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Document on Biology of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) in India Gurinder Jit Randhawa Shashi Bhalla V. Celia Chalam Vandana Tyagi Desh Deepak Verma Manoranjan Hota National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi Project Coordinating and Monitoring Unit Ministry of Environment and Forests New Delhi Published in 2006 © National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi Project Coordinating and Monitoring Unit, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi Copies can be obtained from : The Director National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110012, India Printed by : Alpha Lithographics Inc., New Delhi-110028 Ph.: 9811199620, 41495131 PREFACE PREFACE botany. Government of India is bringing out Document on Biology of Rice (Oryza sativa L. genetic diversity and pests which may be used as a tool by those tasked with assessing the environmental safety of transgenic rice that may be released into the environment. including its taxonomic status. reproductive biology.) in India. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources. This document will surely serve as a useful reference for an effective and systematic risk assessment of transgenic rice in Indian conditions. Sharma) . K. This document is intended to provide an exhaustive information about the biology of rice in India. (S. cultivation.FOREWORD FOREWORD Under the GEF-World Bank funded project on Capacity Building for the Implementation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. New Delhi in association with the Project Coordination and Monitoring Unit of Ministry of Environment and Forests. New Delhi. President AGBIOS. Plant Quarantine Division. L. Agricultural and Rural Development Department. for bringing out this important document. former Directors. Dr. Khetarpal. Senior Scientist. Senior Adviser. Professor. Contribution of Dr. S. NBPGR and Coordinator of the project in bringing out of this document is especially acknowledged. guidance and encouragement of Dr. USA. R. Sharma. Sanjeev Saxena. Dhillon and Dr. S. This document would not have been possible without the consistent support and guidance of Dr. The special interest taken by Dr. The unstinted support. Research Associates. Adjunct Professor. Government of India. B. Monika Singh and Mr. G. University of California. CRRI.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of Dr. D. Head. Director. NBPGR for the chapter VII “Rice genetic diversity in India” was indeed very valuable. Hyderabad. Genetics Division. the World Bank for bringing out this document is greatly acknowledged. Karihaloo. Dr. Canada for reviewing this document. The contributions of Dr. Khush. E. (Gurinder Jit Randhawa) Project Investigator . NBPGR and coordinators of the project. K. Conservation Division. Morven. of the project for bringing out this document are also acknowledged. S. NBPGR for the chapter VIII on “Pests of rice” are especially acknowledged. Former Head. S. which is gratefully acknowledged. J. K. The contributions of Dr. ANGRAU. Department of Biotechnology. I also gratefully acknowledge the financial and technical support of the GEF.World Bank and Project Coordination and Monitoring Unit of Ministry of Environment and Forests. Sridhar. Cuttack and Dr. Sharma. Siddiq. A. Davis. Eija Pehu. Scientist. B. Former Director. . Celia Chalam. Dhillon. Germplasm Exchange Unit. its taxonomy. Scientist. NBPGR Dr. Vandana Tyagi. NBPGR Co-Principal Investigators Dr. Division of Plant Quarantine. pests and diseases etc. L. Government of India. Development and standardization of diagnostic tools for detection of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) and the traits expressed by them for the transgenic material under exchange Development of biology document for rice for centres of origin/diversity. Director. Karihaloo. NBPGR Objectives: 1. V. J. Gurinder Jit Randhawa. K. Division of Plant Quarantine. NBPGR (upto 31st January 2006) Dr. Scientist (Sr. genetics. Sr. S. NBPGR Dr. description of wild and weedy relatives. S. Sr. Human Resource Development: To conduct training courses/workshops on Biosafety and hands on training on LMOs detection using Enzymelinked Immunsorbent Assay (ELISA) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-based techniques. Shashi Bhalla. Scientist. Scale). 3. Ministry of Environment and Forests. NBPGR (upto 26th July 2005) Dr.PROJECT DETAILS PROJECT DETAILS Title: GEF-World Bank aided Capacity Building Project for the Implementation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in India September 2004 to June 2007 Period: Source of Funding: World Bank and Project Coordinating and Monitroring Unit (PCMU). Former Director. NRCDNFP. 2. Sr. NBPGR Principal Investigator Dr. Sharma. New Delhi Team Members: Project Coordinators Dr. CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE SECTION I SECTION II SECTION III SECTION IV RICE AS A CROP PLANT TAXONOMIC STATUS CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY BOTANY OF RICE (a) General Morphological Characteristics of Genus Oryza (b) Subdivision of Genus Oryza on the Basis of Morphological Characters REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY (a) Sexual Reproduction (b) Asexual Reproduction (c) Reproductive Barriers CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA (a) Rice Growing Regions (b) Rice Ecosystems (c) Cropping Patterns RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA (a) Aromatic Rice Germplasm (b) Rice Germplasm with Medicinal Value (c) Hybrid Rice Cultivars (d) Exotic Germplasm (e) Germplasm Sources for Various Traits (f) Indian Rice Varieties Released in Other Countries (g) Dominant Weed Flora in Rice Fields in India PESTS OF RICE STATUS OF TRANSGENIC RICE IN INDIA REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 SECTION V 8 SECTION VI 11 SECTION VII 15 SECTION VIII SECTION IX SECTION X 29 64 65 . but also is the livelihood for over 70 per cent of the population in the traditional rice growing regions (Figure 1). It is grown in almost all the states of India. Bihar. especially in the states of Andhra Pradesh.SECTION I . Maharashtra. Besides being the chief source of carbohydrate and protein in Asia. provides 20 per cent of the calories and 15 per cent of protein consumed by world’s population. Rice straw and bran are important animal feed in many countries. Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. rice not only forms the mainstay of diet for majority of its people (>55 per cent). which together contribute about 97 per cent of the country’s rice production.RICE AS A CROP PLANT Rice (Oryza sativa L. covering more than 30 per cent of the total cultivated area.RICE AS A CROP PLANT 1 SECTION I . Orissa. Its cultivation is mostly concentrated in the river valleys. Contributing about 42 per cent to country’s food grain production. deltas and lowlying coastal areas of northeastern and southern India. . It is a nutritious cereal crop. Tamil Nadu. Being grown worldwide. Karnataka. Assam. Kerala. India is the largest rice growing country accounting for about one-third of the world acreage under the crop. it also provides minerals and fibre. Chhattisgarh. it is the staple food for more than one and a half of the world’s population.) is one of the three major food crops of the world. ex C. glaberrima.) Baill.2 SECTION II TAXONOMIC STATUS DOCUMENT-ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. domesticated in western tropical Africa is confined to that part of the world alone. IV.) IN INDIA SECTION II . O. rhizomatis Vaughan O. family: Gramineae (Poaceae) and tribe: Oryzeae. brachyantha A. sativa and the African O. II. O. granulata Nees et Arn. eichingeri A. grandiglumis (Doell) Prod. 2000. Chev. The species belonging to Meyeriana. meridionalis Ng O. longistaminata A. viz. Table 1: Species complex of the genus Oryza and their geographical distribution Species Complex Chromosome Number 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 48 48 24 24 48 48 48 24 48 24 24 48 48 24 48 Genome AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA BB CC BBCC BBCC CC CC CCDD CCDD CCDD EE BBCC GG GG HHJJ HHJJ Geographical Distribution South & Southeast Asia Tropical Asia Tropical Asia Tropical Australia Tropical America Tropical West Africa West Africa Africa Africa Sri Lanka Philippines. A. rufipogon Griff. sativa L. Meyeriana. The species are either diploid with 2n=24 chromosomes or tetraploids with 2n=48 chromosomes. latifolia Desv. F. New Guinea East Africa & Sri Lanka Central & South America Central & South America South America Northern Australia Tropical Africa South & Southeast Asia Southeast Asia Indonesia. Chev. The basic chromosome number of the genus is n=12.S. Based on genome analysis and degree of sexual compatibility. et Mor. Chev. the primary genepool of rice is known to comprise the species of Sativa complex. schlechteri constitute the tertiary genepool (Khush. O. barthii A. f. et Roehr. sativa. schlechteri Pilger FF West & Central Africa HHKK Indonesia. D. glaberrima Steud. On the basis of crossability and ease of gene transfer. glaberrima. O. Officinalis Complex/ Latifolia complex O. Sativa complex O.. New Guinea Source: Brar and Khush. O. 2003 . O. E. Ridleyi Complex O. O. while the species belonging to Officinalis complex constitute the secondary genepool. H and J and unclassified in five complexes. the Asian O. Ridleyi complexes and O. officinalis Wall. schweinfurthiana Prod. O.B. The genus Oryza is distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics of the world (Table1). alta Swallen O. III. Crosses between O.Presl. meyeriana (Zoll. sativa and the species of Officinalis complex can be accomplished through embryo rescue technique. ex Watt O. The genus consists of 23 wild and weedy species and two cultivated species. minuta J. namely Sativa. domesticated in Asia has now spread to almost all the rice growing areas of the world. O. V. ex Watt O. while O. 2000). O. ex Steud. glumaepetula Steud. New Guinea South India (Kerala) Asia. B. et Roehr. the species have been grouped under nine distinct genomes. C. et Chandr. New Guinea Southeast Asia I. viz.Pesl. ridleyi Hook.. Meyeriana Complex O. Peter O. Siddiq. malamphuzensis Krishn. et Roehr. longiglumis Jansen O. G. O. punctata Kotschy ex Steud. O. australiensis Domin. Unclassified (belonging to no complex) O. nivara Sharma et Shastry O. Officinalis. Ridleyi and Unclassified (Table 1). O.TAXONOMIC STATUS Rice belongs to the genus: Oryza. The wild progenitors of O. O. O. The diversity in these centres is being lost rapidly with many rice growers shifting to modern cultivars. Schematic representation of the evolutionary pathways of Asian and African cultivated rices . During the course of time. glaberrim a (A g A g ) Indica Ja pon ica Tro p ic al ja po nica ( Ja van ic a) Figure 2. 1979). Now. viz. These perennial and annual forms although were treated as a single species. sativ a (A A ) Tem p erate ja po nica O . spon ta nea O . rufipogon by some biosystematists (Second.. and the delta of River Niger in Africa for that of O.CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY 3 SECTION III . perenn is ) A sian rice (So u th a n d S o u th -w e st A sia) A fric an rice (Tro p ical A frica ) W ild p e ren n ia l O . 1986). nivara. rufipo g on (A A ) O . Morishima and Oka. Schematic representation of evolutionary pathways of the Asian and African cultivated rices is shown in Figure 2. glaberrima is the swampy basin of Upper Niger. Now they are recognized as two distinct species. 1976.CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY Archaeological and historical evidence points to the foothills of Himalayas in the North and hills in the North-east of India to the mountain ranges of South-east Asia and South-west China as the primary centre of origin of Oryza sativa.SECTION III . lo ngistam in ata (A A ) W ild an n u a l O . 1982. South-east Asia and southern China. respectively (Chang 1985). longistaminata endemic to West Africa. 1978. the African rice. The primary centre of diversity for O. rufipogon and O. Oka et al. glaberrima. glaberrima are grown as mixtures of varying proportions by West African farmers (Chang. Annual forms might have gradually developed in plateau regions of eastern India. namely O. 1985). The wild progenitor of the African cultivar O. These areas are characterized by topological heterogeneity and are considered to be the centres of rice diversity. ba rthii (A A g ) C u ltiv ate d an n u a l O . which show wide variation ranging in their habit from perennial to annuals.. sativa is considered to have been domesticated between 9000 and 7000 BC. glaberrima is O. O. nivara (A A ) W ee d y an n u a l race s O . C o m m o n a n cesto r (O . sativa are the Asian common wild rices. stap fii O . they differentiated into two ecogenetic groups: indica and japonica (temperate and tropical japonicas) (Chang. sativa and O. abromeitiana in which base of the leaf is so constricted that it appears as if it forms a petiole.g. grandiglumis.) IN INDIA DOCUMENT . Like stalks.BOTANY OF RICE The Asian cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) and its allied taxa that occur in Asia present a continuous array of morphological features. latifolia. Leaf lamina All rices can be divided into 2 groups according to the shape of lamina: Ø Those having linear-lanceolate leaves. short underground shoots densely covered with sheathed leaves are present. smooth and firm in species living in meadows and woods. sativa where they are geniculately ascending. subulata. Ø Those having a lanceolate-like or elongate-lanceolate shape. granulata and O. (a) General Morphological Characteristics of Genus Oryza Root system The root system is fairly well developed in all species of rice. ends in a small hollow with bent neck.4 SECTION IV ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. e. the leaf sheath. Annual species have long but slightly branched adventitious roots whereas a main root and subterranean shoots are completely absent. O. rooting at the nodes and sometimes producing new shoots at these points. sativa complex by Tateoka (1962). Leaf sheaths Leaf sheaths are always open and glabrous along the edge. The leaf sheaths of all rices are grassy. sativa having long acicular linear leaves. Stalks Stalks are erect or ascending in all rices except in O. in which the length of the leaf is so much greater than the width that they appear ribbon-like. Auricles In all the species of rice except O. latifolia and O. so that the whole group has been termed as O. leaf sheaths also have a clearly marked or ribbed venation and become keel-like by the protrudation of the midvein in the upper part of the sheath beneath the leaf lamina.. or with lower branches branching once but the .g. O. In O. leaf sheaths may possess cilia.BOTANY OF RICE SECTION IV . In perennial rices. sometimes wooly hairs. recumbent. i. Ligule The ligule is oblong or blunt and 1-5 mm long in most of the species. e. O. In some of the species like O. and have air passages in that part of sheath submerged in water in species inhabiting bogs. The updated and comprehensive botany of rice has been reviewed by Nanda and Sharma (2003).e. Inflorescence In all rices a panicle with branches that branch 1-2. the ligule is short but breaks up at the apex into a row of hard. officinalis. where it passes into the leaf lamina. glabrous or ciliated edges called auricle. O. Ø Rice with orbicular spikelet. those in which the length although greater than width is less than twice width. subulata and O.5 mm long coalescent glumes. grandiglumis. orbicular or obliquely oblong. O. as in O. O. i. all rices can be divided into 3 groups: Ø Rice with narrow spikelets. O. grandiglumis. stapffi. O. coalescent branches. sativa where during the ripening of fruits the spikelets do not drop off but remain on the branches. brachyantha. O.SECTION IV . ridleyi. Spikelets Spikelets are always upright. Cyathiform enlargement of pedicel is mostly horizontal and attached to base of spikelet. grandiglumis. it is less distinct in the cultivated species O. schelechteri and keel-shaped as in O. latifolia. i. However. . those in which the length is more than three times the breadth as in O. schlechteri.BOTANY OF RICE 5 upper ones not branching at all that is. O. breviligulata. brachyantha. In O. ridleyi. australiensis. O. Articulation Articulation is present in all rice species between lower and upper empty glumes. representing lower pair of empty glumes. granulata. it is a wide panicle with many spikelets. latifolia and O. stapfii. O. pedicel is drawn out at its extreme apex so that the cup-shaped enlargement is placed almost vertically and attached somewhat laterally to base of the spikelet. minuta and O. sativa and O. O. whereas in O. O.e. abromeitiana and O.5 times the breadth as in O. O. compressed from sides. Ø cyathiform as in O. granulata. breviligulata.e. O. The shape of inflorescence also depends on the frequency of branching and for majority of rices is oblong or fusiform. O. the branches are also glabrous. it is almost linear with small spikelets. longistaminata. Upper empty glumes Upper empty glumes are almost always distinct. glaberrima. coarctata. Pedicels of spikelets and lower empty glumes Pedicels of spikelets are short. They are: Ø linear or linear-lanceolate as in most rice species Ø subulate or setaceous as in O. those in which the length is 2-2. about 0..e. subulata. Axis of inflorescence is ribbed in all species and appears to be composed of individual.. punctata and O. Ø Rice with broad spikelets. smooth lower down but gradually become sharp scabrous in upper part. 1-6 mm long and have distinct ridges on both sides ending in cyathiform enlargement consisting of two wide. officinalis. Like the axis of inflorescence. O. O. with an inflorescence constructed in the lower part as a panicle but in the upper part as a raceme. sativa. In O. coarctata. It is fairly distinct in most of the species because the spikelets fall easily on ripening of seeds. i. Branches of inflorescence occur on axis in 1-4 irregular whorls. brachyantha. with deep longitudinal grooves and blunt ribs.. According to spikelet shapes. compressed from sides. with 3 veins.. punctata and O. minuta Presl. O.. elliptical or orbicular. (b) Subdivision of Genus Oryza on the Basis of Morphological Characters Based on morphological characters and geographical distribution of different species. which is longer than the glume but not longer than 60 mm: O. feathery and dark-violet or almost black. and O... Lodicules In all species. in upper part terminating along the external edge in small beak. (i) Sativa Roshev. O. Stigmas Stigmas are uniform. The most widespread group. O. O. Cheval. depending on shape and size of the spikelet. brachyantha. longistaminata. O. breviligulata A. glaberrima Steud. O. lodicules are uniform. australiensis.6 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. the awn of all species of rice can be divided into: Ø awnless: O. australiensis Dom. latifolia Desv. O. then turn dark brown.) IN INDIA Flowering glumes Flowering glumes are always leathery or hard-leathery with small traversely intersecting rows of small tubercles over entire surface. stapfii Roshev. keel-shaped with 5 veins. annuals and perennials. linear or linear-lanceolate upper empty glumes. breviligulata and O. O. lower flowering glumes are compressed from the side. Small fruits of rice are initially yellowish. Stamens The stamens have about 2-2. Upper flowering glume is always considerably lower than one. O. The anthers dehisce through a longitudinal slit. 1-8 mm long. O.. sativa L. To this section belong: O. the following sections may be established within the genus Oryza. i.5 mm long linear-oblong anthers. glabrous. longistaminata A. abromeitiana. et Roehr. O.. which is generally extended into a small point or long awn. they are orbicular and tapering only lightly at the apex. subulata.. schlechteri Ø short awn in which the awn is shorter than the glume itself: O.. Prod. grandiglumis Prod. granulata and O. Fruits Fruits are small. O. In all species. et Roehr... stapfii. in cross-section.. flowering glumes with distinctly crosswise intersecting rows of small tubercles. et Roehr. minuta. O. The awns of rice are usually filiform or setaceous. O. O. Cheval. latifolia. . glaberrima. coarctata and O.e. ridleyi Ø moderately long awn.. Awn According to its length. Ø very long awn 60-200 mm: O. ovate-circular or orbicular. O. Cheval. embracing the whole area of distribution of the genus. oblong. punctata Kotschy. officinalis Wall. SECTION IV . comparatively large oblong spikelets drawn out at the apex into a long cone filled with spongy tissue. To this section belong: O.BOTANY OF RICE 7 (ii) Granulata Roshev. ridleyi Hook. perennials or less frequently annuals. coarctata Roxb. Found only in South-east Asia. Occurs only in South America. brachyantha A. awl or bristleshaped upper empty glumes. longitudinal dotted stripes. cyathiform upper empty glumes. passing over into an awn.. flowering glumes showing an almost smooth surface with minute. . O. This section comprises only one species. schlechteriana Pilger. O. flowering glumes with minute tuberculate-corrugated or verrucose surface. Embraces South-east Asia and northern Australia. perennial. (iii) Coarctata Roshev. O. awl-shaped or bristle-shaped upper empty glumes. Cheval. lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate spikelets. To this section belong: O. and O. f. abromeitiana Prod. (iv) Rhynchoryza Roshev. with 3-5 veins. subulata Nees. perennials. et Roehr. granulata Nees and O. The F1 plants are highly pollen-sterile.ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Germinability of pollen lasts only for a few minutes after being shed from anther under favourable temperature and moisture conditions. but about one-thirds of the F1 embryo sacs are normal and functional. 1988). (ii) Interspecific crosses O. the sterility problem. lower fertility and seedset. The F1 fertility. sativa. Most of the wild species have larger and longer stigma. 1969).. stapfii in Africa) is not uncommon. With the discovery of wide compatibility gene (s) in some of the varieties. spontanea in Asia and O. however. F1 plants of crosses within the indica or japonica groups generally show high fertility and seedset. according to it. 1967). glaberrima are often grown as mixtures in various proportions in West African rice fields (Chu et al. cross-pollination between annual/ perennial species and cultivars in natural habitats where they grow side by side leading to hybrid swarms (O. Only one pollen tube reaches the ovule to initiate double fertilization. has been overcome resulting in more productive varieties and hybrids of indica/japonica background. even though experimental hybridisation is easy. Oka and Morishima. 1971. 1988) (Table 2). which has six anthers with more than 1. sativa is basically self-pollinated. 1988. sativa and O. natural outcrossing can occur at a rate of up to 0. Crosses between the two groups show. Virmani and Edwards.000 pollen grains in each.) IN INDIA SECTION V . The barrier of hybrid sterility in indica/japonica crosses has been intensively studied since early fifties and genic and chromosomal models have been proposed to explain the sterility.8 SECTION V REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY DOCUMENT.. the range being quite wide and varied depending on the parental choice. Nevertheless. Immediately after the spikelet opens at flowering. which protrudes well outside the spikelet. percentage outcrossing is generally higher in indicas than in japonicas (Table 2) (Oka.. Fertilization occurs in a spikelet. The pollen of cultivated rice loses its viability within three to five minutes while that of wild rice remain viable up to nine minutes (Koga et al. natural outcrossing can occur between them. but natural hybrids between them are rare. and an ovule with a branched stigma. Outcrossing in such cases can be avoided by planting cultivars with sufficiently different duration in adjacent fields or by time isolation by adopting sufficiently different dates of planting. Maturation of pollen in an anther is synchronized with maturation of ovule within the same spikelet.REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY (a) Sexual Reproduction Oryza sativa is basically an autogamous plant propagating through seeds produced by selfpollination. facilitating increased percentage of outcrossing (Parmar et al. Constellation of a set of traits characteristic to them besides F1 semisterility has justified them to consider now as subspecies or geographical groups under O. Pham. cannot be the criterion for classifying Asian cultivars into indica and japonica groups (Oka. while ovules keep their viability to receive pollen for several days after maturation. When different cultivars of the same maturity group are planted side by side in a field or in adjacent fields. Among the ecotypes of O. (i) Outcrossing rates Although O. perennis. pollen disperses and germinates on the surface of the stigma. 1979. perhaps due to co-evolution from a common progenitor O. 1983). which are compatible with both japonica and indica varieties. 1991).5% (Oka. Outcrossing is several times higher in the wild species as compared to cultivars under the ‘A’ genome itself. sativa. The two species resemble each other. Backcrosses can be made with pollen of either of . glaberrima and its wild progenitor O. The hybrids in both cases. ridleyi and O. F1 inviability (early embryo abortion). 1989). F1 weakness. 1979. nivara and O. however. (b) Asexual Reproduction O. sativa is considered to have been inherited from its ancestral species O. The wild rices with AA genome are distributed throughout the humid tropics such as Asian (O. barthii and O. 1989). Artificial crosses between O. Desired gene transfer has been achieved through a series of backcrosses. Species belonging to BB. The hybrids show partial sterility (Sharma and Shastry. BBCC. American (O. blast and bacterial leaf blight besides cytoplasmic male sterility (Khush and Ling. whose parents have AA genome in common show no significant disturbances in meiotic chromosome pairing (Chu et al. sativa and distantly related species are difficult to achieve. Under natural conditions. These new tillers. viz. nivara (the progenitor species) cross with O. F1 sterility and hybrid breakdown (Oka. 1991). 1969). Haploid plants are easily obtained through anther culture. The gene loci that have been examined are identical in the two species (Sano. sativa and produce hybrid swarms. nivara and O. They are of annual growth habit and resemble each other in most of the botanical characters (Oka. success rate was very low (Katayama and Onizuka.. rufipogon and O. are highly male and female sterile (Sitch. rufipogon (Morishima et al. hardly survive to facilitate gene flow between the two species.. resistance to brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) and white-backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera) from O. The perennial character in O. tiller buds on the basal nodes start to re-grow after harvest. All these phenomena have been found in crosses of cultivated rice and its wild relatives.. O. Sitch et al. brevigulata similarly cross under natural environment resulting in hybrid swarms. They become diploid spontaneously or when artificially treated with polyploidizing agents (Niizeki and Oono. sativa and more distantly related species such as O. longistaminata). O. minuta (Amante-Bordeos et al. 1990).. sativa. For instance. glumaepatula) and Oceanian (O. embryo rescue is the approach to obtain F1 hybrids and first backcross progenies. officinalis (Jena and Khush. In some countries/situations. called “ratoon” grow best under long-day conditions. rufipogon have been extensively used as donor sources for many valuable traits of value which included resistance to grassy stunt virus. O. In such cases. sativa (0-30% seedset) than the more distantly related EE and FF genome species. Most natural hybrids incompatible due to genetic and physiological differences. African (O. Cell/ tissue culture techniques can be used to propagate calli and reproduce tissues or plants asexually under appropriate cultural conditions. although is an annual and propagated by seed. The relatively high percentage seed sets (9-73%) can however be obtained through artificial hybridization of O. (c) Reproductive Barriers Viable hybrids between O. meyeriana although have also been reported. The postfertilization barriers are of four types. Anther culture is widely used as a rapid breeding method in rice. can be maintained vegetatively as a perennial under favourable water and temperature conditions. 1992) have been transferred by repeated backcrossing with O. 1974). CC. farmers grow rice as a ratoon crop to obtain a second harvest in a short period. 1988). In nature. or CCDD genomes are relatively more crossable with O.. 1990) and to blast and bacterial blight from O. while doubled haploids serve as material for basic research in molecular mapping and tagging of genes of interest. 1988).SECTION V .REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY 9 the parents. 1968).. sativa. sativa with these AA genome wild species (Sitch et al. . 1963). 1965). meriodinalis) species. rufipogon). although F1 plants. which are fertile. Genes for F2 weakness seem to be distributed occasionally in cultivated and wild rice species. It is rare in crosses between O. breviligulata.10 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. of Populations 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 2 4 1 5 Outcrossing (%) 30. breviligulata than with O.6-3. 1972). 1988 Weedy Breviligulata Sativa Indica Japonica Variance ratio Variance ratio Variance ratio Variance ratio Marker gene Isozyme markers Variance ratio Variance ratio Marker gene Variance ratio Marker gene . 1963 Oka.0 50. Oka 1964). Failure of male and female gametes to develop normally is largely due to meiotic anomalies arising from either no or partial pairing of chromosomes. 1963). Partial F1 hybrid sterility is characteristic to intervarietal group cross with O. F1 weakness was found also in crosses between O. 1959 Morishima et al. 1969). 1957. 1988). in the F2 and subsequent generations has been explained at genic and chromosomal levels (Kitamura 1962. At generic level. glabberima and O. longistaminata and O. 1959 Sakai and Narise. 1959 Oka and Chang. 1988 Sakai and Narise.) IN INDIA In many cases. perennis complex (Oka. 1960 Roy. and between the Asian and Oceanian forms of O.6 0. sativa and O.3-20.5 21. perennis. Cytoplasmic sterility factor found in wild species also in some combinations manifest F1 sterility. particularly development of endosperm.7 0.9 7. The sterility persisting beyond F1.6 37.4 22..2-19. The African perennial species O. longistaminata shows a stronger crossing barrier with O.4-26. sativa especially in indica/ japonica combination.9 Reference Taiwan Marker gene Isozyme markers India Sri Lanka India India India Thailand India Africa Taiwan Sri Lanka Taiwan Marker gene Oka.9 7. 1988 Source: Oka.7 16.3 3.2 17. Table 2: Estimated outcrossing rates in wild and cultivated rice species by different methods Taxa/ Type Asian perennis Perennial Thailand Thailand Intermediate Perennial Annual Origin Method No. and the American form of O.7 44. It is reported to be controlled by a set of complementary recessive weakness genes (Oka. Okuno. it is attributed to a series of duplicate recessive genes while at chromosomal level as due to cryptic structural differences in the chromosome complements of the two geographic races. 1972).6 3. glabberima or between O. which disturb tissue differentiation or chlorophyll formation.1-0. 1987 Oka and Chang. 1960 Oka. 1986). Among strains of O. glabberima and O. sativa cultivars (Amemiya and Akemine. 1959 Sakai and Narise. 1987 Oka and Chang. rufipogon (Chu et al..6-33. 1921 Barbier. F1 weakness is controlled by complementary weakness-dominant genes (Chu and Oka. 1957 Oka and Chang. 1961 Barbier. breviligulata about one-fourth of the crosses examined show F1 weakness (Chu and Oka. The weakness and sterility occurring in the F2 and later segregating generations are referred to as hybrid breakdown. F1 hybrid sterility is a common feature in crosses of cultivated rice with their wild relatives. hybrid inviability is due to failure of development of F1 zygotes. In this region. Mainly as the irrigated crop. rice is grown as rainfed crop. Himachal Pradesh. (iv) Western region This region comprises Gujarat. Madhya Pradesh. The region receives very heavy rainfall and hence. In the non-deltaic areas.0 million hectares. Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Kerala. It has the highest intensity of rice cultivation in the country. (ii) Eastern region It comprises Bihar. Jammu & Kashmir. Punjab. Because of its wide adaptability. western Uttar Pradesh and Uttranchal constitute this region. Rice is largely grown under rainfed conditions during June/ August–October/ December. rice is grown in the basins of the rivers Ganga and Mahanadi. eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Rice is mainly grown as irrigated crop in the deltas of the rivers Godavari. The region receives heavy rainfall and hence. (b) Rice Ecosystems Rice is grown under varied ecosystems on a variety of soils under varying climatic and hydrological conditions ranging from waterlogged and poorly drained to well-drained situations as briefly discussed below: (i) Irrigated rice The total area under irrigated rice is about 22. Karnataka. rice is grown in the basin of river Brahmaputra. hills of Uttaranchal. (iii) Northern region Haryana. rice is grown from May/July to September/ December. The rice growing areas in the country may be broadly grouped into the following five regions: (i) North-eastern region This region comprises Assam and North-eastern states. it is grown from below sea level in Kuttanad area of Kerala to an altitude of 2000 metres above sea level in Jammu & Kashmir. Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. which accounts for about 46 per . Orissa. rice is grown mainly under rainfed conditions. (v) Southern region This region comprises Andhra Pradesh. Krishna and Cauvery. rice is grown under rainfed conditions. Chhattisgarh.SECTION VI – CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA 11 SECTION VI – CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA (a) Rice Growing Regions Rice is grown under diverse soil and climatic conditions. In Assam. Himachal Pradesh and Northeastern hills (NEH) areas. It is said that there is hardly any type of soil in which it cannot be grown including alkaline and acidic soils. . reduced yields.. Chhattisgarh.12 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. As against the present national average productivity of about 1. ♦ Deepwater rice: water depth more than 100 cm in the field. Punjab. drought spell and very short span of cropping season.0 million ha (13. Area under rice in cold/ hill region is about 1 million ha which accounts for 2. Bihar. rice is grown as irrigated crop. (iv) Cold/ hill rice Such rice areas lie in the hill regions comprising Jammu and Kashmir. Average yield in coastal saline area is about 1 tonne as against the average national yield of 1..9 tonnes per ha. (iii) Coastal saline rice Rice areas close to east and west coasts suffer from salinity. Karnataka. which cause chlorosis and reduced tillering. Orissa.9 tonnes per ha. Total rice area under coastal salinity rice is estimated to be about 1 million ha. Kerala. Because of uneven topography. Ø Upland rice: Upland rice areas lie in the eastern zone comprising Assam. The soil of this subecology is poor in nitrogen. which accounts for 32. Haryana. West Bengal and North-eastern Hill region. there is no standing water in the field after few hours of cessation of rain. Andhra Pradesh.0 to 1. Productivity of upland rice is very low and stagnant for long. which accounts for 2.3% of area under rice cultivation. Major productivity constraints of these areas are low temperature. Gujarat. Orissa. The lowland rice ecology depending on the water regimes may be further categorized into three subecologies as detailed below: ♦ Shallow lowland rice: water depth below 50 cm. In the rainfed upland rice. (ii) Rainfed rice The rainfed ecosystem may be broadly categorized into upland and lowland ecologies. The coastal saline soils often show deficiency of iron and zinc. phosphorus and organic matter but is rich in potassium. Orissa. Tamil Nadu and West Bengal on the east coast and Gujarat and Maharashtra on the west coast have sizeable saline rice areas. Lowland rice area is about 14.9 tonnes per ha. Ø Lowland rice: Lowland rice area is mostly located in the eastern region comprising Assam. In these areas the crop is invariably affected by low temperature in the early stage and sometimes at the flowering stage resulting in sterility and hence. Deepwater rice areas are prone to seasonal floods and duration of which varies from year to year. eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. ♦ Semi-deepwater rice: water depth between 50-100 cm. Himachal Pradesh. Uttranchal and Northeastern hill states.9 tonnes per ha. as against the national average of 1. eastern Uttar Pradesh. which limits the use of fertilizers and improved agronomical practices.1 tonnes per ha as against the average national yield of 1. The average productivity of lowland rice ranges from 1. the upland rice accounts for about 6. Jammu & Kashmir.90 tonnes per ha. Chhattisgarh. Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.3% of total area under rice. bench terracing is being followed. Because of the rolling topography in these areas.) IN INDIA cent of the total area under rice crop in the country.5 per cent of the total rice area).4 million ha. In Andhra Pradesh.4 per cent of the total area under rice. blast. Bihar. Average yield is about 1. Sikkim.2 tonnes per ha. the average yield of upland rice is only 0. Soil and the climate being the important factors for developing region specific cropping patterns and can be taken as the criteria for crop zoning. After harvesting rice crop. such efforts have helped in increasing the farm income as well. Besides. instead of a cereal crop in summer. early maturing and less water requiring ragi. This is possible because of very early maturing toria varieties adapted to late sown conditions. which have high water holding capacity and low rate of infiltration. particularly. profitability. Choice of medium early and early maturing photoinsensitive varieties makes such intensification possible. (iii) Rice-pulses/oilseeds: In the areas where. groundnut is planted in summer. (ii) Rice-cereals (other than rice): This cropping pattern is being followed in areas where water is not adequate for taking the third rice crop in summer. Depending on the water availability. With the introduction of early maturing and high yielding varieties of rice. In some canal-irrigated areas of Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu and Kerala are following this cropping pattern. (vii) Rice-toria-wheat: This cropping pattern is commonly followed in northern parts of the country. (v) Rice-wheat: It is the predominant cropping pattern in north and north-western (Indogangetic plains) parts of the country. intensification and diversification of cropping around rice could be substantially increased in the irrigated ecology as well as shallowland and rainfed ecologies. After harvesting of wheat. inter cropping and mixed cropping. it is necessary to divide the country into homogeneous regions based on physical. The cropping pattern in different agroclimatic zones has been devised and adopted by farmers based on their long experience. Over 9 million hectares is under this cropping pattern. maize or jowar is chosen. Cropping patterns include broadly relay/sequential cropping. . Instead of rice. whereas rice followed by either chickpea or mustard is the pattern in the north. in soils. While improving the productivity. Some of the rice-based cropping patterns being followed in different rice ecologies as under: (i) Rice-rice: This cropping pattern is practiced in the traditional rice growing areas having high rainfall and assured irrigation in summer months. there is water scarcity. cowpea is grown in red and yellow soils of Orissa and blackgram is grown in the black soils. rice followed by blackgram (as in Krishna district at Andhra Pradesh) in south is the practice. availability of market and industrial infrastructure and period of water available. For devising meaningful cropping patterns. suitability of soil. climatological or agronomic features. greengram and cowpea are grown as fodder. (iv) Rice-groundnut: Andhra Pradesh. (vi) Rice-wheat-pulses: This cropping pattern is being followed in the alluvial soil belt of northern states.SECTION VI – CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA 13 (c) Cropping Patterns India has a wide range of soil and climatic conditions and accordingly cropping patterns vary widely from region to region and to a lesser extent from year to year. In the rainfed upland and other moisture limiting/excess ecologies aimed at risk distribution and income enhancement intercropping of rice with appropriate companion crops has helped the farmers to improve the productivity. short duration pulse crop like blackgram or greengram is preferred. a cropping pattern of 300% intensity is followed. which is generally followed in the semideep water and deep-water ecologies in the eastern states and fish after rice (rice-fish) in coastal Kerala. Cuttack has developed productive rice+fish farming system. Small and marginal farmers in rainfed lowland rice areas in the eastern states are following this system. They are rice+fish farming system.) IN INDIA (viii) Rice-fish farming system: Fields with sufficient water retaining capacity for a long period and areas free from heavy flooding are suitable for rice-fish farming system. Steps have already been taken to popularize rice-fish farming system in low land areas to increase the production and productivity of crops and thereby improving the economic conditions of the resource poor farmers of these areas. the Central Rice Research Institute. West Bengal etc. . There are two farming systems involving rice and fish. In order to improve the economic conditions of these farmers. They raise a modest crop of traditional low yielding rice varieties during rainy (kharif) season along with fish.14 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Basmati370 (quality) etc. Some of these landraces were introduced since mid sixties. soil type etc. It was not. With the establishment of the ICAR in 1929. altitude. SR26B (salinity resistant).RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA India is rich in rice diversity by virtue of its north-eastern region being on the periphery of the centre of origin of rice on one hand and having many centres of diversity (secondary centres) on the other.. (a) Aromatic Rice Germplasm India is also known for its quality rices. however. are adapted to all the rice seasons. successful because of the problem of hybrid sterility characteristic to inter-subspecific crosses.00. These short statured varieties are responding well to higher doses of fertiliser application and have helped in raising the genetic yield level and thereby production of rice. hundreds of improved cultivars adapted to varied agro-ecologies and closely related wild/weedy species constituting rice germplasm in India. like Basmati and other fine grain aromatic types . temperature.RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 15 SECTION VII . and adaptation to various ecologies and resistance to biotic stresses. resulting in recurrent crop losses. production efforts have to be accelerated through yield increase in Asia. IR8 was bred at IRRI and many semidwarf rice varieties have been bred in India utilising developing gene sources like DGWG as parents. In breeding efforts to contain the pests. These varieties are photoinsensitive and hence. T141 (yield). It is estimated that number of landraces of rice cultivars available in the country is between 75. quality). More than 600 high yielding dwarf rice varieties have been released in India during 1965-2000. Varieties like GEB24 (yield. Due to increased population pressure mainly after the World War II coupled with limitation of available land. systematic research was initiated for rice improvement. rainfall. though helped greatly.SECTION VII . Chinguru Boro (deepwater). All the collections now in the gene banks are not unique. It is believed that 30 to 40 per cent of these may be duplicates.000 and 1. The whole day neutral nature of these varieties enables 2 or 3 crops of rice in a year and hence high productivity/unit area/year. These rice research stations collected local varieties and improved some of them mostly through pureline selection and a few through hybridization. desired maturity and grain quality.. It exists in terms of thousands of landraces of Asian cultivar at the centre of origin/ centres of diversity. FR13A & FR43B (flood resistant). viz. viz. Dee-geo-woo-gen and development of high yielding first semidwarf variety (Taichung Native-1) using it as source of short stature became a landmark in rice improvement in south and South-east Asia including India. The improvement was for higher yield. selection pressure prompted coevolution of them as well resulting in many virulent races/biotypes.000. Presence of rice crop round the year has facilitated increased pest/disease incidence. The discovery of the semidwarf mutant. are outcome of such early efforts. Most of these accessions have either already been collected and conserved in gene banks or have been discarded by farmers in preference to improved varieties. Natural and human selection of cultivars over centuries for varied agro-ecological conditions. have substantially contributed to the diversity. Rice research stations were established in all the agro-climatic zones of the country. where rice is the staple food for 90 per cent of the population The availability of chemical fertilizers and their successful application to rice crop in Japan prompted FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) to launch japonica x indica hybridization project for south and Southeast Asia in the fifties. Zeerasal 280. T141 (Soruch Inamali) . T137. FR43B. Atragada. Tulsimanjari Kalhapur scented. CH1039. Sindigi local Kerala Jeerakasala. Lalnakanda. NP114. Krishnasal. Ptb18. Zinya 149 Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Karnataka Basmati 370. Chinoor. Punasa Akkullu Aijani (Mahsuri). Zeerasal Basmati 370. Ambemohar 157. Dubraj. Phulpattas 72. Laloo 14 Bhura rata. Ptb33. Ptb21. Ambemohar 159. Pandhri Luchai 16. Kali Kamod Ambemohar 102.16 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Siga. Taraori Basmati Desi Basmati 23 Gujarat Kolamba 42. Kakua Bao. which have been enjoying patronage although as evident from various ancient texts and historical accounts including in the old Indian scriptures like Krishi Sukt and Sushrta (400 BC). Sariya. Zinya 31 Jhona 221. Table 3: Indigenous high quality non-aromatic and aromatic rice (landraces or pure line selection from landraces) types in India State Andhra Pradesh Non-aromatic Aswani Karthi Vadlu. Ram Tulsi. Sukhvel 20. Malbhog.) IN INDIA grown in north-west regions of the country. Hansraj. Safari 17. Krishna Katakalu. Ptb2. Kala rata. Ratnachudi. Pankhari 203. S1092. Manoharsali. BR8. Chattri. Dodda byra. Ranbir Basmati Kagasali. Kolamba 184. Antersal. NP130 Aromatic Kaki Rekhalu (HR59). BR34. Ramjawain 100 CH988. Prasadbhog Bihar Badshahbhog. Muskh Budgi. Lalahu. T141. Kessore. Brown Gora. Kolaba. Kamod. Kichidi Sannalu. Maharajabhogam. T90 (Machha Kanta). BR14. Jhona 349 Dundar 43. Rangolata. T138 Allur Sanna. Bangarutheega. Ain-e-Akbari (1590 AD) and Heer Rabjha (1725 to 1798) (Table 3). SR26B Cheruvirippu. Vytilla Nungi. Niver. Pankhari 203 Badshahbhog. NP49. Jirasel. Chimansel. Mohanbhog. Gandhkasala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Baspatri. Ptb15. Sathe 34-36. Kamod 118. Red Triveni. Sel T812 Orissa Bahyayahuynda. Ptb12. FR13A. Nonabokra. Rangaduria Black Gora. Gopalbhog. BR13. Guniribora (Glutinous). Pokkali. Kolam. Sukhdas (HR47) Assam Badshahbhog. Kare kagga. Kolipi. Katti Samba. Pathria. NP130. Lalmati. Nonarasmsail. Kichdi Samba. Dhaniasal. Kamod.. refer Sharma and Rao. Charnock. Table 4: Rice varieties of Chattisgarh region reported to possess medicinal and health value Variety Alcha Laicha Gathuhan Karhani Bassior Nagkesar Kalimooch Regbhaddar Serei Meharaji Medicinal Value Curing pimples. Co25. T100. Shakunahrit. epilepsy Cure to lung disease Relief to skin problems (external application of plant extract) Treatment of gastric ailments Tonic for general weakness Tonic for women after delivery Source: Das and Oudhia. Tilakchandan. Basmati 370. Siddiq and Shobharani. Mahishamastaka and Lodhrapurshpaka (medicinal value) (Chunekar and Pandey. Kaminibhog. Segra. Phulpattas Batika. Adt10. Kalasukhdas. Bindli. Basmati (Type 3). Jalamagna. Lalnakanda. Badshahbhog. Dehula. Ayurvedic treatise (Indian Materia Medica) also speaks of varieties like ‘Njavara’ and ‘Gathuhan’ for treatment of arthritis. Jaisuria. 2004 Note: For the detailed description of different rice varieties released in different states of India. Churnakati. Basmati 370 Kala Badal. Basmati. Kanchanaka. 2004 (b) Rice Germplasm with Medicinal Value Earliest Indian records also list many rice cultivars like Kalavarihi (nourishing rice) and Kalama. Gopalbhog. Bhasmanik. Sakkarchini. Nawabi kolam Tamil Nadu Jeeraga Samba Uttar Pradesh /Uttaranchal Badshapasand. Sitabhog West Bengal Badkalamkati. Nizersail. Nonabokra. Latisail. N22. Sugandhaka. Seetasail Source: Siddiq et al. Sharma and Rao. Anaikomban. Kar Samba. Kalanamak. Patnai 23. Bansi. Tapachini.RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 17 Punjab Rajasthan Jhona 349. 2005. Kardamaka. GEB24.SECTION VII . 1998 . Bambasa. Rice collection service done in Chhattisgarh area led to the identification of many varieties of curative value popular among folklore (Table 4). Kataribhog. curing small boils of infants (by feeding the lactating mother with cooked rice) Preventing unborn children from contracting (by feeding the pregnant woman with cooked rice) Treatment of rheumatism Treatment of paralysis Relief to headache (by inhalation of fumes of rice bran). 1986). TKM6 Adamchini. Randhunipagal. Mahasali. Tukri Adt8. Duniapet. Anjee. Sutar. Govindabhog. Hansraj. 2001. Vishnuparag Badshah pasand. Pundarika. MC282. Dhairal. Dular. Panduka. T136 Basmati 217. Table 5: Hybrid rice varieties released in different states of India No 1.02 7. 1996). has been the first crop.49 7. 3. Hybrid Variety APHR-1 Year of Release 1994 Parentage IR-58025A/ Vajram IR-62829A/ MTU-9992 IR-62829A/ IR-10198 IR-58025A/ IR-9761 IR-2829A/ Ajaya IR-58025A/ IR-40750 Recommended for the State Andhra Pradesh Duration Yield (Days) (T/Ha) 130-135 7. Grains are MS. KRH-1 CNRH-3 DRRH-1 1994 1995 1996 Karnataka West Bengal Andhra Pradesh 120-125 125-130 125-130 6.08 4.52 6. paralysis. Grains are LS. stigma in male sterile lines remains receptive relatively for long hours to receive pollen.. It could be intensified since 1989 with the launching of a mission mode project. seiatica etc. The salient features of some of these hybrids released are given in the Table 5. This physiological adaptation of male sterile plants has also helped. besides supplementary pollination methods realize high percentage seed setting. This limitation could be overcome by manipulation of pollination control mechanisms resulting in enhanced cross-pollination. coordinated by Directorate of Rice Research. Hyderabad (Siddiq et al. Though sources of male sterility and fertility restoration could be found. Grains are LB. Grains are LS. Now the project “Development and use of hybrid rice technology” operates as a national research network involving 12 centres all over the country. Rice. the country developed a dozen rice hybrids each from public and private sectors within a short period.18 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. 5. a strictly self-pollinated one. China is the first country to capitalize on hybrid rice technology. Unlike in normal rice varieties. Hybrid rice technology following plant type-based high yielding varieties helped to raise the genetic yield level by 15 to 20 per cent. 1994. sponsored by ICAR. 1994). But it took almost five decades for its commercial exploitation. APHR-2 CORH-1 1994 1994 Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu 120-125 110-115 7. where hybrid technology could be successfully developed and commercially exploited. Research to develop hybrid technology in rice in India although was initiated during 1970s.) IN INDIA Boluses of cooked Njavara rice are used for ‘Navarakizhi’. (c) Hybrid Rice Cultivars Hybridization is one of the most commonly used breeding methods for improvement mainly of open pollinated and often cross pollinated crops.14 Characteristics Suitable for uplands of coastal Andhra Pradesh. Suitable for irrigated areas. in Kerala. treatment of all skeletal and muscular diseases. resistant to the pest gall midge. 1997). In China the first hybrid rice was released for the commercial cultivation in 1976 (Yuan. 6. mild aromatic and resistant to blast disease. commercial hybrid seed production posed problems because of very low percentage outcrossing.. The phenomenon of heterosis was first reported by Jones (1926). Krishnaiah and Shobharani.30 . With the concerted research work. beyond what is achievable in semi-dwarf inbred varieties (Bharaj et al. 2. suitable for Boro season. resistant to the pest.06 mm. and Uttranchal 6-8 BPH = Brown plant hopper. 1997 Haryana. — Grains are MB. N responsive Grains : MS. 135-140 Maharashtra. BPH. LS=Long slender. suitable for well drained.L/B ratio : 3.80 6. 16. 9. Grains are LS. — Grains are LS. MB=Medium bold. Tripura. irrigated condition.10 6. 17. Leaf : 24x1.40 8.000 accessions have been imported and made available to researchers and farmers in India (Singh et al. NonLodging.80 6.15 Grains are LB.SECTION VII . resistant to the pest. Introductions from IRRI during 1960s have led to green revolution. Tamil Nadu Plains of Uttar Pradesh Eastern and some parts of Southern India 130-135 7. 12. Plant height: 100120 cms. Aromatic Basmati Hybrid. Uttar Pradesh. KRH-2 1996 IR-58025A/ KMR-3 Karnataka 130-135 7. suitable for irrigated areas. MS= Medium slender Source: Rice Status Paper.21x2. 1000 grain weight22g Kernel : 6. 10. 125 Uttranchal Andhra Pradesh. BPH and blast disease. 11.18 Grains are LS. resistant to neck and rice tungro virus. BPH and blast disease. resistant to the pest. LB=Long bold. UPRH-27 PA-6201 1997 2000 IR-58025A/ UPRI-92-133 — 115-120 125-130 6. Pant Sankar 1997 Dhan-1 CORH-2 1998 ADTRH-1 1998 Sahyadri Narendra Shankar Dhan-2 PHB-71 1998 1998 IR-58025A/ UPRI-93-133 IR-58025A/ C-20R IR-58025A/ IR-66 IR-8025A/ BR-827-35 IR-8025A/ NDR-3026 — Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh 115-120 120-125 115-120 125-130 125-130 6.6A/ PRR-78 6CO-2/ 6MO-5 Delhi.15 6. Pusa RH-10 Hybrid6444 2001 2001 Pusa.86 14.RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 19 7. Grains are LS.01. 2001a). UP. Punjab.25 7.5 cms. 2005 (d) Exotic Germplasm More than 90. Orissa.. — 13. 15. . O. nivara. characterization is largely qualitative and less information is available on resistance/tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. O. barthii. brachyantha. barthii. australiensis. granulata. latifolia. punctata.) IN INDIA The accessions introduced included high yielding dwarf varieties such as Taichung (Native)-1 and IR-8. ridleyi O. nivara O. minuta. Table 6: Abiotic and biotic stress resistant exotic accessions Traits Abiotic Stress Cold tolerance Salinity tolerance Drought tolerance Biotic Stress Green leaf hopper resistance Leaf folder resistance Stem borer resistance Blast resistance Sheath blight resistance Bacterial blight resistance Tungro virus resistance Accessions EC 121003 EC 122935 to EC 122953. minuta. O. australiensis. meridionalis Source: Siddiq et al. However. barthii. O. granulata. granulata. O. O. O.20 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. O. officinalis. minuta. rufipogon O. rufipogon O. O. eichengeri O. Characterization of wild rice germplasm has revealed that most of the wild species could be potential donors for a range of traits (Table 7). O. grandiglumis. 2005 . O. ridleyi O. officinalis O. minuta. granulata. Table 7: Useful traits in wild species Trait Abiotic stress Drought tolerance/avoidance Shade tolerance Adaptation to aerobic soils Biotic stress Brown plant hopper resistance Green leaf hopper resistance White backed plant hopper resistance Yellow stem borer resistance Blast resistance Sheath blight resistance Bacterial leaf blight resistance Rice grassy stunt virus resistance Other useful traits Cytoplasmic male sterility High bio-mass Elongation ability Species O. O. longistaminata O. O.. EC 201878 to EC 201975 EC 161320 to EC 161346 Source: Siddiq et al. granulata. O. O. minuta. O. O. O. brachyantha. latifolia O. officinalis O. brachyantha. O. officinalis O. O. 2005 (e) Germplasm Sources for Various Traits Characterization of germplasm based on easily identifiable and stable morpho-physiological traits has enabled establishment of the identity of germplasm for economic importance. EC 232900 to EC 233000 EC 201878 to EC 201975 EC 309699 EC 121828 to EC 121853 EC 121824 to EC 121825. O. O. EC 199465 to EC 199466 EC 121807 to EC121815. minuta. ridleyi O. Some important trait specific introductions are listed below (Table 6). O. eichengeri. meyeriana O. O. alta. O. O.. EC 307145 to EC 307161 EC 199465 to EC 199466 EC 121816 to EC 121823. minuta. O. eichengeri. O. australiensis O. rufipogon O. nivara to cultivated rice varieties. Hyderabad and a decade long ICAR sponsored network project for germplasm evaluation of rice facilitated multi-location and location-specific hotspot screening of rice germplasm for various biotic stresses. latifolia O. nivara O. latifolia O. longistaminata O. brachyantha O. several incompatibility factors limit the transfer of useful genes from wild species into cultivated species. glumaepatula O. The first example of transfer from a wild species is the introgression of a gene for Rice grassy stunt virus resistance from O. minuta O. australiensis O. strategies involving combination of conventional plant breeding methods with tissue culture and molecular approaches have become important. sativa) Trait Brown plant hopper resistance Donor Oryza Species O. To achieve precise transfer of genes from wild to cultivated species. minuta O. . A systematic evaluation conducted through the efforts of Directorate of Rice Research (DRR). perennis O. rufipogon O. nivara O. rufipogon Tolerance to aluminium toxicity Yield enhancing loci — QTL yld1 yld2 Source: Brar and Khush. officinalis O. minuta O. rufipogon O. rufipogon O. poor grain characteristics and low seed yield.RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 21 Scientists have put on their efforts to broaden the genepool of cultivated rice through introgression of genes from wild species for tolerance to major biotic and abiotic stresses and improved quality characteristics. A summary of genes transferred from wild species to cultivated rice is given in the following table. officinalis O. spontanea O. poor plant type.SECTION VII . officinalis Gene bph11(t) bph12(t) Qbp1 Qbp2 — — Bph10 — Pi9(t) Xa23(t) — — — — — — — — White backed plant hopper resistance Blast resistance Bacterial blight resistance Grassy stunt resistance Tungro tolerance Cytoplasmic male sterility O. Besides. sativa f. Table 8: Introgression of genes of wild Oryza species into cultivated rice (O. 2003 Wild species carry several useful genes for rice improvement but they are associated with several weedy traits such as grain shattering. Rupsail T141 IR42-25323. DV85. Ptb21. EB17. ARC14766. Dawn. ASD7. Pankaj. Babawee. HR19. Sayaphal. TKM6 ARC5984. GEB24. Ptb18. TKM6. MAU Sel. MAU Sd10. Dular. Ptb10. ARC13901 ARC10372. HR22. ARC15362. Ratu Heenati ADT14. Ramadja. Mahsuri. Raminad Strain 3. Goradhan. WC1240 ARC10982. Java 14. Ptb19. Batkpahi. Kinandang Patong. Pankaj. Saibham. Lalnakanda. Pokkali. Chanda 2. Kataribhog. SLO17. ARC15570. Chinsura Boro II. Manosarovar. Sigadis. Tadukan. OS4. Siam 29. SLO16. Rdn185-2. Mudgo. Nangmons 4. Co4. Patnai 23. Ptb33. Kalubmati. Phoure l. Chempar. Nandi. Patnai 23 Intan. BCP3. ARC10313. N22. SLO4 ARC10239. Bayyahunda. Malkolam. ARC10257. Ptb21 ARC13820. ARC7012. Ptb33. Senawee. Wase-Aikoku Ambemohar 159. Rajipsali. Boyan. ARC11554. W1263 ARC6650. Buhjan. Suduwee. ARC10599. Tuljapur 28. KRC355. ARC14320. Tuljapur 34 Ambemohar 157. Laka. IR29912-56-3-1 Source: Siddiq et al. ARC10532. Ptb15. NHTA8. Ptb10. Lacrose/ Zenith Nira (LZN). T141 B76. TMK6 Carreon. SR26B Boku.. 2005 Bacterial leaf blight Rice tungro virus Rice grassy stunt virus Abiotic stresses Drought Low light Salinity Submergence Physiological attributes Better photosynthetic efficiency Better photosynthetic efficiency (under low light conditions) Better utilization of solar energy Low photorespiration High dry matter production High density grain High harvest index High fertilizer use efficiency . Tuljapur 1. NS1281. Pankhari 203. T90 AC1491.longistaminata. Ptb18. IR29912-56-3. ARC10635. ARC12981. Co25. KRC356. K540. Bengle. Prage 147. Ptb18. Gajgaur Dhani. Athebu.22 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Leaung 152. Ta-Poo-cho-z BJ1. ASD10. Brown gora. Nakarasali. Z63 Chettiviruppu. T141. ARC6006. Velluthachira. Co9. HbDW8 AC4491. Nonasail. Bhumansam. O. Chootupokkali. Rikuto Norin. Swarnaprabha Badshahog. Eswarakora. BR23 (White gora). abiotic stresses and yield supporting physiological attributes Traits Insect-pests Yellow stem borer Gall midge Brown plant hopper Green leaf hopper White backed plant hopper Leaf folder Diseases Blast Sheath blight Important Donors ADT2. N22. Mahsuri. Gajepsali. BAM3. DJ5. ARC10598. Lothabar. Ptb8. Chemban.) IN INDIA Table 9: Important donors identified at Directorate of Rice Research for resistance to various insect-pests and diseases. Tetep ARC10531. Cemposelak.9. Kolapakhi. ARC11316. Palamdhan 957. PR113. In addition. VL Dhan 8. Deepti. Ratna. Saket 4. Samridhi. Dhanrasi. PR114. Sharavati. PMK (R)3. Pantdhan 16. Sumati. Jyothi. Ratnagiri 2. SKL8. HKR120. Jagabandhu. 84 for rainfed uplands. Harsha. Tikkana. IR36. IET16075. Nandyal Sannalu. PR4141. Jagabandhu. Bha Lum 1. Vasumati. Krishna Hamsa. Surya. Samlei. Sumati. Bapatla Sannalu. Pusa Sugandha 3. IR50. Oragallu. Bhudeb. Many of these varieties combine specific and multiple resistances against major insect-pests and diseases. MDU3. PNR519. BR2656-9-3-1. and tolerance to cold. Pant sugandha dhan 115. Rasmi. Sarasa. IR50. Rashmi. HKR120. Jagtial Mahsuri. Rajendra Mahsuri 1. Jagabandhu. Pelavadlu Apporva. etc. IR24. Swetha Varieties Brown plant hopper White backed plant hopper Green leafhopper Gall midge Blast Bacterial leaf blight Rice tungro virus . Table 10: High-yielding rice varieties resistant to various biotic and abiotic stresses Stress Biotic stress Stem borer ADT44. Rasi. Pantdhan 16. unfavourable soils. PR115. Somasila. and 15 for saline and alkaline soils. Yamini ADT39. Bharathidasan. Vikas ADT(R)45. Phalguna. Dandi. PR109. Dandi. Surekha. Vandana. Dhansari. Extensive use of diverse donor sources mostly in the improved genetic backgrounds has led to the evolution of nearly 632 high yielding varieties in India (DRR. KHP5. Pantdhan 16. Sasyasree. HRI120. Kartika. PA102. Bharathidasan. Mugad Sugandha. Sravani. Shakti. CR1002. Gauri. Asha. Rajarajan. Vikramarya ADT38. CU44. PY6. Cottondora Sannalu. Rashmi. ASD18. PR111. drought. CO47. Birsa vikas dhan 110. Jagabandhu. Karjat 1. CSR23. Shah Sarang 1. China and Japan. Bamaleswari. ADT(R)3. Kohshar. Jagtial Mahsuri. Saket 4. SKL8. Jawahar. Bhudeb. Sagarsamba. SKL3-11-25-30-36. Vandana ASD15. Tholakari ADT 38. Ratna. Sukardhan1. Rajendra Mahsuri 1. Birsa vikas dhan 110. Shanthi.RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 23 The large variability in rice genetic resources has led to identification of several donor sources suited to specific and changing agro-climatic conditions. Vedagiri. Bamaleswari. 44 for rainfed lowland and deep-water ecologies. PR110. including India. CSR23. IET16075. PKV Makarand. Swetha. Ajaya. Rashmi. Kanakam. Narendra Usar 3. Sumati. having resistance/tolerance to biotic/abiotic stresses and with enhanced yield potential. Anjali. Of these 314 varieties are suitable for irrigated ecology. Shah Sarang 1. Krand. Srinivas. Narendra 2. Bhudeb. Ramakrishna. 19 aromatic slender grain varieties have also been released. SKL30-11-25-3036. Leima Phou 1. Tholakari. Surya. Vivekdhan 82. Dhanrasi. 2001). Pusa 1121. IR34. CR1002. SKL 3-11-25-3036. Jagtial Sannalu. Godavari. Lalat. IR36. KRH2. Birsa vikas dhan 109. IR36. A great source of strength for rice improvement programme has been the rich germplasm collections available in the gene bank of IRRI as well as in the national gene banks of several countries. Dandi. Leima phou 1. Pusa RH10. Gauri.SECTION VII . Mugad Sugandha. Ratnagiri 1.Godavari. Sarathi. HKR120. Jagtial Mahsuri. Bha Lum 2. PR116. Udaya ADT38. Bha Lum 2. Birsamati. Jagtial Mahsuri. Swetha. Dandi. Rajendradhan 202. Swetha. Rajendra Mahsuri 1. Pothana. Swetha. (Table 10). PKV Makarand. Bhudeb. 33 for high altitudes. Pinakini. Bharani. Kakatiya. Varalu. VL Dhan 221 Aditya. Salivahana. G1298. Ketan gebat. Varalu Source: Siddiq et al. Darinagan.IR 65740-ACI-3 IR5. T90 BG380. Suraksha. Asha. 2002 The rice improvement research operating in the country has generated many materials. Asha. Tawi. Sabari.24 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Pusa 1266. ASD18. In addition. Narendra 1. Sarjoo 50. Vikas. Sumati. Pantdhan 957. GR8. T141. VL Dhan 16. GAUR1. Himalaya 1. CSR27.) IN INDIA Sheath blight Multiple resistance ADT39. Dandi. TKM 9 ADT38. Annada. IET16075. Vandana. Jagabandhu. Pusa 1021. Sengkeu. Purva. IR65601-10-1-2. Narendra 2. available with the national and international institutions. SKL8. Sipapak. Chingam. Rashmi. Ratnagiri 73-1-1. Yamini Barkat. developed and/or identified by scientists with one or more outstanding traits such as new sources of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. MD2. Roupsail T141. Ratnagiri 71-1. male sterility. Pantdhan 16. Shend Nung 889-366 G110. Bhudeb. etc. CST23. Vytilla 2. enhancing the physiological efficiency was initiated with search for sources potential enough to enhance genetic yield level. Himalaya 741. Rashmi. G1291. Panvel 1. Bam 3. VL Dhan 163. Djawa serang. Vivekdhan 62. Birsa vikas dhan 110. Sirah Barch Ptb10 Source: Swaminathan. thereby.. aimed at identifying sources for various traits needed for development of ‘new plant type’. Birsa vikas dhan 108. TRY(R)2. Ashwini. which give good performance but do not show the required superiority to get released as cultivars. This has resulted in the isolation of several indica/ japonica cultivars of promise as listed in Table 11. Narendra 80. unique quality features. Pantdhan 10. Dhansari. PMK(R)3. Himdhan. NS1281. Sakoli 6. Somasila. there are germplasm. Sarjoo 49. Birsa vikas dhan 110. induced mutants. CST1. Govind. GR3. SLR51214. Ravi. Sumati. Mahsuri. Bha Lum 2. VL Dhan 39. Panvel 3. Ptb10. Rajendra. Swetha Bhavani . Jagtial Mahsuri. Ananga. Shaktiman. BG90-2. ASD18. GR2. Surarandhan 1. SKL30-11-25-30-36. cytogenetic stocks. CSR10. Bha Lum 1. Vijaya B76. Vytilla 4. Patnai 23 AC4491. Kshira. 2005 Abiotic stress Salinity/ Alkalinity Low temperature Drought Strategic research towards changing plant architecture and. Badshabhog. Danteswari. Table 11: Donors for various traits being used for developing new plant type Trait Heavy panicle High density grains High harvest index Low photorespiration High photosynthetic efficiency Prolonged grain filling Short stature Slow leaf senescence Sturdy stem High translocation efficiency Indica/ japonica Cultivars Darinagan. Bha Lum 2. Evaluation of genetic resources. Ratnagiri13. These germplasm may serve as . Dandi. Birsa vikas dhan 109. Kshira. Narendra Usar 3. Rasi. GR5. IR36. Bhanja. Panvel 2. Harsha. Lalat. indica x japonica derivatives Gharbaran. Pusa 44-37. Heera. Godavari. CSR6. They include 25 in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cote d’Ivoire (Ivory coast) Dominican Republic Ghana Iran Iraq Name/ Designation CR 44-11 Cauvery Padma CO38 RAU4072-13 Barkat Seshu Vikram RP4-2 Vijaya Savithri OR 142-99 Jaya M 114 Jaya Parentage TKM6 x IR8 TKM 6 x TN1 T141 x TN1 IR8 x CO25 IR1833-2086-3 x Mahsuri Shinei x China 971 IR24 x T141 IR8 x Siam 29 T90 x IR8 T90 x IR8 Pankaj x Jagannath Pankaj x Sigadis TN1 x T141 Mahsuri mutant 3628 TN1 x T141 Name Given RAU 407 Barkat Sante-pheap 3 8085 Year of Release 1975 1975 1975 1991 1992 1984 1979 1985 1997 1992 1977 1981 1986 1982 1982 Ecosystem Irrigated Upland Irrigated Irrigated Upland Irrigated Upland Irrigated Irrigated Rainfed Irrigated Rainfed Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Rainfed IR2153-276-1 IR1541-102-6-3 x Juma 62 -10-PR-509 IR24*4//O.nivara Vikram IR8 x Siam 29 Afife/GR 17 Sona GEB24 x TN1 Amol 3 RP 2095-5-8-31 Vikram x Andrewsali - .R.SECTION VII .RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 25 genetic stocks in crop improvement programmes or are of academic importance. (f) Indian Rice Varieties Released in Other Countries There had been a liberal. The ICAR has developed a system of germplasm registration with NBPGR as the nodal institute to recognize the accomplishments and efforts of scientists who identified or developed them. Table 12: Rice cultivars developed in India and released in other countries Country of Release Afghanistan Afghanistan Afghanistan Benin Benin Bhutan Brazil Burkina Faso Burkina Faso Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon China P. yield and quality. Global adoption of so many varieties of Indian origin gives a true measure of strength of Indian rice breeding programme. 3 in South-East Asia. Many India bred varieties tested in the INGER nurseries have been directly released for general cultivation in other countries (Table 12). In all 33 elite breeding lines developed in India have been released as 46 varieties around the world. and to encourage the sharing of such germplasm with other rice researchers. 5 in Latin America and the Caribbean islands. In addition. several elite breeding lines generated in India and identified to be promising in the AICRIP have also been used in many countries as donor parents for traits like insect-pest resistance. 2 in West and North Africa and one variety in East Africa. 10 in South Asia. exchange of genetic material among rice researchers around the globe particularly facilitated by the IRRI coordinated INGER programme. The dominant weed species found in upland rice culture are listed in table below.) IN INDIA Kenya Malawai Mali Mali Mali Mauritiana Myanmar Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Pakistan Paraguay Paraguay Senegal Senegal Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Togo Venezuela Vietnam Zambia AD9246 Kitish Rasi Jaya Vijaya Jaya Mahsuri mutant CR 123-23 Rasi K39-96-1-1-1-2 IR 2298PLPB-3-2-1-1B IR 3941-4PLP2B Kitish Kitish R22-2-10-1 Rasi Jaya BIET360 Rasi RP 143-4 L 5P23 Sabarmati (BC5/55) Rasi PR 106 Jaya RTN 500-5-1 ADT31 x AD198 BU1 x CR115 TN1 x CO29 TN1 x T141 T90 x IR8 TN1 x T141 Dunghansali x Jayanti TN1 x CO29 CH1039 x IR58019-2-3-3 CICA4 x KULU CR126-42-5 x IR2061213 BU1 x CR115 BU1 x CR115 IR22 x Sigadis TN1 x CO29 TN1 x T141 IR8 x CH45 TN1 x CO29 IR8 x HR 19/ IR 8 GEB24 x T(N)1 TN1 x Bas370// Bas370 TN1 x CO29 IR8 x Peta 5// Belle Patna TN1 x T141 IR8 x RTN24 Senga IET 1444 Ma Naw Thu Kha Durga Bindeswari Khumal 3 Himali Kanchen DR 82 CEA 1 CEA 3 Jaya Katrain 1 Subamati Araure 3 - 1993 1984 1978 1977 1978 1981 1982 1982 1984 1989 1989 1981 1986 1984 1984 1978 1984 - Lowland Irrigated Rainfed Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Upland Upland Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Upland Irrigated Irrigated Upland Rainfed lowland Irrigated Irrigated Upland Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Source: Prasad et al. .26 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. The weed flora also varies accordingly.. 2001 (g) Dominant Weed Flora in Rice Fields in India Rice is grown under different agro-climatic and management conditions. Eichornia colonum. Paspalum conjugatum. C. Cynotis sp. Paspalum distichum Commelina benghalensis. Mimosa pudica. Rungia repens Alternaria sessilis. Digeria arvensis. Fissendocarpa linifolia. Galinsoga parviflora. Digeria sp. Spilanthus alba Amaranthus spinosus. Eragrostis interrupta. E. Ludwigia parviflora. iria. Setaria glauca Cyperus difformis. Celosia argentea. Cyperus difformis.. Cuphea balsamona. Monochoria vaginalis. Panicum colonum.. Leptochloa chinensis Aeschynomene americana. C. Marsilia minuta. Paspalum fasciculatum. Croton balpandianum.. Oxalis corniculata Caesulia axillaris.SECTION VII . Commelina benghalensis. Dactyloctenium aegypticum. Elusine indica. Panicum colonum. Cynotis axillaris. Ludwigia octovalvis. Setaria glauca Tamil Nadu West Bengal Table 13 b: Dominant weeds found in puddled direct seeded and transplanted rice States Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Himachal Pradesh Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Dominant Weeds Cyperus difformis. Cyperus sp. sparciflorus. Paspalum distictium Fimbrisyilis sp. Caesulia axillaris. Leptochloa chinensis Dinebera retroflexa. Alternifollia sp. Setaria pumila Chloris barbata. Hydrolea zeylanica. E. Eclipta alba. Panicum repens. Chloris barbata. hirta. Fimbristylis sp. Cephalandra indica. Eupatorium odoratum.. Rotala indica Caesulia axillaris. Panicum sp. Amaranthus gracilis. Eclipta alba.. Lagasca mollis. Portulaca oleracea. Phyllanthus niruri Eichornia colonum. Paspalum conjugatum. Eclipta prostrata. Cyperus diformis. Digitaria sanguinalis. Lippia nodiflora. Cyperus esculentus. Boerhaavia hispida. Caesulia axillaris. Sphenocdlea zeylanica New Delhi Orissa Punjab Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal . Justica sp. Physalis minima. Marsilea minuta.RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 27 Table 13 a: Dominant weed species found in upland rice culture State Andhra Pradesh Bihar Delhi Karnataka N. Fimbristylis miliacea. Ischaemum rugosum Ammania baccifera. Cynodon dactylon. Panicum elatum. Panicum sp. Phyllanthus niruri. Dinebra arabica. Elytrophorus arteculata. Region Dominant Weed Species Amaranthus spinosus... Cynodon dactylon.. Lindernia parviflora. Rungia repense Ammania baccifera. Cyperus sp. Euphorbia heterophylla. Bidens pilosa. Caesulia axillaris. Jussia suffructicosa. Commelina benghalensis. Dinebera arabica Digitaria longifolia. Marselia quadrifoliata. Panicum repens Ammania baccifera. Paspalum scorbiculatum. Sporobolus indicus Ageratum conyzoides. Euphorbia sp. Oldenlandia dichotoma. Ipomea aquatica. Echinochloa.28 DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Cyperus difformis. C. crusgalli. Scirpus mucronatus. Eclipta alba. Eleocharia dulcis. Chara sp. Monochoria vaginalis. Spirogyra sp. Setaria glauca Ammanea baccifera. C. Scirpus sp. Hydrilla verticilliata. Echornia colonum. Cyperus iria. Cyperus difformis. Fimbristylis miliacea. Jussia sufforocticosa.) IN INDIA Table 13 c: Weed species commonly found in rainfed lowland rice Assam Bihar Himachal Pradesh Tamil Nadu Echinochloa crusgalli. Ipomea reptants.. Monochoria vaginalis. Typha sp. Fimbristylis miliacea. Nymphaea stellata. Ludwigia octovalvis. Marsilea quadrifoliata. Uttar Pradesh . Sphaeranllus indicus Chara zeylanica... iria. Salvania sp. Potamogeton sp. Cyanodon dactylon. E. Paspalum parapalodes. Eichornia colonum. Cyperus rotundus. difformis. Paspalum scorbiculatum.. Panicum sp. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 29 SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE Rice is the staple food for more than one and a half of the world population and accounts for more than 42% of food production. Thus the increased and sustained production of rice is fundamental to food security in India. The production advance in rice in the recent years has enabled selfsufficiency despite increase in population. In India, rice is grown in 43 million hectares in four major ecosystems: irrigated (19m ha), rainfed lowlands (14 m ha), flood prone (3 m ha) and rainfed upland (6 m ha). No other country in the world has such diversity in rice ecosystem. One of the important constraints in achieving higher rice yields is losses caused by pests. The common pests of rice are insects, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasma etc. Cultivation of high yielding dwarf rice cultivars since mid sixties, that necessitated the high input use including excess nitrogenous fertilizers and consequent microclimate increased the pest problems. The extent of losses due to these pests fluctuates widely depending upon the prevailing factors of abundance of these pests in a particular year/ season and the local agroclimatic conditions. Losses of about 30% average cumulative were reported. The Natural Resources Institute (NRI) London has developed a methodology for ranking different pests and diseases affecting agricultural crops (Geddes and Lles, 1991). NRI carried out a study of pre-harvest pests in South Asia and the relative importance of pests was assessed in 30 cropping systems zone. The NRI ranking of pests affecting rice is given below. Pest Rice blast Yellow stem borer Bacterial leaf blight Brown plant hopper Root nematode Gall midge Green leaf hopper/ Rice tungro virus Leaf folder White backed plant hopper Rice hispa Sheath blight Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Source: Geddes and Lles (1991) The knowledge of rice pests has been greatly expanded during the last few decades. A brief summary of the important pests, their hosts/ vectors, geographical distribution, yield losses, variability, natural enemies/ biocontrol agents is given in Tables 15, 16 and 17. 30 Table 15: Important insect pests of rice in India Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Field Pests Brevennia rehi (Lindinger) Rice mealy bug Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae Chilo suppressalis Oryza sativa, Sorghum bicolor, (Walker) Zea mays Striped rice stem borer Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Oryza sativa, Saccharum officinarum, Sorghum bicolor Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal (CIE, 1979) Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal) (CAB International, 2005) Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs, nymphs, adults Rhopus fullawayi Predators affecting: Eggs, nymphs, adults: Anatrichus pygmaeus, Domomyza perspicax, Leucopis luteicornis (CAB International, 2005) Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Anagrus optabilis, Telenomus dignus, Tetrastichus schoenobii, Trichogrammatoidea australicum, T. chilonis, T. dendrolimi, T. japonicum; Eggs, larvae: Chelonus munakatae, Larvae: Cotesia chilonis, C. flavipes, C. schoenobii, Eriborus sinicus, Stenobracon deesae, Sturmiopsis inferens, Temelucha biguttula; Larvae, pupae: Myosoma chinensis, Tetrastichus howardi, Tropobracon schoenobii Pupae: Trathala flavoorbitalis, Xanthopimpla punctata, X. stemmator Predator affecting: Adults: Argiope catenulate Pathogens affecting: Larvae: Beauveria bassiana, Nucleopolyhedrosis virus, Paecilomyces farinosus It may have serious effects during drought years and in sandy soils. Moderately high temperature is the key factor in stimulating an outbreak. Often found associated with Rice chlorotic streak virus. It is one of the most serious pests of rice in the Far East for many years. During the vegetative stage, larval feeding causes dead heart. The plants recover by growing new tillers. At the reproductive stage, feeding causes whitehead. The damage could reach 100%. Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenée) Rice leaf folder Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Copidosoma, Copidosomopsis nacoleiae, Telenomus dignus Larvae: Apanteles angaleti, A. angustibasis, A. cypris, A. opacus, A. syleptae, Aphanogmus fijiensis, Cotesia flavipes, C. ruficrus, Barylypa apicala, Bracon gelechiae, B. hebetor, B. ricinicola, Cardiochiles philippinensis, Chaetexorista javana, Chelonus munakatae, Diatora lissonata, Elasmus brevicornis, E. claripennis, E. philippinensis, Goniozus indicus, G. triangulifer, G. triangulus, Leptobatopsis indica, Megaselia scalaris, Meteorus bacoorensis, Nemorilla floralis maculosa, Temelucha basimacula, T. biguttula, T. philippinensis, T. stangli, Tetrastichus schoenobii Larvae, pupae: Brachymeria excarinata, Eriborus argenteopilosus, E. sinicus, Ischnojoppa luteator, Trathala flavoorbitalis Pupae: Brachymeria lasus, B. tachardiae, Tetrastichus howardi, T. israelensis, Trichospilus pupivora, Xanthopimpla flavolineata Pathogens affecting: Larvae: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), Beauveria bassiana (white muscardine fungus) Remarks Oryza sativa, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., T. aestivum, Zea mays Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal) (Rajamma and Das, 1969; Gargar and Katiyar, 1971; Khaire and Bhapkar, 1971; Yadava et al., 1972; Ramasubbaiah et al., 1980; Chaturvedi and Mathur, 1981; Kushwaha and Sharma, 1981; Garg and Tandon, 1982; APPPC, 1987; CAB International, 2005) Outbreaks were reported in India, Bangladesh, China, Fiji, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam, (Pathak and Khan, 1994). In all the cases, yield losses were reported. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 31 32 Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Predators affecting: Adults: Argiope catenulata Eggs: Carabidae (ground beetles) Different stages: Chlaenius bioculatus, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, Harmonia octomaculata (ladybird, maculate), Lycosa pseudoannulata, Solenopsis geminata (tropical fire ant) Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA Dicladispa Oryza sativa armigera (Olivier) Rice hispa, Paddy hispa Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CIE, 1966; Acharya, 1967; Thakur et al., 1979; Pasalu and Tewari, 1989; CAB International, 2005) Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogramma Larvae: Bracon, B. hispae, Campyloneurus sp., Closterocerus cardigaster, Pediobius Pupae: Trichomalopsis apanteloctena, Predators affecting: Adults: Lycosa pseudoannulata, Rhignochoris fuscipes, Rhynocoris fuscipes Pathogens affecting: Adults: Aspergillus flavus, Beauveria bassiana (CAB International, 2005) Infection of hispa eggs by B. bassiana also observed in field in India (Hazarika et al., 1998). It has been a perpetual problem in Bangladesh and parts of India. In India, both rice crops, kharif and rabi, are subjected to sporadic outbreaks of D. armigera and may be severely attacked. Actual yield losses, have not yet been quantified. Annual yield loss estimates of 20% in Andhra Pradesh, 17-20% in West Bengal, India (Pasalu and Tewari, 1989) have been reported. Nayak and Gandhi. Gujarat. 1990. the causal agent of bacterial blight of rice. adults: Beauveria bassiana. mite. Pradhan. banian (Fabricius) Panicum miliaceum. nymphs. Bhowmik and Haldar. 2005). 1986. Entomophaga grylli (CAB International. 1981). pupae. 1949. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Parasites/parasitoids affecting: Eggs. Madhya Pradesh. Oxyopes javanus Pathogen: Beauveria bassiana In south India. 1983. infestation was less in the second crop (Thomas et al. on sorghum in Madhya Pradesh (Vyas et al. Rice grasshopper Saccharum officinarum. 2005) Outbreaks of H. Neoscona theisi . Garg and Chaudhary.Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). 1984. Predators affecting: Adults: Lycosa pseudoannulata. Bihar. Haryana. West Bengal (Bhatia. 1991. adults: Eutrombidium trigonum (grasshopper. Delhi. 1979. Widespread throughout India (Thomas et al. Karnataka. .. However. 1971. yield losses ranging from 20-30% have been reported on the first crop from April to September. Acrididae Zea mays Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Ahmad and Gangwar. Tamil Nadu. 1981. larvae... Maharashtra. banian in India have occurred on sugarcane in Gujarat (Vyas and Butani. Predators. Oryzae. In recent years this pest has generally been kept well under its economic injury level in India. 1984. T. Remarks Hieroglyphus Oryza sativa. hence no more recent loss estimates are available. 1971). Punjab. Diwakar 1972. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 33 Hydrellia philippina Ferino Rice whorl maggot Diptera: Ephydridae Oryza sativa Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogramma. Mohan et al. Orissa.. chilonis Larvae : Tetrastichus sp. Orthoptera: Sorghum bicolor. CAB International. 1983) and on rice in West Bengal (Chatterjee and Debgoswami. red) Eggs: Scelio hieroglyphi Predator: Mylabris pustulata (blister beetle. It is involved in the mechanical transmission of Xanthomonas campestris pv. Shah and Garg. Rajasthan. arhap) Pathogens affecting: Nymphs. Himachal Pradesh. 1985). Chatterjee and Debgoswami. It is a mechanical vector of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Kerala. acuta in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. banian (Nayar et al. 1976). Madhya Pradesh. 1982. Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Tamil Nadu. Predators. Adsule and Patil. feltiae were observed infecting L. 1992). 1997). 2005) Parasite/ parasitoid affecting: Eggs: Ooencyrtus papilionis Predator affecting: Eggs: Homorocoryphus longipennis Nymphs. also parasitize H. adults: Micraspis discolor. and Mermis nigrescens. Saccharum officinarum. maize. lepidophora larvae (Poinar et al.. India (Ansari and Jacob.. acuta in other areas. Bihar. Delhi. Field studies indicated that it could provide a high level of control and thus could be exploited as a potential biological control agent against L. Tripura. Karnataka. 1994) Surveys in Maharashtra. adults: Beauveria bassiana (CAB International.. lepidophora caused damage to 25-100% of sugarcane. rice. West Bengal (CAB International.34 Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Oryza sativa.. oryzae. Maharashtra (Veeresh et al. 1990. Punjab. Bacillus popilliae may cause 70. Rice attacked by these bugs is reported to have unpleasant odour even after cooking. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Entomophthora grylli (CAB International. the entomophilic nematodes Heterorhabditis indicus. 1990). Himachal Pradesh. Leucopholis lepidophora Blanchard White grub Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae Arachis hypogaea. Gordius sp. 1992). Rajasthan. An unnamed tachinid parasitoid parasitizes L. Orissa. Also involved in the transmission of sheath rot disease (Lakshmanan et al. Zea mays Karnataka. 2005). Neoscona theisi Pathogen affecting: Nymphs. Areca catechu. groundnuts and vegetables (Adsule and Patil. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). In laboratory pathogenicity tests. Yield losses upto 40% have been recorded. India (198689) indicated that L.The nematodes.8% mortality in Larvae. which causes bacterial leaf blight in India. .) IN INDIA Leptocorisa acuta Oryza sativa Thunberg Rice seed bug Hemiptera:Coreidae Assam. 2005). Steinernema glaseri and S. It has spread throughout the Japan. 1979). with yield losses of 41 to 60%. 1978. Manipur. However. 1990. Generally does not cause appreciable damage. In cases of severe infestation.. 1976. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Predator affecting: Larvae: Pantala flavescens Pathogens affecting: Adults: Beauveria bassiana (white muscardine fungus). Singh and Singh. Singh. Bihar. Cuphocera iavana. Oryza sativa Arunachal Pradesh. Maharashtra. 2005) Causes serious rice yield losses throughout its geographic range. Rai. Charops bicolor. Gujarat. 1978. introduced (CAB International. Karnataka. occasional high populations have been reported in Kanpur. Uttar Pradesh (Katiyar et al. 2005). its . Brachymeria lasus. pupae: Barichneumon solitarius.Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel Rice water weevil Coleoptera: Curculionidae Melanitis leda ismene Cramer Rice butterfly Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. 1987. Eocanthecona furcellata Pathogen affecting: Larvae. Orissa. Metarhizium anisopliae (green muscardine fungus) Remarks Oryza sativa Present. Delhi. Parasite/ parasitoid affecting: Pupae: Trichospilus diatraeae Predators affecting: Larvae : Amyotea malabarica. 1979. Haryana. India (Singh and Singh. it has occupied more than 50% of the total rice acreage in Korea Republic and has been predicted to spread throughout all of the ricegrowing areas. pupae: Beauveria velata. Fusarium oxysporum. CAB International.. 1976). APPPC. Assam. CAB International. Padmanaban et al. 1994. Carcelia prima. Kerala. Serratia marcescens (Srivastava and Nayak. Jana and Ghosh. Dolicholon It causes the greatest damage to the rice panicles. 1994). 1983. Himachal Pradesh. Andrallus spinidens. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 35 Mythimna separata Walker Wide host range Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Larvae. West Bengal (Katiyar et al. damage may be upto 60% or more (Dale. Manipur. Predators. 2005) Andhra Pradesh.. However. From 1988 to 1992. naias Nymphs. West Bengal (CIE. Oligosita aesopi. E. Oryza sativa. West A vector for Rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) and Rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV). Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Anagrus flaveolus. Patel and Patel. Eocanthecona furcellata Pathogens affecting: Larvae: Granulosis virus. Pipunculus mutillatus..Carabidae (ground beetles). Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect parasoxum. Metopius rufus. Drino inconspicua. T. which grow throughout the year. Tamil Nadu. Bihar. Theocarcelia oculata. Punjab. Predators. ruficrus. Punjab. Nucleopolyhedrosis virus (CAB International. Harmonia octomaculata. Chlaenius bioculatus. Orissa. Cotesia parbhanii. Haryana. 1992. adults: Amphiareus constrictus. Shukla et al. Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Pseudoperichaeta anomala. Meghalaya. 1984. Pseudogonia rufifrons. Tamil Nadu. 1983. Maintains epidemiological cycle between rice seasons by transmitting RTBV and RTSV particles to alternative weed hosts. xanthaspis. Orissa. Nephotettix nigropictus (Stål) Rice green leafhopper Hemiptera: Cicadellidae Cyperus spp. Maharashtra. Kerala. Predators affecting: Larvae: Calosoma indicum. Manipur. Goa. Thakur. Exorista fallax. Coccinella transversalis. Madhya Pradesh. Panicum spp. nymphs. Steinernema glaseri Eggs: Tetrastichus sp.36 Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Rice armyworm Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Madhya Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). Turanogonia chinensis Larvae: Compsilura.) IN INDIA Jammu and Kashmir. Palexorista solennis. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). adults: Ecthrodelphax fairchildii. C.. 1986. Poa spp. 1993) incidence has declined to some extent during the past 30-40 years because of the expansion of irrigated rice cultivation. 2005). Himachal Pradesh. Cyrtorhinus lividipennis. O. Maharashtra. Andhra Pradesh. Tomosvaryella oryzaetora.. Sikkim. Rajasthan. Assam. Ovomermis albicans. Karnataka. Manipur. Gujarat. Greathead and Greathead. Cheilomenes sexmaculata. Karnataka. . Tytthus parviceps Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. subvirescens Predators affecting: Eggs. Kerala. Halictophagus bipunctatus. 1974. 1977. 2005) Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs:Anagrus flaveolus... 1988. Tomosvaryella oryzaetora.1980. Gupta and Pawar. adults: Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Pathogens affecting: Nymphs. 1980. 1988). Remarks Bengal (Pawar and Bhalla. Rice bunchy stunt virus. 1987. Predators. dragonflies and spiders. Adults: Beauveria bassiana (CAB Abstracts 1973-98. adults: Beauveria bassiana. 1989..Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Paracentrobia andoi Nymphs: Ecthrodelphax fairchildii. Das et al. Misra . CAB International. 1990). Annual economic losses due to tungro throughout Asia are US$ 1500 million (Herdt... SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 37 . 1996). 2005) It is amongst the most widespread and abundant pest of irrigated rice. Stenonabis tagalicus Pathogens affecting: Nymphs. Ghose et al. Microvelia douglasi atrolineata. Metarhizium anisopliae (Manjunath et al. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Nymphs. adults : Argiope catenulata Eggs. beetles. 2005) Nephotettix Oryza sativa virescens (Distant) Green rice leaf hopper Hemiptera: Cicadellidae Widespread in India (CIE 1971. nymphs. Rao. About 17-23 kg/ ha of grain yield was lost in five states of southern India during 1990-1991 and an additional 15 to 24 kg/ha to tungro (Ramasamy et al. T. Oligosita sp. Tetragnatha spp. Two Gonatocerus sp. Also transmits Rice yellow dwarf phytoplasma. and a species of Paracentrobia Nymphs. 1989. CAB International. Nymphs.. adults: Argiope catenulate. subvirescens. Casnoidea indica.1978. It transmits Rice tungro virus (RTV). CAB International. adults: Halictophagus bipunctatus Predators affecting: Eggs : Microvelia douglasi. Gupta and Pawar. Dhawan and Sajjan. Balasubramanian et al. 2005). Rice gall virus and Rice transitory yellowing virus (CAB International.. which causes internal rots. Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Karnataka. adults: Cyrtorhinus lividipennis. It transmits spores of fungal species of Nematospora. Singh et al. Tamil Nadu. Dhamdhere et al.) IN INDIA Wide host range Andhra Pradesh. Tytthus parviceps The most serious insect pest of rice in Asia. 1984. Beauveria bassiana A considerable diversity of natural enemies attack N. and can also transfer plant pathogens mechanically during feeding. Arunachal Pradesh. viridula in various stages of its development. 1981). Tomosvaryella oryzaetora Predators affecting: Eggs. Punjab.. Bihar.. 1977. Assam. 1974). Zizania Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Anagrus flaveolus. optabilis. Meghalaya. Saha and Saharia. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Psix striaticeps. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). orientalis.1-32. CAB International. Delhi. It was a minor rice pest until the mid-1960s (Pathak and Dhaliwal. A. Oecophylla smaragdina.. nymphs. Maharashtra. Maharashtra. 1977. Predators. Bihar. Arunachal Pradesh. 2005) Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Ooencyrtus papilionis Predators: Nabis capsiformis. O. Andhra Pradesh. Pipunculus mutillatus. Haplogonatopus apicalis.. Nilaparvata lugens Stål Brown planthopper (BPH) Hemiptera: Fulgoroidea Oryza spp. No product has been developed for field use (CAB International. H. Karnataka. However. after the introduction of Taichung Native 1 in 1964 and IR8 in 1968. Green stink bug Hemiptera: Pentatomidae Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. perforator. 2005).38 Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) Green shield bug. Madhya Pradesh. Sikkim. 1988.5% (Jayaraj et al. Assam. 1984). 1983. Gujarat. Orissa. it assumed the status of the most destructive pest in the 1970s (Heinrichs and Mochida. It is known to carry spores of fungal diseases from plant to plant. Haryana. Tamil Nadu. Himachal Pradesh. Haryana. Orissa. Kerala. It assumed an epidemic form in India . Nymphs. Elenchus japonicus. Bhalani and Bharodia. West Bengal (Datta and Chakravarty. sativa. Sycanus collaris Pathogens: Bacillus thuringiensis. Uttar Blemishes reduce quality and marketability of the crop. Madhya Pradesh. A.The yield loss in India was 1. Adults: Ecthrodelphax fairchildii. T. stagnalis damaged 38 to 94% of leaves in rice fields and the combined infestation of this pest with the rice leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) caused an overall yield . India. 1976.. 1972. Punjab. Dyck and Thomas. Kalode and Krishna. Thakur et al. P. in 1973 and caused extensive damage in Kerala. It is a vector for Rice ragged stunt virus and Grassy shoot virus (Rivera et al.. Pseudogonatopus sp. 1978. Chatterjee. Rajasthan. sutherlandi Pathogens affecting: Nymphs. Tetragnatha mandibulata. ni are recorded as larval parasites in northern India In Madhya Pradesh. Orissa. Assam. Das et al. 1971. Madhya Pradesh. Microvelia douglasi atrolineata. 1975. 2005). 2005). Karnataka. Following an outbreak in 1973-74. adults: Argiope catenulata Lycosa pseudoannulata. Kerala. as a result of grassy stunt (reported for the first time in India). Pawar and Banerjee.. Nath and Sen. Pawar and Bhalla. adult) Predators Neoscona nautical (attacking nymph) Remarks Pradesh (including Uttranchal). CAB International. 1978. adults: Beauveria bassiana. Gautam (1998) also listed Parasites Echthrodelphax sp. Rizvi and Singh. West Bengal (Banerjee. Bihar. 1979. Predators. Metarhizium anisopliae (CAB International. (attacking all stages). 1979. ChannaBasavanna et al.Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Bhalla and Pawar. Maharashtra. Manipur. 1979. Natarajan et al. 2005) Nymphula depunctalis Guenee Rice case worm Lepidoptera: Oryza sativa Andhra Pradesh. 1976. Haplogonatopus sp. 1975.Three biotypes are known (Pasalu and Katti. 1988. Abraham.. The parasitic wasps Pediobius viggianii and P. 2004) SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 39 Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogrammatoidea australicum Predators affecting: Adults: Argiope catenulata (CAB International.. 1966). (attacking nymph. Khaire and Bhapkar. heavy losses in yields occurred. 1978. Natarajan. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Nymphs: Carabidae (ground beetles) Nymphs. 1983. 1977. (attacking all stages). 1971. Madhya Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). 1996). adults: Pantala flavescens . Predators. Propicroscytus mirificus. Orissa. 1984) Predator affecting: Nymphs. CAB International. Phragmites Karnataka. six biotypes of gall midge have been reported throughout India (Pasalu and Katti. Tamil Nadu.) IN INDIA Tamil Nadu. N. Pupae: Neanastatus cinctiventris. chinensis has been listed as among the five most important rice pests in the Sikkim Hills (Thakur. Oryza sativa.. Pathak and Dhaliwal (1981) also reported that O. Karnataka.40 Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Crambidae Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Punjab. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect (Khan. oryzae was spreading in the Indian subcontinent and was first recorded in Uttar Pradesh in 1971. Tripura. Andhra Pradesh. West Bengal (Viraktamath et al. Panicum miliaceum. In India.. Oxya chinensis (Thunberg) Rice grasshopper Orthoptera: Gossypium spp. Kerala.8-17. In the rice field. larvae: Platygaster oryzae Larvae : Eurytoma setitibia. Orseolia oryzae (Wood-Mason) Mani Rice gall fly Diptera: Cecidomyiidae Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs. 2004). 1975. a serious outbreak occurred in Andhra Pradesh (Rao and Rao. West Bengal (CAB International. 2-4 adults per m² can reduce output by 6. Nabis capsiformis Larvae. 1984). Manipur.8%. O. Average crop losses of 50-100% over wide areas have been reported. Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. 2005) Oryza sativa Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bihar. 1975. Thakur. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). So far. 2001). pupae: Casnoidea indica A major pest in Asia. Epidemics of this pest occurred in cycles of 3-5 years causing 100% damage of rice plants. 2005) loss of 80% (Patel and Khatri. Maharashtra. oryzae Predators affecting: Larvae: Carabidae (ground beetles). Sikkim (Thonkadarya and Devaiah. In 1989. 1989). (Fabricius) Oryza sativa. but is not a pest of irrigated rice anywhere in the world.Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Acrididae Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Assam. adults: Aphelinus (aphelinid) Pathogens affecting: Nymphs. Goa. particularly in Japan. Nagaland. Prunus. Fawar. adults: Lecanicillium lecanii It is an economic pest of upland rice. Maharashtra. Rajasthan. Hesperiidae Zea mays SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 41 Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale (Sasaki. Kerala. Halydaia luteicornis. 1943. Cotesia baoris.) Rice root aphid Gossypium spp. Karnataka. excarinata. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Remarks australis. Trichomalopsis apanteloctena. Ghose et al. Delhi. Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Larvae: Apanteles javanensis. Zea mays Andhra Pradesh. Punjab. 1982. Punjab. 1971. 1956. Sorghum bicolor. are rare. West Bengal (Jandu. Its wide host range gives it a good chance of becoming established in new areas. Saccharum Rice skipper officinarum. Jammu and Kashmir.. Trichogrammatoidea bactrae Predators affecting: Eggs.. pupae: Amyotea malabarica. Rajasthan. Halidaya luteicornis. Birat. Kerala. 1987. Saccharum Parasite/ parasitoid affecting: Nymphs. Maharashtra. Charops bicolor. Sengupta. Brachymeria lasus. Orissa.. pupae: Brachymeria. Hordeum vulgare. 1987) Bihar. Pelopidas mathias Hordeum vulgare. Himachal Pradesh. rufiabdominalis being . Jotwani. Lepidoptera: Triticum aestivum. Oryza sativa. 1959. APPPC. Christudas et al. 1963. Madhya Pradesh. Orissa. Sen and Chakravarti. Ischnojoppa luteator Eggs: Trichogramma chilonis. Xanthopimpla punctata Larvae. 1970. Tamil Nadu. 1954. Paederus fuscipes A very large insect and a single larva can cause high amount of defoliation. Local outbreaks. Triticum spp. Maninder and Varma. 1975.. Singh (1977) presented evidence of R. Predators. B. however. Sorghum bicolor. Bihar. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). larvae. Manipur. Usman. Rhaconotus schoenobivorus. Stenobracon nicevillei. japonicum Predators affecting: Eggs: Cyrtorhinus lividipennis. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Meagre information is available concerning natural enemies of this aphid. in a study of upland rice in China. Aphidius sp. T. Oxyopes javanus. West Bengal (CAB International. dignus. Orissa. flavipes.) IN INDIA officinarum. 2005). T. Madhya Pradesh. T. Punjab. Lycosa pseudoannulata. Bihar. The reported yield losses in different areas of India vary from 3 to 95%. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). Karnataka. Islam and Karim. Kerala. Harmonia octomaculata. pupae: Beauveria bassiana Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Maharashtra. Tetrastichus schoenobii. largely due to its subterranean habitat (CAB International. Sikkim. 1990. Solanum melongena. Triticum spp. Tetrastichus howardi. Assam. Eriborus sinicus. Cotesia chilonis. A. O. . pupae: Amauromorpha accepta accepta. Ischnojoppa luteator. Elasmus albopictus.42 Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Hemiptera: Aphididae Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Myosoma chinensis. Trichogramma chilonis. Homorocoryphus longipennis Adults: Argiope catenulate. Ding (1985) found 57. Himachal Pradesh. Scirpophaga incertulas Walker Yellow rice stemborer Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Oryza sativa Andhra Pradesh. 2005) It is one of the most destructive pests of rice in India. West Bengal (CAB International. Xanthopimpla stemmator Larvae: Chelonus munakatae. Predators. Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Larvae. S.. The larval feeding at vegetative stage causes the death of a central leaf whorl. Tropobracon schoenobii Eggs: Telenomus dignoides.4-100% parasitism by a braconid parasite. Tamil Nadu. T. 2005) a vector of Maize mosaic virus in India. exiguum. 1999). the deadheart and at the reproductive stage may cause death of the emerging panicle the whitehead. accepta schoenobii. incertulas has a high potential to cause significant yield losses (Islam. C. pandae Pathogens affecting: Larvae. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). Exoryza schoenobii. Temelucha philippinensis. rowani. Jammu and Kashmir. T. stangli. sometimes with the . Chatterjee. Predators. India. Oligosita naias (Prakasarao. 1988. 2005). it severely damaged rice for the first time in Assam. C. adults: Ecthrodelphax fairchildii. Berg. Assam. Krishnaiah et al.. 1967. Punjab.. A. CAB International. In May-June 1985. Orissa. Gujarat. Adults: Argiope catenulate. H. Madhya Pradesh. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 43 Spodoptera mauritia Gossypium spp. 1916. Micraspis discolor. Maharashtra.Haplogonatopus apicalis. nymphs: Carabidae (ground beetles) Nymphs. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Anagrus flaveolus. Himachal Pradesh. 1987. Tamil Nadu. drassodes. 1991). Pawar and Bhalla. 1971. A serious outbreak was reported in Pakistan in 1978. (all stages) Pseudogonatopus sp. optabilis. Kerala. Ambikadevi et al. 1986. Gubbaiah et al. 1998. 1974. Kushwaha and Singh. 1969) Nymphs. Marpissa mandali. A. Karnataka. Arunachal A major pest of rice in tropics and subtropics in Asia. Paederus fuscipes Eggs.. Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Telenomus remus. Atwal et al. Bihar. (nymph. West Bengal (Fletcher. Saha. 1917. Elenchus japonicus. Clubiona abbottii. Delhi. and in India in 1982 (Khan and Kushwaha. 1976.. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). adults: Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Different Stages: Casnoidea indica. Tytthus chinensis Pathogens: Beauveria bassiana (CAB International. Under favourable conditions. 1996. Cheilomenes sexmaculata. Haryana. Chhabra et al.. frequens. Chakraborty et al. 2005) Andman and Nicobar Islands. Microvelia douglasi atrolineata. orientalis Predators affecting: Eggs.. 1990. where heavily infested fields were hopperburned. Tetrastichus Its sudden outbreaks can result in serious damage. 1960. nymphs. perforator. (all stages) Haplogonatopus sp. Gautam (1998) has also listed parasites Echthrodelphax sp. 1986.. Panda and Shi. in the northwest of West Malaysia in May 1979. Oryza sativa. adult) Remarks Sogatella furcifera Oryza sativa (Horváth) White-backed rice planthopper Hemiptera: Delphacidae Andhra Pradesh. A. it produces several generations causing ‘hopperburn’.Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Maharashtra. 1998). . Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). Meghalaya. Assam. Haryana. Pseudogonia rufifrons Predator Andrallus spinidens Pathogen Nucleopolyhedrosis virus Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Few major outbreaks have been recorded in equatorial South-East Asia (Rothschild. B. 2005) loss of the entire paddy crop. Peribaea orbata. Zea Paddy armyworm. larvae: Acaropsellina docta. chilonis for the release of adult trichogrammatids has been developed in India (Maninder et al. Triticum spp. mays and also Paddy swarming number of hosts caterpillar belonging to family Lepidoptera: Brassicaceae and Noctuidae Poaceae Pradesh. Himachal Pradesh.. Orissa. T. Delhi. 2005). Myristica fragrans. B. West Bengal (CAB Abstracts. cocoons. Karnataka. aestivum. Andhra Pradesh. West Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogrammatoidea australicum.44 Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Boisduval Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. marginiventris. Cuphocera iavana. Himachal Pradesh. Sikkim. Haryana. cast skins and frass. Rice moth Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Manihot esculenta. In cases of heavy infestation the food material becomes tightly matted together with webbing. Karnataka. T. The larval feeding causes the formation of webs in the material. Trichogramma chilonis Larvae: Chelonus insularis. Panicum miliaceum Pennisetum glaucum . Andhra Pradesh. Orissa. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect schoenobii. Bihar. C. Manipur. Blattisocius keegani. 1969).. The webbing formed by the larvae is noticeably more dense and tough. tarsalis Larvae: Amphibolus venator. Kerala. ruficrus. 1973-1998. Cotesia flavipes. this insect is a sporadic pest causing upto 20% loss in rice yield. Assam. stored products Andman and Nicobar Islands. CAB International. Sycanus affinis (CAB International. chilonis Larvae: Bracon brevicornis. Gujrat. Lespesia archippivora. Kerala. A technique of using gelatin capsules containing eggs of C. hebetor Predators affecting: Eggs. Bihar. cephalonica parasitized by T. C. Storage Pests Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) Rice meal moth. Oryza sativa. Maharashtra. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). It is used as a substitute host for breeding parasitoids. Zea mays.) IN INDIA Saccharum officinarum. Such contamination of food may be of greater economic importance than larval feeding. Chandigarh. According to Dale (1994). Predators. Sorghum bicolor. Tamil Nadu. Punjab. Bihar. but it may also be found in temperate climates (CAB International. T. T. tenebrionis with over 75% mortality (CAB International. T. Tenebroides mauritanicus Eggs. minutum. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 45 One of the most destructive primary pests of stored cereals... sativa. Stored rice (unhusked) revealed infestation level Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) Angoumois grain Avena sativa. Karnataka. Coleoptera: aestivum. Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogramma spp. semblidis. 2005) Avena sativa. 2005). CAB Oryza sativa.Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. dominica is very susceptible to B. 1990. Zea mays. stored products Present in India. Pennisetum glaucum. Feeding results both in quantitative and qualitative losses. thuringiensis var. Hordeum vulgare.. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Remarks Bengal (CAB International. International. Triticum spp. 1975). Oryza sativa. Sorghum bicolor. Widespread (Sinha Hordeum vulgare. Secale Andaman and Nicobar Islands. stored products Rhizopertha dominica (Fabricius) Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus) Rice weevil Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae Manihot esculenta. Zea mays. causing an estimated overall yield loss of upto 30% (Singh and Benazet. Assam. Weight losses up to 30-40% may occur in storage. Predators. T. spelta. Oryza spp. T. Sorghum bicolor. T. T.. larvae. Maharashtra. 2005) Panicum spp. telengai . Lesser grain borer Pennisetum spp. The maximum weight loss caused to single kernels of rice by individual larvae was 57%. pupae: Anisopteromalus calandrae Predator affecting: Larvae. Bostrichidae turgidum. 2005) Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Pyemotes tritici Larvae: Anisopteromalus calandrae Predators affecting: Eggs: Acaropsellina docta. Triticum spp.. pretiosum. T. pupae: Acaropsellina docta The larvae and adults consume the seed and cause both quantitative and qualitative losses. nymphs pupae. maidis. O. and Sinha. Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Larvae. It can attack cereal plants in the fields. T. T.. aestivum. found in all warm and tropical parts of the world. evanescens. adults: Xylocoris flavipes R. Delhi. Kerala. Gujarat. It attacks grain in the field as well as in storage. . West Bengal (Girish et al. 1979. aestivum. nymphs. 1977. Sinha and Sinha. Prakash and Kauraw. Predators. Eggs. Pande and Singh. Triticum spp. The eggs of S. 1983. 1987. T. pupae.. T. Tamil Nadu. 1989. cerealella have been used extensively to rear the predatory chrysopid for biologica1 control of other pests. Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. 1977. Zea mays. 1982. adults: Uttar Pradesh Pyemotes tritici (CAB International. Larvae: Bracon hebetor Punjab. Pajni and Mehta. 1974. (including Uttranchal). 1992) upto 88%. Borah and Mohon. larvae. 1989. Upadhyay et al.. Sorghum bicolor. Rice grain moth Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids. Champ and Dyte. Bhardwaj et al. . 1982. 1983. Ramashrit and Mishra. 1986...46 Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family moth. 2005). Zizania palustris Manipur.. PadwalDesai et al. Orissa. Dhaliwal et al. 1983..) IN INDIA cereale. Gupta. spelta. Ilyasa et al. sativa Andhra Pradesh. Bihar. It has been reported in 12. O. pathogens) Affecting the Nematode Remarks Fragaria ananassa.8% of rice seed lots with infection levels ranging from 2-82% within lots.. Orissa. losses of upto 50% have been reported in upland rice in Brazil (CAB International. Arachnula impatiens. Roy. O. Orissa Pathogens The incidence of cyst nematode results (Rao and Jayaprakash. Maharashtra. Not a seed borne disease. O. 1987. Madhya Pradesh. Kerala. Orissa.. Assam. Oryza sp. CAB International. Severe symptoms reported in field but accurate yield losses lacking. 2005) Assam. sativa In India. Delhi. 2005) Not reported Economically very important and seedtransmitted. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 47 Ditylenchus angustus Filipjev Rice stem nematode ufra disease Anguinidae Oryza (generic level). Myrothecium verrucaria (myrothecium in a general decline in plant growth and 1977) blotch) vigour. However. 2005). 1998. It occurs in 2080% of rice in West Bengal (Chakrabarti et al.2-10% reported. yield losses in rice have been estimated to range from 10 to 15% in West Bengal and 30% in Assam. Heterodera oryzae Oryza sativa Luc & Berdon Brizuela. Kerala.. glaberrima. Vampyrella vorax Assam. Prasad et al. West Bengal (Prasad et. 1987). Tripura. More than 20 races known world over. 1993).. Haryana. 1987. Patil. Its distribution is becoming more restricted (Prot. The cysts remain in the field . CAB International. Computed losses of 0. 1986. Gujarat.. Ray et al. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). West Bengal (Chatterjee 1984. 1985). 50% in Uttar Pradesh (Rao et al. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal).. Tamil Nadu. al. Punjab. Maharashtra.Table 16: Important nematode pests of rice in India Nematode Scientific Name Common name Family Aphelenchoides besseyii Christie White tip nematode of rice Aphelenchoididae Hosts (Major) Distribution Natural Enemies (Parasites/ parasitoids/ predators. 1987. Meghalaya. Once hatched. Himachal Pradesh. The rice plants are stunted with fewer tillers and poor grain filling . West Predators: Mononchoides fortidens. Bihar. 2005) Yield losses are not well documented as the nematode generally occurs in association with other species.48 Nematode Scientific Name Common name Family Rice cyst nematode Heteroderidae Hosts (Major) Distribution Natural Enemies (Parasites/ parasitoids/ predators. Assam. pathogens) Affecting the Nematode Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. juveniles can only survive in the soil for about 3 weeks. slightly longer in anaerobic conditions. number of crops and by flooding. The nematode caused upto 56% reduction in the growth of rice plants grown in pots.. However. 1987. 1992) losses. Tamil Nadu. The economic impact of H.) IN INDIA and liberate the larvae in the soil for multiplication. Haryana.. Not reported Madhya Pradesh. Orissa. Eggs may hatch from egg masses after 9 months and form cysts after 2 years. there are discrepancies in yield loss estimates as it is not always solely attributable to the nematodes and also influenced by soil fertility. age of the plant. and climatic conditions. Heterodera oryzicola Rao & Jayaprakash Rice cyst Heteroderidae Hirschmanniella Oryza sativa oryzae (van Breda de Haan) Luc & Goodey Rice root nematode Pratylenchidae Andhra Pradesh. CAB International. 1987. Tamil Nadu. Maharashtra. Yield losses are not documented as it occurs in association with other species. Haryana. Prasad et al. oryzae has not been assessed. Kerala. Jammu and Kashmir. West Bengal (Koshy et al. Kerala. Madhya Pradesh. The root harbour large number of nematodes. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). Punjab. causing 25% yield and Greathead. Hirschmanniella spp. Orissa. infest 58% of the Mononchoides longicaudatus (Greathead world’s rice fields. Oryza sativa Goa. 1992) Jammu and Kashmir. Manipur. 1984.. Punjab.. 1971. Hasan et al. West Bengal (Birat. Madhya Pradesh. Sharma and Ali. may cause 10-36% yield loss. Das et al. Delhi. 1976. 1992. 1980. Maharashtra. Khan and Chawla. 1966. Krishnappa et al. Bihar. Karnataka. with the most likely mode of spread being through infected plant roots/ soil. Sikkim. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). Orissa. Reduction in rice yield is upto 25% and decrease in protein content of grain by 2. pathogens) Affecting the Nematode Remarks Bengal (Mathur and Prasad. Pathogen Gujrat.. 1980. 1993.9% reported.Nematode Scientific Name Common name Family Hosts (Major) Distribution Natural Enemies (Parasites/ parasitoids/ predators. 1967.. (Greathead and Greathead. 1970. Darekar et al. Zoological Survey of India. Haryana. CAB International. Gupta and Gupta. Kerala. Banerji and Banerji. Tripura. 1975. Tamil Nadu. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 49 . The nematode survives in soil and root debris. Anonymous. 2005) Hoplolaimus indicus Sher Lance nematode Hoplolaimidae Oryza sativa Assam. It survives in moist as well as dry soil. 1965. Catenaria anguillula Himachal Pradesh. Phukan and Sanwal. Rajasthan. The phytosanitary risk is low. 1983. 50 Nematode Scientific Name Common name Family Hosts (Major) Distribution Natural Enemies (Parasites/ parasitoids/ predators. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). The losses are highly significant in case of infection of young crop. there is an estimated reduction of 2. Gujarat. Kerala.5oC and below are favourable to the formation of root knots and to the production of egg masses. West Bengal (CAB International. Madhya Pradesh.6%. Assam. Madhya Pradesh. Punjab. Chandigarh.F. Meloidogynidae Lactuca sativa. Karnataka. Haryana. Coffea. Delhi.oxysporum f. In upland rice. Punjab. Pasteuria penetrans. Haryana. Myrothecium verrucaria (myrothecium blotch). Most widespread and probably the most serious plant parasitic nematode pest of tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. Hazarika. Maharashtra. Meloidogyne Abelmoschus incognita esculentus. Arunachal Pradesh. With every increase of a thousand larvae of the nematode in the inoculum. pathogens) Affecting the Nematode Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA Sundararaj and Mehta. Upto 16 % loss has been reported. Pathogens Aspergillus niger (collar rot). 1993. nematode arabica. 1995) Meloidogyne graminicola Golden & Birchfield Rice root knot nematode Meloidogynidae Oryza sativa Assam.. 1994. Nematode activity is more pronounced in soils with acidic pH.6% in grain yield for every 1000 nematodes present around young seedlings. 2005) Pathogen Myrothecium verrucaria (myrothecium blotch). Jammu and Kashmir. the grain yield was reduced by 2. (Kofoid & White) Capsicum annuum. Nectria haematococca (dry rot of potato). Andman and Nicobar Islands. It is widely endemic in subtropical and tropical regions. Aureobasidium pullulans (blue stain: wood). . Andhra Pradesh.sp. Mangifera indica. rice and sorghum). C. Carica Root-knot papaya. Himachal Pradesh. ciceris (Fusarium wilt of chickpea). Delhi. Hibiscus cannabinus. Soil temperature of 23. Bihar. Tripura. Fusarium oxysporum. Paecilomyces lilacinus (biocontrol: nematodes). Orissa. Corticium rolfsii. Cochliobolus lunatus (head mould of grasses. Nath et al. Lycopersicon esculentum. Madhya Pradesh. Haryana. Punjab. 1985. Nicotiana tabacum. Tiwari and Dave. Trichoderma viride. Control measures may result in 13-55% increase in yield. Fabaceae.5 % in grain yield have been reported. 1991. . Oryza sativa. pathogens) Affecting the Nematode Remarks Medicago sativa. Bhat and Kaul. Crop losses upto 48. All stages are found in the outer parenchyma cells and never in the vascular tissues. Orissa. marcescens. Maharashtra. Tamil chlamydosporium Nadu. Feijoa sellowiana. 1976. Oryza sativa. Haryana Agricultural University. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). West Bengal (CAB International. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 51 Pratylenchus indicus Das Root lesion nematode Pratylenchidae Arachis hypogaea. Phaseolus spp. Raveendran and Nadakal.. 1986. and number of hosts belonging to families Cucurbitaceae. Sorghum bicolor. Himachal Pradesh. P. Tamil Nadu. 1994) Andhra Pradesh. Salam. West Bengal (Mathur et al. Solanaceae Manipur. Prasad. Saccharum officinarum. 2005) A migratory endoparasite of the root cortex. These nematodes survive in soil and root debris. Capsicum annuum. . Kerala. Not reported Bihar. Rajasthan. 1970. Sen and Das Gupta. Rajasthan. Verticillium Sikkim.Nematode Scientific Name Common name Family Hosts (Major) Distribution Natural Enemies (Parasites/ parasitoids/ predators. Karnataka. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal). vulgaris. Delhi. 1991. Zea mays and number of hosts belonging to Solanaceae. Thanatephorus cucumeris. Serratia Orissa. Meghalaya. Tripura. Gujarat. 1975. 1980. Mathur and Khera. Psidium guajava. N. E. a tungro outbreak in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh led to an estimated yield loss of 20.) IN INDIA . There is microvariation in the sequences of isolates from the Philippines and other countries (Azzam et al. Punjab. Tamil Nadu. Delhi.. Bihar. Eleusine indica.. and in Kerala in 1973-1974 and in Andhra Pradesh. CAB International. an outbreak of tungro-like yellow stunt syndrome occurred in Punjab where yield losses were estimated at 30-100% (Azzam et al.52 Table 17: Important diseases of rice in India Pathogen Common Name Viruses Rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) Tungro Nephotettix virescens (synonym N. 1994). Manipur. and 49. Kerala. Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in 1969. Assam. cincticeps. Karnataka. 2005) Cyperus rotundus. N. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). Four biological variants of RTBV (L. Oryza sativa. Anjaneyulu. Leptochloa chinensis. nigropictus. Orissa and West Bengal 90. Panicum repens Tungro reached an epidemic level in West Bengal. In 1984-1985. E. malayanus and Recilia dorsalis Andhra Pradesh. crus-galli. 1996. 1977. Echinochloa colona. Leersia hexandra. G2 and Ic) have been described based on their characteristic symptoms in rice cultivars FK 135 and TN1 (Cabauatan et al.. RTBV isolates from South Asia (India. 1986. Tripura. impicticeps).000 ha in Andhra Pradesh. 1995). 1998). Madhya Pradesh. Druka and Hull. glabescens. West Bengal (Mishra. Sri Lanka and Bangladesh) differ in sequence from those from South-East Asia (Fan et al. In 1998. G1.. 2000a).000 ha of land was affected (Anjaneyulu et al. 1999).. Orissa. N.000 t in Tamil Nadu. Transmission Geographical Distribution Host Range Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. 2005) Oryza glaberrima. bakeri and N. a composite disease caused by RTSV and RTBV. Indonesia and Thailand are reported Rice grassy stunt virus (RGSV) Grassy stunt Nilaparvata lugens. tungro. Panicum repens Remarks In south and southeast Asia. in 1972 and 1984 in Tamil Nadu. Manipur. Molecular techniques reveal much microvariation in the sequences encoding CP1 and CP2 (Azzam et al. 1973. 1982) and yield losses due to the virus and plant hoppers were estimated to be $20 million (Dyck and Thomas.. 1998). O. cincticeps. 1986) Host Range Cyperus rotundus. is a major threat to stable rice production in irrigated areas (Hibino. GSV 2-like strains in India. N. In Kerala. Leptochloa chinensis.000 ha were affected by RGSV (Gopalakrishnan et al. GSV1 and GSV2 in the Philippines. Punjab. Since 1984. 1996. Anjaneyulu. 1977. 1989a). CAB International. nigropictus. wilted stunt virus (GSW). West Bengal (Mishra. 1994. muiri Kerala.. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). N. N. rufipogon. 1979). Different strains of RGSV viz. Tripura. Several serological variants of RTSV have been reported (Druka et al. sativa SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 53 . glabescens. grassy stunt B (GSB). Kerala.Pathogen Common Name Rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) Tungro Transmission Nephotettix virescens (synonym N. 1974. Kulshrestha et al. O. RGSV incidence was high during 197374 and in 1981 in Kerala. Oryza sativa. crus-galli. Tamil Nadu. 2000b). 1974. Anjaneyulu. Assam.. malayanus and Recilia dorsalis Geographical Distribution Andhra Pradesh. the incidence has been generally low in Asia.. Santhakumari et al. Orissa. 1996). N. E. E. Madhya Pradesh.. Bihar.. impicticeps). The electrophoretic mobility of RTSV CP3 of Indian isolate differed from that of Southeast Asian isolates (Druka et al. Leersia hexandra.. Delhi. Karnataka. grassy stunt Y (GSY) isolates in Taiwan. Tamil Nadu (Ghosh and Venkataraman. 15. Echinochloa colona. Druka & Hull. N. Delhi. 1986). 1985. and to GSB and GSW isolates from Taiwan (Hibino. Serologically. O. 1980. Singh. 1979. Ghosh et al. 1978. Pun and Oryza sativa In Karnataka. 1988.. rice yellow dwarf was more severe in the ratoon than the main crop (Muniyappa et al. a Japanese isolate was indistinguishable from strains 1 and 2 (Hibino et al. Yellow dwarf virescens. Narayanasamy and Baskaran.. 1991). sativa West Bengal (Heinrichs. DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. 1985) and closely related to severe strains from India (Mariappan et al.) IN INDIA Rice ragged stunt virus (RRSV) Ragged stunt Nilaparvata lugens Orissa. 1988). Tamil Nadu (Arjunan et al. parvus Andhra Pradesh. Malaysia... Reddy and Jeyarajan (1990) screened 36 cultivars for resistance and suggested the presence of different strains of the pathogen in Tamil Nadu. 1979. nivara. Manipur. No strains reported. Assam.. the Philippines. Mishra. Tamil Nadu. Oryza latifolia. N. Kerala. malayanus and N. . Muniyappa et al. Bihar. 1984) and Thailand (Chettanachit et al. nigropictus. Phytoplasma Rice yellow dwarf Nephotettix phytoplasma cincticeps.. India and Indonesia where yields can be reduced by 50100% (CAB International. Orissa.. 1987. 1985). O. Their relationship with existing strains and the Taiwan isolates has not been determined (Miranda et al. CAB International. 2005).54 Pathogen Common Name Transmission Geographical Distribution Host Range Remarks (Hibino. 2005) RRSV is sporadically a very serious problem of rice in Thailand. Karnataka. 1989b).. N. Different variants of RGSV were observed in the Philippines. 1985).. Orissa. Assam. Punjab. bacterial leaf blight (BLB) appeared in epidemic form in districts of Punjab where rice cv. 1989). The dominant strains in Madhya Pradesh belong to the pathotype 1 group (Sahu and Sahu. Maharashtra. 1992. Nagaland. Mizoram. Punjab. Jammu and Kashmir. 2005) Oryza sativa. At CRRI. Haryana. Pusa44 was predominant and suffered about 30% yield loss (http:// www.tifac. Saccharum officinarum. Maharashtra. Delhi. Meghalaya. Madhya Pradesh. West SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 55 .htm). 2005) Host Range Remarks Bacteria Acidovorax avenae subsp. 1994).. Oryza sativa Islands. Sikkim. Goa.org. Kerala. Gujarat. Bihar. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). Karnataka. Cuttack. BLB isolates were grouped into six pathotypes. Losses are related to the inhibition of seed germination and to seedling damage in nursery boxes adapted to mechanized transplanters (Goto et al. Manipur.. but the disease is considered to have low epidemic potential (Cottyn et al. Pathogenic variability was noted among all the 24 isolates tested at CRRI. CAB International. Tamil Nadu. Delhi. 1988). Bacterial brown stripe is frequently Sorghum bicolor. Andhra Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal) (CAB International. Tripura. Cuttack (Tembhurnikar. using differential hosts. In Kharif 1999.in/itsap/disease. Tamil Nadu. 1988). Arunachal Pradesh. Pathotyping of 241 isolates collected from four different states in eastern India revealed the Seed Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Ishiyama) Swings et al. avenae (Manns) Willems Bacterial brown stripe Seed Bihar. Zea mays detected in rice-growing countries (Shakya et al. Bacterial leaf blight Andaman and Nicobar Leptochloa chinensis.Pathogen Common Name Transmission Geographical Distribution Das. but losses are generally lower (Ou. 1987. Madhya Pradesh.htm). generally occurring in some areas during very wet seasons and where high rates of nitrogen fertilizer are used. Collections from a given site tended to consist of related haplotypes (http://crri. 1988.) Swings et al. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). Losses of up to 30% have been reported in India. because plants have time to recover after a disease outbreak. 2005) Oryza sativa Bacterial leaf streak is much less important than BLB. Reddy and Reddy. 1987. Bacterial leaf streak Bihar. DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.56 Pathogen Common Name Transmission Geographical Distribution Bengal (Bradbury. Andhra The disease causes blight of seedlings grown from heavily infected seeds...) IN INDIA Seed Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Ghose et al. A total of 15 lineages were detected. High grain losses due to the disease are therefore rare.Natural enemy reported is Pseudomonas fluorescens (CAB International. 1987. 2005) Host Range Remarks existence of 20 different pathotypes. Also. Maharashtra. Karnataka. 1986. respectively.in/ Pathology. oryzicola (Fang et al. West Bengal (CAB International. Fungi Seed Cochliobolus miyabeanus (Ito & Andaman and Nicobar Oryza sativa Islands. 2005). The populations examined from Orissa and Raipur were much diverse as they consisted of 8 and 7 out of 15 lineages. pathogen diversity was clearly partitioned according to the site of collection using DNA markers.nic. Gupta and Choudhury. 1985). as compared to those from Uttar Pradesh. The . CAB International. Tikoo et al. Reddy and Reddy. Assam. Gupta et al. moniliformis var. Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Natural enemies reported are Arachnula impatiens. West Bengal (Saini. 1988. Rice isolates of C. Bihar. Zea mays Pavgi and Singh (1964) stated that losses of 15% occurred in eastern districts of Uttar Pradesh. Musa. Leucaena leucocephala. subtilis. 1973). Oryza sativa. Arunachal Pradesh. oryzae (CAB International. Ito Bakanae disease Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Madhya Pradesh. Orissa. Karnataka. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). Assam. Bacillus megaterium. Himachal Pradesh. Manipur. Four . 1999). 1992. Chattisgarh. Nisikado and Matsumoto (1933) reported that among 66 strains of G. incubation temperature. Andhra Pradesh. 1994) Host Range Remarks disease reduced the number of tillers and inhibited root and shoot elongation and severe infection reduced both yield (20-40%) and quality (Vidyasekaran and Ramadoss. Orissa.) Drechsler ex Dastur Brown leaf spot Transmission Geographical Distribution Pradesh. miyabeanus obtained from different parts of Brazil varied in growth on culture media. fungicide sensitivity and sectoring (Artigiani and Bedendo. Naim Uddin and Rama Chakraverty. fujikuroi obtained from rice and five strains of G. majus. Kerala. there were marked differences in pathogenicity as indicated by the degree of overgrowth. Meghalaya. 2005). Pinus. Nagaland. Meghalaya. Mizoram. Lycopersicon esculentum. Rajasthan. Sorghum bicolor. Gujarat. 1987. Orissa. Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu. Sikkim. nitrogen and amino acids (Diaz and Bedendo. Himachal Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh. Gupta and Choudhury. Vampyrella vorax. Haryana. India. Uttar Gossypium. Vigna unguiculata. Saccharum officinarum. 1985. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 57 Seed Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada) S.Pathogen Common Name Kurib. Manipur. Tripura. B.. Punjab. Non-sporulating isolates grew better than the sporulating isolates in almost all media containing different sources of carbon. 1996). Taiwan 27 (Chien. Chattisgarh. IRRI. Magnaporthe grisea (Hebert) Barr Blast Seed Andaman and Nicobar Oryza sativa Islands. each country using different cultivars for race identification. India 31 (Padmanabhan. used in seed soaking gave good control of bakanae and significantly increased yield (Lu et al. West Bengal (Pavgi and Singh. Sikkim. designated as B916. 91-2. Veeraraghavan and Dath (1976) found that only the race IC-17 was prevalent in India. 1975) and Korea 18 (Lee and Cho. 2005) Host Range Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. 1966. This was the predominant race among the 31 reported by Padmanabhan et al. 1962). 1999). Mizoram. Tripura. A-2 and A-3. 1990). Assam. Many physiological races were reported from each country. 1987) Blast is one of the most destructive diseases of rice and yield loss can be as high as 50% when the disease occurs in epidemic proportions. West Bengal (Reddy and Reddy. 1967. Nagaland. Orissa. the Philippines 250 (Bandong and Ou. (1970).. 1960. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). Japan registered 34 (Matsumoto et al. 1967).) IN INDIA antagonistic bacteria. 1989. 1964. USA 16 (Latterell et al. Karnataka. 1965). the anamorph of Magnaporthe grisea exists as a number of genetically . Andhra Pradesh. Maharashtra. Gujarat. Recent molecular genetic studies indicate that Pyricularia grisea.58 Pathogen Common Name Transmission Geographical Distribution Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). Himachal Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh. 1969). Atkins.. Bihar. Singh and Srivastava. Tamil Nadu. Kerala. Manipur. Arunachal Pradesh. Meghalaya.. CAB International. Jammu and Kashmir. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 59 . Xia et al. grisea were analyzed in a center of rice diversity (the Uttar Pradesh hills of the Indian Himalayas) using multilocus and single-.. koningii. 1994). Examination of MGR586 DNAfingerprint diversity of a collection of P. 1991. avenae (bacterial leaf blight). It was observed that Himalayan M.. 1993). Aspergillus niger (Aspergillus ear rot). 1997).Natural enemies reported are Acidovorax avenae subsp. Trichoderma harzianum. The population genetics of M.. 1999). or low-copy DNA markers. T. However. sexual recombination has been reported to occur in wild populations in South and South-East Asia (Zeigler.Pathogen Common Name Transmission Geographical Distribution Host Range Remarks distinct clonal (asexually reproducing) populations occurring as a result of strong selection to maintain host specificity and perhaps geographic isolation (Shull and Hamer. grisea from the United States identified eight lineages (Levy et al.. grisea populations are diverse and dynamic and the structure of some populations may be affected to some extent by sexual recombination (Kumar et al. 1998) and parasexual recombination has been demonstrated in field populations (Zeigler et al. 1984).. 1983). In the Punjab. Tripura. . Mizoram. Kerala. Islands. pseudokoningii (CAB International. Gams & D. with 15-35% grain chaffiness were reported. averages of 30% disease incidence and 70% disease severity. Madhya Pradesh. Assam. Arunachal Pradesh. Andhra O. Sheath rot Seed Andaman and Nicobar Oryza rufipogon. with corresponding yield increases of 3-62% (Sakthivel and Gnanamanickam. sheath rot caused losses of upto 50% (Kang and Rattan. Natural enemies reported are Bipolaris zeicola [Cochliobolus carbonum] P. Nagaland. Bihar. 2005). the 1000-grain weight. Haryana. seed germination percentage and the protein content of grains (Vidhyasekaran et al. In 1982. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). Karnataka. Hawksw. In severe cases. 1980). 1978) and in West Bengal. the quality of rice grains. sativa Pradesh. Tamil Nadu. Chakravarty and Biswas (1978) reported yield losses of 10-26% (average estimate of 14%). Punjab.60 Pathogen Common Name Transmission Geographical Distribution Host Range Remarks DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA T. Meghalaya. Orissa. Reduction in sheath rot disease index due to treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens was reported to vary from 32 to 42% in the five rice cultivars tested. CAB International. fluorescens and culture filtrates of B. Rajasthan. Severe sheath rot infection was observed to affect the number of filled spikelets. Manipur. West Bengal (Reddy and Reddy 1987. 2005) The disease caused upto 57% loss in South India (Mohan and Subramanian. 1987). 100% seed sterility and no panicle emergence were observed (Raina and Singh. Sarocladium oryzae (Sawada) W. saccharifera. B.. The disease may cause severe damage to susceptible varieties by reducing the green surface area of leaves. . rapa subsp. B. . Sah and Rush. Gujarat. 1988).. Tamil Nadu. Lupinus. 2005) Oryza sativa Narrow brown leaf spot was of significant concern in the USA in the 1930s and 1940s because of the high degree of susceptibility in some commercial cultivars (Ou. 1994). Kannaiyan.oleracea var. Haryana. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal) (SanneGowda et al. 1990). 1988. Estrada et al. Arunachal Pradesh. Beta vulgaris var. Capsicum annuum. Assam. botrytis. Daucus carota. Singh. Jammu and Arachis hypogaea.5 % SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 61 Thanatephorus Seed cucumeris (Frank) Donk Sheath blight Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 1973. Andhra Pradesh. Sphaerulina oryzina Hara Narrow brown leaf spot Seed Karnataka. Lactuca sativa. The disease has a low economic impact when resistant cultivars are used. Delhi. but in the US. CAB International.38% loss in grain yield (Saikia and Baruah. 1985). Brassica napus var. Cucumis sativus. napus. oryzae (Viswanathan and Narayanasamy. 1981.Pathogen Common Name Transmission Geographical Distribution Host Range Remarks zeicola [Cochliobolus carbonum] completely inhibited mycelial growth of S. Bihar. Citrus . new cultivars become susceptible within 34 years of release (Groth et al. Glycine max. 1990). The losses due to sheath blight have been reported to vary from 5-13. 1990)... B. rapa. Hordeum vulgare. 1950. Many physiological races have been identified on the basis of reactions on differential varieties of rice (Padwick. resulting in death of the leaves and sheaths (Misra et al. oleracea var. capitata.1979. Himachal Pradesh. Field experiments during the rainy seasons of 1986 and 1987 indicated that an increase of 1% in sheath blight incidence resulted in a 0. Elaeis guineensis. Tripura. aestivum. Gliocladium spp. 1999). Sorghum bicolor. and bacterial antagonists such as Pseudomonas spp. and Actinomycetes (CAB International. Oxalis tuberosa. Punjab. 1991) Host Range Lycopersicon esculentum. Sikkim. Phaseolus. Tamil Nadu. Collembola.org.htm). Isolates differing in virulence were also reported by Tsai (1973) among 40 single basidiospore cultures. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal). Maharashtra. mycoparasitic fungi including Fusarium spp. Chien and Chung (1963) studied 300 isolates from Taiwan. but no distinct differential reaction was noticed. Vigna radiata. Although earlier studies suggested that AG-1 IA represented a homogeneous group of isolates. Pythium spp. V. Based on the degree of pathogenicity. Medicago sativa.. Meghalaya. Zea mays Remarks in Punjab (http://www.. nematodes. Manipur. DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. Kerala. they classified the 300 isolates into 7 cultural types and 6 physiologic races. 1987. Trifolium. recent investigations support the hypothesis that the sheath blight pathogen is far more diverse than previously assumed.in/ itsap/disease.tifac. T. Nagaland. Natural enemies reported are protozoa. particularly in tropical agroecosystems (Banniza et al. West Bengal (Reddy and Reddy.. Raphanus sativus. Orissa. Triticum.. Karnataka. Solanum melongena.. Trichoderma spp. Rajasthan. inoculated on 16 rice cultivars. Knowledge of field populations of this pathogen is still scarce.) IN INDIA . unguiculata. Verticillium spp. and by Haque (1975) among 25 field isolates. Manihot esculenta. S. 2005).. Bilgrami et al. Oryza sativa.62 Pathogen Common Name Transmission Geographical Distribution Kashmir. Ullucus tuberosus. tuberosum. earthworms.. Madhya Pradesh. Tulipa. Assam. Mashuri by 9. It may become economically important under favourable conditions (Baruah et al. Maharashtra. Bihar. In Punjab. 1986. This disease reduced the yield of the cv.. SECTION VIII – PESTS OF RICE 63 . 1984. Punjab. False smut Transmission Seed Geographical Distribution Andaman and Nicobar Oryza sativa Islands. 1978).Pathogen Common Name Ustilaginoidea virens (Cke. In Uttar Pradesh. Reddy and Reddy. Manipur. 1992). but sporadic severe incidences have been reported that cause losses because grain weight decreases as a result of the number of smutted balls that replace grains per panicle (Singh and Dube. Tamil Nadu.) Tak. 1991). Andhra Pradesh. Orissa. Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal) (Tyagi and Sharma. Karnataka. Rajasthan.. yield losses upto 16.2% by increasing numbers of chaffy grains and decreasing grain weight. losses varied from 7 to 75% (Agarwal and Verma 1981). 1987) Host Range Remarks False smut has been considered a minor disease. Singh. yield losses upto 44% were observed by Singh and Dube (1978). Jammu and Kashmir. 1978. Haryana. Sharma and Chaudhury. In India.8% were reported (Dhindsa et al. . in particular the bioassays along with the field evaluations were undertaken successfully (Annual Report 20022003. . electroporation. a suitable selection system is required to select plants that have been successfully transformed. Genetically engineered plants with genes expressing desirable traits can be produced in a relatively short time with more precision and can be of direct value in the agri-food industry. (1999) reported Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of an elite indica rice variety Pusa Basmati 1 using the gene construct having npt II gene for hygromycin resistance and gus gene encoding β-D-glucuronidase. These transgenic rice plants expressed modified endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis and showed enhanced resistance to yellow stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas). 2002). Raina et al. but most of the recent successful results of rice transformation have been obtained using hygromycin and geneticin (G418) due to their more efficient and stable function in selection procedures. More recent applications of biotechnology to rice breeding. The evaluation of generated rice transgenic lines. was started in late 1980s. particularly genetic transformation of rice. Polyethylene glycol (PEG). Agrobacterium-mediated transformation in rice has also been employed successfully.. selectable markers usually constitute genes that confer resistance to antibiotics. It is expected that transformed rice plants with modified/desired traits will be released in near future. Among these. The main merit of this method is that it eliminates the problems of regeneration from protoplasts and minimizes the possibility of the occurrence of somaclonal variation during the regeneration process. PEG has had only limited use in recent years. Carefully planned commercialization and monitoring of transgenic crops after evaluation of potential risks would be required to sustain biodiversity and to harness the benefits of these crops. After the introduction of foreign genes into rice plant tissue. including promoters and marker genes on the plasmids. The biolistic (particle gun bombardment) method directly introduces foreign genes into regenerable plant cells such as scutellum cells. which results in the improved efficiency of gene introduction as well as more stable expression and inheritance of the transgenes.) DOCUMENT . Mohanty et al. Improvement in efficiency and stability of regeneration from protoplasts to plantlets is another factor contributing to the development of this method. Several agronomically important genes have been introduced into rice to improve resistance/ tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses using various available transformation methods. Electroporation directly introduces foreign genes into the protoplasts. Among them. Its main merit includes insertion of a more precise gene construct. NRC on Plant Biotechnology.STATUS OF TRANSGENIC RICE IN INDIA IN INDIA SECTION IX . supported by developments both in basic genome research and in transformation technologies in India. kanamycin was used in early stages. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of other indica varieties is also under progress. particle gun bombardment and Agrobacterium have been used to mediate gene transfer.64 SECTION IX ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L. In the case of rice.STATUS OF TRANSGENIC RICE IN INDIA The ever-increasing human population especially in the developing countries and various biotic and abiotic stresses has posed a challenge to boost the rice production in a limited cultivated land. Two Bt rice transgenic varieties of IR64 and Pusa Basmati 1 using the gene constructs cry 1Ac have been developed by Khanna and Raina in 2002. . a new virus disease of rice in India.. P. . J.. Newsl.. 19: 14-19. 147150. Groundnut News. Bull. and T. Kerala. Reddy and R. Jeyarajan (1985) Rice yellow dwarf in Tamil Nadu. P.SECTION X . Sohi (1967) Studies on the biology and control of Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) (Delphacidae: Homoptera) in Punjab. and S. Theor. Hispa armigera Olivier. (1962) Prevalence and distribution of pathogenic races of Pyricularia oryzae in the US.. Leung (1992) Transfer of bacterial blight and blast resistance from the tetraploid wild rice Oryza minuta to cultivated rice. A. Res. 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