translates six personal poems. 46 Buffalo.: Rutgers University Press. Nyerges gives some biographic details of Ady’s life. A history and critical analysis of Hungarian literature including the works of Ady.Y. N.Eastern European Poets Ady. Reményi. Anton N. Hungarian Writers and Literature.J. Introduction to Poems of Endre Ady. 1964. Endre Nyerges. Enik¹ Molnár Basa 47 . 1969. New Brunswick. Joseph. N.: Hungarian Cultural Foundation. 1879 (Toldi’s Love. Taught to read by his father. His translations of several of William Shakespeare’s plays and of Aristophanes’ comedies are outstanding in the history of Hungarian translations. joined the larger conversation of European literature. 1848 Katalin. In 1831. Biography János Arany was born the last child of György Arany and Sára Megyeri in Nagyszalonta. while retaining its distinctively Hungarian character. 1847 (English translation.JÁNOS ARANY Born: Nagyszalonta. 1851-1868 Nagyidai cigányok. with the learned traditions of Western Europe. 48 . Arany began his studies in 1828 at Nagyszalonta. 1867 Toldi szerelme. 1856 Buda halála. October 22. 1854 (Toldi’s Eve. Hungary (now Salonta. and in 1833. 1882 Principal poetry Toldi. Hungary (now Salonta. 1914) Kisebb költeményei. March 2. 1976) Arany János összes munkái. He took a leave of absence to serve as tutor in Kisujszállas for about a year. 1914) Murány ostroma. he became a tutor at the school there. Achievements János Arany contributed to Hungarian literature a poetic style and language—in fact. 1976 Other literary forms The criticism and studies in Hungarian literature of János Arany (OR-on-ee) are in the best tradition of scholarship and remain useful. Romania). 1864 (The Death of King Buda. 1850 Összes muvei. particularly the traditions of the Enlightenment and of Romanticism. 1852 Toldi estéje. 1936) Arany János összes költeményei. he transferred to the gymnasium (high school) at Debrecen on a scholarship. 1884-1885 Epics of the Hungarian Plain. a poetic tradition—that united the best elements of native Hungarian verse. Romania). Hungary. based to a large degree on folk song and folk poetry. The result was a poetry that. 1817 Died: Budapest. later taking a post as notary. he became secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 1865. and their son. he also served as a soldier during the siege of Arad. János and in 1836. Arany learned English to be able to read literary works in the original. Arany had read widely in popular Hungarian literature since his childhood and had been introduced to earlier as well as contemporary Hungarian literature at Debrecen. was born in 1844. 1858. as well as in the events leading up to the Revolution of 1848. but Szilágyi encouraged him to continue his studies of English and other foreign authors. Toldi’s Love. The Tragedy of Man. he accepted a position as teacher in the gymnasium at Nagykörös. He ran for a seat in parliament but was defeated. he married Julianna Ercsey. the orphaned child of a lawyer. although he was unable to complete many 49 . and he wrote a series of ballads. Increasingly accepted as the unofficial laureate of Hungarian literature. In 1845. 1862. 1821). On December 15. László. there were brilliant colleagues who were similarly in hiding or exile during the years of terror. Count Lajos Tisza employed him as a tutor. He wrote a study on the Hungarian drama by József Katona. and he became increasingly involved in the literary life of the country. he left Debrecen without earning a degree. and he later translated from this language as well as from German. He continued writing. with the work of Torquato Tasso. Although originally Arany had intended to give up his literary aspirations and devote his energies to building a secure future for his family.Eastern European Poets Arany. and Arany was elected a member. his Toldi won even greater acclaim. the Hungarian Academy of Sciences was allowed to resume its activity after a ten-year suspension. he was active as an adviser and critic. Greek. Arany finally accepted the position of director of the Kisfaludy Társaság. Arany. Arany’s poem “Az elveszett alkótmany” (the lost constitution) won a literary prize. he compared the epics of Miklós Zrinyi. and other languages. For a while. spent several months in hiding and lost his teaching position. and began the third poem of the Toldi trilogy. Recognition also came his way. Their daughter. In his acceptance speech. He settled in Nagyszalonta and became a teacher. and helped prepare Imre Madách’s Az ember tragédiája (pb. In addition to administrative duties. At first. After the defeat of the Hungarians by the combined forces of the Austrian and Russian empires. Italian. completed Toldi’s Eve as well as several other narrative poems. a poet of the seventeenth century. however. Arany never felt comfortable as a teacher. and in 1851. The notes for his lectures on Hungarian literature prepared at this time (never collected by him and published only after his death) show his sensitivity and the thorough critical and historical grasp he had of his subject. In spite of his distance from the center of activity. In 1847. In 1840. who became rector at Nagyszalonta in 1842. was born in 1841. drew him into the literary world. Arany remained in close contact with literary developments. Juliska. After repeated invitations by his friends to move to Budapest. 1933) for publication. the friendship of István Szilágyi. Bánk bán (pb. like most of his contemporaries. and in time the routine and the atmosphere of the small town depressed him. In his last years. and Baroque traditions. János Critical Survey of Poetry projects. Ever sensitive to literary developments abroad. learning of the competition only when the poem was well under way. Aristophanes. Analysis János Arany was not the only writer engaged in the literary development of Hungary. and his goals were shared by many of his contemporaries.” He had begun writing it spontaneously and with no thought of publication. János Arany won the prize of the Kisfaludy Társaság with his mock-heroic epic. he demonstrated this in his critical essays. Arany died on October 22. rendering Shakespeare. He published his Prózai dolgozatai (1879. As a teacher and critic. he emphasized the need for literature to be realistic yet to avoid the excesses of naturalism. he was further able to explain and elucidate reformist goals. his ability to recognize and reject undue foreign influence while using foreign models to enrich his own work. as well as a comprehensive edition of Hungarian folk literature. He not only used native words but also explained their appropriateness and traced their history. “Az elveszett alkótmany. the poet Sándor Pet¹fi. prose essays) and was increasingly involved in linguistic studies. His role as one of the major figures in Hungarian poetry and literary criticism. was able to finish some earlier projects. as well as his recognition of its role in preserving Hungarian cultural traditions. moreover. He built on medieval. The Death of King Buda. Renaissance. Although he was later to regret the unevenness and coarseness of the work. His individual contribution rests above all on his knowledgeable and sensitive use of folk elements. in his view. He had the obligation to oversee the translation and publication of the complete works of Shakespeare and of Molière. His affinity with the folkloric tradition. In 1879. and selections from many writers in other languages into Hungarian. a period during which Arany was active as a translator. that still stands by the Danube in one of the city’s old squares. nor was he the first. He used meters based on folk song and wrote a thesis on Hungarian versification. Arany was laid out in state in the main chamber of the academy and was eulogized by the important critics and poets of his day. despite his ill health. 1882. enabled him to put into practice the theories and plans of the reform movement.” “Az elveszett alkótmany” In 1845. as well as a sensitive and learned molder of the language. it de50 . notably Toldi’s Love. Arguing that native themes and forms could equal the best in classical literature.Arany. the poet should show not so much what is but rather its “heavenly counterpart. he enjoyed a resurgence of lyric power and. It was. continues to be recognized to this day. and his unerring sense of the forms and rhythms best suited to the Hungarian language. Arany’s third request for retirement was finally accepted by the academy. The major poem he worked on in this period was what he hoped would be a national epic. several days before the unveiling of the statue of his friend. Eastern European Poets Arany. Arany also makes him a representative of the entire nation. Arany. ennobled the genre by blending with it the qualities of the epic. not re51 . Arany turns Ilosvay’s sketchy tale about Miklós Toldi. Toldi was written in the old narrative meter. The action of the poem covers nine days and falls into two sections: Cantos 1 through 6 relate the crime of Toldi and give the reason for his leaving home to seek the favor of the king. while cantos 7 through 12 show how this is accomplished. He deliberately refrains from beginning his poem in medias res and filling in background through digressions and backtracking. however. into a tightly organized poem in twelve cantos.” What Arany did was to create a folk-epic style that conveyed the life of the Hungarian Plain and the sense of history shared by the nation. János serves attention. indicates his political concerns. with the inclusion of all segments of the population in the political process can Hungarian institutions fulfill their proper role. brave. In the handling of his sources and the characterization of his hero. His portrayal of the petty bickering between progressive and liberal political parties. Arany established the method he was to use in later poems. also a folk epic. a method he believed would have been incompatible with the spirit of folk poetry. for it shows Arany’s use of supernatural machinery. “Others receive the laurel leaf by leaf. that established Arany’s literary reputation. 1920). Pet¹fi’s János the Hero had a fairy-tale setting. Arany’s hero was an actual historical personage. Arany also concentrates on the hero’s emergence as the king’s champion rather than attempting to cover all his life. which had appeared a year earlier. and compassionate man who uses his great strength for good—whether working in the fields or fighting in the lists. who felt strongly that folk poetry should be the basis of the new national literary style. Arany. no less than the high-handed and illegal actions of the party in power. faithful. Indebted to Pet¹fi’s János Vitéz (1845. In the course of a few days. generous. Toldi It was Toldi. As the enthusiastic Pet¹fi wrote. a man of prodigious strength who won fame at the court of Lajos the Great (1342-1382)./ For you an entire wreath must be given immediately. Arany is careful to motivate each action and to fit each episode into his framework. through an examination of Toldi’s actions as well as of his underlying motivations. while the poem’s setting was based on the realistic verse chronicle by Péter Selymes Ilosvay. the Hungarian Alexandrine or twelve-syllable hexameter line rather than in the simpler quatrain of the folk song. but all serve to illustrate the development of the hero’s character. He suggests in the conclusion that only with a widening of the franchise. makes his hero representative of that which is best in the Hungarian character. János the Hero. Toldi emerges as a loyal. in contrast. Arany nevertheless was responsible for innovations of his own. which is rooted in Hungarian folklore and popular mythology—a device he borrowed from Mihály Vörösmarty and others but which Arany was to use effectively in later poems. Several episodes are intertwined. ” No longer can he sing the hope of the fu52 . Arany captures the essence of Hungarian life in his description of the activities of the people. It echoes the patterns of Hungarian speech and. He not only criticized the newly evolving political and social life but also questioned his own poetic style and creativity. whether in the fields or in the city. yet close to the peasants and servants on the farm. gives way to anger quickly. noble by birth. into Hungarian literature. He wished to make his poetry easily understood and enjoyed by all. even though many of the poems of this time are expressions of despair and disappointment. Like the overall concept and style of the poem. On the other hand. used these deliberately. he can rejoice with abandon as he celebrates the arrival of a gift from his mother and the opportunity to earn respect and recognition. moreover. Hungarian society was more unified: Distinctions of rank were not chasms. divided by a caesura. even as he himself sought the true possibilities of a popular national style. of the soul of the nation. Poetry of the 1850’s Arany was deeply affected by the failure of the War of Independence. János Critical Survey of Poetry stricting his ties to any one class. The form of Toldi is also rooted in folk poetry. who seems to be both a parasite and a tyrant on his own land. this projection carries Arany’s message that in the past. is not. treacherous György. as Arany showed. Far from being false to the medieval setting or an oversimplification of life in Buda and the court. yet the early 1850’s was one of his richer periods. the hero retains many very human qualities. Arany’s portrayal of Hungarian qualities. In this first epic. An active language reformer. and almost gives up while hiding in the swamp. By projecting familiar details of the nineteenth century onto his fourteenth century setting. Arany used the traditional accented line. its language and form are based on folk literature. also expresses Arany’s feeling that “he is no longer what he was. no less than their poetry and song. and variety. to give the epic a realism and intimacy it would otherwise have lacked. working or enjoying a festival. for the Hungarian Alexandrine was the traditional verse of earlier narrative poems. however. Arany. but he also sought to introduce the language of the people. “Leteszem a lantot” (“I Lay Down the Lute”). well aware of the power of native words. he felt that the written Hungarian language could be revitalized only by absorbing the pure speech of the common person. he embodies Arany’s political views as well. He is despondent and brooding when disappointed. he was to use both accented and quantitative feet to fit the form to the theme. In the two “Voitina levelei öccséhez” (“Voitina’s Letters to His Brother”). Later. Idealized and simplified in some respects. as it were. local dialect. an elegy for Pet¹fi./ The better part has left him. is capable of a wide range. still rich in archaic words. Toldi is equally at home with the servants and at the court of the king. In contrast to the affected. he condemned the distortion of the folk style as well as the mere aping of foreign fashions. restricted to Toldi.Arany. Arany was able. he tells them stories of the war. “Családi kör” (“Family Circle”). The father gently chides the young boy: The stranger’s story is not fiction. is welcomed as a member of the family. dead or in hiding from the Austrians. A relatively short descriptive poem. The final lines return the scene to the calm mood of the opening ones.” Thus. A young girl is ironing her Sunday clothes. A father returns from work and. As they sit down to the evening meal. in painting intimate village scenes and establishing characterizations with a deft touch. the father brings home from the fields a rabbit that the children immediately make their pet. After supper. illustrates this method in the compass of thirteen stanzas. the trees “nod. the playful cat. Within this seemingly simple poem. the frogs move “as if clods of earth had grown legs. János ture. putting his tools away. it provides a good example of Arany’s successful assimilation of Western European influences.” and the bat and the owl take over their domain. As the village retires for the evening. Arany describes a village evening. nor can he even hope for the reward of immortality. but it was used no less effectively in the epics and the ballads. one that rivals Pet¹fi’s “Szeptember végén” (“At the End of September”) as a literary masterpiece. and yet is made to feel like an honored guest. Night has now completely fallen. and the daughter’s lost “brother” is a casualty of the war. Arany’s attention to detail adds movement and drama to this still life. The specter of the nation’s death also haunted him in “Rachel” and “Rachel siralma” (“Rachael’s Lament”). Arany continued to develop the folk style and to set his stories in a real time and place. In “A nagyidai cigányok” (“The Gypsies of Nagyida”). He excelled in capturing the many moods of the life of the people. the frame is complete. Arany creates a little gem of realistic description in which each detail has its place and in which each seems uncontrived and follows from the preceding one as if without artifice. The family drama portrayed here is universal. children listen to tales as they play or do their chores. now feeding its calf.Eastern European Poets Arany. he sought release from the disappointment and bitterness he felt at the failure of the revolution. giving each element its due place while creating a domestic scene. while rooted nevertheless in the Hungarian village. and again it is through a comment here and there that the scenes are given dramatic tension. prepares for supper. as well as the human inhabitants. just milked.” yet the comment that she will wait another year before marrying gives a clue that her relationship to the lost youth is something different: It would be unseemly to question a stranger about a lover. a disabled veteran comes by. He then moves closer to the farm to describe participants in the evening’s activities: the cow.” the bugs make a final sortie before becoming still. 53 . The marriageable daughter asks about “her brother. It is interesting that this quintessentially Hungarian poem was inspired by Robert Burns’s “The Cotter’s Saturday Night. Arany also comments obliquely on Hungarian life in the 1850’s: The veteran tells tales of the War of Independence. “Family Circle” In his ballads and narrative poems. the inviting hearth guarded by the faithful dog. to try to play off one against the other. Through this tale. “Rákocziné” (“Rákoczi’s Wife”) is still in the direct folk-narrative style. By portraying Hungarian history through words and actions with which his audience could easily identify. János Critical Survey of Poetry Ballads The ballad. he explored the possibilities of the language and metrical variations. Arany not only depicts the fall of Buda but also suggests the fateful division of the country. or. are less elaborate than the later ones. all recognize Szondi’s heroism—but Ali will be angry if his offer is refused.” he recounts the treachery of the Turks. whether on historical themes or dealing with private tragedy. Others are given honors by the sultan—Brother György is appointed governor—but the hero is imprisoned. as Bálint Török did. who gradually loses his patience: All saw the battle. In vocabulary and form. beset by both the Turks and the Habsburgs and forced to choose one or the other. In “Török Bálint. The story is told through innuendo and dialogue: how the queen was beset by both the Habsburgs and the Turks. “Szondi két apródja” (“Szondi’s Two Pages”) records the faithfulness of the pages who sing the deeds of their fallen master and refuse to leave his grave in spite of the promises and threats of the Turkish Ali. he reinforced the unity and continuity of the nation. the ballad allowed him to explore both historical incidents and psychological tragedies and even to blend the two. The ballad focuses on the complicated political maneuverings of Bálint Török and the treachery of the monk György. the suggestion that the monk betrayed him when he was invited to the Turkish camp after the victory. “Rozgonyiné” (“Rozgonyi’s Wife”) also turns to a historical incident.Arany. “Török Bálint” and “Szondi’s Two Pages” The Turkish wars provided Arany with much material. and how—while Török was ostensibly a guest of the Turks—the Turks took the city and drove out the queen and her infant son. In range. Török’s plan seemingly to unite with the Turks to gain victory. In theme. who lure the champion of the widowed queen of Lajos II and her infant son into Turkish territory. then imprison the queen’s protector in Constantinople. He was familiar with German and Scottish ballads and borrowed judiciously from these as well as from the Hungarian ballads of Transylvania. while remaining within the lyric sphere. such a blending of lyric emotion and objective setting was not possible in any other form. the rescue of King Sigismund from battle by Cicelle Rozgonyi. but the emphasis is on the beauty and bravery of the lady who joins her husband in battle. Arany’s earlier ballads. he gave his readers a feeling for their history. a form that in Arany’s hands was to reach a height unsurpassed by anyone in world literature. interested him throughout his life. He believed that the ballad. achieved objectivity. Interwoven with this song are the words of the Turkish messenger. 54 . ” He is now fleeing a land that seems to be burning. Naturally.” He inquires about rivers and land and meadows (“Did the spilt patriot blood do it good?”) and the people (“Are they happy . when the allusion was less obvious. all silent/ Like so many barren graves. which is not so much his conquest of the Welsh. In the late ballads. fife. describing the triumphant march of the king. was a condemnation of the Habsburg ruler. and the action is presented through dialogue. however.Eastern European Poets Arany. the God-given people/ Are so happy here. Crime and the supernatural Crime or sin upsets the balance of nature: It is this idea that lies at the heart of these ballads and dominates the series Arany wrote in 1877. Arany gives the psychological retribution for the king’s crime. The opening lines. but his presumption that the conquered should sing his praises: “Edward the King. for the nobles sit in silence. Arany presents three songs. he says. the scene 55 . The courtiers assure him that all is well in words that echo the king’s but with an ironic twist: “The people. symbolizing the united opposition of all. Edward flees the land. and in this final section. are repeated with significant variations at the beginning of each new section: “Edward the King. based on a tradition that King Edward I of England had executed five hundred bards after his conquest of Wales.” The scene thus set in the first five stanzas is developed in the next section. and when Edward calls for song and toasts to celebrate his victory. Sire/ Its huts are silent. yet it is only the fires of his own executioners. when Emperor Francis Joseph made a visit to Hungary and let it be known that he wished the poets to celebrate this event. three different styles are presented. the English king/ Strides on his fallow horse/ Let’s see. it was not published until later (1863). which Arany had been studying for some time. Nor does he find peace at home: All noise disturbs him. and drum. János “The Welsh Bards” In 1857. “Words are choked. just what the worth/ of the Welsh domains. In the three songs. . and music will not drown out the curses of the Welsh banquet and the martyr-song of the five hundred. for as each bard blesses the dead or curses Edward. . three different ages. which begins with the same two lines but intensifies the contrast between conqueror and conquered in the last two: “Edward the King. or rather fragments of songs./ Breath is caught” as an ancient bard rises. Arany wrote “A walesi bardok” (“The Welsh Bards”). he is sent to the stake. The scene is set with great economy. like the beast driven to the yoke?”). Repetition and skillful variation are used both to move the narrative along and to paint the psychological mood. however. The four-line stanza is in alternating iambic tetrameter and trimeter with an abcb rhyme scheme. The ballad shows the influence of Scottish and medieval English models. the English king/ Gallops on his fallow steed. This ballad.” The silence of the land puts its stamp on the banquet Edward holds that night./ Around him burns earth and sky/ The entire Welsh domain. sound is suspended. the English king/ Strides on his fallow horse/ Around him silence where’er he goes/ And a mute domain. and a procession of suicides jumps from a newly built bridge. Arany tends to exploit the supernatural for its own sake. The theme of the original settlement of Hungary would have been appropriate. Bende’s guards watch as he hews and slashes the air. according to legend. for these are projections of their own guilt and thus drive them mad. On the third night. achieves the surprising psychological realism of which the ballad form is capable. “Ágnes Asszony” (“The Woman Agnes”). The Death of King Buda Throughout his life. In the first poem. even killing some of them.Arany. It is interesting to contrast the concentration and technical skill achieved here with the style of certain earlier ballads of sin and retribution: “A Hamis tanú” (“The False Witness”). In the second. and the role of the supernatural as a manifestation of spiritual disorder is more important. he planned a trilogy that would trace the fall of Attila and the fate of his son Csaba. and “Bor Vitéz. thus fulfilling the ghostly foe’s prediction that he will slay in the spirit. as indeed it is in most of these ballads.” the protagonist’s punishment takes place in her own unbalanced mind. In “Az ünneprontók” (“The Defilers of the Sabbath”) and “Hídavatas” (“Bridge Dedication”). The climax. although in “The Woman Agnes. a snatch of a folk song serves as the leitmotif for a tale of infidelity and murder. “Tetemre hívas” (“Ordeal of the Bier”) also has ancient beliefs at its core: A murdered youth begins to bleed in the presence of his lover. Arany develops the mood gradually. the Halloween atmosphere of cornhusking and storytelling in the fields at night provides the background for a tale of illicit and tragic love. He projected events into an earlier period. the Knight Bende’s bride has been won in an unfair fight. supernatural punishment is meted out to groups rather than to sinful individuals: Sunday revelers are forced by a demoniac bagpiper to perform a dance of death. The Toldi trilogy had not fulfilled these expectations fully. János Critical Survey of Poetry is transferred to private life. and the crime itself becomes the focal point. for it lacked the necessary historical component in the person of the central figure. “Tengeri hántás” (“Corn Husking”) and “Vörös Rébék” (“Red Barbara”) rely on folklore and superstition to create an eerie world in which human actions seem to be ruled by supernatural powers. In “Éjfeli párbaj” (“Midnight Duel”). that of the Hun conquest under the leadership of Attila. Arany sought to create a popular national epic. from carefree joy to the bride’s fear and the puzzling behavior of the host that forces the guests to leave. Originally. The interplay of the real and the imagined is at the core of the drama.” In these earlier ballads. in which the girl suddenly goes mad with horror. himself being a spirit. who. and he has to duel with the ghost of his slain rival on three successive nights of the wedding festivities. While the narrative is relatively straightforward. who. the punishment often is more severe. had led the remnant of Attila’s 56 . but Arany found the historical and legendary material too limited. had given him the fatal dagger. in a teasing mood. Only the guilty see the supernatural forces. the mood of intrigue and the grand medieval setting give the poem a mysterious quality. They capture the mood of quiet meditation in forms that are as rich as any he had used. they are intensely personal yet reveal the same values that inform his more public poems. the poem presents yet another variation of the Hungarian Alexandrine: The twelvesyllable line is an accented one with a definite caesura. the region—and the country—will see better times. folklore. written mostly in 1877. He used a variety of sources and elements: Greek and Western history and legend. Formally and stylistically. these late poems are about his love for his homeland (particularly the scenes of his youth on the Alföld) and the changes he had experienced over the years. The Death of King Buda. too. The numerous footnotes show how consciously he used both popular expressions and archaic forms and how carefully he researched chronicle and legend for each detail—but also the sound reasons he had for departing from these sources in any respect. The occasional alliteration enhances the archaic quality of the verse. even borrowings from the Nibelungenlied (c. Only the first poem. and while Arany maintains the hexameter. mingle naturally in these poems. English translation. 1200. the sights. In its form. János forces back to their homeland. Late lyrics Arany’s late lyrics. Arany broke new ground in The Death of King Buda. as do the poet’s childhood memories and the concerns of his old age. In The Death of King Buda. Originally intended only for himself. epic dreams and prophecies. yet it gathers a variety of colors and scenes ranging from childhood games to the sunsets of old age. the naïve and the sophisticated. Their descendants later regained this patrimony and established the modern Hungarian state. was completed. “Vásárban” (“At the Market”) also serves as a release for the poet’s homesickness for the Hungarian Plain: A wagon from this region with its load of wheat reminds him of the activities. Whatever their point of departure. Margit Island. once participated. leaving a token force of Székelys in Transylvania. so that the line seems shorter and closer to ballad and other meters of folk poetry. Arany again turned to popular speech and to the Hungarian literary heritage. He also expresses the hope that after many sorrowful years. 57 . two of the accented feet in each half are significantly stronger than the third. but Arany did leave fragments of the other parts as well as several detailed outlines. in which he. Personal comment and a concern for his country. and the sounds of the harvest. particularly of his old age and its infirmities. Eastern motifs in the tales and customs of the Huns. although the couplet rhyme is maintained. In diction. Arany united the archaic and the modern. The poem’s dominant mood is quiet and resigned. “A tölgyek alatt” (“Under the Oaks”) is a meditative lyric in which Arany recalls happy hours spent under oak trees in his childhood as he rests under the oaks at his retreat on St. which was reinforced by Arany’s attention to psychological conflicts. 1848). are characterized by introspection and a peaceful acceptance of life.Eastern European Poets Arany. both the “smaller one” and the larger nation. All these elements contributed to the realism of the poem. translations: A Szent-Iván éji alóm. His critical works and his own practice showed how native Hungarian themes and concerns could be integrated into the body of Western literature. 1880 (of Aristophanes). N. dán királyfi. Contains an informative section on Hungarian poetry.” concluding that the tale of the massacre of Welsh bards by Edward I of England is traditional rather than historically accurate. 1887-1889. Nevertheless. It has been said that if Hungary were suddenly to disappear. Preminger. János király. Hamlet. no. V. its history and life (at least through the nineteenth century) could be reconstructed from Arany’s works. One reason that he is not better known abroad is that. aside from the difficulty of translating his rich language. 1999): 726-731. Includes bibliographic references. 1879. Arany was a poet who dealt with universal themes and general human problems. János Critical Survey of Poetry Legacy Drawn almost reluctantly into a literary career. New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. While the setting of his poetry reflects what he knew best. Jóseph. New York: Griffin House. he is a national poet.J.’” Slavonic and East European Review 77. 1867 (of Shakespeare’s play King John). F. Aristophanes vígjátékai. A history and critical study of Hungarian literature including the works of Arany.: Princeton University Press.: Rutgers University Press. Reményi. Enik¹ Molnár. Hungarian Writers and Literature. Bernard. and emotions of his verse without an overabundance of notes and commentary. New Brunswick. 1864 (of William Shakespeare’s play A Midsummer Night’s Dream). A critique of Arany’s poem “The Bards of Wales. moods. Arany left a legacy rich in both creative and critical works. 1964.Arany. Alex. 4 (October.J. Princeton. Arany can offer his wealth to the non-Hungarian reader as readily as he has been inspiring Hungarian readers for generations. N. Bibliography Adams. 1885. and T. This overview of Hungarian literature provides context on Arany’s work. 1993. When he is approached from this comparative perspective. ideas. In many ways. Other major works nonfiction: Prózai dolgozatai. 1867 (of Shakespeare’s play Hamlet). Zrinyi és Tasso. 1993. Brogan. Basa. the ideas come from his wide reading and perceptive studies of the Western tradition. Enik¹ Molnár Basa 58 . miscellaneous: Arany János hátrahagyott iratai és levelezése. it is difficult to convey the Hungarian scenes. eds. Hungarian Literature. “Janos Arany and ‘The Bards of Wales. 1883 Died: Budapest. Mihály Babits (BOB-ihts) was also among the outstanding essayists of modern Hungary. 1911 Recitativ. small-town curmudgeons. hátha megjön a tél is!. which took its topic as well as its title from Julien Benda’s La Trahison des clercs (1927). the son of Virgil Timár) is closer to the author’s own experiences. a Hungarian Buddenbrooks in which embezzlers. Equally familiar with the history of European and Hungarian culture. and repre59 . 1909 Herceg. His short novel A gólyakalfia (1916. while Kártyavár (1923. Babits’s novels and short stories are marked by the lyrical approach to prose characteristic of his generation. the condemned). susceptible wives. November 26. and his novels and short stories were important expressions of the Hungarian intellectuals’ search for their place in a changing society. 1963 21 poems = 21 vers. Babits wrote essays on topics ranging from Henri Bergson and Friedrich Nietzsche to folk literature. 1941 Principal poetry Levelek Irisz koszorújából. 1940 Hátrahagyott versei. Babits’s best novel is Halálfiai (1927. 1988 Other literary forms Although best known for his lyric poetry. Especially revealing of his attitude toward the responsibility of creative artists is his 1928 essay. August 4. The novel Timár Virgil fia (1922. Hungary. 1959 Összegy±jtött versei.MIHÁLY BABITS Born: Szekszárd. as it deals with the life of a teacher-priest whose conflict with the urban world ends in tragic isolation. 1941 Vlogatott m±vei. 1966) is heavily garlanded with the Freudian trappings of the period. house of cards) offers a repulsive picture of modern Budapest and its corrupting influence on human character. 1916 Pávatollak: M±fordítások. the formal and contextual problems of literature from Homer to the moderns. 1920 Jónás könyve. particularly with notions concerning dreams and split personalities. The Nightmare. and the literary struggles of his own times. an obituary-like tableau of his own generation. Hungary. Babits’s awareness of the intellectual and artistic ferment of the twentieth century is evidenced by the numerous reviews and critical essays he published. Az írástudók árulása (the treason of the intellectuals). Babits’s translating activities began as mere philological excursions into other literatures.” embodied the modern synthesis of the Hungarian spirit with the great European values. moderating. Achievements Mihály Babits. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. combined with the events of his times. or the perfect society) is a witty. and Charles Baudelaire. Edgar Allan Poe. Babits defended the cultural values he considered timeless. Oscar Wilde. however. he exercised great refining. as the curator of the Baumgarten Foundation and as the editor of the journal Nyugat. While his humanistic orientation and moral stand remained consistent throughout his life. During his declining years. 1802). 3 volumes. though somewhat anemic utopian novel that takes place in “the fortysecond year of the next war. Standing on the ground of a humanism that was declared anachronistic and unrealistic by many of his contemporaries. the lyric poet of “restless classicism. William Shakespeare. in part to satisfy his curiosity. against all onslaughts. 1320. and in part to assist him in finding his own voice. The impressionistic ease of Babits’s early translations was replaced by a disciplined striving for precision and faithfulness.” independent of any social utility. he developed into one of the most significant modern Hungarian translators. Babits became a living cultural symbol in his country: He dared to produce intellectual writings in an age when the cult of spontaneous life-energy was approaching its peak and young geniuses openly raged against the artistic validity of intellect. and encouraging influence on his contemporaries and on younger generations of writers as well. Elza pilóta vagy a tökéletes társadalom (1933. with a range that included classical Greek drama and medieval Latin verse as well as the works of Dante. In time. Mihály Critical Survey of Poetry sentatives of the emerging urban bourgeoisie are masterfully presented. His writings represent the highest level of urban liberalism in Hungarian literature. the marginal nature of his background. George Meredith. His only major award came in 1940. but his innate idealism made him lean toward conservatism and reinforced his view of literature as an “elite function. presented him with a weighty dilemma: His liberal erudition made him break with the provincialism of the late nineteenth century and urged him to lead his culture toward an acceptance of Western European trends.Babits. when he won the San Remo Prize from the Italian government for his translation of Dante’s La divina commedia (c. The Divine Comedy. It should be mentioned among the lasting contributions of Babits that. His experimentation with form and his meticulous craftsmanship enabled him to become one of the most accomplished masters of Hungarian literature. 60 . Elza the pilot. stylistically elegant. from Right and Left alike.” and which is graced by an emphasis on two lasting human values: peace and decency. and one of his poems. who were also to become outstanding poets. At their summer home. he studied at the University of Budapest. and in one of the workers’ districts of Budapest. and by 1908. Babits welcomed the Revolution of 1918. The 1930’s brought a series of painful and destructive illnesses to Babits: first polyarthritis. “Fortissimo. Babits married Ilona Tanner. read voraciously to acquire a broad European background. however. and among his best friends he could count Dezs¹ Kosztolányi and Gyula Juhász. He was opposed to the war from its beginning. In 1927. As the revolution was quickly taken over by Hungary’s handful of Bolsheviks. later cancer of the larynx. even though the short-lived Republic of Councils appointed him professor of world literature at the University of Budapest. This meant not only that his financial situation improved but also that he became perhaps the preeminent literary arbiter in the country—a role that was confirmed when he became the editor of Nyugat. which had as its aim the aiding of impoverished young writers and artists. and began to translate the classics. His father. Although decidedly apolitical. Babits taught in high schools in Szeged. as he preferred to call it. a circuit judge.” In spite of his illnesses. Babits was appointed curator of the prestigious Baumgarten Foundation. During his school years. he was awarded the San Remo Prize by the Italian government for his translation of Dante’s The Divine Comedy and subsequently he was elected a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. he remained active. he became disappointed and aloof. he was able to communicate only with the aid of his “talking notebooks. young Babits became acquainted with various parts of Hungary but always considered Transdanubia (or. after the ancient Roman territory) as his home region. After receiving his diploma in 1906. he published several volumes of poetry. they entertained many of the country’s best writers and poets. 61 . majoring in Hungarian and Latin. In 1921. He died of cancer in 1941. in Fogaras (Transylvania). During the years preceding World War I. In 1940. he began to write poetry. Thus. His acceptance of this position was harshly criticized in certain quarters during the subsequent years of counterrevolutionary backlash. Pannonia. and his pacifism became ever more outspoken. Mihály Biography Mihály Babits was born the only son of an intellectual Roman Catholic family.Eastern European Poets Babits. His poems were first published in 1902. who (under the name Sophie Török) was herself an accomplished poet. seeing in it the end of Hungary’s participation in the war and the birth of a national republic. From 1901. in one of the most picturesque parts of Hungary.” provoked the confiscation of the journal in which it appeared. The frail man underwent dangerous operations that proved to be only half successful. however. he was one of the chief contributors to the new literary journal Nyugat. was assigned to Budapest and the city of Pécs before he died in 1898. but by that time his position as one of the central figures in Hungarian cultural life was established. The nationalist press of the period attacked him. During the last years of his life. Babits’s verse can be read in a number of ways. The most frequent object of his early poetry is a cultural experience treated in an intellectualized manner. now a figure of the Roman Silver Age. Endre Ady. his painful loneliness. The poet’s touch makes the rather ponderous Hungarian words dance in exciting configurations. If they are to yield their full meaning. remain among the weightiest in Hungarian literature. what if the winter comes?). hátha megjön a tél is! (prince. Babits considered himself one of the last descendants of the great Hungarian poets of the nineteenth century and refused to bow to the “vulgar” democratism of his age. rather. Levelek Irisz koszorújából (leaves from Iris’s wreath) and Herceg. Perhaps more than any of his Hungarian predecessors. they are meant to express the atmosphere and the emotional content of the poetic text. many styles. He hides behind a number of veils: now a scene from Hindu mythology. arranged so that the reader is forced to read the lines rapidly. Babits rejected both the lyrical approach of his contemporaries—who. the sentences have to be broken down and dissolved. somewhat like those of the English sonneteers. therefore. almost mystical Weltangst. not merely in his themes and images but also in his approach to literature. though. This strain in Babits’s work is not attributable to the poet’s personal experience. many ways of looking at human existence. his own feelings appear only indirectly and in a highly generalized form. His stance as a craftsman was consciously chosen to distinguish himself from the multitude of spontaneous and pseudospontaneous versifiers. Babits maintained a strong connection with the fine arts. Babits’s poems are always thoughtful.Babits. relied on the anecdotal retelling of subjective experiences—and the pathos of the neo-Romantics. it can be viewed as an expression of “preventive guilt. Mihály Critical Survey of Poetry Analysis The first volumes of the young Mihály Babits. contain poems representing the best of Hungarian fin de siècle aestheticism and secessionist tendencies. not only because of the virtuoso arrangement of rhyme and rhythm but also because of the shimmering sound and sense of every word within the lines. His sentences. they are also among the most eloquent expressions of the fin de siècle’s characteristic moods: nostalgia.” resulting from the purity of his soul: While he recoiled from the touch of the vulgar. often philosophical. without relaxing his intellectual excitement. The poet refuses to reveal his feverish inner turmoil. for he led a quiet. he was at the same time attracted by it. As in the work of his great contemporary. dissatisfaction. the poet crammed them with colorful and unusual words. There are also powerful streaks of Satanism and sin consciousness in his poetry. and his internal conflict between thought and action. almost ascetic life. and a superstitious. in the tradition of Hungarian populism. Despite his experimental playfulness. now an episode from modern life—many worlds. their zigzagging speed or ponderous pace. Another notable trait of Babits’s youthful poetry is its playful richness and variety of tone. 62 . the sentences in Babits’s verse have a larger function than simply conveying the idea: With their solidity or elusive airiness. which interested him only as “a threatening force. he remained uncompromising in upholding the highest artistic standards. Mihály There was a perceptible conflict between the young poet and the culture of Hungary under a dual monarchy. one must see and create!” Soon. The overwhelming presence of subjective elements. World War I The years of World War I brought significant changes in Babits’s poetry. he sought to preserve his islandlike independence and remain aloof from politics. Hope in the passing of the chaos permeates his writings after 1919. Babits remained consistent with his elitist conception of art. even at the risk of becoming isolated. the nationalistic press of the period attacked him sharply. the almost total exclusion of reality. however. “The cool glitter of classical contemplation” is gone from the poems written during this period. at times. that he would rather shed blood for the little finger of his beloved than for any flag or cause. and an emphatic cultivation of Nietzschean individualism are all indicative of Babits’s desire to evade having to deal with the present. At the same time.” Postwar changes In words as well as deeds. later editor.” Nevertheless. and as the curator of the prestigious Baumgarten Foundation. but his desire for peace was passionate and. or as a propaganda tool.” in the words of a Hungarian historian) with increasing apprehension. realizing that the age of fin de siècle individualism was ended. As the spiritual leader. Babits put a distance between himself and public affairs during the post-World War I decades. Babits remained immune to the radical fervor that infected many of his contemporaries. After he claimed. and by the frequent get-togethers with a small circle of friends) cannot be classified as a frightened retreat. there were anticapitalist pieces among his poems (“The Mice of Babylon”) and. militant. “Fence in your property!” was his ars poetica. the adoration of the past. and. Babits’s withdrawal into the shell of love (as represented by his 1921 marriage. and he refused to treat literature as a social force. he compares political ideologies to “slow-acting poisons. he was enthusiastic about the rise of a socially and politically active neopopulist trend in 63 . In stating his conviction that it is “better not to understand one’s age and to be left behind” (repeated later as “noble souls do not pay obeisance to their immediate environments”). in a characteristically bitter image. This did not stop the poet from repeating his cry for peace: “Let it end!” The signs pointing toward a great social upheaval in Hungary filled him with hope and enthusiasm: “The world is not a plaything! Here. which may seriously interfere with my life. The style is now simpler and closer to everyday experience. of Nyugat.Eastern European Poets Babits. in one of his poems. while the poet’s active pacifism also forced him to discontinue his flirtation with irrationalism. it became obvious that he viewed the events of 1919 (the “mud and blood of the revolution. but this was scarcely manifested in writings of social or political content. a message he often conveyed with the resignation of a wounded combatant. nonfiction: Az írástudók árulása. He became more aware of the dominance of concrete experience. Hungarian Literature. 1923. ed. He was forced to take sides for moral and intellectual reasons. however. Even his hitherto dormant nationalism was aroused. The main motive of his poems remains the primacy and freedom of the human spirit over matter. 1933. He began to revise his views but had no time to complete this task. 1966). 1920. 1978 (2 volumes). Babits appears chastened and repentant of his earlier idealism and aloofness: “The wicked find their cronies among the silent!” The most eloquent testimony of the poet. The form of Babits’s poetry now changed. His condemnation of anything cheap. A historical overview that provides some background to the life and work of Babits. 1939 (of Dante’s Divine Comedy). a confessional allegory on the biblical theme. foreboding new horrors for his continent. as far as it reaches. including prose and poetry). 1913. Elza pilóta vagy a tökéletes társadalom. low-grade.Babits. 1923. 64 . it faithfully serves that which it cannot comprehend. 1937-1939 (collected works. Kártyavár. I am still convinced that. Esszék. 1922. Timár Virgil fia. . translation: Dante Romédiája. The craftsman gave up strict rhyme and rhythm and assumed the freer style of expressionism. and vulgar—which had made him lose faith in the Bolshevik experiment—was turned against the rising tide of another ideological madness. Danulmányok. almost democratic in their spareness. while his sentences became more puritanical. Mihály Critical Survey of Poetry Hungarian literature. In Jónás könyve (the book of Jonah). and in several poems he eloquently pleaded the cause of his nation. 1993. because he could never become a vitalist. Jónás könyve With Europe shifting toward the right and the ascent of fascism. 1927. Enik¹ Molnár. is perhaps best summed up in these lines from one of his essays: I still believe in human reason. and registered this with sad resignation. and that the poem will not suffer but improve if it is constructed by human intellect (as long as the Owner watches over the Architect!). miscellaneous: Összegy±jtött munkái. 1928. New York: Griffon House. Halálfiai. . Bibliography Basa. Europe has experienced years of mindless horror: Let the age of reason come forth! Other major works long fiction: A gólyakalfia. Includes bibliographic references. even Babits found it impossible to remain aloof. . 1916 (The Nightmare. illness and suffering—which are the topics of several late works in Babits’s oeuvre—sapped his energy during his final years. Rev. no. The Oxford History of Hungarian Literature from the Earliest Times to the Present. Balázs.” World Literature Today 63. Remenyi. “Mihály Babits. Mihály Czigány. A critical and historical overview of Hungarian literature. “A Poet’s Place: Mihály Babits. 90 (Summer. Lengyel. András Boros-Kazai 65 . In his poetry. ed. Joseph. 1989): 186. New York: Oxford University Press. no.Eastern European Poets Babits. Babits reflects the introspective uneasiness of the modern man and his attempts to find meaning in a meaningless life. A brief critical study of the poetic works of Babits. 1986. 1983). Includes bibliographic references and an index. Lóránt.” New Hungarian Quarterly 24. 2 (Spring. A Fugitive from Utopia: The Poetry of Zbigniew Herbert. Several of his essays. November 13. 66 . 1981 Wiersze prawie zebrane. Poland. he may be best known for his translations of the 1996 Nobel Prize-winning poet Wisuawa Szymborska with his frequent collaborator Clare Cavanagh. 1978 (translated by Frank Kujawinski) Under My Own Roof: Verses for a New Apartment. zmòczenia i kniegu. 1986 Widokówka z tego kwiata: I inne rymy z lat. 1995-1997. He has also translated a large amount of English-language poetry into Polish to great acclaim. 1978 Where Did I Wake Up? The Poetry of Stanisuaw Bara½czak.) 159 wierszy. 1997 Chirurgiczna precyzja: Elegie i piosenki z lat. are collected in Breathing Under Water and Other East European Essays (1990). 1990 Podró/ zimowa: Wiersze do muzyki Franza Schuberta. Cavanagh has acknowledged him as “perhaps the most gifted and prolific translator from English in the history of Polish literature. 1968-1988. 1986-1988. 1988 The Weight of the Body: Selected Poems. /e to niesuuszne: Wiersze z lat. 1968 Jednym tchem. which predominantly explore Eastern European writers and life under censorship. In the English-speaking world. 1975-1976. 2006 Other literary forms Though Stanisuaw Bara½czak (bo-RA-zhok) is principally known in his native Poland as a poet. 1994 Zimy i podró/e. 1989 (translated by Bara½czak et al. he is also a prolific translator and essayist.” A translation of his book-length investigation of the writing of fellow Polish poet Zbigniew Herbert. 1972 Ja wiem. Uciekinier z Utopii: O poezji Zbigniewa Herberta (1984. 1981-1986. 1980 (translated by Kujawinski) Tryptyk z betonu. 1970 Dziennik poranny: Wiersze 1967-1971. 1981 Atlantyda i inne wiersze z lat. 1987) was published by Harvard University Press. 1998 Wiersze zebrane.STANISUAW BARA«CZAK Born: Pozna½. 1946 Principal poetry Koretka twarzy. 1977 Sztuczne oddychanie. . with his cotranslator Cavanagh. His poetry collection Chirurgiczna precyzja: Elegie i piosenki z lat. Bara½czak was instrumental in editing unauthorized literary journals such as Zapis and. the loss of his teaching position.D. and critic were complemented by his leadership in political movements of the time. a group that solidified the connections between workers and intellectuals and would be instrumental in the foundation of the Polish trade union Solidarity. In 1976. The latter title refers to the riots in March of 1968. following in the path of his predecessor Czesuaw Miuosz.Eastern European Poets Stanisuaw Bara½czak Achievements Stanisuaw Bara½czak received the Kokcielski Foundation Prize in 1972. a classic verse drama by the Polish national poet. Forefathers’ Eve. though he never separated the two impulses in his work and intellectual development. notably in France. he began teaching Polish literature at the university. 1944-1946). Adam Mickiewicz University. and the Terrence Des Prés Prize in 1989. after receiving his Ph. Cavanagh notes that its “fusion of poetry and politics . in 1995. Biography Stanisuaw Bara½czak was born in 1946 in Pozna½. became a founding member of KOR (the Committee for the Defense of Workers). These political activities led to the official blacklisting of Bara½czak’s works and. 1823. and 3. the Alfred Jurzykowski Foundation Literary Award in 1980. studying Polish at Adam Mickiewicz University. editor. where he remained as a student. he was elevated to the position of assistant professor. He also received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1989 and a medal for meritorious service from his alma mater. He is the recipient. he published in underground (samizdat) editions and through Polish émigré publishers. His first collection of poetry. 4. largely because of the political impact of the Solidarity movement. as students protested the suppression of a performance of Dziady (parts 2. in 1977. though some collections of his translations into Polish appeared in domestic publication.. as Bara½czak was pursuing his master’s degree. In addition. in 1974. surgical precision) won the influential Nike Literary Award (1999) for being the best book published in Poland in 1998. Adam Mickiewicz. parts 2. Though Bara½czak’s position at Adam Mickiewicz University was reinstated in 1980. he has played a significant role in introducing Polish poetry to a wide English-speaking audience through his tireless translations and criticism. Bara½czak was unable to publish his writing through official channels. appeared in 1968. Once he gained the degree in 1969. in 1980. Koretka twarzy (proofreading the face). known as the New Wave or Generation of ‘68. of the 1996 PEN/ Book-of-the-Month Club Translation Prize for View with a Grain of Sand: Selected Poems (1995). their translation of the poetry of Szymborska. 4. 1925. 1832. . and 3. 1995-1997 (1998. During this period. Bara½czak’s activity as a poet. instead. was the hallmark” of his generation of Polish poets. he immigrated 67 . ” writes Bara½czak. of political speeches.” In Bara½czak’s poems. and Seamus Heaney.” Perhaps the most profound. . . he has translated into English and anthologized the works of Polish poets such as Jan Kochanowski. allows the poet to return a measure of the complexity of language stripped of its ideological uses. in addition. As Bara½czak notes in his introduction to The Weight of the Body. but also incorporate the self-recrimination of an individual who considers himself to be implicated in the same world he criticizes. which taints all language and caused Bara½czak to note that for the New Wave poets. language spoiled and misused . through the social interaction of the reader and poet.Stanisuaw Bara½czak Critical Survey of Poetry to the United States in 1981 to take a position at Harvard University. Szymborska. where he ultimately became the Alfred Jurzykowski Professor of Polish Language and Literature. Though his work has frequently been called political. He has translated into Polish the works of poets as diverse as William Shakespeare. minor alterations. Bara½czak’s translations from English to Polish and vice versa proliferated at a remarkable rate. that of mass media. W. and various postwar poets. by involving the victim in the process of victimization. the topical political poem is insufficiently complex because it fails to grapple with the problematic form of the poem’s transmission: the language that has been contaminated by the very uses it argues against. Analysis One of the primary concerns of Stanisuaw Bara½czak’s early poetry is the perversion of language perpetrated by government systems. Robert Frost. he began writing poetry in part to “restor[e] the original weight to the overabused words.” The reason that the superfi68 . H. then use repetition. with the unruly power of language and all its irrepressible contradictions. Although his work contains a component of social commitment. “lies precisely in the fact that it imperceptibly blurs the difference between the oppressors and the oppressed. or the context of the poem to counteract the currents of official language.” The poet can effect the restoration of objective reality by attempting to point to the distinction between the distorted speech of official discourse and normal speech. things like that. “The perfidy of modern totalitarianism. it is not political poetry in the sense of being a topical response to current situations and injustices. According to Bara½czak. The act of reading a poem. “the most interesting thing was not pure language but ‘dirty’ language. the English Metaphysicals. of posters. who not only voice an outward-pointing condemnation of the falsifications perpetrated by the state in all aspects of life. Auden. Bara½czak has noted in interviews that he prefers to be considered a public poet. partially through the language on which he relies. means by which this blurring occurs is through propaganda. which seek to manipulate reality through ideologically charged “newspeak. this restoration is often achieved as the poem’s speakers voice bureaucratic constructions and clichés. After his departure from Poland. Gerard Manley Hopkins. and difficult to observe. Emily Dickinson. Part of the complexity of Bara½czak’s poems arises in the self-scrutiny of their speakers. often presented through unexpected motifs. Aaron.” Many of the poems in the second section of the book are preoccupied with questions of what Bara½czak calls “the invisible craft of exile” in the poem “Setting the Hand Brake. corresponding to Bara½czak’s writing life in Poland and in the United States.” for example. written in response to General Wojciech Jaruzelski’s imposing of martial law in an effort to suppress the Solidarity movement—contains the recurring phrase “according to unconfirmed reports.” Although some of the poems respond to political events. in fact.” The Weight of the Body The poems of The Weight of the Body are divided into two sections. In an essay about prison letters composed in response to totalitarian regimes of the twentieth century. it is evident in his earliest collections as well. the essence of all poetry. . flexible intellect struggling through impediments to create a finished thought of monumental stability and beauty. A better solution. from Mrs. which give the impression of a searching. which forces its users to become party to the manipulations of the state—is also recognized as being among the most linguistically resourceful poets of his generation. Many of the early poems focus on the qualities of life under suppression. Being bound by countless rules immobilizes the author and sterilizes his expression only if he does not have much to say in the first place. The first section of “The Restoration of Order”—a poetic sequence begun in December of 1981. as the speaker—responding to his inevitable arrest with surprising detachment—muses about the “gold of their watches” and the “smoke from their cigarettes. Although this quality may be most pronounced in his later work. . Bara½czak notes that “the chief wonder of art is that it thrives on overcoming difficulties. as he puts it.” It is notable that a poet so concerned with language—its official degradation. simply to “write his poems well.Eastern European Poets Stanisuaw Bara½czak cially political poem is insufficient is that it does not interrogate the language of its dissent. imaginative patterning of images and conceits. compares the arrival of officers from the secret police to the visitation of the Magi on Epiphany. Bara½czak’s poetry is characterized by his virtuosic use of intricate poetic forms. even these poems are equally concerned with qualities of language. This is.” which introduces the dry tonalities of bureaucratic speech to the poem and also serves both to point to the irony of brutal suppression being characterized and diminished by such language and to heighten the reality of the exile’s disengagement from “facts on the ground. The complex elaboration of his versification is matched by involved. . . who “. because she was 69 .” For example. is for the poet to heighten and emphasize the vitality of the language he uses—or. . “After Gloria Was Gone” is set during the aftermath of Hurricane Gloria and describes the banding together of the speaker’s neighbors—each of whom appears to be a first-generation transplant. argues Bara½czak.” which “fill the room with a fragrance like incense. “The Three Magi. which operates on the ground belonging to its antagonists. ” Partisan Review 70. is banding together in a community. 2 (2003): 245-254. 70 . 1981. tracing ways in which their work translating. 1975-1980. these occurrences point to the despair an individual feels as an inherent part of the self betrays the rest. 1996. the poem suggests. . 2006 (with Cavanagh. of Szymborska). . “A Conversation with Stanisuaw Bara½czak.” to “. Bibliography Bara½czak. “What political writing needs now is some sort of metaphysical dimension—not only the interest in horizontal or sociopolitical structures but also in some vertical dimension.” Other major works nonfiction: Ironia i harmonia. . Cavanagh. . 1990. translations: Spoiling Cannibals’ Fun: Polish Poetry of the Last Two Decades of Communist Rule. pain and bodily inadequacy are connected with interrogation or torture. In a larger sense. . 1987). 19571997. our pasts and futures which have been crossed out/ so many times. no. The poet treats issues of political suppression and censorship. . Ksiazki najgorsze. 1995 (with Cavanagh. which also serve as an analogue to the body politic that is being diagnosed. 1970-1995. what’s his name./ is it Nhu or Ngu. Tablica z macondo: Osiemnascie prob wytlumaczenia. Laments. the role of translation in his creative development. of Szymborska). the universe. . 1984 (A Fugitive from Utopia: The Poetry of Zbigniew Herbert. Stanisuaw.” The only suitable response to the cataclysmic power of the hurricane. . Uciekinier z Utopii: O poezji Zbigniewa Herberta. 1998 (with Cavanagh. together and separately. though it is impossible to forget “. of Wisuawa Szymborska). . political and metaphysical. .Stanisuaw Bara½czak Critical Survey of Poetry blond. however. 1973. Poezja i duch uogolnienia: Wybor esejow. Etyka i poetyka. po co i diaczego sie pisze. of Jan Kochanowski). Clare. According to the poet. 1991 (edited and translated with Clare Cavanagh). or whatever is eternal./ the nuns were willing to hide her .” Another common metaphor running through the collection involves the depiction of the failing body. 1995 (with Seamus Heaney. View with a Grain of Sand: Selected Poems. “The Art of Losing: Polish Poetry and Translation. Cavanagh analyzes several of Bara½czak’s poems. which connects humanity with God. Monologue of a Dog: New Poems. the new neighbor. Poems New and Collected. has influenced his poetry and incorporated new forms and voices into the tradition of Polish verse. and the need of a metaphysical dimension in political writing. . Artful Dodge 12-13 (1985): 56-64. . Breathing Under Water and Other East European Essays. This complexity of image and concept emphasizes one of the essential qualities of Bara½czak’s writing: Its emphasis on human interaction and experience leads to its ability to be simultaneously concrete and allusive. In discussing her philosophy and practice of translating. 1979. At times.” Interview by Daniel Bourne. 1990. Detroit: Gale Group. 2003.” Polish Review 46. Contains a brief essay on Bara½czak examining his life and works. “Eschatological Imagery in the Early Verse of Stanisuaw Bara½czak. Twentieth-Century Eastern European Writers: Third Series. a “distinct poetics of displacement” is visible in both his early and later poetry. Steven. New York: Rodopi. Todd Samuelson 71 .” In Living in Translation: Polish Writers in America. ed.Eastern European Poets Stanisuaw Bara½czak _______. “Setting the Handbrake: Baranczak’s Poetics of Displacement. 2001. no. edited by Halina Stephan. Charles S. 232 in Dictionary of Literary Biography. Serafin. Cavanagh argues that while many critics perceive a gap between Bara½czak’s politically engaged early work and his later “metaphysical” poetry. 1 (2001): 43-61. An article exploring the apocalyptic language and imagery used by Bara½czak from 1968 to 1980. Kraszewski. Vol. written after his immigration to the United States. this essay. entitled Edgar Jené und der Traum vom Traume. 1948 Mohn und Gedächtnis. Edgar Jené and the Dream About 72 . (1948. 2005) Schneepart. 1938-1944. 1985 Sixty-five Poems. 2000) Lichtzwang. if indeed it can be so described. 1971) Die Niemandsrose. 1972 Selected Poems. November 23. 1959 Sprachgitter. 1995) Ausgewählte Gedichte: Zwei Reden. 2000 Other literary forms The literary reputation of Paul Celan (TSEHL-on) rests exclusively on his poetry. 1975 (2 volumes) Zeitgehöft: Späte Gedichte aus dem Nachlass. 1988) Gedichte. 1920 Died: Paris. April. Celan also wrote an introductory essay for a book containing works by the painter Edgar Jené. 1970 (Lightduress. 1966 Atemwende. Romania (now Chernivtsi. 1968 Fadensonnen. 1963 Gedichte. 1955 Gedichte: Eine Auswahl. 2000 (7 volumes) Glottal Stop: 101 Poems. 1971 (Snow Part.PAUL CELAN Paul Antschel Born: Czernowitz. 1985 Last Poems. 1959 (Speech-Grille. 1980 (revised as Poems of Paul Celan. a very short autobiographical story with a religious theme. Ukraine). 1952 Von Schwelle zu Schwelle. 1967 (Breathturn. France. is “Gespräch im Gebirg” (1959). 1970 Also known as: Paul Ancel Principal poetry Der Sand aus den Urnen. 1986 Das Frühwerk. 2007) Speech-Grille. His only piece of prose fiction. 1989 Gesammelte Werke in sieben Bänden. and Selected Poems. 1976 Paul Celan: Poems. 1972 Gedichte: In zwei Bänden. 1968 (Threadsuns. 1971 Nineteen Poems. and by pointing out the biblical and literary references in yet another group. can be viewed sometimes as intense and cryptic accounts of personal experience. as Harald Weinrich calls it. a German poet was surely responsible in part for his almost obsessive concern with the possibilities and the limits of his poetic language. its tradition and its relation to Christianity. much of Celan’s poetry can be made accessible to the reader through focus on the personal elements in some poems. and the German expressionists. losing all contact with the world of physical phenomena and turning into pure language. sometimes as religious-philosophical discussions of Judaism. are largely responsible for the charge of inaccessibility that has been laid against him. prompted by the difficulties Celan’s poetry poses for would-be interpreters seeking traditional exegesis. Another. given on his acceptance of the prestigious Georg Büchner Prize. but even in his early poems his position as an outsider is manifest. Celan’s poems. or Antschel. Paul the Dream. is an important early statement of Celan’s aesthetic theory. in spite of his childhood experiences and his later residence in France. “The Meridian. Rainer Maria Rilke. situated in the foothills 73 .” and not death itself. the only child of Jewish parents. is reinforced by the fact that Celan occupies an isolated position in modern German poetry. Such poems are accessible only to readers who share with the poet the basic premises of an essentially linguistic poetic theory. Biography Paul Celan was born Paul Ancel. Ernst Meister. 1978. In spite of all this. The horror of his realization that he was. Celan grew up virtually trilingual. existing only for themselves. in Czernowitz. the Judaic themes in others. statement of Celan’s poetic theory is contained in his famous speech. A Jew whose outlook was shaped by his early experiences in Nazi-occupied Romania. where the poet uses language to communicate with his audience about subjects such as death or nature. and is forced to enter the dimension of metalanguage. Romania (now Chernivtsi. 1986). Celan’s work nevertheless stands apart from that of his contemporaries. Sometimes aligned with Nelly Sachs. Such “pure” poems. more oblique. issue of Chicago Review. (An English translation of this speech. called Hermetic by some critics because of their resistance to traditional interpretation. This judgment. in Bukovina. Many of his poems concern themselves with linguistic and poetic theory to the point where they cease to be poems in the traditional sense. Celan’s literary ancestors are Friedrich Hölderlin.Eastern European Poets Celan. Here the reader is faced with having to leave the dimension of conventional language use. Ukraine). Stéphane Mallarmé. and the German Surrealists. the word “death.” was published in the Winter.) Achievements Paul Celan is considered an “inaccessible” poet by many critics and readers. “Der Meridian” (1960). where language is used to discuss only language—that is. increasingly frequent in Celan’s later works. Arthur Rimbaud. Celan, Paul Critical Survey of Poetry of the Carpathian Mountains. This region had been under Austrian rule and thus contained a sizable German-speaking minority along with a mix of other nationalities and ethnic groups. In 1918, just two years before Celan’s birth, following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Bukovina became part of Romania. Thus, Celan was reared in a region of great cultural and linguistic diversity, the tensions of which energized his poetry. Little is known of Celan’s early childhood, but he appears to have had a very close relationship with his mother and a less satisfying relationship with his father. Positive references to his mother abound in his poems, whereas his father is hardly mentioned. After receiving his high school diploma, the young Celan went to study medicine in France in 1938, but the war forced his return in the following year to Czernowitz, where he turned to the study of Romance languages and literature at the local university. In 1940, his hometown was annexed by the Soviet Union but was soon occupied by the Germans and their allies, who began to persecute and deport the Jewish population. Celan’s parents were taken to a concentration camp, where they both died, while the young man remained hidden for some time and finally ended up in a forced-labor camp. These events left a permanent scar on Celan’s memory, and it appears that he had strong feelings of guilt for having survived when his parents and so many of his friends and relatives were murdered. After Soviet troops reoccupied his hometown, he returned there for a short time and then moved to Bucharest, where he found work as an editor and a translator. In 1947, his first poems were published in a Romanian journal under the anagrammatic pen name Paul Celan. In the same year, he moved to Vienna, where he remained until 1948, when his first collection of poetry, Der Sand aus den Urnen, was published. After moving to Paris in the same year, Celan began to frequent avant-garde circles and was received particularly well by the poet Yvan Goll and his wife. Unfortunately, this friendship soured after Goll’s death in 1950, when Goll’s wife, Claire, apparently jealous of Celan’s growing reputation as a poet, accused him of having plagiarized from her husband. A bitter feud resulted, with many of the leading poets and critics in France and Germany taking sides. During this period, Celan also began his work as a literary translator, which was to be a major source of both income and poetic inspiration for the rest of his life. He translated from the French—notably the writings of Rimbaud, Paul Valéry, and Guillaume Apollinaire—as well as the poetry of William Shakespeare, Emily Dickinson, and Marianne Moore from the English and the works of Aleksandr Blok, Sergei Esenin, and Osip Mandelstam from the Russian. In the following years, Celan married a French graphic artist, Gisèle Lestrange, and published his second volume of poetry, Mohn und Gedächtnis (poppy and memory), containing many poems from his first collection, Der Sand aus den Urnen, which he had withdrawn from circulation because of the large number of printing mistakes and editorial inaccuracies it contained. Mohn und Gedächtnis established his reputation as a poet, 74 Eastern European Poets Celan, Paul and most of his subsequent collections were awarded prestigious literary prizes. Celan remained in Paris for the rest of his life, infrequently traveling to Germany. During his later years, he appears to have undergone many crises both in his personal and in his creative life (his feud with Claire Goll is only one such incident), and his friends agree that he became quarrelsome and felt persecuted by neo-Nazis, hostile publishers, and critics. His death in April of 1970, apparently by suicide—he drowned in the Seine—was the consequence of his having arrived, in his own judgment, at a personal and artistic dead end, although many critics have seen in his collections Lightduress, Snow Part, and Zeitgehöft, published post humously, the potential beginning of a new creative period. Analysis Paul Celan’s poetry can be viewed as an expressive attempt to cope with the past— his personal past as well as that of the Jewish people. Close friends of the poet state that Celan was unable to forget anything and that trivial incidents and cataclysmic events of the past for him had the same order of importance. Many of his poems contain references to the death camps, to his dead parents (particularly his mother), and to his changing attitude toward the Jewish religion and toward God. In his early collections, these themes are shaped into traditional poetic form—long, often rhymed lines, genitive metaphors, sensuous images—and the individual poems are accessible to conventional methods of interpretation. In his later collections, Celan employs increasingly sparse poetic means, such as one-word lines, neologisms, and images that resist traditional interpretive sense; their significance can often be intuited only by considering Celan’s complete poetic opus, a fact that has persuaded many critics and readers that Celan’s poems are nonsense, pure games with language rather than codified expressions of thoughts and feelings that can be deciphered by applying the appropriate key. Mohn und Gedächtnis Mohn und Gedächtnis, Celan’s first collection of poetry (discounting the withdrawn Der Sand aus den Urnen), was in many ways an attempt to break with the past. The title of the collection is an indication of the dominant theme of these poems, which stress the dichotomy of forgetting—one of the symbolic connotations of the poppy flower—and remembering, by which Celan expresses his wish to forget the past, both his own personal past and that of the Jewish race, and his painful inability to erase these experiences from his memory. Living in Paris, Celan believed that only by forgetting could he begin a new life—in a new country, with a non-Jewish French wife, and by a rejection of his past poetic efforts, as indicated by the withdrawal of his first collection. Mohn und Gedächtnis is divided into four parts and contains a total of fifty-six poems. In the first part, “Der Sand aus den Urnen” (“Sand from the Urns”), Celan establishes the central theme of the collection: The poet “fills the urns of the past in the 75 Celan, Paul Critical Survey of Poetry moldy-green house of oblivion” and is reminded by the white foliage of an aspen tree that his mother’s hair was not allowed to turn white. Mixed with these reflections on personal losses are memories of sorrows and defeats inflicted on the Jewish people; references to the conquest of Judea by the Romans are meant to remind the reader of more recent atrocities committed by foreign conquerors. The second part of Mohn und Gedächtnis is a single poem, “Todesfuge” (“Death Fugue”), Celan’s most widely anthologized poem, responsible in no small part for establishing his reputation as one of the leading con temporary German poets. “Death Fugue” is a monologue by the victims of a concentration camp, evoking in vivid images the various atrocities associated with these camps. From the opening line, “Black milk of daybreak we drink it at sundown . . .”—one of the lines that Claire Goll suggested Celan had plagiarized from her husband—the poem passes on to descriptions of the cruel camp commander who plays with serpent-like whips, makes the inmates shovel their own graves, and sets his pack of dogs on them. From the resignation of the first lines, the poem builds to an emotional climax in the last stanza in which the horror of the cremation chambers is indicated by images such as “he grants us a grave in the air” and “death is a master from Germany.” Although most critics have praised the poem, some have condemned Celan for what they interpret as an attempt at reconciliation between Germans and Jews in the last two lines of the poem. Others, however, notably Theodor Adorno, have attacked “Death Fugue” on the basis that it is “barbaric” to write beautiful poetry after, and particularly about, Auschwitz. A close reading of this long poem refutes the notion that Celan was inclined toward reconciliation with the Germans—his later work bears this out—and it is hard to imagine that any reader should feel anything but horror and pity for the anonymous speakers of the poem. The beautifully phrased images serve to increase the intensity of this horror rather than attempting to gloss it over. “Death Fugue” is both a great poem and one of the most impressive and lasting documents of the plight of the Jews. “Auf Reisen” (“Travel”), the first poem of the third part of the collection, again indicates Celan’s wish to leave the past behind and to start all over again in his “house in Paris.” In other poems he makes reference to his wife, asking to be forgiven for having broken with his heritage and married a Gentile. As the title of the collection suggests, the poppy of oblivion is not strong enough to erase the memory of his dead mother, of his personal past, and of his racial heritage. In poems such as “Der Reisekamerad” (“The Traveling Companion”) and “Zähle die Mandeln” (“Count the Almonds”), the optimistic view of “Travel” is retracted; in the former, the dead mother is evoked as the poet’s constant travel companion, while in the latter, he acknowledges that he must always be counted among the “almonds.” The almonds (Mandeln) represent the Jewish people and are an indirect reference also to the Russian Jewish poet Osip Mandelstam, whose work Celan had translated. The irreconcilable tension between the wish to forget and the inability to do so completely is further shown in “Corona,” a poem referring to Rainer 76 Eastern European Poets Celan, Paul Maria Rilke’s “Herbsttag” (“Autumn Day”). Whereas the speaker of Rilke’s poem resigns himself to the approaching hardships of winter, Celan converts Rilke’s “Lord: it is time” into the rebellious “it is time that the stone condescended to bloom.” The poems in Mohn und Gedächtnis are not, for the most part, innovative in form or imagery, although the long dactylic lines and the flowery images of the first half begin to give way to greater economy of scope and metaphor in the later poems. There is a constant dialogue with a fictional “you” and repeated references to “night,” “dream,” “sleep,” “wine,” and “time,” in keeping with the central theme of these poems. Celan’s next collections show his continued attempts to break with the past, to move his life and his poetry to new levels. Von Schwelle zu Schwelle In Von Schwelle zu Schwelle (threshold to threshold), Celan abandoned his frequent references to the past; it is as if the poet—as the title, taken from a poem in Mohn und Gedächtnis, suggests—intended to cross over a threshold into a new realm. Images referring to his mother, to the persecution of the Jews, to his personal attitude toward God, and to his Jewish heritage are less frequent in this volume. Many German critics, reluctant to concentrate on Celan’s treatment of the Holocaust, have remarked with some relief his turning away from this subject toward the problem of creativity, the possibilities of communication, and the limits of language. Indeed, if one follows most German critics, Von Schwelle zu Schwelle was the first step in the poet’s development toward “metapoetry”—that is, poetry that no longer deals with traditional materia poetica but only with poetry itself. This new direction is demonstrated by the preponderance of terms such as “word” and “stone” (a symbol of speechlessness), replacing “dream,” “autumn,” and “time.” For Celan, Von Schwelle zu Schwelle constituted a more radical attempt to start anew by no longer writing about—therefore no longer having to think about—experiences and memories that he had been unable to come to grips with in his earlier poems. Speech-Grille Speech-Grille is, as the title suggests, predominantly concerned with language. The thirty-three poems in this volume are among Celan’s finest, as the enthusiastic critical reception confirmed. They are characterized by a remarkable discipline of expression, leading in many cases to a reduction of poetry to the bare essentials. Indeed, it is possible to see these poems as leading in the direction of complete silence. “Engführung” (“Stretto”), perhaps the finest poem in the collection and one of Celan’s best, exemplifies this tendency even by its title, which is taken from musical theory and refers to the final section of a fugue. A long poem that alludes to “Death Fugue,” it is stripped of the descriptive metaphors that characterized that masterpiece, such as the “grave in the air” and “the black milk of daybreak”; instead, experience is reduced to lines such as “Came, 77 Celan, Paul Critical Survey of Poetry came./ Came a word, came/ came through the night,/ wanted to shine, wanted to shine/ Ash./ Ash, ash./ Night.” Die Niemandsrose Celan’s attempt to leave the past behind in Speech-Grille was not completely successful; on the contrary, several poems in this collection express sorrow at the poet’s detachment from his Jewish past and from his religion. It is therefore not surprising that Celan’s next collection, Die Niemandsrose (the no-one’s rose), was dedicated to Mandelstam, a victim of Joseph Stalin’s persecutions in the 1930’s. One of the first poems in this collection makes mention of the victims of the concentration camps: “There was earth inside them, and/they dug.” Rather than concentrating on the horrors of camp existence, the poem discusses the possibility of believing in an omnipotent, benevolent God in the face of these atrocities; this theme is picked up again in “Zürich, zum Storchen” (“Zurich, the Stork Inn”), in which Celan reports on his meeting with the Jewish poet Nelly Sachs: “the talk was of your God, I spoke/ against him.” Other poems contain references to his earlier work; the “house in Paris” is mentioned again, and autumn imagery, suggesting the memory of his mother, is used more frequently. Several other poems express Celan’s renewed and final acceptance of his Jewish heritage but indicate his rejection of God, culminating in the blasphemous “Psalm,” with its bitter tribute: “Praised be your name, no one.” Later years Celan’s poetry after Die Niemandsrose became almost inaccessible to the average reader. As the title Breathturn indicates, Celan wanted to go in entirely new directions. Most of the poems in Celan’s last collections are very short; references to language and writing become more frequent, and striking, often grotesque, portmanteau words and other neologisms mix with images from his earlier poems. There are still references to Judaism, to an absent or cruel God, and—in a cryptic form—to personal experiences. In the posthumously published Snow Part, the reader can even detect allusions to the turbulent political events of 1968. The dominant feature of these last poems, however, is the almost obsessive attempt to make the language of poetry perform new, hitherto unimagined feats, to coerce words to yield truth that traditional poetic diction could not previously force through its “speech-grille.” It appears that Celan finally despaired of ever being able to reach this new poetic dimension. The tone of his last poems was increasingly pessimistic, and his hopes, expressed in earlier poems, of finding “that ounce of truth deep inside delusion,” gave way to silence in the face of the “obstructive tomorrow.” It is the evidence of these last poems, more than any police reports, which make it a certainty that his drowning in the Seine in 1970 was not simply the result of an accident. Celan’s poetry can be understood only by grasping his existential dilemma after 78 Eastern European Poets Celan, Paul World War II as a Jewish poet who had to create his poetry in the German language. Desperate to leave behind everything which would remind him of his own and his people’s plight, he nevertheless discovered that the very use of the German language inevitably led him back to his past and made a new beginning impossible. Finally, the only escape he saw still open to him was to attempt to abandon completely the conventions of German lyric poetry and its language, to try to make his poetry express his innermost feelings and convictions without having to resort to traditional poetic diction and form. Weinrich suggests that Celan, like Mallarmé before him, was searching for the “absolute poem,” a poem that the poet creates only as a rough sketch and that the reader then completes, using private experiences and ideas, possibly remembered pieces of other poems. If this is true, Celan must have ultimately considered his efforts a failure, both in terms of his poetic intentions and in his desire to come to terms with his personal and his Jewish past. Other major works short fiction: “Gespräch im Gebirg,” 1959. nonfiction: Edgar Jené und der Traum vom Traume, 1948 (Edgar Jené and the Dream About the Dream, 1986); Collected Prose, 1986. translations: Der goldene Vorhang, 1949 (of Jean Cocteau); Bateau ivre/Das trunkene Schiff, 1958 (of Arthur Rimbaud); Gedichte, 1959 (of Osip Mandelstam); Die junge Parzel/La jeune Parque, 1964 (of Paul Valéry); Einundzwanzig Sonette, 1967 (of William Shakespeare). miscellaneous: Prose Writings and Selected Poems, 1977; Selected Poems and Prose of Paul Celan, 2001. Bibliography Baer, Ulrich. Remnants of Song: Trauma and the Experience of Modernity in Charles Baudelaire and Paul Celan. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2000. Baer sees a basis for comparison of the nineteenth and the twentieth century poets. Bibliographical references, index. Bernstein, Michael André. Five Portraits: Modernity and the Imagination in TwentiethCentury German Writing. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 2000. Compared with Celan are four other German poets and philosophers: Rainer Maria Rilke, Robert Musil, Martin Heidegger, and Walter Benjamin. Includes bibliographical references, index. Chalfen, Israel. Paul Celan. New York: Persea Books, 1991. A biography of Celan’s youth and early career. Includes bibliographical references. Colin, Amy D. Paul Celan: Holograms of Darkness. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991. An overview of Celan’s cultural background as well as postmodernist textual analysis. 79 Hillard. 1995. Illustrated. Bianca. Rosenthal. Calif. Pathways to Paul Celan. index. A detailed treatment of the early volumes Mohn und Gedächtnis (1952) and Von Schwelle zu Schwelle (1955). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.: Bucknell University Press. 1995.: Stanford University Press. Shira. Lewisburg. 2009. Conn. Paul Celan: Poet. index. John. Jew. index. includes bibliographical references. and Celan. Pa. New York: Peter Lang. Includes bibliographical references. Wolosky. New Haven.: Yale University Press. The Early Poetry of Paul Celan: In the Beginning Was the Word. A useful comparative study that helps to place Celan in context. Bibliographical references. Survivor. 1997. Paul Critical Survey of Poetry Del Caro. Felstiner. enigmatic verse. Adrian. Poetry as Individuality: The Discourse of Observation in Paul Celan. Language and Mysticism: The Negative Way of Language in Eliot. Blaha 80 . Beckett. Stanford. Illuminates the rich biographical meaning behind much of Celan’s spare. Provides critical analysis of Celan’s poetry in terms of its relationship to the natural world. Touches on philosophy and the psychology of knowledge. Franz G. The Discourse of Nature in the Poetry of Paul Celan: The Unnatural World. An overview of the varied and often contradictory critical responses to the poet. 2006. map.Celan. Tobias. Reprint. An examination of individuality in the writings of Celan. Rochelle. illustrations. 1995. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 2001. Derek. including five National Endowment for the Arts Fellowships. He has published collections of essays. 2008 The Forgiven Submarine. He wrote the screenplay for Road Scholar: Coast to Coast Late in the Century (1993). A Bar in Brooklyn: Novellas and Stories. and edited anthologies of material from Exquisite Corpse. Pushcart Prizes (1983. Romania. Casanova in Bohemia (2002). 2005). Achievements Andrei Codrescu has received numerous awards and honors. Mon Amour: Twenty Years of Writing from the City (2006). He has also been a commentator on National Public Radio and a columnist for Gambit Weekly. He has also issued a number of audio tapes and compact discs. the Big Table Poetry Award (1970). and The Posthuman Dada Guide: Tzara and Lenin Play Chess (2009). the A. a prize-winning alternative newspaper in New Orleans. including Zombifications: Essays from National Public Radio (1994). a modern Romanian poet. 2009 (with Ruxandra Cesereanu) Other literary forms Andrei Codrescu (kah-DREHS-kew) has written novels. December 20. 1971 Comrade Past and Mister Present.ANDREI CODRESCU Born: Sibiu. He founded and has served as editor for and contributor to the online journal Exquisite Corpse: A Journal of Letters and Life. which won several awards. 1996 Poezii Alese/Selected Poetry. 1970-1978 (1999). He has translated the work of Lucian Blaga. D. 2003 Jealous Witness: New Poems. Emmart Humanities Award (1982). including The Hole in the Flag: A Romanian Exile’s Story of Return and Revolution (1991) and Ay Cuba! A Socio-Erotic Journey (1999). 1970-1995. and a collection of shorter pieces. 1970 The History of the Growth of Heaven. Andrei Steiu Principal poetry License to Carry a Gun. including a Peabody Award. and several memoir/travelogues. New Orleans. including Messiah (1999). Hail Babylon! Looking for the American City at the End of the Millenium (1998). the General Electric 81 . and Wakefield (2004). 1946 Also known as: Andrei Perlmutter. 1993 Alien Candor: Selected Poems. 2000 It Was Today: New Poems by Andrei Codrescu. 1991 Belligerence. he focused on New Orleans. Codrescu is both detached and involved. the Lowell Thomas Gold Award for Excellence in Travel Journalism (2001). where he associated with the Detroit Artists Workshop. chosen to conceal his Jewishness in that anti-Semitic milieu. from his first marriage to Alice Henderson. He became a United States citizen in 1981. Codrescu moved to New York. Codrescu’s fascination with the urban milieu plays a central role. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. He has two children. the Ovidius Prize for literature (2006). At about this time. Analysis Andrei Codrescu’s work can be seen as combining two elements: Surrealism and the expressions of a flâneur. He later married Laura Cole. the Mayor’s Arts Award. Andrei Codrescu first published under the name Andrei Steiu.” he expresses his fear that an urban treasure is irremediably gone: they were cleansing storms katrina and rita they were cleaning women hired by the housing boom broom real estate real estate you kept rising like the water 82 . and began to publish in English. the American Civil Liberties Union Freedom of Speech Award (1995). Jealous Witness In Jealous Witness. who comments on the urban scene of which he is a part. These converge to form a goal of intensified awareness of oneself and the environment. In “Cleaning Ladies. the gentleman stroller described by Charles Baudelaire. and the Romania Radio Cultural Award (2008). Lucian and Tristan. living at first in Detroit. a well-known poet and social activist. Andrei Critical Survey of Poetry Foundation Poetry Award (1985). using the name Codrescu. He emigrated to the United States in 1966. he moved to Baltimore and ultimately settled in New Orleans. founded by John Sinclair. After a year. linking up with the New York Beat poets. the Towson State University Literature Prize (1987). His rejection of convention avoids the rage of the alienated and is paradoxically both softened and made more penetrating by humor. seven years later. he was the MacCurdy Distinguished Professor at Louisiana State University.Codrescu. Biography Born Andrei Perlmutter in 1946 in communist-controlled Transylvania. he moved to San Francisco. the Literature Prize of the Romanian Cultural Foundation. From 1984 to 2009. He was awarded honorary doctorates from Shenandoah College and the Massachussetts College of Art. he began publishing poetry in Romania. After publishing his first poetry book. New Orleans (1996). License to Carry a Gun. Bucharest (1996). 1897. The Forgiven Submarine In The Forgiven Submarine. This Surrealist flâneur has made the astonishing transition from marginalized outsider. but he deftly avoids anger by the playfulness of “housing boom broom” and the personification of the storms as members of that underclass. the bitter sarcasm of a shining city that has become a gambling arcade slices away crass unconcern for what has been lost. and so. is the reference. foreigner and Jew.Eastern European Poets Codrescu. 1898). to Edmond Rostand’s Cyrano de Bergerac (pr. conscious or not. Ruxandra Cesereanu: the two divers were a shook-up pianist and a nearsighted drunk amerikan beatnik banding together for dives to great depths a pianist with hair from neverland and an amerikan with transylvanian moustaches sensitized by the imminence of nothingness his head and armpits shaved one earring in his ear new age aimlessness 83 . English translation.” he writes: for you there is always beauty you can recognize by a whiff like a perfume in a crowd that’s what your crooked nose is for The reference to his Jewishness is as unmistakable as is the romantic tone. to academic insider and uncrowned laureate. Andrei but the poor kept staying on in the days before the storms then came katrina and rita to finish what you began cleansing storms oh cleaning ladies making realtor dreams come true oh look over that rising sea I’ll take the lobster and the vino see the shining shining city it’s the new new orleans rising coin-operated by casinos He alludes to the underclass. Codrescu describes his exhilarating collaborative exploration of the unconscious with his coauthor. With anger controlled. In “The Incoming Sneeze or the Old Man’s Nose. once protected and even nourished by the city’s special social architecture but threatened by mercantile interests and then literally swept away by the storms. presumably. That transition has not blunted his commitment to art as manifested both in his support of freshness and experimentation in poetry through Exquisite Corpse and in his rejoicing in beauty. including artists. 1998. Codrescu discusses everything from leaving Romania. 1995.” Interview by Richard Collins. Bibliography Codrescu. to Hurricane Katrina and the city of New Orleans in Louisiana. 2009. 2004. 1999. The author talks about his writings and his life. 1993. Mon Amour: Twenty Years of Writing from the City. 1999. McClatchy-Tribune Business News. 1989 (of Lucian Blaga). 3 (1998): 8384 . The Muse Is Always Half-Dressed in New Orleans. short fiction: A Bar in Brooklyn: Novellas and Stories. Richard. p. 1994. The Blood Countess. The Hole in the Flag: A Romanian Exile’s Story of Return and Revolution. February 13. no. New Orleans. 1999. 1990. 2000. Messiah. Thus Spake the Corpse: An Exquisite Corpse Reader. 1986. Andrei Critical Survey of Poetry gold chains jingling on his ankles setting the ocean foaming and setting minds to work chewing the cud ahoy there forgiven submarine we are diving your way out of submerged and unadorned time The deliberately unsettling Surrealism is softened with slang and self-mockery. no. 1970-1978. 2006.” but its “future is sound. The Dog With the Chip in His Neck: Essays from NPR and Elsewhere. The Disappearance of the Outside: A Manifesto for Escape. Road Scholar: Coast to Coast Late in the Century. 1988-1998. 1993. as it were. Collins. “Andrei Codrescu’s Mioritic Space. 2 (2000): 13-18. “An Interview with Andrei Codrescu. 1976. 1988. 2007. 1999. Wakefield. 1983-1988. Ay Cuba! A Socio-Erotic Journey.” _______. nonfiction: A Craving for Swan. An Involuntary Genius in America’s Shoes (and What Happened Afterwards).” MELUS 23.” Interview by Anna Webb. 2001. He says the United States is “momentarily occupied by zombies. screenplay: Road Scholar: Coast to Coast Late in the Century. Zombifications: Essays from National Public Radio.” Other major works long fiction: The Repentance of Lorraine. “Andrei Codrescu Brings His Unique Take on America to Idaho. Hail Babylon! Looking for the American City at the End of the Millennium. 2002. The Devil Never Sleeps. to being with the Beat poets. by the homespun metaphor of “chewing the cud. 1996. translation: At the Court of Yearning. The Posthuman Dada Guide: Tzara and Lenin Play Chess. edited texts: The Stiffest of the Corpse: An Exquisite Corpse Reader. 1. and the ambition of “setting minds to work” made more palatable. 1987. Andrei. Xavier Review 20. 1991. Casanova in Bohemia.Codrescu. 1993. and Other Essays. Raised by Puppets Only to Be Killed by Research. ” In Realms of Exile: Nomadism. Miorita.: McFarland. 2003): 88.Eastern European Poets Codrescu. 2005. Alvin G. Naomi. So Miorita wanders. Marin. Sees his poems falling into two types. defined a Mioritic space as a geography of the Romanian imagination. warns the shepherd that he is about to be betrayed and murdered. Review of It Was Today. Lucian Blaga.: Lexington Books. Examines his poetry and essays and how they relate to Surrealism. no. Md. Ratner. Jefferson. 13 (August. and Eastern European Voices. Discussion of how Codrescu’s status as an exile from his native land affects his writing. The shepherd asks the ewe not to tell his mother that he was murdered but rather that he married the daughter of a king. “The Rhetoric of Andrei Codrescu: A Reading in Exilic Fragmentation. Library Journal 128. Diasporas. Olson. a ewe in a Romanian folk poem. Kirby.C. N. Lanham. telling the tale of a wedding that never occurred. Burstein 85 . the poet whose works Codrescu translated. Andrei Codrescu and the Myth of America. Andrei 101. Rochelle. 2002. edited by Domnica Radulescu. everyday poems and those reflecting his experiences as an exile. some go farther afield— to Chinese history. Herbert also wrote several plays. and Other Poems. and Other Poems. 1998 Principal poetry Struna kwiatua. 1961 Selected Poems. firsthand description with analytical. 2007 (Robert Hass. for example. A collection of essays titled Barbarzy½ca w ogrodzie (Barbarian in the Garden. Herbert published works in a genre of his own invention. 1993) Selected Poems. pies i gwiazda. Cogito. 1999) Elegy for the Departure. and Other Poems.” These prose pieces are a synthesis of the short story and the essay. Ukraine). 1969 Poezje wybrane. 1970 Wiersze zebrane. October 29. they contest traditional accounts or interpretations of major historical events and present the very different (“apocryphal”) interpretations of the author.ZBIGNIEW HERBERT Born: Lvov. Poland (now Lvov. 1990 (translation in Elegy for the Departure. including radio plays as well as works for the stage. Poland. Although most of Herbert’s apocryphas take their subjects from Western European history. 1956-1998. 1985) appeared in Poland in 1962. a collection of his dramatic works was published in 1970 under the title Dramaty (plays). 1977 Raport z oblò/onego miasta i inne wiersze. but he was also a prose writer of considerable originality and distinction. 1974 (Mr. 1968 Napis. 1983 (Report from the Besieged City. 1985) Elegia na odejkcie. his “apocryphas. 1999 The Collected Poems. richly poetic. scholarly research. editor) Other literary forms Zbigniew Herbert (KEHR-behrt) was primarily a poet. July 28. 86 . 1957 Studium przedmiotu. 1956 Hermes. 1971 Pan Cogito. In addition. these essays are a unique combination of personal. 1924 Died: Warsaw. Herbert studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków—he was always interested in painting. Herbert stayed on in Toru½ to study philosophy and was influenced by the philosopher Henryk Eizenberg. Herbert resisted categorization and never represented a group or school of any kind. he received the Millennium Prize from the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences (United States). where he studied law at the Nicolas Copernicus University. His poetic forms and rhythms exerted a powerful influence on other poets. sculpture. One of the two greatest living Polish poets (the other. In 1973.Eastern European Poets Herbert. it is difficult to separate the content of his writing from his style. but although his poems addressed major political issues. this part of Poland was invaded by the Soviet Union. The face of postwar Poland was permanently changed. He was above all the spokesperson of the individual conscience. and architecture—and a year later. where for the next six years. when he was fifteen years old. Herbert began to write poetry during World War II. In 1950. and in 1964. Herbert’s influence was recognized with several awards throughout his career. Biography Zbigniew Herbert grew up in the Polish city of Lvov. and politically: Herbert’s native city became part of the Soviet Union. He received the degree of master of laws in 1950. He gave the impression of being entirely alone. Although Herbert was an antirhetorical poet. he won the Polish Radio Competition Prize. he entered the Academy of Commerce. he lived briefly in Gda½sk and worked there for the Merchant’s Review before moving to Warsaw. In 1958. the Bruno Schulz Prize in 1988. In 1944. and the war permanently shaped his outlook. In 1947. Czesuaw Miuosz. and a Jurzykowski Foundation Award. he received both the Alfred Jurzykowski Prize and the Herder Prize. For his contribution to European literature. Stanisuaw Bara½czak. in the department for retired pensioners of the Teachers’ Cooperative. and Jacek Bierezin but also by a wide range of poets in the United States and throughout the West. He excited interest as a political poet. they went far beyond immediate issues and encompassed a broad range of problems that are both philosophical and personal. answerable only to his conscience—yet he managed at the same time to pitch his voice in such a way that he was one of the most authentically public poets of the age. Zbigniew Achievements Zbigniew Herbert exerted great influence as a poet and as a moral force both in Poland and Western Europe. the Jerusalem Literature Prize in 1991. physically. also in Kraków. He also won the Petrarch Prize in 1979. in 1939. he held a variety of jobs: in the management office of the peat industry. has translated a number of Herbert’s poems into English). he was awarded the Nickolas Lenau Prize (Austria) in 1965. This was the paradox of Herbert that gives his poetry its particular stamp. his influence has been acknowledged not only by younger Polish poets such as Ryszard Krynicki. socially. he received a master’s degree in economics and moved to Toru½. 87 . he wrote about those who took part in the war: “I must carry them to a dry place/ and make a large mound of sand/ before spring strews flowers for them/ and a great green dream stupefies them. the joy of this distinction was mixed with a touch of regret for Herbert. but no collection was published in book form. For many. His collection of essays. Analysis Zbigniew Herbert was a member of the generation of poets who came to maturity during World War II. staying there intermittently until 1980. Herbert spent 1965 to 1971 abroad. Herbert’s achievements equaled those of his two honored compatriots. including. He died in Warsaw on July 28. based in West Berlin but traveling to many countries. He spent the 1970-1971 academic year teaching at California State University. It was only after the “thaw” of 1956 that his first two collections of poems were published. almost simultaneously. but they are also referred to in Polish literary criticism as Kolumbowie (Columbuses). when he returned to Warsaw. and the United States.” In the late 1950’s. the Nobel Prize was awarded to Wisuawa Szymborska (only seventeen years after another Pole and adopted Californian. Tymoteusz Karpowicz. several of the magazines publishing Herbert’s work were closed by the government. and Anna Swir. and in the legal department of the Composers’ Association. Herbert’s poems began to appear in periodicals in 1950. his health began to deteriorate and when. in a store. The event of publication after enforced silence is poignantly described in Herbert’s poem “Drawer. Herbert moved to West Berlin again in 1974. Around this time. Los Angeles. Zbigniew Critical Survey of Poetry in a bank. Szymborska. such varied figures as Tadeusz Ró/ewicz. among them Greece.” Lessons from the war Few assumptions about the world and about civilization—what it is and what it is not—survived the war unscathed. reveals the impact of this experience. Herbert made his first trip to Western Europe. Barbarian in the Garden. and there were those who considered him superior to both. The war left an indelible imprint on all of them. The sense of continuity was broken. is a fine description of this attitude. from Wiersze zebrane. He again left Poland in 1986 in protest of Communist policies but returned to Warsaw once communism was ended around 1990. and many shared the vantage point of what might be called the “rubbish heap” of the present. as late as 1969. Herbert’s poem “Przebudzenie” (“Awakening”).Herbert. They are known as the War Generation. in the poem “Prologue. Miron Bialoszewski. during the increasing social and cultural repression of the Stalinist years. It begins: 88 . Italy. Czesuaw Miuosz). in 1996. in addition to Herbert. This generation proved to be one of the most talented in twentieth century Polish literature.” which introduced Herbert’s fourth collection of poems. France. After returning to Poland to live in 1971. 1998. because it was they who first “explored” the new postwar reality. The common experience of wartime destruction and of starting a “new life” united Herbert and the other members of his generation and gave them their unique temporal perspective. the past is the 89 . Their values. because they were close in age and were both moralists. who strived to repossess the culture of the past. . as he was sometimes labeled. For Herbert. . poetry that invokes the great traditions of Western culture is often associated with reactionary values. . to call Herbert a classicist. was able to express revolt in one of its most intense and radical forms. We had nowhere to go we stayed on the rubbish-heap we tidied things up the bones and sheet iron we deposited in an archive We listened to the chirping of streetcars to a swallow-like voice of factories and a new life was unrolling at our feet.” It seems to me that I came away from the war without accepting the failure of the earlier morality. . another poet who lived through the war. . instead. and there is no consensus of attitude or ideology among them. the past was not a static source of value. It is still attractive to me most of all because I painfully feel the lack of tablets of values in the contemporary world. In Western Europe and the United States. In Poland during the decade after World War II. a poet such as Herbert. . Ró/ ewicz’s poetry after the war denied all previous values and emphasized purely personal experience. Use of the past One of the most striking features of Herbert’s poetry was the manner in which he used the past. however. however. They drew very different conclusions from their experiences. . Herbert was a more positive poet than many other members of the War Generation. He did not adhere to the past at the expense of the present. . historical figures frequently appeared in his poems with the vividness of contemporaries. whereas Herbert arrived at entirely different conclusions. . however. Herbert is sometimes linked to Ró/ewicz. . Zbigniew When the horror subsided the floodlights went out we discovered that we were on a rubbish-heap in very strange poses . however. although rarely have positive values been won against greater opposition and with greater struggle. .Eastern European Poets Herbert. he is not an antiquarian. a paradoxical situation arose in which some of the writers who had most completely rejected the prewar culture found that they had little basis for rebelling against the Stalinist present. . . the past represented living experience rather than lifeless forms. For him. . as his poem “Classic” made clear. It is a mistake. He wrote: Something makes me different from the “War Generation. on the other hand. It was remarkably alive for him. were in fundamental conflict. . a sign of a catastrophe.” The ever-present tension and dialogue between past and present did not restrict Herbert’s poetry. at the most fundamental level. it was often spatial rather than temporal. the “period” marked a hiatus in the texture of the world and of reality. Struna kwiatua (chord of light). and punctuation also had a political coloring: Lack of conventional punctuation became associated with revolt and with individualism. who eschewed punctuation. Zbigniew Critical Survey of Poetry ally of the present. for Herbert. as is customary when one replaces fate. particularly the use of periods. who stressed philosophical and historical themes in their poetry. such as Miuosz.” “Attempt at a Description. If there was a division between the past and the present. eschewed conventional punctuation.” “Voice. In Herbert’s famous poem “Elegy of Fortinbras. a snapping shut.” he placed punctuation in a very broad historical and social context. The distinction is a useful one and even crucial. Avant-garde influence Herbert was influenced both by the Catastrophists. and Herbert was by no means alone in questioning its use. violating the living tissue and the continuities of the real world. the traditional use of punctuation was—with notable ex90 . It is a punctuation of the elements. Many of Herbert’s early poems shared the phenomenological preoccupations of the avant-garde. is a bone protruding from the sand.” and the later “Mr. poets were asking: How can one describe the world? How can one describe one’s experience? Herbert’s poems “I Would Like to Describe.” “Wooden Bird.Herbert. Herbert’s phenomenological preoccupations are particularly apparent in his handling of punctuation. such as Jozéf Czechowicz. Cogito Thinks About the Voice of Nature and the Human Voice” all approached this concern from different angles. in fact. Herbert’s first collection of poems. Prewar avant-garde poetry still enjoyed a high esteem among poets. which represented work done during the first postwar decade. the reverse is true: He confronted the world in all its breadth. People should employ it modestly and with proper consideration.” “Nothing Special. Conventional punctuation was not automatically accepted by serious poets in Poland after the war. In England and America.” “Episode in a Library. Herbert felt the dead are alive. the poem ends by translating death into terms of spatial distance: “It is not for us to greet each other or bid farewell we live on archipelagos/ and that water these words what can they do what can they do prince. and by the avant-garde poets of the 1920’s and the 1930’s.” In other words. “Period. which we attempt to tame at any price. and his experience is placed in a seamless historical continuum. Its thoughtless use is presumptuous and even destructive. for Herbert’s use of the past was the opposite of that of a genuine classicist such as the contemporary Polish poet Jaroslaw Rymkiewicz. made of flesh and blood.” he assumed the persona of Fortinbras. Several other poets of Herbert’s generation who lived through the war also turned to the avantgarde in their search for poetic forms that were capable of rendering their experience. the poem ends: “In fact the period. who addresses Hamlet as his immediate contemporary. In a prose poem written somewhat later. comprising sixty of the book’s ninety-five poems. The more reflective poems. armchairs. punctuation became one of the major topoi. five to thirty-five. his second. The choice to use one form or the other was always highly deliberate with Herbert. a stool. The various modulations of these two basic forms were always carefully worked out. depending on his attitude toward the subject of the poem. Studium przedmiotu (study of the object). In his third collection. were frequently written in prose. especially in those countries that had experienced the worst destruction during the war and that had suffered under Nazi occupation. accepted practice had not been put into doubt by new experience. Hermes. conventional punctuation was sharply questioned. In “I Would Like to Describe. a watch. in his fourth collection. Cogito. indeed. Mr. Indeed. his distance from it. the title of one of Herbert’s collections of poems means “study of the objects. dog and star). Herbert intended these prose poems to constitute a separate volume. and the resulting range of forms is astonishingly broad. pies i gwiazda (Hermes. as well as the rhythms he used. While his first collection of poems was restricted to largely punctuation-free verse. This is only one of the ways. and this became his regular practice. Inanimate objects Herbert’s many poems about inanimate objects should be seen in the context of his attempt to explore the relationship between experience and reality. The poems were part of Herbert’s attempt to separate what is subjective from what is objective and to see clearly. however. should write about lifeless objects. The prose poem Parallel to Herbert’s radical reduction of punctuation (he frequently employed dashes. of postwar Eastern European literature. but an important one. . Zbigniew ceptions—maintained after the war.Eastern European Poets Herbert. much of the prose poetry written in Poland since 1957 was influenced by Herbert’s explorations in the genre. who was so consistently concerned with life and human experience. so is blurred/ in me/ what white-haired gentlemen/ 91 . along with other inherited poetic practices. or themes. the ratio of prose to verse poems is eighteen to twenty-eight.” Some readers have wondered why a poet such as Herbert. had a separate section of prose poems. in which the form of Herbert’s poetry is related to its content. especially those that assume considerable distance from the subject and those that use strong irony. In subsequent volumes. fourteen to twenty-six. His project was thwarted by an editor. and he called them bajeczki (little fairy tales). his practice has been imitated by many younger Polish poets) about a pebble. however.” Herbert wrote: “. Herbert wrote fine poems (and again. and his tone. Napis (inscription). Herbert intentionally interspersed prose poems among his punctuation-free verse poems. Originally. . and they were included in his second volume of poems. and in his fifth. as well as occasional parentheses and question marks) was his development of the prose poem. a clothes wringer. In Central and Eastern Europe. to listen to the individual conscience. as a result. Herbert consistently directed his attention outward. In a conversation in 1969. The lines in these early poems are relatively short. at the world as it exists. First among them was the imperative to resist. pies i gwiazda. and the poet’s tone is increasingly mordant. and enigmatic. is marked by the sudden infusion of prose poems in the second section. he tended to find human traits in objects (rather than vice versa) and to discover a community of interest between humans and objects. while Herbert humanized objects. as is his gift for infusing the past with life. overriding concern for truth and clarity. pies i gwiazda Herbert’s second volume. Some of these early poems are about the difficulty of writing after the war. based on the realization of human fallibility and imperfection. Herbert wrote for a long time without a public audience. Hermes. depending on how much of ourselves we project on them. from 1946 to 1956. On the contrary. It was this stance that also makes it possible to consider Herbert as a “public” poet. Enduring themes Herbert’s first volumes contain most of the themes that interested him throughout his career. Herbert said that he was fascinated by objects because they are so completely different from us. about the loss of ideals. but his poems assumed a firm core of consistency and strength as he developed his themes. We are never sure that we understand them. adapted to the Stalinist demands and were permitted to publish. and that is good. Herbert was engaged in breaking down the barrier between the human and the inanimate and in extending the limits of the human. certainly. and they already display the great agility that is typical of Herbert’s style. their books that appeared during this period are inferior to their later work. his enforced silence during the Stalinist decade in Poland. at a profound level. We can never really conquer them or tame them. At the same time. contributed to the ultimate strength of these poems. Thus. to be silent. they reflected Herbert’s formal training in philosophy—not because the poems are explicitly “philosophical” but because they are informed by an intense. What I like about them is their ability to resist us. sometimes we think so. he was willing to suffer for his ideals. They come from a totally different world from ours.Herbert. other times we don’t. there was no abyss between humans and inanimate objects—on the contrary. he also respected their fundamental opacity. The individual lines of poems are sometimes longer in this 92 . The moral demand to direct one’s gaze at reality itself is present in Herbert’s first volume. Hermes. Irony becomes more prominent. they often seem to follow the rapidity of thought. such as Ró/ewicz and Szymborska. Others of his generation. there is a sense of identity with them. Zbigniew Critical Survey of Poetry separated once and for all/ and said/ this is the subject/ and this is the object.” Herbert was always interested in inanimate objects but not because they are inhuman. and even their very identity depend on the 93 . Cogito Tells About the Temptation of Spinoza. he allows the poet to confront painful personal matters without obtrusive emotion. giving his critique greater depth and reverberation. the poet was increasingly concerned with the universal and the archetypal. events are seen in the context of a broad historical framework. Again . and some are very close to prose. As he did this. The volume is also among his most critical. taking aim at contemporary social and political reality. the dominant theme is the identity of the self. Napis Herbert’s fourth book. the reality of the lives of those who take part in it. at other times. Studium przedmiotu. He developed further many of his previous themes. explored through the title figure. Napis. The volume contains a number of poems of striking philosophical depth. however. taking place under one’s very eyes. There are two major themes in this new collection. it is really of the utmost importance. and thus he adopted a variety of personas in this volume. but they are observed in the present. Herbert assumed the role of chronicler of the “siege. and Other Poems Report from the Besieged City. he gave full rein to his delight in dramatic metaphor.” Many poems in this book have longer lines than those of earlier volumes and are more meditative. Sometimes the persona of Mr. carried his dialogue with objects to its furthest point. Cogito. Zbigniew volume. the coup d’état of General Wojciech Jaruzelski and the imposition of martial law. deeper breath to read aloud.Eastern European Poets Herbert.” and although he said this role is secondary to that of the people who are fighting. A few are quite long and have a highly developed logical structure. Focusing less on immediate social and political realities. extending back into the past and into the subconscious. Mr. They require a longer. in it. Report from the Besieged City. Cogito is entirely playful. Herbert evidently felt the need to assume a greater distance from the reality he sought to describe. and the lines have become somewhat longer. shows a greater concern for textures. Mr. Knowledge of the true nature of the war. although there is the same agility and rapid spontaneity of association that marked the first volume. This volume has been called Herbert’s “expressionist” volume. Cogito In Herbert’s fifth collection of original poems. as the title indicates. The first is the necessity to “bear witness” to the truth. among them “Georg Heym—the Almost Metaphysical Adventure” and “Mr. and Other Poems marks a sharp return to topicality and contemporary events—in this case. Studium przedmiotu Herbert’s third volume. but the reader senses that there is a shift in the target of Herbert’s sense of revolt. Darkness was certainly pouring into Herbert’s poetry and possibly into his life around the time when most of the poems from the 1990 collection were composed. Herbert wrote that even if “the informers executioners cowards . Cogito. Rarely in contemporary literature has the need for resistance been stated so clearly. Zbigniew Critical Survey of Poetry chronicler. In that poem.Herbert.” the last poem in Herbert’s previous volume. The second major theme is suffering and the need for suffering. never presented fatalistically but rather combined with the imperative to revolt no matter how hopeless the situation. . The collection begins where “The Envoy of Mr. . . in which he bid farewell to the ghosts of his friends fallen during the war. and Other Poems Elegy for the Departure. . will win. . The English volume opens with one such poem. the poet. . go because only in this way will you be admitted to the company of cold skulls to the company of your ancestors: Gilgamesh Hector Roland the defenders of the kingdom without limit and the city of ashes Be faithful Go Elegy for the Departure. but it was present in his verse from the beginning. . . 94 . or rather for a language. and with so few illusions. . . . . called “Three Poems by Heart. especially in his early poems. . ended. The first of its three movements is a search for a person. and Other Poems is made up of a translation of poems from Elegia na odejkcie (1990) as well as translations of works uncollected in English from throughout Herbert’s career. Its four sections draw chronologically from his writing. in which the memory of that person can be extracted from among horrifying images of wartime destruction: I can’t find the title of a memory about you with a hand torn from darkness I step on fragments of faces soft friendly profiles frozen into a hard contour. and a less politicized Herbert is evident in the selected poems. . so forcefully.” which originally appeared in Struna kwiatua.” the individual must still revolt: go upright among those who are on their knees among those with their backs turned and those toppled in the dust you were saved not in order to live you have little time you must give testimony . . . ” that ends on a mournful. The King of the Ants: Mythological Essays. Zbigniew Readers will discern that here Herbert’s voice is growing more personal. focused on Herbert’s late poetry. There is the unsparingly registered loss of “Prayer of the Old Men”: when the children women patient animals have left because they can’t bear wax hands we listen to sand pouring in our veins and in our dark interior grows a white church of salt memories calcium and unspeakable weakness. nonfiction: Barbarzy½ca w ogrodzie. his irony more astringent. His stoicism seems to falter in the face of very human and basic fear. as in “Prayer of the Old Men. a “gentle volcano” of imagination. pb. Other major works plays: Jaskina filozofów. 1985). Dramaty. laboring over a tanka (a genre of Japanese poem) about the state railroad. contains some of his most spacious work. 1962 (Barbarian in the Garden. The tone of the poem is cryptic. 1999. There is a tarantella of a poem about Leo Tolstoy fleeing family and keepers at the end “with great bounds/ his beard streaming behind. the door closed on the work of Herbert. The Philosophers’ Den. 95 . 1950’s. history’s wildness departed. 1993 (Still Life with a Bridle: Essays and Apocryphas.” There is a somber. 1970 (collection of four plays). perfectly tuned image of Emperor Hirohito.Eastern European Poets Herbert. 1970 (wr. One learns only that the departure of the objects was caused by an unspecified “betrayal” on the part of the speaker and that it leaves him feeling guilty and powerless. and “a spirit stubbornly battling” the darker demons of the soul. pleading note: but don’t allow us to be devoured by the insatiable darkness of your altars say just one thing that we will return later The book’s last section. and readers are unable to discern the nature of the personal catastrophe that seems to lie at its center.” in which Herbert laments the three objects presented in the poem both as companions of studious childhood and as symbols of the three ideas most often associated with “the Herbertian” vision: the critical mind. The book ends with last words of the poem: “and that it will be/ dark.” With that. Martwa natura z wòdziduem. a groundspring of vitality and variety. 1991). The book ends with the expansive “Elegy for the Departure of Pen Ink and Lamp. 1958). John Carpenter Updated by Sarah Hilbert 96 . “Marsyas’s Howl: The Myth of Marsyas in Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Zbigniew Herbert’s ‘Apollo and Marsyas. 2005. by Zbigniew Herbert. Compares the two writers’ creations of alter egos.: Harvard University Press. Includes bibliography and index. Introduction to The Collected Poems. Anne Marie. 1987. Mellen Press. Between Fire and Sleep: Essays on Modern Polish Poetry and Prose. 2009. A useful introduction. 2007. Bara½czak. no. 2002. Bozena. Zagajewski. focusing on the poet as traveler and observer. New York: Ecco. no. Conn. N. Analyzes Herbert’s The Barbarian in the Garden. Zbigniew Critical Survey of Poetry Bibliography Anders.’” Comparative Literature 53. Joanna. Cambridge. Cogito: Italo Calvino and Zbigniew Herbert. Shallcross. Wood. Five essays on Herbert as playwright. Excellent coverage in English by Herbert’s translator. Mass. Essays on the Dramatic Works of the Polish Poet Zbigniew Herbert. Detroit: Thomson/Gale. and Bridsky.” Modern Language Notes 109. 2007. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie. Palomar and Mr. New Haven. no. Informative introduction that provides background and critical analysis. Zbigniew Herbert. Vol. Translated and edited by Alissa Valles. summary. 22. Stanisuaw. Poetry for Students. Herbert. “The Reflections of Mr. critical overview.” Contains the poem. Analyzes Herbert’s “Why the Classics. one of the first book-length studies published in English. themes.: Yale University Press. 2002. Carpenter. Contains a chapter on Herbert that provides extensive analysis and notes the exploration of darkness in his poetry.: Northwestern University Press. Through the Poet’s Eye: The Travels of Zagajewski.” World Literature Today 57. Afterword to Selected Poems. Reprint. Hacht. 1977. Carpenter.: E. eds. “The Barbarian in the Garden: Zbigniew Herbert’s Reevaluations.Y. 2 (2001): 151-170.Herbert. style. 1983): 388-393. comparing his drama with his poetry. and John Carpenter. Bogdana. Jaroslaw. Evanston. The translators’ afterword to a reprint of Selected Poems provides a biography and some analysis of the works. Lewiston. 3 (Summer. Ill. emphasizing Herbert’s “translation” of the story. and David Kelly. Nizynska. Bogdana. Sharon. A Fugitive from Utopia: The Poetry of Zbigniew Herbert. 1956-1998. Charles. Kraszewski. 1 (1994): 128-142. historical context. Compares the Roman and Polish uses of the myth. Adam. and criticism. 1965 A költo felel: Válogatott versek. 1981 What You Have Almost Forgotten: Selected Poems. Hungary. 1961 Nem volt elég. 1966 Poharaim: Összegyujtött versek. 1957) Kézfogások. 1956 Új versek. 1967 Fekete-fehér. 1920-1945. 1947 Egy mondat a zsarnokságról. 1968 Abbahagyott versek. 1939 Összegyüjtött versei. 1999 Charon’s Ferry: Fifty Poems. People of the Puszta. April 15. 1978 (2 volumes) Közügy. 1956 (One Sentence on Tyranny. 1931 H¹sökr¹l beszélek. 1935 Rend a romokban. 1937 Külön világban. 1946-1968. 1962 D¹lt vitorla. 1945 Szembenézve. 2000 Other literary forms Although principally a poet. 1933 Szálló egek alatt. 1928 Sarjúrendek. 1973 Teremteni: Összegyüjtött. 1967). November 2. 1902 Died: Budapest. widely translated. Two of his most important prose works appeared in the 1930’s: Puszták népe (1936. 1977 Összegyüjtött versei. 1972 Minden lehet. Hungary. is partly an autobiographical documentary and partly a sociography of Hungary’s poverty-stricken peas97 . Gyula Illyés (IHL-yays) was also the author of significant prose and drama. 1983 Principal poetry Nehéz föld. 1977 (2 volumes) Nyitott ajtók: Összegyüjtött versforditások.GYULA ILLYÉS Born: Rácegrespuszta. 1973 Különös testamentum. 1940 Egy év. 1971 Haza a magasban: Összegyüjtött versek. Victor Hugo. In 1981. 1973) is both a personal confession and a scholarly analysis of the great nineteenth century poet. Their genius burns in the Hungarian poet Gyula Illyés. and Tristan Tzara. Published late in Illyés’s life. At the end of World War I. English translation. among many other awards. In 1969. then went to Berlin. reflects his concern about the mistreatment of four million Hungarians living as minorities in countries neighboring Hungary. Illyés also excelled as a translator of Louis Aragon. studying literature and psychology. Apart from the highest critical acclaim. French poet and critic Alain Bosquet wrote about him: “Only three or four living poets have been able to identify themselves with the soul of the century. he made the acquaintance of many young French poets. In Hungary. the political climate became more tolerant in Hungary. and a year later to Paris. edited by 98 . a collection of his translations was published in 1963 as Nyitott ajtó (open door).” The International Biennale of Poets in Knokke-le-Zoute. Gyula Critical Survey of Poetry antry. some of whom later became famous as Surrealists: Aragon. and he supported himself by tutoring and by working in a book bindery. He received two literary prizes in France: the Ordre des Art et Lettres in 1974 and the Grand Prize in 1978 from the Société des Poètes Français. He attended the Sorbonne. and the University of Vienna awarded him the Herder Prize in 1970. he was awarded the Mondello literary prize in Italy. Pet¹fi (1936. After the old regime defeated the revolution. he was elected vice president of the International PEN Club. In 1926. Illyés joined the Hungarian Red Army in 1919. Éluard. François Villon. giving way to a liberal republic. spirit and violence). Jean Racine. During those years. awarded him its Grand Prix in 1965. and Illyés returned. he was three times the recipient of the Kossuth Prize. His grandfather was a shepherd and his father a mechanic. Paul Éluard. He worked as an office clerk and joined the circle connected with the avant-garde periodical Dokumentum. Sándor Pet¹fi. Biography Gyula Illyés was born into a family of poor farm workers on one of the large estates of a wealthy aristocrat. officially banned but published in the West in a facsimile edition. the joint efforts of his relatives were needed to pay for his schooling in Budapest. His principal plays deal with a search for lessons in Hungary’s history. Achievements Gyula Illyés is internationally recognized as one of the leading poets of the twentieth century. Ben Jonson. the Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed. Illyés achieved the status of a national poet and an intellectual leader in Hungary and in Europe. which was taken over by a short-lived Communist regime. Robert Burns. and others.Illyés. he fled to Vienna in 1920. His earliest poetry appeared in Hungarian émigré periodicals. Belgium. the essays collected in Szellem és er¹szak (1978. His unbending loyalty to the downtrodden and his contributions in clarifying the most important issues of his times earned him an extraordinary moral authority. His monumental poem One Sentence on Tyranny. a leading poet and senior editor of the literary periodical Nyugat. Illyés became a regular contributor to that outstanding modern literary forum. Illyés withdrew from public life. He continued to write. and political interests of the peasantry and. Illyés had joined the literary/political populist movement. In the 1960’s and 1970’s. a realistic personal account of the hardships and injustices that the poorest estate-servant peasants suffered. it became the emblem of the 1956 revolution. Illyés was offered leading literary and political positions and edited the literary periodical Válasz from 1946 to 1949. later. he founded and edited its successor. In a 1968 interview. and in a short time. morality. the views and approaches of the rational intellectual and of the lyric dreamer. was officially banned in Hungary. resulting in literary prizes as well as critical and popular recognition during the next ten years. Illyés published some thirty books. and his poems and plays created during these years of dictatorship address the issues of freedom. plays. Illyés went into passive resistance. with the help of the occupying Soviet army. and he died at the height of his creative powers. Illyés’s first collection of poems was published in 1928. Another decisive event in Illyés’s life is best described by him: I have arrived from Paris. and translations. After World War II. social. after its cessation. of most jailed writers. addressing issues of vital concern not only to his nation but also to humanity at large. After the revolution was crushed by the Soviet army. “With all the literary genres with which I experimented I wanted to serve one single 99 . and the actions of homo politicus and homo aestheticus. My new eyes saw a multitude of horrors when I looked around my birthplace. which fought between the two world wars for the economic. however. The result of this experience was People of the Puszta. I had a deep and agonizing experience. including poems. but as the Stalinist Communist Party. shocked and moved immediately to action upon seeing the fate of my own people. enforced totalitarian control over the country. Illyés became one of the editors of Nyugat. reports. not publishing anything until the government’s release. Gyula Lajos Kassák. being twenty-three-and-a-half years old. and. followed by twelve other books of poetry and prose. I was outraged. power. written in the early 1950’s but not published until 1956. cultural. Some of his early poems caught the eye of Mihály Babits. In 1937. Analysis Gyula Illyés’s immense prestige and world renown were largely the result of his ability to integrate the philosophies and traditions of Eastern and Western Europe. educational. his themes became increasingly universal. in 1960. the working class as well. Illyés confided. With this book. and hope. In his old age. Magyar Csillag. essays.Eastern European Poets Illyés. he wrote historical dramas in which he sought to strengthen his people’s national consciousness by the examples of great patriots of the past. He never lost the lyric quality of his poetry. Gyula Critical Survey of Poetry cause: that of a unified people and the eradication of exploitation and misery. most of which reflected on historical. published in 1965. Sarjúrendek. in this volume.” André Frenaud has remarked of Illyés that he is a poet of diverse and even contradictory impulses: a poet who can be “violent and sardonic.Illyés.” Five sentences later. Nehéz föld and Sarjúrendek Illyés’s first book of poems. and urgency. He did not publish any significant collection of new poetry between 1947 and 1956. His next collection. He knows the past and interrogates the future. “I would forgo every single other work of mine for one poem! Poetry is my first. Nehéz föld (heavy earth). In this period. D¨lt vitorla A good example of this style is found in his collection D¹lt vitorla (tilted sail). He knows the cowardice of man and the courage needed for survival. ethical. amplifying their messages. Kézfogások Illyés’s poetic silence ended in 1956 when he published a volume of poems titled Kézfogások (handshakes). nor the moods of sensuality. objective descriptions (whose unimpassioned tone is occasionally heated by lyric fervor) determine the singular flavor of his poetry. Lyric and epic qualities combined with precise. strongly reflects his intoxication with Surrealism and other Western trends. my primary experience and it has always remained that. dramatic. Illyés’s tone became increasingly deep and bitter. and political themes. contemplative. and analytical. The volume also contains a number of prose 100 . however. Illyés turned toward populism and engagé realism. This volume initiated another new phase for the poet: His style thereafter was more intellectual. During this time of harsh political repression. although he still retained many stylistic features of the avant-garde. and offering Illyés’s conclusions. immediacy. identifying with their visions.” Illyés began his literary career in the 1920’s under the influence of Surrealism and Activism. He found his original style and tone at the end of the 1920’s and the beginning of the 1930’s. I always held literature to be only a tool. represents a turning point in his art. however. dry. and the passionate lyricism of his tone makes the moral. and historical analysis of his poems of the next twenty-five years glow with relevance. social. he wrote many prose works. he exclaimed. This book contains a number of long poems—written in free verse— about his fellow writers and artists. and his style more and more intellectual during the 1930’s and 1940’s. his themes historical. who lacks neither visions coming from deep within. In Illyés’s poem. Tyranny permeates every minute of every hour. . The poet is “the chief researcher” who uncovers the future. “Make laws. Where there is tyranny. and bends.” How can the individual relate to the modern powers of his world as well as realize his individual goals of freedom and humanity? The title poem of D¹lt vitorla offers a clue. which may be the rule tomorrow. Illyés gives his reasons for using this genre: He states that he wants “to find the most common everyday words to express the most complicated things.” a destroyer of surface appearances “who separates the bad from the good. there is no escape. it is in everything. and the bridal bed. Illyés’s sailboat offers a possible solution to the dilemma of whether one should compromise or perish: It sways. and it stinks and pours out of him.” The ancient Aesopian parable. In this poem. but using. it dashes ahead. He creates it. . 101 . Such experimenters. the churches. In his preface. the parliament. bows. is given a new dimension in this poem: The boat flies forward while it heels low. so that. it looks at him from his mirror.” who shows when the ugly is beautiful and when the virgin is a harlot.” Written in the middle 1960’s to another writer. “Look—when do mast and sail fly forward most triumphantly? When tilted lowest. about the reed that bows to the wind and survives while the proud oak tree breaks and dies. To concentrate into a piece of creation all that is beautiful. but living laws so that we [can] stay human.Eastern European Poets Illyés. the ground breaker. “the progressive. man becomes tyranny himself.” The poet demands recognition of shadings and nuances. the metaphors of Franz Kafka have become dehumanizing and annihilating realities. the forces of the wind. The issue of relating to the ruling power structure—of surviving sometimes unbearable dictatorial pressures and of being able to realize oneself in spite of authoritarian inhumanities—has been a perennial problem in Hungary. One Sentence on Tyranny Sometimes such a solution is not possible: The wind may be a killer hurricane. . “Óda a törvényhozóhoz” (“Ode to the Lawmaker”) analyzes the role of poets. Gyula poems. of the “exception. it is present not only in the torture chambers but also in the nursery schools. This 183-line dramatic sentence is a thorough and horrifying analysis of the nature of such total oppression. a passionate lyricist evokes a future that the rational intellectual already knows—a future that requires freedom combined with order. good and true without glitter and pretention but with innovation and endurance. finally. all is in vain. In totalitarian dictatorships. are the writers he celebrates: “They are the ones I profess as examples! They are the ones who signal the direction towards a tomorrow!” The tomorrow that these exemplary researcher-poets promote is one of pluralism and tolerance. such researchers. This is the conclusion reached by Illyés in One Sentence on Tyranny. instead of opposing. the fighter. It is present in a lover’s embrace and a wife’s goodbye kisses. and pen have carried humans so far. and he finds the latter ones stronger: “Not the stones and not the metals. or determinism. “Hunyadi keze” (“The Hand of Hunyadi”): “Cowardly are the people who are protected by martyrs alone. The contrast is masterfully woven not only between the forceful and softly enduring but also between the boastfully heroic and the gray. and love. beauty. “Good” strength is defined here not as the strength of force. fatalism. sharp. Not the weapons and the kings but the clay. further developed in “Az éden elvesztése” (“The Loss of Paradise”). Gyula Critical Survey of Poetry Strength and weakness The opportunity of people to be happy and free. In the final lines of this oratorio. resilience. endurance. over evil. the everyday-working and humanity-protecting women have become the strongest. yielding. the singing and the spinning. the hide have become the leaders. uncompromising boldness. . the fur. a modern oratorio. but grass. Whenever we reprimand a bossy person: one step. Whenever we do our job right without needing a reprimand: ten steps.” Not the fortresses but the twig. everyday.” Illyés emphasizes that “Leaf and tree live according to what the root sends up to them to eat” and that “from the deepest depths comes everything that is good on this Earth. loess. Whenever we dress a wound: one step. to say something nice to its mother. . to be able to fulfill themselves. sedge became the protest. over dehumanization. it provides depth to the idea. Illyés argues with those who would capitulate to the threatening powers because of their feelings of weakness and powerlessness. Whenever we correct a mistake. that is a step. Not the armored soldiers storming to victory but the loins and breasts.” he offers a concrete program of “everyday. . In his “Hymn of the Root. he contrasts the hard. silent endeavor. everyday. After repudiating those who. but as the strength of flexibility. a moral-political passion play about the chances of the average weak and powerless human individual to avoid the impending atomic cataclysm. blind faith.” by which the seemingly weak and powerless can win over the powerful. weight. minute-by-minute courage saves men and countries. wax. What chance do the weak have? Illyés the lyric poet and the concerned humanist is at his best when he redefines strength and weakness in several long poems written in the 1960’s. should not depend on power or brute force. Not heroic deeds but daily daring. and pride.Illyés. In “Ditirambus a n¹khöz” (“Dithyramb to Women ”). because of naïveté. strong and proud forms of being with the fragile. minute-by-minute courage. and soft forms. To take a baby in one’s arm. the prophet urges his people: 102 . accept the inevitability of an atomic war.” In a “Parable of the Stairs.” This motif of quiet everyday work and courage gives new dimensions to Illyés’s theme of strength in weakness. As Illyés emphasizes in the concluding lines of another poem. . Tezla. Fáklyaláng. . ed. Introduction to Charon’s Ferry: Fifty Poems. Sorsválasztók. 1946. Detroit: Gale Group. 1936 (English translation. 103 . Testvérek. pb. 1971. . 1982. Other major works long fiction: Hunok Párizsban. 1964. pb. 1978. . Dózsa György. Kháron ladikján. pb. Steven. pb. 1969. . 215 in Dictionary of Literary Biography. The well-known poet provides a substantial introduction to Illyés and his poetry. nonfiction: Pet¹fi. Puszták népe.: Northwestern University Press. Turmoil in Hungary: An Anthology of Twentieth Century Hungarian Poetry. . 1960. Contains a brief essay on Illyés. 1977-1978. 1963. Bibliography Berlind. Gyula When the day of fury comes. Smith. . 1938. . Serafin. . on that final day. Contains publication information and some commentary on Illyés's work.: Curbstone Press. Különc. Minn. An Introductory Bibliography to the Study of Hungarian Literature. 1999. . 1952. 1982. . pb. by Gyula Illyés. Mass. 1972. Szellem és er¹szak. Conn. Willimantic. by Gyula Illyés. pb. let us begin here. Vol. 1969. Malom a Séden. Ebéd a kastélyban. 1999. A collection of Hungarian poetry translated into English with commentary. Twentieth-Century Eastern European Writers: Third Series. . . 1963 (of various poets). translation: Nyitott ajtó. Ill. St. 1953. when the atom explodes. before that terrible tomorrow. Kegyenc. plays: Ozorai példa. William Jan. 1936 (People of the Puszta. Kolumbán. Magyarok. from the depths by the strength of our faith. 2000. pb. provides information on Illyés’s life and his poetry. Bruce. . Hajszálgyökerek. 1973). Naplójegyzetek. Tiszták. Cambridge. pb. Nicholas. 1962. people let us dare to do the greatest deed: .: Harvard University Press. Paul. Introduction to What You Have Almost Forgotten. Berlind’s introduction to this work from the Writings from an Unbound Europe series. 1956.: New Rivers Press. . ed. 1963. 1967 ). 1991. Evanston. let us begin life anew. pb.Eastern European Poets Illyés. Albert. Károly Nagy 104 . Cambridge.: Harvard University Press. Gyula Critical Survey of Poetry _______.Illyés. Mass. and is to be used in conjunction with that work. Hungarian Authors: A Bibliographical Handbook. Extension of An Introductory Bibliography to the Study of Hungarian Literature. 1970. . March 12. Quebec. and Other Poems. 1965 Periods of the Moon. 1954 The Blue Propeller. 1974 The Darkening Fire: Selected Poems. 1954 In the Midst of My Fever. and Poems. 1955 The Bull Calf. 1959 The Swinging Flesh. 1977 105 . 1963 The Laughing Rooster. 1969 The Whole Bloody Bird: Obs. 1977 The Poems of Irving Layton. 1969 The Collected Poems of Irving Layton. 1969-1975. 1954 The Long Pea Shooter. Canada. 1958 A Red Carpet for the Sun. 1945 Now Is the Place. 1968 Selected Poems. 1956 Music on a Kazoo. 1961 Balls for a One-Armed Juggler. 1974 Seventy-five Greek Poems. 1967 The Shattered Plinths. 1951 Love the Conqueror Worm. 1973 The Pole-Vaulter. 1912 Died: Montreal. Israel Pincu Lazarovitch Principal poetry Here and Now. January 4. 1964 Collected Poems. Aphs. 1948 The Black Huntsman. 1971 Nail Polish. 1975 The Unwavering Eye: Selected Poems. 1956 A Laughter in the Mind. Romania. 2006 Also known as: Irving Peter Lazarovitch. 1976 The Covenant.IRVING LAYTON Born: Tîrgu Neamc. 1971 Lovers and Lesser Men. 1956 The Improved Binoculars. 1951 (with Louis Dudek and Raymond Souster) Cerberus 1954. 1955 The Cold Green Element. 1945-1968. 1975 For My Brother Jesus. Concordia University in 1976. Layton received honorary doctorates from three Canadian universities: Bishop’s University in 1970. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature for two consecutive years (1982 and 1983) by admirers in Italy and Korea. he married Faye Lynch. Romania. 1986 Final Reckoning: Poems 1982-1986. graduating with a bachelor of science degree. he was inducted into Italy’s Institute Pertini and was the first non-Italian to win the Petrarch Award. which the Canadian novelist Mordecai Richler also attended. Canada. 1987 Fortunate Exile. Irving Critical Survey of Poetry The Tightrope Dancer. 1980 Europe and Other Bad News. Layton was honored internationally for his poetry. 1981 A Wild Peculiar Joy: Selected Poems. He graduated from Baron Byng High School. 1987 Fornalutx: Selected Poems. 1983 The Love Poems of Irving Layton with Reverence and Delight. Waiting for the Messiah: A Memoir (1985). Achievements Irving Layton received numerous awards and honors from the Canadian government and from universities in Canada. in 1912 and moved at the age of one with his family to Montreal. 1992 Raging Like a Fire. 1984 Dance with Desire: Love Poems. In 1993. 1928-1990. and York University in 1979. 1979 For My Neighbours in Hell. In the early 1930’s. Layton’s works have been translated into numerous languages. Later in the decade. Biography Irving Peter Layton was born Israel Pincu Lazarovitch in Tîrgu Neamc. 1979 The Love Poems of Irving Layton. He edited several collections of Canadian poems and wrote social and political essays and an autobiography. he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in recognition for his literary achievements. After a 106 . He won Canada’s Governor-General’s Award in 1959 for his collection A Red Carpet for the Sun.Layton. 1945-1982. Layton associated with many of Montreal’s disaffected leftwing intellectuals whose Marxist ideology helped shape the political and social attitudes of his early poetry and prose. an Italian award that recognizes poetic talent. 1982 The Gucci Bag. In 1938. he attended Macdonald College. 1978 Droppings from Heaven. 1993 Other literary forms Irving Layton is known primarily for his poetry. In 1976. in economics and political science in 1946. he began an extensive correspondence with the American poet Robert Creeley. a periodical influential in the promotion of modern poetry in Canada. In the late 1960’s. all contributed to his image as a member of the counterculture. The year 1956 marked a turning point in Layton’s career when his collection The Improved Binoculars was published with a laudatory preface by the distinguished American poet William Carlos Williams. the erotic subject matter and imagery of his poetry. In the next decade. Layton’s publication of several impressive collections throughout the 1980’s drew numerous awards and honors. after receiving the prestigious Senior Arts Fellowship from the Canada Council. his provocative opinions. and in 1974. In response to Elspeth Cameron’s Irving 107 . where he received an M. with whom he had a son. Layton earned his living teaching at Montreal high schools and at Sir George Williams University (now Concordia University). Harriet Bernstein.A. Later that same year. Layton began to travel abroad extensively. he undeniably influenced a new generation of Canadian poets such as Leonard Cohen and Seymour Mayne. Layton began to cultivate celebrity status in Canada and abroad. he wrote and published a new collection each year. a young Acadian. appeared. often to the detriment of real public appreciation for his poetic achievements. he became a member of a group of young poets in Montreal that included Louis Dudek and John Sutherland. In 1948. with whom he had a son and daughter. Layton’s first work of poetry. and in 1982 and 1983. he was appointed to the English department at York University in Toronto. which was the focus of many of his interviews and appearances in the media. who cofounded and edited First Statement. With the publication of works such as The Collected Poems of Irving Layton in 1971 and Engagements: The Prose of Irving Layton in 1972. In 1957. and his tumultuous relationship with his fourth wife. For the next two decades. During this time. In 1985. his poetry was published in Italy with great success. Here and Now. David. Australia. he divorced his first wife and married Sutherland’s sister Betty. His vivacious personality. Layton began a relationship with Aviva Cantor. He moved from Montreal with his new family and took a position as writer-inresidence at the University of Guelph in Ontario. and Europe. Irving brief stint in the Canadian Army during 1942-1943. this dialogue helped Layton formulate many of his ideas about poetry. Nonetheless. Throughout his early career. largely at his own expense. however. visiting Israel.Eastern European Poets Layton. Layton began to develop a national reputation not only for crafting groundbreaking and conscientious poetry but also for espousing forthright and controversial ideas that shocked Canadian readers and provoked reviewers and literary critics. and settled in Montreal. he married Anna Pottier. he attended McGill University in Montreal. In 1945. he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature by admirers in Italy and in Korea. With the publication in 1959 of his award-winning work A Red Carpet for the Sun by the prestigious Canadian publisher McClelland and Stewart. At this time. Asia. his work remained generally unrecognized. Layton began to achieve commercial success and critical recognition in the literary world. Layton. such as the Romantic poets William Blake. Percy Bysshe Shelley. drama. The Love Poems of Irving Layton with Reverence and Delight is his definitive collection on the topic. and social issues that preoccupied him during his lifetime. which he viewed as the source of man’s inhumanity to man. reviewers. The latter theme permeated his collection The Cold Green Element. with its erotically charged language and imagery. focused on descriptive poetry and on social satire that denounced Canada’s middle-class prudishness and philistinism. Another leading and highly controversial theme that permeated Layton’s writing was the importance of sexual love. Irving Critical Survey of Poetry Layton: A Portrait. an unflattering biography published in 1985. In this respect. subtlety. he focused more intently on Jewish concerns. Once his reputation as poet and activist became firmly established after the critical and popular success of A Red Carpet for the Sun. Layton continually underscored the values of poetic truth. and Walt Whitman. which he equated with the act of writing poems. he began to articulate recognition of the Holocaust as a turning point in world history. In the modern author D. he found the inspiration to denounce bourgeois values. Layton produced several more significant collections before 1994. political. such as Here and Now and Now Is the Place. especially Europe and Other Bad News and A Wild Peculiar Joy. Through his poetry. Concern for the universal human condition became the major theme of collections written in the 1980’s. Lawrence and the poet Williams. In it he explored his own responses to the various aspects of love through the numerous relationships he experienced throughout his lifetime. In For My Brother Jesus and The Covenant. Layton used the prism of tragic history to explore the relationship between the survival of cultural heritage and the mission of the poet. and an honest confrontation with history. H. particularly through the use of shocking language and a focus on taboo themes. In the latter part of Layton’s career. while continuing to reject any forms of established religion. never failed to arouse both intense admiration and severe admonishment from critics. Layton began to deal with topics encompassing a bolder vision in his poetry. He is also important in Canadian literature as one of the country’s first writers to focus on questions related to the identity and survival of Jews and Jewish culture throughout the world. He died in 2006. Analysis Irving Layton’s significance as poet lies in his unique and complex articulation of the cultural. which described his early life in Montreal and his attempts to establish himself as a poet. Many of Layton’s early works. when he was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. Many of Layton’s works give definitive proof to his own theories that poetry should be filled with vitality. His poetry. with its bold focus on new subject matter. much like other Jewish writers who bore witness to the effects of this event. Layton followed the models of past writers who broke with tradition. and with its explosion of old myths and clichés. 108 . social concern. Layton wrote Waiting for the Messiah. and relevance to the real world. Lord Byron. In such works. and readers. whom he reclaims for the Jews as a symbol of the Jewish nation. Other notable poems in the book include many that explore universal experience through personal moments. to decry the inhumanity of the past and to help shape a better future for humankind. The work features more than two hundred of his best poems written between 1942 and 1958. as a poet. such as the Western mythic ideas of death and rebirth and an exploration of how the twentieth century evil that is exemplified in the Holocaust and in nuclear war contributes to moral indifference and cultural atrophy.Eastern European Poets Layton. Ultimately. Internationally. The collection focuses on the destruction of European culture following World War II and on the consequent universal decay of values and morals. and to enter what he describes as the pantheon of Jewish heroes. the book’s preface targets Christianity as the real source of anti-Semitism and as the destroyer of European culture.” “Thanatos. such as “In the Midst of My Fever. In “The Real Values. Many of the basic themes that run throughout Layton’s collections are represented here. especially since it was his first work to be issued by a major publishing house. he was praised and acknowledged as a poet of global significance for his energetic artistry in exploring the individual’s status in the contemporary world. Balls for a One-Armed Juggler The poems of Balls for a One-Armed Juggler mark a turning point in Layton’s vision of the past. such as social inequities and bourgeois materialism. Layton was nationally recognized as a preeminent writer for his role in broadening the limits of Canadian literature. to change the world. A Red Carpet for the Sun The award-winning A Red Carpet for the Sun brought Layton recognition as a leading Canadian poet.” Layton demonstrates artistic complexity and control as he shapes a new perspective on the poet’s confrontation of harsh truths.” In the important preface to the collection.” “The Cold Green Element. is exemplified in one of his most famous poems in the collection. Irving In the two decades before his death. a group that includes Jesus.” and the much-praised “A Tall Man Executes a Jig. In a reflection of Layton’s harsh reactions to the evils of the twentieth century. His mission is to be a militant poet and an artistic activist. Layton’s corrective vision for the ills of the modern age. “The Birth of Tragedy” both describes the joy and value of poetry for Layton and also celebrates his hero Friedrich Nietzsche. The collection is significant as an expansion of social awareness and protest in the history of Canadian poetry. Layton integrates the history of persecuted Jewry with his conception 109 .” and “Berry Picking. The collection underscores Layton’s revised vision of his cultural role. McClelland and Stewart. Layton reiterates his commitment. For My Brother Jesus For My Brother Jesus raised a storm of controversy in Canada because of the nature of its subject matter. Includes a brief biography and an analysis of how Layton fits into the Canadian tradition and milieu. 1953 (with Louis Dudek). 1850-1952. Other major works nonfiction: Engagements: The Prose of Irving Layton. Taking Sides: The Collected Social and Political Writings. Many of the selected poems reflect Layton’s strong social and political conscience. 110 .: Salem Press. Bibliography Francis. Irving Layton and Robert Creeley: The Complete Correspondence. 1966. Vol. Masterplots II: Poetry Series. “Irving Layton. The author uses a detailed analysis of Layton’s poetry to chronicle his struggle for acceptance. However. Rev. Shark Tank. Waiting for the Messiah: A Memoir. 1962. Poems such as “Art of Creation” describe how the poet discovers invigorating energy in the past that haunts him. Contains an in-depth analysis of the poem “Golfers. edited by Robert Lecker. Pasadena. Jason. 1985. A Wild Peculiar Joy A Wild Peculiar Joy is a comprehensive collection of Layton’s poetry that he and the Canadian poet Dennis Lee selected. Rev. Anvil Blood. 1985. Eli.. 1939-1989. Anvil: A Selection of Workshop Poems. Irving Critical Survey of Poetry of the unique role played by another cultural outsider. 1989. Love Where the Nights Are Long: Canadian Love Poems. A revised edition of the author’s initial study published in 1969. Jack David. Toronto: ECW Press. edited texts: Canadian Poems. Toronto: Coles.” Layton explores the significance of the tragedy of the Holocaust and other incidents of Jewish persecution throughout history.” In Canadian Writers and Their Works. An Unlikely Affair: The Irving LaytonDorothy Rath Correspondence. ed. In poems such as “The Haemorrhage. ed. 1990. ed.Layton. Pan-ic: A Selection of Contemporary Canadian Poems. Wild Gooseberries: Selected Letters of Irving Layton.” who memorializes ways that cultural catastrophes have altered perceptions of God and humanity by all humankind in the twentieth century. 1973. 1958. 1977. 1980. Wynne. Calif. Both the title of the book and the poems that it encompasses mirror the intense nature of his provocative artistry. this collection also has a mellow tone of nostalgia and remembrance. It was republished in 2004 with a new introduction by Sam Solecki and excerpts from Layton’s essays on poetry. 1981. Notable pieces such as “The Fertile Muck” and “Whatever Else Poetry Is Freedom” fully articulate his construct of poet as visionary. Philip K.” Mandel. The Poetry of Irving Layton. Thoroughly analyzes the major thematic concerns of Layton’s poetry and examines the reactions of the EnglishCanadian establishment to his work. 2002. 5. the “prophet-poet. and Ellen Quigley. 1977. 1972. Poetry Series. 1978. 12. and colleagues. ed. Mayne. Irving Mansbridge. Francis. Included are the opinions of critics and of poets from three generations. Toronto: ECW Press.Eastern European Poets Layton. 2001. and Elizabeth Thomason. who edited an edition of Layton’s letters.” Diana Arlene Chlebek 111 . Vol. Smith. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. The author. The reviews of American critics and poets are also represented. family. Irving Layton: The Poet and His Critics. underscores how his poetry and life overlapped. Poetry for Students. 1995. Seymour. Jennifer. Irving Layton: God’s Recording Angel. eds. Detroit: Gale Group. A biography of Layton based on extensive interviews with his friends. Contains analysis and criticism of Layton’s “A Tall Man Executes a Jig. A collection of criticism on the major works of Layton’s literary career that were published through 1975. Achievements Osip Mandelstam’s poetry won immediate praise from fellow members of Russian literary circles. Mandelstam experienced anything but a “successful” literary career. in O poezii (1928. with the exception of his single most important essay. 1891 Died: Vtoraya Rechka. 1981. near Vladivostok. some in considerably revised or censored form.OSIP MANDELSTAM Born: Warsaw. 1980 The Voronezh Notebooks: Poems. but Mandelstam was not among the writers whom the Bolsheviks promoted after 1917. Soviet Union (now in Russia). These. 1923. By 1923. 1973) Complete Poetry of Osip Emilievich Mandelstam. when an edition of twentyfive thousand copies sold out immediately and was not reprinted. as well as his otherwise uncollected essays and reviews. 1967-1969). 1928 (Poems. 1964-1971. Mandelstam’s prose was not republished in the Soviet Union. 1913 (enlarged 1916. About Poetry. 112 . Mandelstam’s prose has been seen both as a key to deciphering his poetry and as a complex body of nonpoetic discourse of great independent value. the official ostracism of independent poets such as Mandelstam was apparent. 1935-1937. probably December 27. 1973) Stikhotvoreniya. Poland. turning instead to prose forms that were as inventive and as idiosyncratic as his verse. Attempts to discredit him intensified after 1928. January 15. Collected Works. Stone. are available in their original and most complete versions in Sobranie sochinenii (1955. 1981) Tristia. 1977). “Razgovor o Dante” (“Conversation About Dante”). Many of the theoretical essays were collected. 1938 Principal poetry Kamen. All his prose has been translated into English. 1996 Other literary forms Osip Mandelstam (muhn-dyihl-SHTAHM) was writing essays on Russian and European literature as early as 1913. 1922 (English translation. though many continued writing and publishing whenever possible. 1973 Voronezhskiye tetradi. written in 1933 but not published until 1967. He was arrested twice in the 1930’s and is believed to have died while in transit to a Siberian labor camp. Mandelstam did not write poetry between 1925 and 1930. His work appeared often in pre-Revolutionary journals. however. and he now holds an indisputable position as one of Russia’s greatest poets. Russian Empire (now in Poland). Like many of his contemporaries. Little is known about Mandelstam’s childhood or young adulthood. Mandelstam had a highly intuitive approach to learning that foreshadowed the associative leaps that make his poetry so difficult to read. they also provide invaluable insights into his poetry. he recorded cultural rather than personal impressions in his autobiographical sketch. where he studied Old French and the philosophy of Immanuel Kant at the University of Heidelberg from 1909 to 1910. He returned to St. although limited. relegated him to minor status and often commented disparagingly on his “isolation” from his age. The deep respect commanded by his poetry in the Soviet Union was nevertheless measured by the evolution of scholarly interest in his work. later a prominent Formalist critic. Vospominania (1970. including one to Heidelberg. his literary stance was defined by his alliance with the Acmeists. his name was mentioned in many but by no means all studies of literature. Mandelstam had been writing in earnest at least as early as 1908. That slim volume was reissued. where Mandelstam later received his education at the Tenischev School (as did Vladimir Nabokov only a few years later). Works of art in their own right. Mandelstam took several trips abroad. The Noise of Time. The single most important factor in making his work known in the West was the publication of two volumes of memoirs by his wife. Shum vremeni (1925. Petersburg University’s faculty of history and philology but seems never to have passed his examinations. on January 15. issued in Russian by émigré publishers and translated into many Western languages. appeared. Petersburg on his return from Heidelberg. his father worked in a leather-tanning factory. Biography Osip Emilievich Mandelstam was born in Warsaw. His schoolmate Viktor Zhirmunsky. such as textbooks or encyclopedias. As texts and translations became available. By 1913. are the prime source of information concerning Mandelstam’s life. a group dedicated to replacing the murky longing of Russian Symbolism with a classical sense of clarity and 113 . Nadezhda Mandelstam. Mandelstam’s reputation grew steadily. and he began publishing poems and essays in St. scholarly writing about Mandelstam. Osip Even during the “thaw” under Premier Nikita Khrushchev. Petersburg.Eastern European Poets Mandelstam. said of Mandelstam that he had only to touch and smell the cover of a book to know its contents with a startling degree of accuracy. Hope Abandoned. Hope Against Hope: A Memoir. 1891. Poland. 1965). Mandelstam’s mother was a pianist. Mandelstam’s works were kept out of print. and it was not until 1973 that his “rehabilitation” was made credible by the publication of his poetry in the prestigious Biblioteka poeta (poet’s library) series. Mandelstam’s reputation outside Russia was initially slow in developing because of the extreme difficulty in obtaining reliable texts of his works and because of the scarcity of information about the poet. 1974). His family moved almost immediately to St. During the Soviet era in Russia. Official publications. 1970) and Vtoraya kniga (1972. Nikolai Bukharin. In May. 1937. he grew increasingly disappointed as the nature of Bolshevik power became apparent. The civil war parted the Mandelstams at times. 1970). 1919. and literary criticism in 1928. who saved Mandelstam more than once. arranged a trip to Armenia and Georgia that proved crucial in ending his five years of poetic silence. Fourth Prose. Mandelstam worked in several cultural departments of the young Soviet government. Osip Critical Survey of Poetry with a dedication to the things of this world rather than to the concepts they might symbolize. Mandelstam busied himself with popular journalistic articles. which he openly despised. by the end of the decade. and she ensured her husband’s poetic legacy many years after his death with her two volumes of memoirs and her lifelong campaign to have his poems published. the couple returned to 114 . prose. Among the acquaintances made in the Acmeist Guild of Poets. She recorded his poems after he had composed them mentally. the Mandelstams were allowed to select Voronezh. a southern provincial city. Mandelstam saw his prose work Puteshestviye v Armeniyu (1933. First sent to Cherdyn. In May. an attempt to entrap him in a plagiarism scandal the same year demonstrated the general precariousness of his status under the new regime. Living in or near Leningrad after 1925. On May 13. translations. Bukharin again intervened. and. He greeted the Revolution with an enthusiasm typical of most intellectuals. even briefly. Journey to Armenia. After the journey. Nadezhda Mandelstam became far more than her husband’s companion and source of strength. but they were virtually inseparable until Mandelstam’s second arrest in 1938. Mandelstam formed a lifelong friendship with the poet Anna Akhmatova. Though he gave several readings. children’s literature. and the terms of exile were softened considerably. Despite periods of near insanity. The ideological positions taken by poets were soon overwhelmed by the political upheavals of the decade. Mandelstam and his wife lived in near poverty in Moscow. ostensibly for a poem about Stalin’s cruelty. moving between Moscow and St. when the journal Rossiya rejected The Noise of Time. she memorized the poems when it became clear that written texts were in jeopardy. Mandelstam did not serve in World War I. He could find little work in Voronezh. he met and later married Nadezhda Yakovlevna Khazina. An early indication of Mandelstam’s difficulties came in 1925. Mandelstam wrote (and actively sought to publish) three notebooks of poems in Voronezh.Mandelstam. as well as poetry and prose inspired by the Armenian land and people. as the place where they would spend the next three years. Mandelstam attempted suicide in Cherdyn and suffered intense periods of anxiety whenever Nadezhda Mandelstam was away. Mandelstam was arrested. 1973) denounced soon after its publication in the periodical Zvezda. hack editorial work. 1934. Petersburg (renamed Leningrad) in connection with these and other jobs. Mandelstam wrote a purgative account of the plagiarism trial. Although he published volumes of poetry. Chetvertaia proza (1966. the act of reciting such a poem even to a few friends was characteristic of his defiance of the authorities and of the Soviet literary establishment. Acmeism Mandelstam’s attempt to incorporate the poetry of the past into his works suited both the spirit and stated tenets of Acmeism. of heart failure. like the message in the bottle. Heart ailments had plagued him for years. he describes the ideal reader as one who opens a bottle found among sand dunes and reads a message mysteriously addressed to the reader. he wrote. As Mandelstam’s works began appearing in print. Poetry plows up the fields of time. In the fall of 1937. In September. In the sanatorium in Samatikha. The reader who wishes to go beyond some critics’ belief that Mandelstam’s lexicon is arbitrary or irrational must read each poem in the context of the entire oeuvre and with an eye to subtexts from Russian and European literature. and not a few others. a movement he later defined as a “homesickness for world culture. an achievement rare enough for Russians of her generation: She died in her own bed. has had to wait to find its reader. it also demands that a reader be aggressive and resourceful. His poems are intensely dependent on one another and are frequently comprehensible only in terms of ciphered citations from the works of other poets. Mandelstam’s poetry. Nadezhda Mandelstam lived another forty-two years. Mandelstam especially loved the myths of Greece and Rome. his brother Aleksandr received an official statement that Mandelstam had died December 27.” Mandelstam always saw the Acmeist poets as the preservers of an increasingly endangered literary memory. The conditions of the camp almost certainly drove him. Osip Moscow. from which he wrote to his wife for the last time. 115 . In August. 1938. when deciphered. his own poems bring forth rich layers of subsoil by their poetics of quotation. 1938. yield transparent levels of meaning. 1980. sustained by her friendship with Anna Akhmatova and by her commitment to preserving her husband’s poems for a generation that could read them. though his quotations are most often from nineteenth and twentieth century Russian poets. Analysis In Osip Mandelstam’s first published essay. Nadezhda Mandelstam published her two invaluable volumes of memoirs. “O sobesednike” (1913. he was sent to a transit camp near Vladivostock. Apparently opaque lyric situations. The actual circumstances of Mandelstam’s death will probably never be known. “On the Addressee”). Hope Against Hope and Hope Abandoned. he was sentenced to five years’ hard labor for counterrevolutionary activities.Eastern European Poets Mandelstam. a final respite from the hardships of Moscow was arranged. shortness of breath was always to be a metaphor for the difficulty of writing. she achieved her great wish. and throughout his poetry. to the point of insanity. “True” poetry could arise only from a celebration of its dependence on the old. Mandelstam was again arrested in the early morning of May 2. On December 31. where Mandelstam suffered at least one heart attack. In 1940. his beloved autumn. in a poem memorializing Andrei Bely. 1187. to say nothing of Mandelstam’s first quotation of Pushkin in “Happily Neighing. and the ancient Roman context is as significant as the Pushkinian overtones. the poem contrasts the “classical spring” of Pushkin’s golden age of Russian literature with the decline of Rome. for whom the cyclical nature of the seasons suggests that historical change is itself cyclical.” Nineteen years later.” Pushkin’s presence is also felt in the poem’s seasonal setting. the reader must allow Mandelstam’s metaphors to acquire meaning in more than one context. as the Romanov dynasty faced its end. 1915). so that three historical periods come to bear on an interpretation of this apparently pastoral poem. “Our culture has been lost until now and cannot find its walls. perhaps the most typical metaphor for the Acmeists. specifically the dry gold of harvest. The title evokes the volume’s dominant architectural motifs. Stone. Stone. the Herds Graze” An example of Mandelstam’s use of quotations will indicate how far interpretation of his poetry must stray from the apparent lyric situation. August. Osip Critical Survey of Poetry Using another metaphor. “My sadness is luminous. and it is in the use of the word that one must seek the distinctive feature of Mandelstam’s poetry. As Mandelstam wrote in 1918. Interpreting the stylized line “My sadness is lush” thus requires knowing Pushkin and The Tale of the Armament of Igor. The poem thus has more to do with the ages of human culture than with grazing herds. Stone contains short lyrics. In “Happily Neighing. “Everything has been before. The Tale of the Armament of Igor. “Happily Neighing. The dominant color in the poem is gold. Mandelstam wrote in the early 1920’s that Russian poetry has no Acropolis. The contexts will border on one another in surprising ways. The rise and decline of civilizations do not upset this poet.” Russia’s words would build its cultural edifices. but it is his peculiar gift to his readers that when they read his poems. Mandelstam wrote. Russia in 1915 resembled Rome during its decline.” The epithet here comes from the Slovo o polku Igoreve (c. Aside from the 116 .Mandelstam. the Herds Graze.” Mandelstam’s line is “In old age my sadness is luminous. was published in 1913. everything will repeat anew. Stone Mandelstam’s first volume of poetry.” To achieve such moments. suggests Augustus Caesar. but the syntax still recalls Pushkin. The month mentioned. the Herds Graze” or the often ornate works of Andrei Bely. with successive enlargements in 1916 and 1923. Referring to Mandelstam’s first collection of poems. they see past poets and past ages of man from new vantage points. “My sadness is lush. he predicted. Kiril Taranovsky has noted that a line in the poem “S veselym rzhaniem pasutsia tabuny” (“Happily Neighing. the Herds Graze”) quotes Alexander Pushkin’s famous statement. many of only three or four quatrains. What is sweet to us is the moment of recognition. ” With a careful hand. there are also poems of intimate interiors. about how poems may best be written.” “the erring dreams of other singers” (“other” connotes “foreign” as well as “not oneself” in Russian).” its “elemental labyrinth. the poet declares that the gods “are your equals. Tristia 117 . which never took hold. At times. Tristia. “revealing its secret plan from the outside. The poem has evoked household gods in terms derived from classical Rome and from eighteenth century poetry. Adam’s name. as distinct as the singing of birds and men.” nevertheless. In “Est’ tselomudrennye chary” (“There Are Chaste Charms”). “Notre Dame” is as close to a programmatic statement in verse as Mandelstam ever came. he will pronounce it. and seashells. It is in making the dreams his own that the poet finds victory. its clarity. designs in household utensils.” the shortest and most clearly Acmeist of his three 1912 cathedral poems. as his own. its balance. A landscape is described by the technical language of poetics in “Est’ ivolgi v lesakh” (“There Are Orioles in the Woods”).Eastern European Poets Mandelstam. its sense of the poem as something visibly constructed. Despite the differences between the battles of Russian soldiers and the feigned tales of Ossian. The Acmeists consistently praised the Gothic optimism of medieval architecture and art. The outstretched body of Adam furnishes a metaphor for the opening description of the cathedral’s vaulted ceiling. The patterns of crafted objects or complex facades allow Mandelstam to write in Stone about the structures of language. The name “Adam. in which the birds’ singing is measured by the length of vowel sounds.” had once provided an alternative name for Acmeism. The day “yawns like a caesura. appeared in 1922.” Mandelstam praises the church’s “massive walls.” Among the poems that both assert and demonstrate Mandelstam’s strength as an independent poet is “Notre Dame. the poet’s entire received heritage is “blessed. his metapoetic statements emerge completely undisguised. After three quatrains of listening to ancient gods and their lyres. Compared to the architectural poems of Stone. and they shared that period’s devotion to art as high craft. invokes in “Notre Dame” the poetic principles of the movement.” Mandelstam contrasts his own heritage with that of another land. a raven echoing a harp replaces the oriole.” Mandelstam pursues the probable relationship between the oriole and the poet in “Ia ne slyxal rasskazov Ossiana” (“I Have Not Heard the Tales of Ossian”).” Tristia Mandelstam’s second volume. Here. “And again the bard will compose another’s song/ And. he adds. many drawing on the Roman tradition in classical culture. the poem’s persona intones. Osip well-known triptych of cathedral poems in Stone. In “Notre Dame. and his having been “joyful and first. “one may rearrange them. their lines ringing forth in tonic rhythms. Mandelstam concludes with an equally victorious quatrain. the poem does what a Gothic cathedral should do. Adamism.” The cathedral becomes both that which the poet studies and that from which he is inspired to create something of his own. Osip Critical Survey of Poetry depends more on the myths of ancient Greece. but the black ice of its remembered sound burns on the poet’s lips. 118 . resonate throughout the volume.). It is the dead who revive an ability to remember (hence their avoidance of the river Lethe). The “unincarnated thought” returns to the Underworld. For Mandelstam. Forgetfulness plagues both poems.” Ovid’s exile has been a continuous event since he wrote his Tristia (after 8 c.” the soul is slow to hand over her payment for crossing the river. the poem evokes the failure to remember poetic words as a descent into Hades. The images of the dry riverbed. The close correspondence between these two psyche poems is characteristic of Mandelstam: The presentation of variants demonstrates his belief that the drafts of a poem are never lost. The title poem. lips (like breathing). though the title was not initially of Mandelstam’s choosing. “Tristia. where he complains. suggest the act of composing poetry. both emotional and literary. interiorized poems. respectively. The river mentioned in both poems is not Lethe. but Styx. and the connotations of tristia. It evokes the landscape of the Mediterranean or Crimean seas to frame tender. the river of forgetfulness. mythological figures are mentioned. rising toward divinations of the future in the final stanza. however. equates the fear of death’s oblivion with the loss of poetry. There are several kinds of separation involved.” In “When Psyche-Life Descends to the Shades.Mandelstam. of birds that cannot be heard. There is joy in recognizing the repetition of historical and personal events. The moment of recognition or remembrance is sought after in vain in “Ia slovo pozabyl. the science of which the speaker says he has studied to the point of knowing it well. so that these twin poems conclude with a kind of optimism.e.” addresses the difficulties of separation. however fearful. The title is the same as that of a work by Ovid. the boundary of Hades. “How poor is the language of joy. The poet feels the difficulty of moving from one kind of separation to another in stanza 3. something develops in “I Have Forgotten the Word I Wanted to Say. These poems also demonstrate the general Acmeist principle that there is no final or closed version of any work of literature.” With the slowness so crucial to the entire volume. written during his exile. of a blind swallow with clipped wings—all suggest an artist’s sterility. “I Have Forgotten the Word I Wanted to Say. such as Persephone or Antigone for their descent into the Underworld or for their devotion to the funeral ritual. Psyche poems In the psyche poems. chto ia khotel skazat’” (“I Have Forgotten the Word I Wanted to Say”). from women seeing men off to battle in stanza 1 to men and women facing their particular deaths in stanza 4. Like its companion poem “Kogda Psikheia-zhizn’ spuskaetsia k teniam” (“When Psyche-Life Descends to the Shades”). Mandelstam here performs his usual chronological sleight of hand in juxtaposing several ages in history.” a formula repeated in one poem. to recognize meanings as significant as those of the divining women at the end of “Tristia. “Slate Ode” and “The Horseshoe Finder” Two of Mandelstam’s most startling and most difficult poems date from the early 1920’s: “Nashedshii podkovu” (“The Horseshoe Finder”) and “Grifel’ naia oda” 119 .” where the “twilight” of the title could mean “sunset” as well as “dawn. Osip Several poems in Tristia treat the social causes of Mandelstam’s fear of poetic failure.Eastern European Poets Mandelstam. The city arches its back threateningly in “In Petersburg We Shall Meet Again”. is what seemed immutable in Stone: faith in the word as the center of Russian culture. The air is steamy. though with difficulty. Yet. The age is dying in “Net. yet the speaker clings to his “word” as if oblivious of everything else. as in the exhortation to be brave in “The Twilight of Freedom. The poem displays terrifying sights and sounds.” “In Petersburg We Shall Meet Again” also chooses an ambiguous source of light. the sun is buried and the “night sun” illuminates the final stanza. as well as some twenty new poems.” the “blessed. Images from the psyche poems reappear with more pronounced political overtones.” What endures in Tristia. Not being able to breathe. I Was Never Anyone’s Contemporary”). the back is broken in “Vek” (“The Age”). Several had appeared in the second edition of Tristia. they are permeated by a fear of disorder that so threatened Mandelstam’s voice that he ceased writing poems altogether from 1925 to 1930. but stars that look down menacingly from the evening firmament. The source of light in these poems is not the sun. not even the occluded or nighttime sun. a poem whose first line discloses as well as any of his works Mandelstam’s alienated state of mind. The poem closes with a crowd leaving a theater. expressing perfectly Mandelstam’s perception of the Revolution as potentially empowering but finally overpowering. as impossible to breathe as the sky is to behold. like not being able to speak. and watery.” the poetic voice affirms its power to live beyond the threats of “Lethe’s cold” or the “Soviet night. among them two of his most famous: “Sumerki svobody” (“The Twilight of Freedom”) and “V Peterburge my soidomsia snova” (“In Petersburg We Shall Meet Again”). Both poems respond to the Revolution of 1917 ambiguously if not pessimistically. dark. The sun both rises and sets in “The Twilight of Freedom. from ominous patrols to whizzing sirens.” The people appear as both powerful and restrained. foamy. conveys Mandelstam’s extraordinary difficulty in writing during this period. In “In Petersburg We Shall Meet Again. In “The Twilight of Freedom. Poems In 1928. nikogda nichei ia ne byl sovremennik” (“No. where the end of the performance suggests the end of an entire culture. These poems are even less optimistic than the ambiguous poems of Tristia. meaningless word” that the poet feared forgetting in the Psyche poems seems miraculously renewed.” there are immobilized swallows. Mandelstam published a volume of poems comprising revised versions of Stone and Tristia. bound into “fighting legions. Mandelstam. Mandelstam wanted no part of the changes around him. In the South and in Moscow. “The Horseshoe Finder” binds together long. observes the poet. Mandelstam returned to Leningrad. disgust at the ethos of the Socialist Utopia. echoing the famous Pushkin line. an outcast in the family of man” in a poem dedicated to Anna Akhmatova. had the official literary establishment not been forcing him out of print. irregular verse lines without rhyme (a new form for Mandelstam) by repeating and interweaving clusters of consonants. The secret police could have arrested Mandelstam. Rejecting the slow realizations of Tristia. “familiar to the point of tears.” In “Lamarck. however. self-definition nears self-denigration as the surrounding cultural edifices crumble and 120 . that he does not want to die. the poet lives on back stairs. also a talismanic emblem for poetry in “Slate Ode. Mandelstam was befriended by several biologists. though. Osip Critical Survey of Poetry (“Slate Ode”). . so that intensely personal poems avoid all solipsism.” “Leningrad” Mandelstam resumed writing poetry in 1930. has grown dumb. his dear friend and fellow poet who also suffered ostracism. for any number of works from the early 1930’s. describing “cockroach whiskers” and “fat fingers. and other authors who in turn provided Mandelstam with a new metaphor for expressing his dislike of the age’s paeans to “progress. preserve the form of the last spoken word. The age.” The past can still be transmitted in “The Horseshoe Finder”: “Human lips .” is like finding the bottled message in Mandelstam’s essay “On the Addressee.” Mandelstam chooses to occupy the lowest step on the evolutionary ladder rather than join in the false advances urged by the government. the poem moves quickly from one metaphorical cluster to another. and fear that Russia’s genuine cultural heritage would perish are frequent themes. Hatred of the “songs” with which the Soviets had supplied the new age. there could easily have emerged a third volume of verse from the poems written in Moscow and Voronezh.” but these lips “have nothing more to say. like worms. . The poems test and affirm poetry’s ability to endure despite the shifting values of the age.” the poem was perhaps his angriest of the period. and. in copious images of the silence of deafness. he names himself as the “unrecognized brother. or breathe—toward those that do not produce poetry. The fate of the poet has become a metaphor for the fate of the culture. Mandelstam was arrested for the often-quoted epigram about Stalin. Finding the horseshoe. They inspired him to read Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Death moves inevitably through the poem. toward species that cannot hear. a task of self-definition. These steps bring humankind down in the evolutionary chain. as his address book leads only to “dead voices”.” In his poem “Leningrad. speak. The triangular relationship “world-self-text” emerges as a conflict to be resolved anew in each poem. Charles Darwin. awaiting guests who rattle a ball and chain. A clear task unites many of these poems.” Mandelstam proclaims against all odds. particularly in the late verse.” and returned to it for longer. The early predilection for exact rhyme is reshaped by an admixture of near rhymes of all sorts. The rhythms grow freer during the 1930’s as well. 121 . which might save his wife after his own death. but also entire cycles of variants. and avoidance of conventional poetic diction. Mandelstam’s confidence that a reader would someday seek to understand even his most labyrinthine poems shines through unexpectedly during the late period. as in “The Horseshoe Finder. terror—these are the themes that dominate the post-1930 poems to a degree that would separate them from the poems written before 1925 even if there were no other distinctions.Eastern European Poets Mandelstam. Destruction. the halfhearted desire to write an ode to Stalin. and rhyme that would have been inconceivable in the beautifully formed poems of Stone or Tristia. Hence. pain. where interweavings of sounds create controlling structures in lines that seem otherwise arbitrarily ordered. so also the poems formally demonstrated the pervasiveness of chaos. the late Mandelstam dramatizes rather than describes the act of self-definition. As Mandelstam wrote poems inspired by the chaos around him. conversely. long after he had himself fallen victim to the society at odds with him. Conventionally metered poems include aberrant lines of fewer or more metrical feet or with entirely different schemes. Hence the fluidity of “cross-references” in his poetry. Including fragments of conversation and unconventional constructions in these poems. where there are not only “twin” or “triplet” poems. as Nadezhda Mandelstam called them. Moving beyond the concrete referentiality of the early poems. Disintegration became both subject matter and structuring principle: The late poems demonstrate an openness. The poems grow rich in internal paronomasia. death. fragmentation. There are love poems to his wife and others—among the most remarkable is “Masteritsa vinovatykh vzorov” (“Mistress of Guilty Glances”)—as well as poems wherein renunciation yields extraordinary strength. among them the poems on the death of Bely in 1934. Mandelstam’s enduring gift. The communicative act between poet and reader overrides the encoding act between poet and world. Though the simple longings of the late poems may be futile. gave rise instead to a host of deeply honest poems that were as hopeful as they were embattled. more complex works such as “Polnoch’ v Moskve” (“Midnight in Moscow”). meter. The spontaneity that the late poems explore represents the final version of Mandelstam’s longstanding commitment to the openness of the poetic text. Osip threaten to bring the new Soviet literature down with them. as the reader is drawn deeply into the process of decoding the poet’s relationships with his world and his poems. the free verse of “Midnight in Moscow” permits interpolated lines of perfect or near-perfect meter. Mandelstam was converting the destructive chaos around him to his own ends. the act of recording his desires into completely threatened poems represents Mandelstam’s typical achievement in the late works. was to find strength in the deepest threats to his identity. Mandelstam had used free verse in the 1920’s. 1965). 1976. 1973. Shary. Clarence. 1926. Mandelstam: The Later Poetry.: Harvard University Press. 1977). Brown. 1928 (The Egyptian Stamp. 1975.: Princeton University Press. A detailed analysis of Mandelstam’s poems inspired by. Places Mandelstam within the modernist tradition of T. Toronto. 1967 (Conversation About Dante.J. Mandel’shtam’s Poetics: A Challenge to Postmodernism. New York: Cambridge University Press. children’s literature: Dva tramvaya.: University of Toronto Press. 1965). 1933 (travel sketch. 1981 (Collected Works. 122 . 1966 (wr. Nadezhda. New York: Atheneum. Razgovor o Dante. Shum vremeni. 1987. The study of these poems has been somewhat neglected because of their enigmatic nature. war and revolution. Describes Mandelstam’s intellectual world and its effect on his evolution as a thinker. Clare. specifically. Ont. Brown’s analyses of Mandelstam’s poems are particularly valuable. 1965). Osip Mandelstam and the Modernist Creation of Tradition. 1926. 1973). 1925 (autobiography. covering all aspects of Mandelstam’s life and work. The first volume of memoirs written by Mandelstam’s wife. 1925. 1922 (About the Nature of the Word. 1930 or 1931. The best authority on Mandelstam in the English-speaking world presents his seminal work. 1967-1969). 1977). Slovo i kul’tura: Stat’i. Analyses Mandelstam’s thoughts on poetry and art in the context of the major postmodern literary debates and traces their development throughout his writings.Mandelstam. 1970. Theodosia. 1965). Eliot and Ezra Pound of reflecting a “world culture” divorced from strict national or ethnic identity. Steven. Broyde. 1970). Elena. Jennifer. in Russian and in English. Feodosiya. Mandelstam. Fourth Prose. 1964-1971. Cavanagh. dealing with biographical details but also with the genesis of many of Mandelstam’s poetms. Cambridge. 1928 (About Poetry. 1925 (autobiography. Primus. nonfiction: O prirode slova. Kukhnya. Hope Against Hope: A Memoir. New York: Cambridge University Press. miscellaneous: Sobranie sochinenii. on differences in his attitude toward language. Osip Mandelstam and His Age: A Commentary on the Themes of War and Revolution in the Poetry. N. Bibliography Baines. 1955. Journey to Armenia. The Complete Critical Prose and Letters. Mass. Selected Essays. Princeton. 1977. Osip Critical Survey of Poetry Other major works short fiction: Yegipetskaya marka. 1995. 2000. Puteshestviye v Armeniyu. 1913-1923. The Noise of Time. Glazov-Corrigan. There are many citations of poems. Scholarly treatment of Mandelstam’s poems written in Moscow and Voronezh in the 1930’s. S. Chetvertaia proza. 1979. 1925. O poezii. Mandelstam. and centered on. his affinity to architecture and archaeology. 1974. 1995. Nancy.: Ardis. Zeeman. Zeeman uses primarily contextualization and historical reconstruction in his discussion of the poems. The Later Poetry of Osip Mandelstam: Text and Context. and reflection of. The two genres receive approximately equal treatment. Ryszard. Translated by Madeline G. Mich. The second volume of the memoirs. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Detailed interpretations and analyses of Mandelstam’s poems written in the 1930’s. A study of Mandelstam’s late verse and prose. the musical quality of his poetry. The author places Mandelstam in the framework of world literature. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Prsybylski. 1988. A noted Polish scholar treats Mandelstam’s attraction to. Pollack.Eastern European Poets Mandelstam. Levine. but the analyses of poems tend to be deeper. Stephanie Sandler 123 . some of which are among the most difficult of all Mandelstam’s poems. Greek and Roman classicism. New York: Atheneum. Peter. and other features of the poetry. Hope Abandoned. An Essay on the Poetry of Osip Mandelstam: God’s Grateful Guest. Osip _______. Mandelstam the Reader. Ann Arbor. 1987. and nearly the entire edition was destroyed at the printer’s a month later by the invading German army. 1935 Demerung in Shpigl. parochialism. 1951. 1984 (reprintings of the Khumish Lider with later additions) Lid un Balade. Dos Bukh fun Gan-Eden (1939. satirized. even by its speakers. a language fit not for literature but for low-class entertainment. Yiddish culture—its folklore. 1939. faith. rhyming wedding jesters. is a fantasy set in Paradise—a humorous vision of the afterlife in which familiar human weaknesses and pains persist. and writers of the nineteenth century and earlier. he learned the art of simplicity. These popular artists expressed themselves in Yiddish when it was considered. 1965). 1969 Principal poetry Shtern oifn Dakh. 1933 Khumish Lider. and memorialized. itinerant actors. Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Chernivtsi. May 28. Ukraine). Only a handful of review copies mailed to the United States survived. Itzik Manger (MAYNG-ur) published in the Warsaw Yiddish press his Noente Geshtaltn (intimate figures). February 20. a newspaper series of bittersweet. fantasy is the everyday norm. They were Manger’s first heroes. Manger’s only novel. Seeing himself as the modern heir of the itinerant Yiddish entertainers of older times. fictionalized portraits of twenty forerunners of Yiddish poetry: troubadours. 1929 Lamtern in Vint. 1942 Der Shnyder-gezeln Nota Manger Zingt.ITZIK MANGER Born: Czernowitz. Israel. from their earthy folk style. 1937 Volkens ibern Dakh. and the wrinkles are provided by earthly reality: the reality of human nature and the folkways of the Eastern European Jewish community. 1901 Died: Gadera. the cultural movement in which he was personally active was the Yiddish theater. In Manger’s novel. and beauty—is celebrated. Manger was drawn to the musical theater as a medium for di124 . The Book of Paradise. In The Book of Paradise. Bukovina. 1967 Other literary forms In 1938. 1948 Medresh Itzik. 1969. The Book of Paradise was published in Warsaw in August. Although Manger’s poetry places him in the line of the English and German Romantics and the French Symbolists. 1952 Shtern in Shtoib. a romance based on the lives of early Romanian Yiddish actors. published in 1936 but not staged until thirty years later. His poems assimilated and refined diverse sensibilities and philosophies. Manger’s gentle yet hardheaded. and belatedly. Manger was an intimate figure. Maariv. For people whose beliefs in various opposing movements of Judaism and European humanism had failed. Manger’s anarchistic eclecticism. two prime ministers of Israel. Manger gleaned from these sources all that answered a human 125 . or necessary. In 1935. Manger’s adaptation of Abraham Goldfaden’s operetta. sensuous poetry was a spiritual renewal.) Sometime in the 1930’s. a lighthearted. muse. Shalom Rosenfeld. Achievements Itzik Manger’s place in the cultural history of the Jews was officially recognized in 1969 with the first annual awarding of the Manger Prize for Yiddish Literature. His unusual popularity as a poet brought him the opportunity to write for several Yiddish theater productions in the 1930’s. from Hasidism to nihilism. and friend. Hotzmakh Shpiel. Manger’s best-known work for the theater is the tragicomic operetta Megillah Lider. It stirred much interest in Manger among the Yiddish-scorning youth of Israel and led to the Hebrew-speaking public’s discovery of Manger’s more serious poetry. producing his first musicals in wine cellars and barns. editor in chief of the Tel Aviv daily. himself a poet. The committee made public what had been the private sentiment of many readers. Yiddle with His Fiddle). and the committee’s chairman. His poems had the power to evoke feelings and discoveries of religious intensity. Blondzne Shtern. cheerful acceptance of the evanescence of all meaning. hallucinating scenes. Yidl mitn Fidl (released 1936. Y. Levi Eshkol and Golda Meir. but with a light touch. Di Kishufmakherin (the sorceress). Goldfaden appears on his deathbed. Among the twelve founding members of the Manger Prize Committee were the Hebrew writer S. he wrote the lyrics for the first Yiddish musical film. Manger wrote the lyrics for the Warsaw musical production of Sholom Aleichem’s novel. It began to appear in translation in newspapers and magazines.Eastern European Poets Manger. Manger became the first Yiddish writer since Sholom Aleichem to win a wide readership in Israel. Zalman Shazar. Agnon (corecipient of the 1966 Nobel Prize in Literature). His troupes played throughout Eastern Europe and in England in the 1880’s and 1890’s. when it was set to music by Dov Seltzer and performed in Israel and on Broadway as The Megillah of Itzik Manger. the then-president of Israel. 1912 (Wandering Star. In Manger’s gallery of portraits in Noente Geshtaltn. The first production of Manger’s operetta played from 1965 to 1969. Itzik rect contact with his audience. from Saint Francis to Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. a teacher. (Goldfaden founded the Yiddish theater in the 1870’s in Romania. 1952). Both for the older generation who knew the poet from prewar years in Europe and for the younger generation who had just discovered him. was performed in Warsaw in 1936. This acceptance made possible. This left him time to frequent cafés and wine cellars where Gypsy fiddlers played and to volunteer as a stagehand in the Yiddish theaters of Czernowitz and later Jassy. Zaida Avremel the wagon driver. The Mangers moved often. and tenderness charmed away his culture’s old. Manger’s poetry readings in the 1930’s drew audiences of thousands in the major cities of Poland. that which was abstract and therefore susceptible to rigidity and mystification. and settled there. the first of three children close in age. Manger was enrolled in a state secondary school in Czernowitz but was expelled in the second semester. haunted Manger. these preferences are not new. The mother was pious and barely literate. His birthplace was the ethnically Romanian and Jewish city Czernowitz (now Chernivtsi. Ukraine). a province of the Austrian Empire. responsible cultivation of wisdom. Manger’s artful mixture of innocence. revealed wonders of nature and perspective to the boy from the slums. the Russian-ruled Ukraine. illusion. “A roof I didn’t inherit from my parents. and wisdom. the founder of the Hasidic movement. and the independent state of Romania. what is unusual is how far Manger’s love strove to outgrow itself. beauty. its official language was German. irony.” They were a happy family. but she knew thousands of Yiddish folk songs.” Manger wrote. and faith and the wisdom of memory and detachment. to reconcile the reckless thirst for meaning and beauty with the sober. Riding through the countryside with his grandfather. Among poets. together with his brother and their younger sister. The city was situated at the intersection of Bukovina. where the spirit of the Baal Shem Tov. Itzik Critical Survey of Poetry yearning. Local musicians played the tunes they had composed for his words. the Manger family fled to Jassy. he sloughed off. in their paternal grandparents’ home. When the Russian army invaded Bukovina in 1914. Within a decade of the publication of Manger’s first book. deviltry. from kindergarten through secondary school. After finishing the traditional Jewish school for boys. 126 .Manger. Not since the days of Aleichem’s public reading tours a generation back had the flowering Yiddish cultural scene experienced such festivity. “but stars—plenty. argumentative obsessions with justice and truth. capital of Bukovina. Biography Itzik Manger was born in 1901 to Hillel Manger and Khava Voliner Manger. The future poet. Their home served also as the family’s tailor shop. and over the years he returned again and again to this setting in his poetry. The misty Carpathian Mountains. where he absorbed the folklore of his nineteenth century forerunners. his works were in the curriculum of every grade in the secular Jewish school system of Poland. going from one single-room apartment or basement to another when the rent was due. offering instead less instructive but more deeply satisfying ideals: love. had roamed seven generations before. spent childhood summers in the country. His works offered a way to live between beauty and wisdom—between the beauty of sensation. capital of the Romanian province of Moldavia. the religious faith of the Jews had been eroded by contact with the outside world and its liberal ideas. Romania. His doubts were banished when. the stories of I.” he wrote in a manifesto in his twenties. Their example attracted the young writer of German poetry to his mother tongue and its speakers. Friedrich Nietzsche. the immigration quotas set by the United States Congress closed the “Golden Door. His teens were an exhilarating time for him and his brother. public service. political and cultural nationalism. “All roads lead to Rome and all roads lead to the kingdom of Beauty. Nota. L. where he was active in the Yiddish avant-garde grouped around Eliezer Steinbarg. after the mass migration to the United States. and Jewish folklore. Amid the welter of mass movements promising the Jews a brighter future. World War I. an apprentice-tailor working for Manger’s father introduced the boy to the works of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Yiddish had no tradition of poetry other than primitive folk writings and inspirational polemics. and Heinrich Heine. The group’s influences were Russian.) Before the late nineteenth century. and art. In the popular Gentile mind. labor conflict. peddlers. The gutsy and delicate lyricism of Moishe Leib Halpern and Mani Leib gave new power to Yiddish and set Manger on his course: He would refine the spirits of his ancient and modern fathers in the language of his mother’s lullabies. The spirit of the group reflected that of the times: Europe was in ferment and the Jews were in turmoil. Itzik In Czernowitz. Peretz and Aleichem created a body of modern Yiddish literature. During Manger’s childhood and youth. At thirteen. intellectual activity. in his late teens. and German literature mixed with Slavic. During his twenties. Lithuania. wondering whether modern poetry could be written in the language of wagon drivers. after an adolescent leftist period. sexual revolution. Paul Verlaine. and “Saint” Baudelaire. raised the unlikely banner of the renewal of Yiddish folk song. and the Russian Civil War broke up what was left. Manger started to write in Yiddish.” Some of the roads taken by 127 .Eastern European Poets Manger. leftist radicalism. of the old Eastern European Jewish communities. Manger. the traditionally despised Jews became the symbol of all the changes that were hitting Europe too fast: inflation. In 1923. and Germany. Gypsy. A minority clung zealously to fundamentalism. together they discovered Rainer Maria Rilke. and radical “modern” ideas of all kinds.” and Jews came in increasing numbers to the large cities of Eastern and Central Europe. At fifteen. “Our wounds need balm. the intensity of the lost faith became converted into various new drives: assimilation. For the newly “emancipated” Jews. the Bolshevik Revolution. the world seemed to totter between salvation and ruin. (Manger gave that title to only two others: Homer and the Baal Shem Tov. economic and professional ambition. Hasidism. he encountered the work of two immigrant Yiddish poets who were writing in New York. and uneducated women. Manger was based in Bucharest. French. for the rest. Anti-Semitic parties and economic boycotts proliferated in Poland. Throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth. Manger began writing poetry in German. Friedrich Schiller. visa. He considered the Yiddish-speaking immigrant community of New York as the closest thing to a home and as 128 . Manger’s effect on his audience was described by a poet who grew up in Poland in the 1920’s. The two months that he spent in a Liverpool hospital upon his arrival from Algiers did not completely cure him of the effects of the hunger and exhaustion he had suffered while fleeing the Nazis. a wistful. Not much is known of his two years in France.S.Manger. Nota. Itzik Critical Survey of Poetry Yiddish poets in the 1920’s came under his attack. he instantly became a folk hero. In 1942. When his first book. she was Manger’s companion and nurse for most of his ten years in England. Manger managed the German section of a London bookstore owned by Margaret Waterhouse.” In 1928. women. Shtern oifn Dakh (stars on the roof). While his people were being massacred in Europe. 1958. Manger fled to Algiers. He criticized the radical modernists who were influenced by trends in Germany and the Soviet Union for breaking away from their Jewish roots and experimenting with deliberately unmusical verse. secular or sacred. For a people whose religion was built on preserving strict dichotomies. a great-granddaughter of the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. addressing crowds in outdoor markets. Manger left Warsaw in 1938. He had joined the Army of the Red Star as a believer in Socialism. and wine cellars. he traveled throughout the Jewish centers of Romania. With his brother’s meager earnings as a tailor and the occasional support of culture patrons. popular or classical. where there was a colony of expatriate Eastern European Jewish artists and intellectuals. traveling to Paris. exposure. where thousands of legally stateless refugees scrambled for the limited opportunities of transport to safer destinations. died on a Soviet collective farm from hunger. As the German army approached Paris in 1940. It was there that he wrote his fantasy novel. Manger’s brother. in the autumn. known throughout Eastern Europe. gently mocking love letter to the world he had left behind. the main center of Yiddish life and culture. and Lithuania. Nourished by an enthusiastic public in Warsaw. The Book of Paradise. was published in 1929. The glint in Manger’s eye caught the interest of a boat captain and won Manger a space on a boat to Liverpool in late 1940. During the war. issue of Di goldene Keit. Manger moved to Warsaw. the Israeli Yiddish literary journal that he edited: It was “like a child with a mirror throwing a drop of sun on an old man. Avraham Sutzkever. and what rabbis called Decadent poetry. and his poor health was aggravated by his increased drinking in England. political meetinghouses. Manger immersed himself in English and Scottish folklore: “From Herrick to Burns” was his title for an unpublished anthology of English poetry that he did not finish translating into Yiddish. Manger waited for a U. Manger dissolved such rigid categories as old-fashioned or modern. he wrote more than half of his lifework there and nearly all his best. tired of writers’ feuds and of the scandals caused by his penchant for wine. and battle wounds. reading poetry and lecturing on Yiddish folklore and Aleichem’s sad humor. Poland. Nevertheless. During his years in England. Yiddish was the language of the ghetto. The little poetry that he wrote in New York had a tired feeling. whose Jewish community had invited him to give a series of readings and lectures during the last months of his wait for a U. liberated. New York was a disappointment. He managed to antagonize and alienate most of his friends. It was clear that its Yiddish cultural scene had little future beyond the generation then growing old. As he lay in Israeli hospitals for the last two and a half years of his life. the Jews of America were rushing to assimilate. the compelling myths and visions were those of a Hebrew future (Zionism) or past (traditional Judaism). They lived in Brooklyn for the next fifteen years. to most of the generation that grew up after the Great Depression. the country that had struggled to do away with the history of the Jewish Diaspora—the Diaspora whose language. lived to see the redemption of the years he had spent facing oblivion. he and his works were neglected. Three weeks after the return of his power of speech. The humanistic renewal of Jewish culture that had been carried on in Yiddish squandered much of its idealism and prestige in leftist ideological squabbling that seemed anachronistic. the bitterness of the Holocaust survivors was sublimated by the positive determination to build a country. with each writer coveting a share of a shrunken audience. enlightened. whose literary editors and their friends were his rivals for the title of the “Last Great Yiddish Poet. whose history Jews wanted to forget. however. helped to restore his spirits.Eastern European Poets Manger. to their old tunes and to new ones as well. freest. he left England for Montreal. For most of those who clung to their ethnic roots. After the passing excitement of his arrival in the United States. and exalted. In New York. during a tour making public appearances in American cities. and schleppers he had celebrated. The enthusiasm with which he was received both in Montreal and. Itzik the only audience that could support him. ethos. he heard the news of the nation’s rediscovery of his works.” Manger. critics in New York referred to him as a mere “balladeer” or “satirist. at best. attended by crowds in the thousands. The remnants of the thriving Yiddish cultural scene of prewar Europe had become concentrated in a few neighborhoods of New York. the bitterness of the non-Zionist Yiddishists spilled out on the only people with whom they had much contact: one another. the widow of the Yiddish writer Moishe Nadir. visa. In 1951. Finding a society more open and tolerant than they or their ancestors had ever had. Ironically. he met and married Genya Nadir. 129 .” As if to belittle his stature as the most popular poet by far in the history of Yiddish. In the midst of the largest. He read of the Manger festivals presented by the nation’s cultural elite. it came to him in Israel. totally crippled and speechless from a nervous disease but still able to show something of a smile. in Hebrew translation.S. Manger fell into the mood that his poetry had taught others to transcend: bitterness. later that year. and richest Jewish community in history. In 1951. he heard pop stars and schoolchildren singing his poems. On the radio. In Israel. he died. Manger complained in his letters that he was being boycotted by the Yiddish journals of New York. In style and theme. still lifes. gangster jargon. scenes of local color—it is the ballads that have most interested literary critics. which appeared in 1921 in the Bucharest Yiddish journal. The poem anticipates Manger’s mature verse. so that all that is left to do is smile at a crumbled convention. satires. and beautiful. when the thread runs out. mood reflections. provocative understatement and paradox. prayers. psychological realism. Manger acknowledged that he was influenced by the traditional British ballad of the supernatural. detached perspectives. traditional prayers. it is as if the reader has secretly sensed it already. confessions. He went out of his way to use it in rhymes. In “The Ballad of the Bridal Veil. In his essay “The Ballad: The Vision of Blood. Ballads Of the many kinds of poems that Manger wrote—ballad. wondrous. He loved the moon and brings it in dozens of times: as a big loaf of bread for a hungry family. edited by the fabulist-poet Eliezer Steinbarg. only lightheartedness and folk traditionalism were missing. ditties. compassion for characters on the fringe of society. regional Yiddish dialects. love poems. A list of the poets and other sources he both plagiarized and collaborated with would run as long as the Jewish exile. twilight blurring of the natural and the supernatural. Itzik Critical Survey of Poetry Analysis Using the verse patterns and simple language of traditional Yiddish folk songs. of his essential traits. autobiographies. With seeming indiscriminateness. but usually just as the moon. The poetic clichés that Manger enjoyed using would make a novice blush. Kultur. Equally unoriginal is the form in which he almost always wrote. Manger’s voice changes not only from poem to poem but also often within the same poem. disappointment. rhymed quatrains: He meant for his poems to be sung. and burlesque theater with the poetic traditions of Europe. children’s songs. His anachronisms have their own integrity.” published in 1929. This influence was already apparent in “Ballad of a Streetwalker.Manger. frustration—but his poems usually evoke smiles. his poems transform the commonplace into something subtle. classical mythology. with its emphasis on the primacy of the moment. an earring for Rachel. confusion. lullabies. like an intuitive click or a rhyme. he mixes nursery rhymes.” his first published poem. Indeed. and word music. Itzik Manger created a style that brought modern poetic sensibilities to an ordinary audience. mystical fancies. At midnight.” published in Manger’s first collection. elegies. a maiden is spinning thread for her bridal veil. distant. Their coming together feels perfectly natural to a reader. a crescent twinkling in Hagar’s hair. it also resolves itself. In the same moment that one of Manger’s paradoxes hits the reader. plain speech. seven aged 130 . and the same can be said of his irrationalities and contradictory traits in general. His subjects are sad—loneliness. lyric odes. death. With unsentimental compassion and delicately eccentric charm.” The young family goes off. the first five 131 .” What in real life is a bitterly tragic conflict is ameliorated in the poem by the enchantingly grotesque and comic action. With a folksy Yiddish playfulness that belies the tension latent in the ballad. He decides that he must become a bird. grotesque symbolism. He became more resigned to chaos. Just as he is about to take flight. and a respect for mundane exigencies as an escape from spiritual tension. All he can do is sing.Eastern European Poets Manger. from head to toe. she rushes to bundle him up against the weather. they introduce themselves. the body of law that developed as an attempt to fix a detailed code of behavior based on the teachings of the Torah (the books of Moses. there is a lighter touch. by the fact that it is the frustrated child who expresses the generously tragic perspective of the final sentence. He lifts his wings. they go to get married. Itzik women enter. carrying a thin thread tied to the grave. nuances of bittersweet irony./ It was her love that didn’t let/ Me become a bird. With scissors. yet none of his works is tragedy. sprout a wonderful husband. and intergenerational relations that is the foundation of Jewish civilization. and after she brushes off the worm dangling from his nose. alienation. a homey Jewish warmth. While he continued to explore the irrational and to develop his ghostly. “I look sadly in my Mama’s/ Eyes. For adult Jewish men. The groom then dismisses his dead mother-in-law. Her face has turned white. marriage problems. as if he had been released from a spell. the daughter snips him apart from the grave. and the maiden turns to the mirror. as “we no longer need you. but he insists. and by the poet’s setting of the lyrics to a lullaby tune. and perplexity. but he is now too heavy. In the ballads Manger wrote after his twenties. On her mother’s instruction. so that they are sung (confessed?) by parents to their children. and the mother’s grave waits outside the officiating rabbi’s house. Religious influences Manger’s folkloristic approach to family situations was in the tradition begun in the Book of Genesis. and with the white thread of their hair they weave her a veil. “The Ballad of Hanna’leh the Orphan” exemplifies this later style.” a child looks outside and sees birds flying away for the winter. The tears she sheds on the grave. His mother warns him of the dangers. the poet exposes the powerful secret fears and the twisted longings and loves of his heroes. the traditional course of study has been the interpretation and argumentation of the Talmud. the daughter cries again—this time for a baby girl—and one sprouts from the grave. “The Bent Tree” A tragic sense pervades Manger’s work. As soon as they meet. An orphan girl is visited by her mother’s grave. they depart. the collection of prose poems about sibling rivalries. In “The Bent Tree. without a word. about to fly. he filled his later ballads with incongruous turns of phrase and rhythm. on her mother’s instruction. he makes a dance of the strange collisions and collusions of instinct. At dawn. cruelty. Torah and God of Israel. 132 . a sixteenth century Yiddish version of the Bible. Sarah. Abraham rides with Isaac to the sacrifice: “Where are we riding to. she pauses to look at a straw summer hat. . Jephthah’s Daughter.Manger. to the Fair. and anecdotes about modern-day heroes (such as Jewish tailors) and villains (such as Christian gentry). a woman who could read only haltingly and could not write at all. which embellish the original biblical texts. Bathsheba. as “poison for Jewish children” and “blasphemy against the People. Khumish Lider With an imagination whose first literary influence was the Tsena Urena. .” Fully a third of the Khumish Lider is about women caught in a man’s world: Abishag the Shunamite (five ballads). legends included in the Talmud. “This must be what was meant for us. For Jewish women and children. A trumpet and a drum. the rabbinical council of Poland. In Lashkev. Such were the ways of the Patriarchs/ With their long and pious beards. Itzik Critical Survey of Poetry books of the Old Testament). Manger wrote his own Midrashim. Eliezer. at the Fair?” “A porcelain toy soldier. household advice. the path along which the tradition developed has been the study of the Old Testament stories themselves and of the Midrashim. and Hagar (three ballads). Manger’s accomplishment was to infuse the sacred stories with a sensitivity developed by a people’s long and varied experience of living with them—a gift back to its source. at the instigation of his wife. Dinah. adapted for women. . She sighs./ Ishmaelik’l. don’t be scared . . Daddy. . With his wagon driver. Daddy?” “To Lashkev. The book is a rambling narrative of retellings of the original stories according to the Midrashim. the mother of his son Ishmael. his Khumish Lider. interwoven with fairy tales. In Manger’s religious education. and some beads that Abraham gave her in better days. In one of the last-named ballads. Her knowledge of the Bible came from the Tsena Urena. Hagar. a silk apron. And some satin for a dress For Mama back at home. The characters in the Tsena Urena are portrayed with the quaint reverence of the rabbinic tradition. transporting the patriarchs to a nineteenth century Eastern European Jewish setting. . As Hagar packs her things to leave. the Khumish Lider was banned by Agudas Yisroel. . Ruth (eight ballads). .” “What are you going to buy me. Abraham dismisses his concubine.” One month after its publication in 1935. exhortations to piety. the key influence was his mother. but with an intimacy and historical naïveté that presents them as if they were members of the reader’s family several generations removed.” From another perspective. though Manger is more gentle. pr.: Yale University Press. 2002. Bibliography Davin. Itzik. 1961. Itzik The Holocaust For a Yiddish poet. New York: Vantage Press. Other major works long fiction: Dos Bukh fun Gan-Eden. Kahn. 1939 (The Book of Paradise. and bringing the horror down to the small scale of a personal and subjective view. 333 in Dictionary of Literary Biography. 1980. Conn. 1938. Shmuel Niger. 1993): 211-235. no. if taken as an affectionate tribute to the poet’s childlike capacity for wonder. the preeminent Yiddish critic. 1965). miscellaneous: Gezamlte Shriftn. 1975. Contains an essay discussing Manger’s life and works. biography. referred to Manger as “a hopeless romantic”—an apt judgment. Roskies and Leonard Wolf. nonfiction: Noente Geshtaltn. Sherman. In his few poetic attempts to face the destruction of his people and culture. Closing Times. In the survey of Yiddish literature that appears in The Jewish People: Past and Present (an English-language reference work published between 1952 and 1955). he took two approaches: involving Jewish folk motifs and legendary figures in the reality and its aftermath. Vol. 2007.” Prooftexts: A Journal of Jewish Literary History 13. David Maisel 133 . 1936 (libretto. the tone of some of his poems recalls the pessimism of Ecclesiastes. 1979. Manger wrote surprisingly little about the Holocaust. including Manger. A biographical and critical overview of Manger’s life and work. 2002. The World According to Itzik: Selected Poetry and Prose. and literary criticism. A collection of essays on Yiddish writers. New Haven. David G. “The Last of the Purim Players: Itzik Manger.Eastern European Poets Manger. visionary experience prevails over sorrow. Introduction by David G. Joseph. The sad streak that had always run through his poetry grew more pronounced in the 1940’s. he ekes enchanting meaning and music out of the quotidian. Detroit: Thomson Gale. Portraits of Yiddish Writers. Megillah Lider. The Megillah of Itzik Manger. New York: Oxford University Press. 1936. In his poetry. The World According to Itzik: Selected Poetry and Prose. Roskies. Yitzhok. Translated and edited by Leonard Wolf. In poems that only obliquely show signs of struggle or historical awareness. Shriftn in Proze. plays: Hotzmakh Shpiel. and one who was so intimately attuned to the yearnings of his people. Dan. Translated by Joseph Leftwich. including Manger. Manger. 1965). A collection of correspondence and reminiscences by several authors. He told an interviewer in 1958 that much time would have to pass before hatred of the Germans and their helpers faded enough for artistic objectivity. ed. pr. 3 (September. Writers in Yiddish. This selected collection of Manger’s prose and poetry provides history. 1826 (Sonnets from the Crimea. 1855 Principal poetry Ballady i romanse. parts 2. The messianic fervor of Mickiewicz’s prose is exemplified by Ksiegi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego (1832. 1811 i 1812 we dwunastu ksiegach wierszem. November 26. 1917) Poems by Adam Mickiewicz. 1944-1946) Sonety krymskie. and customs of Poland. 1883) Pan Tadeusz: Czyli. at the same time. Lithuania. turning instead to religious and political works and to literary criticism. 1798-1998. 1956 The Sun of Liberty: Bicentenary Anthology. 1944 Selected Poetry and Prose. 4.” 1828 (“Faris”) Konrad Wallenrod. 1823 (English translation. gave voice to visions and prophecies. 1917) Sonety. Achievements Adam Mickiewicz embodied in his work the soul of the Polish people. 1998 Other literary forms In the last twenty years of his life. Adam Mickiewicz (meets-KYEH-veech). written to be 134 . 1925. he symbolized the land. fill several volumes of his complete works. 1834 (Pan Tadeusz: Or. the national bard and prophet of Poland. 1998 Treasury of Love Poems by Adam Mickiewicz. 4. 1940) Dziady. 1925). 1828 (English translation. a Tale of Gentlefolk in 1811 and 1812. His poems. wrote only a handful of poems. he portrayed the everyday life of the Polish people and. 1798 Died: Burgas. Mickiewicz’s lectures given at the Collège de France in Paris. Through his poetry.ADAM MICKIEWICZ Born: Zaosie. The Books of the Polish Nation and of the Polish Pilgrims. 1826 “Farys. and 3. 1832 (Forefathers’ Eve. 1955 Selected Poems. The Last Foray in Lithuania. Ostatni Zajazd na litwie historia Szlachecka zr. where from 1840 to 1844 he held the first chair of Slavic literature. 1833. 1823. parts 2. a tract written in a quasi-biblical style. Turkey. history. 1822 Gra/yna. December 24. and 3. in Twelve Books in Verse. Starting as a classicist and then quickly becoming a Romantic. while the gentry was predominantly Polish (old immigrants from Mazovia). Barbara (Orzeszko) Majewska . The first volume of Mickiewicz’s poetry was published in Wilno in an edition of five hundred copies. Devoid of hatred or mysticism. Moreover. he studied philology at the Univer135 . followed by the narrative poem Konrad Wallenrod. Mikolaj. Mickiewicz. when Poland was divided among Russia. In the district of Nowogródek. Prussia. During his greatest creative period. 1798. and Austria-Hungary. a tale in verse. the national bard of Poland. during his lifetime. it warmly and realistically depicts the Polish land and people and embodies a firm faith in their future. Poland did not exist as a sovereign state. It contained ballads and romances. Lithuania’s territory was greatly reduced. for Mickiewicz was born after the so-called Final Partition of 1795. and portrayed the common people in a simple but eloquent manner. Mickiewicz’s masterpiece. the area previously known as Byelorussia and the Ukraine were annexed by the warlike Grand Duchy of Lithuania. and parts 2 and 4 of a fragmentary fantastic drama. crucified for the sins of others. who condemned his Romanticism and his provincial idioms. After the Tartars’ savage destruction of Kiev in 1240. proclaiming that Poland was the Christ among nations. Pan Tadeusz. In four centuries. was also from the middle gentry. one of five sons. the peasants were Byelorussian. With the publication of these works. and after the union with the Polish Crown in 1386. in the years from 1832 to 1834. containing Gra/yna. never even saw Poland proper nor its cultural centers. A second volume followed in 1823. Mickiewicz’s father. It is noteworthy that Mickiewicz. His mother. however. he predicted that Poland would rise again. the Lithuanian gentry was almost completely Polonized. Mickiewicz became a national defender. a small town in Lithuania. started his education at home and then continued at the Dominican parochial school in Nowogródek. Warsaw and Krakow. near Nowogródek. With its publication. Adam understood by the common man. Mickiewicz became the founder of the Romantic movement in Polish literature. Mickiewicz published part 3 of Forefathers’ Eve. was a lawyer and a small landowner. the ardent patriot who gave such superb literary expression to the life and aspirations of the Polish people. Both families had a strong military tradition. Forefathers’ Eve. brought him instant popular acclaim but also exposed him to attacks from many critics. which seethed with the eternal hatred felt by the Poles for their Russian conquerors. set in medieval Lithuania. genres of poetry then unknown in Poland. Biography Adam Bernard Mickiewicz was born on December 24. it is the greatest work of Polish literature and perhaps the finest narrative poem in nineteenth century European literature. on the farmstead of Zaosie. Later. Like a prophet.Eastern European Poets Mickiewicz. An epic poem in twelve books depicting Polish life in Lithuania in 1811 and 1812. was also written during this period. and made a welcome guest in the literary salon of Princess Zenaida Volkonsky (herself an accomplished poet. Polish literature. a secret society that emphasized Polish patriotism and tried to influence public affairs. who later became a leader in the Insurrection of 1830-1831. Mickiewicz turned to writing Romantic poetry and. Mickiewicz secured permission to leave Russia and lived for a time in Switzerland and then in Rome. In 1834. gaining the admiration of Pushkin. Mickiewicz met and fell in love with Maryla Wereszczaka. he wrote part 3 of Forefathers’ Eve.” an Arabian tale. the daughter of a wealthy landowner. Mickiewicz settled in Paris. which glorifies the rustic life of the Polish gentry in picturesque Lithuanian Byelorussia and praises the Napoleonic invasion of Russia as symbolic of Poland’s hope for libera136 . Partially inspired by his unrequited love for Maryla. with the publication of two small volumes of poetry in 1822 and 1823. became the founder of the Romantic school in Poland. and Mickiewicz tried in vain to join the revolutionists in August. Adam Critical Survey of Poetry sity of Wilno. Odessa. After their trial on November 6. and married the rich Count Puttkamer instead. befriended by Alexander Pushkin and others. where he was warmly accepted into literary circles. whom he had met while still in Russia. complying with the wishes of her family. where he excelled in Latin and Polish literature. he married Celina Szymanowski. Mickiewicz was one of the six founders of the Philomathian Society. which had been converted to a prison. the youngest daughter of Maria Szymanowski. Maryla. Petersburg. a mystical and symbolic dramatic treatment of his imprisonment at Wilno by the Russian authorities. Mickiewicz and several of his friends were arrested by the Russian authorities for plotting to spread “senseless Polish nationalism” and were confined in the Basilian Monastery in Wilno. The marriage was unhappy because of her mental illness. where he spent most of his remaining years. After spending a short time in Kowno as a district teacher of Greek and Latin. After the defeat of the insurrection.” In 1829. Pan Tadeusz. 1824. He lived in St. During this period. whom Pushkin called “tsarina of muses and beauty”). and Moscow. He often improvised there. Mickiewicz’s next poem was his masterpiece. and history. 1831. In 1823. In 1819. Joachim Lelewel. Petersburg to work in an office. The poem embodied the anti-Russian feeling of the Polish people and intensified their hatred of their oppressor. and her early death left Mickiewicz with several small children. who was only a poor student. before his imprisonment and deportation. Mickiewicz returned to Wilno. inspired from above. Mickiewicz stayed in Russia almost four years and wrote his Sonety and Sonnets from the Crimea there as well as Konrad Wallenrod and “Faris. His earlier writing shows the influence of the pseudoclassical style then prevalent in Poland. however. a famous concert pianist. Mickiewicz and his friend Jan Sobolewski were sent to St. At the university. where he maintained close relations with his friends in the Philomathian Society. refused to marry Mickiewicz. The Polish Insurrection broke out in 1830.Mickiewicz. who called him “Mickiewicz. He was greatly influenced by a liberal historian. in despair. Mickiewicz spent his last years working for Polish independence and aiding fellow exiles. As he was a spokesperson in exile for Polish freedom. 1855. Mickiewicz went to Constantinople. Mickiewicz eludes categorization. his first significant poem. Mickiewicz fell under the influence of Andrzej Towia½ski. he raised Polish literature to a high level among Slavic literatures and to a prominent place in world literature. where it did not begin until the 1820’s. some thirty years later than in England and Germany. whose poetry grew out of his formative years in Lithuanian Byelorussia. His concerns as a poet went beyond poetry. Mickiewicz wrote poems that had universal as well as regional and national significance. oppressed Poland and to humanity at large. From classicism to Romanticism Mickiewicz’s work in philology at the University of Wilno instilled in him the values of eighteenth century classicism. this pathos becomes the dominant tone. evident in the clarity of his diction and the precision of his images. reflected the tradition of the Enlightenment. she talks to the ghost of her beloved. He contracted cholera and died on November 26. following the outbreak in the previous year of the Crimean War. 137 . concluding: “Faith and love are more discerning/ Than lenses or learning. Although he was in many respects the quintessential Romantic poet. “Oda do mlodokci” (“Ode to Youth”). His body was first sent to Paris. Unconditionally accepting Towia½ski’s claims . reflecting a responsibility to his beloved. where it now rests with Tadeusz Kokciuszko and the Polish kings. a charismatic figure who preached that a new period in Christianity was at hand and that he himself was its prophet. Analysis The Romantic movement had unique features in Poland. A poet of genius.” Revealing a Slavic preference for faith and feeling rather than Western rationalism. in 1890. Mickiewicz returned to these youthful ideas in his later. Mickiewicz treats her sympathetically. The most prominent literary figure of Romanticism in Poland was Adam Mickiewicz. Napoléon is with us”). Mickiewicz was compelled to give up his professorship at the Collège de France when he used his position to advance the doctrines of Towia½ski’s sect. Accordingly. Adam tion (“God is with Napoléon. more complex works. In 1855. which he hailed as a prelude to the liberation of Poland. Pan Tadeusz is a true national epic.Eastern European Poets Mickiewicz. After the publication of his masterpiece. He combined meticulous observation of the familiar world with an evocation of spiritual realms and supernatural experience. There is a strong classical strain running throughout his oeuvre. In the ballad “Romantycznok6” (“The Romantic”). so he remains a spokesperson for all those who share his hatred of tyranny. it was brought to Wawel Castle in Krakow. The poem concerns a woman who is mocked and regarded as insane because. but it also contained some of the pathos of Romanticism. Gustav kills himself. In the first part of Forefathers’ Eve. Forefathers’ Eve. Part 2 of Forefathers’ Eve (the first part of the poem to be written) is an idealization of this rite. mainly a group of fourteen “ballads and romances” prefaced with a survey of world literature. a sentimental novel by Baroness von Krüdener. in which Mickiewicz probably had participated as a boy in Lithuanian Byelorussia. Prussia. expresses his faith in the influence of the spirit world on man. at about the same time he wrote the highly personal and passionate Forefathers’ Eve. German. his ghost appears at the house of a priest and delivers passionate.Mickiewicz. Forefathers’ Eve. He explained that Forefathers’ Eve is the name of a ceremony celebrated by the common folk in memory of their ancestors in many parts of Byelorussia.” the programmatic poem of the Polish Romantic movement. Gra/yna Mickiewicz wrote Gra/yna. His first volume contained short poems. Gustav. pouring out his sad tale of disillusioned love while casting reproaches upon Maryla. and English literature. The genre of the fantastic drama was in fashion at the time. “The Vampire. since he is defeated by a mistake in judgment—his overwhelming love for a person who proves to be unworthy. With his first two volumes of poetry Mickiewicz raised the stature of Polish poetry. disappointed in his love for Maryla.” connected with that drama. for which he only completed a sketch. originated in pagan times and was frowned upon by the Church. Gra/yna resembles the tales or “novels” in verse characteristic of the Romantic movement in Western Europe but lacks the supernatural elements and the exoticism that distinguish such works. Gra/yna. and a short tale in verse. He recommends to the priest the rites of Forefathers’ Eve and finally reenacts his own suicide. parts 2 and 4 The second volume of Mickiewicz’s poems contained the second and fourth parts of the incomplete fantastic drama. In the fourth part of the poem. Adam Critical Survey of Poetry Mickiewicz’s shift toward a thoroughgoing Romanticism was influenced by his reading of Italian. His spirit appears and gazes on the shepherdess and then follows her as she is led out of a chapel. was based on a folk rite that involved serving a meal to the spirits of the departed on All Souls’ Day. Gustav is Mickiewicz’s version of the self-dramatizing Romantic hero. but he is also a tragic hero in the Aristotelian sense. Lithuania. Mickiewicz appears in the guise of Gustav. and by his love for Maryla Wereszczaka. “The Romantic. Mickiewicz added a section expressing his love for Maryla. an impersonal narrative poem. In a revised version of part 2 of Forefathers’ Eve. complete with ghosts and demons. The ceremony. He depicts Maryla as a “shepherdess in mourning dress” whose lover. sorrowful monologues. has died for her. a name taken from Valérie (1803). The poem concerns the Lithuanians’ struggle in the fourteenth century against the German 138 . once called the Feast of the Goat. by his study of early Lithuanian history. a short poem. Forefathers’ Eve. and Courland. was vastly different in thought and feeling and was met with hostile criticism from Mickiewicz’s classically minded contemporaries. and the mountains. the poem is set in medieval Lithuania during the conflict between the Lithuanians and the Knights of the Cross. There were few Polish models in the sonnet form. and it was this journey that produced the eighteen poems that constitute the Sonnets from the Crimea. critics have speculated that the three sonnets “Good Morning. and Lord Byron. the Lithuanian prince. The sonnets express an attitude toward nature that is characteristically Romantic and at the same time “modern”: Nature is valued for its own sake as well as for its symbolic reflection of the poet’s psychological states. plans to join the Teutonic Knights against Duke Witold. Mickiewicz had made a trip of nearly two months through the Crimea. she leads the Lithuanian knights in battle against the Teutons instead of accepting their help against her compatriots. and by his reading of Torquato Tasso.” and “Good Evening” reflect their relationship. Litavor. among others. Like Gra/yna. He made the trip with. Mickiewicz published his first cycle of sonnets. With his Sonnets from the Crimea.Eastern European Poets Mickiewicz. (Near Eastern and Oriental literature was popular throughout Europe toward the end of the eighteenth century. Konrad Wallenrod is 139 . These traitorous intentions are foiled by Gra/yna. Mickiewicz introduced to Polish literature the Romantic poetry of the steppe. with its elaborate rhyme scheme and rigid structure.) The rigid structure demanded by the sonnet form enabled Mickiewicz to communicate his psychological experiences with utmost conciseness. by his study of early Lithuanian history. and these poems are among his finest. Konrad Wallenrod Mickiewicz had conceived the idea of his next major work. Dressed in her husband’s armor. In the narrative. although the type goes back to Vergil’s Camilla and ultimately to the Greek tales of the Amazons. Sonnets from the Crimea At the end of 1826. Mickiewicz modeled his heroine on Tasso’s Clorinda and Erminia. the fruit of Mickiewicz’s study of Persian and Arabic poetry. and he turned for a model to the Petrarchan sonnet. the so-called love sonnets. Mickiewicz was inspired by the ruins of a castle near Nowogródek. Adam Knights of the Cross. While in Russia. with whom he had an ardent love affair. His second cycle of sonnets. mainly in French translation. Konrad Wallenrod. while in Moscow in 1825. Litavor’s brave and patriotic wife.” “Good Night. even though the poet himself did not attach much importance to the work. as well as the Oriental elements of European Romanticism. The sonnets are further distinguished by their exotic vocabulary. the sea. represented by Byron and Thomas Moore in England and by Pushkin in Russia. Sir Walter Scott. Sonnets from the Crimea. Karolina Soba½ski. This stately narrative reveals Mickiewicz’s extraordinary gift for vivid characterization. Using his personal experience in the Romantic manner. captured as a youth. sacrifices all that is dear to him. The poet went back for his subject matter to his Wilno days in 1823. with its presentation of the Titan who rebels against Zeus in the name of love for humanity. Mickiewicz changed the historical Wallenrod. The Arabic word faris means “horseman” or “knight. part 3 Mickiewicz wrote his greatest works. “Faris” In St.. The poem reverts to the somber and Romantic atmosphere that Mickiewicz had temporarily abandoned in his sonnets. Mickiewicz had been intrigued by Aeschyulus’s tragedy Prometheus desmftTs (date unknown.” a poem depicting an Arab horseman’s extravagant ride through the desert. has been reared by the Germans and then gains influence and authority over the Teutonic Knights in order to destroy them. rather than a mysterious outsider.” Mickiewicz’s special affection for the poem is often attributed to its story of a proud. published almost ten years earlier.” While in Rome. 1777). including his own honor. 1783. Mickiewicz’s Wallenrod. he is a patriot. Adam Critical Survey of Poetry both longer and more powerful than Gra/yna. and.” A tale in verse in the Byronic style. Forefathers’ Eve. The Genoese Conspiracy. it is Byronic in type. Mickiewicz wrote “Faris . and Aeschylus’s influ140 . The hero. the most enigmatic. in a brief period from 1832 to 1834. Petersburg in 1828. To capture the aura of intrigue. when the Russian authorities arrested him and other members of the Philomathians. Indeed. and certainly the most famous of the three parts. Part 3 of Forefathers’ Eve is only loosely connected with parts 2 and 4. part 3 of Fore fathers’ Eve and Pan Tadeusz. 1796). Prometheus Bound. the poem relates the tragedy of a Lithuanian who is forced by fate to become a Teutonic Knight. and Mickiewicz evidently used The Corsair (1814) and Lara (1814) for inspiration. in an effort to save his people from annihilation. Mickiewicz sought to justify the actions of a loving God in allowing a devout Roman Catholic country such as Poland to be partitioned by three cruel neighbors. each “on a lower moral level than their victim. differs markedly from the Byronic hero: Above all. Mickiewicz himself described the work as “a story taken from the history of Lithuania and Prussia. although the poet modified and altered history to some extent. Mickiewicz had developed an interest in Arabic poetry through his contact with the Oriental peoples in the south of Russia. an ineffective Grand Master of the Knights of the Cross. strong will that triumphs over great obstacles. Mickiewicz studied Machiavelli and read Friedrich Schiller’s Die Verschwörung des Fiesco zu Genua (pr. Fiesco: Or. pb. perhaps Mickiewicz saw himself in this light. to a Lithuanian who. it is mainly based on actual historical events.Mickiewicz. however. It is the longest. so clear is the political allegory that underlies Konrad Wallenrod that it is surprising that the Russian censors allowed the poem to be published. however. and ceremony. Adam ence is apparent in part 3 of Forefathers’ Eve. is seen in his cell in the Basilian Monastery. Pan Tadeusz In November. although in the work there is reference only to a hero whose name is “Forty and Four. This sequence. is followed by the improvisation—the foundation of the whole drama—in which Konrad arrogantly challenges God’s justice. a Tale of Gentlefolk in 1811 and 1812. order. stability. In the prologue. as some critics have argued. in Twelve Books in Verse—is significant: Mickiewicz’s use of the word “tale” may indicate.712 lines. a time when Polish society appeared to have achieved a temporary harmony. Maryla’s lover. 1834. charging him with an absence of feeling or love in spite of his strength and great intellect. The story of Prometheus attracted many Romantic writers. The first scene. and order. nine scenes. watched over by good and evil spirits. a stately epic of 9. Mickiewicz stresses the value of ritual. although inspired by love for Poland and a sense of divinity within himself. is a story of the Polish gentry. The promised hero who will bring about the resurrection of Poland is probably Mickiewicz himself. The improvisation and the following scenes reflect the fulfillment of Mickiewicz’s previous plan of writing a tragedy with the Prometheus theme adapted to a Christian setting. including Percy Bysshe Shelley and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. and a final sequence of six long poems about Russia. He worked on the poem until February. Part 3 of Forefathers’ Eve consists of a prologue. and patriotic. constitutes a second act or epilogue. a young prisoner. Mickiewicz. The poem’s twelve books present the whole of Polish society in Lithuanian Byelorussia during a highly significant period of history. receives in a vision an understanding of the source of Konrad’s torment—the problem of the fate of Poland. a narrative poem that was to become his masterpiece. He takes the name Konrad. a mystic faith that helped to define “Polishness” for generations and that is not without influence in Poland even today. Gustav. the time of Napoleon’s campaign in Russia. suggesting an affinity with Konrad Wallenrod. and Austria. He sees Poland as the Christ among nations.” With this notion that Poland is the Christ among nations. crucified by Prussia. Father Peter. is blasphemous. Pan Tadeusz. Mickiewicz became the founder of Polish messianism. may have been influenced by these authors as well in composing the third part of Forefathers’ Eve. will rise again. Mickiewicz began work on Pan Tadeusz. an innocent victim crushed by cruel foreign powers. since he loves his nation and desires her happiness. who had considered writing his own poetic drama about Prometheus. in 1811-1812. The subtitle of Pan Tadeusz—Or: The Last Foray in Lithuania. and his characters are courteous. titled “Ustcp” (“Digression”).Eastern European Poets Mickiewicz. 1832. who. a description of the life of the student prisoners. Konrad declares that he himself is greater than God. that Pan Tadeusz is not an epic or 141 . modest. Russia. who represents mystic humility just as Konrad represents mystic pride. Konrad’s arrogant pride. and various Russians. Mickiewicz is no longer a prophet and teacher. the middle class. c. Adam Critical Survey of Poetry narrative poem at all. The plot concerns Tadeusz. The plot becomes more involved later in the work when an emissary of Napoleon turns out to be Tadeusz’s father disguised as a monk. voyevoda. (In constructing his plot. genial man who is proud of the glorious past of his country and has faith in her future. seneschal. there are representatives of other classes and nationalities. pantler. set against a background of vibrant descriptions of nature and animals. The period about which he was writing embodied the whole life of Old Poland—its people. The word “last” in the subtitle implies the disappearance of a traditional way of life. In the latter. Jacek spends the rest of his life humbly serving his country. represented in part 3 of Forefathers’ Eve by Konrad and Father Peter. his love for Zosia. Mickiewicz united in Jacek the conflicting motives of pride and humility. and notary. such as chamberlain. In Pan Tadeusz. He is once more the jovial companion of his Wilno days and no longer the leader of Polish exiles who were haunted by their own misfortunes and those of Poland. appearing rather as a kindly. He is a realist who sees the faults of his countrymen but still loves them. are classic themes in Western literature. Mickiewicz’s two main themes. and a feud over a castle between the Soplicas and the Horeszkos: Tadeusz is a Soplica. Jacek kills the Pantler in a fit of anger. When he is rejected. To add to the conflict. its customs. cupbearer. and its traditions. such as a young girl feeding poultry in a farmyard. In addition. and the poor gentry. Father Robak. the aristocratic. but a blending together of a number of genres to achieve the poet’s artistic purpose in a truly Romantic style. while Zosia is a Horeszko (a premise that recalls William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. and there are representatives of a number of old offices. the father of Tadeusz has killed Zosia’s grandfather. an impressionable young man recently graduated from the university. the poet is moved by childlike wonder: He sees beauty in even the most commonplace scenes in Poland. pr. and the poem thus attains a certain universality in spite of its intense concern with a specific cultural and historical tradition. including the wealthy. to which he longed to return. Mickiewicz was influenced by Sir Walter Scott. the recapture of the past and the conflict between reality and appearance. the daughter of an aristocrat. although it is connected to these genres . 142 . 1595-1596). While the action of Pan Tadeusz develops in the country among rural people. who wants to marry Eva. including the peasants (rather incompletely presented. as exemplified in the “foray” or ritualistic execution of justice.) Mickiewicz chose for his setting rural Lithuanian Byelorussia. however).Mickiewicz. all classes of the gentry are described. The real hero of the poem is Jacek Soplica. the Pantler Horeszko. He becomes a monk and works as a political agent urging Poles to join Napoleon in his campaign against Russia and so to contribute to the restoration of Poland in an indirect manner. judge. the land of his childhood. under circumstances that falsely suggest collusion with the Russians. It is difficult to believe that part 3 of Forefathers’ Eve and Pan Tadeusz were written by the same poet within a period of two years. a Jew. Mickiewicz has been enshrined as an icon. A biography of Mickiewicz that also provides literary criticism.Y. the Qasidah: East-West Dialogue in Adam Mickiewicz’s Sonnets. 1925). Kalinowska. 1839-1840 . 1832 (The Books of the Polish Nation and of the Polish Pilgrims. It is unfortunate that the total effect of the poem. the Sequence. Literatura slowianska. hunting parties. _______. nonfiction: Ksiegi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego. With this masterpiece. 1 (Winter. particularly of Pan Tadeusz. all with acute perception. and the dramatic truth of the characters. Koropeckyj. The masterpiece of Polish literature. 1833. and a battle—an extraordinary range of settings and experiences. 2000): 1-11. his work classic and his vibrant presence is felt strongly in Polish culture. no. 1836. Mickiewicz describes nature in a manner that has never been equaled in Polish literature. Pan Tadeusz is regarded by many as the finest narrative poem of the nineteenth century. Bibliography Debska. Looks at Orientalism in the sonnets Mickiewicz published in 1826. Pan Tadeusz is known and loved throughout Poland. Mickiewicz also meticulously describes a mansion. Izabela.” Slavic and East European Journal 45. 1836. duels. The Poetics of Revitalization: Adam Mickiewicz Between “Forefathers’ 143 . 4 (Winter. style. Roman. Ithaca. N. ou les deux Polognes. Other major works plays: Jacknes Jasinski. the picking of mushrooms. and word associations. “The Sonnet. all contribute to its excellence. and ponds at different times of the day and night in different lights and in myriad colors. He paints verbal pictures of the forest. Les confédérés de Bar. Anita. This biography of Mickiewicz examines his entire life as well as his major works. Gross. by peasants as well as university professors. feasts. Gross examines Mickiewicz’s poem Gra/yna and the nationalism in it. 1840-1844 (4 volumes).: Cornell University Press. Wyklady Lozanskie. 2000. Irena Grudzinska. a cottage of the provincial gentry. 2001): 641. cannot be conveyed in all its beauty in translation. meadows. Adam In Pan Tadeusz. the presentation of setting. Warsaw: Burchard. Mickiewicz reached the summit of his literary career.” East European Politics and Societies 14. 1837. “The smile of Mickiewicz” reflected in the kindly humor of the poem. 2008. he describes sunrises and sunsets. “How Polish Is Polishness: About Mickiewicz’s Gra/yna. the portrayal of marvelously drawn characters.Eastern European Poets Mickiewicz. Pierwsze wieki historyi polskiej. and the world of plants and animals. Adam Mickiewicz: The Life of a Romantic. Country of the Mind: An Introduction to the Poetry of Adam Mickiewicz. an inn. the radiant descriptions. a castle. no. which is derived from a close interaction of diction. and the creation of a dynamic atmosphere. quarrels. and “Pan Tadeusz.” Part 3.” Boulder. Adam Critical Survey of Poetry Eve. John P. 1966. Colo.Mickiewicz. This work focuses on two works. Forefathers’ Eve.: East European Monographs. An introductory biography and critical study of selected works by Mickiewicz. and the author’s development between them. Welsh. New York: Twayne. Pauls and La Verne Pauls 144 . and Pan Tadeusz. David. part 3. 2001. Adam Mickiewicz. 1998 To. 1976 Bells in Winter. his work in other genres is widely known among the in145 . 1931-1987. 2006 Other literary forms Although it was the poetry of Czesuaw Miuosz (MEE-wohsh) that earned for him the 1980 Nobel Prize in Literature. 1940 (as J. 1997 (Road-side Dog. 1967 Miasto bez imienia. 1986) The Separate Notebooks. 1978 Poezje. 1953 Traktat poetycki. 1973) Gdzie wschodzi suo½ce i kòdy zapada. 1996 Piesek przydrozny. 1974 Utwory poetyckie. 1995 Wiersze wybrane. Poland. 1931-2004. 2004 Selected Poems. Syru6 Principal poetry Poemat o czasie zastyguym. 1982 Nieobjòta ziemia. 1933 Trzy zimy. 2004 Also known as: J. 1957 (A Treatise on Poetry. 1984 The Collected Poems. August 14. 1964 Wiersze. 1962 Gucio zaczarowany. 2006 Wiersze ostatnie. 1931-2001. 1998) Poezje wybrane—Selected Poems. 1984 (Unattainable Earth. 1981 Hymn o perle. 1936 Wiersze. 1911 Died: Kraków. Syru6) Ocalenie. June 30. 2001 Second Space: New Poems. 1969 (Selected Poems. Lithuania. 1991 Facing the River: New Poems. 1988 Provinces. 1945 Kwiatuo dzienne. 2001) Król Popiel i inne wiersze. 2000 New and Collected Poems.CZESUAW MIUOSZ Born: Šeteiniai. In an earlier novel. Miuosz makes but two passing references to his wife in the course of the entire work. this volume emphasizes the social and political background of the author’s life at the expense of personal detail. the plot of which focuses on a young boy’s rites of passage in rural Lithuania during and after World War I. the Red Army’s subsequent advance through Po146 . The Issa Valley. Native Realm: A Search for Self-Definition. Miuosz presented a series of narrative sketches dealing with the suppression of the insurrection in Warsaw by the Germans in 1944. Zdobycie wuadzy (1953. Similarly helpful is the novel Dolina Issy (1955. 1968).Czesuaw Miuosz Critical Survey of Poetry Czesuaw Miuosz (©The Nobel Foundation) ternational reading public. For example. Unlike most autobiographies. An understanding of the Manichaean metaphysics that inform this work as well as Native Realm is fundamental to a reading of Miuosz’s poetry. it is a work of the utmost personal candor and is indispensable for anyone endeavoring to fathom Miuosz’s poetic intent. One of his most important nonfiction works is the autobiographical volume Rodzinna Europa (1959. 1981). The Seizure of Power. Despite such lacunae. 1955). including poems. Among the essays included are two chapters from Miuosz’s monograph on Stanisuaw Brzozowski. given at Harvard University during the 1981-1982 academic year. Miuosz published a similar potpourri. 1953). Another valuable work originally written in English is Kwiadectwo poezji (1983. A large section of this volume is devoted to contemporary literature. and Delta. a wolf in sheep’s clothing. The title The Land of Ulro is derived from the poetry of William Blake. Later. the Moralist. Miuosz is inclined toward historical speculation and takes a deeply pessimistic view of contemporary society. so Miuosz is hopeful regarding humanity’s ultimate redemption. Miuosz also published two important collections of essays and what he called a “spiritual autobiography. Zniewolony umysu (1953. Beta. literary essays. Most of the pieces in this collection are devoted to Polish and Russian writers with whom the author shares a spiritual affinity. and the eventual seizure of power by pro-Soviet Polish officials. (These two chapters were translated by the author himself. enlarged 1983). 1983). Miuosz argues that poetry should be “a passionate pursuit of the real. continents) is a collection of works in various genres. 1984).) The “Emperor of the Earth” referred to in the title is a character in a Russian work of science fiction who poses as a benefactor of humankind but who in reality is the Antichrist.” More than half of the essays contained in Emperor of the Earth: Modes of Eccentric Vision (1977) are also written in English. The Witness of Poetry. and translations of poetry from several languages. the Disappointed Lover.” Ziemia Ulro (1977. which gathers Miuosz’s Charles Eliot Norton lectures. If there is any thematic unity among the disparate essays included in Emperor of the Earth. Miuosz thus underscores his belief that a religion of humanity often paves the way for totalitarian rule. Czuowiek wkród skorpionów (1962. Just as the inhabitants of Blake’s Ulro are destined one day to experience a spiritual awakening. which was published on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the death of this controversial Polish writer. and it is instructive to read Miuosz’s critical evaluation of his own stature as a Polish poet. Gamma.Eastern European Poets Czesuaw Miuosz land. as were some of the other essays that were originally written in Polish. the Slave of History. the Troubadour—their real identities are easily surmised by anyone familiar with postwar Polish literature. A large part of this book is devoted to the fate of four writers in Communist Poland and provides a moving account of their gradual descent into spiritual slavery under the yoke of Stalinist oppression. man among scorpions). where Ulro represents the dehumanized world created by materialistic science. notably The History of Polish Literature (1969. Although Miuosz designates these men only by abstract labels—Alpha. In these volumes. Ogród nauk (1979. Throughout these lectures. Kontynenty (1958. The Captive Mind. diary excerpts. the garden of 147 . The Land of Ulro. it is to be found in the author’s long-standing fascination with the problem of evil. Miuosz also analyzed Communist totalitarianism in a work of nonfiction. Some of Miuosz’s nonfictional works were originally written in English. Miuosz’s preeminence as a poet in no way stems from any technical innovations to be found in his poetry. His most important translations from French include the poetry of his cousin Oscar de L. In a written tribute to his candidate for the 1978 Neustadt Prize. the second part presents verse translations (with commentary) of French. Miuosz edited and translated selected writings of Simone Weil from French into Polish. In 1978. and the third and final subdivision contains a translation of the biblical Ecclesiastes together with a stylistic analysis of biblical discourse and its relevance to the modern age. Having taught himself English in Warsaw during the war years. He also produced English versions of many of his own poems. the book of Ecclesiastes. Achievements Prior to receiving the 1980 Nobel Prize in Literature. Eliot. while in exile in Paris. Carl Sandburg. and T. declared that he had no hesitation whatsoever in identifying Miuosz as one of the greatest poets of his time. In 1958.Czesuaw Miuosz Critical Survey of Poetry knowledge). he was selected as the fifth recipient of the biennial Neustadt International Prize for Literature by a panel of judges assembled under the auspices of the editorial board of World Literature Today (formerly called Books Abroad). in fact. Working from the original Greek and Hebrew. S. He was also granted a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1976 for his work as both poet and translator. he later put his talents to good use by translating works of English-language poets such as Walt Whitman. he issued an anthology in 1965 titled Postwar Polish Poetry. Czesuaw Miuosz had already won a number of other prestigious awards and honors. Miuosz and that of Charles Baudelaire. In 1974. he rendered the Gospel According to Saint Mark. as he was actually quite indifferent toward avant-garde 148 . sharply distinct from the debased journalistic style of many modern translations of the Bible. Yiddish. the Polish PEN Club in Warsaw honored him with an award for his poetry translations. and Lithuanian poetry. Joseph Brodsky. Poland. he received the Prix Littéraire Européen (jointly with German novelist Werner Warsinsky). When his novel The Seizure of Power was published in France in 1953 under the title La prise du pouvoir. For this purpose. English. who produced the first Polish version of Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922) in 1946. It was Miuosz. in 1981. with the goal of translating the entire Bible into a Polish that is modern yet elevated. perhaps the greatest. This volume is divided into three parts: The first section consists of essays. Miuosz accepted the award in public ceremonies held at the University of Oklahoma on April 7. when he finally returned to his native country after thirty years. and the Psalms into Polish. Miuosz was very active in translating works from other languages into Polish. 1978. working either independently or in collaboration with his students and fellow poets. the eminent Soviet émigré writer and Nobel laureate. He received honorary doctorates from the University of Michigan in 1977 and from Catholic University in Lublin. Miuosz translated from Polish into English. To promote the fortunes of contemporary poets from Poland. where they remained for the duration of the conflict. This city. which is located in the Kédainiai province of Lithuania. although once the capital of ancient Lithuania. and German blood intermingled over the centuries. and events from an individual’s life. Road-side Dog. a civil engineer by profession. his father was drafted into the Russian army as a military engineer and once again took his family to Russia. Miuosz’s father. In 1997. The lateness of this conversion. Miuosz imbibed Russian to such a degree that proficiency in that language became second nature to him and never deserted him in subsequent years. Lithuania was part of czarist Russia’s empire at the time of Miuosz’s birth. Miuosz had great pride in his Lithuanian origins and even took perverse pleasure from the fact that Lithuania was the last country in Europe to adopt Christianity. won the 1998 Polish Nike Literary Prize. Miuosz’s ABCs. made a yearlong trip to Siberia in 1913 under government contract and was accompanied by his wife and son. and the ancestry of Miuosz himself was a mixed one. be established through legal documents that his father’s ancestors had been speakers of Polish since the sixteenth century. and the greatness of his poetry lies in its content. and the influence of this pagan heritage can be detected in much of Miuosz’s poetry as well as in his novel The Issa Valley. In 2002. From the Commonwealth Club of California. and observations. This area of Europe is a place where Polish. the Northern California Book Awards presented a Special Recognition Award for distinguished contirbution to literature and culture to Miuosz. One of Miuosz’s most impressive achievements was that he continued to produce outstanding new work after the age of eighty. it still affirms the beauty of this world and the value of life. His collection of aphorisms. he published two volumes of a memoir. and a PEN Center USA Literary Award for poetry (1992). written in a distinctively Polish genre called abecadlo. he received two Silver Medals (1988. an alphabetical arrangement of entries on people. In these years. 1995). which occurred in the year 1386. when World War I broke out. Like much of Poland itself. the Robert Kirsch Award from the Los Angeles Times (1990). 1991) and one Gold Medal (2001). 1991. Nevertheless. anecdotes. 2001). Biography Czesuaw Miuosz was born to Aleksandr Miuosz and Weronika (Kunat) Miuosz in Šeteiniai. musings. places. Abecadlo Milosza (1997. had long been a pre149 . Shortly after their return home. Lithuanian. permitted the survival of pagan attitudes toward nature on the part of the peasantry. the Miuosz family returned to the newly independent Baltic states for a few years but finally decided to settle down in the city of Wilno.Eastern European Poets Czesuaw Miuosz speculation pertaining to aesthetic form. He won three Northern California Book Awards in poetry (1984. After the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia. The most remarkable aspect of Miuosz’s poetry is that. It can. however. despite his having experienced first hand the depths of humankind’s depravity in the form of Nazi barbarism and Soviet tyranny. who considered him to be a dangerous left-winger if not an actual Communist. a cousin of his from Lithuania and a highly accomplished poet in the French language. As a result of Miuosz’s obtaining his fellowship. Miuosz matriculated as a law student at the King Stefan Batory University in Wilno and soon published his first poems in its literary review. however. his attitude toward Marxist dialectical and historical materialism was a decidedly favorable one at that time. and the humanities over the course of eight years. Oscar de L. His cousin’s prophecies struck a responsive chord in Miuosz. When Miuosz returned to Poland after his fellowship year in France. and politics. in which the theme of personal and universal catastrophe is expressed. In the same year. he published a collection of poems titled Trzy zimy (three winters). He was eventually ousted from his post as programmer because of pressure exerted by local rightist groups. Nothing in his home life could be said to have inspired the religious rebelliousness that he manifested in high school. science. for which he received the poetry award from the Polish Writers Union in 1934. the two cousins were able to see each other often. he received exceptionally thorough training in religion. In 1929. Here. His father was actually indifferent toward any form of worship. Oscar de L. Miuosz went on to obtain employment with the Polish Radio Corporation at its station in Wilno. It is also true that Miuosz did little to conceal his intense dislike for 150 . Miuosz had already been in France on one prior occasion when he and two other students from the university made an excursion to Western Europe in the summer of 1931. for he lived in a state of constant wonder at the mystery of life and kept expecting an epiphany to occur at any moment. Miuosz obtained a master’s degree in law from the University of Wilno as well as a fellowship in literature from the Polish government. In Wilno. Miuosz especially enjoyed indulging in prophetic visions of a catastrophe that was about to befall Europe. and the older man exerted a profound influence on his young relative from Poland. Miuosz published a slim volume of verse called Poemat o czasie zastyguym (a poem on congealed time). One of the highlights of that junket was his meeting with Oscar de L. stopped far short of atheism. he also became affiliated with a group of young poets who referred to themselves as ?agary (brushwood) and who subsequently founded a journal bearing the same name. was quite tolerant of other faiths. Miuosz also helped to shape his young cousin’s views on the craft of poetry and fostered his commitment to a poetry anchored in religion. Miuosz (18771939). and his mother. There.Czesuaw Miuosz Critical Survey of Poetry dominantly Polish-speaking municipality and was then incorporated into a fully restored Poland. Miuosz entered a Roman Catholic high school at the age of ten. philosophy. While still a student. enabling him to study in Paris during the years of 1934 and 1935. although a devout Catholic. Miuosz’s religious revolt. Although Soviet-style Communism never attracted Miuosz. It was also there that Miuosz received his first exposure to the Gnostic and Manichaean heresies that were to profoundly alter his outlook on life. whose own psychological state was somewhat chaotic at this time. Alma Mater Vilnensis. Eliot’s poem surely must have made appropriate reading at the time of such tragedies as the Warsaw Ghetto uprising in the spring of 1943. a sympathetic director of Polish Radio in Warsaw offered him a comparable post in that city. the Rus151 . gradually increased their control over Lithuania and finally coerced it into becoming a Soviet Socialist Republic in the summer of 1940. Wilno had changed drastically since Miuosz last saw it. In 1942. This region was soon to come under Soviet occupation as a result of an invasion by the Red Army that was initiated on September 17. whose hierarchy was controlled by the London-based government-in-exile. When the Germans decided to rearrange the holdings of Warsaw’s three largest libraries. Not surprisingly. The underground Home Army. The Soviets. This phase in Miuosz’s life came to an abrupt halt when the Germans attacked Poland on September 1. When Lithuania was officially annexed to the Soviet Union. Syru6. and Miuosz eventually returned to Wilno. At great personal peril. Fortunately. 1939. in all likelihood. Miuosz settled down to a successful administrative career in broadcasting. Miuosz continued to write poetry and clandestinely published a new volume of verse called Wiersze (poems) in 1940 under the pseudonym J. Some form of opposition to the German occupiers was a moral imperative. Miuosz concluded that its servitude would. and he soon became active as a writer in the Resistance movement. whom Miuosz married in 1944 and by whom he was subsequently to become the father of two sons. Miuosz began an intensive study of the English language and derived spiritual sustenance from reading poems such as Eliot’s The Waste Land. A revolt against the Germans on a much grander scale occurred in the latter half of 1944 as the Red Army reached the outskirts of the Polish capital. Despite the horrendous conditions in Warsaw. Miuosz put on a uniform in time to join units of the Polish armed forces in a retreat to the eastern part of the country. Miuosz managed to get himself hired as a laborer loading and transporting the packing cases. It was run off on a ditto machine and laboriously sewn together by Janina Dluska.Eastern European Poets Czesuaw Miuosz the reactionary politicians who controlled Poland after the death of Marshal Pilsudski in 1935. Miuosz edited a clandestine anthology of anti-Nazi poetry that appeared under the title Piek½ niepoldlegla (the independent song) and also provided the underground press with a translation of Jacques Maritain’s anticollaborationist treatise À travers le désastre (1941). and he resolved to return to Warsaw. and he spent the next few years engaged in this interminable project. however. and after touring Italy in 1937. Miuosz made several border crossings to get back to the part of Poland that the Germans had designated as the Government General. This was probably the first literary work to be printed in occupied Warsaw. 1939. sought to take charge in Warsaw prior to the arrival of the Russian forces and launched an attack on the Germans stationed within the city. prove to be permanent. for the Soviets chose to award the city to Lithuania as a gesture of goodwill shortly after capturing it. Almost as an act of defiance toward the German oppressors. as does his long poem A Treatise on Poetry. D. In 1961. 152 . He then was transferred to Paris. during the academic year 1960-1961. Caught completely unawares by the outbreak of the rising. were written in the United States. At the same time. and it was there in 1945 that a collection of Miuosz’s wartime poetry was issued in a volume titled Ocalenie (rescue). In 1951. He became a naturalized American citizen in 1970 and eventually retired from active teaching in 1978 with the rank of professor emeritus. Miuosz was invited to lecture on Polish literature at the University of California. they were released through the intercession of friends. he continued to create poetry of the highest order. Since Warsaw had been almost totally destroyed. shortly after the practice of Socialist Realism became mandatory for all Polish writers. The next decade proved to be remarkably productive for Miuosz. Thereafter. he considered the rising to be an act of folly. block by block. where he was appointed first secretary for cultural affairs.. Berkeley. so too did Miuosz manage to maintain his literary productivity within an academic environment in the United States. His lifetime achievement as a poet received acknowledgment when he was selected as the winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1980. from 1946 to 1950. His novel The Issa Valley also dates from this period. they were to spend the next few months wandering about as refugees until the Red Army completed its annihilation of the German forces and Poland was at last liberated after more than five years of Nazi rule. In recognition of these literary accomplishments. but after a brief period of detention in a makeshift camp. The bitter struggle lasted more than two months and cost more than two hundred thousand Polish lives. Miuosz himself was not a member of the Home Army because he had no desire to see the restoration of the political establishment that had governed Poland before World War II. Fully one-third of the works included in the edition of Miuosz’s Utwory poetyckie (collected poems). This work was one of the very first books to be published in postwar Poland. Miuosz and his wife were seized by the Germans as they attempted to leave Warsaw. as later. which was printed under the aegis of the Michigan Slavic Publications in 1976. he decided to break with the home government in Warsaw and to start life anew by working as a freelance writer in France. His reasons for breaking with the Warsaw regime were fully set forth in the nonfictional study The Captive Mind as well as in the political novel The Seizure of Power.Czesuaw Miuosz Critical Survey of Poetry sian response to the insurrection was to cease all military activity against the Germans on the Warsaw front. Then. the center of literary activity in Poland had gravitated to Kraków. Just as he retained his creativity during his years in exile as a freelance writer in Paris. and the Home Army was left to its own resources to do battle with the vastly superior Nazi forces. he decided to settle in Berkeley after he was offered tenure as a professor of Slavic languages and literatures. the Germans forced the evacuation of the surviving populace and then systematically destroyed the city. After the surrender of the Home Army. Because of his prominence as a poet. Miuosz was selected for service in the diplomatic corps and was posted as a cultural attaché at the Polish Embassy in Washington.C. Kazimierz Wierzy½ski.” after the title of its official literary organ. Miuosz continued to publish. Analysis The principal group of Polish poets in the period between the two world wars was known by the name “Skamander. 1981. and criticism: As he entered his nineties. Since the Skamanderites were viewed as belonging to the literary establishment. however. still under Communism. Miuosz returned to Poland for the first time since his self-imposed exile in 1951. his work was again banned by the government.Eastern European Poets Czesuaw Miuosz In June. since he chose to exclude the work from the edition of his collected poems published at Ann Arbor in 1976.” Poemat o czasie zastygUym Miuosz’s first published book. or underground. Miuosz was incredibly prolific in his twilight years. at last making it available in Polish to his native people. Miuosz married again and divided his time between Berkeley and Kraków until his death in 2004. A group now designated as the First Vanguard was centered in the city of Kraków during the 1920’s and derived much of its aesthetic program from the ideas propounded by the Futurists in Italy. The ?agary group of poets. The Polish government. many new literary groups sprang up in various parts of Poland. its members generally sought to intensify the social and political dimensions of poetry. and Jan Lecho½. Jaroslaw Iwaszkiewicz. essays. His wife. Antoni Suonimski. died in 1986 after a ten-year battle with Alzheimer’s disease. Miuosz himself recognizes its overall shortcomings. and these groups are today known collectively as the Second Vanguard. many of whom had never heard of their newly crowned national bard. Miuosz began a series of lectures as the Charles Eliot Norton Professor at Harvard University for the academic year 1981-1982. 153 . although some of it remained available in samizdat. 1981. although his Nobel Prize acceptance speech was published only after the anti-Communist sentiments were edited out. Polish presses were now able to publish his poetry. the Wilno group soon came to be labeled “catastrophists. Poemat o czasie zastyguym. represents a youthful attempt to write civic poetry and is often marred by inflated political rhetoric as well as by avant-garde experimentation in both language and form. With the declaration of martial law in December. These l ectures were later published in The Witness of Poetry. Around 1930. younger poets formed movements of their own in opposition. now claimed him. Apparently. publishing several collections of poetry. to which Czesuaw Miuosz belonged while a student at the University of Wilno. Janina. The Skamander group consisted of a number of poets with very disparate styles and diverse interests. Because of the apocalyptic premonitions expressed in their poetry. was part of the Second Vanguard. Upon his return to America. publications. and its members included such renowned literary figures as Julian Tuwim. Building on the formal innovations of the First Vanguard. the reader frequently encounters traces of the diction and phraseology associated with great Romantic poets such as Adam Mickiewicz. Trzy zimy. whose swollen eyelids remind him of those of a biblical patriarch. Guilt overwhelms the poet as he wonders if in the next world the patriarch will accuse him of being an accomplice of the merchants of death. The poet. however. is largely free from the defects of the previous one and constitutes a decided advance in Miuosz’s development as a poet. Among the works in this collection are two outstanding poems that deal with the destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto. Many other poems in the collection focus on purely personal themes. forgotten by the world. 154 .Czesuaw Miuosz Critical Survey of Poetry Trzy zimy His next work. reunite longtime antagonists.) and is passionate and restrained at the same time. Any avant-garde preoccupation with finding new modes of linguistic expression could only have appeared trivial in the light of the horrendous events that overwhelmed the poet and his nation during the war years. Here. he says. Here. Despite his continued reliance on elliptical imagery. Shared suffering will. the poet watches as bees and ants swarm over the ruins of the Ghetto. This guilt is less that of a survivor than of one who regrets that he was unable to help a fellow human being in his hour of need. and the last pagans will be baptized in the cathedral-like abyss. One of his finest poems in this vein is called “Do ksiedza Ch. but it is in his role as a national bard that Miuosz is most impressive. The second poem is called “Biedny chrzekcijanin patrzy na getto” (“A Poor Christian Looks at the Ghetto”). after describing a world being destroyed by natural calamities as a result of humanity’s sinfulness. Juliusz Suowacki.” (to Father Ch. This quality is even present when Miuosz gives vent to forebodings of personal and universal catastrophe. The first is “Campo di Fiori” and begins with a description of this famous square in modern-day Rome. these poems frequently attain a classical dignity of tone. The scene then shifts to Warsaw. He then spots a tunnel being bored by a mole. where the crowds also carry on with mundane matters on a beautiful Sunday evening even while the ghetto is ablaze. Although Miuosz’s poetic style is generally modern in character. The loneliness of the Jewish resistance fighters is then likened to the solitary fate suffered by Bruno. The poet recalls that Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake on that very spot before a crowd that resumed its normal activities even before the flames were completely extinguished. resolves to bear witness to the tragedy and to record the deeds of those dying alone. Ocalenie Such premonitions of catastrophe turned into reality after the outbreak of World War II. Miuosz ends his poem on a note of reconciliation. The poems that Miuosz wrote during the war years in Poland were gathered together and published in 1945 under the title Ocalenie. and Cyprian Norwid. and the poet veers toward free verse. and regular meter tend to disappear. he goes on to ridicule the belief in historical materialism and implies that the doctrine of the inevitability of socialism rests more on the use of force against all classes of society than on the laws of history. Miuosz published two important volumes of verse : Kwiatuo dzienne (daylight) and A Treatise on Poetry. H. In both works. it is ranked very highly among the poetical works in Miuosz’s oeuvre. In recounting this legend. therefore. A work of about twelve hundred lines. 155 . a mythical king from the time of Polish prehistory who was said to have been devoured by mice on his island fortress in the center of a large lake. and employs a metrical line of eleven syllables with a caesura after the fifth syllable. such as W. Król Popiel i inne wiersze The publication of Miuosz’s Król Popiel i inne wiersze (King Popiel and other poems) in 1962 was closely followed by a second volume of verse titled Gucio zaczarowany (Bobo’s metamorphosis) two years later. The meter is quite familiar to Polish readers because of its previous appearance in major literary works by Mickiewicz and Suowacki. Auden’s The Double Man (also known as New Year Letter. for whom possession of territory and material objects was of overriding importance and to whom all cosmological speculation was alien. rhyme. he offers a counsel of despair: If you wish to survive. One of the best of these political poems is titled “Dziecie Europy” (“A Child of Europe”). except for a few rhymed insertions. Miuosz’s style here is classical rather than Romantic. to be sure. considered to be in the nature of an innovation in Miuosz’s homeland. A dissertation of this kind that employs verse has. all formal features associated with poetry are minimized. A Treatise on Poetry In his A Treatise on Poetry. Miuosz makes the reader aware of the narrow mode of existence that must have been the lot of Popiel and his kingly successors. the poet dwells on political grievances of various sorts. 1941) and Karl Shapiro’s Essay on Rime (1945 ). but the genre had not been used in Polish literature since the Renaissance. The pettiness of Popiel’s end mirrors the pettiness of his thought. Miuosz surveys the development of Polish poetry in the twentieth century and discusses the role of the poet in an age of crisis. A Treatise on Poetry is. it is unrhymed. To those who are compelled to live in a communist state. For this and other reasons. a number of contemporary counterparts. In the first of these works. Stanza. The title poem in the first work tells the story of Popiel. After a bitterly ironic opening section in which the poet reminds those who managed to live through the war how often they sacrificed their honor as the price of survival. Even so.Eastern European Poets Czesuaw Miuosz KwiatUo dzienne While in exile in France during the years 1951 to 1960. do not love other people or the cultural heritage of Europe too dearly. Over the years. The opening lines of “Ars Poetica?” are used by the author to proclaim his desire to create a literary form that transcends the claims of either poetry or prose.) The poem itself has eight sections. with the assistance of Richard Lourie. he personally eschews the morbid and expresses his disdain for confessional poetry of the psychiatric variety. they have no recourse but to posit humanity and tenderness. the title poem of the subsequent collection. Miuosz. Bobo often has difficulty adopting a purely human perspective on matters. a sense of apocalypse is juxtaposed to a feeling of happiness. and he likewise absolves the deity of responsibility for any of the other evils that befall human be156 . the poet explores the psychological tensions that arise between a man and a woman as they mutually recognize the impossibility of penetrating the private universe of another person’s mind. There can. Miuosz does much to clarify his view of poetry in the works titled “Ars poetica?” (“Ars Poetica?”) and “Rady” (“Counsels”). Neither in “Counsels” nor elsewhere in his poetical oeuvre does Miuosz ever hold God to be the cause of the misfortunes that humans inflict on other humans. Similarly. for he intuitively looks at the world in terms of contrary categories such as stasis and motion or universal and particular. and its resolution. in many of his poems.” (Gucio is one of the diminutive forms of the name Gustaw. In place of understanding. All of the other sections of the poem likewise involve the problem of reconciling various perspectives. an individual called Bobo (Gucio) is transformed into a fly for a few hours. In the final section. is quite typical of Miuosz’s cast of mind. has himself translated the work into English and is thus responsible for its current title. Nothing short of this. This earth. in the seventh. however. Nevertheless.” Younger poets are hereby cautioned against propagating doctrines of despair. a more literal rendition of the original Polish would be “enchanted Gucio. a collection of verse published in 1969 and translated in the 1973 collection Selected Poems. nor is it a stupid tale full of sound and fury. The dialectical tension in this poem. and he underscores this belief in “Counsels. Miasto bez imienia In Miasto bez imienia (city without a name). for a host of Orphic voices compete for possession of a poet’s psyche. Miuosz is committed to the kind of poetry that helps humankind to bear its pain and misery.Czesuaw Miuosz Critical Survey of Poetry Gucio zaczarowany Much longer and much more complex is “Gucio zaczarowany” (“Bobo’s Metamorphosis”). he declares. is not a madman’s dream. Miuosz insists. is capable of satisfying the demoniac forces within the poet that inspire the content of his work. Miuosz argues that Earth merits a bit of affection if only because of the beauties it contains. Still. As a result of this experience. so many invisible guests enter a poet’s mind that Miuosz likens it to a city of demons and reminds the reader how difficult it is for anyone who writes poetry to remain only one person. He himself concedes that this is a world wherein justice seldom triumphs and tyrants often prosper. be no assurance that the daimon will be an angel. Miuosz’s attitudes alternate between forebodings of death and affirmation of life. His conception of God has much in common with that to be found in the writings of the Gnostics and Manichaeans. for which he first developed a partiality while still a high school student in Wilno. These lines are taken from the poem “Który skrzywdzilek” (“You Who Have Wronged”). In that light. “You Who Have Wronged” Bridge-building in the reverse direction occurred when Polish workers belonging to the Solidarity movement selected some lines from one of Miuosz’s poems to serve as an inscription on the monument erected outside the shipyards in Gda½sk for the purpose of commemorating the strikers who died during demonstrations against the government in 1970. included in the collection Kwiatuo dzienne. everything that has a temporal existence can be said to be under the control of a Demiurge opposed to God. The author. Miuosz prefers to remain true to his Slavic and Baltic heritage. The entire poem is an attempt to bridge the gap between his expectations as a youth in Poland and the realities of his old age in America. in some of his poetry. an explicitly autobiographical work that is almost fifty pages long. “Dzwony w zimie” (“Bells in Winter”). whose towers he views daily across the bay in the winter of his life. in fact. Gdzie wschodzi sUo«ce i k dy zapada The free-verse style of Gdzie wschodzi suo½ce i kòdy zapada (from where the sun rises to where it sets) sometimes borders on prose. therefore.Eastern European Poets Czesuaw Miuosz ings in this world. in which nature is anthropomorphized. contrasts the Wilno of his youth. 1982). In “Do Robinsona Jeffersa” (“To Robinson Jeffers”). with the city of San Francisco. the final section. In the seven sections of this poem. True to his dialectical frame of mind. a poem included in his essay collection Widzenia nad zatoká San Francisco (1969. demotes the stature of humanity by contrasting people’s pettiness with the immensity of nature. and run as follows: 157 . Miuosz moves between past and present in a spirit of free association and contemplates the nature ofan inexplicable fate that has brought him from a wooden town in Lithuania to a city on the Pacific coast of the United States. Miuosz is frequently tempted to view God as a perfect being who is completely divorced from all forms of matter and who is. rather than to adopt an inhuman view of the universe such as the one propounded by Jeffers. where he was usually awakened by the pealing of church bells. not responsible for the creation of the material universe. Miuosz objects to the way in which Jeffers. advise his readers not to assume a divine perspective in which humanity’s earthly tribulations are to be seen as inconsequential. however. Miuosz does. Hence. freely juxtaposes passages of verse and prose in the title poem. Visions from San Francisco Bay. “La Belle Epoque. he identifies so closely with each that he feels he “becomes” them. . is not the conclusion to “New Poems. 1931-1987 Like the other long serial poems.” with characteristic insight. and moves freely in time. mixes verse and prose. “Six Lectures in Verse. the fact of the execution of Valuev and Peterson. such feeling is terrifyingly fragile in the face of catastrophe. 1985-1987. train passengers engaged in a debate over mortality. but also the entire belle époque and its nearsighted optimism with the sinking of the Titanic.” which appears at the end of The Collected Poems. 19851987. Facing the River From the mid-1980’s to the mid-1990’s. gives some indication of the source and direction of his poetic goals. Deeds and talks will be recorded. in the last poem. for instance. However. The poet remembers.” Rather. whether natural catastrophes or the everyday catastrophe of human mortality. The poem returns over its seven sections to a few central characters. The poem’s final section asserts the fragility of not only the individual human. Bursting into laughter at his suffering . and Miuosz recalls Arthur Schopenhauer’s praise of Dutch painting for creating a “will-less knowing” that transcends egoism through “direct[ing] such purely objective perception to the 158 . Miuosz goes beyond the contradiction of mortality to a new recognition: that the facts of history and mortality are forgotten in that moment when sensuous reality is far more present and more “real” than any concept we have of it. it must have been a source of profound satisfaction to learn that his words had been chosen by his countrymen to express their own longing for a free and independent Poland. along the way pointing out the intersections of personal fate with history. For a poet in exile. quiet detachment. Miuosz relates with necessary. Do not feel safe. who have wronged a simple man. Miuosz’s poetry underwent a profound change. You may kill him—a new one will be born. “La Belle Époque” from “New Poems. Abstractionism and pure subjectivity are not the final prison for the triumph of the ego.” with its harsh pessimism. .” in the collection Facing the River. Miuosz still insists on a realm of objectivity embodied in the still life. The poem “Realism. 1931-1987. Verse that previously had been circulated clandestinely in samizdat form could now be read by everyone on a public square in broad daylight. each feverishly in pursuit of his own truth. Admitting that the language humans use to tame nature’s random molecules fails to capture eternal essences or ontological reality. The poet’s father and the beautiful teenage Ela seem to represent for the poet the inevitable human tendency toward empathy and connection.Czesuaw Miuosz Critical Survey of Poetry You. The Collected Poems. speaks in multiple voices. after all. “The Garden of Earthly Delights: Hell” is. As to the rest. Sensitive to such details in the painting as “a harp/ With a poor damned man entwined in its strings. and now back into his past. All this Is here eternally. abysses. Let us beg to be spared from entering A permanent condition. This is remarkable because the preceding poem. Heavens. it was only when I.” completes the series of meditations—written more than a decade earlier and published in Unattainable Earth—on Hieronymous Bosch’s terrifying painting of the same title. In moving from the scene of worldly hell to the Dutch still life and landscape. and in the middle of dark plains A spot of brightness glows.” So Miuosz proceeds in “Realism” from the still life to the idea of losing himself in a landscape: Therefore I enter those landscapes Under cloudy sky from which a ray Shoots out. Fleeting. This is the ironic version of what he says in “Capri”: “If I accomplished anything. Miuosz conveys his desire to move beyond the tragic and egocentric to the sensuous. Or the shore With huts. they just flicker a moment.Eastern European Poets Czesuaw Miuosz most insignificant of objects. just like our dances and dresses. a pious boy. Always in pursuit and always with hope. one of the most frightening poems in this. The name of which is duration. “The Garden of Earthly Delights: Hell. boats. the most hell-haunted of all of Miuosz’s work. Where is the final reality beneath “dresses” and “disguises.” The question for Miuosz is when the “chasing” stops that carried him forward in time. happens) And we. in fact. yet peaceful and eternal.” metaphors for the changing forms of history and of his own art? 159 . This is the “missing panel” of Miuosz’s meditation on Bosch’s painting. Time in Hell does not want to stop. Here he takes one of the most painful jabs at his own endless pursuit of the real as hiding fear of death: Thus it’s possible to conjecture that mankind exists To provision and populate Hell. frivolous.” one feels Miuosz’s own painful skepticism of the worth of a life in art. out of his past. The Garden of Earthly Delights. just because once it was. and on yellowish ice Tiny figures skating. It’s fear and boredom together (Which. orbiting worlds. chased after the disguises of the lost Reality. The name of the poem is a reference to the Roman Christian philosopher Boethius. although a few. it concerns Christianity. Czesuaw Miuosz met his relative in Paris in 1931. clearly based on Miuosz himself. The longest poem in the collection. especially in the necessity of the Crucifixion. Apollo. a member of the Skamander group. and talked to other people who knew him. The Consolation of Philosophy. studied his poetry and catastrophism based on the Book of Revelations. Original Sin. He is envious of the ancient Greeks. and this poem is the most thoroughly footnoted work in this collection. and Artemis. In this poem. late ninth century). and feels guilty for consoling his parishioners with church doctrines in which he no longer believes. a Polish poet who combined elements of the Enlightenment and romanticism. Miuosz imagines what it must have been like to have been the other Miuosz and laments that Oscar would have been better off if he had not been born wealthy and lived in Paris for most of his adult life. Most of the other thirty-one poems in the collection have religious themes as well. The shortest poem with only five lines is “If There Is No God. such as “New Age” and “Late Ripeness” discuss old age. whose full name was Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius and whose best known work was De consolatione philosophiae (523.” covers twenty pages. the English scientist who developed the theory of evolution.Czesuaw Miuosz Critical Survey of Poetry Second Space Second Space was published just after Miuosz’s death.” an argument that even if God does not exist. There are several references to Mickiewicz. and Redemption. “Father Severinus” is a monologue by a Catholic priest who no longer believes in God. “Treatise on Theology. a Swedish scientist who became a mystic and theologian. Jacob Boehme. Emanuel Swedenborg. studied Swedenborg under his guidance. Miuosz. in which the author meditates on most people’s loss of belief in the afterlife. 1931-2004 contains more than one hundred poems arranged chronologically. As the title indicates. he would have voted against making the concept of the Holy Trinity a critical part of Christian doctrine. and “A Master of My Craft” is a salute to fellow poet Jaroslaw Iwaszkiewicz. who worshiped gods such as Athena. a German philosopher known for his atheistic pessimism. He wonders why Christians worship a man who bleeds and why they feel a need for Hell when life on Earth is bad enough. developed a closer relationship with him. The title comes from the first poem in the collection. He thinks that if he had been at the Council at Nicea in 325. who is a poet struggling with his religious beliefs and meditating on the mysteries of the Trinity. “Apprentice” is an appreciation of Miuosz’s distant cousin Oscar de L. especially Catholicism. Arthur Schopenhauer. The first poem in the collection is “Dawns. Selected Poems. a theologian who was burned at the stake for supporting the astronomical theories of Copernicus. and Charles Darwin.” which belongs to his early pe160 . 1931-2004 Selected Poems. The narrator describes a young man. there are still moral laws by which to live. In “Mid-Twentieth-Century Portrait” (1945). Other poems include “The World” (1943).Eastern European Poets Czesuaw Miuosz riod when. Their mother feeds them soup. he tries to grasp the essence of the magpie. Dolina Issy. is it improbable that it is the same magpie he had seen years before in Lithuania. he portrays a Communist Party official as a hypocrite. Miuosz traces his development from youthful visionary to a more mature man who rejects both Western rationalism and Eastern mysticism. 1955 (The Issa Valley. Miuosz compares the work of a poet to a secretary who merely transcribes what other people say. 1959 (autobiography. “With Trumpets and Zithers” (1965) celebrates life. In Miuosz’s version. Rodzinna Europa. The poem does not change the ending. the speaker wonders whether poetry is worthwhile. and find reassurance from their father that the night’s darkness will pass. he was preoccupied with catastrophes. “Encounters” (1936) argues that mediation is not enough when responding to the world. Miuosz uses multiple voices to show how difficult it is for people to accept nature’s beauty on its own terms. Over the years. elevators. In “Secretaries” (1975). Poland was “liberated” by the Red Army. The darkness symbolizes the Nazi occupation. In the tradition of Plato. he wondered whether he was worthy of it. 1968). and other modern devices on his journey to Hades. which he calls “magpiety. and even when he decided it was. but the poet despairs over whether he can adequately describe it. which is written in the style of a nursery rhyme and follows a group of children coming home from school. Orpheus finds consolations in the scents. The last is “Orpheus and Eurydice. Miuosz wondered whether poetry was a worthy pursuit. Other major works long fiction: Zdobycie wuadzy. In “Bypassing Rue Descartes” (1980). and Byelorussian. One year later. a glass-paneled door. 1981). Whimsical metaphysical questions concern “Magpiety” (1958). 1953 (criticism. Orpheus still carries a nine-string lyre. but also multiple languages. The underworld’s entrance. Orpheus has to deal with automobiles. but afterward. Miuosz. When the poet sees a magpie in France. including Polish. 161 . and the Communists replaced the Nazis. Miuosz was always interested in philosophical issues. nonfiction: Zniewolony umysu. 1953). under the influence of Oscar de L. has a sidewalk in front of it. In “Song of a Citizen” (1943). they read poetry and picture books before going to play in the woods. and textures of nature. and the children’s father represents God. In “Slow River” (1936). and he uses his voice to persuade the goddess Persephone to free Eurydice. Native Realm: A Search for Self-Definition. and Hades is several hundred stories below the ground in the form of a labyrinth. “From the Rising of the Sun” (19731974) is a fifty-page poem using not only multiple voices. Lithuanian.” In “To Raja Rao” (1969). The Captive Mind. Miuosz rejects rationalism in the tradition of René Descartes. 1953 (The Seizure of Power. sounds.” a modern retelling of the classic myth. a boar’s head comes to life and confronts them. 1955). Conn. 2001). 1986. Postwar Polish Poetry. 1990 (A Year of the Hunter. Malinowska. Emperor of the Earth: Modes of Eccentric Vision. Ziemia Ulro. 1982). Fiut analyzes the poet’s search for the essence of human nature. 1979. 1983). 1997. Kwiadectwo poezji. Aleksander. 1996 (Legends of Modernity: Essays and Letters from Occupied Poland. 1958. Legendy nowoczesnokci. Lang. Striving Towards Being: The Letters of Thomas Merton and Czeslaw Milosz. 1969 (Visions from San Francisco Bay. 1942. Examines the relationship between these two poets and compares and contrasts them. The Eternal Moment: The Poetry of Czesuaw Miuosz.” 2003. A comprehensive examination of the artistic and philosophical dimensions of Miuosz’s oeuvre. Rok mykliwego. The History of Polish Literature. Berkeley: University of California Press. Zycie na wyspach. 1981. Czesuaw Miuosz: Conversations. and Time in the Poetry of Czesuaw Miuosz and John Ashbery. 1989. Special Miuosz issue.Czesuaw Miuosz Critical Survey of Poetry Czuowiek wkród skorpionów. Ironwood 18 (Fall. Nobel Lecture.” Offers a broad range of responses to Miuosz’s work from his American and Polish contemporaries. 1994). Fiut. 1981). 1977 (The Land of Ulro. 2005). 2000. Czesuaw Miuosz and Joseph Brodsky: Fellowship of Poets. 1983 (criticism. 1997 (Miuosz’s ABCs. such as Robert Hass. 1991). 1984). 1965. many well-known and admired poets themselves. Rozmowy Czesuaw Miuosz: Aleksander Fiut “Autoportret przekorny. the study proposes the comprehensive concept of ontological transcendence as a model to analyze multidimensional contemporary poetry. The poet Davie examines the poetry of Miuosz . 1942-1943. New Haven. New York: P. 1997. and Stanisuaw Bara½czak. his reflection on the erosion of the Christian imagination. Zaczynajác od moich ulic. Zbigniew Herbert. Dynamics of Being. paying attention to technique. Irena. Barbara. Translated by Theodosia S. 2001. Includes bibliographical references. 1972. 1962 (criticism). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. 1977. Abecadlo Milosza.: Yale University Press. Czesuaw Miuosz and the Insufficiency of Lyric. Robertson. 2006. Bibliography Davie. With the Skin: Poems of Aleksander Wat. To Begin Where I Am: Selected Essays. Space. Grudzinska-Gross. A Book of Luminous Things: An International Anthology of Poetry. 1996. Published a year after Miuosz received the Nobel Prize. A discussion of poetic visions of reality in the works of two contemporary hyperrealistic poets. The Witness of Poetry. 1969 (enlarged 1983). Donald. 2010. 162 . edited texts: Piek½ niepoldlegla. 1990. miscellaneous: Kontynenty. and his effort toward an anthropocentric vision of the world. Prywatne obowiázki. Widzenia nad zatoká San Francisco. 1985 (Beginning with My Streets: Essays and Recollections. Ogród nauk. In its final synthesis. this issue’s self-proclaimed purpose was to “help Americans absorb and assimilate his work. Czesuaw. to the body of Miuosz’s writings. Conversations with Czesuaw Miuosz.Eastern European Poets Czesuaw Miuosz Miuosz. and Arthur Quinn. some topics that dominate are catastrophism and the concept of reality in Miuosz’s poetry and his place in Polish literature. It is especially interesting to hear Miuosz’s interpretations of his own poems. as Stanisuaw Bara½czak puts it in the foreword. 1988. Also shows Miuosz’s ties with Canada in an article comparing his artistic attitudes to those of Canadian poets and an appendix describing his visits to Canada. Czesuaw Miuosz: Conversations.: Harvard University Press. 2006. Part of the Literary Conversations series. 1991. Tasha Haas. Edited by Cynthia L. as a “detailed and fully reliable introduction . Feller 163 . Edmonton: University of Alberta Press. _______. . Edited by Ewa Czarnecka and Aleksander Fiut. The first book by an American to serve. Nathan. Incredibly eclectic and illuminating set of interviews divided into three parts. Haven. and part 3 looks at Miuosz’s philosophical influences and perspectives on theology.” This work by two of Miuosz’s Berkeley colleagues (Nathan was also a cotranslator with Miuosz of many of his most challenging poems) benefits from the authors’ lengthy discussions of the texts with the poet himself. Mass. Leonard. this collection of interviews examines the poet’s views on literature and writing. Part 1 explores Miuosz’s childhood through mature adulthood biographically. 1987. part 2 delves more into specific poetry and prose works. and poetry. Between Anxiety and Hope: The Poetry and Writing of Czesuaw Miuosz. ed. Robert Faggen Updated by Thomas R. . Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. The Poet’s Work: An Introduction to Czesuaw Miuosz. Cambridge. Interviews. New York: Harcourt. Although these seven articles by accomplished poets and scholars are not focused around any one theme. Mozejko. reality. Edward. Interviews. Victor Anthony Rudowski. Translated by Richard Lourie. Estonian. July 29. 1975 Points of Departure. he has published important studies on the aesthetics of medieval poetry. 1970 Poems by Dan Pagis. Dutch. prosaic diction. 1964 Gilgul. 1986 Principal poetry Shaon ha-hol. 1981 Milim nirdafot. Hungarian. October 16. French. Danish. 1987 Variable Directions: The Selected Poetry of Dan Pagis. Dahlia Ravikovitch. a “new wave” that included Dan Pagis. and free verse to express their own views. Japanese. and Yiddish. ha-Beitzah she-hithapsah (1973. 1959 Sheut mauheret. 1972 Moah. 1930 Died: Jerusalem. irony. Tuvia Ruebner. Portuguese. Israel. formal verse. have been translated into Afrikaans. 1991 Other literary forms Although Dan Pagis (pah-GEE) is internationally known as a poet. and David Rokeah. and the other great poets of the eleventh and twelfth centuries who celebrated the colors and images of worldly existence in elegant. Italian. believing in the poet as an individual and using understatement. Pagis’s own poems. Judah ha-Levi. These poets of the 1950’s turned away from the socially minded national poets. As a professor of medieval Hebrew literature at Hebrew University. Achievements The first generation of Israeli poets often used a collective identity to write poetry of largely ideological content. Vietnamese. 1984 Shirim aharonim. the reaction to previous ideological values that arose in the late 1950’s and the 1960’s has been described by Hebrew critic Shimon Sandbank as “the withdrawal from certainty. Romania. 1989 Col ha-shirim. more understated and conversational than the medieval texts he studied. the egg that tried to disguise itself). including expositions of Moses Ibn Ezra. 164 . 1982 Shneim asar panim. he has written a children’s book in Hebrew. Romanian. Czech.DAN PAGIS Born: Radautsi. However.” Poets Yehuda Amichai and Natan Zach were at the forefront of this avant-garde movement. Ibn Gabirol. Swedish. Polish. SerboCroatian. Ironically. Harvard University. . he is certain that “at this moment/ someone is tracking me. Poems by Dan Pagis In Poems by Dan Pagis. Here. He settled in Jerusalem in 1956. sometimes using humor and whimsy to transform the displacement of his life from a passively suffered fate into an imaginative reconstruction of reality.Eastern European Poets Pagis. Romania. Amichai. Analysis Reflecting the geographic and linguistic displacements of his life. from Hebrew University and became a professor of medieval Hebrew literature. with Pagis often calling on a specific biblical or rabbinical text. Instead. at both San Diego and Berkeley. During his life. He spent three years in Nazi concentration camps. ventriloquist voices that become authentic surrogates for his own voice. and he became a schoolteacher on a kibbutz. Although there is a great deal of horror in his poetry. Pagis and Amichai especially made efforts to incorporate elements of classical Hebrew into the colloquial diction. His poems have appeared in major American magazines.” Nevertheless.” and the first-person speaker in the poem speaks for all the Jews left after the Holocaust. he was the foremost living authority on the poetics of Hebrew literature of the High Middle Ages and the Renaissance.” The first poem is titled “The Last Ones. including The New Yorker and Tikkun. . Pagis died of cancer in Jerusalem in 1986. 165 . the historical record of that horror is so enormous that Pagis uses displacement to give it expression without the shrillness of hysteria or the bathos of melodrama. He was married and had two children. . and Zach brought about was the perfection of a colloquial norm for Hebrew poetry. Dan Most of all. from which he escaped in 1944.” The poem ends with the line “There is no time to explain. displacement is a governing concept in Dan Pagis’s poetry. and was brought up in Bukovina. After he arrived in Palestine in 1946. Very close. it is apparent why many discussions of Pagis’s poems tend to pigeonhole him as a “poet of the Holocaust. Pagis also taught at the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York. Biography Dan Pagis was born in Radautsi. he states that “For years I have appeared only here and there/ at the edges of this jungle. in the sense that to “displace” is to remove or put out of its proper place. he cultivates a variety of distanced. and the University of California. Pagis survived one of the darkest events in human history and managed to set distance from it through the medium of his art. the revolution in Hebrew verse that Pagis. Pagis is a playful poet as well. where he earned his Ph.D. speaking German in a Jewish home in what was once an eastern province of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.” indicating a collective consciousness that is still running in fear for its life. Pagis began to publish poetry in his newly acquired Hebrew within only three or four years. . Dan Critical Survey of Poetry A section of the book called “Testimony” contains six Holocaust poems. leaving the reader to meditate on the nature of evil.Pagis. . Late. with questions including “number of galaxy and star.” when “distant fleets of steel are waiting./ The gold teeth back to the gums. . .” and she means to leave a message for her other son.” The shadow of the Holocaust hovers over all./ number of grave. still awfully early. ./ paragraph after paragraph. “If you see my other son/ cain son of man/ tell him i”. “The Beginning” is a poem about “the end of creation.” the speaker betrays his innocence by asking what year it is. .” the questionnaire informs the deceased. . state/ how long you have been awake and why you are surprised./ don’t worry so—you’ll see—it could. “No it could never happen here.” and the chilling “Draft of a Reparations Agreement. .” He introduces the reader to the life of the party. dancing the tango and kissing the hand of an elegant woman. .” “You have the right to appeal. It ends with the command.” Pagis envisions the end as “A time of war. the voice of the perpetrators of the Holocaust. In a kind of mordant displacement the draft writer promises “The scream back into the throat. Points of Departure In Points of Departure. this poem provokes the reader to meditate on the great finality of death. .” The speaker is “eve” traveling with her son “abel. Late. you will be covered with skin and sinews and you will live.” Often Holocaust themes are placed in an archetypal perspective. In “Draft of a Reparations Agreement.” Ironically. .” the speaker is again a collective voice. as “High above the smoke and the odor of fat and skins hovers/ a yellow magnetic stain. you will have your lives back.” In “Europe. here the poem ends abruptly. among them “Europe. . In “End of the Questionnaire.” However. Nothing is too late. The exquisite irony exposes the absurdity of reparations as well as the lunacy of the speaker. The agreement promises that “Everything will be returned to its place. reassuring her “that everything will be all right.” The poet seems to be saying that the Holocaust is the beginning of the 166 . as in the widely known poem “Written in Pencil in the Sealed Railway-Car. . Pagis’s voice runs the gamut from horrifying to deceptively whimsical.” Also.” he creates a questionnaire to be filled out posthumously.” the brilliant “Written in Pencil in the Sealed Railway-Car. the voice stops midsentence at the end of the poem. . and the answer is “Thirty-nine and a half. Here you are. look. . “In the blank space below.” echoing the bureaucratic language in which the whole Nazi endeavor was carried out. ” Armchairs also become animals in this bestiary: “The slowest animals/ are the soft large-eared leather armchairs” that “multiply/ in the shade of potted philodendrons.” “The Biped” becomes an existential comedy through this odd mixture of traits Pagis chooses to juxtapose. In “Brain” (from Points of Departure). as they “fondle one another” and cluster at the ceiling.” and he alone “protests/ against what is decreed. “Brain” is concerned with the ambivalence of the poet’s experience of the world and employs images from the laboratory. strides forth/ in heat. and when they become intimate Brain asks./ he alone is clothed with animals. blazing. “The Elephant. what is playful suddenly becomes ominous. The poem begins with a reference to religious life. looking exactly as one would picture him: “grayish-white convolutions. although the “dark night of the soul” here becomes ironically “the dark night of the skull. Pagis gives us an image of Brain. when “at the zero-hour/ the Great Bear. what the reader might imagine.” Pagis writes of the pachyderm who ties on sixteen “marvelously accurate wristwatches” and “glides forth smoothly/ out of his elephant fate.” “Brain” The highly intellectual poetry of Pagis treats each subject in a style which seems most appropriate. “Tell me. which state “He has four limbs. all “splitting off from him. or.” What the poet finds strangest is that he “rides of his own free will/ on a motorcycle. The darkest poem in this group is the one titled “The Biped.” Brain sets out to explore the world and makes a friend. In the first. as The soul suddenly leaks out in a terrified whistle or explodes with a single pop. “he alone/ cooks animals. sliding back and forth. and medicine.” during which “Brain” discovers “he” is born. popular culture.” In a sudden shift of tone in part 4. Typical of his later poetry. in a biblical reference.” Balloons also are animate. including the last three lines of the poem. he discovers the world complete. with whom he communicates over radio sets in the attic. betraying him from within.” Pagis points out that though he is related to other predatory animals. “Brain hovers upon the face of the deep.” In a charming cycle in which five poems are grouped under the heading “Bestiary. peppers them. Brain first suspects that he is the whole universe.” each poem is rich with humor and whimsy./ a bit oily. humbly accepting their limit. do you know how to forget?” 167 .Eastern European Poets Pagis. Dan end. However. He questions the friend to find out if they are alike. but then suspects he embodies millions of other brains. he uses several different styles to illustrate the tortured life of this brain in exile.” yet he is not a deity when his eyes develop./ a hundred hearts. as an infant is aware only of itself. In part 2. the Hebrew Bible./ two ears. Pagis himself. is the hawk. he achieves what he desires.” is typical of the preoccupation with memory that haunts this poet. he wonders why he ever spoke.Pagis. and in a fit of existential despair. which may be a heart. Brain is both a microcosm and a macrocosm. Although it is an early poem.” hints at what is ahead. his old sarcasm and jokes desert him. Brain finds his “bush of veins” enveloping him. of course. “Instructions for Crossing the Border” forecasts the later “Brain” in its preoccupation with obliterating memory. along with his fear. You are not allowed to forget. .” Other benign images follow until an ironic twist in the sixth line.” “You are not allowed to remember. “Harvests” “Harvests” starts with a deceptively benign image.” This is sinister advice. one that cannot recognize the man to whom it is speaking. Part 9 is an encyclopedic entry describing the brain.” The voice is that of an official speaking. The advice is positive. With his new knowledge.” implying that the time of the mouse’s demise is de168 . and if there is anyone to listen to him. snaring him. “he no longer has to remember. you sit in the train. the hawk is both “sharp-eyed” and “punctual. that of “The prudent fieldmouse” who “hoards and hoards for the time of battle and siege. against whom the mouse’s prudence and marvelously tunneled home is no protection at all. . To darken the image further. What waits. and Brain is embarrassed by so much praise.” It is a dehumanized voice. addressing “Imaginary man. Brain metamorphoses throughout the poem and starts to think about outer space. Finally. . Dan Critical Survey of Poetry When his life is half over. using the stripped and spare vocabulary of his early work. Brain is receiving signals from light years away and makes contact with another world. so near that he will never be able to see it. considering that the last line is a direct contradiction of the second: “Go. “the fire revels in the wheat./ You’ve got a decent coat now. he commands “Let there be darkness!” and closes the encyclopedia. the addressee is only present in the speaker’s imagination. The discovery is cloaked in the language of science fiction. Toward the end of this remarkable poem. almost upbeat: “you are a man. to whom he spoke. and he is astounded to find that There is a hidden circle somewhere whose center is everywhere and whose circumference is nowhere.” “Instructions for Crossing the Border” The second line of “Instructions for Crossing the Border./ Sit comfortably. 2 (Summer. the hawk will appear at the appointed time. 1968. illuminating Pagis’s similarities and differences. Bibliography Alter. Originally published as Variable Directions in 1989. no. “In Place of the Absent God: The Reader in Dan Pagis’s ‘Written in Pencil in a Sealed Railway Car. This article places the poet among his peers. Tsipi. Keller. _______. 1975. Each poem is presented in the original Hebrew. 1996. Albany: State University of New York Press. Contains a selection of poems by Pagis as well as a brief biography. 80 (Fall. “Harvests” is a small parable in which Pagis. 2004): 51-61. primarily Yehuda Amichai and Natan Zach. 2010.” Judaism 45.” Other major works nonfiction: The Poetry of David Vogel. New York: Holt. similar to his whimsical poem “Experiment of the Maze. Secular Poetry and Poetic Theory: Moses Ibn Ezra and His Contemporaries. 1989. and in English translation. Discusses teaching Pagis’s well-known poem to students and their reactions and understandings. 1970. ed. fourth edition. 1976. The introduction discusses Pagis and Hebrew poetry in general. Ranen. Sefarad ve-Italyah. uses animals to make a statement about the human condition. typically. Sheila Golburgh Johnson 169 . placing him among his fellows. Provides a detailed discussion of the literary world Pagis inhabited and places him securely in the poetic movement of his generation. Omer-Sherman. Translated by Stephen Mitchell. Dan termined and no matter how canny he is. eds. Stanley. The Modern Hebrew Poem Itself. T.Eastern European Poets Pagis. Alter examines the life of Pagis and offers some literary criticism in this introduction to a translation of selected works.’” Cross Currents 54. 1966. Carmi. Berkeley: University of California Press. Rinehart and Winston. The Poetry of Levi Ibn Altabban of Saragossa. Introduction to The Selected Poetry of Dan Pagis. in phonetic transcription. no. 1973. Poets on the Edge: An Anthology of Contemporary Hebrew Poetry. children’s literature: ha-Beitzah she-hithapsah. Robert. Burnshaw. Hindush u-mascoret be-shirat-ha-hol ha-’Ivrit. This book offers a stunning explication of Pagis’s poem “The Log Book” and an afterword covering Hebrew poetry from 1965 to 1988. and Ezra Spicehandler. He also briefly outlines Pagis’s life and provides analysis of the poem itself. Introduction by Aminadav Dykman. “Dan Pagis and the Poetry of Displacement. 1996). 1842-1844) Cipruslombok Etelke sírjáról.” 1847 Az apostol. 1849 Principal poetry A helység-kalapácsa. 1873) Versek. 1847. “Zöld Marci. 1607-1608) appeared. in 1847. 1844 (Poems. 1842-1844. 1972) Versek II. 1823 Died: Segesvár. 1595-1596) but died before finishing it. 1961) Sixty Poems. 2004) Szerelem gyöngyei. 1845 (Pearls of Love. Hungary. Pet¹fi earned some money doing translations of works by such authors as Charles de Bernard. “A szökevények” (the runaways) was published in the Pesti Divatlap in 1845. c. his letters. “Úti jegyzetek” (“journal notes”) was serialized in Életképek in 1845. In 1847. 1972) Felhok. 1972 Other literary forms Sándor Pet¹fi (PEHT-uh-fee) wrote several short narrative pieces for the fashion magazines and periodicals of his day. The most valuable prose Pet¹fi wrote was the personal essay and brief diary entries relating to the events of March. 1844 (The Hammer of the Village.SÁNDOR PET¨FI Born: Kiskörös. revised as John the Hero. 1848. and William Shakespeare. 1845 (Poems II. published in the 1960 Pet¹fi Sándor összes prózai muvei és levelezése (complete prose works and correspondence of Sándor Pet¹fi). Early in his career. 1972) “Széchy Mária. Lapok Pet¹fi Sándor naplójából (pages from the diary of Sándor Pet¹fi) appeared in 1848. January 1. 1973) was published in the same magazine. 1845 (Cypress Leaves from the Tomb of Etelke. July 31. his melodramatic novella A hóhér kötele (The Hangman’s Rope. 1972) János Vitéz. He also began a translation of Romeo and Juliet (pr. c. 1848 (The Apostle: A Narrative Poem. Pet¹fi’s translation of Shakespeare’s Coriolanus (pr. 1948 Sándor Pet¹fi: His Entire Poetic Works. Hazánk published his “Úti levelek Kerényi Frigyeshez” (travel notes to Frigyes Kerényi). In 1848. The following year. 1920. 170 . 1846 (Clouds. he published two tales in Életképek: “A nagyapa” (the grandfather) and “A fakó leány s a pej legény” (the pale girl and the ruddy boy). Hungary. was destroyed by the author when it was not picked up for theatrical production.” a drama written in 1845. 1845 (Janos the Hero. 1848 (Collected Poems. 1972) Összes költeményei. provide good examples of his easy prose style. George James. the bombastic Tigris és hiéna (tiger and hyena) was withdrawn from production but published in 1847. In addition. matter and manner were never separate for Pet¹fi. Like William Wordsworth and Robert Burns in English literature. More important. He also exploited to the fullest its ability to present psychological states through natural and concrete images. Pet¹fi expanded the scope of poetry in both theme and language.” according to Zsolt Beöty. he placed emphasis on everyday themes and the common person. Following in the footsteps of the great Hungarian language reformers and poets of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. they created a poetic language and encouraged the taste of the public for native themes and native styles. Dániel Berzsenyi. Classical and modern European influences had been absorbed and naturalized by these men. and Mihály Vörösmarty. The German influence. and a just social order can be understood only in this context. with an immediacy that had an impact beyond the poetic sphere. A consummate craftsperson and a conscious developer of the style and vocabulary of mid-nineteenth century Hungarian poetry. He appeals to the emotions yet maintains a distance: His themes seldom lose their universality. Choosing folk poetry as his model. it has assured him a place in the development of Hungarian lyricism. and his revolutionary ideals were unthinkable without a popular-national input. he made poetic what had been commonplace. he was bringing poetry to the masses. He made the folk song a medium for the expression of much of the national feeling of the nineteenth century. he did so with the conscious art of a cultivated poet.Eastern European Poets Sándor Pet¹fi Achievements Sándor Pet¹fi has been called Hungary’s greatest lyric poet. had 171 . he knew that in helping to create and enrich the new poetic language. In exploring the language. he did not break with all tradition. It would be unfair to the earlier molders of Hungarian poetry. the revolutionary ideal of the nineteenth century applied equally to politics and poetics. Building on past traditions. goes beyond Hungary. of the Hungarian people. and a new society. He is an iconoclast and revolutionary only when he perceives existing values and systems as denying the basic value of human life. and simplicity. to minimize their influence on Pet¹fi. but rather sought a return to native values. home. he both mirrors and creates a new world. although Pet¹fi drew on popular traditions. Thus. a new type of person. To a great extent. from Mihály Csokonai Vitéz through Károly Kisfaludi. This combination of Romantic style and realistic roots gives his poetry a freshness and sincerity that has made him popular both in Hungary and abroad. immediacy. strong for both political and demographic reasons. Pet¹fi’s poetry is the “poetry of Hungarian life. he endorsed its values of realism. However. he revitalized Hungarian poetry. however. they created a modern Hungarian poetic medium no longer restricted by the limitations of language. Folk orientation and nationalism were equally an organic part of his poetry. Pet¹fi’s impact. For Pet¹fi. His endorsement of conventional values of family. establishing a new voice and introducing new themes into Hungarian poetry. Simultaneously. Style and form. Though a revolutionary. Pet¹fi’s father was wealthy. Biography Sándor Pet¹fi was born on January 1. and his wife. His mother. uniting his love for it with the objectivity of one who lives close to it. 1823. Pet¹fi’s father’s family. through the zeal of several nationalistic teachers. The intellectual and cultural milieu. became acquainted with the prominent authors of the eighteenth century: Berzsenyi. For example. among them the lower gymnasium (high school) at Aszód. The years that followed were particularly hard ones. The year spent at Selmec. traveling mostly on foot. 1839. Pet¹fi roamed much of the country. and the young man grew up in what he himself considered the “most Magyar” area of all Hungary. came from the Hungarian highlands in the north. nor did he condemn the class hierarchy of earlier times without cause. inequity and petrified institutions that did not allow for the free play of talent. to the common person. and he made every effort to complete his studies later. The young Pet¹fi was sent to a succession of schools that were designed to give him a good liberal education in both Hungarian and German. the region called Kis Kúnság (Little Cumania) on the Great Plains. He endorsed human values above all.Sándor Pet¹fi Critical Survey of Poetry also been greatly reduced. as well as the popular poets of the day. innkeeper and butcher. in spite of the Serbian name (which Pet¹fi was to change when he chose poetry as his vocation). in Kiskörös—a town located on the Hungarian plain—to István Petrovics. and thus he came to know a wide spectrum of society. Pet¹fi decided to join the army. As a poet of a many-faceted national consciousness. but he 172 . Since acting could not provide him a living. Such an ethnic mix was not unusual. Pet¹fi was always committed to the simple folk. Pet¹fi’s decision to become an actor was not made lightly. Much of his poetry celebrates the people and the landscape of this region: Though not the first to do so. He did not categorically support the unlettered peasant in favor of the clerk. from which he graduated valedictorian. Mária Hruz. He did condemn. changed so dramatically in these years that German. József Gvadányi. until 1846. and Vitéz. Vörösmarty and József Bajza. He was active in various literary clubs and. He took advantage of the hospitality offered at the farms and manor houses. when he was barely sixteen. Hazánk (homeland). had lived in Hungary for generations. he determined to educate them. was marred by his father’s financial troubles and by Pet¹fi’s personal clashes with one of his teachers. As a result of these pressures. a periodical to which Pet¹fi contributed regularly. for he knew the value of an education. ran away with a group of touring players. Slovak by birth. however. he also developed his appreciation for nature. On these travels. Vaterland. he was more successful than earlier poets in capturing the moods of the region known as the Alföld (lowlands). he yielded to his penchant for the theater and on February 15. in fact. was called. in the upper division of the gymnasium. and desiring his sons to be successful.language theaters and publications were becoming Hun garian in language as well as sentiment. and on July 1. gained a grudging approval and were married a year later. The venture succeeded. he was determined that this would be his vocation. changed dramatically. 1844. In the fall. determined to complete his studies. he earned his living chiefly with his pen. appeared in the prestigious Athenaeum in May. he met Júlia Szendrey. If the verdict was favorable. he copied 108 of his poems. A subscription by the nationalistic literary society Nemzeti Kör provided Pet¹fi with some funds. and this volume. she encouraged his involvement in politics. Besides submitting shorter pieces to a variety of journals. Sharing his political and national convictions. poetry. he accepted a position as assistant editor of the Pesti Divatlap. determined to take them to Vörösmarty for an opinion. He joined the literary society and gained recognition as a poet: “A borozo” (the wine drinker). Pet¹fi continued to publish in a variety of journals. Pet¹fi.Eastern European Poets Sándor Pet¹fi was soon discharged for reasons of ill health. ill and stranded in Debrecen. they show the development of the relationship between Pet¹fi and Júlia. Pet¹fi would remain a poet and somehow earn his living by his pen.” in which Pet¹fi reported his impressions of the people and scenes he encountered. he would give up poetry forever. published the series of prose letters. They were engaged and. From this time on. 18421844. he published two heroic poems and a cycle of love lyrics. as well as his life. and he also won the society’s annual festival. He planned to finish his studies. Clouds. he took a trip to eastern Hungary. his first published poem. A rival journal. In March of 1845. When a promised position as tutor fell through. Júlia was to provide the inspiration for Pet¹fi’s best love lyrics. and the travelogue. firmly established his reputation. The year 1846 also marked the beginning of Pet¹fi’s friendship with János Arany. he became friends with Mór Jókai. Poems. while campaigning for better remuneration for literary contributors to journals—founding the Society of Ten and even leading a brief strike—Pet¹fi published another volume of poetry. he was once more forced to leave school and to make his living as an actor. he left the Pesti Divatlap to tour northern Hungary. despite parental opposition. later a prominent novelist but at that point a student at Pápa. In the months following. Pet¹fi had been drawn to Arany when the latter won a literary prize with his epic Toldi 173 . In 1846. Pet¹fi. The Hangman’s Rope. Although he became increasingly dedicated to Életképek. Two more volumes of poetry. appeared. their courtship and marriage. “Journal Notes. attended classes there. or doing whatever odd jobs (translating. copying) he found. considered himself a poet. Pet¹fi’s “Úti levelek Kerényi Frigyeshez” (travel notes to Frigyes Kerényi) thus became more than an account of the customs and sights of Transylvania and the eastern part of the country. Pearls of Love and Poems II. In the winter of 1843-1844. intending to publish a second series of travel reports. to become a professional man able to support himself and to help his parents and also to pursue his chief love. even in the campaigns of 1848 and 1849. however. then nineteen. 1842. if not. Early in the trip. however. and a novella. He fell in love with her almost at their first meeting. Életképek. Arany’s influence on the younger man. Pet¹fi wrote immediately—and also composed a poem in praise of the then-unknown man from Nagyszalonta. 1914). which had been edited by his friend Jókai since April. Buda and Pest were still regarded by many Hungarians as the rightful center of the country. 1848. acceptance in principle of the program of reform was won. troubled years. and economic reforms were sought. reciting the ode several times for the gathering crowds. Pet¹fi became a member of the Nemzetor (national guard). When both public safety and national security seemed threatened by the invitations of the Croatian army of Count Josef Jella5i6 and similar guerrilla bands. the presence of the Turks. the influence of a worthy mentor who could rein the excesses of his emotions helped Pet¹fi attain the perfection of the poems he wrote between 1846 and 1849. Social. he joined the regular army. income and gave him a friend and adviser who would stand him in good stead in his last. and in October. which were to culminate in the demonstrations of March 15. In Pest. Pet¹fi took part in these political activities. Pet¹fi also achieved a measure of financial independence through a contract signed in August of 1846 with the publisher Gustáv Emich for the publication of his Collected Poems. Feeling that they were kindred spirits. the hunting castle lent to him by Count Teleki. There was agitation to have the capital returned from Pozsony. a lively if fragmented account of his activities and thoughts in those days. along with the formal demands expressed in the Twelve Points. Arany helped form the objective vein in Pet¹fi’s poetry. and also a translation of Shakespeare’s Coriolanus. when his poem. and he became increasingly involved in the liberal movements that were sweeping the city. He had written his “Nemzeti dal” (national ode) the previous day for a national demonstration against Austria. with it. Thus. His poetry of this period included political themes.Sándor Pet¹fi Critical Survey of Poetry (1847. As one of the leaders of the young radicals. While the seat neither of the Diet nor of the king. legal. In September. Finally. no longer existed. now that the reason for its move. The revolution—as yet a peaceful internal reform— had begun. Pet¹fi continued to write. and the cessation of certain military measures. 1848. 1848. Several poems commemorate the weeks at Koltó. This relationship assured Pet¹fi a regular. he undertook a recruiting tour. such as the special occupation status of Transylvania and parts of the southeastern region of the country. too. after they met. English translation. which he was to commemorate in one of his poems. He joined the staff of the Életképek. their friendship deepened and. contributing to various journals. simply. After his marriage and brief honeymoon at Koltó. Later. Through a series of negotiations. the Hungarian people desired the reunion of their artificially divided country. The War of Independence was in full force by 174 . Pet¹fi and his wife returned to Pest in November of 1847 . including “Szeptember végen” (at the end of September). He published his diary on the events of March and April. During the day. Pet¹fi was in the forefront. was printed and distributed without the censor’s approval as an affirmation of freedom of the press. if modest. regarded by many critics as one of the masterpieces of world literature. was not known until much later. and many rumors of his living in exile. Through the first half of 1849. His widow’s remarriage was severely criticized. is not autobiographical. which had come to aid the Austrians according to the agreements of the Holy Alliance. too. Heinrich Heine. His poetry. notably Csokonai in the late eighteenth century and Kisfaludi in the early nineteenth century. He had difficulties with the discipline and procedures of army life. however. 175 . What was new in Pet¹fi’s approach was his conscious effort to establish a poetic style that put native meters and current speech at the center of his art. however. or in a Siberian labor camp were circulated in the 1850’s. according to eyewitnesses. Although he was influenced both by classical poets (especially Horace) and by foreign poets of his own era—Friedrich Schiller. continues to live. This fact. Magyar irodalomtörténet (history of Hungarian literature). he was not the first: The tradition of medieval verse and song had survived and had been revived by previous generations of poets. On July 31. proof of the people’s reluctance to accept his death. he took part in the Battle of Segesvár and was killed by Cossack forces of the Russian army.Eastern European Poets Sándor Pet¹fi this time. written from 1842 to 1844. relations between the Hungarians and the Habsburgs having deteriorated completely. Analysis Antal Szerb remarked in his 1934 work. Pet¹fi’s body was never found. however. in hiding. 1849. Pet¹fi had already established his distinctive style and some of his favorite themes. Pet¹fi was assigned to Debrecen. Pet¹fi participated in the Transylvanian campaigns. Commissioned as a captain in the army on October 15. its themes and topics span a surprisingly broad range for a career compressed into such a few years. There is no break between the experience and its poetic expression. Even the fact that Júlia was expecting the couple’s first child in December did not allow Pet¹fi to draw back from the struggle he had so often advocated in his poems. the folk song. visiting his wife and son whenever a lull in the fighting or his adjutants’ duties allowed. the seventeenth century epic of Miklós Zrinyi had continued to inspire poets. In this. had been cultivated by earlier poets. until transferred to the command of General Józef Bem. in a mass grave. a Polish patriot and skillful general who was winning the Transylvanian campaign. and probably the English poets Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley—Pet¹fi believed that Hungarian poetry must free itself of its dependence on foreign rules of prosody in order to reflect native meters and patterns. although best analyzed from a biographical perspective. 1848. The Hungarian tradition In the early poems.” Sándor Pet¹fi’s poetry. because he was buried. though eventually the poet’s death had to be accepted. “Pet¹fi is a biographical poet. the Hungarian-born Austrian poet Nikolaus Lenau. Juxtaposing natural imagery and emotion in a manner reminiscent of folk song.” The mood here. Objective in his assessment of his father’s inability to understand him. he examines the decline of Hungary as a nation. but they present the people and locale Pet¹fi was later to make his own: the puszta. however. in the skies. yet their expression is restrained: He sees his father’s love manifest in the grudging approval bestowed on his “profession” and his mother’s love manifest in her incessant questions. 176 . Contemplating a reunion with the mother he has not seen for some time. The emotions are deep. and the diction remain simple. who was later to define the “Hungarian national meter” chiefly on the basis of a study of Pet¹fi’s use of native rhythms./ Like the fruit on the tree. they ranged from Anacreontics to love lyrics to personal and meditative poems. drinking the fine wines of Eger. its people. anticipating Pet¹fi’s later use of this genre. the Anacreontic is used for a serious and patriotic purpose. The poem opens with a quiet winter scene: On the ground. They are full of intense yet controlled feeling. only sets the stage for the patriotic sentiment that is the poem’s real purpose. a line that has the effect of a “tag. a realistic note is never lacking. however. clouds. thus. He does not dwell long on nostalgia. he knows that the bond between them is no less strong. plants. he rehearses various greetings. however. In “Egri hangok” (sounds of Eger)./ And when they sprout. The poem grew out of a personal experience: Walking from Debrecen to Pest in February of 1844. only to find that in the moment of reunion he “hangs on her lips—wordlessly.” because it has fewer stresses than the other three. Pet¹fi moves on to consider the historical associations of the city of Eger. The love poems are light and playful exercises without great emotional commitment. In subject. Pet¹fi’s early poems were written primarily in the folk-song style. he was welcomed by the students of the college. His own emotions are described in a minor key. in his gamble to be recognized as a poet or to abandon this vocation. but the setting. The mood is not rowdy but serene and content. “Egy estém otthon” (one evening at home) and “István öcsémhez” (to my younger brother. but turns back to the good mood of the opening scenes to predict a bright future for the country. but for the poet everything is fine. because he is among friends in a warm room. there is snow. but also in the recognition accorded him by Arany. he states: “If my good spirits would have seeds:/ I’d sow them above the snow. and animals. the style. coming as a comment in the last line of the quatrain. The family Pet¹fi’s early poems about his family reveal the emotional depth of his best work.Sándor Pet¹fi Critical Survey of Poetry Proof of his success is found not only in the immense and ongoing popularity of his poetry among all classes of the population. István) reflect the same love and tender concern for his parents. the scene of one of the more memorable sieges of the Turkish wars.” The felicitous choice of image and metaphor is one of the greatest attractions of Pet¹fi’s poetry. a forest of roses/ Would crown winter. a ten. The style of the poem reinforces this “obvious” level: It is written in the Hungarian Alexandrine. The similes and metaphors of the poem reflect the method of the folk song and thus extend the richness of meaning found in each statement. the parody is peopled with simple villagers who are presented in epic terms. though he debunks certain excesses in the heroic mode then fashionable. even the giant are recognizable types. measures. The language is simple and natural. his values. satirizes both society and the Romantic epic tradition. Janos the Hero received both critical and popular support. The French king. however. Iluska becomes the ideal for which he strives as well as the force that keeps him from straying from the moral path. whose main offerings were often in the very vein satirized by Pet¹fi.Eastern European Poets Sándor Pet¹fi The Hammer of the Village Pet¹fi’s two heroic poems use the same devices to comment on society—albeit in a light and entertaining manner. his adventures. events that mingle in the imagination of the villagers who have fought Austria’s wars for generations and who fought the Turks for generations before that. His naïveté is not stupidity. the poem understandably failed to gain the critical approval of the journal editors.to eleven-syllable line divided by a caesura into two and two. remains unaffected and unspoiled. Using a mixture of colloquialism and slang. The hero and his lover. Through the pairing of natural phenomena and the protagonist’s state of mind. he does this not by ridiculing simple folk but by debunking pretentiousness. but he is never unsophisticated. Though popular. The epic is augmented by more recent historical material: the Turkish wars and Austrian campaigns. but. It has served as the basis of an operetta and has often been printed as a children’s book—especially in foreign translations. a higher level of meaning is suggested: The adventures of Janos become symbolic of the struggle between good and evil. he is one to whom worldly glory has less appeal than do his love for Iluska and his desire to be reunited with her. The use of the devices goes beyond their traditional application in folk song. Janos. the actual scene is merged with the psychological world of the tale. or two and three. and his way of thinking are all part of the folktale tradition. the Turkish pasha. written in mock-heroic style. nor does he accept the French throne and the hand of 177 . the work has several levels of meaning and explores many topics of deep concern for the poet and his society. Thus. Much more than a fairy tale cast in folk-epic style. remains realistically rooted in the village. presenting the life he knows best. The hero. it is the narrator who assumes the epic pose and invests their jealousies and Sunday-afternoon amusements with a mock grandeur. he does not take the robbers’ wealth to enrich himself. which by this time had become degraded and commonplace. Pet¹fi shows his ability to use the heroic style. as in the folk song. Janos the Hero In contrast. The characterization. The Hammer of the Village. The characters themselves behave unaffectedly and naturally. deserted lowlands and makes it a metaphor for the decline of the country. The images used by the lovers on their parting illustrate these principles quite well: Janos asks Iluska to remember him in these words: “If you see a dry stalk driven by the wind/ Let your exiled lover come to your mind. The simple lyric of the traditional folk song was not yet strong enough to carry the message. as might any wanderer crossing these regions. whether in the form of an unjust master or the Turks or giants and witches who rule over the forces of darkness. stops by a sweep well. These touches and Janos’s realistic actions—such as eating the last of the bacon that he had carried with him for the journey. he found in the drama of the Hungarian people an objective correlative for his own emotions. and many of his works of this period suffer from a lack of objectivity and of emotional distancing. almost barren land. and patriotism. or they are patriotic poems that become increasingly militant in tone. is that of the Hungarian plain. revenge. Janos regains Iluska when he throws the rose he had plucked from her grave into the Waters of Life. He walks across the level. In this time of experimentation. the gulf between the rich and the poor—all sought a voice.Sándor Pet¹fi Critical Survey of Poetry the princess. and Pet¹fi sought a suitable medium of expression. his sense of purpose does not waver. Love. instead. In “A Csárda romjai” (the ruins of the Csárda). in the concluding scenes. Even in the more mythical setting of the second half of the poem. He is not the passive Romantic traveler in the mold of Heine or of Byron. bandits. particularly when Janos is within the boundaries of Hungary. The years 1845 and 1846 were intensely emotional ones for Pet¹fi.” The cosmic connections are suggested. and turning his sheepskin cloak inside out to ward off the rain—reaffirm the hero’s basic humanity.” His words are echoed by Iluska’s answer: “If you see a broken flower flung on the highway/ Let your fading lover come to your mind. Pet¹fi takes a familiar landmark of the arid. He never becomes a mere observer. Helping the weak and unfortunate. The realism of the folk song and the quality of Hungarian village life are not restricted to the description of character or to the imagery. The setting. yet nothing inappropriate on the literal level is said. The best poems lash out against injustice. the poet’s favorite landscape because it reminds him of free178 . Furthermore. but new forms and a new language show that to a great extent Pet¹fi had mastered the conflicting impulses of the earlier works. a struggle between national priorities. using the brim of his felt hat for a cup and a mole’s mound for a pillow. Clouds The collection Clouds contains occasional poems in the world-weary mood of the previous year. The faded flower as a symbol of the grieving girl becomes a mystical metaphor for her. the dry stalk is an appropriate symbol for the griefstricken and aimlessly wandering Janos. and peddlers. he continues to battle oppression. The poem opens as a paean to these plains. he naturally assumes an active role and instinctively takes charge of his own life and of events around him. and encounters shepherds. The melancholy scene is bathed in sunshine and surrounded by natural beauty. The inn has lost its roof. despite the poet’s explicit statement that he has here conjured up “first love. but the Turks destroyed it and left only a half-ruined church. in succeeding stanzas. but those who once lodged there are now long dead. the speaker is on a visit home. The point is not belabored. In “A négy-ökrös szekér” (the ox cart). The poem is set in the country. Although many of the trappings of Romanticism are found in the poem. which is soon given: A village or city once stood here. With a group of young friends. all that remains is the sweep of the well. and its door and window are indistinguishable. the scene is expanded to encompass the entire horizon. “A négy-ökrös szekér” The poems of these years showed great variety./ The four oxen plodded slowly. In the final four lines. although a pensive note is introduced when the poet turns to his companion. on top of which a lone eagle sits. pulling the cart. the poem fits Pet¹fi’s preoccupations in 1845 and 1846. the longing for an unattainable ideal is given its own expression. It is almost impossible to trace specific influences. which serves to give it an optimistic and magical tone. inasmuch as it is the ruin before him that has inspired these thoughts.” The poem remains a retelling of the evening. he returns to the next village in an oxcart to prolong the party. A parenthetical expression brings the poem back to the idea of lost liberty (“Poor Hungary. an inn was built from the church. urging that they choose a star “which will lead us back/ To the happy memories of former times. the poem is also returned to the concrete scene. but precise development of this idea is only suggested. not all are in the meditative-patriotic vein. yet the poem expresses some of 179 . In time. and the narrative is then resumed. before this train of thought goes too far.” The poem then closes with the calm notes of the refrain. Its real theme. Pet¹fi returned to a more personal theme: a nighttime ride in an oxcart. meditating on mutability. however. As such. The ruin is of stone—a rarity here—so he seeks an explanation.Eastern European Poets Sándor Pet¹fi dom. my poor homeland. The parallelism between the decline of the nation and the slow ruin of the church-inn has been established./ How many different chains you have already worn”). He stops himself. “Tündérálom” The culmination of this process of revaluation and poetic development comes in “Tündérálom” (fairy dream).” is the search for happiness. This lyric-psychological confession is written in iambic pentameter and eight-line stanzas with a rhyme scheme of abcbbdbd so that the b rhyme subtly connects the two halves. he seems to digress from the objective scene into sentimentality. for example. and a note of optimism for the nation’s future has been introduced. The magic of the evening is suggested in the second stanza—— “The merchant breeze moved over the nearby leas/ And brought sweet scents from the grasses”—but the refrain anchors the scene in reality: “Down the highway. Romantic early verse. the angry nurse of my life. Throughout. It shakes like the cradle that is rocked By the violent hands of an angry nurse. the mysterious sounds he hears are iden tified as a swan’s song. You. The description of the progress of the idyll illustrates this well: Dusk approached. In a sense. through which the everyday world is constantly brought into contact with the ethereal without disturbing it in the slightest: I’m a boatman on a wild. and it unfolds the story in a series of rich and sensuous images. The impractical dreams of youth are supplanted by the practical programs of adulthood which will implement these goals. The cliff on which we stood glowed red From the last rays. The waves toss. On golden clouds The sun settled behind the violet mountains.Sándor Pet¹fi Critical Survey of Poetry the quintessential notions of the Romantic movement without ever quite losing touch with reality. she is the ideal goal of those starting their careers. A pale fog covered this dry sea. Fate. The ambiguity can be sustained so successfully because it is the imagery that creates the mood. this poem was for Pet¹fi the swan song of the purely internal lyric. The poem owes its success partly to its images. this was a throne And we on it the youthful royal couple of happiness. The endlessly stretching plain. Thus. storm-tossed river. the ideal is lost. the ambiguity between realistic phenomena and magical manifestations is maintained: The dreamer seems to imagine the latter. But truly. he falls back to awake to a lovely yet earthly maiden. but Pet¹fi suggests in the closing lines that such an ideal can be held for only a moment. who like a storm drove on me Peace-disturbing passions. it is not lost. The objective world is completely subordinated to the imaginative one. but the former are asserted. Thus. and. the idyll is again returned to reality. You toss and turn my boat. Appropriately. It is melodious. Symbols abound. like a purple pillow On a throne. as he leaps from a mountain peak into the sky to gain his ideal. not didactic. The girl in the poem is Imagination and Inspiration. but it is not ignored. it exhibits the best qualities of his subjective. but they are suggestive. and Pet¹fi’s sure handling of imagery never allows it to get out of control. thus. 180 . When she is lost. only changed. It must give way to reality. the light boat shakes. ” like “Tündérálom.” serves as a transition to the final.” In the following lines . internal and external scenes merge as his themes become more complex and his subjects more serious. psychological one is maintained./ My soul trembles. The beloved is likened to a diamond—pure. and even the deep love poetry addressed to his wife finds expression in a controlled style that continues to reflect the Hungarian folk song and the European traditions that influenced him at the beginning of his career. Personal experiences and national events play as important a part in the formation of this style as do the experimentations of his earlier years. mert” The objective lyric style that marks the best of Pet¹fi’s poetry had two inspirations. “Naïve realism” is supplanted by a deeper realism. and the personal point of view is gradually replaced by a conscious spokesman for the Hungarian people. and he affirms his commitment to social and political causes. One was his wife. as well as to the fiery rage that makes his songs “Lightning flashes of/ his angry soul. the balance between the exterior. yet the poet retains the delicate balance between form and content. In the former. mature phase of Pet¹fi’s poetry. Pet¹fi states that the beauty of nature has revived him and cured him of his world-weariness. The intense emotions of Pet¹fi’s mature poems continue to be expressed in a restrained style. Written shortly after their meeting. This latter image receives emphasis 181 . “Reszket a bokor. from the landscape poetry of his homeland to joy. Though Pet¹fi’s love for Júlia was deep and passionate. for/ You came to mind. In “Reszket a bokor. love. but the imagery brings a wealth of associations to bear on the relationship. the poem is essentially a question posed through a range of associations: “The bush trembles. Each of these poems serves as an ars poetica. the other was his friend and fellow poet Arany. Júlia. The style remains that of the folk song and the direct personal lyric. before Pet¹fi had a firm commitment from Júlia. the intensity of feeling is almost too much for the classic folk-song pattern. clear.” “Dalaim” “Dalaim. patriotism. and precious—and to a rose. and the desire to free his homeland of foreign rule. natural scene and the interior. Anacreontics.Eastern European Poets Sándor Pet¹fi “Levél Várady Antalhoz” Two more poems of this fertile period deserve mention: “Levél Várady Antalhoz” (letter to Antal Várady) and “Dalaim” (my songs). The six stanzas of “Dalaim” are a masterful expression of the variety of themes and moods found in Pet¹fi’s poetry. The poems of his courtship and marriage show a progression from an emphasis on physical beauty to a desire for spiritual identification. for/ A little bird alighted there. Most prominent are images of blessedness and fulfillment. the poetry in which he celebrates that love is both objective and universal. Structure and mood. mert” (the bush trembles. because). characterized by a harmonious fusion of the often divergent trends identified so far in his poetry. It unites the virtues of folk poetry and the gentle philosophy of Pet¹fi’s peaceful moments in an eternal tribute to his wife. All this. and honeymoon. a single. marriage.” This line gently leads the poem to the next topic. enables the poet to escape excesses of sentimentality and melancholy in spite of the topic. written in dactylic tetrameter. longstemmed rose. A line that rivals François Villon’s “Où sont les neiges d’antan?” (Where are the snows of yesteryear?) introduces the next stanza: “The flower fades. To the usual associations. even the gentle note of resignation in these lines.” Júlia’s answer was. He. or will she soon forget their love? The gradual movement of the poem. The images raise it to extraordinary heights. suggesting that the poet’s soliloquy is not merely a personal matter.Sándor Pet¹fi Critical Survey of Poetry and gains freshness as Pet¹fi uses the word rozsaszálam—that is. “Szeptember végen” (at the end of September) records a day of meditative peace touched by melancholy. as she had loved him in the warmth of summer? Through the reference to the seasons. Its three stanzas of eight lines each. grace and slenderness are added. the brevity of life and the poet’s premonition that he will precede his wife to the grave. leads to the statement: “If you no longer love me/ May God bless you. The images reflect the scene at Koltó in the foothills of the eastern Carpathians and the autumn setting with its associations of death. But see. too. life fleets away./ But if you do still love me. calling her attention to the contrast between summer in the garden and the snow already on the mountaintops. Will she mourn him. image and meaning makes it a masterpiece. along with the suggestion of something individual. revealing the manner in which one emotion fades into another. gray mingles with my dark hair. “A thousand times. a relatively slow and descending cadence. The poet addresses his wife. On one level. The hoarfrost of winter has smitten my head. realistic touches help bring the reader to accept the closing lines. Pet¹fi not only retains the parallelism on which the poem is built but also refers to the actual moment from which the poem springs. feels this contrast: The rays of summer are still flaming in my young heart. the poem is a metaphysical statement concerning the enduring 182 . As always.” and from that time on./ May He bless you a thousandfold. And in it still lives spring in its glory. The atmosphere created again depends on the union of the natural and the psychological. and the skillful use of meter and mood. “Szeptember végen” The poems continue to chronicle the events and emotions of the courtship. The last stanza poses a question: Does Júlia still love him in the cold of winter. Pet¹fi seems to have had no doubt that her commitment to him was as complete as his to her. unique. are meditative yet grand. The young man’s optimism serves to offset this mood and also to introduce the new theme: the arrival of the granddaughter. however. The themes of love. kedvesem” Shortly before his death. Pet¹fi continued to write beautiful love poems to his wife. for he has learned all he knows of love from her. as he states in the last line. The eighty lines of the poem constitute essentially one sentence. the mood of these years of married happiness is seen. Theirs is a fully mutual relationship. The objectivity and restrained style of the poem balance the hardships of the student with the sentimental overtones of the grandfather. for he succeeds in conveying a depth of love that excludes all other feelings yet encompasses all. On another. A catalog of her ethereal charms and spiritual qualities tumbles forth. my dear). who is disillusioned with his son. whose plea for help is to bring 183 . again invites the reader to go beyond the surface to think about the thesis of the poem. free verse in lines ranging from two to four measures. he returns to the happy. Its form. there is what seems to be a breathless profession of love as Pet¹fi lists the ways in which he loves Júlia. Again. The poet’s control of his material enables him to assert. nature. Even the romantic flight of the granddaughter to escape a marriage her father wishes to force on her is spared sentimentality. and death are united in such a way that not one of them is slighted. “Minek nevezzelek?” (what shall I name you?) also uses a lighter style. as the poet seeks to explain just what his wife means to him. that permanence is to be found only in the love that endures beyond the grave. The verse narrative “Bolond Istók” (crazy Steve) reflects this mood in its story of a wandering hero who finds a haven and a loving wife through his dedication and service. as well as the seeming paradoxes in which the description is couched. carefree tones of the folk song as he compares his wife’s leaning on him to the wild rosebush hugging the hillsides. “Rózsabokor a domboldalon” Though his married years were also years of increasingly greater involvement in public affairs and politics.Eastern European Poets Sándor Pet¹fi reality of love. kedvesem” (I love you. not one of them is vague and impersonal. The message is not frivolous. without a trace of the maudlin. also. “Bolond Istók” In Pet¹fi’s objective poetry of the time. it is a deeply felt personal declaration of love set in a specific time and place.” and the old housekeeper and host seem about as civil as Tamburlaine’s forces when Istók first comes upon them. In “Rózsabokor a domboldalon” (rosebush on the hillside). that life has no more durability than a flower. Pet¹fi wrote “Szeretlek. for he cannot summarize her essence in a word. The directness of his approach. reflects this quality. Tongue-in-cheek hyperbole is often the key: The deserted farm “seems to be still in the throes of the Tatar raids. “Szeretlek. to a general exchange of information and ideas. After the events of March. Friendship with Arany Pet¹fi’s friendship with Arany also reinforced the objective orientation of his poetry. though they did not always agree on the methods to be followed in achieving them. “A kisbéres” (the hired man). yet the friendship was fruitful for both. The two friends. in “Egy gondolat bánt engement” (one thought troubles me). occasionally joined by others. these concerns appear in an oblique way. then be one)—a poetic declaration of principles in which didacticism does not detract from poetic value. that the influence of Arany’s calmer. too. however. he stated the obligation of the poet to sacrifice personal feelings in the interests of patriotic and human duty in “A XIX: Század költ¹i” (the poets of the nineteenth century). he marries the girl. légy férfi” (if you are a man. Often. return to the theme of domestic bliss. 1848. and patriotism. as do two prose works written during this period: “A nagyapa” (the grandfather) and “A fakó leány s a pej legény” (the pale girl and the ruddy boy). are themes found throughout Pet¹fi’s poetry. more objective style seems to have borne the richest fruit. however. Pet¹fi had expressed a desire to die on the battlefield in defense of liberty. such as “A v½dor” (the wanderer). it is perhaps this which gives his poetry the masculine quality not captured by Western European poets of his time: He calls for action with the conviction of one who is ready to be the first to die in battle. The naturally more reserved as well as more pessimistic Arany was often shaken out of his soberness by the playful letters of Pet¹fi. Pet¹fi wrote “Széchy Mária” (1847) and began his translation of Shakespeare. after March 15. Pet¹fi plunged into these responsibilities fully. they became open topics of his poetry while continuing to influence the other genres in the same indirect fashion as earlier. In time. The cycle of life reasserts itself over the disruption caused by evil. a commitment to the political institutions of a free and independent Hungarian nation. These sentiments are skillfully stated in “Ha férfi vagy. The two men shared many of the same goals.Sándor Pet¹fi Critical Survey of Poetry hope and new life to the old farmstead. The next year. 1848. and “A téli esték” (winter evenings). their correspondence ranged from their common concern with creating a national poetry. Increasingly. In the years following their first exchange of letters. Other poems. Patriotic poems Nationalism. As a result of their collaborative efforts. Poetically. they differed. It was in Pet¹fi’s genre and landscape poems. a sense of commitment to and concern for the Hungarian people. undertook several projects together. and in due course a cradle is rocked by the hearth. A sense of responsibility to his wife and family did not interfere with Pet¹fi’s com184 . to their families. As early as 1846. In the six stanzas of this poem. to accomplish its goals through legal reform./ We swear/ We swear that captives/ We’ll no longer be!”—became the rallying cry of the nation. as the Chancery consolidated around the new king. so that the Hungarian name will again be great and future generations will bless them.Eastern European Poets Sándor Pet¹fi mitment to his people. nostalgia for the past is united with faith in the future. In the poem. he urges. It is time for the sword to replace the chain. escalated into war when Hungarian territory was invaded. if anything. will tie the sword on her husband’s waist and send them off together. which were to transform not only Pet¹fi’s life but also the history of his country. and he urged his readers to take pride in Hungarian traditions. but he did much more. it contributed to the commitment. Pet¹fi’s “Nemzeti dal” (national ode) inspired the demonstrators. seemed to crown with success the efforts of the reformers. If Pet¹fi had made only this contribution to the independence movement. Understandably. first by the Croatian armies of Jella5i6. légy férfi. Júlia shared his sentiments and supported her husband. The spirited call to arms in the refrain—“By the God of the Magyars. he stated his unequivocal loyalty.” for it balances the picture. and the Twelve Points made clear to everyone the goals they were espousing. and the urgency and immediacy of the situation are emphasized in the words that virtually leap at the listener: “Up Magyar. and throughout. Pet¹fi chides his countrymen for enduring servitude. with the poet calling on his audience to respond and prompting their response through the oath phrased in the refrain. an equal partner. A dialogue is thus established. now or never!/ Shall we be free or captives ever?/ This the question you must answer!” In contrast to the direct address here. Pet¹fi’s patriotic poetry had some nostalgic moments. National minorities within the country were urged by the Austrian government to attack the Hun185 . he had moved beyond the glorification of the past to the criticism of the present and suggestions for reforms. The language and the images are as direct as the tone. “Erdélyben” (in Transylvania) shows the dedication to this eastern region of Hungary that had preserved Hungarian traditions and language in the trying years of the Turkish wars and the Austrian Partition—a dedication echoed by Hungarian poets today. “Nemzeti dal” The events of March 15. the poet emphasizes the need for heroic action regardless of the consequences. at first. The Revolution that had begun peacefully. In the early years. the poem had great impact. he would have been remembered. and he considered her his partner in his work. He called on poets to be active in bringing about reforms. and later by Austrian forces. His wife. By 1846. “Feleségem és kardom” (my wife and my sword) must be read in conjunction with “Ha férfi vagy. the country calls!/ Here’s the time. who had Imperial support. In “Magyar vagyok” (I am a Hungarian). and seemed. the refrain is in a collective mode. if necessary. however. Her heroism is to be admired no less than bravery on the battlefield. Franz Joseph. emphasizing the dedication and heroism of the soldiers. For the most part. “Bordal” (wine song) returns to a traditional genre to urge all men to defend their homeland. Of the nearly 150 short lyrics he wrote in 1848 and 1849. hogy gyoz most a magyar” (“truly I say. but rather emphasize the patriotic reason for the combat. can be sensed in one of the last battle songs he wrote. soldiers. This poem is also notable for the personal involvement of the poet. War poems Pet¹fi was not sanguine. Pet¹fi’s war poems deserve attention. However. such as “Európa csendes. Hungarian leader Lajos Kossuth was able to force a final break with Austria.Sándor Pet¹fi Critical Survey of Poetry garians. remained neutral or espoused the Hungarian cause. if not on the battlefield or in the treaty rooms then at least in the judgment of history. Though they constitute a relatively small percentage of his poetic work. They do not glorify war for its own sake. Magyars! 186 . however. and an increasing number glorify national virtues and ancient constitutional rights that had long been ignored by the monarchs. and the Habsburgs were formally deprived of their position as monarchs of Hungary. notably the German towns. As the war became an open struggle between the Hungarian Ministry and the Habsburgs. is quiet again”). Some are antimonarchist or anti-Habsburg. some chide the nationalities for turning on the land that gave them shelter earlier. upbeat marches or a lively mixture of narrative and lyric moods. Even the combined forces of Austria and Russia were no match for his poetic belief in victory.” Pet¹fi’s confidence in the ultimate triumph of his cause. Wrath in the sky! The red of spilt blood and The red rays of the sun! The setting sun glows In such a wild purple! Forward. Others. He begins the poem by re-creating a battle in vivid natural images and giving it a cosmic frame: Wrath on the earth. and no hope of support was left. and hopeful poems such as “1848” alternate with ones that express bitter disappointment. Pet¹fi became increasingly involved in both the political and the military events. and some did. almost all deal with the political and military turmoil in Hungary. “draining blood and life” from anyone who seeks to destroy it just as they “empty the glass of wine. seeing a break with Austria and the establishment of a republic as the only means of achieving social reform. now the Hungarians will win”). they are spirited. ujra csendes” (“Europe is quiet. he did not speak of Hungary’s cause as a hopeless if glorious one. “Csatában” (in battle). expressed in “Bizony mondom. Forward. He saw that Europe had given up its democratic ideals. Legacy Pet¹fi’s short poetic career established him as a poet of the first rank. even the less powerful lyrics of his early years have enriched Hungarian literature and music. 1973. not as a poet. short fiction: “A szökevények. who spoke for his people. the Hungarian Resistance was also over. His early fame and his fame abroad rested on both his republican sentiments and his romantic early death. Translations. Coriolanus. Today. Pet¹fi died on the battlefield of Segesvár. Within weeks. miscellaneous: Works of Sándor Pet¹fi. The Pet¹fi behind the legend was neglected even in Hungary for a long time. prepared with enthusiasm but lack of knowledge or skill. and Poems. Notes. abroad. there is general agreement about his position as a central figure in Hungarian literature and in the development of the Hungarian lyric. plays: Tigris és hiéna. but Pet¹fi lives on in legend and in his poetry. Pamphlets. and patriotic ideas are also recognized. 1847. they are an essential part of the poet who spoke from the heart of his generation. His republican. and who spoke for the masses and indeed to give all classes of society a voice. nonfiction: “Úti jegyzetek. pb. “Úti levelek Kerényi Frigyeshez. 1848. “A nagyapa. 1974. the most talented of his contemporaries recognized his talents independent of his political views. is signaled in the change in the refrain from “Forward” to “Follow me. His popularity grew with the worldwide interest in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and its brutal suppression. the whole universe seems to become involved in the strife. 1960. Letters. Pet¹fi Sándor összes prózai muvei és levelezése. many of them having been set to music and passing into the modern “folk-song” repertory. In Hungary. Pet¹fi Sándor by Himself. it also waned as political realities changed.” 1847.” Shortly after composing this poem.” 1845.” 1845. nationalistic.Eastern European Poets Sándor Pet¹fi Through such images and a wonderfully effective onomatopoeia. 1848 (translation of William Shakespeare’s play). symbolic of the involvement of the nation.” 1847. Rebel or Revolutionary? Sándor Pet¹fi as Revealed by His Diary. Early translations into German were followed by English versions based on the German. pb. Lapok Pet¹fi Sándor naplójából. 1973). The variety of themes and styles he handled with success is amazing. The poet’s own involvement. 187 . he is still mostly known as a revolutionary hero. The Hangman’s Rope. “A fakó leány s a pej legény. 1973.” 1847. seldom do him justice. He was truly a poet of national consciousness. 1846 (novella. Other major works long fiction: A hóhér kötele. Translated by John Ridland. Cushing. New York: Griffon House. Foreword to John the Valiant. 1993. Frederick.Sándor Pet¹fi Critical Survey of Poetry Bibliography Basa. Includes bibliographic references. Sándor Pet¹fi. Gyula. An introductory biography and critical study of selected works by Pet¹fi. 2007. ed. Pet¹fi. George. F. examining his role as a soldier and discussing his work. 1848-1884. An exhaustive biography and critical examination of the life and works of Pet¹fi. Contains a chapter on Pet¹fi. A Half-Century of Greatness: The Creative Imagination of Europe. Noted translator Szirtes provides background and some literary analysis for this bilingual translation of János Vitéz. Illyés. Budapest: Kortárs Kiadó. This overview of Hungarian literature helps place Pet¹fi in context. New York: New York University Press. Boston: Twayne. 1980. Hungarian Literature. Enik¹ Molnár. 2002. _______. London: Hesperus Press. 2004. 1973. Enik¹ Molnár Basa (including original translations) 188 . Reprint. Szirtes. by Sándor Pet¹fi. Ewen. Translated by G. 1980) Járkálj csak. 1977 Radnóti Miklós müvei. 2000) Subway Stops. 1977 The Witness: Selected Poems by Miklós Radnóti. Ikrek hava (1939. Kaffka Margit m±vészi fejl¹dése (1934. is most significant. 1980) Bori notesz. 1980) ¡jhold. 1980) Lábadozó szél. From this auspicious beginning. 1936 (Walk On. November 8(?). 1931 (Song of Modern Shepherds. Hungary. Condemned!. A collection of his translations appeared in 1943 under the title Orpheus nyomában (in the footsteps of Orpheus). Of his prose. halálraítélt!. unexpected messages. 1980 Last Poems of Miklós Radnóti. 1933 (Convalescent Wind. The Month of Gemini. 1980) Naptár. also noteworthy is his doctoral dissertation on the Hungarian novelist and poet Margit Kaffka. filling traditional forms with new. especially the terrifying experiences resulting from the Nazi Occupation of Central and 189 .MIKLÓS RADNÓTI Miklós Glatter Born: Budapest. 1980) Tajtékos ég. 1978 Forced March. 1938 (Steep Road. 1930 (Pagan Salute. so that by the height of his career few modern Hungarian poets had a wider reading public than Radnóti. 1979). 1942 (Calendar. Achievements Miklós Radnóti received his doctoral degree in 1934 and was awarded the prestigious Baumgarten Prize only four years later. 1994 Other literary forms Miklós Radnóti (RAWD-not-ee) excelled as a translator of classical and modern poetry from a number of Western languages into Hungarian. 1980) ¡jmódi pásztorok éneke. 1935 (New Moon. 1909 Died: Near Abda. 1980) Meredek ±t. 1970 (Camp Notebook. Austro-Hungarian Empire (now in Hungary). May 5. 1946 (Sky with Clouds. Radnóti’s forte was his ability to fuse elements from diverse poetic traditions. 1979 The Complete Poetry. a quasi autobiography. the artistic development of Margit Kaffka). he began building his readership. 1944 Principal poetry Pogány köszönt¹. When this did not work out. who introduced him to the poetry of Guillaume Apollinaire. chiefly private tutoring. too. characterized instead by classical simplicity and dignity. In the fall of 1930. he enrolled at Szeged University. he took temporary jobs. it exhausted itself in language and remained unconvincing. Then. he wrote “engaged” poetry. first in Hungary and later. With the exception of brief periods of respite. Radnóti completed his elementary and high school education in Budapest. and accepted partial support from his wife’s family. and Valery Larbaud.” after Radnót. Radnóti became involved with youth organizations that were culturally nurtured by ideas from the Left. 190 . hoping to secure a teaching position in the Hungarian high school system. he boldly experimented with free verse. privation. As Hungary’s political climate turned increasingly fascist. he had several volumes of poetry in print. Biography Miklós Radnóti (born Miklós Glatter) lived for only thirty-five years. Miklós Critical Survey of Poetry Eastern Europe. Radnóti deeply loved his stepmother and the daughter born of the second marriage. While young. using a deliberately nonpoetical language meant to identify him with the working class. In 1935.Radnóti. During his first trip to Paris in 1931. It was during this period that he assumed the name “Radnóti. and even his birth was darkened by tragedy in that his mother and twin brother both died. Radnóti’s father soon remarried. and persecution. During the late 1920’s and at the beginning of the 1930’s. majoring in Hungarian and French. Since that identification lacked the reality of experience. following the suggestion of his guardian (his father. Paul Valéry. and with his Storm and Stress period behind him. studying textile technology and working in an office. Blaise Cendrars. he spent the years from 1940 until his death in various forced-labor camps. His major contribution to Hungarian letters is that he served as an artistic and a moral example for several generations of Hungarian artists by speaking for his nation and representing his country’s best humanist traditions amid war. Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic). but his mature poetry is devoid of flamboyance. During this period. the town in northeastern Hungary where his father had been born. Radnóti met a number of French writers and artists. after Hungary’s occupation by the Nazis (March 19. he began to develop his mature style. yet grief and guilt feelings concerning the double tragedy of his birth influenced his entire creative life. Fanni Gyarmati. By the time he received his doctorate in 1934. Radnóti shared the fate of those who had been persecuted for their Jewish origins. he spent 1927 and 1928 in Liberec. The figure of his mother is a recurring image in Radnóti’s poetry and prose. had died). Radnóti married his childhood sweetheart. The progressive nature of this poetry liberated Radnóti from the confines of narrow social protest. and in the last stanzas. Yugoslavia (now Serbia). different in language and style from that of the previous generation of Hungarian poets. He was among those who were shot after being forced to dig their own graves. The political freeze is described as winter. an allegory about the illegal Socialist movement after the Nazi victories of 1933. In “Law. suggests the rebellious spirit of Radnóti’s early work. died while still in Hungary.” which by this point in the poem can be interpreted only as a political “leaflet” or flier. boldly declaring himself one of the “modern shepherds. When Radnóti’s body was exhumed on June 23.” The wind “drops” passwords and whistles the secret signals of the conspirators. compels the reader to respond. working a copper mine in Bor. however. often obliquely expressed by means of images from nature. black notebook was found in which Radnóti had written ten poems. Miklós 1944). Radnóti’s erotic/political 191 . In the course of the Nazi retreat.” The laws of nature are translated by Radnóti into the law of revolution. Radnóti advances his political views in the guise of a “nature poem. thus. (These poems appear in the volume Sky with Clouds. A tree dropping a “leaf. Together with fellow rebels. The narrator of this first collection rejects the pacifying teachings of church and state and sings about the freedom of love and his desire for a natural life. Between 1933 and 1935. originally issued in 1970.) It is a measure of Radnóti’s current standing in Hungarian poetry that a scholarly facsimile edition of this notebook. Miklós Radnóti saw himself as a representative of a new literature. carefree images in all of Radnóti’s work. and the new grass bares not the expected “blade” but a “dagger. although it is often unclear whether this represents a genuine expression of sexual desire or is merely another manifestation of the poet’s urge to revolt against social conventions. nearly two years after his death.” The title of his first volume. however. 1946. then moved west in the direction of the German (Austrian) border. had gone into multiple printings. a small.Eastern European Poets Radnóti. Analysis At the beginning of his career. when he married Fanni Gyarmati. Radnóti’s company was also returned to Hungary. Pagan Salute. he attacked what he regarded as the tepid traditions of the past. Radnóti. Love poems Radnóti’s early work is also characterized by a strong erotic charge. murdered by the soldiers guarding his group.” for example. the poet confirms his ties with the underground movement and calls on others to follow his example. The Romantic image of the shepherd placed in a pastoral landscape is one of the few happy. “Law” Radnóti’s youthful poems are characterized by social commentary. the poem becomes its own political leaflet. Camp Notebook. “I Cannot Know . tender descriptions of lovers. “Like a Bull” Finally. the poet. too. patriotic. Radnóti became protective of married love.” (written in 1944). his actions derive from a worldview in which separation leads to indifference. a few run throughout his oeuvre as recurring metaphors and symbols.” the poet writes: “I am now a root myself—/ it’s with worms I make my home. “War Diary” Gradually. His language. the poet is represented by a young bull. I am building this poem.Radnóti. and.” in which the poet envisions himself both as a corpse and as a disembodied spirit. rebellious stance to his mature style can be traced in the poet’s changing self-image. young songster of Radnóti’s early verse. a pointedly strong and masculine image chosen to reflect an unsentimental view of the cruelties of the world during troubled times. In the poem “I Cannot Know . the narrators are young men who do not attempt to hide from their fate and who openly condemn the perpetrators of evil. for example. remaining silent about sexual relations. and the violent sexual images by intimate. Miklós Critical Survey of Poetry poems changed dramatically. the transition from Radnóti’s youthful. in one of these last poems. “Root. Indeed. as an embodiment of the amorality chillingly evident in the war. there is a transformation in the poet’s self-image: He is reduced.” Among Radnóti’s images. . however. It is a poem about Hungary as seen./ there. This transformation begins with the cycle “War Diary. He uses the figure of the pilot. Radnóti pits the humanist’s values against those of the pilot. . The erotic flame of the sexual poems was replaced by a lyric glow. . In “Like a Bull. to his pure function as a poet. lyric voice could emerge. A new gravity and a mood approaching resignation accompanied his awareness of impending war. In other poems of this period. This cycle anticipates the poems that Radnóti wrote in Serbian concentration camps during the final days of his life.” written in 1933. by a native son. Radnoti’s love poems to Fanni recall in their classical simplicity the great love lyrics of Mihály Vörösmarty and Sándor Pet¹fi. as it were. on 192 . . but not of his humanity.” This image is a far cry from the bold. The pilot becomes a symbol of all willing instruments in the service of inhumanity. the wrongdoer ceases to feel any guilt concerning his crime. the preeminent Hungarian poets of the nineteenth century. so that a more personal. on one hand. was simplified. When sufficient distance is created between malefactor and victim. The effect is not one of detachment but rather of extraordinary poignancy: The poet has stripped himself of all that is inessential. as if the poet had already died and was now observing life from the other side. his manner became calmer and more controlled. The entire cycle of four poems is marked by a sense of distance. that he was once human? Thus. The poet recognizes the strengths of his own position by measuring his moral courage against the daring stunts of the pilot. which concludes the dialogue./ he could not point to the home of Mihály Vörösmarty./ at my feet. however.” “Second Eclogue” Radnóti treats the symbolic figure of the pilot with greater complexity in his “Second Eclogue. by asking the poet. towers. factories”—while the poet sees “grasshoppers. The same impulse lies behind his “quotation” of poetic forms and themes from a great diversity of sources. they begin to perceive themselves better. “A Little Duck Bathes. I know its name and can name its blossom.” a poem in dialogue form that opens with the bragging of a dashing pilot. Listening to each other. Radnóti anticipated the conclusions drawn by survivors of the Holocaust: He penetrated and understood the psyche of the offender. he closes his second speech with a plea to the poet: “Will you write about me?” The poet’s answer.” The pilot sees only military targets—“army posts. the first of the poem’s four parts./ I know where people are headed on the road. By reversing the structure of the first sentence. He does not forgive. is brief: “If I live. by a pilot of a bomber from another country. As the poet discovers with surprise his own courage. he draws a circle to connect the murderer and his victim. he goes on to identify the differences between his permanent role as a humanitarian and the pilot’s temporary role in social change. Similarly. who “lived like a man once. they alone share the crime. once in a while. Indeed. to create a rich texture of associations and layers of meaning.” To the man in the plane. gentle fields. he goes beyond this admission to acknowledge a far more troubling truth: He. “Have you written since yesterday?” The poet answers. “it’s a map. so in his second speech the pilot admits his fears. “I have. this country.” a readily identifiable type of 193 .Eastern European Poets Radnóti. Miklós the other hand. oxen. Radnóti establishes the dialectical tension by which the entire poem is structured: The unabashed eroticism of the text is counterpointed by the original meter of the nursery rhyme. absurd way. Radnóti’s poem “Song” is modeled on the “outlaw song.” In this poem.” has become something inhuman. he asks. as I know them. written in 1941. And there’s anyone around to read it. in which he establishes a fruitful tension with his models. varying from Vergil to Hungarian folk culture. The pilot concludes his speech. “Song” and “A Little Duck Bathes” Radnóti employed recurring images such as that of the pilot to add resonance to his verse.” and while he retains a touch of a child’s wonder at the miracle of people being able to fly. Who will understand. The poet sees his “tiny land” on a human scale: “when a bush kneels. is based on one of the most popular Hungarian nursery rhymes. farms. by which a sort of intimacy is established: In a terrible.” for example. Rather. living only to destroy. The energy of the new poem derives from its conflict with its model. combines biblical and classical traditions. Radnóti paradoxically regained a hope for survival during the last bitter weeks of his life.” Well aware that this hope was flimsy at best. observed in the third person. the poet conducts a dialogue with the biblical Nahum. however. the outlaw song (derived in turn from the kuruc song) provides Radnóti with a vehicle for calling attention to historical precedents for the exile of poets within their homeland. Radnóti spiritually set out on the lonely road leading to the grave. suggesting that they should “take to the road” together. Thus. and to wait for a “wiser. Her presence quiets his fears following nightmares about death (“Your Right Hand on My Nape”). The “Eighth Eclogue. and only her embrace can make the moment of death pass as if it were a dream (“In Your Arms”). the poor exile. which forces the reader to assume a critical distance. Radnóti expressed its elusiveness in “Forced March. and the defeated patriot. He is called upon to explain his decision to walk on. and his answer is shown up as a naïve.” The poem begins with a judgmental view of the poet.” Radnóti revived the messianic conception of the poet that was at the heart of the Romantic movement in Hungary. Long before the actual forced march that ended in his death. Dealing with the misery of the homeless refugee. to reflect on the implications of this violation of genre. By 1940. her bodily closeness is his only haven. to live meant to create. a true prophet. based on desire more than on truth. Miklós Critical Survey of Poetry Hungarian folk song. frequently appearing in concluding lines. “Forced March” Although he had long been prepared for death. in his “Eighth Eclogue. handsome death” permeates several of the poems so aptly called the “hymns from Bor. Radnóti’s technique of complex “quotation” is supremely exemplified in his eclogues. he describes and responds to the devastating events of his time. and the fear of death. Fanni alone can offer him comfort. his imminent death had become a recurring image in his poems. a land in which it is known what a hexameter is.Radnóti. to tell about the horrors. his foolish agreement to his own torture is condemned. Nahum encourages the poet by telling him that prophets and poets are closely related. and even amid filth. In these poems. to return to Fanni. Halfway through the poem. Radnóti’s eight poems written in this classical form constitute his literary testament. Radnóti meditates on the nature of poetry and on the poet’s commitment to a better world. The wish to live. a sudden 194 . “Eighth Eclogue” Radnóti’s eclogues achieve their greatest evocative power precisely from this conflict between form and content. For Radnóti. self-deceiving daydream. Here. the concept of home appears in a literary metaphor. indignities. His unreasonable behavior is exposed.” the last of the series. deliberately choosing this traditionally bucolic genre to convey his tragic vision. Here. In them. “Razglednicas” Radnóti’s last poems were four short pieces that chart his final steps toward death and. Miklós transformation occurs.Eastern European Poets Radnóti. Radnóti was able to compose with precise poetic principles in mind. befitting a world devoid of civilization. Separate as they stand in their unique message. depicting the devastation that humans and nature suffer in a ravaging war. Each line of “Forced March” is broken by a caesura. Above all. the farmhouse has collapsed. Thus. dogged resistance into a cosmic. marked by a blank space. 195 . and together they render a final panorama of Radnóti’s surroundings.” a word of Serbo-Croatian origin meaning picture postcards. it shows the artist’s triumph over his own fate. These poems are collectively titled “Razglednicas. the two halves of the lyric ego merge. 1979). for woven into it are allusions to a medieval masterpiece. and what was once joyous has disappeared. home can never again be what it once was. “Forced March” has a special place in Radnóti’s oeuvre: It represents hope’s triumph over despair. The pounding rhythm of the verse re-creates the sound of the heavy footsteps with which the exhausted men dragged themselves on the road—a beautiful example of form functioning as message. by the end of the poem. Ikrek hava. a shift from the third person to the first. anything. 1939 (The Month of Gemini. 1943. signal his withdrawal from participation in life. too. its emotional directness. Other major works nonfiction: Kaffka Margit m±vészi fejl¹dése. Walther von der Vogelweide’s “Ouwe war sint verswunden alliu miniu jar?” (“Where Have All My Years Disappeared?”)—a poem that Radnóti had translated. optimistic message. that he was in control of his material. so that the poem is divided into two jagged columns. 1934. In a world from which reason has disappeared. playing secretly with literary and existential relationships and creating out of all this an enduring testament. “Forced March” impresses and moves the reader with its spontaneity. the war-torn landscape is transmuted into an idyll of bygone days. the “Razglednicas” are by no means unrelated to the rest of Radnóti’s poetry. It proves that even during the last weeks of his tormented life. There. and harmony is reestablished—a new harmony in which primordial beliefs are accepted as truth. and yet—characteristically of Radnóti—the texture of the poem is more complex than might at first appear. including superstition and magic. They have a particularly close emotive and textual contact with his longer poems (such as “Forced March” and “Letter to My Wife”) written during the same period. at the same time. translation: Orpheus nyomában. and indeed they provide a terrifyingly precise pictorial description of the horrors that the poet experienced in the last month of his life. its simple vocabulary and familiar imagery. the people are gone. can serve as crutches. Judgment turns into a confession of hope. Marianna D.Radnóti. New York: KarzCohl. Birnbaum 196 . themes in Radnóti’s poetry. A very readable biography of the poet. often highly esoteric. M. 1983. Gömöri. and Clive Wilmer. Boulder. George. George. In the Footsteps of Orpheus: The Life and Times of Miklós Radnóti. Ozsváth. 1999. Colo. The Life and Poetry of Miklós Radnóti: Essays. University of Munich. Useful as an introduction to both. The best scholarly analysis of Radnóti’s poetry by his leading translator. 1986. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 2000. Miklós Critical Survey of Poetry Bibliography Birnbaum. eds. A good collection of critical essays on various. D. Munich: FinnishUgric Seminar. Emery. Miklós Radnóti: A Biography of His Poetry. The Poetry of Miklós Radnóti: A Comparative Study.: East European Monographs. Zsuzsanna. Connects Radnóti’s poems to events in his life. June 24. published by New Directions in 1941. A young English poet who was doing research at the State University of New York at Buffalo contacted him and asked about his post-1941 work. and the PEN Center USA West Poetry Award for Poems. Since that time. The Collected Prose of Carl Rakosi (1983). He also won a Distinguished Service award from the National Poetry Association in 1988. 1967 Ere-VOICE. 1981 History. 1975 My Experiences in Parnassus. he wrote no poetry. Night. but the growing audience for poetry in the 1960’s welcomed Amulet. Germany. his second New Directions book. he published a collection of nonfiction writings. 1903 Died: San Francisco. and the National Poetry Foundation at the University of Maine have kept his writing in print. 1971 Ex Cranium. 1933 Selected Poems. 1995 The Earth Suite. 1986 Poems. had received little notice. Achievements Carl Rakosi came to public attention fairly late. Black Sparrow Press. 1981 Spiritus I. 1923-1941 in 1996. New Directions. November 6. His Selected Poems. California. Between 1939 and 1965. 1941 Amulet. Rakosi won the National Endowment for the Arts award in 1969 and fellowships from the same institution in 1972 and 1979. 2004 Principal poetry Two Poems. 1977 Droles de Journal. He was the honored guest at the International Objectivist 197 . 1997 Other literary forms Although Carl Rakosi (rah-KOH-see) is known principally for his poetry. 1983 Meditation.CARL RAKOSI Callman Rawley Born: Berlin. 1923-1941. and it has continued to spark the interest of critics and a new generation of poets and readers. it was this query that spurred him to begin writing once more. 1985 The Collected Poems of Carl Rakosi. alongside James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) in serial form.A. I also stopped reading poetry. Louis and two years as assistant director of the Jewish Children’s Bureau in Cleveland. At the same time. At the outset of the Depression. Indiana. After earning his B. my Marxist thinking had made me lose respect for poetry itself. . who were at that time living in Berlin. in educational psychology and then worked as the staff psychologist in the personnel department at Bloomingdale’s for a time. . and my evenings were swallowed up by the things that a man who is not a writer normally spends his time on in a big city: the theater. in literature at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. he had also been included in An “Objectivists” Anthology (1932). he started to work—in a pioneering role—as a family therapist at the Jewish Family Welfare Society in New York. Rakosi made many attempts to begin a career. Wisconsin. professional meetings. His manuscripts and letters are split between the holdings of the University of Wisconsin in Madison and the Widener Library at Harvard. between 1958 and 1968. in social work. Gary. he taught high school in Houston for two years. following a period of working as a field supervisor for Tulane University. He served a two-year stint as a supervisor at the Federal Transit Bureau in New Orleans. One notes in this chronology the marked absence of any job directly connected to writing. returning to Chicago to work at the Cook County Bureau of Public Welfare. He returned to Madison for an M. By now he had changed his name. . He continued in this post until 1968. I did that. and Kenosha. . to Callman Rawley. Carl Critical Survey of Poetry Conference in France in 1990. The long hiatus that followed has been described thus by Rakosi himself: By 1939 writing was coming harder and slower to me as more of me became involved in social work and in reading and writing professional articles. In addition. I couldn’t run the risk of being tempted. He taught English at the University of Texas at Austin and made forays into law school (in Austin) and medical school (in Galveston). . his father and stepmother reared him and his brother in various midwestern cities—Chicago. which many years later came to be seen as a landmark event. Having found neither law nor medicine congenial. I wrote some sixty . Rakosi’s first spell as a poet had resulted in publication in the prestigious Little Review. The young Rakosi was brought to the United States in 1910. he tried social work again. . Biography Carl Rakosi was born on November 6. he pursued graduate studies at the University of Pennsylvania. . So there was nothing to hold me back from ending the problem by stopping to write. he became executive director of the Jewish Family and Children’s Service in Minneapolis in 1945. girlfriends. edited by Louis Zukofsky. 1903.A. he also had a private practice. then. His professional course was now clear. in 1940 he received an M. 198 . concerts. friends.Rakosi. After three years as a case supervisor at the Jewish Social Service Bureau in St.A. he tried social work in Cleveland and New York City. to Hungarian nationals Leopold Rakosi and Flora Steiner. . who was some twenty years their senior) and published their work as An “Objectivists” Anthology. he was writerin-residence at the University of Wisconsin from 1969 to 1970. In 1986.” Nevertheless. George Oppen. Leah Jaffe Rakosi died in San Francisco in 1988. he was writer-in-residence in Saratoga Springs. he served as a faculty member for the National Poetry Festival in 1973. His résumé soon began to show many jobs related to his poetry and writing: From 1968 to 1975. a critical journal located in Maine. In 1939. my objective: to present objects in their most essential reality and to make of each poem an ob199 . because of a name. Rakosi himself found Zukofsky’s definition of Objectivism baffling. George. Rakosi came to like the label “Objectivist. Carl Rakosi is often spoken of as an Objectivist poet.” he says.” Rakosi has characterized Zukofsky’s tone in the essay as “aloof” and “rebuffing. and Rakosi. This essay has long been puzzled over by students of American poetry. the work was much anthologized. was born in St. Zukofsky took his mentor at his word. When both poets were young. This Rip Van Winkle of poetry had reawakened to a different decade—one for which his gifts appeared to have been waiting.Eastern European Poets Rakosi. The results were soon made available to the poetry-reading public in a series of books. “with any association I could make with the word ‘Objectivist. Zukofsky had been advised by Ezra Pound to start a literary movement. and Rakosi was asked to give readings at a number of distinguished venues. Barbara. “It was so at odds. with an introduction by himself. Carl In December. Louis in 1940. the better to draw attention to his own poetry. as long as certain views were held in common. Pound told him that he need not look for complete agreement among the members of his movement. The couple stayed together for half a century. he received a letter from British poet Andrew Crozier asking what had become of his poetry since 1941. San Francisco continued to be Rakosi’s home until his death in 2004. Zukofsky’s explanation. and a son. was born in Cleveland in 1943. the name “conveyed a meaning which was. fit only his own poetry. These three “were credited with a place in literary history for the wrong reason. Analysis Because of his early connection with Louis Zukofsky. There was a fundamental gulf between Zukofsky and the three other poets most often named as Zukofsky’s fellow Objectivists: Charles Reznikoff. New York.” as if he were simultaneously presenting the poetry for inspection and arrogantly dismissing his readership. he became the senior editor of the literary magazine Sagetrieb. Their daughter. He contacted several poets of his generation (along with William Carlos Williams. in fact.’ which has ‘object’ in its belly. and he was poet-in-residence for Michigan State University in 1974. 1965. This letter prompted him to take up his pen once again.” Although Zukofsky’s tortuous definition left him cold. Rakosi was married to Leah Jaffe. according to Rakosi. consciousness. he has said. strippeddown qualities. In “A Retrospect. an endeavor to rescue the art from the muddyings to which it had been subjected when its practitioners sought to truck and higgle with the increasingly wide—and not necessarily deep—audience brought by universal education. however. What guarantee can the poet give (even to himself) of his own sincerity and honesty? By what criteria does one decide which parts belong together? Will everyone who “views” (reads) the poem find it solid and coherent? If so.William Carlos Williams. Reznikoff.Rakosi. had a lucidity of expression that frequently eluded Zukofsky. Zukofsky launched his movement in 1930. by setting boundaries to it and incorporating only those parts which belong together. meaning by this the opposite of vagueness.” Pound articulated the following principles for Imagism: 1. The result is well known: a radical reappraisal of poetic terms and practice. “free” verse. not in sequence of a metronome. Direct treatment of the “thing” whether subject or objective. 2. He aimed to convert the subjective experience into an object “by feeling the experience sincerely. the reader should be able to come at it from any angle and find it “solid and coherent. 3. D. Carl Critical Survey of Poetry ject. the principles of Imagism. should be like a sculpture. the birth within English-language poetry of “the modern”. They have 200 . Rakosi’s brief lyrics are rightfully classified as modernist for their terse. sometimes screaming. and others anthologized under Zukofsky’s editorship were also mindful of. which give the impression (and that is what counts) of sincerity and honesty. there is a certain amount of question-begging here. Yet they could hardly be called straightforward—and that is fortunate. “A Retrospect” The theoretical writing of Ezra Pound. As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase. Rakosi welded it to his own practice. some two decades after Ezra Pound and H.” The poem. and to some extent sympathetic with. loose bowels and streaming. a cessation of “moral tagging” or other explicit aid to the reader as to the poem’s meaning.” Even as Zukofsky spurned the term. Given that Rakosi. how does one account for readers’ variation in taste? Yet Rakosi’s aims become clearer when they are viewed in historical context and in the light of his actual practice.” Honesty and craftsmanship are the qualities needed for constructing such poems.” Zukofsky was heavily influenced by Pound and by another inductee in the Imagist movement. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation. (Hilda Doolittle) had declared themselves Imagists in the process of renovating poetry by throwing out “bad habits dear to the poets of the Victorian age. it is small wonder that there are several points of resemblance between Imagism and the Objectivists. Oppen. As is often the case when a poet supplies a definition of poetry. 201 . “The Experiment with a Rat” These are the considerations and requisite skills of the psychotherapist—and in Rakosi’s poetry they are also the chief characteristics. Pound’s ”cadence of the musical phrase.Eastern European Poets Rakosi. The reader may not at first grasp the radical nature of the point of view. Carl far too much art to them. How did he fall into my power? One notes the absence of a rhyme scheme and regular rhythm. although on any given occasion he may be actually ingenuous. for his poems strike one as weapons of supreme irony. While it is true that the laboratory assistant endures a trapped existence akin to that of the laboratory rat—a fact it could be salutary for the assistant to acknowledge—the slight exaggeration involved in equating rat and human being implies another truth. that which he perceived as being of most use in the present. a loss of necessary definition and discovery. The tone is quiet. otherwise there would have been a blurring of outline. it is hard to forget that for many years he worked as a psychotherapist. picking with care the words needed to lead his clients toward self-discovery. it is hard to take at face value Rakosi’s oft-repeated assurances of his ingenuous nature. segregated on their own line. for the casual air disarms attention. Suddenly one realizes how the tables have been turned—almost. Not that he lied to them—quite the contrary: He had to stay with what was true. casual. as though to prevent their contaminating the rest of the poem. even offhand. rhythms that are less obvious than the iambic but distinct nevertheless. Reading Rakosi. one is quite capable of denying it by the kind of presumption evidenced in the final question. At any given moment much had to be suppressed. In fact. When one is actually trapped like the rat. Most of the words are of Anglo-Saxon provenance. “ The vocabulary is spare. giving the Latinate “assiduous” a certain shock value. from all there was to talk about. Here is “The Experiment with a Rat”: Every time I nudge that spring a bell rings and a man walks out of a cage assiduous and sharp like one of us and brings me cheese. and there are only two adjectives. His role was to select. but one also notices subtle juxtapositions of sound. Ingenuousness is simply one of the more empowering poses available to such an artist. their lives. are these not exactly the right words? Surely this is what these good folk “say”—not in words. Yet. No doubt the dislocations of his own life—being virtually abandoned by his parents for most of his infancy. in his poems great and trivial become the same (since nothing can manifest itself except in the everyday). the poem has the ring of truth. “Domination of Wallace Stevens” In reading Rakosi. and having to replace German and Hungarian with English—helped shape Rakosi into the careful observer who wrote these poems. his poetry is elegant even when he chooses to write in the vernacular. coming to the United States at the age of seven. Objectivism. we’re church goers. in fact. the poet refrains from any direct comment on the phenomena he presents “objectively. It is not easy to see how the poet has in fact rigged things—he has put words in the mouths of his subjects. Perhaps the reader has a bit of it in himself. afraid of censure. Rakosi wrote a six-part poem called “Domination of Wallace Stevens. their bearing. the surfaces of his work never ruffle. straight ahead: holding: “We’re plain. Three Generations” is similarly thought-provoking: all looking into the lens. Every reader has known someone like the family in the poem. His eye is always cool. after all. one is reminded at times of that other master of elegance in American poetry. In 1925.” Because of this approach. but in their demeanor. and all the more note202 . Carl “Family Portrait. Rakosi had even held himself apart from the movement with which he has been so often associated. certainly economical studies of American life. Perhaps one should in fact identify a third dislocation and view his twentyfive-year poetic hiatus as a further estrangement that came to enhance his later work. He sees Americans with remarkable clarity—piercing through a democrat’s clothing to reveal the would-be emperor underneath. terrified of scandal? Many of Rakosi’s poems are equally disarming.” It is a remarkable pastiche. apparently simple. Do not most human beings lead their lives principally in the eyes of others. Who dares say anything against that?” As if he were a combination of camera and tape recorder. He is certainly not one of the herd. Three Generations” “Family Portrait. eyes wide.Critical Survey of Poetry Rakosi. Wallace Stevens. after all. throughout his career Rakosi recurs to certain tones—one might call them “dictive gestures”—that set an echo of the other poet resonating between text and reader. “The Review” and “VI Dirge” Rakosi has said that of the four principal Objectivists. for in England the example of quintessence is The Law Of England is the quintessence of reason. At times. comes from the gathering called “American Nymphs”: This is to let you know that my husband got his project cut off two weeks ago and I have not had any relief since. the classic American and the recent immigrant.” for example. he can “do” Stevens. it was Reznikoff for whom he felt the greatest affinity. It is a knowledge that he probably savors—for.” The reader soon encounters “Miss Ordway in a plush repose. as in “The Transmutation into English”: And let them watch their examples. The Protestant Stevens and the Jewish Rakosi. while Stevens never “did” Rakosi. Yet like Jacob. Carl worthy when one realizes that it was written by a young man of twenty-two. who wrestled with the angel and limped thereafter. Rakosi’s sparer idiom. 203 . do make a strange couple. They will try to sneak into heaven on that word./ counting the curves pitched in her portly mirrors/ by seven bored and pygmy globes. however. “Clear me with this master music/ when the coryphee skips on the oak floor/ and the clouds depress me like the lower keys. “VI Dirge. notes to the welfare department at times said all there was to be said.Eastern European Poets Rakosi. as Rakosi no doubt knows. he has taken a leaf from the older poet’s book and let document testify with no more interference than arrangement.” This is excellent fun. always reasserts itself quickly and most effectively. and that the domination of the man twice his age had been shaken off. It begins. Reznikoff’s Testimony (1934) made use of court transcripts in this way. and by the poem’s end the reader may well judge that Stevens had been dominated by young Rakosi. for Rakosi. Discusses Rakosi’s humanism.” which quotes a journalistic piece that pictures a famous American poet on a stage. 1990. and sarcastic all at once—and the masterful self-restraint the reader is induced to picture him exercising makes his terseness all the more amusing. July 12. “Carl Rakosi: A Warm. One Hundred.” The New York Times. Later years In the 1980’s and 1990’s. Although Rakosi preferred the friendship of poets to acclaim by literary scholars. Not only did the long careers of the Objectivists allow them to be important writers in both the modern and postmodern periods. a constant possibility.” Codrescu.” Poetry Flash. “Carl Rakosi. 1983. This kind of sympathy always hovers about Rakosi’s satire. November. An account of the September. Steady Presence. even as they served as mentors themselves to many major contemporary poets. kindly. April 1. Rakosi contributed a revealing letter. Rakosi will hear him. miscellaneous: The Old Poet’s Tale. as in “The Review.” Baltimore Sun. et al. he eventually found himself serving as the last surviving Objectivist for posterity. the matter of opacity in the poem stirred up controversy continued in subsequent letters and articles. as featured speaker. with American and French poets as panelists and Rakosi. Other major works nonfiction: The Collected Prose of Carl Rakosi. but also in terms of influence studies. It was a legacy that they would fundamentally call into question. When Faust puts a word wrong. conference on the Objectivists held near Paris. “The Royaumont Conference. the Objectivists were quite literally deemed to be the inheritors of the legacy of Pound and Williams. This obituary describes Rakosi’s poetry as “honest and direct.Rakosi. with a dose of irony. The moment of deflation proves to be worth the wait. Carl Critical Survey of Poetry Rakosi’s work can be hilarious. 1989. 2004. 1999 (poetry and prose). gazing at an audience with “Olympian disdain. 1984. looking out at an audience that was projecting—as the reviewer did—tragic and heroic qualities onto him. Andrei. a Poet Who Influenced Others. Bibliography Bromige. B8. Rakosi’s work began to be included in the major poetry anthologies and taught in universities as the Objectivists as a group came to be recognized as an important part of the literary canon. David.” The quote is followed by Rakosi’s eloquently brief comment: “Aw sheeit!” This final exclamation might only be an echo of what the Olympian figure himself muttered. but that angel will always save the poem from utter condemnation. Bromige’s article discusses some of the conference’s salient issues. p. 204 . 1989June. the only surviving Objectivist poet. _______. Perloff reviews Poems. Conviction’s Net of Branches. Edited by Burton Hatlen. American Poetry Review 32. beginning with a general survey of the work in its historical setting. edited by Michael D. 1985. Offers criticism and interpretation of Rakosi’s work. University of Maine. Rakosi. Bibliography and index included. The Collected Prose of Carl Rakosi. Carl Heller. _______. 19231941 and The Collected Poems of Carl Rakosi. 2003): 20. Perloff. 1993. _______. Discusses Rakosi’s responses to the contemporary world. Carl Rakosi: Man and Poet. 4 (July/August. Discusses the Objectivist movement and examines Rakosi’s varying styles. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Orono: National Poetry Foundation. Carl. David Bromige 205 . Rakosi talks about his love of writing and music and about the influence of Wallace Stevens and the Objectivists on his writing. Michael D. ed. University of Maine. Orono: National Poetry Foundation. “Looking for the Real Carl Rakosi: Collected and Selecteds. March 8. as well as Carl Rakosi: Man and Poet. Hatlen supplies an afterword.” The New York Times Book Review. no. 1983. Interview by Tom Devaney and Oliver Brossard. “Carl Rakosi and the Re-invention of the Epigram. 1996): 271-283.” which touches also on other aspects of Rakosi’s writing. “Heaven and the Modern World. Heller. These pieces shed much light on Rakosi’s poetry.Eastern European Poets Rakosi.” Journal of American Studies 30 (August. 1987. Marjorie. 1982 Napowierzchni poematu i w krodku. Poland. 1976 “The Survivor. 1983 Poezje. 1951 Wiersze i obrazy. 1952 Równina. 1960 Guos anonima. 1955 Ukmiechy. 1962 Niepokój: Wybór wierszy. 1988 (2 volumes) Tadeusz Ró/ewicz’s Bas-Relief. 1954 Srebrny kuos. 1969 Plaskorzezba. October 9. 1980) Czerwona ròkawiczka. 1970 Poezje zebrane. and Other Poems. 1991 They Came to See a Poet. 1982) Nic w puaszczu Prospera. 1968 Faces of Anxiety. 1971 Wiersze.TADEUSZ RÓ?EWICZ Born: Radomsko. 1987 Poezja. 1948 Piòc poematów. 1960 Rozmowa z ksiòciem. 1969 Regio. 1961 (Green Rose. 1974 Selected Poems. 1957 Formy. 1967 Wiersze i poematy. 1921 Principal poetry Niepokój.” and Other Poems. 1950 Czas który idzie. 1963 Twarz.” and Other Poems. 1956 Poezje zebrane. 1961 Zielona ró/a. 1945-1961. 1991 (originally as Conversation with the Prince) 206 . 1976 “Conversation with the Prince. 1955 Poemat otwarty. 1947 (Unease. 1958 Przerwany egzamin. 1964 Poezje wybrane. 1967 Twarz trzecia. 2001 New Poems. 207 . a leading figure in postwar absurdist theater. the Alfred Jurzykowski Foundation Award (New York). mother departs). Second Class.” 1996 Nozyk profesora. 1994 Slowo po slowie. In 1970. the Order of Banner of Labour. Achievements After World War II. In 1955. the Medal of the Thirtieth Anniversary of the People’s Poland. When the Germans occupied Poland. came from the village of Gelbardów. In 2000. 1987. Tadeusz Ró/ewicz became a spokesperson for his generation. He has also published both short fiction and novels. worked as a clerk in the courthouse in Radomsko. He received the Prize of the Minister of Foreign Affairs (Poland). as well as essays. a town in central Poland. the Wuadysuaw Reymont Literary Prize. 1995 “Zawsze Fragment” and “Recycling. where he wrote his first works for school publications. 1944-1994. They had three sons. the Gold Wreath Prize for Poetry (Yugoslavia). the Polish Ministry of Culture and Art gave him its First Category Award. Biography Tadeusz Ró/ewicz’s father. 1999. Wladysuaw Ró/ewicz. he received the government’s Art Award First Category for Równina (the plain). 1921. and in 1966. born on October 9. the city of Kraków gave him its literary award. 1974 and 1987. he was awarded Poland’s prestigious Nike Award for his book Matka odchodzi (1999. Tadeusz being the middle child. 1974. 2007 Other literary forms Tadeusz Ró/ewicz (REWZH-veech) is known as a playwright as well as a poet. The poet began his schooling in Radomsko. the Austrian National Prize for European Literature. and in 1959. they forbade all but the most primitive education for Poles. In 1962. Ró/ewicz worked as a manual laborer and as a messenger for the city government while continuing his education in a special underground school. he again received the government’s Art Award First Category. and the Great Cross of Order Polonia Restituta. 1994 Niepokój: Wybór wierszy z lat. He was awarded other honors as well: the Home Army Cross (London) in 1956. he received a special prize from the magazine Odra. and the Polish people responded quickly to his work. 1996. in recognition of his entire oeuvre. 1977. His mother. 1982. Stefania Ró/ewicz.Eastern European Poets Tadeusz Ró/ewicz Opowiadania. 1966. 2001 Recycling. 1995 Selected Poems. In his interview with Hopkins. Ró/ewicz married and moved to Gliwice. as if he were forcing the words out into the surrounding silence.Tadeusz Ró/ewicz Critical Survey of Poetry In 1943 and 1944. his tone is a populist. Analysis The horrific events experienced by Tadeusz Ró/ewicz during World War II have led to his terse poetics that seek the voices of common people. often through quotations. In 1949. including to the United States. . retains its unique Polish perspective. A second son. Jan. . and Italy. where he studied art history. was born in 1953. In 1968. Because of the special circumstances of his youth. as if he did not fully trust the power of words to convey his meaning. His first journey outside the country took place in 1948. news reportage: an “art of collage. democratic one—humane and never grandiose. anecdotes. Ró/ewicz does not forget the past. bad poets. Germany. dead bodies. bad singers. His later journeys have included visits to China. Next to the Germans. he recalled: “I saw people who were brought through the streets on carts . and even his longer works are often marked by short lines and short stanzas. he passed a special examination and entered Jagellonian University in Kraków. after they have been said. 2001. when he went to Hungary. Ró/ewicz fought against the German occupation forces as a member of the Home Army (the underground forces directed by the Polish government-inexile. a trip that he subsequently described in a travelogue.” since the innocent Romanticism of the nation’s prewar poetry seemed incompatible with postwar realities. Ró/ewicz knew comparatively little of the world outside Radomsko when he entered the university. sparseness characterizes Ró/ewicz’s poems. the eighty-year-old Ró/ ewicz commented sardonically: I don’t like bad journalists. issue. where his son Kamil was born in 1950. which would become his home for more than three decades. As a result. Ró/ewicz determined that he must find a way to “create [Polish] poetry after Auschwitz. when he was twenty-five years old. Ró/ewicz moved to Wrocuaw. bad painters. but his work. Ró/ewicz is a master of the dramatic break in the line and between stanzas. if not his poetic output.” as Ró/ewicz put it. naked bodies. choosing his words with extreme care and. relapsing into a brooding silence. blank margins of the page for dramatic impact. Faced with the horrors inflicted by the Germans during the war. He made trips abroad. Many of his poems are exceedingly short. “I See the Mad” presents a complex drama in ten lines ar208 . The effect is that of a speaker who broods as he speaks. He first saw the mountains of southern Poland. In an interview with James Hopkins for The Guardian’s May 19. and bad politicians. Accordingly. He uses the broad. His own brother was murdered by the Gestapo in 1944. the latter inflict most harm. for example.” After the war. even when it concerns foreign places. in London). An English translation contains a total of only thirty-nine words. When one considers that he spent his youth subjected to the terrors of the Nazi occupation. he often does so with terse.” for example. When he comments upon them. He must keep pushing the frantic hands off his boat. of the poet speaking or writing his words. To keep his craft afloat. for he has no time. Though the speaker of a Ró/ewicz poem may participate in the action or even cause it. that an ordinary existence is still possible. Ordinary. Many of his poems may be seen as miniature plays. outside the boat. the two actions. just as the two narrators and the two times. the words “even now” might seem superfluous. he must condemn them to death by drowning. even mundane. they have fallen into it. Are those in the poem Christians who think that the laws of physics will be suspended for them? Or are they arrogant people who think that they can perform miracles. one can understand his sense of wonder that the ordinary objects of daily life do indeed exist before him.” When the poet shows himself in his boat in the first stanza. they try to save themselves by grasping his boat. he also stands. The poem is written in the present tense: “I see. past and pres209 . sometimes in lists.” not “I saw. sardonic irony. causing him to ask himself how a normal life can be possible after such horrifying experiences and even causing him to question what constitutes a normal life. he presents himself at sea in a small boat—a traditional metaphor for life as a journey. instead. the poet states: “even now they tilt/ my uncertain boat. but the Polish original is even more concise: It has a mere twenty-nine. In effect. In the second stanza. These obstacles give the poem its unique Ró/ewicz stamp. in a sense. and the drama reinforced by Ró/ewicz’s sparseness. reliving the experience as he writes or thinks about it. They consist of crazy people who believe they can walk on water. “I See the Mad” Ró/ewicz presents his work to the reader in a double dramatic context: the drama that he describes in the work.” At first reading. Thus. As the poet sails through their struggling bodies. especially a journey through obstacles. in his role of besieged traveler. verbs and nouns abound. the characters acting out various roles. new perspective. Who are these people floundering about in the water? One thinks immediately of Christ walking across the water to his disciples and of Peter attempting to walk on the water to meet him and sinking. The speaker confronts the reader. He cannot know. In “I See the Mad. but they put the poem in a strange. his most important role is almost always that of an observer: He witnesses the events of the poem. as if the poet were insisting to himself that the words actually correspond to the reality he sees before him.Eastern European Poets Tadeusz Ró/ewicz ranged into four stanzas. Ró/ewicz speaks in straightforward sentences with straightforward words. writing or speaking the poem and knocking away the hands that threaten the poet’s safety. merge into one. claiming for themselves the power of God? The poet does not say. he is forced to knock their hands away from the boat. for philosophical inquiries. Ró/ ewicz tells of having to pass a trash can every day. also merge. Ró/ewicz. Ró/ewicz as a twentieth century Everyman. One who knows the nature of the world is not guaranteed a happy or beautiful life. has even broader meanings. commenting on the action— only to be pulled dramatically back into the experience. In the first stanza. describes himself as “cruelly alive. It contains also. Ró/ewicz as a Polish Everyman. with an ironic twist.) In addition. to all people killed in all wars. (In one of his short stories. He may also be thinking of the Poles killed during the time of Joseph Stalin.” The poem seems to offer no consolation. In one sense. perhaps in dreams or nightmares. They may be people he knew as a young fighter in the Polish underground army. speaking as a generic Pole. “I Screamed in the Night” In “I Screamed in the Night. he notes that they are stiff. he is “cruelly alive” because his own life force sustains him at a time when it would be easier for him to give up the struggle and simply let his boat be overturned.” and the word “cruelly” vibrates in this context. Central. who acts on at least four levels: Ró/ewicz himself.” the poet jumps forward in time. into which were stuffed bodies of Polish partisans for whom the Nazis had forbidden burial. the survivor. indeed. but the darkness also becomes symbolic. and this concept of recognizing the nature of reality plays a central role in Ró/ewicz’s work. He sees the world as it is. As he pushes the hands off. in his personal life. he must be cruel to push off the desperate hands that threaten to capsize his little boat. History haunts the poet. the poet plays a leading role in the drama. witnessing and responding to the problems humanity has faced throughout its history. but at least the person has a chance to survive. In the third stanza. The poem. responding to the situations a Pole finds in the contemporary world. With the word “stiff. The poem ends with the poet continuing his journey into the future: “I knock off their stiff hands/ knock them off/ year in year out. the poet is again trying to keep his little boat steady. as if he already sees the hands as stiff and dead because of his actions. a moral darkness: “cold and dead/ a blade from the darkness/ went into my body. too. It also refers to all the dead in World War II and. 210 . the Darwinian concept of the survival of the fittest: The poet.” The poem may be seen as a surrealistic nightmare. He screams in the literal night. and Ró/ewicz as a universal Everyman. In another sense. no solution. perhaps a natural result of being in cold water. he has no choice. the poet sailing through a sea of the dead and dying. is the function of the speaker. however. Nevertheless. witnessing and responding to the events of the twentieth century. he effectively stands outside the proscenium arch.Tadeusz Ró/ewicz Critical Survey of Poetry ent.” the dead confront the poet. The poet remains afloat because he knows a human being cannot walk on the water. refers to the many Polish dead who fought against the Germans and the Russians. In the second. His former friends at the inn do not even recognize him. When the symbolic door of his childhood home closes behind him.” Ró/ewicz adds still another dimension by basing his poem on a painting that depicts the biblical story—a painting by Hieronymus Bosch. Senseless suffering abounds. however. which she suspects may be counterfeit. or feed him. out in the world. the young man must go out into the world.” the poet questions the routines of daily life from the point of view of an outsider. too. clothes him. overlaps the contemporary world caught in the convulsions of World War II: I saw life with a wolf’s jaw a pig’s snout under the hood of a monk the open guts of the world I saw war on earth and in heaven crucified people who redeemed nothing When Ró/ewicz’s prodigal son returns. because this my son was dead. the late medieval world of Bosch. 211 . were somehow suspect. as if it. and has come to life again. The prodigal son then thinks of how. “Bring out the fatted calf and kill it. the waitress looks suspiciously at the money. In the poem. kisses him.Eastern European Poets Tadeusz Ró/ewicz “The Prodigal Son” Sometimes Ró/ewicz gains even greater dramatic impact and depth of narration by speaking through a persona. Thus. he was lost. She may be the same pretty Maggie who closed the door after he went out. In “The Prodigal Son. and let us eat and make merry. as if its closing and opening were a natural process. he broods on the experiences he has undergone since the door of the establishment closed behind him. The prodigal son appears first at the inn from which he set out on his travels. Then she studies his face. she thinks she may have seen him someplace before. clothe him. the door seems to act on its own. a Flemish painter of the late Gothic period who is noted for his grotesque and amusing caricatures of people in strange situations. but so many years have passed that they do not recognize each other. he returns home to ask for a position as one of his father’s servants. Another former friend sits in a corner with his back turned. embraces him. he finds no father to welcome him. Perhaps. He finds that the world is filled with incredibly cruel and grotesque monsters. When he pays for a beer at the inn. His father. and is found. and tells his servants. with its grotesque characters. he was sustained by illusions. In the biblical story. as she studies his face. the prodigal son leaves home and wastes his inheritance in riotous living. There. Reduced to beggary. without revealing his identity. he represents the universal experience of a young person coming of age to find both the world and his home different from what he has always imagined. although he seldom lectures the reader as he does in “Falling. the prodigal son may be seen as one of the Polish soldiers. His question cannot be answered in the affirmative. many of whom fought as members of the British and French forces. Stripped of illusions. The Fall. The poem is not. On a national level. “the monster”—and Ró/ewicz’s use of quotation marks illustrates his point about modern moral judgments— asks in Fyodor Dostoevski’s Prestapleniye i nakazaniye (1866. Stavrogin.Tadeusz Ró/ewicz Critical Survey of Poetry by thoughts of the joyful reception awaiting him when he returned home. in which moral heights and moral depths do not exist. entirely pessimistic.” Having come to recognize the reality of the outside world. the entrance to Hell having been changed to the entrance to the vagina. One might expect such a moralistic poem to focus on the absence of God and Heaven in the modern world. but instead it focuses on the absence of Hell. the prodigal son returns to the world with a strange. English translation. such knowledge is the first step toward wisdom. 1886) if faith can really move mountains. Instead. Ró/ewicz observes. Confessions. Ró/ewicz speaks about his personal experience of growing up and going out into the world. in such works as Albert Camus’s La Chute (1956. Ró/ewicz cites the Italian film Mondo Cane (1961) as giving an unforgettably grotesque but true moral picture of contemporary life. which should be concerned with setting standards. Here again. however. Ró/ewicz looks back ironically to the good old days when there were such phenomena as fallen women and bankrupt businessmen. and for Ró/ewicz. More typical of contemporary literature. The prodigal son comes to know the true nature of both the outside world and the home he left behind. 1955). 1957). bitter sense of personal freedom. is Françoise Sagan’s Bonjour tristesse (1954. he returns home to recognize reality there also. returning home to Poland after the fall of Germany to find the terror of the Stalinist period. who finds it impossible to return to the comfortable beliefs of previous centuries.” in which he laments the absence of standards in contemporary life. “Falling” Much of Ró/ewicz’s art concerns such moral development. while the Vatican Council. and he decides not to go to his father’s house. vowing this time never to return. Crime and Punishment. of lower depths to which a person might sink and from which he might rise. and his decision may be seen as a mark of moral growth. Finally. “every branch bird and stone/ come to my reception. he goes out the door of the inn once again. the speaker functions on four levels. 1620) of Saint Augustine but laments that such distinctions between good and evil now seem possible only in literature. The prodigal son may also be a twentieth century person. “I thought every house/ would extend a glad hand. He quotes the Confessiones (397-401. tables a motion to debate the relationship 212 .” he states. viewing the action. but the implications go deeper. it may be seen on another as humanity’s violation of fellow humans. does his job. Nevertheless. are morally fallen. even such a short. If on one level the poem may be read as an allegory of humanity’s violation of nature.” Here. “I saw. The poem begins with two words that might serve as a motto for all Ró/ewicz’s poetry. the Good Shepherd. and by placing the cook in the broader category of specialist. “To the Heart” If. the poet feels it beating. however. therefore. material world the only reality? In several poems. spoke of people as sheep. “Yes sir/ that was/ a specialist. however. At the end. In this case. which becomes a short moral lesson directed to the heart of the poet and the heart of the reader. As the cook touches the animal’s heart. In his 213 . Kindness and love that do not take into account the brutalities of life will surely lead to disaster. retains his sensibility. grasps the beating heart. The title “To the Heart” has two meanings: It implies the direction of the cook’s arm as he shoves it down the sheep’s throat. like Adam. can there be further progress? Is the brutal. for because of their nature. the poet. but because of the lack of standards. brutal drama as “To the Heart” may be read in a moral context. one that can be discovered only through recognizing all the ills of the material one. They stand for meek people. as well as the direction of the poem. however. a human obviously violates the natural world. comes to stand not only for the sheep’s heart but also for the organ that is the traditional symbol of human kindness and love. traditional religious and social norms no longer apply. seems to have none of the compassion of the man in the boat. The cook. an individual may still make moral progress personally by recognizing the world as it is. He sees inside the sheep. pushes it down through the animal’s throat.” The poet witnesses and reports the action. they do not fall down but fall in all directions at once. the poet comments tersely. as perhaps they did for those naïve souls who believed they could walk on water. he sees a specialist—a cook—killing a sheep. and he charged Peter to care for them. he says that “falling” is the wrong word. He watches as the cook places his hand in the sheep’s mouth. He sees the cook close his fist on it and feels the heart torn out. putting meat on the table of those who employ him. he develops a kind of X-ray vision and supersensitive touch. and tears it out. Ró/ewicz hints at a spiritual world. In this sense. The “heart” of the title. Indeed. “I Am a Realist” Once a person sees the world as it is. The cook may be compared to the man in the boat of “I See the Mad” who must beat off the hands of drowning people to stay afloat. Would it make any difference if he killed a chicken or a cow? It certainly would to the poet. Christ. sheep have become important symbols. after all. The brutal cook. In fact. he gives the cook’s actions wider application.Eastern European Poets Tadeusz Ró/ewicz between the faithful and the laity because it cannot define the term “the faithful.” He concludes that contemporary human beings. ” he enumerates details of daily life: His young son plays with a ladybug. “About what?” Both Ró/ewicz and Tolstoy. must accept that fact. To a writer who performs his task well. Ró/ewicz receives his revelation.” the poet shows what can happen when his eyes are closed.) When the poet asks what should be done. Ró/ewicz’s question concerns eternal verities. He dreams of Leo Tolstoy lying in a bed. the reader is tempted to ask in return. and the poet asks Tolstoy what should be done. and their place in the universe. despite the gloom in his life and in his art. takes a strange twist at the end. Nevertheless. tired of his realistic details. (Indeed. even an unexplained joy in life. Ró/ewicz remains a realist. the scene becomes dark. might seem to be a kind of cruel joke. Darkness. having done what he can. When the blazing light around the novelist goes out just before he speaks. The answer he gives comes in two ways: in his words and in his actions. his face pulsing with light. Tolstoy shares Ró/ewicz’s concerns. which appears on the surface to concern the temporary darkness. complains: “I am a realist and a materialist/ only sometimes I’m tired/ I close my eyes. even to burn like the sun: “a gigantic radiant smile/ burst into flame. whereas the “specialists” of the world do not.” he pictures himself as a medieval monk illuminating a manuscript that recounts a particularly brutal history: my left hand illuminates a manuscript of the murdered the blinded the burned 214 . “like the bark of an oak.” (Even in recounting dreams and mystic revelations. the writer’s craft itself becomes an important symbol in Ró/ewicz’s work. coming as it does with a huge smile.” Here. He may well be counseling Ró/ewicz that one person’s actions cannot change the nature of things and that Ró/ewicz. however .” Then he begins to glow again. there may come a kind of mystical peace. the poet notices that Tolstoy’s skin is rough and broken. Ró/ewicz in person can be at times uncommonly cheerful.” “Remembrance from a Dream in 1963” In “Remembrance from a Dream in 1963. noting such specific details. The poem. however. Tolstoy’s answer. “Nothing.Tadeusz Ró/ewicz Critical Survey of Poetry poem “I Am a Realist. The poet.) “Alpha” In this way. from a noted realistic writer. his wife makes coffee and complains that her hair is falling out. Suddenly. truth and love. such as it is. however. He may also be asking what should be done about his own doubts about the purpose of life. Tolstoy. while the poet takes an apple from the table and goes to work writing realistic poetry. serves as a traditional symbol of loss of faith. In “Alpha. Tolstoy answers. understand the question. In the title poem. on the tragic history of his nation. a world of the spirit which he can but suggest in his work. on the convulsions of the twentieth century. Even song.” a phrase that could have two meanings: Even song did not escape untouched from the ravages of history. as in English. Here they are juxtaposed to the trivialities of late twentieth century Western culture. in spite of the brutalities and injustices of history. A student who has written an assignment poorly may be said to have done it with his left hand. not as they would like it to be. His persistence is rewarded when he catches glimpses from time to time of a possible world beyond the one in which he lives—glimpses that on rare occasions afford him inklings of joy. Ró/ewicz’s concerns extended into his first English collection of the new millennium. recognize life as it actually is. moreover. or even song did not escape his clumsy. If the omen appeared in the left side. he stumbles on a kind of revelation that another world exists after all. Nevertheless. he retains his sensibility. and probably badly. Thus.” using 215 . three sections counterpose aspects of the war to modern life: In “Fashion (1944-1994)” the fashion industry is contrasted with Nazi brutality against women. h22is ability to feel as a human being in the midst of uncaring and unfeeling people. but “left. to say that someone did something “left-handedly” means that it was done suddenly. and “Meat. but the themes are the enduring ones in Ró/ewicz’s poems: Man’s inhumanity to man and the horrors of war. retains a consistently moral stance in his work. despite what he considers the clumsiness of his words and the terrible message they convey. The ancient Greek augurs believed that omens seen over the left shoulder predicted evil. it was considered unfavorable. he says. In the Polish language. Reflecting on his own life. he insists. my left hand paints white as a unicorn an unreal letter from the other world Ró/ewicz.Eastern European Poets Tadeusz Ró/ewicz Why the left hand? The poet may be left-handed. Recycling As he entered his eighth decade. Ró/ewicz presents himself both as a prophet of ill tidings and as a rather awkward writer—implying not necessarily that his writing is inferior to that of others. The subject matter is topical. but rather that it cannot equal his vision of the world.” signifying unlucky or awkward. did not “escape whole. which he insists on confronting head-on. in the very act of writing. and on the history of the world. Humans must. Recycling. The Roman soothsayers divided the heavens vertically into two segments. without much consideration. in “Gold”—a reference to Nazi gold and its inhumane origins—Ró/ ewicz satirizes revisionists who argue that the Holocaust is a fiction. is much more important. left-handed efforts. 1964. 1977). index. 1974 (White Marriage. 1964 (in German. short fiction: Opaduy likcie z drzew. 1955. 1969). pr. 1990 (2 volumes). 1964. 1970). 1960 (The Card Index. 1970. 1969). pb. pb. 1988. Odejscie Guodomora. pr. Other major works long fiction: Kmier6 w starych dekoracjach. nonfiction: Przygotowanie do wieczoru autorskiego. Reading the Apocalypse in Bed: Selected Plays and Short Pieces. Pogrzeb po polsku. 1970). Bibliography Bara½czak. Teatr niekonsekwencji. Stara kobieta wysiaduje. 1994. 1971. 1982 (The Trap. pb. pb. 1997). 1973. 1976 (The Hunger Artist Departs. Opowiadania. 1991. pb. The Mature Laurel: Essays on Modern Polish Poetry. and Other Plays. 1970. 1970).: New Rivers Press. Wyszedu z domu. 1991. 1968 (Birth Rate: The Biography of a Play for the Theatre. 1968. Introduction to Unease. 1994. 1966. Czerniawski. The Witnesses. pb. Opowiadania wybrane.Tadeusz Ró/ewicz Critical Survey of Poetry a collage of news clippings. Victor. miscellaneous: Poezja.. pb. 1977. Bibliography. The Witnesses. Kup kota w worku: Work in Progress. pr. 1964 (Gone Out. 2008 (includes poems and essays). at times through the use of lurid humor (“a cow in a shed started singing”). Nasz starszy brat. pr. Bara½czak’s masterful translations offer a sampling of Cold-War-era poems from an oppressed people. pb. 1971. Teatr. pr. Forms in Relief. Proza. 1962 (in German. Biaue mau/e stwo. Spaghetti i miecz. 1998. Minn. the past appears throughout this collection—as both threat and admonition. More than three hundred pages address con216 . in Polish. 1960. Evanston. Chester Springs. pb. edited text: Kto jest ten dziwny nieznajomy. Foreword by Helen Vendler. Matka odchodzi. pb. dramat. plays off the 1990’s fear of mad cow disease. 1961. and trans. Contoski’s introduction provides some biographical and historical background. 1980. Pulapka. Przerwany egzamin.: Dufour Editions. 1961).. 1999. Stanislaw. and Other Plays. 1968 (The Old Woman Broods. Adam. Recycling into the present. and Other Works. Dramaty wybrane. proza. pb. Echa lekne. pb. pb. The Card Index. 1985. 1964 (The Funny Old Man. St. 1970. 1964. 1992. in Polish. Grupa Laokoona. pb. pb. ed. Do piachu. 1970. Wycieczka do muzeum. The Interrupted Act. Proza. Na czworakach. 1972. 19551972). eds. by Tadeusz Ró/ewicz. pb. pb.: Northwestern University Press. 1971. 1977. 1994. Paul. Kwiadkowie albo nasza maua stabilizacja. 1979 (wr. Contoski. plays: Kartoteka. and Clare Cavanagh. 1973. Polish Poetry of the Last Two Decades of Communist Rule: Spoiling Cannibals’ Fun. Ill. based on Franz Kafka’s story “The Hunger Artist”). Przyrost naturalny: Biografia sztuki teatralnej. Sztuki teatralne. 1970 . Pa. pb. also known as Marriage Blanc). Akt przerywany. Kmieszny staruszek. _______. Bibliography. London: Polish Cultural Foundation. Ont. Offers useful insights into Ró/ewicz’s poetics. 3/4 (September. Moose 217 . Hirsch reveals how their postWorld War II poetry is similarly haunted by guilt. Focusing on the works of Polish poets Zbigniew Herbert. Tadeusz Ró/ewicz and Wisuawa Szymborska. index. this monograph offers important context for understanding Ró/ewicz’s writing in general. 2000. 1997): 9-12. index of names. nos. no. index. 2 (March/April. Gömöri. He has found that the major poets of postwar Poland share a distrust of rhetoric.” Canadian Slavonic Papers 37. Victor Contoski Updated by Christina J. Richard. 1995): 431-453. Edward. A brief (163-page) overview of Polish literature today and its foundations.: Legas. Georg. Bibliography. Hirsch. New York: Greenwood Press. placing Ró/ewicz’s work in context. Introduction to Forms in Relief and Other Works: A Bilingual Edition. Although it focuses on his drama. by Ró/ewicz Ottawa. “After the End of the World. of false sentiments and words. “Modern Polish Verse Structures: Reemergence of the Line in the Poetry of Tadeusz Ró/-ewicz. A Laboratory of Impure Forms: The Plays of Tadeusz Ró/ewicz. Sokoloski. 1994. Halina.Eastern European Poets Tadeusz Ró/ewicz temporary Polish poetry.” American Poetry Review 26. Magnetic Poles: Essays on Modern Polish and Comparative Literature. 1991. Bibliographical references. The general evolution of verse forms in modern Polish poetry is reexamined in order to distinguish certain modifications formulated by Ró/ewicz. Filipowicz. July 4. and satirical lampoon. Suonimski’s name was associated with the feuilleton even more than with poetry. 1976 Principal poetry Sonety. Before World War II. 1945 Poezje. 1958-1963. Poland. 1961 Wiersze. 1942 Wybór poezji. 1919 Prada. 1923 Droga na Wschód. 1958 Nowe wiersze. He undoubtedly was one of the most accomplished masters of the felieton. 1973 Wiersze. 1918 Czarna wiosna. 1959 Rozmowa z gwiazda. 1940 Popiól i wiatr. 1944 Wiek klòski. comedies in the manner of George Bernard Shaw. 1974 Other literary forms The poetic output of Antoni Suonimski (slawn-YIHM-skee) forms a relatively small part of his voluminous work. and again during the 1960’s and 1970’s. 1919 Harmonia.ANTONI SUONIMSKI Born: Warsaw. During the 1930’s. 1951 Liryki. 1895 Died: Warsaw. Wiek meski. political column. 1924 Z dalekiej podrózy. Poland. He was especially prolific as an author of nonfiction. 1964 Mlodok6 górna: Wiek klòski. 1929 Okno bez krat. his popularity was also the result of his vitriolic criticism (particularly theatrical reviews). 1935 Alarm. and science-fiction novels 218 . 1928 Wiersze zebrane. 1963 Poezje zebrane. 1965 138 wierszy. November 15. 1926 Oko w oko. a specifically Polish hybrid consisting of elements of literary essay. 1920 Godzina poezji. even in the eyes of his opponents. His political position was that of an independent intellectual with pronounced liberal and democratic views. and “public” among the Skamander poets. has certainly become the most remembered Polish poem of the entire war period. he published his memoirs. his reputation as a poet has been subject to many critical reevaluations. his intransigent stance exposed him more than once to the ill will of the communist regime. He maintained the same position during the war. Toward the close of his life. traditional. Very soon. as an unmatched example of clarity. Unlike Suonimski’s unquestionable moral authority. happily married to a sense of humor. he published Jawa i mrzonka. in postwar Poland. can be viewed as the most rationalistic. was generally considered to be a living symbol of the best traditions of the Polish liberal intelligentsia. underlined his influence as it became a silent demonstration by independent-minded intellectuals. as cofounder of an iconoclastic poetic group. By no means an artistic innovator. especially in comparison to various avant-garde movements of that time. 219 . Wells. In the postwar years. as both rightwing and left-wing groups in Poland grew dangerously radical. He entered the literary scene in approximately 1918. Skamander. which he spent in exile. while he was still actively participating in Poland’s literary life. his Alarm. written in 1939 in Paris and repeatedly broadcast to Poland.Eastern European Poets Antoni Suonimski with some of the flavor of H. Suonimski stood out as the most prominent defender of common sense. the young rebels from Skamander. in particular. Suonimski. Antoni Suonimski successfully reached a large readership and exerted a powerful moral influence on opinions and attitudes in Polish society. Suonimski. G. Alfabet wspomnie½ (1975). direct. Against the background of twentieth century Polish poetry. and his final rapprochement with the Christian philosophical tradition (although he remained an agnostic) enriched his late poetry with a new. near Warsaw. his poetry appears. achieved prominent positions in the literary establishment while becoming artistically more and more conservative. metaphysical dimension. and moral sensitivity. always the first to ridicule totalitarian or chauvinist follies in his immensely popular feuilletons. Achievements Throughout the sixty years of his literary career. whose innovation consisted primarily of denying the validity of the post-Romantic tradition under the new circumstances of regained national independence. two short stories consisting of first-person monologues. In 1966. acclaimed as the Polish Pléiade . for example. precision. Especially in the 1930’s. In the last decades of his life. Suonimski’s willful defense of traditional artistic devices did not obstruct his own interesting development as a poet. however. human rights. His funeral in Laski. he was still highly esteemed for his integrity and immediacy of appeal. and civil liberties. editing the émigré monthly Nowa Polska. he also began to work for UNESCO (United Nations Educational. for the next two decades. At that time. In the last years of World War I. his unequivocal repugnance for the horrors of totalitarianism. Ini220 . The success of these chronicles reduced for a while Suonimski’s lyrical productivity. After the fall of France.” the enormously popular weekly “chronicles. He studied painting in Warsaw and Munich. until 1951. Even though he was officially repatriated in 1946. this time for good. which he later considered his actual debut. including an eighteenth century inventor and mathematician. While in London.Antoni Suonimski Critical Survey of Poetry Biography The son of a Warsaw physician. he was not yet giving his writing any serious thought. Suonimski chose the career of an artist rather than that of a writer. Suonimski had every reason to fear both Nazis and communists. he was making his living by drawing cartoons for satirical weeklies. Antoni Suonimski was born and reared in a family proud of its Jewish ancestors. Although between 1918 and 1928 he had published many books of poems. and Cultural Organization). Picador. ranging from purely nonsensical parodies to serious publications. including a report on his trip to the Soviet Union. In a few years. He stayed there with his wife until 1946. Initially. first as chairman of the literary section of UNESCO. Their influence found a particularly efficient outlet in Wiadomokci Literackie. then as director of the Polish Cultural Institute in London. interesting as a document of his fascination with “progress” and. he escaped to London. Instead. As a Jew and an outspoken liberal. This weekly published most of his poems and articles. which two years later evolved into a poetic group called Skamander (which also included Jarosuaw Iwaszkiewicz and Kazimierz Wierzy½ski). Suonimski entered into friendly relations with several other young poets. his wartime poetry collection. Suonimski left Warsaw in September. above all. as well as his caustic theatrical reviews and. 1939. a literary weekly of liberal orientation. at the same time. to which Suonimski was perhaps the most prolific contributor. in the 1930’s he wrote mostly nonfiction of various sorts. especially Julian Tuwim and Jan Lecho½. his “Kroniki tygodniowe. the five Skamander poets gained an astonishingly large following. if not more. In 1951. The poet’s father was a member of the Polish Socialist Party and professed the progressivist and rationalistic ideology of Polish positivism. Together they created in 1918 a poetic cabaret. Suonimski again returned to Poland with his wife. Only in 1918 did he publish his first sonnets. and found his way to Paris via Romania and Italy. Scientific. Instead of poetry.” or feuilletons. the mainstream of Polish literary life was dominated by them and their informal school. during the next decade only one new collection appeared. Moja podró/ do Rosji (1932). he soon returned to the West. to serve. Alarm. and although his first poem was published as early as 1913. his uncompromising liberal stance earned for him many violent attacks from both the Left and the Right. was reedited several times during the early 1940’s. Analysis Antoni Suonimski occupies a unique place in twentieth century Polish poetry as a result of a fundamental paradox in his work: his self-contradictory attitude toward tradition. is free. he provided the chief battle cry in a couplet from one of his early poems: “My country is free. Suonimski was all but blacklisted.” he was elected president of the Polish Writers’ Union. at first rejected the Romantic heritage ostentatiously and totally. writing a new series of feuilletons for a satirical weekly. Under the circumstances of Poland’s newly regained independence. like the other Skamandrites. and tolerance. So I can throw Konrad’s cloak off my shoulders. he had always been in favor of progress. As a man of ideas. and Suonimski. outdated values. however. . at least until the early 1970’s. old-fashioned. the poet became a target for personal attacks from the Communist Party leader. later called Skamander. turned such efforts into their opposite: What initially was a progressive and modern stance soon began to appear as a defense of traditional. symbolizes here the whole tradition of national martyrdom as embodied in messianic poetry of the great Polish Romantics. After having courageously contributed to the protest of Polish writers against the regime’s anti-Semitic and anti-intellectual campaign. when. he soon began to find himself more and more at odds with the Communist regime.Eastern European Poets Antoni Suonimski tially a cautious supporter of the new political order. however.” Konrad. As a member of a group of young poets. the name of poet Adam Mickiewicz’s Romantic hero. The course of contemporary history. There. when he found a shelter in a Catholic weekly. Wuadysuaw Gomuuka. made him a target of state censorship until the end of his life. He died as a result of injuries suffered in a car accident. later collected in Obecnok6 (1973) and Ciekawok6 (1981). Suonimski’s poetry seems therefore to be a peculiar combination of modern problematics and conservative artistic means. in 1972. he unflaggingly fought all forms of obscurantism. The Skamander poets This apparent rift can be traced back to the very beginnings of Suonimski’s literary career. common sense. The year 1968 brought about the culmination of Suonimski’s fame as the grand old man of Poland’s intellectual opposition. he began publishing his last series of feuilletons. 221 . In the 1960’s he returned to his favorite genre. Szpilki. The publication of 138 wierszy in 1973 initiated the public reappearance of his poetry as well. His continuing participation in the protests of intellectuals. the poet himself appears as a champion of the public weal who is paradoxically aware of his quixotic loneliness. in the celebrated “thaw. . such a tradition seemed nothing but a needless burden. Tygodnik Powszechny. . a position he held until 1959. His spectacular comeback to public life occurred in 1956. Nevertheless. he does not hesitate to resort to what could be termed poetic publicism. Suonimski’s poetry in this period became even more “public” and utilitarian.Antoni Suonimski Critical Survey of Poetry Parnassianism Suonimski’s individual way of doing this. his rationalistic and liberal mind discovered in the native Romantic tradition a powerful current of humanism and universalism. underwent an important modification in the course of the next decade. was not its messianic obsession. This does not mean. an increased use of rhetorical devices. the rapid growth of pessimistic and even catastrophic tendencies that marked Polish literature in the 1930’s found its reflection also in Suonimski’s work. If such stylistic features seem to prove that. His beliefs. however. On the contrary. The ominous course adopted by the European powers in the 1930’s forced the poet to give up. characterized by a didactic or satirical tone. in which classical devices are used for anticlassical purposes and moral earnestness is disguised as aestheticism. in his poems written in the mid-1920’s. capable of being overcome. evil is still seen as humankind’s irrational and passing folly. in the 1930’s. and Z dalekiej podrózy enter into an explicit dialogue with the shadows of the greatest poets of the Polish nineteenth century. his outdated positivist illusions. It was becoming more and more apparent that the development of science and technological progress did not necessarily go hand in hand with the ethical improvement of humankind. This is explicit in one of Suonimski’s most overt lyrical manifestos. “He Is My Brother. of being a naïve optimist who professed Wellesian confidence in progress and the ultimate triumph of reason. Suonimski could have been accused. even going so far as to imitate Romantic verse forms. however. in which. by way of an exception. Therefore. Apart from a long poem. and simple. collections such as Godzina poezji. transparent. The only difference from the original Parnassianism was that Suonimski was using the classical forms not for art’s sake. Suonimski still believed in 222 . according to which the brotherhood of humankind should always weigh more than nationalistic prejudices. but rather to pose questions of an overtly ethical nature and to propound an active attitude toward contemporary reality. remained a trademark of his poetry in later years. very much in the spirit of José-Maria de Heredia.” Pessimism of the 1930’s In the 1920’s. not without justification. in Okno bez krat. he gave vent to anarchic slogans in an expressionistic style. was rather atypical. Czarna wiosna (confiscated by government censors in 1919). there is no trace of his youthful rejection of the Polish Romantic tradition. Droga na Wschód. This peculiar manner. he appeared in his early poems (most of them sonnets) as an utterly classical and harmonious Parnassian. Rather. however. at least partly. that Suonimski’s later work did not evolve. regular verse. however. In fact. What attracted Suonimski to Romanticism. Accordingly. sometimes quite prosaic language. his volume Okno bez krat is pessimistic only as far as its picture of the contemporary world is concerned. Ostatni Zajazd na litwie historia Szlachecka zr. humankind will recover from its moral degradation and reconstruct the system of its fundamental ethical values. Popiól i wiatr If Suonimski ever relinquished his self-irony and detachment. The symbolic figures of Hamlet and especially Don Quixote organize key images in these later poems. the theme of the poet’s loneliness among a hostile crowd recurs in his poems written at that time. Especially in the long poem Popiól i wiatr. which Suonimski greeted with enthusiasm and renewed hope. Since they alluded clearly to the archetypal image of the ostracized prophet. 1917). remaining. even in those poems in which he speaks about the horrors of war. he nevertheless refused to accept this situation. a Tale of Gentlefolk in 1811 and 1812.Eastern European Poets Antoni Suonimski the didactic effectiveness of poetry. Like the latter. it became essentially tragic in its vision of existence. not because there is any guarantee of victory. Suonimski’s poetry acquired a wider philosophical perspective. In the 1960’s and 1970’s. While remaining classical and rationalistic in its style and rhetoric. The 1960’s and 1970’s This belief seemed to be corroborated by the quite literal reconstruction of Poland in the immediate postwar years. serving as metaphors for the unresolvable contradictions of human fate. “unreconciled with the absurdity of existence. above all. in which the fate of the exiled poet found its precedents in the biographies of Polish Romantics. he hopes against hope that. especially by the nationalistic Right. once the war is over. his adoption of an independent stance as a defender of traditional values had something more to it than superficial common sense. however. The Last Foray in Lithuania. doomed to fail in most cases. as he himself put it. It is worth noting that this time. it is a nostalgic tale in which the exiled poet recalls the images of places and years that now seem to be irretrievably lost. 1834 (Pan Tadeusz: Or. his liberal principles —consisting. What is striking is that Suonimski’s rationalistic humanism remains intact. Very soon. it was perhaps in his wartime poetry. on the other hand. in Twelve Books in Verse. Suonimski realized painfully that the human being is reduced to nothingness if placed against an indifferent universe and hostile history. Even at this darkest moment. Suonimski attempted to revive the century-old genre initiated by Mickiewicz’s Pan Tadeusz: Czyli.” The human spirit. for his pacifism and supposed lack of patriotic feelings) certainly had much to do with his perplexity. in caring about the fate of the individual rather than some mythical “historical necessities”—prompted him to an ever-growing skepticism about the possibilities of the new political system and the truth of its slogans. one must be aware that. 1811 i 1812 we dwunastu ksiegach wierszem. nevertheless must cope with adversity. His personal experiences (he constantly was being vilified. but because 223 . At any rate. some growing doubts were also often expressed in his poems of that period. Suonimski’s poems of the 1930’s would have taken on a thoroughly Romantic aspect were it not for his infallible rationalism and ironic sense of humor. Torpeda czasu. 1981. Stanisuaw Bara½czak 224 . Bibliography Gillon. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press . but it is precisely this hopeless struggle that makes him worth remembering. Adam. eds. 2d ed. Moje walki nad Bzdurá. Skamander: The Poets and Their Poetry. with a certain amount of self-disparaging irony. Rodzina. was able to contribute significantly to that spiritual revival. In the last years of Suonimski’s life. Alfabet wspomnie½. Discusses the formation of Skamander and the poets’ beliefs. old enough to ignore the postwar avant-garde yet young enough to grasp the spirit of the modern age. 1973. Antony. 1932. The History of Polish Literature. Jedna strona medalu. Dwa ko½ce kwiata. Miuosz. eds. 1957. Wspomnienia warszaw skie. Gwalt na Melpomenie. 1930. Introduction to Modern Polish Literature. Polonsky. 1928. 1982. Offers a historical background for the works of Suonimski. Obecnok6. 1975 (with Julian Tuwim). pr. 1966. New York: Hippocrene Books. 1927. 1958. Other major works long fiction: Teatr w wiòzienia. free and fearless. pb. Artykuuy pierwszej potrzeby. 1983. 1971. ed. 1975. 1924. 1922. pb. Suonimski. Mòtne uby. Centers on Suonimski and provides a critical analysis of his work. and Ludwik Krzyzanowski. 2001. His individual development coincided with society’s tendency to seek genuine spiritual values in a world degraded by fear and deceit. 1956. Heretyk na ambonie. the role of the poet is compared. 1932. 1936. Murzyn warszawski. Lekarz bezdomny. Includes bibliographic references and an index. Berkeley: University of California Press. Rev. Barry. Zauatwione odmownie. 1959. 1918-1929. pb. Provides translations of selected works and a brief biographical background of Suonimski. 1927-1939. the supposedly outmoded poet was rapidly gaining in topicality and importance. 2004. wariatach i grafomanach. W beczce przez Niagare. 1928. Contemporary Jewish Writing in Poland: An Anthology. 1927. 1959. 1962. 1933. Describes his poetry as characterized by a struggle between emotional content and classical form. Warsaw: Agade. 1937. Czesuaw. nonfiction: O dzieciach. 1964. Cieka wok6.Antoni Suonimski Critical Survey of Poetry “only the human thought. W oparach absurdu.’” Within this existential context. Contains a biography of Suonimski as well as translations of his works. to that of Don Quixote: His defense of illusory values may seem objectively useless and ridiculous. Kroniki tygodniowe. and Monika Adamczyk-Garbow ska. Moja podró/ do Rosji. can justify the subsistence of that feeding ground called ‘the world. short fiction: Jawa i mrzonka. plays: Wie/a Babel. 1934. Keane. Six of these works are especially popular with Polish audiences: Maria Stuart (pr. which has become one of the featured plays in the repertory of the Laboratory Theater in Wrocuaw in the production directed by its founder. Lilla Weneda (pb. 1809 Died: Paris. 225 . 1840). 1849 Principal poetry Poezye. and the French Romantic theater are especially prominent. Father Mark) and Sen srebrny Salomei (pb. Also noteworthy is Suowacki’s freeverse adaptation of Calderón’s El príncipe constante (pr. English translation. the silver dream of Salomea). Arab. 1838 (English translation. Poland. Elements derived from Polish balladry and Slavic folklore also contribute to the stylistic diversity manifested in these plays. powsta½ca grecki. 1977). those of Greek drama. Lambro. Balladyna (pb. 1832 (2 volumes). The subject matter of these plays stemmed more from his literary and historical studies than from his personal experiences. and Ojciec zad/umionych [The Father of the Plague-Stricken. 1847 Other literary forms The dramatic works of Juliusz Suowacki (slawv-AHT-skee) are among the most highly esteemed offerings in the repertory of the modern Polish theater. English translation. William Shakespeare. 1937). Mazepa (pb. 1960). The Constant Prince. 1853). 1839 Trzy poemata. 1629. 1944) Beniowski. 1839. France. 1840. Despite his early death. Although both of these works are set in the Polish Ukraine. 1839 (includes Wacuaw. 1840 (Agamemnon’s Grave. 1866. Jerzy Grotowski. April 3. 1832. Mazeppa. 1844. Among the literary influences that shaped these works. 1930) Poema Piasta Dantyszka o piekle.JULIUSZ SUOWACKI Born: Krzemieniec. Kordian (pb. they combine elements of Spanish mysticism and Christian self-sacrifice in a manner that is reminiscent of Calderón’s sacramental dramas. 1834). Suowacki came increasingly under the influence of the seventeenth century Spanish playwright Pedro Calderón de la Barca. W Szwajcarii [In Switzerland. 1915]) Grób Agamemnona. 1844 Król-Duch. September 4. and Fantazy (pb. includes ?mija. an influence evident in works such as Ksiádz Marek (pb. 1930). Later in life. Suowacki managed to complete close to twenty full-length plays of great variety. 1843. 1833 (3 volumes. 1841 Genezis z ducha. and Godzinna mykli) Anhelli. Mary Stuart. 1953]. Suowacki became the guiding star for those Polish poets who were adherents of a neo-Romantic literary movement known as Muoda Polska (Young Poland). very few of Suowacki’s lyric poems were published in his lifetime. One of the positive literary by-products of this political exile can be found in the letters that Suowacki wrote to his mother during a period of nearly two decades. like Adam Mickiewicz. a group of writers who came of age around 1890. Krzemieniec was an important cultural center in eastern Poland at the time of Suowacki’s birth because. especially in his later works. he had lived in three Polish cities. Achievements Juliusz Suowacki. a prestigious lyceum had been established there. Salomea né Januszewska. his writings were prohibited from being published in his homeland as a result of his political activities as an émigré. Because he was a herald of future artistic trends. that the reading public in Poland became aware of Suowacki’s lyric as well as epic and dramatic genius. and his mother. It was only from 1866 onward. he is now ranked second only to Mickiewicz in the pantheon of Polish poets. taught literature and rhetoric at the lyceum. The poet’s father. the family moved to the city of 226 . By virtue of his accomplishments in all three genres. Euzebiusz Suowacki. If Mickiewicz may be said to be the Lord Byron of Polish literature.Juliusz Suowacki Critical Survey of Poetry None of these dramatic works was ever performed onstage during Suowacki’s lifetime. Although Mickiewicz is universally regarded as Poland’s greatest poet. Up to that year. in 1805. amid the tombs of Poland’s kings and national heroes. For them. Biography Juliusz Suowacki left his homeland in 1831 when he was only twenty-two years old and was destined to spend the rest of his life in exile. then Suowacki must surely be its Percy Bysshe Shelley. Old Style). Suowacki. Now regarded as masterworks of Polish Romantic prose. when Antoni Malecki began to bring out an edition of the poet’s collected works that incorporated many unpublished manuscripts. When Suowacki was a few years old. is honored in his homeland not only for his literary genius but also for his lifelong dedication to the cause of freedom. the newly independent Polish state arranged for his remains to be transported from a cemetery in Paris back to Poland for interment in the royal crypt of the Wawel Castle in Kraków. the man whom he had always regarded as his archrival for the title of national wieszcz (bard). transcended the limits of Romanticism and developed poetic techniques that anticipated those used by the French Symbolists and the English Pre-Raphaelites. In 1927. Both parents were passionately devoted to their only child. Oddly enough. they also contain instructive comments pertaining to the poet’s works in progress. Located in the province of Volhynia. Suowacki’s sarcophagus is to be found alongside that of Mickiewicz. 1809 (August 23. his work was a source of inspiration for both theme and technique. He was born in the town of Krzemieniec on September 4. was a highly cultivated woman of sentimental temperament. and thus he acquired the wherewithal to pursue his literary ambitions free from any financial restrictions. at the young age of nineteen. leaving her son in Wilno. capital of the Russian-dominated kingdom of Poland. While in London. Although Suowacki had been largely apolitical up to that time. Since Suowacki’s verse was at this time almost wholly devoid of any political or religious ideology. Suowacki decided to settle in Paris. he did. for his father had established an annuity for him. Suowacki always had sufficient funds to meet his living expenses. 1831. it was clear that the November Insurrection was doomed to defeat. who was himself a widower and the father of two young daughters. slightly more than ten years Suowacki’s senior and already regarded as the foremost Polish poet of his generation. Unlike most of the other émigrés who left Poland to escape Russian retribution. In a move that has come to be called the Great Migration. Mickiewicz dismissed these volumes as being “a church without a God inside. Because of his delicate physical constitution. he invested these modest sums wisely in stocks. he mixed business with pleasure and managed to see Edmund Kean in a performance of Shakespeare’s Richard III. some ten thousand Poles left their homeland for sanctuary in the West and gathered in cities such as Paris. a medical professor at the University of Wilno. After several weeks in London. the boy’s mother married August Bécu. The elder Suowacki died suddenly in 1814. In 1824. Suowacki decided to 227 . became an employee of the ministry of finance in Warsaw. and three years later. By this time. Moreover.” In view of the indifference shown toward his work. London. Before arrangements for the printing of this two-volume set could be completed.Eastern European Poets Juliusz Suowacki Wilno so that his father could assume a professorship at the university there. Geneva. however. One of the few people interested enough to read his works was Mickiewicz. somewhat frail in health and the only male child in the new household. Suowacki completed the prescribed course of studies in three short years and. Suowacki. and Rome. Suowacki moved to Paris. place himself at the disposal of the Polish revolutionary government and was eventually sent on a diplomatic mission to London during the summer of 1831. and he made no attempt to return to Warsaw. 1830. this sheltered life came to an abrupt end when Bécu was struck by lightning and killed. Suowacki frequently attended the theater in Warsaw and soon completed two plays that he planned to publish in an edition of his works to date. however. an armed insurrection against the country’s Russian overlords broke out in November. where he was soon joined by many of his compatriots. led a pampered life and was strongly encouraged to pursue his musical and literary interests. he immediately embraced the insurrection’s cause as his own and composed an ode to freedom in its honor. he was unfit for military service. where he could train for a career in law at the university. He then anxiously awaited his compatriots’ reaction. Suowacki’s mother decided to return to Krzemieniec. Suowacki made his belated literary début in Paris by publishing at his own expense the two-volume set of his works to date which he had planned to publish in Warsaw before the insurrection. After the Poles capitulated to the Russians in September. Suowacki left Switzerland to join relatives from Poland on a grand tour of Italy. he met a Polish poet a few years his junior. his compatriot Frédéric Chopin was to die in Paris a few months later from the identical malady and at exactly the same age. amid all this activity. The encounter was a sad one. Much encouraged. Once back in Paris. This revolt proved to be short-lived. and the masses were completely disenfranchised.Juliusz Suowacki Critical Survey of Poetry leave for Switzerland toward the end of 1832 and spent the next three years there writing zealously. Prussia. The annexation of Polish territory by its more powerful neighbors occurred in three stages. Suowacki discovered that he had contracted tuberculosis. Each of the three cities in which Suowacki spent his youth—Krzemieniec. in 1795. it was Krasi½ski who first recognized Suowacki’s literary genius. Suowacki gradually gained recognition for his literary endeavors and also became a key figure in the political debates concerning the future of Poland. but Suowacki differed from them on a great many social and political issues. otherwise known as the gentry. the second. While both Mickiewicz and Krasi½ski wanted the gentry to dominate the political and cultural life of a reconstituted Polish state. One crucial difference pertains to the status of the Polish nobility (szlachta) and its role in Poland’s future national life. Returning to Paris. in 1793. Up to the time of the partitions of Poland in the eighteenth century. was a relatively large class constituting approximately 10 percent of the population. Despite this affliction. While in Rome. His fellow poets Mickiewicz and Krasi½ski were similarly preoccupied with their country’s fate. The Polish nobility. and Austria during the closing decades of the eighteenth century. he rushed off to the aid of his countrymen when an insurrection broke out in Prussian Poland in 1848. all political power was vested in the nobility. The first partition took place in 1772. Suowacki then decided to accompany two compatriots on a trip to Greece and the Near East. 1838. During the winter of 1836. After his return to Europe ten months later. Suowacki advocated a social revolution that would give 228 . Thus. Although Suowacki himself was technically a member of the gentry. he remained in Florence for a year and a half before rejoining the émigré community in Paris in December. he held a highly critical attitude toward this social class. he worked feverishly in an unsuccessful attempt to complete the epic poem Król-Duch (king-spirit). and the third. They regarded themselves as the “nation” (naród) and felt that they had a moral right to exploit the “people” (lud). Zygmunt Krasi½ski. Oddly enough. Wilno. for both realized that his days were numbered. the restoration of Poland’s independence was the central concern of Suowacki’s life and work. 1849. Analysis Juliusz Suowacki’s life was destined to unfold amid the political turmoil that arose as a result of the partitioning of Poland by Russia. but he did manage to arrange a meeting with his mother in the Silesian city of Breslau. Death overtook him on April 3. In 1846. and Warsaw—came under Russian occupation in 1795. runs off and seeks refuge with the Cossacks. Suowacki’s position has been vindicated by the judgment of history. Since Poland did not regain its nationhood until after World War I. It is clear that Suowacki. the émigrés were depicted as destined to be the saviors not only of Poland itself but also of the entire world. Suowacki published a twovolume set of his works to date. moreover. following the failure of the November Insurrection of 1830. at his own cost. In 1832. he succeeds in subduing the opposing forces but dies during individual combat with his archenemy.Eastern European Poets Juliusz Suowacki the people a greater stake in the cause of national liberation. It was thus in the people that he soght to find Poland’s “angelic soul. led him to take an extremely pessimistic view of the prospects for restoring Poland’s independence in the immediate future. the second volume of which consisted of the two plays that he had written in Warsaw. Suowacki composed Anhelli. Returning to his homeland at the head of a Cossack army. an epic that deals with a group of Polish exiles who are annihilated in the frozen wastelands of Siberia. The work is meant to dramatize the plight of an individual who is compelled by cruel circumstance to abandon his whole way of life. In response to such notions. He therefore feels 229 . The pasha is overthrown and imprisoned by an ambitious rival. obsessed by a desire for revenge. and at the same time. These works also reveal the strong influence of Mic kiewicz’s Ballady i romanse (1822. the publication of which assured the triumph of the Romantic movement in Poland. Arab Similarly bleak in outlook is Arab. including Mickiewicz and Chopin. the son’s bride is abducted and placed in the culprit’s own harem. to fight unequal battles with utmost courage. The young Turk. He adopts the name ?mija and eventually becomes a hetman. meant to equate the fate of these exiles with that of their counterparts in Western Europe. Mickiewicz believed that the task would be accomplished by his generation of Polish émigrés. ballads and romances). Indeed. issued under the title Poezye (poems). The protagonist is a young Turk who is the son of a powerful pasha. at least on a symbolic level. Suowacki had already settled down in Paris with numerous other Polish refugees. By the fall of 1831. and still to lose in the end despite all his great sacrifices. Among the narrative poems in the first volume were several juvenile verse tales of an exotic character enveloped in an atmosphere of Romantic pessimism reminiscent of Lord Byron. in Mickiewicz’s messianic vision. 1829) and Mary Stuart. ?mija Among these verse tales in which Suowacki’s pessimistic frame of mind manifested itself are ?mija (the viper) and Arab.” Suowacki’s distrust of the political ambitions of the gentry. a tale with an Islamic setting in which the central character is unable to tolerate the existence of human happiness. The plot of ?mija combines Turkish and Cossack milieus. Mindowe Król Litewski (pb. the poem depicts the trials and tribulations of an adolescent poet who is coming of age. The poet’s despair and melancholy are. for the most part. already in love with a Russian officer. this third volume duly appeared in the following year. becomes disillusioned with the shortcomings of his Greek contemporaries and decides to retreat to the mountains to purge himself from petty thoughts through contact with the grandeur of nature. his first close friend. may be characterized as an elegiac autobiographical sketch in verse form. but the poem may be a reflection of the author’s conviction that the reasons for humanity’s terrestrial misfortunes are fundamentally inexplicable. Lambro. poured into a classical mold. while Kniadecka. Among the victims of the attack were the sons of the survivor. rather than the Greeks. Greek insurgent). for example. true to his nature. Thus. powsta« ca grecki Before leaving Paris for Switzerland at the end of 1832. On one occasion. the diffuse psychological pessimism of his earlier works acquired a concrete political focus: a somber assessment of the prospects for achieving the restoration of Polish liberty in the near future. Szpicnagel. both the leader and the rank and file are found to be wanting in moral strength. The Arab. but from time to time. Suowacki may be said to have hit his stride as a poet of genius. Both were a few years his senior and had fathers who were professors at the university. It is quite apparent that Suowacki was criticizing his fellow Poles. prevents the bereaved father from embracing death and thereby forces him to continue living a life of unremitting sorrow. and Ludwika Kniadecka. despite the promise of a brilliant academic future. is a verse tale that describes a Greek hero’s fight against the Turks for the sake of his homeland’s independence.Juliusz Suowacki Critical Survey of Poetry obliged to inflict injury on happy people whenever he encounters such individuals. after leading his countrymen in many a valiant battle. Godzinna mykli Godzinna mykli (hour of thought). Here. his first (unrequited) love. Suowacki never truly clarifies the motivation of this self-appointed tormentor. Suowacki’s style reverts to the sensuous diction characteristic of the Baroque era. committed suicide for unknown reasons. however. Lambro. Lambro finds that life in isolation merely increases his own moral vulnerability. The poem’s sketchy plot reflects Suowacki’s relationship with two people: Ludwik Szpicnagel. Set in Wilno and its environs. powsta½ca grecki (Lambro. Instead of experiencing spiritual rejuvenation. the Arab meets a man who is the only survivor of a caravan that was attacked by a band of robbers. 230 . when Suowacki was residing in the outskirts of Geneva. With this work. proved unresponsive to Suowacki’s courtship. and he soon dies under the euphoric effects of hashish. Lambro. Suowacki made arrangements for the printing of another volume of poetry. and he is so filled with remorse over his loss that he wishes to join his offspring in death. the other major poem in Suowacki’s third volume. One of the two major poems included in this volume. in the end. lost his wife and all seven of their children. where a doctor told him a story about an Arab who. is one of his most popular narrative poems. In short. but it is difficult to regard the lovers as full-blooded people. This enchantress. he wrote five full-length dramas. On one occasion. however. Wacuaw is set in the Ukraine and delineates the treasonous activities and dreadful death of a powerful landowning magnate. named Maria. however. In his poem. Conceived as a sequel to Antoni Malczewski’s highly acclaimed epic poem Maria (1825). at which time it appeared in the volume titled Trzy poemata (three poems) along with the narrative verse tales Wacuaw and The Father of the Plague-Stricken. since it was common knowledge that Chopin was madly in love with her. and the young man’s subsequent departure from Switzerland. As time passes. Many critics see the influence of Dante at 231 . Except for a hermit who marries them. the idyll consists of a number of episodes in the life of a pair of lovers. interrupt his literary activity occasionally to visit the salon of Mrs. later near Lausanne. During his visit to Egypt. He did. The Father of the Plague-Stricken. Suowacki was quarantined for two weeks in a desert oasis. which appears as though recollected in a dream. a work begun during his Swiss sojourn and later completed in Italy. the emotionally devastated father can find no further joy in life and simply wanders aimlessly. During this period. WacUaw and The Father of the Plague-Stricken The publication of In Switzerland was deferred until 1839. their marriage. the premature death of the bride. enjoyed a degree of celebrity herself. there are no other characters in the poem but the young lovers themselves. The young woman is generally said to be modeled after Maria Wodzi½ska. and even they are never identified by name . and he tells his tale with a certain degree of philosophical detachment. on the other hand. and it is difficult to imagine how either work could be successfully translated into another tongue. The same lack of definition pertains to the Alpine countryside itself. The reader is told of their meeting. the father gradually becomes reconciled to his fate. for neither their speech nor their movements are precisely defined. It is generally considered to be the weakest of Suowacki’s mature works. and this experience inspired him to write the love idyll titled In Switzerland. while in quarantine for a threemonth period.Eastern European Poets Juliusz Suowacki In Switzerland Suowacki lived in Switzerland for three years—at first in a suburb of Geneva. including the masterworks Kordian and Balladyna. Suowacki casts the father in the role of narrator and has him relate the circumstances accompanying each individual death. Set amid the scenic splendor of the Alpine countryside. Suowacki went on a long excursion into the Alps with Maria and other members of her family. Suowacki’s In Switzerland has often been likened to Shelley’s Epipsychidion (1821) in terms of musical texture. the idyll is a poem of great delicacy in which shifting moods are mirrored in a landscape of the mind. After his release from quarantine. Wodzi½ska in Geneva to pay court to the Polish aristocrat’s eldest daughter. Departing from Greece. it describes the plight of Polish deportees in the frozen wastelands of Siberia during the years following the failure of the November Insurrection. Suowacki published the eighth canto independently. and he appeals for the liberation of its angelic soul. Written in poetic prose with biblical affinities. little more than a coarse political satire directed at contemporary Russian and Polish political figures. Podró/ na wschód and Anhelli The pair of works titled Podró/ na wschód (1836. Poema Piasta Dantyszka herbu Leliwa o piekle (Piast Dantyszek’s poem on Hell). Composed in sestinas. and other parts were composed later. however. however. This trial-by-ordeal miscarries. it is an unfinished work. in which Count Ugolino relates how he was compelled to watch his four sons die slowly from starvation. where he decided to spend a few weeks in contemplation at a local monastery to work on the first draft of Anhelli. The narrative is. is far less successful. 1320. While in Jerusalem. interrupted frequently by digressions in which the poet expatiates on various topics of personal concern. c. Here the poet meditates at a grotto that was then believed to be the burial chamber of Agamemnon. Suowacki next visited Lebanon. Some of Podró/ na wschód was written while traveling. Published posthumously. still imprisoned within a hardened skull. The Divine Comedy. the exiles decide to crucify a representative from each of the three competing ideologies in the belief that the individual who survives the longest will thereby demonstrate the rightness of the cause that he champions. He then predicts that Poland will not be restored to independence until there is a transformation in the national psyche. and the religionists. 1802). In 1840. and the bickering 232 . the democrats. including Czar Nicholas himself. Suowacki recalls the legendary heroism of the ancient Greeks and bemoans the defects in both his own character and that of his countrymen. in Italy and France. directing attention to the parallels between Suowacki’s theme and the situation described in the thirty-third canto of Date’s Inferno (from La divina commedia. journey to the East) and Anhelli were the chief literary by-products of Suowacki’s ten-month trip to Greece and the Near East during the years 1836 and 1837. Suowacki angrily denounces the Polish gentry and attributes Poland’s extinction as a nation to its self-indulgent behavior. Like the Polish émigrés who settled in Western Europe. the exiles depicted in Anhelli begin to quarrel among themselves and soon divide into three main political factions—those of the gentry. however. On one occasion.Juliusz Suowacki Critical Survey of Poetry work in this poem. Suowacki’s subsequent attempt to imitate Dante more overtly. Podró/ na wschód is a loosely structured travel diary that records Suowacki’s voyage from Naples to Greece as well as his subsequent wanderings in that country. Suowacki continued to Egypt and then to Palestine. he prayed all night in the church containing Christ’s tomb and ordered a Mass to be said for Poland. to determine which of these parties has the blessing of God. under the title Agamemnon’s Grave. With a fury reminiscent of the invective that Dante directs at Florence in his Inferno. The Russians intervened. departs from the historical facts and transforms Beniowski into a young Polish nobleman who. the Polish émigré community paid scant attention to any of Suowacki’s writings. 1826). Suowacki decided to pattern his poem after Lord Byron’s Don Juan (1819-1824. Late in the story. according his beaten rival an honored place on the heavenly scroll where the names of great poets are inscribed. and Beniowski was arrested and exiled to the island of Kamchatka. periodicals. the reader concludes that Anhelli’s sacrifice of the heart has not been in vain. Before Anhelli’s corpse is cold. With the appearance of Beniowski in 1841. he was able to insert materials unrelated to the formal narrative. Even though he defeats Mickiewicz in this poetic duel. went to Madagascar. Suowacki achieved not only personal fame but also a degree of notoriety. The Lord deigns to accept his sacrifice but makes no commitment concerning Poland’s final fate. a mock-heroic epic composed in ottava rima.Eastern European Poets Juliusz Suowacki continues. Maurycy Beniowski. the reader soon becomes more interested in Suowacki’s personal views on sundry topics than in the actual adventures of the epic’s eponymous hero. He is then sent to the Crimean peninsula on a diplomatic mission for the 233 . Beniowski Up to the time of the publication of the first five cantos of Beniowski. however. Popular response to Beniowski centered on the satirical attacks against well-known persons. and political factions that were made within its pages. The one pure soul among the exiles is a youth known as Anhelli (a name which. Beniowski decided to go to the Polish Ukraine to join members of the gentry class in an armed insurrection against the Russian-dominated Polish government. a herald of his country’s future. declaring himself to be the island’s king. To create a vehicle that would accommodate such freewheeling criticism of his countrymen and their follies. he is magnanimous in victory. incidentally. In the 1760’s. who inform him that all his fellow exiles have perished and that the darkness of winter is about to descend on his homeland for eternity. Suowacki stages an inspired “gigantomachy” in which Mickiewicz is cast as Hector. This angelic soul is singled out by a Siberian shaman who initiates him into the mysteries of the occult. for example. and he himself is depicted as Achilles. a mysterious knight on a fiery steed appears and sounds a call to arms. Because of the frequently scandalous character of these digressions. Thus. and that the resurrection of Poland will someday come to pass. Anhelli is visited by two angels. Thus. joins the anti-Russian conspiracy. a symbol of Poland’s past. Suowacki. He escaped to Japan and. The main character in this epic is a historical personage. a man of mixed Polish and Hungarian ancestry and a former officer in the Austrian army. At the conclusion of the fifth canto. He died while leading the natives in a revolt against the French. however. in the hope that Poland will be resurrected at some future date. sounds very much like the Polish word for angel). after a brief stay in France. after losing his estate. however. He immediately offers his own life as a sacrifice. . an epic poem written in ottava rima and divided into segments called “rhapsodies. and had already converted Mickiewicz to his inner circle. Towia½ski. and Polish peoples in God’s scheme for establishing the kingdom of heaven on Earth as well as the crucial role to be played by great individuals in furthering the historical manifestation of the Divine Will. for whom Suowacki invents the term “king-spirits. Król-Duch The manifestation of the spirit on the historical level is examined in Król-Duch.” In Suowacki’s vision. whole nations may perform the function that he attributes to the “king-spirits. Suowacki went on to develop a highly original philosophy of his own. French. 1842.c. Written at Pornic on the Atlantic coast. His teachings emphasized the central importance of the Hebrew.” and Suowacki asserts that Poland. Republic. it opens with a meditation on the ocean. has assumed this role. 1841. are progressive manifestations of spiritual forces that pervade the universe. the cradle of life. the poet proceeds to explore the mysteries of evolution from inorganic matter to humanity itself. Despite many perilous adventures. in which the Orphic doctrine of reincarnation is propounded in the section titled “The Myth of Er. Suowacki probably intended to add further cantos. will not be complete until humankind assimilates the spiritual force of Christ’s nature.Juliusz Suowacki Critical Survey of Poetry conspirators. This evolutionary process. had a long talk with Suowacki and succeeded in converting him to his doctrine. Suowacki employs the concept of metempsychosis that is derived from the tenth book of Plato’s Politeia (fourth century b. he argues. people need leaders.e. but he apparently lost interest in continuing the epic once he had been converted to Andrzej Towia½ski’s mystical theological doctrines. All existing forms. Beniowski manages to return to Poland at the head of a regiment of Tartar cavalry. moreover. A romantic interlude in which Beniowski falls in love with the daughter of a comrade-in-arms completes the plot of Suowacki’s epic. Both of these works are based on Suowacki’s belief in the supremacy of spirit over matter. To reach this goal. a Greek warrior named Er embraces the idea of Poland while awaiting his next re234 . purified by its sufferings. Using these precepts as a point of departure. a religious mystic from Wilno.” Here.” At times. 1843. Genezis z ducha On July 12. Even though Suowacki broke with his spiritual mentor over a political question in November. Towia½ski had been in Paris since September. set forth in Genezis z ducha (genesis from the spirit) and Król-Duch. Inspired by its protean form and erratic sound. he never abandoned the basic tenets of Towia½ski’s religious credo. 1701). In the prose poem Genezis z ducha Suowacki presents his readers with a vision of cosmic evolution that has strong affinities with the theories propounded in the twentieth century by the French Jesuit Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. and this work may be read as a historical romance if one chooses to do so—just as one may appreciate Dante’s The Divine Comedy without subscribing to his theological presuppositions. Patriotic revolutionary themes first make their appearance in connection with the November Insurrection and become an inexhaustible source of poetic inspiration from then on. covers a wide range of themes. carrying on the historical mission of Poland. uncommon rhymes. strangely enough. and it is difficult to understand why he made no attempt to publish them. and upon rebirth he assumes the identity of Popiel. moreover. the legendary Polish king of prehistory. This semimythical figure is reputed to have been a cruel tyrant. The figures that Suowacki selects to embody the king-spirit were well known to Polish readers. despite the fact that he was only able to give final form to the first of the five rhapsodies that constitute its text. that interests the poet. Suowacki enters into a close communion with God—viewing God as his ally in the cause of Poland and expressing gratitude for his own transformation into “a vessel of grace. when Suowacki became a convert to Towia½ski’s messianic doctrines.Eastern European Poets Juliusz Suowacki incarnation. four poems in which Suowacki expresses resentment toward the papacy for its failure to support Poland’s struggle for freedom. of which only thirteen appeared in print during his lifetime. as well as those pertaining to historical figures and contemporaries in the émigré community. for it is always thwarted love. the king who brought Poland into the comity of Christian nations in 966. The series of reincarnations continues. and metrical virtuosity. his lyric poems undergo a marked change in tone. the closest counterpart to The Divine Comedy in Polish literature. His work in this genre. There are. but Suowacki assigns him the task of hardening the minds and bodies of his placid Slavic subjects in order to prepare them to do battle with the German marauders. The pessimism recedes and is replaced by a mood of mystical exaltation. it is interesting to note. not its triumph. In an untitled poem on this theme composed in 1848. owing its unconventional character to his preference for unusual words. A large number of the unpublished poems remain unfinished. who threaten the Polish nation with extinction. but some are highly polished.” There are. the king-spirit passing on from Popiel to Mieszko. neologisms. and many regard it as Suowacki’s finest work. such as the ones written for Szpicnagel and Krasi½ski. Król-Duch is. With a newly found faith in his mission and in himself. 235 . in fact. Other reincarnations follow. Suowacki’s language is highly creative. After the summer of 1842. Lyric poems Suowacki’s lyric poetry makes up a relatively small part of his total work. More varied are those poems dealing with friendship. Suowacki actually makes a prophecy to the effect that a Slavic pope will someday occupy the chair of Saint Peter. two poems addressed to Suowacki’s mother. Perhaps the weakest are those that treat love. He wrote approximately 130 lyric poems. When the announcement “Habemus Papam!” was made on October 16. . 1834. We need strength so as to rejuvenate this lordly world of ours: A Slavic pope. by the same token. English transla236 . Krasi½ski compares Suowacki with Mickiewiez and contends that the former’s poetic style is “centrifugal” while the latter’s is “centripetal. pb. Suowacki’s poetry manifests a dispersing tendency that is cosmic in its range. Like Turner. While a celestial choir of angels bedecks his throne with resplendent flowers. therefore. . one senses a poet who is exercising strict control over his language. pb. Turner. 1839 (wr. Suowacki has a profound interest in color. . . Mindowe Król Litewski. His imagery. This poem is among the last that Suowacki wrote. Because of such significant stylistic differences. highly appropriate that the mortal remains of Suowacki and Mickiewicz now rest side by side in the royal crypt of the Wawel Castle in Kraków. moreover. . the world learned to its astonishment that the papal designate was a cardinal from Kraków named Karol Wojtyua. W. . A fruitful insight into the nature of Suowacki’s approach to poetry is contained in an article titled “A Few Words About Juliusz Suowacki. Musicality is. Kordian. the only poets who have been accorded the signal honor of interment at the site of this Polish equivalent to Westminster Abbey. Behold! He throws open his earthly throne to a pope from Slavic realms. In Mickiewicz. . Balladyna. while Suowacki appears at times to be engaged in a form of automatic writing. . and nowhere does he demonstrate the vatic powers of a national bard more fully. it should be noted.” In place of the concreteness and tangibility that characterizes Mickiewicz’s work. pb. . 1829). as a consequence.Juliusz Suowacki Critical Survey of Poetry In the midst of dissension the Lord God suddenly rings an enormous bell. . 1937). It is. the poetical works of Suowacki and Mickiewicz are best viewed as complementary. .” written by his friend Krasi½ski. comes to aid us in this task. pb. 1834. M. a brother to humankind. and his poetry therefore shares many of the coloristic attributes of that written in Poland during the Baroque period . Look and see how he anoints our bodies with the balms of the world. . 1978. is frequently diffuse and indistinct in a way that is reminiscent of the aesthetic qualities embodied in the paintings of the nineteenth century English artist J. . another feature of Suowacki’s verse that sets it apart from the more natural speech intonations to be found in that of Mickiewicz. Here. . . They are. . . Other major works plays: Maria Stuart. 1832 (Mary Stuart. 1832 (wr. The Lyric Poems of Julius Suowacki. 1866 (wr. Bibliography Cochran. 1835). 1952-1960 (complete works. A study of Polish literature that includes coverage of Suowacki. 2d ed. An informative introduction that provides biographical background and critical analysis. Sen srebrny Salomei. 1866 (wr. 1911 (wr. pb. pr. “Polish Literature in the Great Emigration of 1830: Adam Mickiewicz. Krzy/anowski. 1930). Poland’s Angry Romantic: Two Poems and a Play. 1977). A scholarly study of Polish literature that includes a discussion of the role of Suowacki. 1844). Juliusz Suowacki. 1842). 1866 (wr. Victor Anthony Rudowski 237 . Manfred. The Hague. 2009. Ksiádz Marek. Julian. K siá/ò n iezuomny. Edited and translated by Peter Cochran et al. wr. Mazepa. Zawisza Czarny. González. pb. Juliusz Suowacki. 1836. Miuosz. and Beniowski). Czesuaw. 1840 (Mazeppa. Includes bibliographic references. English translation. A History of Polish Literature. Includes an index. nonfiction: Podró/ na wschód. and Zygmunt Krasi½ski. Horszty½ski. Newcastle. Beatrix Cenci. 1987. Zuota czaszka. pb. Bibliography and index. 1978. Peter. 1836. Introduction to Poland’s Angry Romantic: Two Poems and a Play. 1958. A short biographical study of the poet’s life and work. A critical assessment of the poetic works of Suowacki. pb. 1844. pb. Maria. Dernauowicz. pb. pb. 1840. Stefan. pb. Treugutt. 1959. 1844. England: Cambridge Scholars. Agezylausz. Fernando Presa. 1845). Warsaw: Interpress. Fantazy. Juliusz Suowacki: Romantic Poet. including Podróz na Wschód. focusing on his writings. Agamemnon’s Tomb. 1843. 1866 (wr. pb. New York: Peter Lang. miscellaneous: Dziela wszystkie. by Juliusz Suowacki. edited by Agnieszka Gutthy. A critical analysis of Suowacki’s poetic works. 1960).” In Literature in Exile of East and Central Europe. 2009 (includes Balladina. War saw: Polonia. Kridl. Takes up the topic of the Great Emigration and Suowacki. editor). Berkeley: University of California Press. the Netherlands: Mouton. Bibliography and index. pb. pb. The History of Polish Literature. 1841. Samuel Z borowski.Eastern European Poets Juliusz Suowacki tion. Juliusz Kleiner. Warsaw: PWN-Polish Scientific. 2009. 1889 (wr. 1844. 1983. 1839). Lilla Weneda. 1969 Awakening. Issa. Stryk has created work that has proved to be vitally important in opening up a space first for the study of Zen and later for its celebration. editor. My Name: Haiku of Basho (1985). Sermons. 1956 Notes for a Guidebook. 1998 Other literary forms Although Lucien Stryk (strihk) is known for his significant work as a poet—A. 1976 Collected Poems. 238 . As a translator. Zen Poetry: Let the Spring Breeze Enter (1977). and Matsuo Bashf. Work relating to Zen Buddhist thought and art may be found in such volumes as World of Buddha: An Introduction to Buddhist Literature (1968) and Encounter with Zen: Writings on Poetry and Zen (1981). Stryk also edited The Gift of Great Poetry (1992). demonstrating his range both as a poet and as a teacher. Prayers. 1953-1983. Triumph of the Sparrow: Zen Poems of Shinkichi Takahashi (1986). included Stryk’s work in several editions of the influential anthology Contemporary American Poetry—Stryk has also made innumerable contributions in his work as a translator. Heartland: Poets of the Midwest (1967) and Heartland II: Poets of the Midwest (1975) continue to define the study of poetry in this region. Anecdotes. April 7. 1984 Bells of Lombardy. 1973 Selected Poems. 1986 Of Pen and Ink and Paper Scraps. Jr.. Stryk worked diligently. to shed light on the work of important Zen masters such as Shinkichi Takahashi. Poulin. 1953 The Trespasser. 1965 The Pit. and The Dumpling Field: Haiku of Issa (1991). Some of his most significant work as a translator is found in Zen: Poems. Poland. and Other Poems. in two collections that highlighted the work of emerging and established poets. Stryk is best known for his celebration of place. specifically the Midwest. In his role as editor. 1989 Where We Are: Selected Poems and Zen Translations. Interviews (1965). and commentator on the importance of Zen philosophy and the art created by those who follow such a philosophy.LUCIEN STRYK Born: Kolo. 1997 And Still Birds Sing: New and Collected Poems. Afterimages: Zen Poems of Shinkichi Takahashi (1970). 1924 Principal poetry Taproot. Traveler. As a Zen Buddhist commentator and practitioner as well as cultural historian. along with his frequent collaborator Takashi Ikemoto. Eastern European Poets Stryk. Stryk returned to the 239 . settling in Chicago and narrowly escaping the horrors that would ravage Poland during the 1930’s and 1940’s. This sense of difference—a sense of belonging to more than just an American community—manifests itself in Stryk’s work in a variety of ways: in his connection to Zen teachings and his translations of Zen texts and poems. modest. Biography Lucien Stryk was born in Kolo. His family moved to the United States in 1928. Soon after graduation from high school. Stryk came of age on the South Side of Chicago. in his understanding of place—moving from the particular to the universal. Lucien Achievements Although Lucien Stryk has not won many major awards. and in his celebration of the many years he lived in a small. such a gauntlet presented the very pressures of life and death. Stryk served with the U. Stryk received the Islands and Continents Translation Award for The Penguin Book of Zen Poetry (1977).S. Army artillery in the South Pacific from 1943 to 1945. and a National Institute of Arts and Letters award. however. established a perspective for Stryk that leads to many of the quiet. For his work as a translator. Poland. rural midwestern town. “This was no/ King-of-the-Mountain game.” he tells us. chronicle Stryk’s everyday life as a boy growing up in an urban landscape that was teeming with immigrants and the sons and daughters of immigrants. In “White City. yet profoundly truthful insights that he reaches in the writing of poems later in his career. Many poems. of acceptance or rejection based on the foolish dares of those who are members of groups we wish to join.” Stryk describes the act of climbing on an abandoned roller-coaster track as other children hurl stones at him. Although many reviewers of Stryk’s poetry note the influence of his study of Zen thought—a clear and strong force throughout his poems and translations—too few mention the impact of Stryk’s early years as the son of outsiders. he has received numerous grants. As is common with young children and teenagers. including a National Endowment for the Arts Poetry Fellowship. Indeed. During the turbulence of the Depression and World War II. only to meet their untimely deaths at the hands of Nazis. a Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship. a Ford Foundation Fellowship. At the end of World War II. to Emil Stryk and Celia (Meinstein) Stryk in early April of 1924. they still felt the aftermath of the events as members of their extended family remained in Poland. a Fulbright grant and lectureship. in his Polish heritage and the many cities in Europe and Asia that he has lived in or visited. including “A Sheaf for Chicago” (from Notes for a Guidebook) and “White City” (from Awakening). the idea that one might be different from a given peer group presents a dilemma that at the time seems staggering. Having to stand at the margins of his community. yet that may later offer a better vantage for the creation of art. Although Stryk and his family were spared what undoubtedly would have been an appalling and inevitable march toward death. The Trespasser. Taproot. he met and married Helen Esterman.” 240 . I began making plans. in 1948. began to meditate. Soon I was inquiring seriously into Zen. . he returned to the United States with his family to study writing at the University of Iowa.” that establishes a part of the philosophical framework that would continue to support the more universal vision of his poetry throughout his career. Roger Blin. and many intermediate hues—speaking in thousands of languages. at Christmas” (from Awakening). Home again. brown. “The American Scene Versus the International Scene. Lucien Critical Survey of Poetry United States and enrolled in the English program at Indiana University.” is harmful and ill advised. national origins.Stryk. Stryk engaged with philosophy under Gaston Bachelard and was particularly attracted to phenomenology. and fantastic variations of American English. During his stay in Paris. and in that year. yellow. . power. meeting masters and priests throughout the country and. “who identifies himself with the universal man. where he received his B. in 1947—Stryk explains that the isolationist thought he sees in so much American literature. In Paris. Stryk wrote an essay. strange dialects.” Following his own call for a more cosmopolitan embrace of the world and its riches. In 1956. Stryk graduated with the Master of Fine Arts from Iowa and had his second collection of poetry. Stryk’s first book of poems. he received a Master of Foreign Study degree from the University of Maryland and then traveled to England to study comparative literature at Queen Mary College. Stryk studied literature and philosophy at the Sorbonne in Paris. “The nationalism and regionalism—devotion to regional interests—that so obviously manifest themselves in our literature. In 1950. and grandeur that is the United States of America. the Indiana University undergraduate review. black. In 1951. and the French Resistance fighter Jean-Paul Baudot. esoteric idioms.A. with the exception of that of Ernest Hemingway. Stryk explains that his visit with the priest “left an extraordinary impression.” he contends. was published by Fantasy Press. In Encounter with Zen. I visited temples and monasteries. Stryk again left the United States from 1956 to 1958 to go to Niigata University in Japan. While studying at Indiana University. who appears in Stryk’s poem “Letter to Jean-Paul Baudot. under the auspices of the University of Maryland program. In 1953. art. and races—white. he also encountered other artists and intellectuals such as James Baldwin. Stryk asserts. and science can. prove to be a detriment to international progress. France. . “are the mighty laboring forces that create the tremendous wealth. published by Fantasy Press. sipping tea from the superb bowl he made for me . In January of 1955. with the social implications which follow. During this period he became involved with the study of Zen Buddhism after meeting a Zen priest who happened to be a potter. in 1948. the couple bore their first child. In this essay—first published in Folio. most important of all. a son named Dan. a native Londoner. “Men of all creeds. University of London. . The young family continued to reside in London from 1952 to 1954. where he held a lectureship. .” What Stryk calls for is an embrace of the variegated and multifaceted collage that comprises the landscape of the United States. and as he suggests in the introduction to his second edited collection of midwestern poetry. capturing in minimalist lines the wonder of a father holding his daughter’s hand. poetry writing. I am sometimes asked why in the face of such “exotic” pursuits I have an interest in the poetry of my region—or. Following this revelatory two-year period.” which is collected in Encounter with Zen. He explains in the introduction to Heartland II: As one who has worked for a number of years. It is in daily living that Stryk moves. and he and his wife moved to a suburb of Chicago in 2000. explains that the writing of poetry demands that one engage in “pure seeing. in Asia and the United States on the translation and interpretation of Zen poetry. in “Farmer. worse. not for spectacle but for daily life. the answer to such questions is not difficult: one writes of one’s place because it is in every sense as wonderful as any other. and Asian literature. There. see “mountains as mountains.” Stryk. Analysis Lucien Stryk’s devotion to place grows naturally out of his dedication to Zen principles. and towns rising up out of nowhere.Eastern European Poets Stryk. His daughter Lydia was born the same year. the dark.” For Stryk then. then one must. he creates a poetry of simple midwestern images that illustrate clearly the beauty. furrowed fields undulating with growth to the farthest horizon. there can be no richer place on earth than the Midwest for the creation of poetry. in an essay titled “Making Poems. whatever its topography and weathers. and Other Poems). Heartland II. packed/ hard as dirt. if one is to find peace as a poet or philosopher or human. waters as waters.” magnifying the farmer’s eyes that are “bound tight as wheat. walking through a meadow filled with fresh manure and grazing horses. 241 . and “Fishing with My Daughter in Miller’s Meadow” (from Awakening). “Return to DeKalb” (from The Pit. or. in 1958. teaching poetry. To one involved in the study of a philosophy like Zen. Stryk accepted an appointment at Northern Illinois University in DeKalb as an assistant professor of English. the vision of life found in this collection is shaped by Stryk’s long life as a resident of the Midwest. He retired in 1991. and because one cannot hope to discover oneself elsewhere. diversity. why my own poetry is set for the most part in small-town Illinois.” and from such seeing. As an editor of two landmark collections of midwestern poetry—Heartland and Heartland II—and as the author of such poems as “Farmer” and “Scarecrow” (both from Taproot). Stryk searches the midwestern landscape. as the Zen master Qingyuan explains. Lucien This initial encounter with Zen thought and practice has continued to color and inform not only Stryk’s poems but also his way of life. And Still Birds Sing Although all the works included in And Still Birds Sing are not set exclusively in the Midwest. their quiet streets offering passage into what is most human and telling about the human condition. and breadth of life in the heartland. he finds the vast sprawl of cities connected by rail and commerce. the poet discovers and celebrates the act of wakefulness—the key to enlightenment within Zen thought. Rather. in “Words” (from Afterimages).” Similarly. he asks. Stryk’s poetry exudes a humility born out of a desire to understand how people are all connected to one another. seemingly mundane in nature.” Unlike some of his contemporaries.” he declares./ ready to be taken myself. Hands clasped. Here the poet watches the sky above the water.” People’s shared humanity compels them./ fully aware. the other theme that drives Stryk’s work./ the universe. however./ make. and discovers how he is connected to all life. he considers how perception shapes the universe: “I take them from her. “My thought moves the world:/ I move. we watch till sundown/ planets whirling in the sand. he acknowledges how such words connect the speaker and the listener: “I listen/ To what makes you talk—/ Whatever that is—/ And me listen. that will take a man very far across the earth looking for things.Stryk. that he cannot possess the other as he or she speaks. As he munches a sweet potato.” Perhaps this is what distinguishes Stryk’s vision and the poems that are created out of that vision: an acceptance of self and world that finds its root in a person who has made peace with the human condition. The path to such encounters. Awakening In an interview. A fine example of such a moment occurs in “What Is Moving” (from Afterimages). to listen and to speak of the space they all must share as they live in this place and in this time. . In the title poem of Awakening. “Do I still live?” The recognition that he does indeed still live comes to him in his understanding of how he relates to others: “The same thing/ Runs through both of us. Stryk does not struggle with the idea of “limits”—nor does he fear the darkness of people’s finite existence. Lucien Critical Survey of Poetry The discovery of self is at the root of Stryk’s poetry. but finds no birds flying there. The search for self—an act of enlightenment—should not be misconstrued as indulgent or selfish in Stryk’s poems. 242 . the poet explains that he does not “take” the words of another. Stryk suggests. As he gathers shells with his daughter. however.” Such an attitude about discovery— the act of coming into contact with places and people and animals and plants never before encountered—is the other powerful force.” He contends that “This excitement about reality is part and parcel of the making of poems./ making the limits of/ a world. Instead. Stryk speaks about the “curiosity and hunger . . Far from indulging himself. how any suffering or any joy people encounter must be seen as a shared suffering or joy—not as something that can be hoarded or cloistered away from the rest of the world. for Stryk. Time and again the poet enters a moment. can be found only if one is aware or awake. it moves. at her command. he concludes “Awakening” with the image of the darkness that “takes” the trees outside his home one by one into the night and proclaims that “At this hour I am always happy. 1985. 2000 (with Kevin Bailey). Porterfield. A close look at Stryk as an editor. Heartland II: Poets of the Midwest. Bibliography Abbot. 1995): 50-52. 1977 (with Ikemoto). Ga. 1967. Norbert.” Analytical and Enumerative Bibliography 5.Eastern European Poets Stryk. 1975. Davis 243 . nos. Cage of Fireflies: Modern Japanese Haiku. Triumph of the Sparrow: Zen Poems of Shinkichi Takahashi. Poetry. The volume concludes with a selection of Stryk’s poetry. Zen. 1985. On Love and Barley: Haiku of Basho. 1970 (with Ikemoto). Davis.: Swallow Press and Ohio University Press. A comprehensive bibliography. The Penguin Book of Zen Poetry. Todd F. 1973. Lucien Other major works nonfiction: Encounter with Zen: Writings on Poetry and Zen. F. 1992. The Acorn Book of Contemporary Haiku.” Midwestern Miscellany 22 (1994): 36-45. and his relevance to the Midwest. Stryk discusses Zen Buddhism and its influence on his writings in this interview. The Gift of Great Poetry. ed. no. Stryk. Craig S. Susan. Interviews. 1968. Prayers. An extensive collection of essays by Stryk on the making of poems and the study of poetry. 1991. 3/4(1991). ed. Zen Poetry: Let the Spring Breeze Enter. “Discovering Lucien Stryk’s Heartland. Lucien. the Art of Lucien Stryk. 1986 (with Ikemoto). no. Afterimages: Zen Poems of Shinkichi Takahashi. It also includes two interviews with Stryk and four critical essays originally published in academic journals. particularly of Heartland. Sermons. 1981. translations: Zen: Poems.” Interview by T. 1993. Krapf. and critic. 5 (2005): 102-116. edited texts: Heartland: Poets of the Midwest. My Name: Haiku of Basho. Athens.” Eclectic Literary Forum 5. Anecdotes. Zen Buddhist thought. _______. Traveler. “Lucien Stryk: A Bibliography. Abbot includes sections that chronicle Stryk’s career as a poet. 1977 (with Ikemoto). Interdisciplinary Literary Studies 6. 4 (Winter. An examination of Stryk as a young adult. with emphasis on his Midwest upbringing. “Portrait of a Poet as a Young Man: Lucien Stryk. reviewer.. 1965 (with Takashi Ikemoto). The Crane’s Bill: Zen Poems of China and Japan. and the act of translation. World of Buddha: An Introduction to Buddhist Literature. “‘Wherever I Am’: An Interview with Lucien Stryk. The Dumpling Field: Haiku of Issa. 1993. Not until decades after World War II was Swir able to develop the spare. 1972 (I’m the Old Woman. September 30. including “the poet should be as sensitive as an aching tooth.” Achievements The bilingual edition of Anna Swir’s Building the Barricade. she was known principally as the author of children’s stories and plays until later in her career. with translations by Magnus Jan Kry½ski and Robert A. 1958 Cudowna broda szacha. February 7. 1984 Also known as: Anna Kwir Principal poetry Wiersze i proza. her translator and fellow poet Czesuaw Miuosz. quotes several of Swir’s memorable aphorisms about writing. 1985 Fat Like the Sun.ANNA SWIR Born: Warsaw. Maguire. 1982 Happy as a Dog’s Tail. 1963 Czarne suowa. 1997 Mówiò do swego ciaua. 1985) Poezje wybrane. 1996 Poezja. 1979) Szczò liwa jak psi ogon. in the introduction to Talking to My Body. 1967 Wiatr. 1978 Wybór wierszy. 1996) Other literary forms Though Anna Swir (sfihr) began writing and publishing poetry in the 1930’s. Poland. Poland. 2002 (Talking to My Body. 1986 Talking to My Body. 1985 Radok6 i cierpienie: Utwory wybrane. 1959 Z dawnej Polski. 1936 Liryki zebrane. 1970 Jestem baba. Although Swir did not write literary criticism. 1974 (Building the Barricade. 1973 Budowauam barykadò. won the Polish Authors’ Association’s ZAiKS Prize in 1979. economical style that characterizes her mature work and has drawn so many admirers. 1980 Kláski opowiekci. 1909 Died: Kraków. Though Swir’s work was not always well received in her native 244 . her reputation has improved greatly. She drew from this tradition and her interest in visual art as she wrote her first poems. Anna grew up in her father’s studio and struggled to help support her family by looking for jobs while she was still young. working as a waitress under the occupation while writing for underground journals and participating in clandestine poetry readings. In August and September of 1944. she studied medieval Polish literature. who was in the process of translating a book-length selection of Swir’s poems. Miuosz. on February 7. wrote to the poet to inform her of the project. Poland. as she recounts in “Waiting to Be Shot” (from Building the Barricade). I’m the Old Woman continued her development as a feminist poet through sharply recollected vignettes of women’s experiences. 245 . The daughter of an impoverished painter and a local beauty.” Swir became a member of the Resistance after the Nazi invasion of Poland in 1939. In the West. Though she told him that she was pleased that he was translating her poetry. Biography Anna Swir was born Anna Kwirszczy½ska in Warsaw.Eastern European Poets Swir. which were published in the 1930’s. 1909. In 1970. she has achieved a rare degree of recognition and popularity. with the publication of Wiatr (wind). during the Warsaw Uprising. At one point. she expected to be executed for her Resistance activities. While working her way through college. who wrote an appreciative monograph on her work in 1996. she did not disclose that she was in the final throes of the cancer from which she would die in a matter of weeks. Miuosz describes these impersonal verses as “sophisticated miniatures” and writes that “the form of the miniature was to return later. Swir reached her mature style. unadorned poetry of physical experience that characterizes her best work. Having reached her sixties. suggests how much internal deliberation was required to create the deceptively simple and straightforward narratives dramatizing the tragedy of the destruction of her city. In 1984. and an expanding series of translations and criticism. The publication of Building the Barricade in 1974. a loving tribute to her relationship with her parents. Her poems have been received with high enthusiasm since English translations of her books began appearing in the late 1970’s and 1980’s and after Miuosz chose twelve of her poems for inclusion in A Book of Luminous Things: An International Anthology of Poetry (1996). partially because of the support of Miuosz. she was able to write the direct. her reputation as a poet would grow with the posthumous publication of Radok6 i cierpienie (suffering and joy). she served as a military nurse. thirty years after the events of the uprising. Anna Poland because of her feminism and her uneasy relationship with Catholicism. Over the following years. treating soldiers at a provisional military hospital. while the reticence about her personal life was to disappear. the conversation between the body and the soul. and age. my beautiful. Rather. . about sharing its joys and pains and still rebelling against its laws. which is all the more remarkable when the reader considers how artless it appears. which describe the futile effort of the city’s inhabitants to fight off the overwhelming manpower and firepower of the Nazi army. her world is one in which nothing beyond the physical can be imagined. In the introduction to Talking to My Body. In “When a Soldier Is Dying. seen in such poems as Andrew Marvell’s “A Dialogue Between the Soul and the Body. Anna Critical Survey of Poetry Analysis In the introduction to one of Anna Swir’s poems in A Book of Luminous Things. All artifice. as those in the city are moved by the immense stress of the conflict to seek basic human consolations together. not knowing “. critique.” is recast for a world that has seen such calamities as the emptying of the Warsaw ghetto and the annihilation of the city. the jeweler’s mistress./ all of us cowards” (“Building the Barricade”). naked style. which appear to be transparent accounts of mundane yet universal moments in human lives.” The poem ends as the soldier smiles and begins to close his eyes. . in which bodies are prey to malice or injury./ my brave boy. and lament the shortcomings of a physical existence and celebrate the pure joys of bodily delight and ecstasy.” 246 . they are not simply written from the perspective of the body. Swir’s presentation of the motif is not a dialogue between equals that attempts to arrive at a satisfying metaphysical conclusion. The remarkable aspect of the poems is that while they are almost entirely body-driven.” It is perhaps fitting that a poetry that centers on the body should be written in such an unadorned. This motif. that such words/ are said to a soldier/ only when he is dying. the barber. evocative scenes produced with conversational language. the speaker is a nurse in a military hospital. The poems. gains its intensity from the directness of its presentation. It is this consciousness that comments on the life of the body.” the nurse repeats to a wounded youth the calming words. a narrative of the Warsaw Uprising. “the tavern-keeper. Building the Barricade Building the Barricade. including figurative and self-consciously poetic language. while realizing that nothing can be experienced or accomplished beyond it. but from a separate vantage that can see. sickness. are presented from the perspective of the resistance. Miuosz notes that her work can be seen as an extension of a classic trope in poetry. While the poems are divided between those with a first-person speaker and those written from a more reportorial stance. Miuosz posits that “her poetry is about not being identical with one’s body. The artistry of the poems lies in the immediacy of the accounts. has seemingly been stripped from the finished poems.Swir. “you will live. all share the same immediacy. In certain of the poems. as the reader responds to the perfectly chosen. The repetition of phrases and events through both poem and collection allows for a subtle building of emphasis and intensity. attempting to comfort dying soldiers. / animal. she writes that “Mother was afraid/ that the janitor’s wife would see her./ Mother after all was/ the wife of an artist. I tremble looking/ at our two bodies/ warm and quiet. Although Swir repeatedly refers to her father as a “madman” and her parents’ marriage as a curse. The poem begins.” a woman looks at her sleeping lover with the familiar query.Eastern European Poets Swir. then rises above the scene: “It’s cold here. “I Wash the Shirt.” Talking to My Body Talking to My Body is largely a reissue of the work Miuosz and Leonard Nathan produced for Happy as a Dog’s Tail and was released in a Polish edition in 2002. as Swir dramatizes the preserving power of art. and contemplating the work about which “I know so little. as well as its liabilities and shortcomings.” While autobiographical. though it differs from most poetry of the sort in that it is not confessional in its representation of physical moments. . however. . “It is only thanks to your good looks/ I can take part/ in the rites of love” and ends with praise for the thigh and its “. the speaker first moves internally.” The great pathos of that final sentiment is the same contradiction that runs through her poetry and lends it so much of its human power: Although it is the potential permanence of art that 247 . “Do you belong to me?” Her immediate answer. “Now/ only paintings survive him/ which smell of oils. the story of a young artist’s coming of age. but who retains his artistic integrity.” The poem narrates the moment after her father’s death when Swir washes his shirt for the final time. Anna Happy as a Dog’s Tail Happy as a Dog’s Tail consists primarily of love poems. the painter father whose works are largely unknown to the art world./ Homeless. Despite their poverty./ only one exuded that sweat. can become isolating. in “Soup for the Poor. the collection is a celebration of her childhood and their mutual emotional reliance. It begins with a new suite of translations from Swir’s posthumous collection. who continually makes sacrifices in her attempt to create domestic stability. and her mother. eliminating the sweat that was uniquely his: “From among all the bodies in the world. it is clear that the family feels that their artistic commitment confers a degree of social status. In “What Is a Pineal Gland.” As she destroys the bodily connection with her father. “A Woman Talks to Her Thigh” consists of a dialogue between the body and the self.” Dividing herself from her body. Radok6 i cierpienie. examining the lungs and viscera. clear.” in which Swir describes her mother standing in a soup kitchen line. This aspect of the collection is perhaps best articulated in the masterpiece in miniature. realizing its essential division from the solid and stable body.” The self. is atypical and extreme: “I myself do not belong to you. when the needs of the body are satisfied. she notes. however. the selections build into something of a Künstlerroman. this is most clearly the work that Miuosz defined as somatic poetry.” The separation between the consciousness of the speaker and her body. the self’s sensations of alienation can be heightened. smooth charm/ of an amoral little animal. human. These tender poems speak lovingly and directly of Swir’s relationship with her parents. Anna Critical Survey of Poetry transmits Swir’s voice to readers. including issues regarding the poet’s conception of the body. Pasadena. while commenting on questions of feminism and the mediation of the body in her work. Detroit: Thomson/Gale. 1984. Review of Happy as a Dog’s Tail. “Three Polish Poets. John R. Partisan Review 57.” Levine. pb. Todd Samuelson 248 . no. Calif.: Salem Press. Rev. Masterplots II: Poetry Series. Places Swir in context by discussing other contemporary Polish poets. 21. Miuosz. Other major work play: Teatr poetycki. Bibliography Carpenter. 1 (1990): 145-150. Hacht. Philip K. Miuosz. by Czesuaw Miuosz. 2002. An adapted version of this essay was reprinted as the introduction to Happy as a Dog’s Tail. Two Nobel Prizes. Madeline. Jason.” Kenyon Review 20. and was rewritten and used as the introduction of Talking to My Body. Contains an in-depth analysis of the poem “I Wash the Shirt. ed.” Trafika 2 (1994): 193-200. Czesuaw. ed. Compares Talking to My Body with translations of the verses of two other Polish poets. “A Body of Work. 1 (1998): 148-156. Poetry for Students. This short biography touches on some thematic considerations of Swir’s work and discloses Miuosz’s rationale in deciding to translate Swir’s poetry. Feelings. Thoughts: Seventy Poems by Wisuawa Szymborska (1981).Swir. and Leonard Nathan. even with all its inadequacies and complications. Two of Swir’s translators discuss the poems. Anne-Marie. including Miuosz and Adam Zagajewski. her poems continue to assert that artistry fails in significance when compared with the body. and her reception in the United States. “A Dialogue on the Poetry of Anna Swir. 2005. and Sounds. Contains an analysis of Swir’s “Maternity. An expanded version of this conversation was included as the afterword to Happy as a Dog’s Tail and a slightly edited version as the afterword to Talking to My Body..” as well as context and criticism.” Threepenny Review 6 (1985): 4-5. Facing the River: New Poems (1995). by Anna Swir. her dissimilarity to other international poets. Vol. no. ed. Czesuaw. 2006) Wiersze. Lektury nadobowiázkowe (1973. 1995 Widok z ziarnkiem piasku. 1986 (People on a Bridge. 1957-1997. 2002 (Monologue of a Dog: New Poems. 1989 Koniec i poczátek. 1967 Poezje. short essays inspired by a vast and eclectic selection of books ranging from the classics of literature to cooking and gardening manuals. In ?ycie Literackie. Her witty responses to hopeful writers have been collected in the volume Poczta literacka (literary mail. 2000). but she also published several collections of short articles written during her career as a columnist at the weekly ?ycie Literackie from 1968 to 1981. 2010 Other literary forms Wisuawa Szymborska (shihm-BAWR-skuh) is primarily a poet. 1981 Ludzie na mokcie. 1990) Poems. 249 . 1970 Wszelki wypadek. Thoughts: Seventy Poems by Wisuawa Szymborska. Szymborska also hosted (anonymously) a column for aspiring writers. 2006 Here: New Poems. 2001 Monolog psa zaplátanego w dzieje. 1952 Pytania zadawane sobie. 1954 Wouanie do Yeti. 1957 Sól. 1996 Nic dwa razy: Wybór wierszy = Nothing Twice: Selected Poems. nonrequired reading) is a collection of witty. 1923 Principal poetry Dlatego /yjemy. Poland. Szymborska began publishing Lektury nadobowiázkowe in the daily Gazeta Wyborcza in the mid-1990’s. 1976 Sounds. 1997 Poems: New and Collected. 2006 Zmysu udziauu: Wybór wierszy. 1993 View with a Grain of Sand: Selected Poems. 2000 Miracle Fair: Selected Poems of Wisuawa Szymborska. 1972 Wielka liczba.WISUAWA SZYMBORSKA Born: Bnin (now part of Kórnick). July 2. 1946-1996. 1962 Sto pociech. Feelings. the Goethe and Herder Prizes. Szymborska refused to form permanent professional ties with any institution. She gave up her membership in 1966. Her education was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II. and the Nobel Prize in Literature for 1996. Szymborska’s poetry has been translated into nearly all European languages. The poet became known for her reclusive ways. She left the university in 1948 and embarked on a number of proofreading and editorial jobs. featuring responses to aspiring writers and Lektury nadobowiázkowe. however. whereby she received her high school diploma. After she left ?ycie Literackie. and Hindu. the Polish Pen Club Award. Chinese. she shunned publicity.Wisuawa Szymborska Critical Survey of Poetry Achievements Wisuawa Szymborska is known as the first lady of Polish poetry. the Solidarnok6 Award. Szymborska received numerous literary awards. When she was eight years old. a series of playful commentaries on all sorts of reading matter. Her poems—beloved by both demanding intellectuals and high school students— introduced humor. her family moved to Kraków. After the war. including the City of Kraków Award. Her work. witty. but neither of those fields held enough interest for the young poet. In the early 1950’s. is by no means of merely local consequence. as well as into Hebrew. Szymborska is also known for her superb translations of French poetry. the city that the poet made her home for life. Szymborska became a member of Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza (PZPR). disillusioned by the party’s policies—a decision requiring considerable courage in the political climate of the time. she had to continue her schooling at clandestine classes. Her poetry is elegant. created in 1988 and legalized the following year. she knew that this international 250 . Japanese. irony. the Jurzykowski Foundation Award. the official party of the Communist regime. She very seldom left Kraków. especially of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Szymborska became part of the Kraków underground literary movement and cooperated with the monthly Pismo. and delightfully intelligent. rarely appeared in the media. There. Szymborska is that rare phenomenon: a poet of universal appeal. and would speak about herself only with the greatest reluctance. Szymborska worked for the weekly ?ycie Literackie. She was one of the founding members of Stowarzyszenie Pisarzy Polskich (Polish Writers’ Association). Szymborska went to a prestigious school for girls. Biography Wisuawa Szymborska was born in Bnin (now Kórnick). a small town situated near Pozna½ in the western part of Poland. Szymborska studied sociology and Polish philology at the Jagiellonian University. When she received the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 1953-1981. where she was responsible for two extremely popular columns: Poczta literacka. the Kallenbach Foundation Award. she reacted with joy but also apprehension. and wit into the dreary reality of Communist Poland. run by nuns of the Saint Ursula order. these early poems bettered typical products of socialist propaganda and contained a promise of Szymborska’s later achievements. the political climate in Poland had changed considerably. poetry was to become an extension of state propaganda and a reinforcement of the official ideology. In her curious eyes. dealt with experiences common to the poet’s generation: the trauma of the war. On the level of language. in the eyes of the poet. and the hope for a new. are of equal value. Szymborska has been known to write about four or five poems intended for publication per year—a slow pace fully rewarded by the quality of her poetry. Although the primary theme of Szymborska’s earliest collections was the building of the perfect socialist state. These pieces. Stylistically. intimacy. revealing new and surprising meanings. Dlatego /yjemy (this is why we live) and Pytania zadawane sobie (the questions we ask ourselves). peaceful future. prompting the reader to probe deeper and to adapt new perspectives. Szymborska’s poems skillfully combine seriousness and play. which she produced out of newspaper scraps and mailed to her friends in the form of postcards. some poems dealt with nonpolitical subjects such as love.” Her poetry forces the reader to abandon schematic thinking and to distrust received wisdom. the brief period of idealism and the subsequent disillusionment taught her to distrust totalizing ideologies of any kind. but it also conveys a sense of profound philosophical discomfort. everything is part of the ongoing “miracle fair. combine elements of the quotidian to give them unexpected (and often ironic) meanings—a method characteristic also of Szymborska’s poetic technique. 251 . Nevertheless.Eastern European Poets Wisuawa Szymborska honor would interfere with her fundamentally private lifestyle. the dead child-soldiers of the Warsaw Uprising. nothing is ordinary. Analysis The two key qualities of Wisuawa Szymborska’s poetry are curiosity and a sense of wonder. Both language and thought are turned upside down. Szymborska naïvely subscribed to this agenda. she has also created collages. this distrust is expressed through a constant play with fixed phrases and clichés. and relationships between people. By the 1950’s. most critics (as well as the poet herself) prefer to begin discussions of Szymborska’s oeuvre with her third collection. seemingly opposite categories that. Such poetry is very humorous. however. the poet would disown her early work. For a time. She has the ability to look at things as if seeing them for the first time. Later. Dlatego /yjemy The earliest poems of Szymborska. These poems were not included in Szymborska’s first two collections. Her first two collections give testimony to her youthful political beliefs. The author of limericks. reminiscent of Surrealist and Dada games. published in newspapers in the years following World War II. While this poem explores the failure of a dialogue between a man and a woman. its skillful intertextuality and allusions. intimate poems. as in the poem “Wie/a Babel” (“The Tower of Babel”)./ one sentenced to hard shelleying for life. The poet also develops her characteristic art of phraseological collage. and metonymy.” Sól contains a number of very private. the poem “Rozmowa z kamieniem” (“Conversation with a 252 . An important theme is communication between two people. These poems mark the beginning of Szymborska’s poetic anthropology: her study of the condition of human beings in the world. Wouanie do Yeti reveals another seminal feature of Szymborska’s poetics: her skillful use of irony as a cognitive and poetic category. the impossibility or breakdown of communication. or. her former assurance is replaced by a profound distrust. Similarly. alternative world. This collection gives a taste of Szymborska’s mature style. The poet cuts away from the earlier political creed. the poem “Z nieodbytej wyprawy w Himalaje” (“Notes from a Nonexistent Himalayan Expedition”) portrays the achievements of humankind. not to be a boxer but a poet. playing with readers’ linguistic expectations.Wisuawa Szymborska Critical Survey of Poetry WoUanie do Yeti Wouanie do Yeti (calling out to Yeti) marks a turning point in the work of Szymborska and is considered her true literary debut. This change of heart is expressed in the poem “Rehabilitacja” (“Rehabilitation”) in which the speaker refers to her deluded head as “Poor Yorick. as presented to a nonhuman listener. thus making possible her imaginative investigations. as in the lines: “Oh. as observed and analyzed from various unexpected perspectives. Szymborska creates a hypothetical. Szymborska had become a poet of doubtful inquiry and profound uncertainty. The poem “Dwie malpy Brueghla” (“Brueghel’s Two Monkeys”) exemplifies both the poet’s characteristic use of the anecdote and her growing interest in looking at the human world from a nonhuman perspective. antitheses. and its mastery of puns. The other seems to be dreaming away— But when it’s clear I don’t know what to say He prompts me with a gentle Clinking of his chain. which is quite unusual in Szymborska’s work.” or “written on waters of Babel. with its brilliant paradoxes . Characteristically. rather. The speaker in the poem is taking a final exam in “the History of Mankind” while the two monkeys look on: One monkey stares and listens with mocking disdain. “ By 1957. Sól The publication of Sól (salt) in 1962 was pronounced a major literary event. Wouanie do Yeti introduces a number of themes and devices that would become permanent features of Szym borska’s poetics. ancient and modern./ The power of preserving. dialogues. . .” but the stone remains inscrutable: . Another major theme in Sto pociech is time. Many of her poems are structured around questions. . her defense of those excluded and pushed to the margins. .” Wszelki wypadek Szymborska’s sixth collection. a playful poetic parody of the Baroque style: Daughters of the Baroque. Wszelki wypadek (could have). Sto pociech In “Mozaika bizantyjska” (“A Byzantine Mosaic”). Another important theme developed in Sól is the dichotomy of nature and culture. ./ Revenge of a mortal hand. . and everyone is offended by the sight of a fat baby. from the next collection. . Critics point out her affinities with existentialism. and. Positivism. This collection also shows Szymborska’s fascination with discourses of biological sciences in general and the theory of evolution in particular. in a typical rhetor253 . .” This image reveals other key features of Szymborska’s poetic imagination: her incessant search for the other side of the picture. Moreover. . and art’s ability to suspend it. the Baroque situation is reversed—here slenderness is the norm.Eastern European Poets Wisuawa Szymborska Stone”) reveals the futility of human attempts at communicating with nature. . . O pumpkin plump! The Baroque giantesses’ “skinny sisters woke up earlier. Szymborska’s poetry has strong links with the rhetorical tradition. biology and art. most important. Sto pociech (no end of fun). and her love of exceptions. . This fascination is linked to the poet’s desire to extend the language of poetry to include discursive modes commonly labeled as nonpoetic. baths steam. This problem appears in poems such as “Woda” (“Water”). all my insides turned away. wines blush . confirms her reputation as a philosophical poet. You may get to know me. and “Kobiety Rubensa” (“Rubens Women”). . the French Enlightenment. . “Muzeum” (“Museum”). . My whole surface is turned toward you. Dough thickens in troughs. The speaker “knocks at the stone’s front door. . Moreover. but you’ll never know me through./ before dawn broke” and “went single file/ along the canvas’s unpainted side. . . Sto pociech explores a number of other cultural myths. . “Radok6 pisania” (“The Joy of Writing”) is a hymn to “The joy of writing. or theses with supporting examples. While “Pejza/” (“Landscape”) deals with the art of painting. while “Dzieci epoki” (“Children of Our Age”) warns: “We are children of our age. the speaker is a tranquilizer: Sell me your soul. she rehabilitates the quotidian: for example.” Here. “Wszelki wypadek. . that I borrow weighty words. against the angel’s orders. “Wra/enia z teatru” (“Theater Impressions”) describes her favorite act of a tragedy—the sixth. the poet strives to make even the most difficult problems appear accessible: “Don’t bear me ill will. and particularity continued from the preceding collections. Szymborska is fascinated with particularities and complexities. still taken by particularity. There’s no other devil left. necessity./ then labor heavily so that they may seem light.” Wszelki wypadek confirms Szymborska’s distrust of fundamentalism. the soup “without ulterior motives” described in the warmly ironic portrait of her sister.” Similarly. The problems of human history and civilization appear next to the themes of chance. speech. after all. The world evokes a childish delight but also despair: There are “four billion people on this earth” but the poet’s imagination is still “bad with large numbers/ . and closes with “Liczba pi” (“Pi”)./ My apologies to necessity if I’m mistaken. or the “silver bowl” that might have caused the biblical Lot’s wife to look back. Szymborska addresses political questions for the first time since Wouanie do Yeti.Critical Survey of Poetry Wisuawa Szymborska ical approach. which opens with the title poem. Wielka liczba Szymborska’s next collection. People on a Bridge In People on a Bridge./ it’s a political age. The poet presents the world as relative. with human imperfections. There’s no other buyer likely to turn up. She speaks to the reader from shifting and surprising perspectives. juxtaposes the amazing vastness and multiplicity of the world against the limitations of human perception and cognition. after the curtain has fallen. Confronted with the cosmos. introduces the weighty theme of necessity and coincidence: “It could have happened. . “Pod jedna gwiazdka” (“Under One Small Star”) begins: “My apologies to chance for calling it necessity. Wielka liczba. In “Prospect” (“Advertisement”). This collection also marks the beginning of the 254 . abstraction. “Wielka liczba” (“A Large Number”). “Our twentieth century was going to improve on the others” begins “Schylek wieku” (“The Century’s Decline”).” Faced with excess. the poet defends the particular.” The title poem of the 1972 collection. As always. Szymborska’s irony is at its most poignant and subtle./ It had to happen.” (“Could Have”). The impersonal provinces of science and art are transformed into conjectural scenarios that feel lived and human./ the trees have roots beneath the oil paint.” which begins.// I’ve never seen my children’s father naked. this morphogenetic potpourri. The historical limitations of her experience lend the poem its authenticity: “I know the world six miles around. many elegiac in tone./ I know the herbs and spells for every pain. In “Wielkie to szczòkcie” (“We’re Extremely Fortunate”).” and “the sign ‘No Walking On The Grass’/ a symptom of lunacy. dealing with memory and loss. For example. but also a great tenderness toward the counting of days and the grass—a human quotidian. In “Kot w pustym mieszkaniu” (“Cat in an Empty Apartment”). but also drawn to the life intimated in the painting.” Szymborska is not merely content to use poetry’s transformative power to create reality out of artifice. she claims: “We’re extremely fortunate/ not to know precisely/ the kind of world we live in.” There is irony here. the death of a human being is shown from the perspective of a cat.” In “Mo/e by6 bez tytuuu” (“No Title Required”). a Polish poet of the younger Generation of ‘ 68 who is considered one of the most linguistically gifted poets and one of the most fluent and prolific translators of his time. . Their work is confident and colloquial.” Such knowledge would require adopting a cosmic point of view.” Koniec i pocz tek Koniec i poczátek (the end and the beginning) contains a number of very private poems.” of the poems’ menagerie. 1957-1997 Poems: New and Collected.” 255 . However. with a suite of new poems. Poems: New and Collected. . from which “the counting of weekdays” would seem “a senseless activity. but attuned to the source’s playful elaborations.Eastern European Poets Wisuawa Szymborska poet’s effort to deal with death: “There’s no life/ that couldn’t be immortal/ if only for a moment. horns sprouted out of spite. The masterful translations were executed by Stanisuaw Bara½czak./ illegitimate beaks. and by Clare Cavanagh. those/ finned or furry frills and furbelows . containing the “. an exceptional critic and Bara½czak’s longtime collaborator. ill-timed tails. from Wouanie do Yeti to Koniec i poczátek. the simple observation of the lifelike qualities of a classical painting becomes the monologue “Landscape. show Szymborska to be a champion of individuality and imagination. less dependent on masks and role-playing. the poems in this collection are more direct. the poet retains her propensity for unusual perspectives. the poet poses the metaphysical questions: what is important and what is not? How can we be certain? In comparison with Szymborska’s earlier work. . The poems. 1957-1997 contains nearly all of Szymborska’s poems that had appeared in book form. the speaker of the poem is a woman portrayed as a small part of the landscape. . it’s all on loan” and “I’ll have to pay for myself/ with my self. when viewed as a body. “Nic darowane” (“Nothing’s a Gift”) reminds the reader that: “Nothing’s a gift. “In the old master’s landscape. one effect of Trzeciak’s thematic organization is to emphasize the ways in which certain themes have played through her work. its notes and instruments destroyed. This undercutting of supposed belief initiates the irony of the poem. Though critics have commented on Szymborska’s consistency of quality and method throughout her volumes.” Miracle Fair Miracle Fair is a selection of Szymborska’s work translated by Joanna Trzeciak. . Each theme is introduced with one of Szymborska’s collages. frequently. . of human kind for now. . However. For example.” Initially. even at personal sacrifice— “I believe in the refusal to take part. which she has titled with quotations from the poems. . presenting poems that had never before been published in English. after all./ I believe in the man who will make the discovery. ./ I believe in the fear of the man who will make the discovery./ I believe in the ruined career. .” This collection covers the full range of Szymborska’s poetry. .” The anaphora opening the poem. including a sampling of the poet’s early work. with poems such as “Torture” and “Starvation Camp at Jasuo. “My faith is strong.” The premise of “Discovery” is. blind. the tone seems to mini256 .D. The poem itemizes the manner in which the discovery goes unreported./ Things won’t/ straighten themselves up. with each successive line building on the previous. “The End and the Beginning. . suggests that the poem may be a credo or article of faith. The structure of the lines. seems more characteristic of a nursery rhyme. the unthinkable is thinkable . . “After every war/ someone has to clean up. and without foundation.”—the poem ends with the deflating line.Wisuawa Szymborska Critical Survey of Poetry The poem ends by drifting toward the “unpainted” life that continues beyond the limits of the artistry: “The cat hops on a bench. . providing a spark of visual wit that acts as an analogue to the verbal tonalities of the poems. which is then complicated over the course of the poem’s meditations. student at the University of Chicago who has had great success in placing her translations in many of the highest-profile literary magazines in the United States.” or “. they show the poet expressing one of her supreme values. human empathy. .” all concern the problems of politics and the brutality of war. these poems tend to begin with a compellingly presented supposition. providing a larger web of meaning. even though the poet continues to underscore her assurance that the decision to turn away from the never-explained breakthrough could be made for the betterment of humanity. too much has happened that was not supposed to happen . Perhaps out of a desire to avoid competition with Bara½czak and Cavanagh’s monumental project. with the phrase “I believe” beginning its first three lines. as well as occasional poems and pieces. Trzeciak has not arranged Szymborska’s poems chronologically by book. a Ph. begins with the provocative assertion. however. once again. . such as “. the poems in the section “. presented in its first lines: “I believe in the great discovery. but rather has divided them into six general themes. .” the title poem from the 1993 collection Koniec i poczátek.” Unsurprisingly./ the sun gleams on a pewter jug. Between Fire and Sleep: Essays on Modern Polish Poetry and Prose. ed. Sara. Jonathan. 2002. Bibliography Aaron. Chester Springs.” 257 . 1991. Conn./ still recalls the way it was”)./ sofa springs. no. Poetry for Students. miscellaneous: Poczta literacka. while there are many who recall the circumstances of the destruction (“Someone. Jaroslaw. “Poetry and Ideology: The Example of Wisuawa Szymborska. “Anti-Romanticism: Distance. 2 (1981/1982): 254-264.Eastern European Poets Wisuawa Szymborska mize the human cost of war. “Poets and Painters. continues despite the privations of history. Contains an analysis of Szymborska’s “Some People like Poetry. 2000. 1977 (of Alfred de Musset).” and Edward Rogerson. with the escape offered by the natural world and the imaginative suggestion of the clouds. Anders.: Yale University Press. Cavanagh. An analysis of Szymborska’s poetry written by its American translator. Two important articles on Szymborska appear in the collection: Adam Czerniawski. 1 (1999): 174-190. is whether the end of the war is leading to the beginning of peace and life. New Haven. Constantakis. 2009. Detroit: Thomson/Gale Group. to another war. broom in hand. Poezje. Contains an essay in which Anders examines the poetry of Szym borska.” Literary Imagination 2.” Czerniawski.” The triumph of ordinary life./ and bloody rags. 1973. An insightful overview of the major themes in Szymborska’s poetry based on the 1981 Englishlanguage collections of her poems. “In the grass that has overgrown/ causes and effects. among the laborers. 1964 (of Charles Baudelaire). Nevertheless. Cavanagh emphasizes the dialogical character of Szymborska’s work.: Dufour. others are losing interest. Vol.” However. inexorably. or to the beginning of forgetfulness that will lead. no. Finally. ed. 31. in the temporal reversal of beginning and end. 2010. Nonrequired Reading: Prose Pieces. Adam. Clare. “In the Absence of Witnesses: The Poetry of Wisuawa Szymborska. A collection of essays dealing with twentieth century Polish poets. and the reader may object to the matter-of-fact manner that suggests that the aftermath of a battle is no different from the domestic labors of a weekend cleaning: “Someone has to get mired/ in scum and ashes. translations: Poezje wybrane. one teasing conundrum that remains suggested by the poem’s title./ splintered glass. Pa. The Mature Laurel: Essays on Modern Polish Poetry./ someone must be stretched out/ blade of grass in his mouth/ gazing at the clouds. as well as its affinities with poststructuralist thought.” Parnassus: Poetry in Review 11. Other major works nonfiction: Lektury nadobowiázkowe. Pozna½. Poland: Rebis. Detroit: Thomson/Gale Group. Wisuawa Szymborska. and Robert A.. Milne. Princeton. Anna. Thoughts: Seventy Poems by Wisuawa Szymborska. 2008. Czesuaw. Twentieth-Century Eastern European Writers: Third Series. 2001. Poetry for Students.Wisuawa Szymborska Critical Survey of Poetry Krynski. Maguire. Vol. but also her ability to bring joy to the reader. A compelling introduction by Szymborska’s fellow poet and Nobel Prize winner. In Polish. Contains an analysis of Szymborska’s “Conversation with a Stone. New York: Norton. Magdalena Máczy½ska Updated by Todd Samuelson 258 . Ira Mark. ed. Magnus J. 1996. Vol. Legezynska.” Serafin. This good English-language collection of Szymborska’s poetry contains an excellent introduction discussing the poet and her work. Feelings. Contains a brief essay on Szymborska examining her life and works. 232 in Dictionary of Literary Biography. despite the grimness of her poetry. 2001. Introduction to Miracle Fair.J.: Princeton University Press. ed. Introduction to Sounds. This extremely helpful work contains Szymborska’s biography and a careful analysis of each poetry collection. Steven. 1981. Miuosz. Detroit: Gale Group. N. 27. This appreciation of Szymborska’s work emphasizes the poet’s probing of consciousness. 1955 Le Fruit permis. 1946 Morceaux choisis. 1934 (English translation. 1928 L’Arbre des voyageurs. 1953 À haute flamme. 1950 Parler seul. 1917) Midis gagnés. 1947 Phases. 1933 Primele Poème. 1955 Miennes. 1923 Indicateur des chemins de coeur. 1930 L’Homme approximatif. 1935 La Deuxième Aventure céleste de Monsieur Antipyrine. and Other Writings. 1944 Entre-temps. 1976) Grains et issues. 1946) Frère bois. 1946 Le Signe de vie. 1932 L’Antitête. 1956 (wr. 1955 La Bonne heure. 1957 La Rose et le chien. 1931 (Approximate Man. 1896 Died: Paris. 1955 Le Temps naissant. Romania. 1973) Où boivent les loups. 1958 259 . 1952 La Face intérieure. 1951 La Première main. 1920 De nos oiseaux. December 24. 1946 Terre sur terre. 1938 (wr. 1918 Cinéma calendrier du coeur abstrait. 1950 Le Poids du monde. 1949 De mémoire d’homme. 1949 Sans coup férir.TRISTAN TZARA Sami Rosenstock Born: Moinelti. 1963 Principal poetry La Première Aventure céleste de Monsieur Antipyrine. France. 1939 Une Route seul soleil. April 4. 1916 Vingt-cinq Poèmes. remains unpublished. 260 . and L’Égypte face à face (1954). 1964). 1924. confrontational nature of Dada is notorious. which is substantial in volume. 1947. To escape the machinery of human rationality. Surrealism and the postwar period). 1977) and Le Surréalisme et l’après-guerre (1947. L’Art Océanien (1951. rational expectations of the audience—to which the Dadaists juxtaposed their illogical. in which he asserts the meaninglessness of Dada and its refusal to offer a road to truth. In his 1930 essay. Picasso et la poésie (1953.” Tzara describes one of his own contributions to the first Dada soiree in Paris. while the published portion includes Lampisteries (1963. the Dada aesthetic. Much of Tzara’s critical and occasional writing. 1961 Juste présent. In retrospect. Of all the avant-garde movements that challenged the traditional foundations of artistic value and judgment at the beginning of the present century. Picasso and poetry). 1975 Other literary forms Although the largest part of the work of Tristan Tzara (TSAH-rah) consists of a vast body of poetry—filling more than thirty volumes—he did experiment with drama. it was Tzara himself who chose the word dada. This attitude of deliberate confrontation with the conventional. Achievements Tristan Tzara’s importance as a literary figure of international reputation rests primarily on his relationship to the Dada movement. satirical productions—is defended by Tzara in his most famous polemical work. the flight). “Manifeste Dada 1918” (”Dada Manifesto 1918”). “Memoirs of Dadaism. the most radical and disturbing. and La Fuite (pb. which was first formed and expressed in Zurich about 1916. The harsh. The Gas Heart. the Dadaists substituted a faith in spontaneity. Tzara’s achievements are not limited solely to his leadership in the Dada movement . seems to have been a fairly direct response to World War I. Mouchoir de nuages (pb. Handkerchief of Clouds. by opening a French dictionary to a randomly selected entry. His important polemical writings appeared in two collections: Sept Manifestes Dada (1924. Dada was. Even the name by which the Dadaists called themselves was chosen rather arbitrarily. the art of Oceania). including book-length works on François Rabelais and François Villon. the Dadaists themselves suggest as much in many of their works during this period. 1946. 1977). According to most accounts (although this report is subject to intense difference of opinion among Dadaists). by consensus. publishing three plays during his lifetime: Le Coeur à gaz (pb. 1972). and Tzara was one of the most provocative of all the Dadaists. Seven Dada Manifestos.Tzara. on January 23. in which he read a newspaper while a bell rang. Tristan Critical Survey of Poetry De la coupe aux lèvres. English translation. in February of 1916. 1961 Selected Poems. 1920. incorporating the incongruous and accidental into their works. and Hans Arp—who were in the process of forming an artistic movement soon to be called Dada. In addition to languages. These entertainments included presentations such as “simultaneous poems. and from this time on he used that language exclusively for his literary productions. Following his graduation in 1913. satirical plays that accused and insulted the audience. It was during this adolescent period. The Dadaists’ first public announcement of the birth of a new movement in the arts took place at the Cabaret Voltaire on the evening of February 5. 1896. but later. he attended the University of Bucharest for a year. Henrí Behar. This period. between Tzara’s arrival in Zurich in the fall of 1915 and February of 1916. In the fall of 1915. the ceaseless manifestos promoting the Dada revolt against conformity.” which confronted the audience with a chaotic barrage of words made incomprehensible by the din. His first published poems appeared in 1912 in Simbolul. and Sasa Pan1. These first four poems were signed with the pseudonym S. The subsequent poems in Romanian that Tzara published during this period were often signed simply “Tristan” or “Tzara. that the first Romanian poem signed “Tristan Tzara” appeared. Tzara studied mathematics and music. in 1915. a short-lived Symbolist review that he helped to edit. and his early pre-Dada work in Romanian. his father a prosperous merchant. It is now becoming apparent to many readers and critics that the Surrealist phase of Tzara’s work. in neutral Switzerland. Tzara’s later work—which is more optimistic in tone and more controlled in technique—has been overshadowed by his more violent and sensational work from the Dada period. a small town in the province of B1c1u. recitations of “pure sound-poems.” and it was not until near the end of this period. Tristan Until recently . that all Tzara’s Romanian poems were written. 261 . Marcel Janco. Tzara went to Zurich. in Moinelti. His parents were Jewish. between 1911 and 1915. largely through the work of editors and translators such as Mary Ann Caws. this work became more readily available. was born on April 4. in northeastern Romania. Richard Huelsenbeck. always. are equally important in considering his contribution to modern literature. In the 1970’s and 1980’s. he attended schools where instruction was also given in French. 1916—the occasion of the first of many such Dada soirees. Biography Tristan Tzara.” often made up of African-sounding nonsense syllables and recited by a chorus of masked dancers. whose real name was Sami Rosenstock. Tzara first attended school in Moinelti. was the germinating period of the Dada movement.Eastern European Poets Tzara. when he was sent to Bucharest for his secondary education. Tzara’s work during this period was written almost entirely in French. taking courses in mathematics and philosophy. Samyro. where he became involved with a group of writers and artists—including Hugo Ball. the little-known work of his post-Surrealist phase . where Romanian was spoken. and. The spread of Dada’s fame from Zurich to other centers of avant-garde activity in Europe was aided by the journal Dada. Breton and Tzara organized an increasingly outrageous series of activities that frequently resulted in public spectacles. and the following year. From 1935 to 1937. in 1930. Tzara broke with the Surrealists to devote himself entirely to the work of the Communist Party. arriving in Paris in December of 1919. despite widespread censorship. it did draw the attention of Guillaume Apollinaire in Paris.Tzara. when the performance of his play The Gas Heart was disrupted by a Surrealist counter demonstration.” In 1935. . salvaging art treasures and serving on the Committee for the Defense of Culture. Tristan Critical Survey of Poetry As the activities of the Zurich Dadaists gradually attracted notice in other countries. however. At Breton’s urging. which he officially joined at this time. Tzara left Zurich shortly after the Armistice was declared. all the time continuing to publish his work. edited by Tzara and featuring many of his most provocative works. when Breton broke his association with Tzara to assume the leadership of the developing Surrealist movement. over dead objects and ill-gotten gains. Tzara gave up the Dada ideal reluctantly and continued to oppose the Surrealists until 1929. Although this journal lasted only through five issues. collaborating with those who remained loyal to the Dada revolt. Tristan. The same year that he joined the Surrealists. as he wrote later in Le Surréalisme et l’aprèsguerre: “Dada was born . a victim of its own destructive impulses. he was involved in assisting the Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War. . even Tzara regretfully admitted that Dada was effectively dead. when the first public Dada performance in Paris was held. For a short period between January of 1920. and May of 1921. . for. the Surrealists indicated their dedication to the Communist International by changing the name of their own journal. La Révolution surréaliste. especially Germany and France. In 1955. under the pseudonym T. Tzara published À haute flamme (at full flame). Tzara visited the Soviet Union. In 1946 and 1947. from the deep feeling that man . to Le Surréalisme au service de la révolution. Tzara’s own fame as an artist spread to an increasingly larger audience. when he joined the Paris Surrealist group. a long poetic reminiscence in which he reviewed the stages of his lifelong revolt and reaffirmed his revolutionary aesthetic. he delivered the lectures that make up Le Surréalisme et l’après-guerre. this political commitment seemed to be a natural outgrowth of his initial revolt. Tzara contin262 . . Tzara’s resumption of activities with Breton’s group was also accompanied by an increasing move toward political engagement. and through him the devoted admiration of André Breton. who was later to be one of the leaders of the Surrealist movement. For Tzara. Following Breton’s break with the Dada group. By July of 1923. This political engagement continued during World War II. accepting Breton’s leadership. Tzara continued to stage public performances in Paris for a time. must affirm his supremacy over notions emptied of all human substance. with Tzara serving in the French Resistance. in which he made his controversial assessment of Surrealism’s failure to influence Europe effectively between the wars. presenting images of domestic tranquillity. The first of these features includes the use of pure sound elements. extremely diverse in style. mixing a detached ironic perspective—which is sometimes gently sarcastic and at other times bitterly resentful—with an uncritically sentimental nostalgia for the past. Tzara’s earliest period extends from 1911 to 1915 and includes all the poetry he wrote in his native Romanian. The scene seems idyllic enough at first. introducing images that contrast darkly with and shatter the apparently false impression he himself has just created. three new and disturbing elements appear: the 263 . a victim of lung cancer. Several Romanian critics have noted the decisive but unacknowledged influence on Tzara of the Romanian poet Urmuz (1883-1923). and multiple viewpoints resulting in a confusing confluence of speaking voices. In some of the poems. is relatively traditional in technique. although it must be remembered that this period represents his poetic apprenticeship and that the poems were written when he was between the ages of fifteen and nineteen.” Primele Poème The most successful poems of this period—later collected as Primele Poème—are those which mix nostalgia with irony. Then the reflecting consciousness of the alienated speaker intrudes.” or the romantic lyricism of such highly sentimental idylls on nature as “Elegy for the Coming of Winter” and “Evening Comes. and tone. or Romanian expatriate—his great skill as a poet is abundantly apparent. Analysis Whatever else Tristan Tzara was—Dada instigator and polemicist. marginal Surrealist. however. and recurring image clusters. virtually unknown in the West. who anticipated the strategies of Dada and Surrealism. Tzara left behind a vast body of poems. The poetry of this period often displays a curiously ambivalent tone. little attention has been given to Tzara’s Romanian poetry. one of these two moods dominates. expressive typography. Much of Tzara’s early work. content. At his death. Important features of his work are his innovations in poetic technique and his development of a highly unified system of symbolic imagery. Communist activist. Into the scene of comfortable regularity. Tristan ued to affirm the authenticity of his position until his death in Paris at the age of sixtyseven.Eastern European Poets Tzara. encompassing both attitudes within a single poem. Until recently. The best example of this type of poem is “Sunday. as in Tzara’s bitterly ironic treatment of war’s destructive effect on the innocence of youth in “The Storm and the Deserter’s Song” and “Song of War. enjambment that creates complex syntactic ambiguities. The second important feature includes such elements as Tzara’s use of recurring verbal motifs and refrains. descriptive ideophones.” whose conventional images of leisurely activities that occupy the inhabitants of a town on the Sabbath are contrasted with the bitter reflections of the alienated poet-speaker who observes the scene. ironic juxtapositions. Tzara. still resembles in technique and content the early Romanian poems. and the futility of art stagnated by Decadence. Vingt-cinq Poèmes This mixture of sentimental lyricism with ironic detachment is developed to an even greater degree in Tzara’s first collection of poems in French. separable images piled one upon the other. there are a number of new elements.sounding nonsense words. although published after he had already arrived in Zurich. the complex syntactic ambiguity created by enjambment. Tzara begins with a series of propositions that not only establish the resigned mood of the speaker but also express the feeling of disor264 . To the collage technique developed in Vingt-cinq Poèmes. repeated phrases. a collection that. the helplessness of parents to protect their children from danger. De nos oiseaux In Tzara’s second period—extending from 1916 until 1924—he produced the Dadaist works which brought him international fame. two of the best poems from De nos oiseaux. the poems that make up De nos oiseaux (of our birds)—the major collection from this period—introduce several innovations. and it evokes in the reader a futile desire to resolve the collage (based on the random conjunction of several separate discourses) into a meaningful and purposeful poetic statement. and the appearance of images employing illogical juxtapositions of objects and qualities: a blue light which flattens us together on the ceiling it’s as always comrade like a label of infernal doors pasted on a medicine bottle it’s the calm house tremble my friend This disorienting confluence of voices is deliberate. for instead of simply using the juxtaposition of speaking voices for creating ironic detachment. and catalogs of discrete. including pure sound elements such as African. These features are readily apparent in “La Mort de Guillaume Apollinaire” (“The Death of Guillaume Apollinaire”) and “Les Saltimbanques” (“The Circus Performers”). in the Dada poems the narrative itself breaks down entirely into a chaotic barrage of discontinuous fragments that often seem to lack any discursive sense. Tzara’s collage technique has become more radical in these poems. descriptive ideophones. Vingt-cinq Poèmes (twenty-five poems). the rich confluence of narrative voices. Tristan Critical Survey of Poetry inescapable presence of death in wartime. In “Petite Ville en Sibérie” (“Little Town in Siberia”). the most important of which are Tzara’s use of typography for expressive purposes. “The Death of Guillaume Apollinaire” In his Dadaist elegy for Apollinaire. use of multiple typefaces. and birds coming to earth at first appear unrelated to one another. and the uses to which he put it in this elegy for Apollinaire were later expanded and developed in the epic scope of his masterpiece. nondiscursive terms. trees hanging upside down.” “balloons. This method of presenting arguments in nondiscursive. First.” In this image. Tzara’s images suggest that if one’s perspective could only be reversed. Tzara uses an image that links “brains. the sun rising at night. is caused by a failure to understand that humans. Tzara is describing processes within the totality of nature which give evidence that “nature is organized in its totality. . In the opening vignette of the poem. if birds came down to us to find reflections of themselves in those peaceful lakes lying just above our heads THEN WE MIGHT UNDERSTAND that death could be a beautiful long voyage and a permanent vacation from flesh from structures systems and skeletons The images of this poem constitute a particularly good illustration of Tzara’s developing symbolic system. . of joy and suffering.” and “words. too. are a part of this totality. Second.” Humanity’s sorrow over the inescapable cycles of life and death. in what seems at first an illogical sequence of statements. “The Circus Performers” “The Circus Performers” illustrates Tzara’s increasing use of pure sound elements in his work. and Other Writings. they are actually related in two ways. Tzara merges the expanding and contracting rhythm of the verses with his characteristic use of imagery to convey thought in analogical. The images of this poem attempt to capture the exciting rhythms of the circus performance that Tzara is describing.” 265 . Approximate Man. imagistic terms was one of Tzara’s primary poetic accomplishments. “brains” seems to be a metonymic substitution for ideas or thoughts—that which is expressed by “words. Describing a ventriloquist’s act. Although the images of snow falling upward.Eastern European Poets Tzara. Tristan der created in the reader by the poem itself. A simple admission of man’s inability to comprehend his situation in the world is followed by a series of images that seem designed to convey the disparity the speaker senses between a world which is unresponsive to human needs (the unfortunate death of Apollinaire at such an early age is no doubt one aspect of this) and a world in which he could feel comfortable (and presumably learn to accept the death of his beloved friend): if snow fell upward if the sun rose in our houses in the middle of the night just to keep us warm and the trees hung upsidedown with their crowns . one would see the reality of things properly. as Tzara himself declared his commitment to the work of the Communist Party in 1935. Approximate Man. not a personal crisis. A second example of Tzara’s use of sound in this poem is the presence of “ideophones”— words that imitate the sounds of the actions they describe. Pure sound images devoid of abstract meaning are scattered throughout the poem. enclosed in parentheses.” and such vanity contributes to the spiritual sickness of humankind.” Uncertain. In Tzara’s view. is Tzara’s greatest poem. its composition and extensive revisions occupying the poet between 1925 and 1931. changeable. and Other Writings is about the intrusion of disorder into modern life. This is one of the key ideas that is constantly repeated in the form of a refrain: “approximate man like me like you reader and like the others/ heap of noisy flesh and echoes of conscience/ complete in the only element of choice your name. Approximate Man wanders aimlessly. and Other Writings was Tzara’s attempt to discover the causes of modern humanity’s spiritual malaise. and it focuses on the effects of this disorder on the individual. Tzara has included an explanatory aside. Tzara finds a third cause of humanity’s spiritual sickness in humans’ increasing reli266 . however. The most important feature of the poem. this modern belief in humanity’s preeminent importance in the universe is a mistaken one. since this indicates in a striking way his newly found attitude of commitment. For Tzara. Tzara makes it clear that what he is describing is a general disorder or sickness. the utopian vision of Surrealism.” The most important aspect of the poem’s theme is Tzara’s diagnosis of the causes of this debilitating universal sickness. or lacking commitment to any cause that might improve the world in which he lives. the year that the final version appeared. Humanity’s sickness arises not only from inauthentic relationships with others but also from an exploitative attitude toward nature—an attitude encouraged by the development of modern technology. and Other Writings. Tristan Critical Survey of Poetry Here the brains themselves are inflating and deflating. as are the balloons. Approximate Man. the lost key for curing the sickness is commitment.Tzara. What is the unstated analogical relation between the two? These words are treated like the words and thoughts of comic-strip characters—where words are enclosed in the “balloons” that represent mental space in newspaper cartoons. Approximate Man. drawing on all the technical resources he had developed up to the time of its composition. and Other Writings By all standards of judgment. in a guarded form. for Approximate Man. is its systematic presentation of Tzara’s revolutionary ideology. shortly after the completion of this poem. which had begun to reflect. a long epic in nineteen sections. as is evident in “The Death of Guillaume Apollinaire. It was Tzara’s most sustained effort. Throughout the poem. The first cause of humanity’s sickness is the very condition of being “approximate. Another important characteristic of the work is its epic scope. To help the reader more easily identify the analogy. Includes many illustrations. humans must learn to rely on instinct and imagination. Leeds. Mass. have become debased. and Other Writings. Marcus. Bibliography Browning. Le Coeur à gaz. and to attain a more accurate picture of the world.: MIT Press. This book is an excellent selection of English translations of Tzara’s poetry. 1947. L’Art Océanien. 2001. and Other Writings. The Gas Heart. 1953. Cambridge. ed. especially reason and language. 1979. and that human language is like a silken cocoon that insulates people from the external world of reality. 1954. 1989. Stephen. Picasso et la poésie. 1973. Tristan Tzara: The Genesis of the Dada Poem: Or. Caws. Lipstick Traces: A Secret History of the Twentieth Century. 1977). as in the following passages: “vapor on the cold glass you block your own image from your/ sight/ tall and insignificant among the glazed frost jewels/ of the landscape” and “I think of the warmth spun by the word/ around its center the dream called ourselves. La Fuite. Lampisteries. Contains translations of several prose pieces by Tzara as well as works by many of his contemporaries. pb. Tristan ance on the products of their own alienated consciousness. pb. L’Égypte face à face. 1924 (Handkerchief of Clouds. form the basis of Tzara’s mature poetic vision and constitute the most sustained expression of his critique of the modern sensibility. 1917-1918. Seven Dada Manifestos. Introduction to Approximate Man. 20th 267 . Mary Ann. 1963 (English translation. 1964). Tzara’s efforts to describe this solipsistic entrapment of humans by their own systems gives rise to many striking images. pb. 1924 (wr. 2006. Translated by Mary Ann Caws. A critical study of Tzara’s Dada poems. originally created to assist humans. nonfiction: Sept Manifestes Dada. 1947. 1975-1991 (6 volumes). 1921. Germany: Akademischer Verlag Heinz.” These images argue that human reason is like a mirror in which the reflection is clouded by the observer’s physical presence. and the introduction provides a helpful guide to each phase of his work. Traces Tzara’s development and changing poetry from his early works to publications in the 1950’s. which find their fullest expression in Approximate Man. Surrealist Painters and Poets: An Anthology. by Tristan Tzara. In Approximate Man. Forcer. Both reason and language. Le Surréalisme et l’après-guerre. Greil. Includes bibliographical references. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1951. and Other Writings. 1977).Eastern European Poets Tzara. From Dada to Aa. Gordon Frederick. Stuttgart. Modernist Song: The Poetry of Tristan Tzara. Other major works plays: Mouchoir de nuages. 1972). England: Legenda. ________. These three ideas. miscellaneous: Œuvres complètes. providing an overview of the context in which he operated. 1946 (wr. Robert. Cambridge. Cambridge. but this book deserves mention because of its broad historical scope and excellent analysis of the relationship between popular culture and the avant-garde. reviews. eds. Mass. Flam. from Dada to punk rock. Tzara is only one of many figures discussed here. Colburn 268 . Richter records Dada’s history. Looks at Dadaism in Romania. Richter. Tom. and manifestos that hold valuable biographical and historical details of the life and work of Tzara. Dada East: The Romanians of Cabaret Voltaire. from its beginnings in wartime Zurich to its collapse in the Paris of the 1920’s. The Dada Painters and Poets: An Anthology.Tzara. Sandqvist.: MIT Press. A study of Tzara’s aesthetics. A highly original and accessible study of nihilistic movements in art. A collection of Dada documents including journals. Mass. Through selections from key manifestos and other documents of the time. 2006. N. 1971. and literature.: Rutgers University Press. Motherwell.J. where Tzara was born.: Harvard University Press.: Belknap Press. Cambridge. Tristan Critical Survey of Poetry anniversary ed. and Jack D. Mass. Steven E. 1989. New York: Thames & Hudson. 2009. New Brunswick. Dada: Art and Anti-Art. music. 1997. 2d ed. Tristan Tzara: Dada and Surrational Theorist. Includes bibliographical references. Hans. Peterson. Elmer. In order to nurture the fledgling Hungarian National Theater. including the twentyone-year-old Sándor Pet¹fi. December 1. He also authored and compiled a number of dictionaries. Achievements Born into what is considered one of the most exciting and eventful periods in the political and cultural development of Hungary. November 19. his Csongor és Tünde (pr. 1599-1600) in 1848 are unsurpassed to this day. 1855 Principal poetry Zalán futása. On the other hand. 1800 Died: Pest. His extensive correspondence provides invaluable documentation of the period’s political and cultural life. 1825 Minden munkái. which constitutes six of the eighteen volumes of the critical edition of his works published in 1979. c. thus greatly enriching the literature of Hungary. he introduced and encouraged the talents of young artists. 1595-1596). 1605-1606) in 1856 and Julius Caesar (pr. a fairy play having strong philosophical overtones and bearing the influence of William Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream (pr. 1884-1885 (8 volumes) Összes m±vei. His Romantic historical dramas are seldom performed today. Mihály Vörösmarty made a significant contribution to nearly every aspect of his nation’s intellectual life. and he never lost his admiration 269 . Vörösmarty was influential in defining the aesthetic issues of his times and in encouraging the emerging trends of Romanticism and populism. grammars. c. but they still present enjoyable reading for students of the period. 1864 (12 volumes) Összes munkái. is regularly staged and has been translated into several languages. Hungary. and handbooks for the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Mihály Vörösmarty (VUH-ruhsh-mor-tee) was also an important dramatist during the formative years of the Hungarian theater. Csongor and Tünde). As an editor or associate of several of the period’s most important journals. Hungary. Vörösmarty began his literary career fully committed to classical ideals. 1960-1979 (18 volumes) Other literary forms Although best known for his lyric and epic poetry. c.MIHÁLY VÖRÖSMARTY Born: Kápolnásnyék. Vörösmarty ably translated the classics: His Hungarian renderings of Shakespeare’s King Lear (pr. Through his theoretical and critical writings. 1830. Vörösmarty. he continued his studies toward a law degree. In 1823. Mihály Vörösmarty could obtain a higher education only with the help of wealthy patrons. and he served their cause with his literary as well as his political activities. Calls for national revival were sounding all over the Continent. Faced with squalor and the indifference of the reading public. and pessimism on his character. he was able to progress beyond the limitations of his nationalistic contemporaries at a surprisingly young age. and by the 1830’s. He had been writing poetry and drama since he was fifteen. The memory of unhappy love and the realization of limitations placed on him by a rigidly structured society continued to haunt him. he also made contact with the restless noblemen of the countryside who were conducting a determined campaign of resistance in the face of the absolutist Viennese government. wariness. but he soon fell under the influence of the prevailing literary trend. In his best philosophical poems (few of which have been translated into English). These years of servitude and the hopeless love he felt for his employer’s daughter left marks of sensitivity. However. His goal to “become an independent man and a writer” was instrumental in his decision to settle in Buda. During this time. and in 1826. Vörösmarty’s mature poetry is remarkably free of the feelings of inferiority and ethnocentricity that had often characterized the works of earlier Hungarian poets. he speaks with total conviction and determination about the future of humankind. Under their influence. At the same time. Mihály Critical Survey of Poetry for the craftsmanship of the Greek and Latin poets. and losing his father when he was seventeen. Vörösmarty obtained a position as a law clerk while maintaining his post with the Perczel family. he remained bewildered and somewhat repulsed by the idea of mass movements. he was on the verge of giving up his literary activities and setting up a law practice when he was offered the editorship of the Tudományos Gyüjtemény. and in Hungary such calls were perhaps louder and more impatient than elsewhere. making him conscious of the importance of patriotic literature. he was able to view the fate of Hungary in a more inclusive context. Vörösmarty wrote the first of his anti-Habsburg poems and a number of expressive. he left the Perczel household. This background made him a reluctant and pessimistic advocate of radical democratic transformation and somewhat colored the sincerity of his social proclamations. Romanticism. Two specific characteristics of his oeuvre distinguish him from his contemporaries: As a descendant of the nobility. Vörösmarty became one of the most enthusiastic and effective of the reformers. and the lively company of his peers contributed to the further development of his talent. he had to accept the post of private tutor with the aristocratic Perczel family. Biography As the oldest of nine children in a noble but impoverished Roman Catholic family in western Hungary. which was emerging as the cultural center of Hungary. complex historical dramas. one of 270 . After attending the gymnasium at Székesfehérvár and Pest. In 1836. The livelier political atmosphere and the liberalizing tendencies of the decade encouraged and motivated him. the first professional writer-poet of Hungary. Lajos Kossuth. he won several literary prizes. and in 1830. but his prestige and influence enabled him to help the younger generation of poets and writers to gain recognition. he produced more than 150 incisive epigrams which demonstrated his commitment to a course of sensible reforms and revealed his acute sensitivity to the public and aesthetic issues of the times. to the consternation of his friends. who had played a significant role in making the twin communities of Buda and Pest. While this provided him with a steady income. and Vörösmarty. Vörösmarty and a small circle of intellectuals founded the Kisfaludy Társaság.Eastern European Poets Vörösmarty. were among his friends. orthographic. The 1830’s witnessed the full development of political lyricism in Vörösmarty’s work. His participation in aesthetic debates was reduced somewhat. He contributed significantly to the linguistic. there was an urgent need for original Hungarian dramas. while the impending specter of a revolution occasionally filled him with doubt and foreboding. the first genuine literary monthly. from 1828 to 1832. and the cultural life of Hungary was also invigorated by the publication of Aurora. edited by József Bajza. In 1842. he became an elected (and paid) member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Theirs was a successful and happy marriage. the leaders of the Hungarian independence struggle. the Koszorú. Mihály the most prestigious journals in Hungary. During the early years of the 1830’s. the cultural center of the country. the foremost Hungarian lyric poet. After the revolution of March 15. and he was elected president of the National Circle. and Miklós Wesselényi. He edited this publication and its supplement. and remained active in public life. named after the recently deceased Károly Kisfaludy. When the first permanent Hungarian theatrical company became active in Buda in 1833. he married the eighteen-year-old Laura Csajághy. Vörösmarty enthusiastically supported this company and contributed five successful plays in as many years. Ferenc Toldy. The 1840’s were the most eventful years in Vörösmarty’s life. Ferenc Deák. His activities as a dramatist and critic were instrumental in the development of the Hungarian theater. Vörösmarty took an active part in political 271 . His works were regularly published. and they had four children. which became the arbiters of Hungarian cultural and literary affairs. largely through the journals Athenaeum and Figyelmez¹. Among other writings. was instrumental in the democratization of its bylaws. for example. His cautious stand on political reforms notwithstanding. the drudgery of the work and disheartening political developments occurring at the time made his voice somber and pessimistic. and lexicographic publications of the academy. he attracted the suspicion of the Habsburg police. the Reform movement gained new momentum. The poet’s financial situation had improved. he was first to publish the works of the young Pet¹fi. one of the centers of political activity. 1848. and because Vörösmarty’s education at the gymnasium was also heavily classical. he reported to the imperial authorities. wholeheartedly supporting the policies of Kossuth. Analysis Mihály Vörösmarty experimented with versification as a teenager. Zalán futása The work that stands out among his early creations and that made him a nationally known poet was Zalán futása (the flight of Zalán). were able to collect a sizable amount to provide for the widow and children of the poet. after several months in hiding. it is not surprising that he produced a great number of odes. where he died two days after his arrival. Vörösmarty successfully combined the treatment of a major Hungarian literary motif with the use of polished classical hexameters. which obliged him to produce a number of historical epics. Vörösmarty’s funeral turned into the first mass demonstration against Austrian rule since 1849. He obtained a seat in the Chamber of Deputies. and he was amazed and overjoyed when he discovered that the Hungarian language was readily adaptable to the requirements of metrical poetry. fulfilled or unrequited—recounting how the chieftain Árpád and his Hungarians (Magyars) achieved victory in 272 . cleared him in 1850. he was often forced to accept the charity of his supporters. In these. a heroic epic in ten cantos. he produced only a few bitter. He also revived the genre of the heroic epic in Hungarian literature. which relate episodes of love. Mihály Critical Survey of Poetry activities. and later. epigrams. Hungary’s defeat in the War of Independence crushed Vörösmarty. paralleling the activities of Miklós Zrínyi (1620-1664). Disappointed and disillusioned. completed in 1825. and other verse forms patterned after the poets of antiquity.Vörösmarty. In 1855. The Habsburg authorities took every measure to quell any popular outpouring of sympathy. he demonstrated a naïve view of Hungarian nobility and its relationship to the king. Since he was only marginally successful as a landowner. through private correspondence. during the months of armed struggle. was appointed judge by the independent Hungarian government. Vörösmarty’s work is a patriotic epic. his deteriorating health forced him to move to Pest. The other important influence in his early youth was an all-pervasive patriotism. Vörösmarty concentrated on providing a livelihood for his family. in spite of this. attributing any conflicts between the two to personal rivalries and the divisive intrigue of (usually foreign) courtiers. Finding himself unable to resume fully his literary activities. His friends. Because the early decades of the nineteenth century were considered the golden age of literary classicism in Hungary. after an investigation. who. while putting into practice his conviction that the depiction of epochal events from the nation’s history was an excellent way to reawaken a national consciousness in nineteenth century Hungarians. notwithstanding its many interpolated lyrics. tragically prophetic laments and elegies and turned more and more to alcohol for consolation. Medieval chronicles discovered in the eighteenth century provided much of Vörösmarty’s source material. the power of the supernatural. Even in his early works. gently chiding rather than criticizing the weak descendants of mighty forefathers. Zalán futása derived its significance from an insistent tone that ran throughout its descriptions of battle scenes. he strictly conforms to classical requirements. but in a personal. to write “folk songs. the poets made it one of their goals to be able to write in the manner of folk songs or. and military preparations. is expressed not in strident. however. he could not resist Romanticism. The epic is not. and to seek an ultimate rationale behind humankind’s existence and the course of human history. The classical influence always remained discernible in Vörösmarty’s works: He continued to reject the effusive rhetoric of fashionable poetry. Vörösmarty’s deeply felt convictions are given full expression through the magic of language (a reformed and rejuvenated Hungarian) and style (a seductively personal blend of classical forms and pre-Romantic turns). ethnocentric proclamations. The wave of literary populism. made rapid gains in Hungary. Vörösmarty was essentially a lyric rather than an epic poet. these are elements of his natural pre-Romantic disposition.” Vörösmarty’s works in this genre resembled the genuine article more closely than did those of his contemporaries. and the depiction of earthy love affairs. and the incomprehensible and erratic nature of human events—traits that made Romanticism especially attractive to Hungarians. For nineteenth century Hungarians. especially folk literature. the role of Titans and fairies. and the presentation of his central characters. indeed. Indeed. in the frequency of intimate episodes. war councils. From the first decades of the nineteenth century. Vörösmarty urged his generation of “indolent. although outdated. especially since it emphasized the role of the individual. a call to arms. he reveals even more of his Romanticism. soft. The clearest thinkers among them also realized that the cultural regeneration of the country could not be accomplished without the adoption and utilization of folk traditions. he also drew on the Ossianic ballads and nationalistic literature of the time. while in form. structure. Even in this. elegiac voice. He was intimately familiar with life in rural Hungary and was able to use the expressions 273 . his best-known epic creation. and lethargic” Hungarians to emulate Árpád and his heroic warriors. so eloquently promoted by Johann G. to defend pure sentiment from the inroads of mere sentimentality. but rather a summons to patriotism. At the same time. Herder and the Grimm brothers in Germany. the liberal intelligentsia of Hungary began to turn toward the commoners in their search for allies against Habsburg oppression. however. Mihály 896 over the Slavic settlers of the Danubian basin. what makes it enjoyable reading today is that its message. In Zalán futása.Eastern European Poets Vörösmarty. Use of folk traditions Around the end of the 1820’s. Vörösmarty had exhibited an exalted manner of expression and an unusual breadth of vision. a fairy play in five acts. It is presented in harmonic unity and speaks in a popular. The story has a moral: Greed. deliberate progress under the leadership of his class. This may be because it presents a romantic panorama of the world. Eyes”). szem” (“Hair. evil. száj. conspiracy. but his belief in rational. Beyond this. he carried the memory of a youthful love doomed to failure by the values of a society based on titles and wealth. fairies. In adapting the direct and unaffected voice of the Hungarian people to formal literature. and even the sons of the Devil fighting over their inheritance. Nevertheless. whose realism provides a sober counterpoint to the idealism of Csongor. jealousy. The two heroes have their earthly counterparts in their escorts. the liberal nobility. a flirty outpouring of infatuation that imaginatively mirrors the sentiments expressed in one of the popular songs of the time. Mihály Critical Survey of Poetry of the villagers with ease. the three wanderers whom he meets represent the worst of negative human traits. overcome a number of earthly and mythical temptations and obstacles in order to be reunited. which had survived as cheap popular entertainment. The setting of his sojourn is the entire earth. dark thoughts and doubts continued to surface in his poems. Vörösmarty based Csongor és Tünde on a sixteenth century epic. Lips. conquest. completed in 1830. trees with golden apples. expressive language. His folk songs include didactic lyrics placed in the mouths of his populist heroes. It tells the story of two lovers who. the Story of Prince Argirus. and the drunkenness of lust. while the monologue of Night reveals the course of human history. Much of his pessimism and sense of inferiority resulted from this early failure. Csongor seeks not only his own happiness but the fulfillment of humankind as well. the realms of Dawn and Night.Vörösmarty. as well as lyrical passages that express his own feelings. Csongor és Tünde Csongor és Tünde. on the contrary. An excellent example of the latter is “Haj. they can be destructive. the play is a dramatic tale with philosophical and allegorical overtones. Although he later successfully courted and married a woman twenty-four years his junior. Somber outlook Crises and disillusionments were not infrequent in Vörösmarty’s life. however. while the words of wisdom are spoken in iambic pentameters and hexameters. Vörösmarty was the direct forerunner of the most brilliant Hungarian populist poet. after becoming separated. For more than ten years. Vörösmarty was 274 . profited greatly from Vörösmarty’s use of populist elements. The poet never became a revolutionary. Pet¹fi. was severely shaken. with everyday figures. The formal elements of classicism are present: The humorous passages are set in rhymed or unrhymed trochaic tetrameters. Vörösmarty made judicious use of folkloric elements by introducing witches. At the same time. and the desire for abstract knowledge do not necessarily bring happiness. the play has remained enjoyable and worthy of the stage. In more than a hundred epigrams. the historical consciousness of a small but unbroken nation is proclaimed before the world. he continues to broaden his concept of progress. “Az emberek” (“Mankind”) posits malevolent intellect and the misguided anger of the masses as the two greatest obstacles to the fulfillment of humanity’s dreams. adding new depth to the social content of Vörösmarty’s poems. It appeared at a time when the outcome of the sharpening struggle between Vienna and the Hungarian reformers was undecided and when the Habsburg counteroffensive against the Hungarian independence movement was discouraging many of the more cautious liberals. such as when the assembly of Hungarian noblemen had disbanded without solving the problems entrusted to their care or when the cause of Polish independence was dealt a serious blow by the Austrian-inspired Galician peasant rebellion. he placed the fate of his country in the context of world history. according to Vörösmarty. the world is not deserving of the great heritage of Johann Gutenberg. inventor of the printing press. With an enlarged and refined historical consciousness. “The Summons” In 1836. After 1835. striking the tones of a proud 275 . In “Liszt Ferenchez” (“To Ferenc Liszt “). the voice of Vörösmarty’s lyricism steadily grew stronger. and he wrote dark poems about the hopelessness of the human condition. Vörösmarty seldom participated in these destructive recriminations . Vörösmarty wrote what could be considered an affirmation of faith in the future of Hungary. he turned to the women of Hungary. though at the expense of his epic output. In the 1840’s. and encouraged them to become active participants in the nation’s cultural life. He glowed with energy and optimism when the dynamism of the political scene and the liberalization of public discussions seemed to justify his faith in progress. a hitherto largely ignored segment of the population. he demonstrated that there was no aspect of national life that escaped his attention. the course of political events accelerated. Vörösmarty wrote his best-known political poem. Mihály also sensitive to the events of public life. but his poems reveal the acute struggle raging within him. This is not a call to the weak. shiftless descendants of long-dead heroes. but his scope was no longer narrowly nationalistic. in which the possibility of compromise is not mentioned. his outlook became somber. in the meticulously rhymed lines of this Romantic ode. which became the second national anthem of Hungary. The best and most promising characters of Hungary’s history are invoked and made part of the new Hungarian course of action. which are reflected in the violently alternating emotions of his poems. “Gutenberg Albumba” (“For the Gutenberg Album”) greets the decade on an accusatory note. At other times. Sociopolitical content Throughout the 1830’s. “Szózat” (“The Summons”).Eastern European Poets Vörösmarty. Inexperienced Hungarian leaders were thwarted by indecisiveness and internal squabbles. pointing to a “horrible lesson”: While millions are born into misery.Vörösmarty. some of whom were imprisoned. there was a desperate armed struggle between the imperial forces and the small army of independent Hungary. completed about a year before the poet’s death. and some of whom chose exile) and by the shattering of his hopes and beliefs. but the poet was fatally wounded. only a few thousand enjoy the good life.” The obsessive power of this erstwhile lyric voice. immoderate action. the poet began to have forebodings of tragedy and advised against rash.” Vörösmarty was forced into hiding to avoid the vengeance of the imperial military authorities. Vörösmarty encountered serious problems supporting his family. Because he had actively supported the cause of “rebels. and even the reading public lost its disposition to support Hungarian literature. the poet advocates the universal solidarity of humankind and continuous striving for a better future. indifferent world. and the worst forebodings of Vörösmarty were realized. there was hardly a trace left of Hungarian cultural life: Publications ceased. however. the Hungarians were defeated. reached new heights in “A vén cigány” (“The Old Gypsy”). The man was free. he thought it advisable to turn himself in to the authorities. The counsel of confident Hungarian radicals. Poet of national tragedy The bloodless and relatively nonviolent revolution of 1848 filled Vörösmarty with hope for the future. By 1850. who dismissed his case after a brief investigation. with the help of sizable Russian forces. In the sterile atmosphere of absolutist control.” reduced to expressions of hopelessness and grief over the fate of a nation that was being destroyed in full view of an “uncaring. The poet looks toward the future of human276 . It may also be considered the greatest document of the struggle with conscience experienced by nearly all nineteenth century Hungarian liberals. Mihály Critical Survey of Poetry citizen of the world. with special stress on the full political and social equality of the common people. “Gondolatok a könyvtárban” (“Thoughts in the Library”) recapitulates Vörösmarty’s ideas and states his political creed. His 1843 poem “Honszeretet” (“Patriotism”) proposes the elimination of noble privileges and the cultivation of a strong bourgeoisie. and his literary activities suffered. however. the institution of an accountable national government. it became one of Vörösmarty’s most-recited poems. It was befitting that Vörösmarty chose the figure of an aged musician-entertainer to symbolize the fate of the Hungarian poet of the times. The poem starts with a passionate accusation aimed at humanity. prevailed. and the abolition of serfdom with joyous and inspiring poems. Vörösmarty became “the poet of national tragedy. not only by the military defeat and the subsequent humiliation of his nation. By the autumn of 1849. he greeted the freedom of the press. Vörösmarty asks: “Where is the happiness of the majority?” In answer. but also by the loss of his friends (some of whom died on the battlefield. As the reactionary circles of Austria planned to take stern measures against the Hungarian reformers. institutions were disbanded. pb. 2000. 1 (Winter. “The First Hungarian Translation of Shakespeare’s Complete Works. Jones looks extensively at five prominent writers. Other major works plays: Csongor és Tünde. 1965): 105-115. ed. Arpád ébredése. ed. Rev. Murray. Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era. ed. Lear király. Eniko Molnár. ed. Provides context for understanding Vörösmarty. pr. began translating William Shakespeare’s plays into the Hungarian language. In Quest of the “Miracle Stag”: The Poetry of Hungary. 1993. Adam. Five Hungarian Writers. ed. Bibliography Basa. Julius Caesar. pr.Eastern European Poets Vörösmarty. Vérnász. Makkai. such as the thirteen plays somewhat unsuccessfully translated by an eighteen-year-old woman. 1856 (translation of Shakespeare’s play). Vol. 1986. The Oxford History of Hungarian Literature from the Earliest Times to the Present. András Boros-Kazai 277 . Thomas R. 1838. Marót Ban. 2. Oxford. A fátyol titkai. David Mervyn. ed. New York: Oxford University Press. John Christopher. pr. Lóránt. New York: Griffon House. 1848 (translation of William Shakespeare’s play). no. Rev. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn. in his swan song. including Vörösmarty. Mihály kind even while examining its present predicament and arrives at a mood of faint hopefulness only after having traversed the whirlpools of despair. Czigány. pr. Chicago: Atlantis-Centaur. pb. pr. Mark discusses a variety of results. Overview of Hungarian literature sheds light on Vörösmarty and Hungarian poetry. 1837. and their works’ significance both within and outside Hungarian literature.” Shakespeare Quarterly 16. and Vörösmarty’s eloquent translation of Julius Caesar and King Lear. England: Clarendon Press. In the process. 1760-1850. Hungarian writers. 1830. Includes bibliographic references. A kincskeresök. To fill what they saw as a void in Hungarian literature. This anthology of Hungarian poetry contains a short biography of Vörösmarty and a number of his selected poems in translation. Jones. Mark. 1833. 1966. the language and the association of the images have become almost demented. 2004. Hungarian Literature. 1834. pr. 1833. Hope is not dead. and the poet expresses with near-biblical intensity his exaltation and pain. Contains a short analysis of Zalán futása. A historical and critical analysis of Hungarian literature. including Vörösmarty. the fatally broken poet calls for a “cleansing storm” to bring a better world and a genuine occasion for universal rejoicing. ADAM WA?YK Born: Warsaw. The broad scope of his interests in this field (at various times. he translated such disparate poets as Alexander Pushkin. which cover a wide range of problems from Polish versification through the history of Romanticism to French Surrealism. 1934 Serce granatu. 1963 Wybór poezji. seem to have one common denominator: They are various versions of Wa/yk’s continuous quest for his own poetic roots. his poetic program. 1957 Piosenka na rok 1949. Among his novels. 1967 Zdarzenia. 1956 Wiersze i poematy. and Horace) reflects his constant search for a tradition and his changing conception of the role of poetry. 1943 Wiersze wybrane. Guillaume Apollinaire. 1982 Principal poetry Semafory. refer in one way or another to his poetry. Max Jacob. or his biography as a poet. His insightful essays. 1950 Widzialem Kraine Krodka. the most important one. Epizod (1961). 1924 Oczy i usta. 1953 Wiersze. is an autobiographical account of his participation in Polish avant-garde movements before World War II. 1926 Wiersze zebrane. Poland. and Latin into Polish. 1905 Died: Warsaw. Poland. 1961 Wagon. and indeed he ranks among the most outstanding Polish representatives of the art of translation. His plays are a somewhat irrelevant part of his output. 1940-1953. November 17. 1947 Nowy wybór wierszy. however. All his major works. 1953 Poemat dla doroslych i inne wiersze. Paul Éluard. 1959 Labirynt. Russian. He attached greater importance to his numerous translations of poetry from French. 1977 Wiersze wybrane. 278 . 1978 Other literary forms A cursory glance at the output of Adam Wa/yk (VAH-zeek) would suggest that he was a versatile writer who practiced all principal literary forms and pursued various interests. for example. Aleksandr Blok. Arthur Rimbaud. Vladimir Mayakovsky. August 13. during which he appeared to be one of the staunchest promoters and supporters of Socialist Realism in poetry. and not fully consistent with their programs. 1939. In this capacity. In the 1930’s. In his two books of poems published in 1924 and 1926. Wa/yk lapsed into silence as a poet. Almanach Nowej Sztuki) and later with the so-called Kraków Vanguard. His own position within those groups remained rather individual. not with the influential and popular poetic group called Skamander but with its opponents. however. He entered into closer contact. where he was made an officer in the Polish army formed under Soviet auspices. but he also enriched his cubist method with a new significance resulting from his reflection on twentieth century history. he was in charge of cultural activities of the army. His poetry can by no means be considered a relic of the past. His first two collections were acclaimed and still are regarded as highly original contributions to Polish avant-garde poetry of the 1920’s. After having been graduated from a Warsaw high school in 1924. came to an abrupt end in 1955 with the publication of his famous “Poemat dla dorosuych” (“Poem for Adults”). who formed various avant-garde groups. the most interesting example of which was his autobiographical novel Mity rodzinne (1938). controlling its theater’s repertory and its radio programs as well as writing popular military songs. Wa/yk joined those Polish intellectuals who decided to collaborate with Soviet authorities. His volume Serce granatu opened the second phase of his career. The outbreak of World War II prompted a dramatic change both in Wa/yk’s life and in his art. He made his literary debut very early by publishing a poem in the monthly Skamander in 1922. Wa/yk in a certain sense returned to his poetic beginnings. to resurface only in the 1940’s. he arrived with other refugees at the city of Lvov. undoubtedly Wa/yk’s worst. on the contrary. After those promising beginnings. he appeared as a Polish adherent to French cubism and Surrealism. its impact on contemporary Polish literature is increasingly appreciated. In 279 . although it has been artistically surpassed by his later work. In his poems published in the 1960’s and 1970’s. he lived in Saratov and Kuibyshev.Eastern European Poets Adam Wa/yk Achievements Adam Wa/yk’s literary career falls very distinctly into three phases. he stopped writing poetry altogether and shifted to fiction. Biography Adam Wa/yk was born into a middle-class family of Jewish descent. however. It is the last phase of his development that has come to be viewed as the most valuable. In the early 1940’s. which soon fell prey to the Soviet invasion. which stand in sharp contrast as far as both their specific character and their later appreciation are concerned. This period. “Poem for Adults” remains Wa/yk’s best-known work. Wa/yk associated first with the Futurists (he was a coeditor of their publication. a harbinger of the antidogmatist renewal of Polish culture in the mid-1950’s. In September. he began to study mathematics at Warsaw University but soon found himself engrossed in the vigorous literary life of the 1920’s. the weekly Ku/nica. on the other hand. there were two dramatic turnabouts. where in the 1960’s and 1970’s Wa/yk wrote and published numerous collections of poems. he was awarded a State Literary Prize for his poetry and translations. gained enormous popularity. essays. and between 1950 and 1954 served as editor in chief of the monthly Twórczok6. then. 1955.Adam Wa/yk Critical Survey of Poetry 1944. he discovered that the overall perception of an object is. the middle segment of his work forms a strictly demarcated enclave that does not seem to have anything in common either with Wa/yk’s avant-garde beginnings or with his last phase. Discontinuity meant also disorder. he returned to Poland with the rank of captain. Wa/yk was obsessed with one of the central problems of twentieth century psychology: the problem of the discontinuity of perception. Wa/yk was entrusted with various official functions: Among others. a source of growing doubt and increasing anxiety as well. he served as secretary general of the Polish Writers’ Union. Accordingly. with the Soviet-controlled Kokciuszko Division. it was under its influence that the new wave of “settling accounts” with Stalinist ideology soon emerged to dominate Polish literary life for the next several years. the editor in chief of Nowa Kultura lost his position in the wake of the Communist Party’s outrage. It was.” the poem provoked. twofold: The final impression of a whole is preceded by the act of perceiving its separate elements. violent accusations from the Communist Party hard-liners and a number of officially sponsored public protests and condemnations. the weekly Nowa Kultura published Wa/yk’s long “Poem for Adults. his early poetry focused on that first stage of the act of perception by showing the world as a mosaic of stray fragments of everyday reality. Analysis In Adam Wa/yk’s poetic career. and only a closer look allows the reader to discern a hidden logic in Wa/yk’s development. The poem. however. As a young poet. Praised by advocates of the political and ideological “thaw. His gradual withdrawal from public life was counterpoised by his growing recognition as a writer. worked as an editor of the chief organ of Socialist Realism. however. In Stalinist Poland. Thus. In 1953. There is an apparent discontinuity. The last decades of the poet’s life were spent mostly in Warsaw. Such a perception of reality as a discrete sequence of its elements was a major source of lyrical illumination. It is deeply significant that the young Wa/yk was not able to identify fully either with the 280 . and the absence of any system of values. put together by the means of syntactic juxtaposition. in fact. On August 19. and poetic translations as well as his only postwar novel. lack of hierarchy. Epizod. Under the influence of the art and poetry of the French cubists.” which immediately became the object of perhaps the fiercest political controversy in postwar Polish literature. the first of which can be described as vehement acceptance of the doctrine of Socialist Realism and the other as its equally vehement rejection. In the 1930’s. In the 1940’s and early 1950’s. return to his previous stylistic manner: The new belief could be expressed only by the means of utterly regular. to mention only the work of Lucjan Szenwald. apparently unable to reconcile those two opposite tendencies. but what in the 1920’s had appeared as a refreshing sense of freedom was. Communism offered him a new.” In this long poetic manifesto. it is not ideology but reality that does not measure up to lofty principles.” but also assumed. Instead of prophesying the rosy future. in the 1930’s. in Wa/yk’s prewar poetry the technique of loose juxtapositions paradoxically coincides with an explicit craving for some undefined “order” that only the future might bring. the turbulent youth became a poet official and member of the establishment. The former avant-garde experimenter changed into a classicist. Such a marriage of Communism and classicism was. however. to use the words of Mayakovsky. and free verse. It was only Wa/yk’s acceptance of Communist ideology that. was. made even worse by Wa/yk’s propensity for using journalistic clichés and monotonous rhythms. completely astounded by the 1955 publication of his “Poem for Adults. he resents not his own short-sightedness but some mysterious ma281 . seemingly consistent and comprehensive vision of his dreamed-of “order. but the majority of them appear today as embarrassing examples of downright didacticism and blatant whitewash. he again—as in his early phase—focused his attention on particulars of everyday reality. Accordingly. To twenty-first century readers. a decade later. This time. allowed him to resume writing poetry. such a perspective led to more disquieting conclusions: The scrupulous. a totally new artistic identity. Therefore. “stepped on the throat of his song. however. Wa/yk not only returned to his prewar methods of discontinuous presentation. Wa/yk’s painstaking efforts to create his own version of Stalinist classicism yielded. which knew Wa/yk as an official poet of Stalinism and a relentless exterminator of “bourgeois” tendencies in Polish culture. Its speaker still sincerely believes in the mirages of Communist ideology. The twentieth century seemed to have brought liberation from oppressive rationalism. however. incidentally. Wa/yk pushed that tendency to its extremes: He not only. classical forms. unflinching observation of reality was used not for its own sake but to confront the empty promises and hypocritical slogans of official ideology. therefore. juxtaposition. “Poem for Adults” The literary audience of the 1950’s. he discarded poetry altogether.” He could not. not quite unprecedented in Polish poetry. already acquiring a threatening suggestion of chaos. but also gave vent to his bitter political disillusionment and moral perplexity. as it were. “Poem for Adults” seems to be slightly naïve and content with half measures. A few of the poems written in that period achieve an uneasy marriage of stylistic allusions to Horace with propaganda slogans. rather uneven results. the cubist turned into a Socialist Realist.Eastern European Poets Adam Wa/yk Futurists (whose anarchism he repudiated) or with the Kraków Vanguard (whose program of constructivism he considered naïve and overly optimistic). Other major works long fiction: Czuowiek w burym ubraniu. The poem stopped halfway. Although Wa/yk in his final phase was far from moralizing. Przemiany Slowackiego. but it nevertheless had a galvanizing impact on Polish literature. Esej o wierszu. seemingly a quasi-epic story taking place in a middle-class milieu in prewar Poland. In Wa/yk’s own career. Wa/yk’s evident return to his cubist beginnings has. 1938. 1930. An anthology of translations of Polish literature with some commentary. The familiar method of juxtaposition of images serves more complex purposes. it is actually a poem about the shortcomings of human memory. Latarnie kwieca w Karpowie. Contains works by Wa/yk. 1933. 1966. his indiscriminate registration of juxtaposed objects. Zdarzenia. Return to cubist roots This return was particularly noticeable in the 1960’s and 1970’s. some new implications. 1974. Wagon. Introduction to Modern Polish Literature. Surrealizm. then. Dziwna historia awangardy. The world smashed into pieces is no longer a source of innocent illumination. 282 . 1955. New York: Hippocrene Books. however. which can visualize the past only as a “labyrinth that leads no one knows where. 1964. the world’s disarray appears to be an irreversible process started by the twentieth century disintegration of stable systems of values. The long poem Labirynt. Mity rodzinne. minute facts. and logic. 1976. is a paradoxical attempt to revive the old genre of the descriptive poem in order to prove its futility. his poetry can be read as an indirect comment on the immorality of the present epoch. and the travelers’ insignificant behavior proves to be another fruitless effort of the human mind faced with the chaos of external reality. trying to put reality in order despite its apparently chaotic character. eds. and Ludwik Krzyzanowski. memory. the speaker’s observation post is a train compartment. Bibliography Gillon.Adam Wa/yk Critical Survey of Poetry nipulators who duped him and his generation. 1973. Rev. Gra i dokwiadczenie. it also marked the beginning of his return to his previous artistic integrity. On the contrary. and particularly in his 1977 volume. when Wa/yk’s poetry underwent a remarkable evolution while remaining faithful to his philosophical and psychological obsessions. Cudowny kantorek. for example. 1961. 1980. Mickiewicz i wersyfikacja narodowa. Od Rimbauda do Éluarda. 1964. 1949. Wa/yk’s most ambitious poems from that period can be interpreted as attempts to reconstruct the effort of human consciousness. Adam. In poems such as these. 1982. 1951.” In another long poem. set against the background of twentieth century history and the poet’s own experiences. The problem of discontinuity of perception acquired new significance. nonfiction: W strone humanizmu. ed. Epizod. nor is it a reason for yearning for some “order” imposed by history. Kwestia gustu. Caviar and Ashes: A Warsaw Generation’s Life and Death in Marxism. Harold B. 1983. Discusses Wa/yk briefly in a chapter on Communism and its effect on writing in Eastern Europe. 2d ed. New York: Columbia University Press. Includes bibliographical references. Shore. Examines Jewish writers in Poland in the twentieth century. Artur. Wa/yk’s role is discussed. Examines how the avant-garde of the 1920’s in Poland became Communists and then fell away from Marxism.: Yale University Press. Marci. Berkeley: University of California Press. The Columbia Literary History of Eastern Europe Since 1945. New Haven. Czesuaw. 2008. Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press. Stanisuaw Bara½czak 283 . Conn.Eastern European Poets Adam Wa/yk Miuosz. 2005. The History of Polish Literature. 2006. Segel. Sandauer. On the Situation of the Polish Writer of Jewish Descent in the Twentieth Century: It Is Not I Who Should Have Written this Study—. Provides perspective and background to understanding Wa/yk. including Wa/yk and his problematic relationship with the Communists. A critical study of the history of Polish literature that provides information on Wa/yk as well as a historical and cultural background to his works. 1918-1968. 1990). 2005 Eternal Enemies. second wind) and Solidarnok6 i samotnok6 (1986. is an ironic reworking of this nineteenth century genre. 1994 Mysticism for Beginners.ne Kwiòta. Zagajewski’s fiction. Another Beauty. 1985 Tremor: Selected Poems in English. Poland (now in Ukraine). it’s cold. Dwa miasta (1991. 1978 Oda do wielokci. and the Imagination. 1998 Pragnienie. he also has written three novels: Cieupo zimno (1975. His Kwiat nie przedstawiony (1974. and Cienka kreska (1983. continue probing the question of literature’s ethical and social responsibility. coauthored by Julian Kornhauser. 1995) and W cudzym piòknie (1998. 2000) explore the richness and variety of Europe. April 21. absolute pitch). 1985 Puótno. 2002 Powrót. thin line). 2003 Anteny.ADAM ZAGAJEWSKI Born: Lwów. Poland: a state in the shackles of the Soviet Union). and travels. 1975 List. as found in the author’s memories. Solidarity. Solitude: Essays. an analysis of the Polish state under Soviet rule. 1972 Sklepy miòsne. the world not represented). History. Das absolute Gehör (1982. Zagajewski is also the author of Polen: Staat im Schatten der Sowjetunion (1981. readings. 1999 Without End: New and Selected Poems. Drugi Oddech (1978. Zagajewski also published a number of important essays and essay collections. it’s warm). 2008 Other literary forms Although poetry constitutes the most important part of the oeuvre of Adam Zagajewski (zah-gah-YEW-skee). 1991) Dzikie czereknie: Wybór wierszy. 1945 Principal poetry Komunikat. 1992 Ziemia Ognista. patterned on the traditional bildungsroman. played a seminal role in shaping the literary consciousness of the decade. 284 . 1997 (bilingual selection) Pó. 1983 Jechai do Lwówa. 1990 (Canvas. Two Cities: On Exile. 1997 Trzej Aniouowie = Three Angels. Zagajewski left Gliwice to pursue a university education in the historic town of Kraków.Eastern European Poets Zagajewski. including the Jurzykowski Foundation Award. Adam Achievements The literary debut of Adam Zagajewski took place in a country oppressed by Soviet domination.” Although in his later writings Zagajewski abandoned the earlier political agenda. It was during this period that he became the cofounder of the poetic group Teraz (Now) as well as the coauthor of its literary program. Hebrew. effectively ending the official circulation of his works. the Kurt Tucholsky Prize. At the age of eighteen. Zagajewski’s poems have been translated into English. “Writers are the conscience of the nation. Zagajewski became one of the editors of Student. He was also involved in editorial work at such prestigious literary journals as Odra and Znak. totalitarian state. German. a fellowship from the Berliner Kunstlerprogram. his poetry never ceased to defend the human right to individual perception and sensitivity. the Tranströmer Prize. Throughout these early years. Zagajewski won a scholarship from the Berlin Kunstlerprogram and went 285 . and the Neustadt Prize. In 1979. The poets of Teraz emphasized the social importance of poetry and its role in reclaiming a language devalued by the rhetorical manipulations of a bureaucratic. The Zagajewskis settled in the Silesian town of Gliwice. Zagajewski’s sensitivity allowed him to find enchantment even in the unattractive town of his youth. Zagajewski suffered the fate of many Polish writers of the time: The government placed a ban on his publications. After signing a letter of protest concerning amendments to the Polish constitution in 1976. Biography Adam Zagajewski was born in Lwów in 1945 to a family of Polish intelligentsia. His Without End was nominated for a National Book Critics Circle Award. Zagajewski received a number of prestigious fellowships and awards. I was brought there when I was barely four months old. or the New Wave) to take upon themselves the duty of opposing both political oppression and the conformist attitudes found among Polish intellectuals. where Adam spent his childhood and adolescence. his family kept alive the memory of their hometown: “I spent my childhood in an ugly industrial city. and then for many years afterward I was told about an extraordinarily beautiful city that my family had to leave. thus turning around the Communist slogan. This historical circumstance led the poet and other writers of his generation (known as the Generation of ‘68. French. he worked as an assistant professor at the Akademia Górniczo-Hutnicza (University of Mining and Metallurgy).” Nevertheless. the Prix de la Liberté. and Swedish. When he was four months old. his family was forced to abandon the city of his birth and to move westward. the International Vilenica Award. In 1972. Italian. reflecting the newly reshuffled Polish borders. After receiving degrees in philosophy and psychology at the Jagiellonian University. a Guggenheim Fellowship. Greek. 286 . he became involved in editing Zeszyty Literackie (literary review). published during the 1970’s. Komunikat. of passion and conversation. a tool of totalitarian oppression. the other “philosophical. In Paris. The third—toward the landscape of French culture. Julian Kornhauser. not political. In 1989. set out to wage poetic war on the Communist state. The second opens up toward the literature of Germany. and major. Texas. rich in complex metaphors and sophisticated symbolism. one points to my native tradition. Even in the most political poems. its—onetime—desire of the infinite. which has not one. The first. Analysis Critics frequently divide the poetry of Adam Zagajewski into two major periods: one “political. according to the young poets. Ryszard Krynicki. Oda do wielokci (ode to plurality). Zagajewski chose to leave his homeland for personal. such language falsified it. clear. and direct. After a brief return to Poland.Zagajewski. However.” focused on the problems of the human community. with its emphasis on the social responsibilities of the artist in a totalitarian state. reasons. and Ewa Lipska. The poet’s first three collections. Having moved from Lwów to Gliwice to Kraków to Berlin to Paris to Houston. then to Kraków again in 2002. Sklepy mi sne. he deals with the oppression of the individual. Adam Critical Survey of Poetry to Berlin. In contrast. He has also taught at Chicago University. spending four months there out of each year. its poetry. Zagajewski turned to a poetry of philosophical reflection. they focused their efforts on laying bare the “falsified language” of state propaganda and bureaucracy. Zagajewski began teaching creative writing at the University of Houston. such as Stanisuaw Bara½czak. and List When Zagajewski and other poets of his generation. or world. The poet described his own cosmopolitan status: I am now like a passenger of a small submarine. a seminal émigré literary journal. in the course of his life Zagajewski became a wanderer and a citizen of the world. The newspeak favored by the government and disseminated by the mass media had become. A number of his contemporaries had commented on the poet’s passage from one period to the other. a reclamation of the concrete.” concerned with the individual. The fourth—toward [William] Shakespeare. he emigrated to Paris in 1982. Beginning with the fourth collection. published after his emigration to Paris. Rather than representing reality. [John] Keats and Robert Lowell. followed the poetic program of the Generation of ‘68. This goal is illustrated in Zagajewski’s poem “Sklepy Miòsne” (meat shops). the literature of the concrete. culture. The poem describes the change from the older. Unlike many Polish artists. with its penetrating intelligence and Jansenist morality. Even the most private lyrical reflections are situated within the broader context of European. the poetry of the Generation of ‘68 was to be plain. It aimed at a sincere realism. but four periscopes. it is also important to emphasize the continuity of themes and methods in Zagajewski’s work. others point in a new direction. . of which Zagajewski was a cocreator. the youngest of sisters. Zagajewski’s later poetry is characterized by complex metaphorical structures of great intensity and beauty. Ten inventive fingers.Eastern European Poets Zagajewski. almost conversational form revealed a deep distrust of inflated or manipulative language. to a lesser extent. . and. of the regime. introduced a theme that would become central to the poet’s subsequent writing: a fascinated affirmation of the world’s multiplicity and richness: I don’t understand it all and I am even glad that the world like a restless ocean exceeds my ability to understand .” “Zwyciòstwo” (victory). the wedge of an orange. a scarcity of conjunctions and adverbs. in the later volumes. two hands. stand before This abundance. and its sensual existence). sanitized “meat shop. Czesuaw Miuosz in 1985 described the artistic development of his fellow Pole and poet: “His poems have been acquiring a more and more sumptuous texture. the metaphors became increasingly sophisticated and abundant.” a name that conceals rather than reveals the true nature of the establishment. Syntactic simplicity is particularly apparent in the first collection and gives way to slightly more sophisticated structures. in 1988. described this ideological shift in Zagajewski’s writing as a turn from “no” to “yes. You. Another feature of Generation of ‘68 poetry is an interest in the problems of its time. Oda do wielokci. Zagajewski strongly believed in the ethical dimension of a poetic calling. . With the expansion of themes came an expansion of form: The syntax became more intricate. While a number of poems in this 1982 collection still address painful political issues. Sklepy miòsne. and now he appears to me 287 . and “Ogie½” (fire). linguistic and otherwise. The goal of Zagajewski’s early poetry was to defend the individual against the obscure manipulations. Adam straightforward term “butcher. realized the ideals of contemporaneity and simplicity. Like other members of his generation. They were characterized by a frequent use of the present tense (conveying a sense of immediacy). such as “Petit. such as inversion. and a disciplined syntax. List (a letter).” to the new. These poems spoke of Communist Poland in a language verging on the prosaic. Komunikat (communiqué). His early poetry collections. . and Only one ego. singular soul. Tadeusz Nyczek. Oda do wielokci The title poem of Zagajewski’s fourth collection. This simple. Two eyes.” from negation (negating the totalitarian state) to affirmation (affirming the world. adequately reflected in the name of the poetic group Teraz (Now). its richness. . . the poet C. the other insane. indulgent.Zagajewski. Zagajewski remains aware of the reverse side of civilization—wars. from Jechai do Lwówa) is a tender and eclectic portrait of the former Polish capital. Canvas. culture. and Ziemia Ognista (Tierra del Fuego). His poems present a world in a state of paradox. from Canvas) captures the delight of journeys to unknown places: “In strange cities. another. and human figures coexist in the same pattern. the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. and the spiritual quest of humankind at the end of the twentieth century. conjuring up both the magic of the “lost” city.” Cities. history. and many others. An acute awareness of the paradoxical nature of reality is expressed in the poem “Lawa” (lava) from Canvas: And what if Heraclitus and Parmenides are both right and two worlds exist side by side. K. The poet invokes the composers Franz Schubert and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Norwid. visited in person or in the imagination. . with its “white napkins and a bucket/ full of raspberries standing on the floor” and the ruthless political “scissors” that brought about destruction and exile. The collection Ziemia Ognista is dominated by traveling and homelessness. Zagajewski pays poetic homage not only to Europe’s metropolises but also to its artists and thinkers. Canvas. “Widok Krakowa” (the view of Kraków. the selfsame wave moves and stands still. there’s an unexpected joy/ the cool pleasure of a new regard. become an important theme in Zagajewski’s poetry. Such a mind-set has always been part of Zagajewski’s poetics. art. the painters Jan Vermeer and Rembrandt. the collections published from the mid-1980’s to the mid-1990’s. genocide. always journeying toward a yet unknown goal. One of his preferred characters is the wanderer—homeless. cruelty. looks on. constant alertness and distrust. as in the poem “Szukaj” (search): 288 . offer sophisticated meditations on the nature of memory. These are poems deeply embedded in the European cultural tradition. Adam Critical Survey of Poetry as a skillful weaver whose work is not unlike Gobelin tapestries where trees. While delighting in the richness of art and culture. one serene.” Jechai do Lwówa. flowers. one arrow thoughtlessly hurtles. and Ziemia Ognista Jechai do Lwówa (to go to Lwów). The poem “W obcych miastach” (in strange cities. “Widok Delf” (the view of Delf) from the same collection honors both the place and its painter. . The poem “Jechai do Lwówa” (“To Go to Lwów”) is an imaginary journey to the place of the poet’s birth. The proper response to a paradoxical reality is perhaps a stance of permanent inquiry. . with an incorporeal/ ruler governing a tangible reality. At this stage of his life. a pencil. The collection contains a number of elegies dedicated to other poets (Joseph Brodsky./take me to Tierra del Fuego. a report on the conditions of the human community at the end of the twentieth century. Pragnienie is both a very private reflection on the poet’s life and. 1983. The theme of death and loss pervades this nostalgic volume. sedated. reflective. . Shostakovich./ save me from anesthesia. he has many dead to mourn. the poet has diagnosed a new threat to the human spirit: Like a totalitarian regime. atrophied. Search for it.” Pragnienie The contrast between the “anesthetized” late twentieth century with its bored. mass culture blunts sensitivity and chokes metaphysical inquiry. Das absolute Gehör. silent. . Mahler. Cienka kreska. Chopin. Zagajewski’s mature poetry has become a poetry of spiritual inquiry. and the desire for a genuine spiritual experience is the theme of Pragnienie (desire). nonfiction: Kwiat nie przedstawiony. Agnostic and mystical. the speaker asks: “Who am I here in this cool cathedral and who/ is speaking to me so obscurely?” Another poem from the same collection brings the lament: “So many errors. living and dead. . 289 . unseen. Zagajewski portrays a Western culture devoid of genuine spiritual values. Józef Czapski). This fin de siècle collection opens with childhood memories and ends with a self-portrait of a mature artist. Other major works long fiction: Cieupo zimno.” reading “poets. .” living in “strange cities. silent. it seeks the “nameless. Adam I returned to the town where I was a child and a teenager and an old man of thirty. Solidarnok6 i samotnok6. “between the computer. paralyzed with boredom. His voice has grown quiet. Polen: Staat im Schatten der Sowjetunion. unseen. as Zagajewski’s former translator Renata Gorczy½ska has it.” In “Gotyk” (“The Gothic. 1981. 1982. Drugi Oddech.” The title poem of Ziemia Ognista ends with the prayer: “Nameless.” This artist is no longer young and knows it.Eastern European Poets Zagajewski. Can poetry kindle a new flame? Awaken a new desire? These are the questions Zagajewski poses at the end of a troubled century. Find another place. 1974 (with Julian Kornhauser). sate conformity. and a typewriter. The town greeted me indifferently . Zbigniew Herbert) and artists (Krzysztof Kieklowski. Search for your true homeland.” from Jechai do Lwówa).” listening to “Bach. 1975. 1978. Always sensitive to the ethical role of literature. 2 (1989): 204-216. Zbigniew. 1991.” Polish Review 1/2 (1976): 59-70. “Poetry and Dialectic. Includes translations of poems by Zagajewski. Evanston. Dwa miasta. This biographical work looks at the travels of Zagajewski. Julian Kornhauser. such as Jan Vermeer’s painting Girl Interrupted in Her Music and Carlos Saura’s film Flamenco. Through the Poet’s Eye: The Travels of Zagajewski. Corn uses the review as an opportunity to profile Zagajewski. Bo/ena. edited by Adam Czerniawski. 1995). Examines the effect on their writings. Describes the polarities in his life and writing. 2 (May-August. A brief profile of Zagajewski on his winning of the Neustadt Prize. 2002. no. 2 (2000): 234-252.: Seren Books. and the Imagination.” Slavic and East European Journal 33. Chester Springs. and Stanisuaw Bara½czak. Solitude: Essays. Alfred. Ewa Lipska. 2009): 801-809. Tymoteusz. discussing his life. and Brodsky.” In The Mature Laurel: Essays on Modern Polish Poetry. An analysis of epiphany and its importance to the artistic sensitivity of Zagajewski. Corn. Dufour Editions. Ryszard Krynicki. Karpowicz. looks at Zagajewski’s responses to works of art.” World Literature Today 79. 1998 (Another Beauty. from the time Zagajewski was publishing his first collections. Hudson Review 61. Adam Critical Survey of Poetry 1986 (Solidarity. translations: Kwiat i uczestnik. “The Divining Moment: Adam Zagajewski’s Aesthetic Epiphany. _______. Tadeusz. 1981 (of Raymond Aron). Obrona /arliwokci. Written by a wellknown Polish poet. no. Pa. History.: Northwestern University Press. i komunizm: Dziennik emigranta. 2004). addresses the problem of poetry’s ethical responsibility and presents the poetic and ideological debate between Zagajewski and another poet of his generation. and Joseph Brodsky. no.” Review of Eternal Enemies. his poetry.” Slavic and East European Journal 44. 2005): 14-16. 1990 (of Mircea Eliade). Shallcross. 1990). Bogdana. Carpenter. edited text: Polish Writers on Writing. 4 (Winter. literatura. “Naked Poetry: A Discourse About the Newest Polish Poetry. W cudzym piòknie. Bibliography Bie½kowsk i.Zagajewski. “A Tribute to Adam Zagajewski. 1991 (Two Cities: On Exile. Zbigniew Herbert. An account of the émigré works by poets once belonging to the New Wave. Ill. A sensitive and balanced overview of New Wave (Generation of ‘68) poetry in the context of several earlier postwar poetic generations. “The Poets of the New Wave in Exile. his exile. no. Herbert. “The New Wave: A Non-Objective View. Magdalena Máczy½ska 290 . 2000). Witkowski. and the difficulty of translation. An insightful report on the state of Polish poetry. 2007. 2002 (A Defense of Ardor. Religia. CHECKLIST FOR EXPLICATING A POEM I. or poetic image. whether it might function as an allusion. or absurdity. the poem should be reread. is the narrative action in the poem? 2. Do point of view and dramatic situation seem consistent? If not. drawing attention to certain parts of the poem. 2. II. Is the narrator able to understand or see everything happening to him or her. What is the relationship between characters? 4. The dramatic situation serves a particular function in the poem. B. How many personae appear in the poem? What part do they take in the action? 3. Studying the poem line by line helps the reader discover the dramatic situation. What. the reader should: 1. and identify the general era of the poet. Who is the speaker? Is he or she addressing someone else or the reader? 2. determining. or does the reader know things that the narrator does not? 3. Dramatic situation. An understanding of the poem’s point of view is a major step toward comprehending the poet’s intended meaning. All elements of the dramatic situation are interrelated and should be viewed as reflecting and affecting one another. Before reading the poem. The Initial Readings A. if possible. Notice its form and length. C. 3. Point of view. and changing to reinforce other aspects of the poem. adding realism. surrealism. A note should be made as to where the irregular spots (if any) are located. Is the narrator reliable? 4. All points should be considered. What is the setting (time and location) of the poem? B. The following questions are particularly helpful to ask in determining dramatic situation: 1. 291 . The reader should ask: 1. the inconsistencies may provide clues to the poem’s meaning. In order to establish the rhythmic flow. if any. Notice the date of composition or publication. The poem should be read intuitively and emotionally and be allowed to “happen” as much as possible. symbol. Explicating the Poem A. Consider the title. how has it been changed? Is there a controlling image? 5. In scanning the poem. those that are formed from objects that can be touched. structure. In particular. What devices has the poet used to create sound patterns (such as assonance and alliteration)? 5. rhyme. Realizing that the images and metaphors work in harmony with the dramatic situation and point of view will help the reader to see the poem as a whole. Is the image projected by the poet consistent with the physical object? 2. and refer to any appropriate sources for further information. how do they affect the progression of the poem? 292 . all elements of prosody should be noted by the reader. The reader should identify the concrete images (that is. If the image is abstract. Are the rhyme schemes traditional or innovative. Every substantial word in a poem may have more than one intended meaning. Words. 3. then what are the properties of the image? 3. Meter. or so different from natural imagery that it cannot be associated with a real object. 2. E. Is any image repeated in the poem? If so. Images and metaphors. as used by the author. 3. Is there any difference between the way the reader perceives the image and the way the narrator sees it? 7. To what extent is the reader asked to form his or her own images? 4. or tasted). the reader should look up many of these words in the dictionary and: 1. Note all definitions that have the slightest connection with the poem. Note any changes in syntactical patterns in the poem. and what might their form mean to the poem? 4. Are any images compared to each other? Do they reinforce one another? 6. felt. 1. rather than as disassociated elements. and therefore they should be examined closely to arrive at the poet’s specific intention. 1. smelled. Are there any variations in the base meter? Such changes or substitutions are important thematically and should be identified. These elements are often used by a poet to manipulate the reader’s emotions. What seems to be the narrator’s or persona’s attitude toward the image? D.Checklist for Explicating a Poem Critical Survey of Poetry C. and tone. Because of this. note those words that could possibly function as symbols or allusions. Images and metaphors are often the most intricately crafted vehicles of the poem for relaying the poet’s message. seen. Is the stanza form a traditional or innovative one? 6. Does the basic meter follow a traditional pattern such as those found in nursery rhymes or folk songs? 2. If the poem is composed of verse paragraphs rather than stanzas. G. the reader should be able to determine the themes and motifs (smaller recurring ideas) presented in the work. Does the poet seem sure of his or her position? 3. By seeing the poem as a composite of emotion. craftsmanship. harsh. is the resultant tone of the poem casual or formal. hyperbole.Eastern European Poets Checklist for Explicating a Poem 7. paradox. or irony)? 293 . Archaic language. Themes and motifs. or religious change? 2. or symbols should also be looked up. or to both? 4. After examining the above elements. Historical context. images. and tradition. Is the poem relying on any particular devices for effect (such as imagery. pleasant. to the intellect. authoritative? F. moral. He or she should ask the following questions to help pinpoint these main ideas: 1. intellect. Is the poet trying to advocate social. emotional. The reader should attempt to place the poem into historical context. expressions. checking on events at the time of composition. allusion. Does the poem appeal primarily to the emotions. 2002. ed. 2 in Epic and Romance Criticism. Dictionary of Literary Biography 215. Magill. Kunitz.: Salem Press. and handbooks Auty. New York: Watermill. New York: Columbia University Press. 13. 294 . 1987. France. 1974. ed. and William B. Detroit: Gale Group. Serafin. 1967. William T. H. Dictionary of Literary Biography 220. 2000. New York: Scribner.BIBLIOGRAPHY General reference sources Biographical sources Jackson. Stanley. Publications of the Modern Humanities Research Association 9. Frank N. Vol. 2001. 1999. and Vineta Colby. Critical Survey of Poetry: Foreign Language Series. eds. Dictionaries. 4 vols. The Traditions. Detroit: St. ed.: Salem Press. 14 vols. Peter. histories. 1980. of Classical and Continental Epics and Metrical Romances. 1. Pasadena. Twentieth-Century Eastern European Writers: Second Series. ed. London: Modern Humanities Research Association. Detroit: Gale Group. 2 vols.J. European Writers. 1940-1973. Englewood Cliffs. Calif. Critical Survey of Poetry: Supplement. Twentieth-Century Eastern European Writers: Third Series. Edgerton.. N. European Authors.J. Jason. Robert. Encyclopedia of World Literature in the Twentieth Century. Masterplots II: Poetry Series. Dictionary of Literary Biography 232. 2000. _______. Steven. 1989. Twentieth-Century Eastern European Writers: First Series. Englewood Cliffs.. 2d ed. 1931. 1984. 1999. _______. Vol. James Press. Jean-Albert. 1983-1991. Traditions of Heroic and Epic Poetry. eds. New York: Oxford University Press. London: Oxford University Press. 5 vols. 2. Criticism Coleman. Columbia Dictionary of Modern European Literature. _______. Detroit: Gale Group. Philip K. 2 vols. et al. N. New York: Wilson. ed. _______. The Oxford Guide to Literature in English Translation. A Checklist of Interpretation. The Year’s Work in Modern Language Studies. 8 vols. 3d ed. 1000-1900: A Biographical Dictionary of European Literature. Bede. Revised Edition. 1980.: Salem Press. Vol. Characteristics and Techniques.. Arthur. : Northwestern University Press. Contemporary Jewish Writing in Hungary: An Anthology. eds. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. and George Szirtes. Rollberg. New York: HarperCollins. M. Adam. 2 vols. 1995. ed. New York: Random House. 295 .: New Rivers Press. Minn. ed. George. Gulf Breeze. Eastern European Poetry Hungarian Poetry Gömöri. New York: Modern Language Association. 2004. and trans. Pa. S. Susan Rubin. Smith and Marina Tarlinskaja. Suleiman. 1977. and P. ed. Versification: Major Language Types: Sixteen Essays.Eastern European Poets Bibliography Henderson. 1972. 10 vols. Wimsatt. L. 1993. 1996. Nicholas. Stanisuaw. Herbert H. Polish Poetry Bara½czak. Weber. 1978. Kolumban.: Academic International Press. ed. Foreword by Árpád Göncz. and Clare Cavanagh. an Anthology of Hungarian Poetry in English Translation from the Thirteenth Century to the Present. William K. Robert B. Baltic. Lesley. In Quest of the “Miracle Stag”: The Poetry of Hungary. Paul. 1996.: Dufour Editions. Makkai.: Scarecrow Press. Turmoil in Hungary: An Anthology of Twentieth Century Hungarian Poetry. 1991. St. eds. Ill. Leopard V: An Island of Sound—Poetry and Fiction Before and Beyond the Iron Curtain. 2003. and trans. Foreword by Helen Vendler. ed. Translated by G. Chester Springs. Heroic Epic and Saga: An Introduction to the World’s Great Folk Epics. Polish Poetry of the Last Two Decades of Communist Rule: Spoiling Cannibals’ Fun. The Modern Encyclopedia of East Slavic. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. George Gutsche. N.. Oinas. Fla.. ed. Metuchen. Index of primary works Hoffman.J. 1996. George. eds. and Éva Forgács. James Press. eds. Reference Guide to World Literature. Felix. ed. The Colonnade of Teeth: Modern Hungarian Poetry. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Hoffman’s Index to Poetry: European and Latin American Poetry in Anthologies. 1996. New York: St. Evanston. New York: Oxford University Press. Reader’s Encyclopedia of Eastern European Literature. Poetics Gasparov. Pynsent. and Eurasian Literatures. Szirtes. 2d ed. A History of European Versification. 1985. Harry B.. Berkeley: University of California Press. J. et al.. Rod. Dictionary of Polish Literature. Ont. Westport. ed. 1983.Bibliography Critical Survey of Poetry Carpenter. ed. Mengham. Czerniawski. 1996.: Arc. Ann Arbor: Michigan Slavic Publications. a Bilingual Anthology. trans. Czesuaw. Adam. Bogdana. 1989. Grol.: Dufour Editions.: Greenwood Press. Monumenta Polonica: The First Four Centuries of Polish Poetry.: Host. 1991. ed. Tex. Conn. Altered State: The New Polish Poetry. Postwar Polish Poetry: An Anthology. Austin. Regina. ed. ed. Pa. Ottawa. 3d ed. Miuosz.. Ambers Aglow: An Anthology of Contemporary Polish Women’s Poetry. 1994. 2003. 296 . E. Czerwinski. The Mature Laurel: Essays on Modern Polish Poetry. Chester Springs. although somewhat haphazard in its organization. 297 . LitWeb http://litweb. national organizations.com/authors. combining literary talent with a sense of experimentation to produce some remarkable works of modern literature. The section of the page headed “The Scriptorium” presents “an index of pages featuring writers who have pushed the edges of their medium. and government agencies. news.GUIDE TO ONLINE RESOURCES Web Sites The following sites were visited by the editors of Salem Press in 2010. The Modern Word: Authors of the Libyrinth http://www. such as those of colleges and universities. and references and research.net LitWeb provides biographies of hundreds of world authors throughout history that can be accessed through an alphabetical listing. and illustrations. long-standing sites. events. such as blogs.com This independent resource provides modern translations of classic texts by famous poets and also provides original poetry and critical works. The site also offers information about past and present winners of major literary prizes. Poetry in Translation http://poetryintranslation. Russian. including English. The “Authors of the Libyrinth” page is very useful. suggestions for further reading.html The Modern Word site. publications. generally maintain links when their sites are moved. linking author names to essays about them and other resources. Because URLs frequently change. however. provides a great deal of critical information about writers. Also includes links to further literary resources. Its Web site offers links to essays. Visitors can choose from several languages.org The Poetry Foundation.themodernword. online poetry resources. and Greek. a glossary of literary terms. and a Learning Lab that includes poem guides and essays on poetics. Italian. Original text is available as well.poetryfoundation. is an independent literary organization. organizations. Spanish.” Poetry Foundation http://www. Chinese. The pages about each writer contain a list of his or her works. publisher of Poetry magazine. the accuracy of these addresses cannot be guaranteed. Critical Survey of Poetry Guide to Online Resources Poetry International Web http://international. Author biographies. both in their original languages and in English translation. public.edu The Western European Studies Section of the Association of College and Research Libraries maintains this collection of resources useful to students of Western European history and culture. essays. provide links to them on their Web sites. and Scandinavia. the Canadian Literary Centre database contains full-text content from ECW Press.org/poems The Poet’s Corner. Iceland.lib. Poet’s Corner http://theotherpages. Zimbabwe. The site also offers its own resources. Instead. provides access to about seven thousand works of poetry by several hundred different poets from around the world. the majority of which are written in the languages of the respective countries. Iberia. or subject. Albania. and make them available to library card holders or other specified patrons. ECW’s Biographical Guide to Canadian Novelists. and George Woodcock’s Introduction to Canadian Fiction. and other materials. Canadian biography. Canadian Literary Centre Produced by EBSCO. and Brazil. in which users can find links to electronic texts. including “Faces of the Poets”—a gallery of portraits—and “Lives of the Poets”—a growing collection of biographies. Readers can visit library Web sites or ask reference librarians to check on availability. Slovenia. essays and literary criticism. Morocco. including the titles in the publisher’s Canadian fiction studies. association Web sites. a Toronto-based publisher. and university libraries subscribe to these databases. journals. Western European Studies http://wess. and hundreds of poems.poetryinternationalweb. interviews and discussion. The site includes separate pages about the literatures and languages of the Netherlands. Afghanistan. Italy. one of the oldest text resources on the Web. Russia. college.org Poetry International Web features information on poets from countries such as Indonesia. name of poet. France. The site offers news. Indexes are arranged and searchable by title. and Canadian writers and their works series. Electronic Databases Electronic databases usually do not have their own URLs. Germany.byu. and book reviews are among the database’s offerings. It also is a good place to find information about non-Englishlanguage literature. India. 298 . Eastern European Poets Guide to Online Resources Literary Reference Center EBSCO’s Literary Reference Center (LRC) is a comprehensive full-text database designed primarily to help high school and undergraduate students in English and the humanities with homework and research assignments about literature.000 essays and articles of literary criticism. including more than 31. Critical Survey of Short Fiction. World Philosophers and Their Works. almost 100. books. The database contains the full text of essays in Salem’s many literature-related reference works. Cyclopedia of Literary Characters.000 images. It contains the entire contents of Salem Press’s MagillOnLiterature Plus. character. and overviews of literary works. MagillOnLiterature Plus MagillOnLiterature Plus is a comprehensive. The biographical essays include lists of authors’ works and secondary bibliographies. The database contains massive amounts of information from reference works.000 book reviews. they can also use an advanced search engine to access information by numerous categories. including Masterplots.200 author interviews. and other materials. and a glossary of more than 1. Magill’s Literary Annual. or by literary title. and Magill’s Book Reviews.000 author biographies. and philosophers. about 140. Among its contents are articles on more than 35. time periods. writers. cultural identity. and the years in which he or she lived. literary journals. Critical Survey of Long Fiction. an encyclopedia of literature. The Literary Reference Center also features a literaryhistorical time line. synopses.300 literary terms. and more than 5. Cyclopedia of World Authors. locale. integrated literature database produced by Salem Press and available on the EBSCOhost platform. Rebecca Kuzins Updated by Desiree Dreeuws 299 . genre.000 literary works and more than 8. more than 605. and hundreds of overview essays examine and discuss literary genres. and a glossary of literary terms.500 poets. essayists. gender. and national literatures. including author name. and publication date. Critical Survey of Poetry.000 plot summaries. national identity. Users can retrieve information by browsing a list of authors’ names or titles of literary works. dramatists. Cyclopedia of Literary Places. more than 1. GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX BUKOVINA Manger. 124 Pagis. 238 . Itzik. 197 GREAT BRITAIN Manger. 225 Stryk. Paul. 164 300 ROMANIA Ady. Dan. 134 UNITED STATES Codrescu. 218 Suowacki. 124 LITHUANIA Miuosz. 124 HUNGARY Ady. 112 Mickiewicz. Dan. 48 Babits. Itzik. Endre. 225 Tzara. 19 Ró/ewicz. Adam. 124 Miuosz. Carl. Adam. Lucien. 284 ENGLAND Manger. János. 105 POLAND Bara½czak. Adam. Adam. 206 Suonimski. Carl. 189 Rakosi. 134 Suowacki. Lucien. Itzik. Tadeusz. Carl. Czesuaw. Gyula. Zbigniew. 59 Hungarian Poetry. 81 Layton. Paul. Antoni. 145 CANADA Layton. 197 Vörösmarty. 249 Wa/yk. 112 Mickiewicz. 145 Rakosi. 197 Stryk. Mihály. Itzik. Juliusz. Juliusz. Endre. 39 Celan. Itzik. Osip. Wisuawa. Tristan. Irving. 284 GERMANY Rakosi. Czesuaw. 72 Mickiewicz. 269 ISRAEL Manger. 86 Mandelstam. Itzik. 145 Polish Poetry. 105 Manger. Anna. Mihály. 124 Pagis. 39 Arany. 244 Szymborska. 72 Codrescu. 1 Illyés. Miklós. Sándor. 124 FRANCE Celan. 164 Tzara. 97 Pet¹fi. 238 Swir. Adam. 259 RUSSIA Mandelstam. 81 Manger. 134 Miuosz. Adam. Andrei. 278 Zagajewski. 66 Herbert. 170 Radnóti. Andrei. Tristan. Osip. Stanisuaw. 259 Zagajewski. Czesuaw. Irving. 259 EKPHRASTIC POETRY Miuosz. 112 AVANT-GARDE POETS Celan. 284 JEWISH CULTURE Celan. 278 DADAISM Illyés. Osip. Czesuaw. Mihály. Adam. Paul. 48 Babits. Dan. Itzik. Juliusz. 72 EXPRESSIONISM Celan. 259 Wa/yk. 134 Vörösmarty. Andrei.CATEGORY INDEX ACMEIST POETS Mandelstam. 269 301 . 278 BALLADS Arany. 259 Vörösmarty. Adam. Adam. 164 Rakosi. Tristan. 278 LOVE POETRY Ady. 59 Celan. 170 Radnóti. 124 Pagis. János. Juliusz. Gyula. Tristan. Anna. 164 Tzara. Adam. 39 Layton. 269 EXPERIMENTAL POETS Celan. 66 Zagajewski. Antoni. 134 Pet¹fi. 97 Mickiewicz. 197 Suonimski. Mihály. 72 Herbert. Osip. Miklós. Irving. 134 Pet¹fi. 189 Swir. 48 Illyés. 86 Pagis. Gyula. 97 Tzara. Dan. 225 Tzara. Itzik. 105 Mandelstam. Tristan. Stanisuaw. Sándor. Antoni. 72 Illyés. Sándor. 218 Suowacki. 72 GENERATION OF ’68 Bara½czak. Sándor. Paul. 39 Arany. Paul. Adam. János. 105 Pet¹fi. Itzik. János. Miklós. 145 EPICS Arany. 218 CLASSICISM Mickiewicz. 81 Layton. 112 Manger. Osip. 244 LYRIC POETRY Ady. 259 Wa/yk. Endre. 112 Manger. 225 Vörösmarty. 48 Manger. 189 Suowacki. 170 Radnóti. Gyula. Tristan. Paul. Mihály. 124 Suonimski. 124 Mickiewicz. Irving. Zbigniew. Adam. Antoni. Carl. 218 Tzara. Mihály. Paul. 97 Mandelstam. 72 Codrescu. Adam. 269 CUBISM Wa/yk. 170 Suonimski. Endre. Wisuawa. Juliusz. Gyula. 259 VERSE DRAMATISTS Suowacki. Andrei. 218 PETRARCHAN SONNETS Mickiewicz. Itzik. Mihály. Adam. Mihály. 189 Rakosi. Wisuawa. 86 Suowacki. Wisuawa. 244 Szymborska. 81 Herbert. Tristan. 66 Codrescu. 72 Codrescu. Mihály. Sándor.Category Index MODERNISM Babits. 259 PROSE POETRY Herbert. 218 OBJECTIVISM Rakosi. 59 Illyés. Lucien. Antoni. 105 Mickiewicz. 170 Suowacki. Endre. Adam. 225 VISIONARY POETRY Layton. 249 . Tadeusz. 269 SOCIALIST REALISM Wa/yk. Adam. Adam. Zbigniew. 225 Tzara. 170 WOMEN POETS Swir. Czesuaw. Adam. 197 PARNASSIANISM Suonimski. Anna. Stanisuaw. Antoni. János. Carl. Sándor. Zbigniew. Gyula. 278 SONNETS Mickiewicz. Carl. Tristan. 105 WAR POETS Ady. Antoni. 48 Mickiewicz. 145 Suonimski. Adam. 249 Tzara. Antoni. Juliusz. 39 Manger. 97 Layton. Czesuaw. Paul. 225 RELIGIOUS POETRY Ady. Tristan. 244 Szymborska. 39 Pet¹fi. 86 Miuosz. 259 NEO-ROMANTICISM Suonimski. 278 Zagajewski. Gyula. 48 Mickiewicz. 134 Vörösmarty. Andrei. 134 Miuosz. Juliusz. 97 Radnóti. 81 Illyés. 134 Suonimski. Juliusz. 134 POLITICAL POETS Ady. 218 Suowacki. 197 Ró/ewicz. Adam. 124 ROMANTICISM Arany. 284 302 Critical Survey of Poetry POSTMODERNISM Herbert. 134 Pet¹fi. 206 NARRATIVE POETRY Arany. 97 Tzara. Miklós. Anna. 218 SURREALIST POETS Celan. Endre. Irving. 86 Illyés. Zbigniew. 225 Swir. 39 Bara½czak. 238 Szymborska. Adam. Endre. 249 Vörösmarty. János. 145 Stryk. 269 Wa/yk. Irving. 100 “Domination of Wallace Stevens” (Rakosi).” 54 “The Welsh Bards. 77 Von Schwelle zu Schwelle. 72-80 Mohn und Gedächtnis.” 50 The Death of King Buda. 233 “Bent Tree. 28 Dlatego /yjemy (Szymborska). Paul. János. 83 Jealous Witness. 21 Beniowski (Suowacki).” 54 Toldi. 214 Ancel. See Of All Mysteries Ady. 44 “Alpha” (Ró/ewicz). 167 Budowauam barykadò. 39-47 “Man in Inhumanity. 77 “Circus Performers. 59-65 Jónás könyve. See Building the Barricade Building the Barricade (Swir). 202 Dziady. 56 Decadent poets. 51 “Török Bálint. Paul Apollinaire. Mihály. 78 Speech-Grille. and Other Writings (Tzara). 5 Csongor és Tünde (Vörösmarty). 229 Arany.” 53 “Midnight Duel. 11. 288 Celan. 241 Anhelli (Suowacki). See Forefathers’ Eve 303 . 20 “Bolond Istók” (Pet¹fi). 274 Csoori. 66-71 The Weight of the Body. 64 Balassi. 42 Of All Mysteries. 10. 246 Canvas (Zagajewski). 183 “Brain” (Pagis). Bálint. 81-85 The Forgiven Submarine. 82 Collected Poems. See Celan. 3 Balls for a One-Armed Juggler (Layton). 69 Baroque poetry. 131 Biernat of Lublin.” 55 Awakening (Stryk). See Celan. 9. 232 Antschel. 264 Approximate Man.SUBJECT INDEX A minden titkok verseib¹l. Andrei. The (Miuosz). 1931-1987. 75 Die Niemandsrose. 3. 266 Arab (Suowacki). Guillaume. Stanisuaw. Paul. Endre. 264 Death of King Buda. 265 Clouds (Pet¹fi).” 45 New Verses. 158 Csokonai Vitéz. 181 De nos oiseaux (Tzara). Paul And Still Birds Sing (Stryk). 251 D¹lt vitorla (Illyés). Paul. The” (Tzara). 109 Bara½czak. The (Arany). 178 Codrescu. 50 Babits. 56 “Family Circle. Mihály. 48-58 “Az elveszett alkótmany. 242 “Az elveszett alkótmany” (Arany). The” (Tzara).” 56 “Szondi’s Two Pages. 264 “Death of Guillaume Apollinaire. Sandor. The” (Manger). 16 “Dalaim” (Pet¹fi). 140 Father of the Plague-Stricken. 86-96 Elegy for the Departure. 231 Felhok. Gyula. See Radnóti. 1-18 Hymns. 82 Jechai do Lwówa (Zagajewski). 230 Gra/yna (Mickiewicz). Zbigniew. 231 “Instructions for Crossing the Border” (Pagis). 93 Hermes. The” (Rakosi). 92 Homme approximatif. 26 “Experiment with a Rat. 213 “I Cannot Know . 1 “I Am a Realist” (Ró/ewicz). parts 2 and 4 (Mickiewicz). 247 “Harvests” (Pagis). 209 Illyés. 202 “Faris” (Mickiewicz). The Herbert. 3 Hammer of the Village. Cogito. Attila. István. 138 Forefathers’ Eve. and Other Poems. . and Other Poems (Herbert). 64 József. 156 Gyöngyösi. .” (Radnóti). 158 “Falling” (Ró/ewicz). 53 “Family Portrait. See Hammer of the Village. 101 Sarjúrendek. pies i gwiazda (Herbert). Three Generations” (Rakosi). Miklós. 194 Forefathers’ Eve. 177 “Happily Neighing. 234 Glatter. 109 “Forced March” (Radnóti). 212 “Family Circle” (Arany). 25 For My Brother Jesus (Layton). 168 Helység-kalapácsa. See One Sentence on Tyranny “Eighth Eclogue” (Radnóti). A. 140 Forgiven Submarine. 94 Enlightenment. The (Codrescu). 210 “I See the Mad” (Ró/ewicz). See Approximate Man “Horseshoe Finder. The (Suowacki). 92 Mr. 83 Futurism. L’. 177 Jónás könyve (Babits). 116 304 Critical Survey of Poetry Happy as a Dog’s Tail (Swir).Subject Index Egy mondat a zsarnokságról. 97-104 D¹lt vitorla. 192 “I Screamed in the Night” (Ró/ewicz). Gyula. 201 Facing the River (Miuosz). the Herds Graze” (Mandelstam). 194 Elegy for the Departure. 12 János the Hero (Pet¹fi). 30 Gdzie wschodzi suo½ce i kòdy zapada (Miuosz). 23 Epics. 4. 13 . 119 Hungarian poetry. 100 Nehéz föld. Miklós Godzinna mykli (Suowacki). 93 Studium przedmiotu. 100 Kézfogások. 157 Generation of ‘68. 168 Jealous Witness (Codrescu). 93 Napis. and Other Poems. 100 One Sentence on Tyranny. 93 Report from the Besieged City. pies i gwiazda. 138 Gucio zaczarowany (Miuosz). 32 Genezis z ducha (Suowacki). 14. The (Pet¹fi). 100 In Switzerland (Suowacki). 288 Juhász. 94 Hermes. The” (Mandelstam). See Clouds Folk poetry. part 3 (Mickiewicz). 8. 10 Kochanowski. Ignacy. Irving “Leningrad” (Mandelstam). A” (Radnóti). 157 Gucio zaczarowany. 20 Kölcsey. Boueslaw. 109 For My Brother Jesus. Irving. 154 Poemat o czasie zastyguym. 100 Khumish Lider (Manger). 230 “Law” (Radnóti). 160 Kwiatuo dzienne. 132 Kiss.” 119 Subject Index “Leningrad.” 119 Stone.” 116 “The Horseshoe Finder. 31 Krasicki. Israel Pincu. 1931-1987. 156 Mickiewicz.Eastern European Poets Kamen. Irving Peter. 160 Selected Poems. 7 Komunikat (Zagajewski). See Stone Kazinczy. Osip. 256 Mohn und Gedächtnis (Celan). 156 Ocalenie. See Layton. 141 Sonnets from the Crimea. Cogito (Herbert). 117 Manger. 153 Second Space. 25. 109 A Red Carpet for the Sun. 158 Gdzie wschodzi suo½ce i kòdy zapada.” 157 Miracle Fair (Szymborska). 1931-2004. 234 Król Popiel i inne wiersze (Miuosz). See Layton. 27 Król-Duch (Suowacki). See Talking to My Body Mr. 255 Konrad Wallenrod (Mickiewicz).” 120 Poems. 132 Miasto bez imienia (Miuosz). 138 Forefathers’ Eve. 181 “Like a Bull” (Radnóti). Jan. 112-123 “Happily Neighing. 138 Konrad Wallenrod. 264 Ludzie na mokcie. 29 “Levél Várady Antalhoz” (Pet¹fi). parts 2 and 4 . 139 “Midnight Duel” (Arany). 23 Krasi½ski. Irving Lazarovitch. See People on a Bridge “Man in Inhumanity” (Ady). 286 “Little Duck Bathes. Adam.” 131 Khumish Lider. 105-111 Balls for a One-Armed Juggler. 192 List (Zagajewski). 11 Kraków Vanguard. 119 “Slate Ode. powsta½ca grecki (Suowacki). 56 Miuosz. Itzik. Czesuaw. 155 A Treatise on Poetry. 191 Layton. 124-133 “The Bent Tree. József. 116 Tristia. 154 “You Who Have Wronged. 5 Kézfogások (Illyés). 156 Król Popiel i inne wiersze. 140 Gra/yna. 109 A Wild Peculiar Joy. the Herds Graze. 26. Zygmunt.” 140 Forefathers’ Eve. 139 Kosztolányi. 193 “Little Town in Siberia” (Tzara). 155 Lambro. 120 Lekmian. 158 Facing the River. Ferenc. 134-144 “Faris. 145-163 The Collected Poems. 155 Miasto bez imienia. Dezs¹. 286 Koniec i poczátek (Szymborska). part 3. 75 Mówiò do swego ciaua. 139 Pan Tadeusz. 93 305 . 45 Mandelstam. 155 Trzy zimy. Ferenc. 110 Lazarovitch. 44 Ojciec zad/umionych.” 181 The Hammer of the Village.” 167 “Harvests. 281 Poemat o czasie zastyguym (Miuosz).” 193 “Song.” 194 “I Cannot Know .” 183 “Tündérálom. See Canvas Podró/ na wschód (Suowacki). . 19-34 Political poetry. The” (Ró/ewicz). Andrei Pet¹fi. 153 Poems (Mandelstam). 17 Puótno. 170-188 “Bolond Istók. 179 Nehéz föld (Illyés). 222 People on a Bridge (Szymborska). The One Sentence on Tyranny (Illyés). 2 Parnassianism. Carl.” 202 “A Retrospect. Carl “Razglednicas” (Radnóti).” 194 “Forced March. 165 Points of Departure (Pagis). 165 Points of Departure. 14. See Codrescu. Callman. 232 “Poem for Adults” (Wa/yk).” 202 “The Experiment with a Rat. 263 “Prodigal Son.” 183 Clouds. 164-169 “Brain. 14 New Verses (Ady). 177 János the Hero.” 168 Poems by Dan Pagis. 154 Oda do wielokci (Zagajewski). Janus.Subject Index Napis (Herbert). Hungary.” 179 “Nemzeti dal. 287 Of All Mysteries (Ady). 289 Primele Poème (Tzara). György. Dan. See Mr. 27 Ocalenie (Miuosz).” 200 “The Review. mert. 189-196 “Eighth Eclogue.” 181 “Rózsabokor a domboldalon. Miklós.” 191 “Like a Bull. A” (Pet¹fi). Cogito Pan Tadeusz (Mickiewicz). Sándor. 42 Niemandsrose.” 179 Petri. 1957-1997 (Szymborska).” 195 “Second Eclogue.” 203 Rawley. 178 “Dalaim.” 201 “Family Portrait.” 181 “A Négy-ökrös szekér. 195 . 254 Perlmutter.” 192 Rakosi.” 182 “Szeretlek.” 192 “Law.” 192 “A Little Duck Bathes.” 193 “War Diary.. Die (Celan). 8. 255 Poems by Dan Pagis (Pagis). 100 “Nemzeti dal” (Pet¹fi). Kamil. . 211 Radnóti. 177 “Levél Várady Antalhoz. 93 “Négy-ökrös szekér. 26 Popiól i wiatr (Suonimski). 78 Norwid. See Rakosi. 223 Pragnienie (Zagajewski).” 193 “Razglednicas.” 183 306 Critical Survey of Poetry “Szeptember végen.” 168 “Instructions for Crossing the Border. 166 Pan Cogito. Three Generations.” 203 “VI Dirge. 197-205 “Domination of Wallace Stevens. See Father of the Plague-Stricken. 101 Pagis. 26. 166 Polish poetry. kedvesem. 119 Poems: New and Collected. 141 Pannonius. 185 New populists.” 185 “Reszket a bokor. Andrei. 233 The Father of the Plague-Stricken.” 210 “I See the Mad. 242 Studium przedmiotu (Herbert). mert” (Pet¹fi). 21 “Szeptember végen” (Pet¹fi). 244-248 Building the Barricade. 214 Renaissance. 231 Genezis z ducha. The” (Vörösmarty). 203 Romanticism. Sami. 246 Happy as a Dog’s Tail. 247 Syru6.” 209 “The Prodigal Son. 215 Red Carpet for the Sun. 77 Sprachgitter. 93 “Summons. A (Layton). 19 Report from the Besieged City. and Other Poems (Herbert). Mikolaj Sep. 203 Skamander. 109 Rej. The” (Rakosi). 200 Reviczky. Tadeusz. 247 Talking to My Body. Gyula. 116 Stryk. 234 Lambro. Antoni. Czeslaw Szabó. 275 “Sunday” (Tzara). Juliusz. 160 “VI Dirge” (Rakosi). 230 Podró/ na wschód . 238-243 And Still Birds Sing. See Sonnets from the Crimea “Song” (Radnóti). 231 Król-Duch. 182 307 . 26. 229 Socialist Realism. Anna. 225-237 Anhelli.” 214 “Falling. 193 Second Space (Miuosz). 206-217 “Alpha. 2 Renaissance. 202 Sto pociech (Szymborska). 253 Stone (Mandelstam).” 213 “Rózsabokor a domboldalon” (Pet¹fi). 119 Suonimski. 241 Awakening. 218-224 Popiól i wiatr. 230 In Switzerland. Tristan Ró/ewicz. 223 Subject Index Suowacki. See Tzara. 5. See Codrescu. Wallace. 183 Sarjúrendek (Illyés). 229 Beniowski. Andrei Stevens. 10 “Review. Mikolaj. 252 Sonety krymskie. See Milosz. 1931-2004 (Miuosz). Polish.” 211 Recycling. 286 “Slate Ode” (Mandelstam). Lucien. 31 Selected Poems. 139 Speech-Grille (Celan). 93 “Reszket a bokor. 215 ”Remembrance from a Dream in 1963.” 214 “To the Heart.Eastern European Poets Recycling (Ró/ewicz). Hungarian. 232 Wacuaw. 231 ?mija. 193 Sonnets from the Crimea (Mickiewicz). See Speech-Grille Steiu.” 212 “I Am a Realist. 160 Second Vanguard. powsta½ca grecki. 19 “Remembrance from a Dream in 1963” (Ró/ewicz). 234 Godzinna mykli. 100 “Second Eclogue” (Radnóti).” 213 “I Screamed in the Night. 24 Rosenstock. A” (Rakosi). L¹rinc. 13 Szarzy½ski. 30 Sklepy miòsne (Zagajewski). 232 Arab. J. 155 Swir. 20 Religious poetry. 3. 263 Kwiatuo dzienne (Miuosz). Andrei. 181 “Retrospect. 15 Sól (Szymborska). 255 Sto pociech. 1957-1997. 254 Poems: New and Collected. A (Layton). 54 Szymborska. See Treatise on Poetry. 54 Tóth. 154 “Tündérálom” (Pet¹fi). 278-283 “Poem for Adults. A (Miuosz). 286 Oda do wielokci. 253 “You Who Have Wronged” (Miuosz). 253 Sól. Adam. 264 308 Critical Survey of Poetry Új versek. 7. Wisuawa. Mihály. 259-268 Approximate Man.Subject Index “Szeretlek. 286 List. 288 ?mija (Suowacki). 117 Trzy zimy (Miuosz). 247 “To the Heart” (Ró/ewicz). 213 Toldi (Arany). 269-277 Csongor és Tünde. 69 “Welsh Bards.” 265 De nos oiseaux. 252 Wszelki wypadek. 252 Wielka liczba. 289 Sklepy miòsne. 229 Zrínyi. 157 Young Poland poetry. 77 Vörösmarty.” 281 Weight of the Body. Stanisuaw.” 264 Primele Poème.” 263 Vingt-cinq Poèmes. 288 Zalán futása (Vörösmarty). The” (Arany).” 275 Zalán futása. 254 Wild Peculiar Joy. 155 Trembecki. 274 “The Summons. 284-290 Canvas. kedvesem” (Pet¹fi). 256 People on a Bridge. János. A Treatise on Poetry. The (Bara½czak). and Other Writings. 51 “Török Bálint” (Alany). 252 World War I. 28 Zagajewski. 263 “Sunday. 231 “War Diary” (Radnóti). 264 Von Schwelle zu Schwelle (Celan). 264 “The Death of Guillaume Apollinaire. Adam. 183 “Szondi’s Two Pages” (Arany). 286 Ziemia Ognista. 266 “The Circus Performers. 272 Wacuaw (Suowacki). 288 Jechai do Lwówa. 288 Komunikat. 3 . 55 Wielka liczba (Szymborska). 32.” 264 “Little Town in Siberia. Árpád. 179 Tzara. 287 Pragnienie. 24 Tristia (Mandelstam. 253 Talking to My Body (Swir). 10 Vingt-cinq Poèmes (Tzara). 272 Ziemia Ognista (Zagajewski). 12 Traktat poetycki. Miklós. 110 Wouanie do Yeti (Szymborska). 192 Wa/yk. 254 Wouanie do Yeti. 255 Miracle Fair. 251 Koniec i poczátek. See New Verses Vajda. Tristan. 63 Wszelki wypadek (Szymborska). 249-258 Dlatego /yjemy.