Dutch Language

Dutch languageand Belgium.[9] For other uses of “Dutch”, see Dutch (disambiguation). The Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. In Middle Dutch, which was a collection of dialects, dietsc was used in Flanders and Brabant, while diets or duutsc was in use in the Northern Netherlands.[10] It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names ever used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe, meaning (pertaining to the language) of the people, that is, the native Germanic language. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the non-native language of writing and the Catholic Church.[11] In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, it refers to the Germanic dialects of Britain.[12] In the Oaths of Strasbourg (842) it appeared as teudisca to refer to the Germanic (Rhenish Franconian) portion of the oath. Dutch ( Nederlands ) is a West Germanic language that is spoken in the European Union by about 23 million people as a first language—including most of the population of the Netherlands and about sixty percent of that of Belgium—and by another 5 million as a second language.[2][3][5][6] Outside of the Low Countries, it is the native language of the majority of the population of Suriname, and also holds official status in the Caribbean island nations of Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten. Historical minorities remain in parts of France and Germany, and to a lesser extent, in Indonesia,[n 1] while up to half a million native speakers may reside in the United States, Canada and Australia combined.[n 2] The Cape Dutch dialects of Southern Africa have evolved into Afrikaans, a mutually intelligible daughter language[n 3] which is spoken to some degree by at least 16 million people, mainly in South Africa and Namibia.[n 4] Until roughly the 16th century, speakers of all the varieties of the West Germanic languages from the mouth of the Rhine to the Alps had been accustomed to refer to their native speech as Dietsch, (Neder)duyts or some other cognate of theudisk. This let inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages. Therefore, in the 16th century, a differentiation took place. Owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers. Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English[n 5] and is said to be roughly in between them.[n 6] Dutch, like English, has not undergone the High German consonant shift, does not use Germanic umlaut as a grammatical marker, has largely abandoned the use of the subjunctive, and has levelled much of its morphology, including the case system.[n 7] Features shared with German include the survival of three grammatical genders—albeit with few grammatical consequences[n 8] —and the use of modal particles,[7] final-obstruent devoicing, and V2 with subject–object–verb word order.[n 9] Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but fewer than English.[n 10] In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional LimburgishRipuarian dialects in the north-east of Belgium. Nederlands, the official Dutch word for “Dutch”, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, but received competition from the more popular terminology Nederduits, “Low Dutch”, for sev1 Name eral reasons. One of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, “High Dutch”, meaning the language spoMain article: Names for the Dutch language ken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German While Dutch generally refers to the language as a whole, language. Belgian varieties are sometimes collectively referred to The term Nederduits, however introduced new confuas Flemish. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the na- sion, since the non standardised dialects spoken in the tive official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects north of Germany came to be known as Niederdeutsch have their own names, e.g. Hollands “Hollandish”, West- as well, and thus the Duits reference in the name was Vlaams “Western Flemish”, Brabants “Brabantian”.[8] dropped, leading to Nederlands as designation to refer The use of the word Vlaams (“Flemish”) to describe to the Dutch language. The repeated use of Neder (or Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders “low”) to refer to the Dutch language is a reference to and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands 1 2 2 HISTORY the Netherlands’ downriver location at the Rhine–Meuse– Scheldt delta near the North Sea, harking back to Latin nomenclature, e.g. Germania Inferior.[13][14][15] See also: Netherlands (toponymy). 2 History Main article: History of the Dutch language Three Germanic dialects were originally spoken in the Low Countries: Frisian in the north and along the western coast; Saxon in the east (contiguous with the Low German area); and Franconian in the centre and south. It is the Franconian dialects that is designated as Old Dutch, and that would develop in Middle Dutch and later ModMap of the Pre-Roman Iron Age culture(s) associated with Protoern Dutch. The division in these development phases is Germanic, ca 500–50 BCE. The area south of Scandinavia is the mostly conventional, since the transition between them Jastorf culture. was very gradual. One of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. The development of the Dutch language is illustrated by the following sentence in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch: • Irlôsin sol an frithe sêla mîna fan thên thia ginâcont mi, wanda under managon he was mit mi (Old Dutch) • Erlossen sal [hi] in vrede siele mine van dien die genaken mi, want onder menegen hi was met mi (Middle Dutch) • Verlossen zal hij in vrede ziel mijn van degenen die [te] na komen mij, want onder menigen hij was met mij (Modern Dutch, same word order) • Hij zal mijn ziel in vrede verlossen van degenen die mij te na komen, want onder menigen was hij met mij (Modern Dutch, default word order)[16] The distribution of the primary Germanic dialect groups in • He will deliver my soul in peace from those who at- Europe in around AD 1: tack me, because, amongst many, he was with me North Germanic North Sea Germanic, or Ingvaeonic (English)[17] 2.1 Origin Within the Indo-European language tree, Dutch is grouped within the Germanic languages, which means it shares a common ancestor with languages such as English, German, and Scandinavian languages. All Germanic languages are united by subjection to the sound shifts of Grimm’s law and Verner’s law which originated in the Proto-Germanic language and define the basic differentiating features from other Indo-European languages. This assumed to have originated in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in Iron Age northern Europe.[18] Weser-Rhine Germanic, or Istvaeonic Elbe Germanic, or Irminonic East Germanic The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: West, East and North Germanic.[19] They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period. Dutch is together with English and German part of the West Germanic group, that is characterized by a number of phonological and morphological innovations not found in North and East Germanic.[20] The West Germanic varieties of the time are generally split into three dialect groups: Ingvaeonic (North Sea Germanic), Istvaeonic (Weser-Rhine Germanic) and Irminonic (Elbe Hebban olla vogala nestas hagunnan. loanwords in Old French. Old Dutch remained close to the original language of the Franks.. written by a Flemish monk in a convent in Rochester. later descended into Gaul where they gave their name to The oldest one first recorded has been found in the Salic it: France. In fact.The oldest conserved larger Dutch text is the Utrecht bapman. and in Germany mostly by Alemannic Ger. which may represent a primary record of 5th-century Frankish. is dated mostly be reconstructed from Old Dutch and Frankish around the year 1100. Although some placenames recorded in Roman texts could arguably be considered as the oldest “Dutch” single words. also known as Old Dutch. Probably the most famous sentence in France and Germany it remained in the Low Countries. From this Frankish document written around 510 nearly 300 years. England. the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law led to the development of Old Saxon. A notable exception is the Bergakker inscription. The latter would as a consequence evolve with Allemanic into Old High German.4 Middle Dutch opment. English: “mudflat”). I free you. went extinct the oldest sentence has been identified as Dutch: Maltho in most of France and also in all of Germany in around thi afrio lito (I say to you. hinase hic enda tu. Around the same time as it begins to decline I forsake the devil).. Although they ruled the Gallo-Romans for law. and Attestations of Old Dutch sentences are extremely rare. Frankish.. 2. found near the Dutch city of Tiel. in fact. Franks) and central Germany (Ripuarian Franks). it would seem that the language already experienced this characteristic during the Old Frankish peThe Franks emerged in the southern Netherlands (Salian riod. the Old Franconian language did not die out [.3 Old Dutch Main article: Old Dutch Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch is regarded as the primary stage in the development of a separate Dutch language.. and evolved into what we know call Old Low Franconian. like final-obstruent devoicing in a very early stage. their language.] completely. by judging from the find at Bergakker. It was replaced in France by Old French a serf. Old Frisian (Anglo-Frisian) and Old English (Anglo-Saxon).. influence). what are we waiting for). wat unbidan we nu (All birds have started making nests. Hardly influenced by either devel. but there is no consensus on the interpretation of the rest of the text. the people that would rule Europe Main article: Middle Dutch for centuries. as opposed to Central and high Franconian in Germany. It appears that the Frankish tribes fit primarily into the Istvaeonic dialect group with certain Ingvaeonic influences towards the northwest. The language itself is poorly attested. Old Frankish could except me and you. still seen in modern Dutch.2 The Frankish language Main article: Frankish language A Frankish identity emerged and so did their Frankish or Franconian language. At more or less the same time The Utrecht baptismal vow Forsachistu diobolae.[21] Area in which Old Dutch was spoken velopments on its own.. The “Low” in Old Low Franconian refers to the Frankish spoken in the Low Countries where it was not influenced by the High German consonant shift. serf) used to free the 7th century. Another old fragment of Dutch is Visc flot af(a Romance language with a considerable Old Frankish tar themo uuatare (A fish was swimming in the water).4 Middle Dutch 3 Germanic).2. tismal vow (776-800) starting with Forsachistu diobolae However.] ec forsacho diabolae (Do you forsake the devil? [. 2. did experienced de- . The language however. like vadam (modern Dutch: wad.2. the Bergakker inscription yields the oldest evidence of Dutch morphology. It was down the principle that the two countries must gear their over time tied to different political areas and is language policy to each other. although there are recognisable differences landic expansion”. and adjacent lands in Germany. mostly called Flemish. Under Spanish. law. In 1980 the Netherlands and Belgium the modern-day provinces of Dutch and Belgian concluded the Language Union Treaty. but it actually marks a time of profuse Dutch writing and during this period a rich Medieval Dutch literature developed. in the time the Eighty Years’ War in pronunciation. since Dutch is a rather conservative language. Since standardisation is a lengthy process.[22] when the Statenvertaling. such are leveled to a schwa. differences between standard British and standard • the Limburgish language. dialects but was predominantly based on the urban dialects of Holland of post 16th century. even Dutch Low Saxon.French language the variation in dialects was a serious land as its heartland. spoken by the people in American English. Therefore. Dutch Low Saxon is strictly speaking not an Middle Dutch dialect. where the Dutch Republic declared its independence from Spain. was spoken. Luxembourg) developments were different. in Middle Dutch. It was Netherlands over the centuries. comparable to the pronunciation took place in the Southern Netherlands. In 1585 Antwerp fell to the Spanish army: many fled to the Northern Netherlands. for a therefor the most divergent of the dialects. It used elements from various. They particularly influenced the urban dialects of the province of Holland. wards into other areas. The Middle Dutch dialect areas were affected by political boundaries.[23] • Flemish with the County of Flanders at its centre. In fact. spoken primarily in the Duchy of Brabant and adjacent parts. the situation less influential during most of the Middle Ages but in Belgium is essentially no different from that in the became more so in the 16th century during the “Hol.Dutch-speaking Belgium associated itself with the tlers from Flanders and Brabant and a new Frankish standard language that had already developed in the dialect with a Frisian substrate was created. The most notable difference between Old and Middle Dutch is in a feature of speech known as vowel reduction. then Austrian. There was at that time no overarching standard language. even partly influenced by the High German consonant shift and is the most distant to the later developed standard language to which it contributed little. But in competing with the • the Hollandic dialect. Following the contemporary political divisions they are in order of importance: CLASSIFICATION the Oversticht territories of the episcopal principality of Utrecht and adjacent parts of Guelders. The sphere of political influence of a certain ruler often also created a sphere of linguistic influence. In 1637. The year 1150 is often cited as the time of the discontinuity.5 Modern Dutch A process of standardisation started in the Middle Ages. with the language within the area becoming more homogenous. Middle Dutch is rather a collective name for a number of closely related dialects whose ancestor was Old Dutch. The dialects of Flanders and Brabant were the most influential around this time. But they were all mutually intelligible. It was common system of spelling. The people mixed with Frankish set. The an influential dialect during most of the Middle state. 2. among other things. Round vowels in word-final syllables are rather frequent in Old Dutch. a further important step was made towards a unified language. It was however the earliest Middle Dutch dialect that developed a literary tradition. yet Ages.4 3 Old Dutch naturally evolved into Middle Dutch. It had been influential during the earlier Middle Ages (the “Flemish expansion”) but lost prestige to the In the Southern Netherlands (now Belgium and neighbouring Brabantian in the 13th century.Dutch dialect. during the so-called “Brabantian expansion” more than half the Belgian population were speaking a in which the influence of Brabant was extended out. In the course of the nineteenth century the Flemish movement stood up for the rights of Dutch. was created that people from all over the new republic could understand. where originally Old Frisian disadvantage. and increasingly education used French. and then French rule standard• the Brabantian dialect. The process of standardisation became much stronger at the start of the 16th century. It did play a modest part in the formation of the standard Dutch language in later periods. which had the County of Hol. This treaty lays Limburg. mainly based on the urban dialect of Antwerp. especially under the influence of the Burgundian Ducal Court in Dijon (Brussels after 1477). the various literary works of that time today are often very readable for modern-day speakers. Since it has Old Saxon and not Low Franconian (Old Dutch) as ancestor. It was spoken in 3 Classification • Indo-European languages • Germanic • West Germanic • Low Franconian . It was isation of Dutch language came to a standstill. the first major Bible translation into Dutch.Netherlands. Unlike German. A (West) language and takes a special position within the Low Saxon Language. From the 17 century onward. The West Frisian well as the closely related varieties in adjacent East language. see the sections Morphology. Dutch Low Saxon used to be at one end of a dialect continuum with Low German dialects. has been influenced by the Frisian standard Dutch and the Stadsfries dialect. Grammar and Vocabulary. Dutch-based creoles Dutch belongs to its own West Germanic sub-group. Frisian standard language has also been developed.[24] The cumulation of these changes resulted over time in separate. its urban centers (Deventer. West Low Franconian. • Gronings. 4. Dutch stands out in combining a small degree of Ingvaeonic characteristics (occurring consistently in English and Frisian and reduced in intensity from 'west to east' over the continental West Germanic plane) with mostly Istvaeonic characteristics. because of a number of reasons.2 Extension across the borders Dutch dialects are remarkably diverse and are found in the Netherlands and northern Belgium.[26] Cross-the-border dialects now separated by a plain gap includes also South Guelderish / Limburgish at the Dutch side of the border and Low Rhenish at the German side of the border. Other West Germanic languages related to Dutch are German. as The province of Friesland is bilingual. but related standard languages with various degrees of similarities and differences between them. it was gradually integrated into the Dutch language area. From the 14th to 15th century onward. though not being Low Franconian and being close to neighbouring Low German. however the national border has given way to dialect boundaries coinciding with a political border. this group is Dutch synchronically but not diachronically. Closest relative is the mutual intelligible daughter language Afrikaans. comprising the provinces of Groningen.4. This group. is spoken here along with Frisia (Germany). paired with its sister language Limburgish. The IJssel river roughly forms the linguistic watershed here. Zwolle and Kampen as well as Zutphen and Doesburg) where increasingly influenced by the Westerly flavoured written Dutch and became a linguistically mixed area.1 First dichotomy 5 The simplified relation between the West Germanic languages. is regarded as Dutch.[27] Dutch dialects are primarily the dialects that are both cognate with the Dutch language and are spoken in the same language area as the Dutch standard language. and had some changes of its own. or East Low Franconian. . English and the Frisian languages. Drenthe and Overijssel. 4 Dialects Main article: Dutch dialects Low Saxon in the Netherlands 4. distinct from Dutch. because the traditional dialects are strongly influenced by the national standard varieties. and parts of the province of Gelderland as well. and the non standardised languages Low German and Yiddish.[25] In other words. • Dutch • Afrikaans.1 First dichotomy In the east there is a Dutch Low Saxon dialect area. of which some of them are also incorporated in German. spoken in Groningen (Netherlands). For a comparison between the West Germanic languages. Dutch (apart from Limburgish) has not been influenced at all by the 'south to north' movement of the High German sound shift. however only a very small and aging minority of the French-Flemish population still Belgium didn't choose to list any dialect as a minority lanspeaks and understands West Flemish. Hollandic is spoken. but there is a clear difference between the city dialects of Rotterdam. • West Flemish (Westvlaams) is spoken in West Flanders (Belgium). 4.4 Minority languages Limburgish has the status of official regional language (or streektaal) in the Netherlands and Germany (but not in Belgium). Flemish Brabant (Belgium) and North Brabant (Netherlands). 4. do not diverge from standard Dutch very much. . which are Hollandic dialects. Another group of dialects based on Hollandic is that spoken in the cities and larger towns of Friesland. Dutch dialects and their peripheries to the West (French Flemish) The West Flemish (Vlaemsch) dialect is listed as a mi. The urban dialects of the Randstad. the western part of Zeelandic Flanders (Netherlands) and historically also in French Flanders (France). The Hague. where it partially displaced West Frisian in the 16th century and is known as Stadsfries (“Urban Frisian”). Gronings is very much alive in the province of Groningen. especially north of Amsterdam. In some rural Hollandic areas more authentic Hollandic dialects are still being used. although it is not so popular in the city of the same name. • East Flemish (Oostvlaams) is spoken in East Flanders (Belgium) and the eastern part of Zeelandic Flanders (Netherlands). from the 16th century on.3 Holland and the Randstad In Holland. by Brabantian dialects) are now relatively rare. Dutch Low Saxon has also been elevated by the Netherlands (and by Germany) to the legal status of streektaal (regional language) according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. • Brabantian (Brabants) is a dialect spoken in Antwerp. Amsterdam or Utrecht. • Limburgish (Limburgs) is spoken in Limburg (Belgium) as well as in Limburg (Netherlands) and extends across the German border. though the original forms of this dialect (which were heavily influenced by a Frisian substratum and.and to the East (Meuse-Rhenish) nority language in France. It receives protection by chapter 2 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.6 4 DIALECTS • South Guelderish (Zuid-Gelders) is a dialect spoken in Gelderland (Netherlands) and in adjacent parts of North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany). Limburgish has been influenced by the Rhinelandic varieties like the Colognian dialect. and has had a somewhat different development since the late Middle Ages. while the letter “h” in West Flemish becomes mute (just like in French).1 Europe In that language. but reflect older. As a result. West Flemish is also spoken in Zeelandic Flanders (part of the Dutch province of Zeeland).7 a middle position (adults 44%. and in some cases consonants also shift pronunciation. West Flemish. About 15. for instance. West Flemish in particular has sometimes been considered a distinct variety. and by older people in French Flanders (a small area that borders Belgium). .000 students worldwide study Dutch at fix differences. they are aware of the problem. Brussels dialect combines Brabantian with words adopted from Walloon and French. including the dialects of Antwerp and Brussels. the city of Ghent has very distinct “g”. However. sometimes the suffixes even depend on quite specific grammar rules for a certain dialect.5 Recent use Some Flemish dialects are so distinct that they might be considered as separate language variants. and pronounce it similar to the h-sound. region. East Flemings) is that. making language in Germany and northern France's French Flanit easy to recognise people who didn't grow up in a certain ders. Though Belgium as a whole is multilingual. For example. The Brabantian dialect group.6 Flanders In Flanders. At an academic level. no difference between “held” (hero) and “geld” (money). where it is in the ultimate stage of language death. Suriname and the Dutch Antilles: Aruba. however. gions into which the country is divided (Flanders.[30] between -the. 4. it is still largely mutually intelligible with Dutch. the two reDialects are most often spoken in rural areas. Dutch is the majority language in the Nethertence. even decades after they moved. Again taking West Flemish as an example. “e” and “r” zones) are largely monolingual. children 22%). Dutch dialects and regional languages are not spoken as often as they used to be. respectively. -je. such as the European Union. an oddity of West Flemings (and to a lesser extent. and so does Limburgish. -ke. Sister and daughter languages Many native speakers of Dutch. 5. the voiced velar fricative (written as “g” in Dutch) shifts to a voiced glottal fricative (written as “h” in Dutch).In Europe. The different dialects show many sound shifts in different vowels (even shifting between diphthongs and monophthongs). For exam. Recent research by Geert Driessen shows that the use of dialects and regional languages among both Dutch adults and youth is in heavy decline. among children 31%) and Dutch Low Saxon least (adults 15%. differing a lot from the surrounding villages. also extends to much of the south of the Netherlands.). Dutch is also an official language of several international organisations. In 1995.cophone Wallonia. and hyper-correct the “h” into a voiced velar fricative or g-sound.. Often simple suffix shifts (like switching university.7 Sister and daughter languages 7 guage. 12 percent of the primary school aged children spoke a dialect or regional language. frana lot of cities have a distinct city dialect. Frisian occupies 4. Or in some cases. 5 Geographic distribution See also: Dutch diaspora Dutch is an official language of the Netherlands proper. both in Belgium and the Netherlands.sounds..4. East Flemish and Limburgish. Union of South American Nations [29] and the Caribbean Community. because of the already complicated language situ. but had influences from various other languages in South Africa. Dialect borders of these dialects do not correspond to present political boundaries. including French Flemish. the words “ja” (yes) and “nee” (no) are also conjugated to the (often implicit) subject of the sen. In 1995. children 1%). These separate grammar rules are a lot more diffi. Afrikaans evolved mainly from 17th century Dutch dialects. assume that Afrikaans and West Frisian are dialects of Dutch but are considered separate and distinct from Dutch: a daughter language and a sister language. bilingual Brussels and small 'facility' ple. -ske. when West Flemish try to talk Standard Dutch. This leaves f. there are ample examples of suftries. (West) Frisian evolved from the same West Germanic branch as Old English and is less akin to Dutch. there are four main dialect groups: Brabantian.e. Curaçao and Sint Maarten. again leaving no difference. medieval divisions. they're often unable to pronounce the g-sound. Of the three officially recognized regional languages Limburgish is spoken most (in 2011 among adults 54%. while in 2011 this had declined to 4 percent. while in 2011 this was no more than 11 percent.lands (96%) and Belgium (59%) as well as a minority cult to imitate correctly than simple sound shifts. Dutch is taught in about 175 universities in 40 counNext to sound shifts. The ation that appears in the country. 27 percent of the Dutch adult population spoke a dialect or regional language on a regular basis. 4. although the strong significance of language in Belgian politics would prevent the government from classifying them as such. The Netherlands and Bel- . Belgium. however. and the Catholic Church continued to preach and teach the catechism in Flemish in many parishes.500 to 2. as the Asian bulk of the Dutch East Indies. Western New Guinea. the largest number of faculties of neerlandistiek can be found in Germany (30 universities). the Dutch language is not spoken by many Papuans. the area around Calais was historically Dutch-speaking (West Flemish) of which an estimated 20. many elementary schools continued to teach in Dutch. films.[48] Despite prolonged Dutch presence.[40] Dutch is taught in var.000 in the German states of Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia. kebun binatang (“zoo”) on dierentuin (literally “animal garden”). the fluency that they could hold an everyday conversation.[45] Nevertheless. remained a Dutch colony until 1962. Each year. until World War I.[34] During the second half of the 19th century Dutch was banned from all levels of education by both Prussia and France and lost most of its functions as a cultural language. Many universities therefore include Dutch as a source language. the 'wild east' of the Dutch East Indies.179 people speaking Dutch at home. known as Netherlands New Guinea. for example.[47] many of which are transliterated to reflect phonetic pronunciation e. Dutch is not afforded legal status in France or Germany.2 Asia and Australasia GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION tant of which is the Erasmus Language Centre (ETC) in Jakarta.000 pupils are enrolled in Dutch courses.second half of the 19th century onwards. while bus (“bus”) becomes bis.[36] At an academic level. the Nether- .2 Australasia After the declaration of independence of Indonesia.In contrast to the colonies in the East Indies. Yet the Indonesian language inherited many words from Dutch: words for everyday life as well as scientific and technological terms. followed by over 23.3 Americas ployed in the legal profession. or em. the Dutch chose not to follow a policy of language expansion amongst the indigenous peoples of their colonies. the Dutch government remained reluctant to teach Dutch on a large scale for fear of destabilising the colony.[31] Dutch is a monocentric language.[46] One scholar argues that 20% of Indonesian words can be traced back to Dutch words. Gravelines and Bourbourg only became predominantly French-speaking by the end of the 19th century. In addition.[44] In the last quarter of the 19th century.[49] At the 2006 New Zealand Census.5. the most impor. mainly for law and history students. the colony having been ceded to Indonesia in 1963. 5. Dutch is mainly taught in primary and secondary schools in areas adjacent to the Netherlands and Flanders. some 1.[30] Unlike other European nations.[43] In Indonesia this involves about 35. reported to speak Dutch to sufficient years.[42] Owing to centuries of Dutch rule in Indonesia. Dutch lacks a prestige dialect and has a large dialectal continuum consisting of 28 main dialects. These account for some of the differences in vocabulary between Indonesian and Malay.g.[32][33] Outside of the Netherlands and Belgium.982 people. The cities of Dunkirk.[45] After independence. either by the central or regional public authorities and knowledge of the language is declining among younger generations.000 in the French region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais (of which 4. Immigrant communities can be found in Australia and New Zealand.2.2. many Indonesian words are calques on Dutch. kantoor (Dutch for “office”) in Indonesian is kantor. many old documents are written in Dutch. 26. was supposed to remain in the hands of the leading elite. In French-speaking Belgium.[41] In total. followed by France (20 universities) and the United Kingdom (5 universities).000 students take Dutch courses there. from the ious educational centres in Indonesia.1 Asia 36. several thousand Indonesians study Dutch as a foreign language. Dutch.000 daily speakers.[36][37] 5. or 0. the language of power. undangundang dasar (“constitution”) from grondwet (literally “ground law”). rumah sakit (Indonesian for “hospital”) is calqued on the Dutch ziekenhuis (literally “house of the sick”). with all speakers using the same standard form (authorized by the Dutch Language Union) based on a Dutch orthography employing the Latin alphabet when writing.[39] as some legal codes are still only available in Dutch.000 students.[50] Dutch language has no official status there[38] and the small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation.70 percent of Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost 350 the total population. The 2006 Australian census showed 5. the dialect around the German town of Kleve (South Guelderish) both historically and genetically belongs to the Dutch language.8 5 gium produce the vast majority of music. over 300. books and other media written or spoken in Dutch.550 are in primary school). and about 7. In Northeastern France. Dutch was dropped as an official language and replaced by Malay. a local elite gained proficiency in Dutch so as to meet the needs of expanding bureaucracy and business. In both Germany and France the Dutch standard language is largely absent and speakers of these Dutch dialects will use German or French in everyday speech. which can themselves be further divided into at least 600 distinguishable varieties.[35] As a foreign language. In the countryside. In stark contrast to its written uniformity. nationalism the local “African” Dutch was preferred over Skepi (in Essequibo. is Sranan Tongo. Until 1863.S. spoke Dutch as his first language and is the only U. Flemish and other northwest European farmer (in Dutch.[55] The lingua franca of Suriname. all parts of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. slaves were forbidden to speak Dutch.4 Africa 9 Martin Van Buren. this number reaches 160.[45][51] In Suriname today. secUnited States Virgin Islands). which attracted large numbers of Dutch. Dutch is the sole official language. an almost extinct dialect of Dutch.[36][63] In Canada.[52] and over 60 percent of the population speaks it as a mother tongue. Africa. this reinforced the use of Dutch as a means for direct communication. Berbice (in Guyana).[59] Other Dutch-based creole lan. stating “the word Dutch in article 137 [.[66] In 1925.[31][57] the population speaking Afrikaans in the home In Aruba. The location of Suriname in South America According to the 2000 United States census. when under pressure of Afrikaner Dutch (in Albany. what is now Afrikaans. New York).[65] 5.396 people spoke Dutch at home.4 Africa The location of the Dutch Caribbean in the southern Caribbean Main article: Afrikaans The largest legacy of the Dutch language lies in South lands envisaged expansion of Dutch in its colonies in the West Indies.[61] while according to the 2006 Canadian census. even for non-native speakers. Another famous American born in this region who spoke Dutch as a first language was Sojourner Truth. was still spoken as late as 1921.[56] spoken natively by The distribution of Afrikaans across South Africa: proportion of about a fifth of the population. However.. Dutch prevailed for many generations as the dominant language in parts of New York along the Hudson River.[54] Suriname gained its independence from the Netherlands in 1975 and has been an associate member of the Dutch Language Union since 2004. the first Afrikaans In the United States. Dutch settlers in Bergen and Passaic counties. European-based standard. Curaçao and Sint Maarten. as most of the people in the Colony of Surinam (now Suriname) worked on Dutch plantations.[60] .[64] and the fifth most spoken non-official language overall (by 0. Guyana) and Negerhollands (in the the written.European Dutch remained the literary language[67] until guages once spoken in the Americas include Mohawk the start of the 1920s. 150. newspaper called Die Afrikaanse Patriot was published in Jersey Dutch.[53] A further twenty-four percent of the population speaks Dutch as a second language.000 Dutch speakers. 20 universities offer Dutch studies in the United States. the eighth President of the United States..[62] At academic level. spoken by descendants of 17th-century [68] the Cape Colony.[5] Dutch is the obligatory medium of instruction in schools in Suriname. French and German. boer) settlers.6% of Canadians).[66] The long isolation from the rest of the Dutch-speaking world made the Dutch as spoken in Southern Africa evolve into [67] In 1876. all of whom were quickly assimilated. Dutch is the fourth most spoken language by farmers.] is hereby declared to include ingly called Pennsylvania German. however. after English. President to have spoken a language other than English as his first language.5.[58] although most native-born people on the islands can speak the language since the education system is in Dutch at some or all levels.Africa was amended by Act 8 of 1925. Pennsylvania Dutch is not tion 137 of the 1909 constitution of the Union of South a member of the set of Dutch dialects and is less mislead. when slavery was abolished in the West Indies. Dutch is the official language but spoken as a first language by only 7% to 8% of the population. Like most Germanic languages. and also the development of /ft/ → /xt/ though it is far more common in Dutch (Du zacht and LG sacht vs.[74] In South Africa. tively in 11 percent of households. comin the same dialect area. See also: Differences between Afrikaans and Dutch tem did not undergo the High German consonant shift and has a syllable structure that allows fairly complex consonant clusters. the Dutch consonant sys- • The lateral /l/ is slightly velarized postvocalically in most dialects. Dutch has final-obstruent devoicing: at the end of a word. but Du kracht vs. see the full article at Dutch phonology. notably Dutch Gold Coast.[83] • /x/ and /ɣ/ may be true velars [x] and [ɣ].5%).[30] Elsewhere in the world. the number of people learning Dutch is relatively small. . For example. and also the shift in /θ/ > /d/. like show and bagage ('baggage'). It is the third language of South Africa in terms of Notes: native speakers (~13. voiced uvular fricative [ʁ]. spelling and grammar) be asymmetric.8 • The realization of /r/ phoneme varies considerably million people[75] and is estimated to be a second lanfrom dialect to dialect and even between speakers [81] guage for at least 10 million people worldwide. Dutch doesn't have phonological aspiration of consonants[82] . although less in Dutch than in German (Du zeven. uvular trill [ʀ]. voicing distinction is neutralised and all obstruents are pronounced voiceless. Ochsen and Eng foxes.[77] It is the ter /a/ and /ə/ and often also at the beginning of a lingua franca in Namibia. goede (“good”) is /ˈɣudə/ but the related form goed is /ɣut/. ossen and LG Vösse. particularly in the north. The main realisation is a labiodenBelgian colonial presence in Congo and Rwanda-Urundi tal approximant [ʋ]. for an alveolar trill [r]. Dutch did not participate in the second consonant shift. Dutch shares only with Low German the development of /xs/ > /ss/ (Du vossen. [ɹ]. The more palatal realisations are common in southern areas.[80] In total. This is particularly common with /ɣ/ but can affect others as well. and speaker. as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand written Afrikaans than it is for Afrikaans speakers to understand written Dutch. held under League of Nations in the south. • /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ are not native phonemes of Dutch. uvular [χ] and [ʁ] or palatal [ç] and [ʝ]. It is estimated that between 90% to 95% of Afrikaans vocabulary is ultimately of Dutch origin. vogel becomes voël (“bird”) and regen becomes reën (“rain”). legacy. dialectal differences and example words. Dutch shares with German Final-obstruent devoicing (Du brood [broːt] and German Brot vs Eng bread). and usually occur in borrowed words.[71][72] Both languages are still largely mutually intelligible. alveolar tap [ɾ]. but is incent of South Africans reported to know Afrikaans at serted before vowel-initial syllables within words afleast at a very basic level of communication. Eng seven and LG seven [s]). since the academic study of Afrikaans inevitably includes the study of Dutch. Dutch also retains full use of the velar fricatives that were present in Proto-Germanic. was too ephemerous not to be • The realization of /ʋ/ also varies somewhat by area wiped out by prevailing colonizing European successors. like garçon. Germ Füchse. is difficult to estimate. Ossen vs. e. • Some northern dialects have a tendency to devoice all fricatives regardless of environment. and vocabulary items are generally altered in a clearly patterned manner. 40 per• [ʔ] is not a separate phoneme in Dutch.1 Consonants Unlike other Germanic languages. • /a/ is not a native phoneme of Dutch and only occurs in borrowed words. 6 Phonology Main article: Dutch phonology For further details on different realisations of phonemes. and alveolar approximant Dutch colonial presence elsewhere on the black continent. oxen). [2] Dutch.[75] of whom 53 percent are Coloureds and 42.[76] In 1996. Like English. while uvulars are common in the north. Afrikaans is the first language in South Africa alone of about 6. Germ sieben [z] vs.[66][78][79] where it is spoken naword. Germ sanft and Eng soft. use a bilabial approximant [β̞] or a mandate and later UN trust) left little (Flemish) Dutch labiovelar approximant [w].[69][70] The constitution of 1983 only listed English and Afrikaans as official languages. Common realisations are [5] pared to over 23 million and 5 million respectively.[73] Afrikaans is grammatically far less complex than Dutch.g. but some speakers. particularly (Burundi and Rwanda.10 6 PHONOLOGY Afrikaans”. LG/Germ kraft and Eng cognate craft). although this relation can in some fields (such as lexicon. but lost or modified in many other Germanic languages. as French was the main colonial language. 6. Voicing of pre-vocalic initial voiceless alveolar fricatives occurs. the number of students following Dutch at university.4 percent Whites. and /œy/.y u/). while they Vowel length is not always considered a distinctive fea. increasingly lowered. All diphthongs end in a close vowel (/i may be considered redundant. /ɑi/ and /ɔi/ are rare in Dutch.g. in the 1970s. mostly from French. begin with three consonants.4 Phonotactics ically longer than their short counterparts..6. The “long/tense” diphthongs. Salz. new loanwords have nants.g. are generally ture in Dutch phonology. and occur only also traditionally distinguished by length or tenseness. and is comparable to the English Great Vowel Shift. and was pioneered by older welleducated women from the upper middle classes. even if not considered part of the phonemic opposition. (like the English vowel y) which does not normally lead to confusion among native listeners.[86] The lowering of the diphthongs has long been current in many Dutch dialects.6. fore coda /l/ as well. “should” have lowered the diph- . herfst /ɦɛrfst/ 'autumn'. and ⟨ui⟩. Dutch did not develop i-mutation as a morphological marker and shares with most Germanic languages the lengthening of short vowels in stressed open syllables. found in the word slechtstschrijvend /ˈslɛxtstˌsxrɛi̯vənt/ Notes: 'writing worst' with 7 consonant phonemes. which makes this change an instance of a chain fore an /r/ in the syllable coda. [au]. glish. Similar is angstschreeuw /ˈɑŋstsxreːu̯/ “scream in fear”. as in Enwith length remaining the primary distinguishing feature. the long/tense vowels are still realised as phonet. and [œy] renounced more closed or as centering diphthongs be. Compare interessantst 'most interesting'. This is view because it has apparently happened relatively recently. making the 6.4 Phonotactics 6. and in some there may be little difference at all. Dutch” by Jan Stroop.are indeed realised as proper diphthongs. bout and bout corresponds with Low German Gold. slight.nounced as diphthongs now.g. German Gold. sterkst /stɛrkst/ 'strongest'. There are words that end in four consolength with a change in vowel quality.and South Holland. as [ɛi]. ergst /ɛrxst/ 'worst'. Bolt. The tendency for native English speakers is to pronounce Dutch names with /ɛi/ (written as ij or ei) as /aɪ/. Many words. and [ay] respectively. yses prefer to treat it as an opposition of tenseness. some recent loanwords have introduced distinctively long /iː yː uː/. One feature or the other a glide /j/ or /ʋ/. Stroop theorizes that the lowering of open-mid to open diphthongs is a phonetically “natural” and inevitable development and that Dutch. because it normally co-occurs analysed phonemically as a long/tense vowel followed by with changes in vowel quality.[85] These speakers pronounce ⟨ij/ei⟩. Balt and English gold. creating the diphthong /ɑu/ e. zonne(n) [ˈzɔnə] (“suns”) versus zone [ˈzɔːnə] (“zone”) the last three of which are superlative adjectives. after having diphthongised the long high vowels like German and English. Solt. /eː/. and the diphthongisation of long high vowels in Modern High German.The syllable structure of Dutch is alects. followed by vocalisation of pre-consonantal /l/ and after a short vowel. in some words. salt. However. which used be pronounced as • The long open-mid vowels /ɛː œː ɔː/ only occur in a /ɛi/. versus zonen [ˈzoːnə(n)] (“sons”). All three are commonly the only ones considered unique phonemes in Dutch. (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C).2 Vowels 11 the most common diphthong along with /ɛi œy/. since in a number of dialects (e. which has been dubbed “Polder ern dialects. This may occur be. with six • The distinction between /i y u/ and /iː yː uː/ is only in a row. A notable change in pronunciation has been occurring in • The long close-mid vowels /eː øː oː/ are realised as younger generations in the provinces of Utrecht. Dutch has an extensive vowel inventory. and /øː/ are pro• The long close and close-mid vowels are often pro. e. as [ai]. This change is interesting from a sociolinguistic point of 6.spectively. bold. Instead.shift. for example. and may be considered allophonic for most purposes. front unrounded and front rounded. /oː/. North slightly closing diphthongs [eɪ øʏ oʊ] in many north. However. Like English. The changes in vowel quality are also not always the same in all di. reintroduced phonemic oppositions of length. /ʌu/. straat And while it is true that older words always pair vowel /straːt/ (street). Dutch goud. or kroes [krus] (“mug”) The highest number of consonants in a single cluster is versus cruise [kruːs] (“cruise”). They are grouped here by their first element. Vowels can be grouped as back rounded. in Amsterdam[84] ) the same pronunciation is heard. They are In contrast.5 Polder Dutch length distinction marginally phonemic. ⟨ou/au⟩. handful of loanwords. which centuries earlier reached the state now found in Polder Dutch.. [ɔu]. which has led to contrastive vowel length that is used as a morphological marker.3 Diphthongs See also: IJ (digraph) Unique to the development of Dutch is the collaps of older ol/ul/al + dental into ol + dental. and some phonemic anal. de and het. and LG mi. je. There are also genitive forms for the pronoun die/dat Here the past tense is formed by changing the vowel of the (“that [one]. Other usage is typically Standard Dutch uses three genders to differentiate be. Dutch the dative or accusative as well as use of 'der' in the dahas grammatical cases. you. For the idiomatic masculine and feminine genders have merged to form the use of the articles in the genitive. feminine and neuter is in use). which has verb morphology in English. Germ mich/mir dich/dir). see for example: common gender (de). the genitive case still occurs a litabout 60% of all verbs.de or -te). but strong past participle (-en) or a strong past dard.In Dutch the irregular verbs are the least numerous. such as now archaic case declensions. of which 5 have an frozen in an “intermediate” state by the standardisation of internal variant allowing for 12 different patterns of strong Dutch pronunciation in the 16th century. but not in Belgium Main article: Dutch grammar where common/masculine. he argues. This pattern is not uniform and Dutch distinguishes Instead. Dutch and German. See also: DT-Manie Modern Dutch has mostly lost its case system. poetic or stylistic. however. (the dictionary of the Frisian language) 7. the the normal definitive article 'de' or 'het'. followed by matical gender. stem. more complex than English. forms of the articles are also often found in surnames and In modern Dutch. largely fallen out of use and generalised the dative over the accusative case for certain pronouns (Du me.. this vowel Like in English. Now. This gender system is similar to those of • Masculine singular: "des duivels" (litt: of the devil) most Continental Scandinavian languages.considered archaic. Eng me. namely diens for masculine . but weak past participle. Among Belgian and Surinamese Dutch speakers and 7. while the neuter (het) remains distinct as before. in his opinion. are commonly used in idioms. see only “the”. • Neuter singular: de vrouw des huizes (the lady of the house) • Plural: de voortgang der werken (the progress of (public) works) Weak verbs are the most numerous verbs. Strong verbs are the second most numerous verb group. Du/LG: common and neuter.[87] However. this development has been artificially between 7 classes of strong verbs. Dutch has four main verb types: weak verbs. the newly affluent tense (vowel change). the role of Polder Dutch with the urban variety of British English pronunciation called Estuary English. diphthongs found in rural dialects were perceived as ugly Mixed verbs are verbs which have a weak past tense (by the educated classes and accordingly declared substan. strong verbs. The use of the older inflected form den in Germanic weak verb and Germanic strong verb). as the plural article is 'der' for all genders and no special noun inand past participle are formed with a dental suffix: flection must be taken account of. Dutch has a case system and subjunctive shift is not taking place. As in English.12 7 GRAMMAR thongs like German and English as well. certain idioms and expressions continue to include Dutch is grammatically similar to German. the past tense tle more often with plurals than with singulars. but velopment take place in their speech. e.stances. Stroop compares most used verb forms. adjective and noun endings) has simplified • Feminine singular: het woordenboek der Friese taal over time. Inflected toponyms. surnames and to pronouns and a large number of set phrases. the preposition 'van' is instead used. The article has just two in syntax and verb morphology (for a comparison of forms.g. constituting In contemporary usage. (common proverbial meaning: Seething with rage) but to a lesser degree.1 Verbs and tenses When grouped according to their conjugational class. and independent women can afford to let that natural de. where lowered verb conjugation. di vs. In weak verbs. 'Der' is commonly used in order to avoid reduplication of 'van'. those [ones]"). Dutch 7 Grammar has also fewer grammatical genders than German (Eng: none.2 Genders and cases speakers from other regions in the Netherlands. but these are now mostly limited tive are restricted to numerous set phrases. the genitive articles 'des’ and 'der' toponyms. irregular verbs and mixed verbs. the inflectional grammar of the language (e. In most circumtween natural gender and three when discerning gram.g. het merendeel • Weak verbs with past in -de der gedichten van de auteur instead of het merendeel van de gedichten van de auteur (“the bulk of the author’s po• Weak verbs with past in -te ems”). But for most non-Belgian speakers. the genitive case which is still used in Ger. In the case of words like “het meisje" (the girl). Nouns and adjectives are not case inflected (except for the genitive of proper nouns (names): -s. Der Herr des Hauses) and other inflections no on the ending of the word: longer in general use today. Though the gentien (ten) – tientje (a ten-euro note) itive is widely avoided in speech. mij. such as ik (I). A diminutive ending can also be appended to an adsubject–object–verb word order.7. Although usually avoided in common speech. Also koning (king) – koninkje in this case. wier (whose: feminine singular. the logic behind the word order can be seen. This makes Dutch word order almost identical to that of German. etc. me (me). The adjective receives no ending with indefinite neuter nouns in singular (as with een /ən/ 'a/an'). 7. the relative and interrogative pronoun wie If the sentence is split into a main and subclause and the (“who”) has the genitive forms wiens and wier (corre. in the morning) and “desnoods” (lit: of the need. which translates into English • Hij vertelde van zijn zoon en diens vrouw.3 Word order . as in “a goode man”. In the spoken language cases and case inflections had already gradually disappeared from a much earlier date on (probably the 15th century) as in many continental West Germanic dialects.4 Diminutives More complex inflection is still found in certain lexicalized expressions like de heer des huizes (literally. In an interrogative main clause the usual word order is: conjugated verb followed by subject. but in standard English word order would be written "I cannot find my pen because it is far too dark".4 Diminutives and neuter singulars and dier for feminine singular and all plurals. 7.suffixes and the radical can come extra letters depending man.[88] • Hij vertelde van zijn zoon en zijn vrouw. -'s or -').) Note that fiets belongs to the masculine/feminine category. Analogically. masculine. which can be abbreviated using apostrophes. in het jaar des Heren (Anno Domini). too dark is". The Dutch written grammar has simplified over the past 100 years: cases are now mainly used for the pronouns. but often different from English. where "ring (ring) – ringetje en” is actually the genitive ending of the weak noun. These diminutives are very common. in this case “kan” (can).verbs highlighted. but less frequent in use). Compare: 13 conjugated verb is moved into the second position in what is known as verb second or V2 word order. but in main clauses the verb or adjective (but not when followed by a noun). Common examples include "'s ochtends” (with 's as abbreviation of des. Inflection of adjectives is more complicated. and that water and huis are neuter. German retains this feature. – He told word for word as "I can my pen not find because it far about his son and the latter’s wife. other verbs in final position: "Waarom kun jij je pen niet vinden?" ("Why can you your pen not find?") "Why can't you find your pen?"" In a tag question the word order is the same as in a declarative clause: "Jij kunt je pen niet vinden?" ("You can your pen not find?") "You can't find your pen?"" A subordinate clause does not change its word order: "Kun jij je pen niet vinden omdat het veel te donker is?" ("Can you your pen not find because it far too dark is?") "Can you not find your pen because it’s too dark?"" An adjective has no e if it is in the predicative: De soep is koud. mijn (my). wiens (whose: masculine or neuter singular). e.g. In such lexicalized expresboom (tree) – boompje sions remnants of strong and weak nouns can be found too. sponding to English “whose”. feminine or neuter plural). these forms can be used instead of possessive pronouns to avoid confusion. wie (who). These are usually remnants of cases (in diminutive and -jes for plural diminutive. translated: if necessary). the man Dutch nouns can take endings for size: -je for singular of the house). which has subject–verb– object word order and has since lost the V2 word order that existed in Old English. Between these this instance. courses and textbooks is "Ik kan mijn pen niet vinden omdat het veel te donker is". – He told An example sentence used in some Dutch language about his son and his (own) wife. Dutch exhibits der. Main clause: "Ik kan mijn pen niet vinden " Verbs are placed in the final position. Dutch also has a range of fixed expressions that make use of the genitive articles. but the conjugated verb. these forms often occur in writing . As in German. other verbs in final position: "Kun jij je pen niet vinden?" (literally "Can you your pen not find?") "Can't you find your pen?" In the Dutch equivalent of a wh-question the word order is: interrogative pronoun (or expression) + conjugated verb + subject. and -e in all other cases. is made the second element of the clause. Subclause: "omdat het veel te donker is " The verb or verbs always go in the final position. this is different from the natural genDutch shares with German: Word order. all diminutives are neuter. (This was also the case in Middle English. cf. Dutch is written using the Latin script.[94] Dutch language street sign in the Netherlands Like most Germanic languages. From English. An example of five consecutive doubled let- . Netherlands 1947.6 Compounds ential until the mid of the 19th century. as a consequence of the gaining power of Britain and the United States.7%. but this number is still on the increase. influ7. The longest serious entry in the Van Dale dictionary is wapenstilstandsonderhandeling (ceasefire negotiation).[91] Conversely. the less frequent they tend to be. Unlike English.8%. instead giving preference to the diminutives using -je. ihn. manic -z (which later became -r) in monosyllabic words with an additional share of loanwords of 20%. the digraph IJ. some Dutch people. the 45. both amended in the 1990s after a 1995 spelling revision). small) – een kleintje (a small one) pij (health insurance company) though the shorter ziektekostenverzekeraar (health insurer) is more common. diminutives are frequently formed with -ke(n). him. Dutch has taken over words since the middle of the 19th century. and the loss of Ger. a political party).e.pronouns (Du hij. where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in open form with separating spaces.Dutch vocabulary is predominantly Germanic in origin. or more than a third of all loanwords. where the first noun modifies the category given by the second (hondenhok = doghouse). The share of English loanwords is about 1. both vowels and consonants. and has since then for centuries plaid a major role as the language of science and religion. Dutch contributed many loanwords to English. that has been spoken for centuries in the south of hem/haar or z'n eigen. Dutch forms noun compounds. but the longer they get. more commonly known as “het groene boekje” (i.[92] The main Dutch dictionary is the Van Dale groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal containing some 268. ihnen).3%. It has a relatively high proportion of doubled letters. LG wi vs Germ wir) 12th century and culminating in the French period has The reflexive pronoun zich (Germ sich) was originally been French and (northern) French. Dutch uses one additional character beyond the standard alphabet.000 entries. making it the largest dictionary in the world in print with over 430.5 Pronouns and determiners Dutch shares with English and Low German the presence 8 Vocabulary of h. This scholarly endeavor took 147 years to complete and contains all recorded Dutch words from the Early Middle Ages onward. Dutch allows arbitrarily long compounds. a practice sometimes dubbed de Engelse ziekte (the English disease). hem. Dutch dialects (like in English) the usual reflexive is Latin. Germ er. like some Scandinavians and Germans. based on a 1944 spelling revision. Belgium 1946. the Low Countries. but only occur rarely in writing.826 headwords. The Woordenlijst Nederlandse taal. her vs.[90] The main foreign influence on Dutch vocabulary since the (Du/Eng we. nowadays tend to write the parts of a compound separately. being similar to German -chen. follows with 6.1%. is usually accepted as an informal explanation of the law.5%.[89] 7. “the green booklet”. Leafing through the articles of association (Statuten) one may come across a 30-letter vertegenwoordigingsbevoegdheid (authorisation of representation). because of its color). account for 2. Notwithstanding official spelling rules. accounting for 1. hun and Eng he. which is why in all other estimated 6. Dutch (like the other Germanic languages) either uses the closed form without spaces (boomhuis = tree house) or inserts a hyphen (VVD-coryfee = outstanding member of the VVD. In Belgian Dutch. An even longer word cropping up in official documents is ziektekostenverzekeringsmaatschap- 9 Spelling and writing system Main articles: Dutch orthography and Dutch Braille The official spelling is set by the Wet schrijfwijze Nederlandsche taal (Law on the writing of the Dutch language. High German and Low German. haar. Like German.[93] In the field of linguistics.000page Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is also readily used.14 9 SPELLING AND WRITING SYSTEM klein (little. due to the formation of compound words and also to the spelling devices for distinguishing the many vowel sounds in the Dutch language. accounting for an borrowed from Limburgish. ihr. 400.000 Indonesians spoke Dutch. Its most common use is to differentiate between the indefinite article 'een' (a. [2] 410. Some younger Indonesians learn Dutch as a foreign language because their parents and grandparents may speak it and because in some circles.000 to 100. p. For example. see Simpson 2009. Erdentuğ & Colombijn 2002.000 and 400. p. 161. Many older Indonesians speak Dutch as a second language. Dutch is spoken by “smaller groups of speakers” in Indonesia. xxxi. p.5% of the inland population had a reasonable knowledge of Dutch. see European Commission 2010. 104. 83.15 • Dutch-based creole languages • Flemish • French Flemish • Grand Dictation of the Dutch Language • Indo-European languages • Istvaeones • List of English words of Dutch origin • Low Dietsch Dutch uses the digraph IJ as a single letter. p.000 in USA. other diacritical marks only occur in loanwords. Between 200. A dialect continuum exists between Dutch and German through the South Guelderish and Limburgish dialects. "beïnvloed” (influenced). pp. only a remnant of between 50. Around 25% of present-day Indonesian vocabulary can be traced back to Dutch words. There are about 80. see Maier 2005. 12. in addition to specialists who require knowledge of the language. p. At the beginning of World War II. see McGoldrick. about 0. 62–64. Some of the ethnic Chinese in Indonesia speak Dutch amongst each other. In 1941. The diaeresis (Dutch: trema) is used to mark vowels that are pronounced separately when involving a pre. • Low Franconian • Meuse-Rhenish • Middle Dutch • Old Frankish 11 Notes A comparison of letter frequency between Dutch. . In 1941. 10 See also • Bargoens • Dutch braille • Dutch grammar • Dutch Language Union • Dutch linguistic influence on military terms • Dutch literature • Dutch name • Dutch orthography [1] In France. 536. a historical dialect called French Flemish is spoken. see Ammon 2006. only educated people of the oldest generation.000 Dutch speakers in France. 91. 307. p. 17. 2017. Shown is a bus road marking. 307. p. 90.000 in Australia. see Thomson 2003. while an additional half million had a passive knowledge. p.000 Flemishspeakers remain. Giordano & Garcia-Preto 2005. see Simpson 2009. see Sneddon 2003. p.000 in USA alone. In French Flanders. p. 159. see Bussmann 2002.or suffix. but zee-eend (sea duck). see Jones 2008.000 occasional speakers. see Vos 2001. Whereas a hyphen is used when this problem occurs in compound words. see Maier 2005. about one million Asians had an active command of Dutch. an) and the numeral 'één' (one). and Dutch exerted a major influence on Indonesian. 80. 47. Generally.000 daily speakers and 40. English and German ters is the word voorraaddoos (food storage container). p. Flemish is spoken in the north-west of France by an estimated population of 20. though the acute accent can also be used for emphasis or to differentiate between two forms. p. Dutch is regarded as the language of the elite. can speak Dutch fluently.000 in Canada. At present. p. see Berdichevsky 2004. see Tan 2008. 134. see Ingram 1989. p. the closest relative of English. see Deumert & Vandenbussche 2003. Jansen. 309. Niesler. Mennen. Auer & Kerswill 2005. 307. see Sebba 2007. 251. About 9 million people speak Afrikaans as a second or third language. Palmer 2001. p. of which a third are first-language speakers. Simpson 2009. Myers-Scotton 2006. 494. p. p. It is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. Baker & Prys Jones 1997. 6. see Page & Sonnenburg 2003. pp. 495. p. For written mutual intelligibility. 2015) Zealandic (Zeeuws) at Ethnologue (18th ed. see Webb 2003. case markings have become vestigial in English and Dutch. 121. 134. CIA 2010. Onysko & Michel 2010. with a similar word order to that of German. 7. for Dutch and German this is SV1 OV2 or (in subordinate clauses) SOV. p.. Berdichevsky 2004. Booij 1995. p. Kamwangamalu 2004. 16.. p. 105. 210. p. p. p. 83.. see Sonnenschein 2008. p. 116. 338. see Alant 2004. see Ingram 1989. Dutch and English are closely related. 149. 144. Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic. p. An estimated 40 percent of South Africans have at least a basic level of communication in Afrikaans. 5. Sebba 1997. 134. p. Proost 2006. 131. which has SVO as the underlying word order. p. p. p. see Réguer 2004. Afrikaans is rooted in 17th century dialects of Dutch. 307. 8. p. p. In South Africa. 3. [6] Dutch is traditionally described as morphologically between English and German. 302. p. over 23 million people speak Afrikaans. see Lightfoot 1999. see Clyne 2003. Müller 1995. Sebba 1997. 6. 7. see Bussmann 2002. Simpson 2009. 18. 1. 71. Afrikaans has over 5 million native speakers and 15 million second language speakers. Mesthrie 1995. p. In contrast to English. p. or a deviant variety of Dutch. p. p. p. p. 364. De Bot. 20. Swan & Smith 2001. Adegbija 1994. 3. Classe 2000. grammatical gender. 2. p. see Hogg 2002. p. p. Egil Breivik & Håkon Jahr 1987. p. p. p. 79. Afrikaans has 16. p. p. 6. p. p. Page & Sonnenburg 2003. Baker & Prys Jones 1997. p. 333. see de Swaan 2001. p. 130. see Booij 1995. [10] Dutch vocabulary has more Germanic words than English and more Romance words than German. 19. Simpson 2008. p. 16. p. p. see Webb 2003. see Putnam 2011. p. Levelt & Gerrits 2006. Conradie 2005. 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Original artist: Htonl • File:Speaker_Icon.png Source: https://upload.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/ South_Africa_2011_Afrikaans_speakers_proportion_map.svg as of 2010-05-14T23:16:42 Original artist: version 1 by Nohat (concept by Paullusmagnus).org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Niederl%C3%A4ndische_ Dialekte.png.svg Source: https://upload.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo.0 .svg License: CC BY-SA 3.wikimedia.png License: CC BY-SA 4.svg Source: https://upload.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided.svg Source: https://upload.png Source: https://upload. based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber 15.png Source: https://upload.png Original artist: LocationNetherlandsAntilles.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: GJo • File:South_Africa_Afrikaans_speakers_proportion_map.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/OldDutcharea.wikimedia.png License: CC BY 2. The map results from my own processing of the data.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Parentesi_Quadre.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Niederländische_Dialekte.wikimedia.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw • File:Wiktionary-logo-en.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: selbst gezeichnet) Original artist: Et Mikkel at German Wikipedia • File:OldDutcharea.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Koart_Leegsaksisch.png: User:Vardion • File:LocationSuriname.wikimedia.png Source: https://upload. waves corrected by Zoid • File:Map_Dutch_World_scris.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Letter-frequency_ West-Germanic.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/LocationSuriname.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.wikimedia.png Source: https://upload. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims).org/wikipedia/en/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.wikimedia.wikimedia.0 Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) • File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.wikimedia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Statistics South Africa’s Census 2011 is the source of the basic population data.